Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations [3 ed.] 1485129443, 9781485129448

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Practising Learning and Development Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 3e offers an outcomes-based, occupation-directed and work-based L&D approach to workplace learning design. Integrating theoretical and practical perspectives, this book gives a comprehensive overview of the National Skills Development Framework. It further presents a new chapter on online learning design which caters to the needs of a digital society. KEY BENEFITS: • An updated overview of skills development legislation and the implications for workplace learning design, delivery, assessment, evaluation and quality assurance in the South African context • Insight into the psychology of adult learning, motivation and performance • Guides students and L&D professionals through the classical Dynamic Learning Cycle • Practical guidelines for both modern online learning design and outcomesand work-based learning design, delivery, assessment and evaluation • Explores the dynamics and methods of effective learning and development needs analysis, and how a needs analysis informs the workplace skills plan • Explores L&D management from an HRD strategic and value-adding perspective • Guides L&D professionals regarding the profession, ethical standards and values, and their continued professional development.

Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 3RD EDITION

M Coetzee (Editor)

J Botha • J Kiley • K Truman

This text is a must-have for undergraduate students, and practising L&D and HRD professionals alike.

Practising Learning and Development

3 RD EDITION

in South African Organisations

in South African Organisations

3RD EDITION

Melinde Coetzee (Editor) www.juta.co.za

Jo-Anne Botha • Jerome Kiley • Kiru Truman

Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations Third Edition

Melinde Coetzee (Editor) with Jo-Anne Botha • Jerome Kiley • Kiru Truman

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations First published as Practising Education, Training and Development in South African Organisations First published 2007 Third edition 2019 Juta and Company Ltd First Floor Sunclare Building 21 Dreyer Street Claremont 7708 PO Box 14373, Lansdowne, 7779, Cape Town, South Africa © 2019 Juta and Company Ltd ISBN 978 1 4851 2944 8 (Print) ISBN 978 1 4851 2945 5 (WebPDF) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. See Section 12(1)(a) of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978. Project manager: Carlyn Bartlette-Cronje Editor: Glenda Younge Proofreader: Heather Thorne Typesetter: LT Design Worx Cover designer: Monique Cleghorn Indexer: Jennifer Stern Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro Regular on 10.5pt on 13pt leading The authors and the publisher believe on the strength of due diligence exercised that this work does not contain any material that is the subject of copyright held by another person. In the alternative, they believe that any protected pre-existing material that may be comprised in it has been used with appropriate authority or has been used in circumstances that make such use permissible under the law.

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CONTENTS List of figures and tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv About the authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Acknowledgements of figures and tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii List of acronyms and abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Book layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi PART 1: L  EGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE CHAPTER 1 THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Melinde Coetzee and Kiru Truman 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2



1.1  Local context challenges impacting human capital development in South Africa................................................................................................. 3 1.2  Global and African trends impacting human capital development................ 8

2.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR WORKFORCE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11



2.1 National Qualifications Framework Act....................................................... 27 2.1.1 NQF objectives............................................................................... 27 2.1.2 Principles of the NQF..................................................................... 31 2.1.3 Sub-frameworks of the NQF........................................................... 31 2.1.4 NQF level descriptors...................................................................... 33 2.1.5 Contextual application of the level descriptors................................. 34 2.2 The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training in South Africa..... 36 2.3 The National Skills Development Plan 2030 ............................................... 40 2.3.1 Purpose and strategic intentions of the National Skills Development Plan........................................................................... 40 2.3.2 Principles of the NSDP................................................................... 45 2.3.3 Levy grant funding within the NSDP.............................................. 46 3. OUTCOMES-BASED LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.1 Qualification, unit standard and credits........................................................ 58 3.2 Occupational qualifications.......................................................................... 59 3.3 Unit standards.............................................................................................. 59 3.4 Specific outcomes......................................................................................... 62 3.5 Assessment criteria....................................................................................... 62 3.6 Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs)......................................................... 62 3.7 Where to find unit standards?...................................................................... 64 3.8 Applied competence..................................................................................... 64 3.9 Recognition of prior learning (RPL)............................................................. 64 3.10 Quality assurance partners (QAPs)............................................................... 65 3.11 Accreditation of skills development providers............................................... 66

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67



4.1 Labour market intelligence system (LMIS)................................................... 68 4.2 Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO).......................................... 68 4.3 Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF).......................................... 70 4.4 National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF)................................. 71 4.5 Communities of expert practice (CEPs)....................................................... 71 4.6 Occupational qualifications.......................................................................... 71 4.7 Progression................................................................................................... 73 4.8 Internal assessment or assessment against curriculum components............... 73 4.9 External integrated summative assessment of occupational qualifications or part qualifications......................................................................................... 73 4.10 Assessment of foundational learning............................................................. 74 4.11 Development quality partners (DQP).......................................................... 74 4.12 Assessment quality partners (AQP).............................................................. 75 4.13 Occupational learning programmes.............................................................. 75 4.13.1 Learnerships.................................................................................... 76 4.13.2 Apprenticeships............................................................................... 77 4.13.3 Skills learning programmes.............................................................. 78

5.

QUALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83



5.1 Quality assurance of development and design of curricula............................ 85 5.2 Controlling the quality of provision, implementation and certification........ 85 5.3  Quality assurance of development and design of assessment processes.......... 86 5.4 Quality improvement through monitoring and evaluation........................... 86 5.5  Quality control mechanisms in the development of occupational curricula and qualifications.......................................................................... 87

6.

MANAGING QUALITY IN WORKPLACE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 CHAPTER 2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee 1. 2.

3.



INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Competencies.............................................................................................. 101 Attitudes and beliefs..................................................................................... 102 Knowledge................................................................................................... 102 Skills............................................................................................................ 102 Learning and performance........................................................................... 103 THE NATURE OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 3.1 Implicit learning.......................................................................................... 105 3.2 Explicit learning........................................................................................... 105 EMPLOYEE COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

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Contents



3.3 Memorising.................................................................................................. 106 3.4 Problem-solving.............................................................................................. 107 3.5 Understanding................................................................................................ 108 4. ADULT LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5. THEORIES OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.1 Classical theories of learning........................................................................ 114 5.1.1 Behaviouristic perspective on the learning process............................ 114 5.1.2 Cognitive approach to learning........................................................ 115 5.1.3 Social learning................................................................................. 117 5.1.4 Humanist perspectives on learning.................................................. 118 6. MODERN THEORIES OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.1 Experiential learning.................................................................................... 119 6.2 Action learning............................................................................................ 121 6.3 Preferred learning styles................................................................................ 121 6.3.1 The Kolb and Fry learning style inventory....................................... 121 6.3.2 Gregorc’s learning styles................................................................... 122 6.3.3 McCarthy’s 4MAT model................................................................ 123 6.3.4 Are learning style preferences valid? ................................................ 124 6.4 Mentoring and coaching.............................................................................. 125 6.5 Connectivist learning theory ....................................................................... 125 7. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 7.1 Practice and overlearning.............................................................................. 126 7.2 Identical elements (physical and psychological fidelity)................................ 127 7.3 Whole versus part learning........................................................................... 127 7.4 Massed versus distributed practice................................................................ 128 8 . THE BRAIN AND LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 8.1 Accelerated learning..................................................................................... 128 8.2 Split-brain theory......................................................................................... 129 8.3 Regenerative brain theory............................................................................. 130 8.4 Triune brain theory...................................................................................... 130 9. HUMAN INTELLIGENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences.................................................................... 131 9.2 Sternberg’s three intelligences....................................................................... 132 9.3 Emotional intelligence................................................................................. 133 Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 PART 2: THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE CHAPTER 3 CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

2.

THE DYNAMIC LEARNING CYCLE AND NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 3.

PURPOSES OF NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144



3.1 Proactive and reactive needs analysis............................................................. 145 3.2 Identify existing or future performance gap(s).............................................. 148 3.3 Identifying causes of performance discrepancies........................................... 149 3.4 A lack of competence that indicates the implementation of an L&D intervention................................................................................................. 152 3.5 Providing information for L&D interventions............................................. 154 3.6  Providing feedback on the effectiveness and impact of L&D interventions... 154 FOCUS AREAS OF L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.1 Focus area 1: Sectoral analysis...................................................................... 156 4.2 Focus area 2: Organisational analysis............................................................ 161 4.3 Focus area 3: Occupational/job task/role analysis......................................... 170 4.3.1 Applied competence ....................................................................... 172 4.3.2 Applied occupational competence.................................................... 173 4.4 Focus area 4: Person analysis........................................................................ 174 GATHERING DATA FOR L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.1 Questionnaires............................................................................................. 179 5.2 Observation................................................................................................. 180 5.3 Individual interviews.................................................................................... 180 5.4 Skill and knowledge tests.............................................................................. 181 5.5 Personal development plans.......................................................................... 181 5.6 Performance appraisal data........................................................................... 181 5.7 Critical incidents.......................................................................................... 182 5.8 The organisation’s human resource and workplace skills plans...................... 182 5.9 Which data collection method to use........................................................... 183 L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS AND THE ANNUAL SKILLS PLANNING PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.1 Ethics and processing of employee information in an LDNA....................... 194

4.

5.

6.  7. 



Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 CHAPTER 4 OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE LEARNING DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

OUTCOMES-BASED, WORK-BASED LEARNING DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 2.1 Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and stakeholder expectations.................................................................................. 203 2.2 Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/occupational tasks.............................................................................................. 206 2.3 Stage 3: Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in terms of knowledge, practical skills and work experience............................ 207 2.3.1 Unpacking occupational/job tasks................................................. 207 2.3.2 Developing additional occupational/job tasks............................... 208 2.3.3 Defining required knowledge, skills and work experience.............. 208

2.



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Contents

2.4 Stage 4: Analysing the learners’ profile ...................................................... 212 2.5  Stage 5: Defining the learning programme objective and outcomes............ 214 2.5.1 Determining the learning programme objective............................ 214 2.5.2 Formulating the learning outcomes.............................................. 216 2.5.3 Developing learning outcomes...................................................... 216 2.5.4 Classifying learning outcomes....................................................... 218 2.5.5 Critical cross-field outcomes......................................................... 224 2.6 Stage 6: Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning content......... 226 2.6.1 The type of subject presented in the learning programme............. 227 2.6.2 Learner differences........................................................................ 227 2.6.3 The ability of the learning facilitator............................................. 228 2.6.4 Sources of content........................................................................ 228 2.6.5 Sequencing the content of a learning programme......................... 229 2.7 Stage 7: Designing learning activities......................................................... 231 2.8 Stage 8: Developing a learning delivery and assessment strategy................. 233 2.9 Stage 9: Choosing training and learning methods...................................... 240 2.10 Stage 10: Designing learning support materials............................................ 243 3. THE L&D FACILITATOR GUIDE..................................................................................... 246 3.1 The learning facilitation and assessment process guide.................................. 247 3.2 General quality assurance documentation.................................................... 248 Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 CHAPTER 5 ONLINE LEARNING DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

2.

THE NATURE OF E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269



2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

3.

4. 5.

Self-paced e-learning.................................................................................... 270 Facilitated e-learning.................................................................................... 271 Blended learning ......................................................................................... 271 Learning management system...................................................................... 272 2.4.1 LMS asynchronous e-learning tools ................................................ 274 2.4.2 LMS online material........................................................................ 275 2.5 Evolution of e-learning design models.......................................................... 275 THE EVOLUTION OF E-LEARNING CONTEXTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 3.1 Behaviourism............................................................................................... 277 3.2 Cognitivism................................................................................................. 277 3.3 Constructivism............................................................................................. 277 3.4 Humanism................................................................................................... 279 3.5 Andragogy.................................................................................................... 279 3.6 Flexible learning........................................................................................... 279 WHEN TO DEVELOP E-LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 vii

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6.

NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Know the participants.................................................................................. 282 Identify learning goals (outcomes)................................................................ 282 Develop an e-learning strategy...................................................................... 283 Determining and sequencing learning content............................................. 284 Assess learner progress.................................................................................. 284 Provide meaningful feedback........................................................................ 285 Design the e-learning programme................................................................ 285 8. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR E-LEARNING PROGRAMME DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 9. E-LEARNING TRENDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 10. BARRIERS TO E-LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 11.  THE PROCESS OF THE ADOPTION OF E-LEARNING IN A WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 12. ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT FOR E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 13. VIRTUAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 7.

E-LEARNING DESIGN



7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

14. THE COMPETENCIES REQUIRED FROM L&D PROFESSIONALS IN AN E-LEARNING ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 CHAPTER 6 DELIVERING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

2.

LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT DELIVERY METHODS................................................ 297 2.1 Classroom training....................................................................................... 299 2.2 Selecting appropriate classroom training methods........................................ 300 2.3 Learning support materials in classroom training......................................... 300 (a) PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations................................ 301 (b) Handouts.............................................................................................. 302 (c) Flip charts............................................................................................. 302 (d) Whiteboards/chalkboards...................................................................... 303 (e) Videos/DVDs........................................................................................ 303 BLENDED LEARNING METHODS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 3.1 Programmed instruction.............................................................................. 305 3.2 Technology-based training........................................................................... 305 3.3 Internet-based programmed instruction or e-learning................................... 306 3.4 Workplace training methods........................................................................ 306 3.5 Team training............................................................................................... 307 MODERN LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 THE TRAINER AS LEARNING FACILITATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 5.1 Learning facilitation skills............................................................................. 312 5.2 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation............................................. 314

3.

4. 5.

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Contents 6.

DELIVERING CLASSROOM TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316



6.1 Pre-class intervention................................................................................... 316 6.2 Learning facilitation..................................................................................... 318 (a) Introduction.......................................................................................... 318 (b) Techniques for starting off on a positive note......................................... 319 (c) Facilitating learning............................................................................... 320 (d) Concluding the classroom training........................................................ 320 (e) Post-class intervention........................................................................... 323 THE LEARNING FACILITATION PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 7.1 Group dynamics in the learning process....................................................... 325 7.2 Increasing learners’ participation by asking questions................................... 327 7.3 Giving and receiving feedback...................................................................... 327 7.4 Reading the body language of learners.......................................................... 328 7.5 Dealing with problem behaviour in the classroom........................................ 332 CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 8.1 Creating an accepting and safe atmosphere................................................... 335 8.2 Arranging the physical learning environment............................................... 337 (a) The theatre or classroom........................................................................ 338 (b) The herringbone.................................................................................... 339 (c) The boardroom...................................................................................... 339 (d) The open boardroom or U-shape........................................................... 339 (e) The V-shape.......................................................................................... 339 (f ) The circle............................................................................................... 339 (g) Clusters/syndicates................................................................................ 339 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 (a) Meaningfulness.............................................................................................. 340 (b) Assumed learning........................................................................................... 341 (c) Open communication.................................................................................... 341 (d) Essential content............................................................................................ 341 (e) Provision of learning support material............................................................ 341 (f ) Novelty.......................................................................................................... 341 (g) Modelling...................................................................................................... 341 (h) Active and appropriate practice...................................................................... 342 (i) Goal setting................................................................................................... 343 (j) Pleasant conditions........................................................................................ 343 (k) Pleasant consequences.................................................................................... 343 (l) Knowledge of results (feedback)..................................................................... 344 TRANSFER OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 10.1 Self-management to maintain changes in behaviour..................................... 345 10.2 Adaptive guidance........................................................................................ 346 MANAGING CLASSROOM TRAINING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

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CHAPTER 7 ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Kiru Truman and Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

2.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

3.

ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 3.1 Assessor competence........................................................................................ 358 3.2 The rights and special needs of learners........................................................... 359 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 4.1 Formative assessment................................................................................... 361 4.2 Dynamic assessment..................................................................................... 363 4.3 Summative assessment.................................................................................. 363 4.4 Integrated assessment................................................................................... 364 4.5 Diagnostic assessment.................................................................................. 366 4.6 Assessment for recognition of prior learning................................................. 366 4.7 Impact assessment........................................................................................ 366 ASSESSMENT METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 5.1 Portfolio assessment..................................................................................... 373 5.2 Recognition of prior learning....................................................................... 374 THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS........................................................................................ 376 6.1 Planning the assessment............................................................................... 376 6.2 Preparing the learner for assessment ............................................................ 381 6.3 Conducting assessment................................................................................ 383 6.4 Gathering and documenting evidence.......................................................... 387 6.5 Evaluating evidence and making assessment judgements.............................. 390 6.6 Providing feedback to the relevant parties..................................................... 390 6.7 Reviewing the assessment process................................................................. 392 MODERATION OF ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 7.1 Management structure................................................................................. 394 7.2 Functions of the moderation system............................................................. 394 7.3 Components of the moderation system........................................................ 395 7.3.1 Timing............................................................................................ 395 7.3.2 Extent.............................................................................................. 395 7.3.3 Materials.......................................................................................... 395 7.3.4 Personnel......................................................................................... 395 7.4 Methods....................................................................................................... 396 7.5 Moderation tools.......................................................................................... 396

4.

5.

6.

7.



Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

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CHAPTER 8 EVALUATING LEARNING INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

2.

LEARNING INTERVENTION EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401



2.1 Diagnostic evaluation................................................................................... 402 2.2 Formative evaluation.................................................................................... 403 2.3 Summative and longitudinal evaluation....................................................... 403 STAKEHOLDERS IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 COMPLIANCE EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 VALUE-ADDED EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 5.1 Evaluation criteria........................................................................................ 414 5.1.1 Learning design............................................................................... 415 5.1.2 Learning intervention delivery......................................................... 415 5.1.3 Competence.................................................................................... 416 5.1.4 Transfer of learning.......................................................................... 416 5.1.5 Impact on the performance of the organisation................................ 416 5.2 Measuring value added in L&D................................................................... 418 5.2.1 Cost................................................................................................. 420 5.2.2 Input analysis.................................................................................. 420 5.2.3 Change or outcome......................................................................... 420 5.2.4 Impact............................................................................................. 421 5.3 Measuring return on stakeholder expectations.............................................. 421 5.4 Levels of value-added evaluation................................................................... 422 EVALUATION MODELS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 6.1 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy of training evaluation criteria................................... 422 6.1.1 Level 1: Reaction............................................................................. 423 6.1.2 Level 2: Learning............................................................................. 425 6.1.3 Level 3: Behaviour........................................................................... 425 6.1.4 Level 4: Results................................................................................ 426 6.2 Phillips’ return on investment model............................................................ 426 6.3 Nadler’s model of evaluation........................................................................ 427 6.4 Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation......................................... 427 6.5 Predictive evaluation.................................................................................... 428 THE TRAINING EVALUATION PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 7.1 Step 1: Identifying stakeholders.................................................................... 430 7.2 Step 2: Collecting background information.................................................. 430 7.3 Step 3: Formulating research questions......................................................... 430 7.4 Step 4: Identifying the evaluation dimensions and criteria............................ 431 7.5 Step 5: Selecting and applying data collection tools...................................... 431 7.5.1 Questionnaires................................................................................. 431 7.5.2 Interviews........................................................................................ 432 7.5.3 Observations.................................................................................... 433

3.  4. 5.

6.

7.



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8.

7.5.4 Organisational records..................................................................... 433 7.5.5 Assessment instruments................................................................... 434 7.6 Step 6: Drawing up an evaluation plan......................................................... 434 7.7 Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data.................................................. 436 7.8 Step 8: Making recommendations................................................................ 436 7.9 Step 9: Communicating the evaluation results.............................................. 436 FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 PART 3: SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY CHAPTER 9 MANAGING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

. . . . . . . . . 447 2.1 Purpose and activities of HRD..................................................................... 449 2.2 HRD strategy............................................................................................... 451 L&D MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST-CENTURY WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 THE NEW LEARNING ORGANISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 4.1 Knowledge management.............................................................................. 458 4.2 Improving organisational flexibility and capability....................................... 459 THE L&D VALUE PROPOSITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 5.1. Value is defined by the stakeholders.............................................................. 463 5.2 Create sustainable competitive advantage..................................................... 464 5.3 Alignment with stakeholder requirements.................................................... 464 5.4 Continued professional development........................................................... 465 5.5 Value the link between investors and stakeholders........................................ 465 THE L&D MANAGEMENT PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 6.1 Developing a holistic HRD strategy............................................................. 466 6.2 Considering external and internal forces....................................................... 467 6.3 Defining the L&D value proposition........................................................... 467 6.4 Conducting an L&D strategic skills gap analysis.......................................... 467 6.5 Conducting an organisational L&D needs analysis...................................... 467 6.6 Compiling the L&D plan............................................................................ 468 6.7 Specifying the execution strategy.................................................................. 468 6.8 Implementing the L&D plan....................................................................... 468 6.9 Evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D plan............................................... 469 6.10 Evaluating value added by L&D interventions............................................. 469 THE HRD MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 7.1 Defining the L&D value proposition........................................................... 471 7.2 Strategising.................................................................................................. 471 7.3 Organising................................................................................................... 472

2. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

3. 4.

5.

6.

7.



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7.4 7.5 7.6

Leading........................................................................................................ 473 Assuring quality........................................................................................... 473 Evaluating.................................................................................................... 473 Principle 1: Vision and mission.................................................................... 476 Principle 2: Business objectives..................................................................... 476 Principle 3: Standards of engagement........................................................... 477 Principle 4: Intervention and execution strategy........................................... 477 Principle 5: Organisational alignment.......................................................... 477 Principle 6: Measurement and accountability............................................... 477

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 CHAPTER 10 PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Melinde Coetzee 1.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

2.

ROLES OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

3.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485



3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8

4. 5. 6.  7. 8.

Results driven............................................................................................... 486 Investigative................................................................................................. 486 Able to set and comply with quality standards.............................................. 486 Co-operative and collaborative..................................................................... 486 Willing and able to add value for stakeholders.............................................. 486 Flexible while maintaining important principles........................................... 487 Responsible for continuous professional development.................................. 487 Ethical and responsible................................................................................. 487 A COMPETENCY PROFILE OF EFFECTIVE L&D PROFESSIONALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF L&D PROFESSIONALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 ETHICAL ISSUES IN L&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 CHALLENGES FOR THE L&D PROFESSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 APPENDIX A: NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Glossary of terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 References................................................................................................................................. 545 Index........................................................................................................................................... 558

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure 1.1 How the NQF is linked to the GFETQF, HEQF and OQF Figure 1.2 The NQF Act and its three qualifications sub-frameworks Figure 1.3 The role of quality councils in the South African education and training systems Figure 1.4 SETA levy grant distribution Figure 1.5 Roles of the skills development committee Figure 1.6 A demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa Figure 1.7 Scope of qualification Figure 1.8 QCTO model for quality management Figure 1.9  Occupational curriculum development process managed by development quality partner Figure 1.10 Quality assurance partners in the new OLS Figure 2.1 Components of employee performance Figure 2.2 Kolb’s experiential learning cycle Figure 3.1 The classical systematic dynamic learning cycle Figure 3.2 Proactive and reactive needs analysis Figure 3.3 The skills planning process Figure 3.4 The skills planning support structure Figure 4.1 The learning cycle Figure 4.2 Steps in designing outcomes-based/workplace learning programmes Figure 4.3 Aspects to consider when determining the learning programme objective Figure 4.4 Cognitive domain (based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy of learning) Figure 4.5 Links between the NQF level descriptors and Bloom’s revised taxonomy (cognitive domain) Figure 4.6 The affective domain Figure 4.7 The psychomotor domain Figure 4.8 An example of a course mind map Figure 4.9 Planning the learning delivery and assessment strategy: example Figure 4.10 Contents of the facilitator/trainer guide Figure 5.1 The various design models of e-learning Figure 5.2 The various scholarly generations of e-learning Figure 5.3 Elements of the e-learning design process Figure 5.4 The phases of e-learning adoption in an organisation Figure 6.1 The learning cycle Figure 6.2 Experiential learning cycle (based on Kolb, 1985) Figure 6.3 The layout of training venues Figure 6.4 Principles of modelling Figure 7.1 The learning cycle Figure 7.2 Steps and processes involved in the formative assessment of a task Figure 7.3 Teaching, learning and assessing in an integrated manner Figure 7.4 The RPL process

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List of figures and tables

Figure 7.5 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3

The RPL assessment process The learning cycle Integrated L&D evaluation The L&D value chain The evaluation process Overview of HRD activities Link between the HRD strategy and the business strategy The strategic L&D management process

Tables Table 1.1 Overview of national legislation governing human capital skills development in post-apartheid South Africa Table 1.2 Statutory structures and supporting bodies created by the skills development legislation Table 1.3 The current SETA landscape Table 1.4 The 10-level NQF structure Table 1.5 Principles of the NQF Table 1.6 Summary of key policy areas outlined in the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (WP PSET) Table 1.7 The strategic intentions of the NSDS III Table 1.8 NSDS III goals, outcomes and outputs Table 1.9 Guideline criteria for ASDSA designations Table 1.10 Examples of building up CPD points for SDFs registered as members of ASDSA Table 1.11 Elements of a unit standard Table 1.12 Elements of applied competence Table 1.13 The OFO structure groupings Table 1.14 Distinction between a learnership, an apprenticeship and a skills learning programme Table 1.15 Elements of the workplace L&D quality management system Table 1.16 Checklist for setting up the L&D quality assurance system Table 1.17 L&D intervention quality checklist: learning facilitation, administration and quality assurance management Table 2.1 Barriers to learning Table 2.2 Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles Table 2.3 Gregorc’s learning styles Table 2.4 McCarthy’s 4MAT model Table 2.5 Gardner’s eight intelligences Table 2.6 Stimulation of intelligences Table 3.1 The purposes of the L&D needs analysis Table 3.2 Root causes of performance problems and suggested methods to address them Table 3.3 Focus areas of L&D needs analysis Table 3.4 Understanding scarce and critical skills

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Table 3.5 Examples of scarce and critical skills and occupations in high demand in the ETDP SETA Table 3.6 Planning a skills audit Table 3.7 Example of typical information required in a workplace skills plan and annual training report Table 3.8 Example of a skills matrix Table 3.9 Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development planning process Table 3.10 Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process Table 3.11 Occupational tasks of skills development facilitators, L&D professionals and trainers Table 4.1  The LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the appropriate NQF level Table 4.2 An example of a knowledge, skills and work experience analysis: HR managers (OFO version 6) Table 4.3 Quality checklist for analysing learners’ profile Table 4.4 Example of a learning programme objective and learning outcomes Table 4.5 Taxonomy of learning outcomes Table 4.6 The critical cross-field outcomes Table 4.7 Categories of content Table 4.8 The links between the training need, learning outcome and learning content Table 4.9 Examples of learning resources Table 4.10 An example of a course outline Table 4.11 Guidelines on sequencing content Table 4.12 Examples of learning activities Table 4.13  Example 1: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR managers (OFO version 6: 1323) Table 4.14  Example 2: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR managers (OFO version 6: 1323) Table 4.15 Technology-based training methods Table 4.16 Aspects to consider when choosing training methods Table 4.17 Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material Table 4.18 Characteristics of effective learning materials Table 4.19 Example of a facilitator process guide Table 4.20 Quality checklist: Skills programme design Table 5.1 Synchronous and asynchronous e-learning Table 5.2 Examples of learning management systems (LMS) Table 5.3 Social collaboration preferences Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning Table 5.5 Steps in designing e-learning programmes Table 6.1 Advantages and limitations of classroom training Table 6.2 Guidelines for designing blended learning classes Table 6.3 On-the-job training methods Table 6.4 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation xvi

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List of figures and tables

Table 6.5 Example of an agenda Table 6.6 Elements of learning facilitation in the classroom Table 6.7 Examples of behaviours to facilitate throughout the learning cycle Table 6.8 Learning environment preferences of various generations Table 6.9 Guidelines for asking questions Table 6.10 Example of a feedback contract Table 6.11 Reading body language Table 6.12 Dysfunctional and emotionally intelligent L&D professional responses to classroom behaviour Table 6.13 Techniques for handling problem behaviours in the classroom Table 6.14 Characteristics of emotionally warm and cold behavioural styles Table 6.15 Quality checklist for the training environment Table 6.16 Barriers to the transfer of learning Table 6.17 Responsibilities in managing classroom training Table 7.1 Role-players in assessment Table 7.2 Formative and summative assessment Table 7.3 Assessment methods and instruments Table 7.4 Uses of assessment methods Table 7.5 Uses of assessment instruments Table 7.6 Assessment plan Table 7.7 Example of an assessment strategy Table 7.8 Example of candidate declaration of authenticity Table 7.9 Example of a witness declaration of authenticity Table 7.10 Principles of assessment Table 7.11 Types of evidence Table 7.12 Example of a summative assessment form Table 7.13 The VACS analysis of evidence Table 7.14 Example of candidate evaluation of the assessment process Table 7.15 Example of a moderation report Table 8.1 Timing of evaluation and its related purpose Table 8.2 Example of formative classroom training evaluation Table 8.3 Example of summative evaluation Table 8.4 SAQA quality requirements for L&D providers Table 8.5 Steps to establish an L&D quality assurance system Table 8.6 Steps in conducting a compliance evaluation Table 8.7 Tangible organisational results Table 8.8 Intangible organisational results Table 8.9 Example of a training cost spreadsheet Table 8.10 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews as an evaluation technique Table 8.11 Steps to follow in an interview process Table 8.12 Example of an evaluation plan Table 8.13 Quality checklist for an evaluation report Table 9.1 Challenges of HRM in the 21st century and competencies required to deal successfully with the challenges xvii

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Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 10.4 Table 10.5 Table 10.6 Table 10.7

Organisation capabilities and HRD roles Implications of the L&D value proposition Criteria of an effective HRD function L&D resource questions Key functions of strategic L&D management Roles of the L&D professional Core values and principles of an L&D professional Core and advanced skills for L&D professionals SABPP professional levels of registration Checklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D professional Guidelines for dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D Ethical standards in L&D

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Melinde Coetzee (Editor) Contact details: Cell: 083 500 8621 Tel: 012 429 8204 Email: [email protected] Melinde Coetzee (DLitt et Phil) is a professor in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the University of South Africa, Pretoria. She has extensive experience in the corporate environment on psychological interventions pertaining to organisational development, human capacity and career development and talent retention. Professor Coetzee’s research interests include issues of employability, skills development and career and retention psychology in multicultural work contexts. She is Chief Editor of the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology and also the author, co-author and editor of a number of academic books. She has published in numerous accredited academic journals, co-authored and contributed chapters to books, both nationally and internationally, and has presented numerous academic papers and posters at national and international conferences. Professor Coetzee is a professionally registered Industrial Psychologist with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and a Master Human Resource Practitioner with the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP).

Jo-Anne Botha Contact details: Cell: 074 215 9868 Tel: (012) 429 4318 Email: [email protected] Jo-Anne Botha (D.Com) is a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Management at the University of South Africa, Pretoria. She has 25 years’ experience in the learning and development field, designing, developing and implementing learning programmes on various topics in the business world, such as training supervisors, middle and senior managers, team building, communication skills, time management and strategic planning. Jo-Anne has been teaching at Unisa in the HRD field since 2006. She is co-author of various study guides relating to human resource management, human resource development and industrial and organisational psychology. She has contributed to chapters in various prescribed books.

Jerome Kiley Contact details: Cell: 082 464 5521 Tel: (021) 959 6350 Email: [email protected] Jerome Kiley (MA, BA Hons HRD) is registered as a Master Personnel Practitioner (Human Resource Development) with the South African Board for Personnel Practice. He is currently a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Development at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Jerome also runs the first-year Industrial Psychology xix

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Programme at the University of the Western Cape and is an associate lecturer for the Open University’s Business School. He has extensive experience in the field of skills development and HRD management, in both the public and private sectors. Jerome is a registered assessor and moderator and serves in this capacity for a number of institutions. He has coauthored a number of books in the fields of management and organisational psychology.

Kiru Truman Contact details: Cell: 082 787 7716 Email: [email protected] Kiru Truman has more than twenty-five years of experience in the education sector. She has worked as a lecturer/facilitator, assessor and moderator at both further education and higher education levels in the Western Cape, Gauteng, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal. She holds a Master’s Degree in Education and Training in Lifelong Learning from Stellenbosch University and is currently working on her PhD with IPSS. She is also a qualified verifier, skills development facilitator, moderator, assessor and curriculum designer. Kiru is a voice coach who has published more than thirty student textbooks and lecturer guides and has extensive experience as both a teacher and writer. As a skills development specialist, she works with various SETAs where she assists numerous companies to participate in various aspects of skills development, providing them with advice and assistance to maximise their skills development benefits and opportunities. She teaches at the Retail Academy at Cape University of Technology and is a researcher at the WRLC. She was also the lead researcher on the journal article on WIL, research and the operations of a retail store on a university campus, recently published in the International Asian Pacific Journal for Cooperative Education (2017).

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PREFACE We have come to believe that an effective L&D professional is a great artist and that there are as few as there are any other great artists. Helping adults develop their skills in Workplace 4.0 might even be the greatest of the arts since the medium is the human mind and spirit. The authors In today’s Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age or digital era of rapid technological advancement), learning and development (L&D) professionals have become key role-players in helping business and human resource (HR) leaders to embrace new ways of thinking about their companies and the development of human capabilities. Employees’ increasing interaction with the digital environment and smart information technology, such as computers and smartphones, is changing how they think and process information. L&D professionals therefore need to consider the impact of the smart digital era on their approaches to L&D design in Workplace 4.0. They have to adopt modern learning approaches, especially when the L&D intervention involves the younger generation of employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/iGeneration) who are digital natives. Positioned within a global VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) global business landscape, the South African L&D landscape continues to evolve with an increased emphasis on outcomes- and workplace-based learning design, which, along with the emergence of modern digital learning, requires innovative and creative L&D methods that address the diverse needs of all generations in the workplace. L&D professionals working within the South African workplace context should also recognise the unique developing needs of the learner on the African continent, who may not always have access to smart technologies. Innovative blended learning design and delivery methods are, therefore, required to help raise the skills profile of the South African workforce. As a new technological progressive generation of L&D professionals enters the field, we believe that it is time to review what we have learned and to determine what we need to learn. To this end, in this book an eclectic group of experienced L&D professionals share their experience and wisdom by offering insights on practising L&D in the digital era of Workplace 4.0 from a sound theoretical base, blended with practical applications. Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations has been designed for undergraduate students, as well as practising L&D professional and HRD practitioners. Students new to the HRD/L&D field, as well those who have been practising L&D for years, will benefit from this book. Given how expensive and important learning and development initiatives are, it is important for L&D professionals to use a systematic approach in the design and delivery of their L&D interventions. This book aims to guide L&D professionals through the dynamic learning cycle by offering practical guidelines for the planning, design, delivery and evaluation of both online and work-based learning programmes in the South African workplace context. In addition, it aims to provide clarity on the outcomes-based approach to workplace learning in the context of the national skills development legislative framework.

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To this end, issues such as the assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements and quality assurance of work-based L&D design, delivery and management are also addressed. Finally, in exploring L&D as a profession and practice, L&D professionals are guided towards continuing their professional and personal development as lifelong learners. The importance of considering the ethical implications of L&D activities, such as conducting needs analyses, designing work-based learning, delivering training, assessing learner achievements and evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes in the workplace, are also reviewed. Part 1 of this book provides information on the legislative (Chapter 1: The South African learning and development landscape) and the theoretical foundations of learning and development in the workplace (Chapter 2: The psychology of learning, employee motivation and performance). Part 2 addresses the systematic learning cycle in Chapter 3 (Conducting a learning and development needs analysis), Chapter 4 (Outcomes-based workplace learning design), Chapter 5 (Online learning design), Chapter 6 (Delivering learning and development interventions), Chapter 7 (Assessment and moderation in learning and development) and Chapter 8 (Evaluating learning intervention effectiveness). Part 3 discusses approaches to sustaining learning and development capability in Chapter 9 (Managing learning and development in the workplace) and Chapter 10 (Profession and practice of learning and development). Finally, just as concepts and practices of HRD, and in particular L&D, have evolved over time, our understanding of these has been shaped by many friends, colleagues, clients and students in the South African and international multicultural workplace contexts. We are truly grateful for these wonderful people who have shared their practices, wisdom and insights with us in person and in the professional literature. We trust that this edition of Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations will provide the HRD and L&D fraternity, and students new to the field, with the foundation needed for independent practice in the challenging and exciting arena of quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D provision in the rapidly evolving, digital, Workplace 4.0. March 2018 Melinde Coetzee (Editor) Jo-Anne Botha Jerome Kiley Kiru Truman

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1.6. A demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa. ‘A demanddriven occupational learning system in South Africa’. © and permission of Christoph Vorwerk. Figure 1.7. Scope of qualification. ‘Scope of qualification’. (DHET, 2010c, p. 6; Vorwerk, 2010a, p. 15) Used by permission of Chris Vorwerk.. Figure 1.8. QCTO model for quality management. FAIR USE. The QCTO website (Quality Council for Trades and Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/ disclaimer. Figure 1.9. Occupational curriculum development process managed by development quality partner. FAIR USE. The QCTO website (Quality Council for Trades and Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/disclaimer. Figure 1.10. Quality assurance partners in the new OLS. ‘Quality assurance partners in the new OLS’. (DoL, 2008b; DoL, 2009a) © and permission of The Department of Labour. Table 1.3: The current SETA landscape. NSA, (National Skills Authority) 2011 DHET © and permission of Govt Printing Works, and Department of Higher Education & Training. Table 1.5. Principles of the NQF. ‘Principles of the NQF’. SAQA 2000. The National Qualifications Framework and Quality Assurance. Table 1.12. Elements of a unit standard. ‘Elements of a unit standard’. Fasset, 2009. Used with permission. Table 2.2. Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles. ‘Kolb and Fry’s learning styles’, page 89. (adapted from Kolb & Fry 1975) Psychology and Adult Learning, 3rd edition. Mark Tennant. Used by permission of Professor Tennant. Table 2.3: Gregorc’s learning styles. ‘Gregorc’s learning styles’. © and permission of Anthony F. Gregorc, Ph.D. President Gregorc Associates, Inc. Table 3.9. Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development planning process. ‘Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development planning process’. Skills Planning for Improved Performance. Author: Suzanne Hattingh. Used with permission. https://www.skillsportal.co.za/sites/default/files/company-files/ Learning%20for%20Performance%20Improvement%20/LPI%20publications%20 catalogue_2015_0.pdf . Table 3.10. Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process. ‘Role players involved in the annual skills planning process’. Hattingh, 2010b. Used with permission. Table 4.1. The LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the appropriate NQF level. FAIR USE. The QCTO website (Quality Council for Trades and Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/disclaimer.

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Figure 1.5. Roles of the skills development committee. ‘Roles of the Skills Development Committee’. Fasset, 2009. Used with permission. Video activity. E-learning strategy secrets. © DeakinCo. Published on Oct 8, 2013https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o. DeakinCo. 2018, E-learning Strategy Secrets. Published on Oct 8, 2013. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o © DeakinCo. Reproduced by permission. Video activity. Storyboard and Narration Scriptwriting. eLearning Storyboard & Script Writing. © The eLearning Network. Used by permission of Stephen (Magic) Johnson. Founder & CEO - eLearning, Inc. http://eLearning.net. Published on Jul 10, 2014. Video activity. e-Learning trends. ‘6 Trends in E-learning Design & Development - eLearning Video’. CommLab India. Published on Aug 14, 2015. CommLab India – Global Learning Solutions Company.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Throughout this book, repeated reference is made to certain bodies and terms. Thus, it is easier to use the acronyms and abbreviations. Until you are familiar with all the meanings, you may need to refer to this page for clarification. ABET Adult basic education and training AGRISETA Agriculture Sector Education and Training Authority AI Artificial intelligence APP Annual Performance Plan (SETA) AQP Assurance quality partner ASDSA Association for Skills Development in South Africa ATR Annual training report BANKSETA Banking Sector Education and Training Authority BEE Black Economic Empowerment CATHSSETA Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Education and Training Authority CCFOs Critical cross-field outcomes CEO Chief executive officer CEP Community of expert practice CETA Construction Sector Education and Training Authority CHET Council on Higher Education and Training CHIETA Chemical Industries Education and Training Authority CPD Continuous professional development DHET Department of Higher Education and Training DoL Department of Labour DQP Development quality partner EE Employment equity ESETA Energy and Water Sector Education and Training Authority ESSA Employment Services South Africa ETD Education, training and development ETDP-SETA Education, Training and Development Practice Sector Education and Training Authority ETQA Education and Training Quality Assurance bodies FASSET Financial and Accounting Services Sector Education and Training Authority FET Further education and training FL Foundational learning FLC Foundational learning competence FOODBEV Food and Beverages Sector Education and Training Authority FP&M SETA Fibre Processing and Manufacturing Sector Education and Training Authority GCI Global Competitiveness Index

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GFETQSF  General and Further Education and Training Qualifications sub-Framework GTCI Global Talent Competitiveness Index HEQSF Higher Education Qualifications sub-Framework HIHSS National Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences HPCSA Health Professions Council of South Africa HR Human resources HRD Human resource development HRDSSA Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa HRIS Human resources information system HWSETA Health and Welfare Sector Education and Training Authority ICT Information communication technology IMS Instructional management systems INSETA Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority IPAP Industrial Policy Action Plan IPM Institute for People Management ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations KSAOs Knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes LARF Level, activities, role, focus and time (span of discretion) L&D Learning and development LCMS Learning content management system LDNA Learning and development needs analysis LGSETA Local Government Sector Education and Training Authority LMIS Labour market intelligence system LMS Learning management system MerSETA Manufacturing, Engineering and Related Services Sector Education and Training Authority MICT‑SETA Media, Advertising, Information and Communication Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority Moodle Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment MoU Memorandum of Understanding MQA Mining Qualifications Authority NAMB National Artisan Moderating Body NLRD National Learner Record Database NOPF National Occupational Pathway Framework NQF National Qualifications Framework NSA National Skills Authority NSB National Standards Body NSDS National Skills Development Strategy NSDP National Skills Development Plan NSF National Skills Fund NSP National Skills Plan OER Open education resources OFO Organising Framework for Occupations xxvi

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List of acronyms and abbreviations

OLS Occupational Learning System OQSF Occupational Qualifications Sub-Framework PFMA Public Finance Management Act PIVOTAL Professional, vocational, technical and academic learning PP PIVOTAL Plan PR PIVOTAL Report PSET Post-school education and training system PSETA Public Services Sector Education and Training Authority PTP Private training providers QA Quality assurance QC Quality Council QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations QDF Qualifications development facilitator QMS Quality management system PIVOTAL Occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical and Academic Learning programme that is linked to a qualification ROE Return on stakeholder expectations ROI Return on investment RPL Recognition of prior learning SABPP South African Board for Personnel Practice SABS South African Bureau for Standards SAQA South African Qualifications Authority SASCO South African Standards Classification of Occupations SASSETA Safety and Security Sector Education and Training Authority SCORM Support Sharable Content Object Reference Model SDA Skills Development Act SDF Skills development facilitator SDLA Skills Development Levies Act SDPs Skills development providers SERVICE SETA Services Sector Education and Training Authority SETA Sector Education and Training Authority SGB Standards Generating Body SLA Service level agreement SMMEs Small, medium and micro enterprises SPU Skills Planning Unit SSP Sector skills plan StatsSA Statistics South Africa TETA Transport Education and Training Authority TVET Technical and vocational education and training VHRD Virtual human resource development VUCA Volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous W&R SETA Wholesale and Retail Sector Education and Training authority WIL Work-integrated learning WSP Workplace skills plan xxvii

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BOOK LAYOUT PART 1 LEGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPE

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE

PART 2 THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 5

CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS

OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE LEARNING DESIGN

ONLINE LEARNING DESIGN

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 8

DELIVERING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS

ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

EVALUATING LEARNING INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS

PART 3 SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY

CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 10

MANAGING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

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PART

1 LEGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

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CHAPTER

1

THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPE Melinde Coetzee and Kiru Truman

Key points of learning and development in the South African context •• Learning and development in the South African context has become a national imperative to raise the skills profile of the nation’s human capital through formalised national legislative skills development structures. •• Companies (employers) and Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) must embark on human resource strategies to attract and develop qualified, skilled people listed in the national scarce-skills list (occupations in high demand list; see DHET website). •• National skills development legislation created an integrated education and training (learning and development) system to raise the skills profile of the country. •• The national legislative structure ensures investment in skills development and improving the quality and relevance of education and training (learning and development) to the economy. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Explain the national skills dilemma and the national legislative structures established to help raise the country’s skills profile •• Differentiate between the various pieces of skills development legislation and explain their purpose and contribution to skills development •• Explain the purpose and strategic intent of the National Skills Development Plan 2030 •• Explain the concept of outcomes-based learning and development in South Africa •• Explain the elements of the occupational learning system •• Explain quality assurance mechanisms that govern learning and development in workplaces

1. INTRODUCTION The education, training and development of a workforce is essential to raise the human capital of an organisation and a nation. The economic success of a country relies on the standard and quality of its human capital (i.e. the educational level, knowledge, skills, competencies and attributes of people). The Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) identifies health, primary and higher education and training, labour market efficiency and innovation as important elements of a country’s human capital. This clearly highlights the importance of focusing on the consistent development and upgrading of human capital on a national level (Crous & Attlee, 2016). Learning (including formal training and lifelong learning) and development in the South African context has become a national imperative to raise the skills profile of the nation’s human capital and capabilities through formalised national legislative skills development structures.

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

The South African economic growth rate is generally low and has resulted in poor employment growth and an escalating unemployment rate. Although sustainable job creation in South Africa continues to be constrained by the structural mismatch between labour demand and supply, economic growth continues to favour high-skilled workers, despite the fact that the majority of the employed and the unemployed have low level skills (Reddy et al., 2016). According to the Department of Higher Education and Training’s (DHET) report on skills supply and demand in South Africa (Reddy et al., 2016), ‘the South African labour force comprises 15 million employed and 7.5 million unemployed people. Three-quarters of the employed and 90% of the unemployed are from the African population group. Youth unemployment is particularly high and increasing as more young people join the labour force. 11.75 million persons of the labour force have less than a grade 12 certificate’ (2016: 8). The South African labour force comprises 15 million employed and 7.5 million unemployed people. Youth unemployment is particularly high and increasing … 11.75 million persons of the labour force have less than a grade 12 certificate (Reddy et al., 2016). This clearly highlights the critical need for formal learning (training) and development in South Africa. The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI: 2015–2016) indicates that although South Africa is currently the highest-placed African nation on the index, the country still ranks below Malaysia, China and the Philippines. The low ranking of various African nations points to the importance of investing in the training and development and overall skills development of the nation’s human capital (Crous & Attlee, 2016). Although the South African jobs and skills history profile is different from the East Asian or European contexts, the challenge of developing the nation’s human capital for economic growth remains complex. Apart from having to participate in a globally competitive environment (see point 1.1.2), which requires a high skills base, South Africa also faces the challenge of a local context that creates low-wage, low-skilled jobs and the realities of poverty, inequality and unemployment (Reddy et al., 2016). The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (2015–2016) indicates that although SA is the highest-placed African nation on the index, it still ranks below Malaysia, China and the Philippines.

1.1 Local context challenges impacting human capital development in South Africa The DHET’s report on skills supply and demand in South Africa (Reddy et al., 2016), along with the challenges identified by the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) III, highlight, inter alia, the following challenges for raising the skills profile of the nation’s human capital: 3

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

•• The education level and skill base of the labour force is lower than that of many other productive economies. South Africa is challenged by low productivity in the workplace, as well as by the slow transformation of the labour market and a lack of mobility of the workforce, which is largely the result of inadequate training for those already in the labour market. SA is challenged by low productivity, slow transformation of the labour market and a lack of mobility of the workforce, largely due to inadequate training of those already in the labour market. •• Language, literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental to improved economic and social participation, productivity and social inclusion. A high proportion of young people who exit school before completing a senior secondary qualification stand little chance of participating productively in the economy. •• The employment rate in South Africa is very low. •• The shifting trend towards a service economy has resulted in a high dependence on high-skilled knowledge workers and financial services. Although the financial services sector contributes to growing the GDP (Gross Domestic Product: market value of final goods and services from a nation in a given year) of the country, this sector offers negligible opportunities for employment growth. Nearly half of the higher education graduates are employed in the community, social and personal services sector. A high proportion of the science and engineering graduates, from both higher and technical vocational education sectors, prefer to work in the financial services sector, as opposed to the manufacturing sector. •• The university and FET (further education and training) now referred to as TVET (technical and vocational education and training, college sub-systems are the largest components of the post-school education and training system. Although access to schools, universities and TVET colleges has improved, progression through programmes in all types of educational institutions (including low completion rates from schools) remain low. •• The public TVET institutions, as well as universities and universities of technology, should have the capacity to deliver skills for the new economy. The current problem, however, is that although many lecturers have education qualifications, they lack occupational qualifications, relevant occupational work experience and industry contacts. Such a situation creates serious difficulties for TVET colleges’ efforts to align learning programmes to industry needs. •• The pool of students who can potentially access university and science-based TVET programmes is very small, in comparison to the skill demands in the country. •• In both the university and TVET sectors, the share of female enrolments is higher than the male enrolments. Research (Reddy et al., 2016) suggests that females are generally focused on so-called feminine subjects, such as health, education and social sciences, while males are likely to study for the so-called masculine science, that is, technology and engineering-based subjects. •• There is an under supply of engineering technicians and associated professionals, as well as building and construction, metal, machinery, electronic and electrical, and related trades. 4

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

•• There is a general trend towards qualification–job mismatch (that is, the match between the type of qualifications required by workers in medium and higher level occupations to perform their job effectively, and the actual type of qualifications held by those in such occupations). •• The high numbers of both the employed and unemployed with less than a grade 12 education will require training and development strategies from SETAs, such as facilitating occupationally directed learning programmes. •• Given the high numbers of the employed and unemployed with less than a grade 12 education, SETAs must play a role in facilitating occupationally directed learning programmes that target this group. •• The post-school education and training sector must focus on increasing the supply of science, engineering and technology graduates, as well as teachers, especially secondary school mathematics and science teachers. South Africa’s pool of intermediate skills, especially artisan skills, is too low to support national and sector development and growth. •• South Africa’s pool of intermediate skills, especially artisan skills, is too low to support national and sector development and growth. The workforce is not keeping up with the skills needed to remain competitive in an increasingly knowledge-based economy. The workforce is not keeping up with the skills needed to remain competitive in an increasingly knowledge-based economy. •• There is a need to ensure the continuous upgrading of skills in the workforce, to help ensure a measurable increase in the intermediate skills pool, especially in artisan, technician and related occupations, attributable to increased capacity at education and training institutions and increased workplace experiential learning opportunities. SETAs should play a prominent role in contributing to these goals, especially through their discretionary funds. •• Workplace-based learning and development should be an integral part of all vocational programmes. Establishing effective partnerships between education and training systems and employers to provide for workplace training would ensure that skills have real labour market relevance and that young people have an early appreciation of, and exposure to, the world of work. •• Whereas the enrolment and participation rate in our university sector is higher than that of the vocational education and training sector, it is still not producing sufficient appropriately skilled and qualified people in disciplines central to social and economic development. •• Access is a challenge. Access relates to the availability of places in relevant programmes, on the one hand, and to the constraints (social, academic, geographical and financial) facing the majority of disadvantaged university applicants, on the other.

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•• The stakeholders will need to address the challenge of the low number of National Senior Certificate holders/high school graduates and those qualifying with a National Certificate (Vocational) at NQF Level 4, who attain the required levels of competence in the identified priority areas. Post-school educational opportunities, including bridging programmes and other options, require special attention. •• Our skills levy resources, especially the National Skills Fund (NSF), must strategically and programmatically support the production of priority skills in high-level occupationally directed programmes in the entire skills development pipeline, from universities and colleges to the workplace. In addition, the university sector must also find a way of systemically engaging in the identification of national development and economic needs, including engaging in other government processes such as the National Human Resource Development (HRD) Strategy and the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) and Plan. The extent to which employers and workers will benefit from the knowledge-based economy will depend on our capacity to conduct innovative research and apply new knowledge in the workplace. •• It is important to recognise the changing nature of work in what is becoming a global knowledge-based economy, within which South African enterprises are operating. The extent to which employers and workers benefit from the knowledge-based economy will be determined by our capacity to conduct innovative research and apply new knowledge in the workplace. This requires the development of research capacity, particularly research relating to building new knowledge linked to sector and national industrial plans. The DHET, in collaboration with HEIs (higher education institutions) and SETAs, will be encouraging increased capacity to conduct research, as well as the establishment of sector-relevant research projects. •• Companies (employers) and SETAs must embark on human resource strategies to attract and develop qualified, skilled people listed in the national scarce skills list (occupations in high demand list). An overview of the latest South African list of occupations in high demand, as reported by the DHET is available from the DHET website: http://www./ dhet.gov.za. Skills development is not only about training people for employment, but should also empower people to create opportunities to make a living for themselves. •• Skills development is not only about training people for employment, but should also empower people to create opportunities to make a living for themselves. Low levels of education and training, as well as the lack of standardised, appropriate and accredited training, are key constraints to enabling people to create their own opportunities. There are also constraints in upscaling the contribution of co-operatives, which historically have played and continue to play a key role in providing sustainable livelihoods for the 6

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

majority of South Africans. These co-operatives range from stokvels and burial societies to financial, trade and production co-operatives. The annual turnover of these cooperatives is estimated to run into billions of rand. Properly supported with adequate skills, these co-operatives could play a vital role, not only in the margins, but also in the very mainstream of the South African economy. •• Trade unions, their education programmes, as well as other worker-initiated training programmes and NGOs (non-government organisations), play a crucial role in the further education and training of workers in broader sectoral policy and capacity to effectively engage in the workplace and broader economy. Trade unions and worker education and training initiatives are able to use the critical networks of their organisations (for example, shop stewards and union officials) to educate their members and other workers to suit their needs in a manner that is also beneficial to the economy as a whole. Worker-initiated L&D can contribute to a workforce that is better able to understand the challenges facing their sectors, thus benefiting the economy and the developmental objectives of the country. •• Worker-initiated education and training can contribute to a workforce that is better able to understand the challenges facing the economic sectors in which they operate. This would benefit the workplace, our economy and the developmental objectives of the country. •• The NSDS III supported NGO, community and worker-initiated skills development and training programmes. Likewise, the NSF will endeavour to support credible and quality worker skills development, education and training programmes. •• Historically and internationally, the public sector has played a significant role in education and training. For example, many state entities offered large numbers of apprenticeships. In many countries, municipalities also offer apprenticeships on a large scale. Similar observations can be made about the provision of ABET (adult basic education and training) and for the development of high-level skills, such as planning, environmental management and engineering. However, in recent times in South Africa, the role of the state in driving skills development in these and other important areas has been below what is needed and is inconsistent. It is essential for government to fulfil a key role in building skills for national development. •• There has not been much emphasis, particularly at school level, on career and vocational guidance for our youth. The result is that young people in particular may opt for a programme because it is well-marketed or there is financial aid. There is a lack of guidance in directing young people to programmes for which they have an aptitude, and which will provide training in areas needed in the economy. South Africa’s entire skills development system must dedicate the necessary resources to support career and vocational guidance, because this has proven to be a critical component in successful skills development initiatives worldwide. Both the SETAs and the NSF, respectively, must seek to build career-guidance initiatives in their sectors and generally as a key component of the NSDS III. 7

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The complexities of the local context challenges regarding human capital development facing South Africa are compounded by fast emerging global trends that companies and nations globally must strategically address to ensure sustained economic growth and competitiveness. The following section outlines some of the most general trends that need to be considered in human capital development.

1.2 Global and African trends impacting human capital development The 21st-century environment is labelled as a new era of rapid technological advancement, often called the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era that has fundamentally transformed the broader economy and world of work, society and business (Deloitte, 2017). Business and human resource (HR) leaders have to embrace new ways of thinking about their companies, human capital talent and their role in the broader society. Deloitte’s 2017 report on global human trends highlights the following challenges and trends that managers and HR practitioners will have to face in drafting their human capital development strategies (Deloitte, 2017): •• The pace of technological advancement is unprecedented with new smart technologies (that is, artificial intelligence, mobile platforms, sensors and social collaboration systems) revolutionising the way people live, work and communicate. However, despite new technologies, business productivity growth seems to remain low, that is, business productivity does not seem to keep pace with technological progress. The pace of technological advancement is unprecedented with new technologies revolutionising the way people live, work and communicate. •• The business environment (Workplace 4.0), has become more volatile and disruptive with many companies going out of business due to increasing competitiveness and demand for flexibility and scarce and critical skills. •• Business practices of corporate planning, organisational structure, job design, goalsetting, management, performance management, and human capital attraction and development were largely developed in the ‘First Industrial Age’, and companies seem to lag behind in revising and updating their strategies to keep pace with technological and knowledge advancements. The result is an ever-increasing gap between technological sophistication and the amount of work actually performed, which leads to issues of income inequality, wage stagnation, and social and political unrest around the world. Most stock market valuations are driven by IP (internet provider) services, not by physical or capital goods, and, therefore, companies with low productivity lose quickly to competitors. Public policy (for example, around income inequality, skills development, unemployment, immigration and trade) is slow to adapt to digital and knowledge advancement, which directly affects businesses through regulation, taxes and legislation. Laws and policies on topics such as minimum wage, trade tariffs, immigration and education shift only after years of public debate, which results in imbalances and challenges for business and HR leaders. 8

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

Organisations recognise the importance of talent mobility and acquisition, and they use social networking, HR data analytics and cognitive technologies to source talent. •• The digital era that heralds the 21st-century world of work (Workplace 4.0) requires a new set of digital business and working skills. Focusing on career strategies and human capital learning models that help employees build skills quickly and continuously, and organisational ecosystems and networks of empowered teams rather than structural hierarchies to facilitate both individual and organisational reinvention, has become an imperative for sustaining business survival and competitiveness. Leading organisations recognise the importance of talent mobility and acquisition. Digital tools, such as social networking, HR data analytics and cognitive technologies, are used to source people in new ways, attract them through a global brand, and determine who will best fit the job, team and company. Performance management approaches now emphasise continuous feedback and coaching rather than focusing on appraisal. New approaches to workplace redesign, employee engagement and well-being, culture and work productivity systems are also put at the forefront of the digital workplace (Workplace 4.0). Updating and revising diversity strategies to address issues of fairness, equity and inclusion have become a CEO-level priority around the world. •• Updating and revising diversity strategies to address issues of fairness, equity and inclusion have become a CEO-level priority around the world. Accountability, data, transparency and ‘diversity through process’ is driving efforts around unconscious bias training and education throughout the business community. •• Globally companies report making significant progress in adopting robotics, sensors, cognitive and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The digital era is, therefore, seen as an open talent economy. Companies expand their workforce to include freelancers, ‘gig economy’ workers and crowds. These trends will result in the redesign of almost every job, as well as a new way of thinking about workforce planning and the nature of work. The context of South Africa’s skills and employment issues pose complex challenges that require innovative thinking and leading-edge HR practices. The local context and global trends and challenges clearly require HR leaders to engage in new and innovative approaches to human capital development. This provides an opportunity for leading organisations to use these trends to guide business productivity and success, and take the lead in pulling society toward the crest of the technological wave of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Deloitte, 2017). Although South Africa, as an emerging and developing country, may be slow to adapt to the demands of the digital era, human capital development through the national skills development initiatives must remain a core focus of HR strategies to ensure economic stability and growth in a rapidly 9

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transforming global society. The local context of South Africa’s skills and employment issues pose a myriad complex challenges that require innovative thinking and leadingedge HR practices, which can be supported by organisational training and development initiatives. The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI: 2015–2016) emphasises the following key trends regarding the necessity for quality human capital development in the African context, which organisations should note (Crous & Attlee, 2016): •• Internationally mobile talent (‘brain circulation’ across borders) is a key ingredient of human capital development. The acquisition of ‘know-how’ and experience via networks, and innovations and entrepreneurship qualities through talent mobility, benefits companies world-wide. Quality management practices are required for optimal human capital development. To optimally benefit from talent circulation (mobility), cities and regions need to facilitate talent acquisition through high-quality infrastructures, competitive market conditions and business environments, superior living conditions and an existing critical mass of talent with excellent networks. Internationally, mobile talent (‘brain circulation’ across borders) is a key ingredient of human capital development. •• Inequalities in socio-economic background give rise to tension between those who are privileged enough to be mobile and those lower on the social pyramid who lack mobility. People who are not part of the talent pool may resist supporting the immigration of highly skilled professionals and students unless their own children have the opportunity to get ahead. •• The diffusion of technology and efficient international communications make it possible for corporations to move strategically important product development and research activities to countries (i.e. China, South Korea, the Philippines, Slovenia, Turkey and Vietnam), which employ quality talent at a low cost. Africa is currently excluded from this trend due to low skills issues. Increasingly, talent is also being drawn to countries such as Chile, South Korea, Rwanda and Azerbaijan rather than South Africa. Technology and efficient international communications enable corporations to move product development and research to countries such as China, which employ quality talent at a low cost. •• Competing for scarce vocational skills (TVET) will continue to challenge emerging countries, including BRICS countries (i.e. Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). Quality TVET (vocational and technical skills training) and occupationally directed training addressing scarce and critical skills and professions should become a priority. •• In the digital era, technological advances are rapidly evolving and technological innovation increases the array of professions and jobs that can be automated, which will affect knowledge workers such as technicians, as well as manual workers. Knowledge 10

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

workers will, in the future, be displaced by algorithms and low-skilled workers by robots and artificial intelligence (AI). Virtual business models will allow employees to work from home for different employers, while others will have to retrain and upskill to retain jobs far from home. In general, the gap between the digital world of work (Workplace 4.0) and educational institutions should also be narrowed by addressing outdated and irrelevant training and education methods and curricula. Rapidly evolving technological innovation increases the array of jobs that can be automated, which will affect knowledge workers as well as manual workers. As a matter of urgency, government policy-makers, investors in Africa and employers need to acknowledge the impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (the Second Machine or digital age) on plans for industrialisation, job creation and poverty eradication. The rise of automation implies that industrialisation is likely to generate significantly fewer jobs for the next generation of emerging and low-income economies such as South Africa (Crous & Attlee, 2016). Although South African organisations need to support the government’s efforts to raise the human capital skills profile of the nation amidst the nation’s unique and complex skills development challenges, human capital development in South African organisations should also take serious cognisance of the arrival and impact of the smart industry driven by the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Workplace 4.0) for future economic growth.

2. T  HE SOUTH AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR WORKFORCE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT In South African organisations, human capital and capability development is regulated mostly by workforce skills development legislation and national strategies. South Africa has an interesting and unique history of workforce skills development. However, there is consensus that to achieve growth and development, South Africa requires a multipronged skills development strategy that targets high-, intermediate- and low-level skills development simultaneously in a differentiated manner (Kraak et al., 2006; Reddy et al., 2016; Young, 2005). The current National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) and new proposed National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP), for example, is a well-conceived strategy with the potential to move South Africa forward in the monumental task of addressing the country’s skills shortages, while taking cognisance of the changing world of work. The NSDS III and the proposed National Skills Development Plan 2030 is a well-conceived strategy to move South Africa forward in the monumental task of addressing the country’s skills shortages, while noting the changing world of work. The country’s skills development system emerged out of a process that saw organised labour, business, educationalists and other stakeholders developing their independent visions for skills development and education and training, and then coming together to work towards what ostensibly appeared to be a single vision, but which inherently retained the legacy of competing 11

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imperatives and expectations (Badroodien & McGrath, 2005). Policies and strategies, such as Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE), the New Growth Path, the Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP), the outcomes of the Medium-Term Strategic Framework, the Human Resource Development Strategy (HRDSSA), sector developmental plans, government’s goals for rural development and the new environmental strategy, the NSDS III, NSDP 2030 and skills development legislations offer opportunities for improving skills, or upskilling. These policies ensure that different industries enter value-added markets to stimulate demand for skills, employers act in their long-term interest, and there are incentives for organisations to develop both high-level and basic skills. However, the scale of the training and development challenge is still daunting to most employers and the task of appropriate skills development awaits all South African workplaces (Reddy et al., 2016; Telela, 2004). Labour market indicators show that skilled and semi-skilled occupations dominate the make-up of the South African workforce. Besides unemployment and employment equity, another important labour market indicator is the trend to change occupations. Researchers often use occupations such as those listed on the Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) to measure the demand for skills. By tracing occupations over time, it is possible to identify which occupations are growing and, therefore, where demand exists for certain skills. In South Africa, there has been a significant shift in occupations. There has been a growth in employment opportunities in middle-level occupations, such as technical and associated professionals, clerical workers and craft workers. Labour market indicators also show that skilled and semi-skilled occupations dominate the make-up of the South African workforce (DoL, 2003; Reddy et al., 2016). In South Africa, business service is the fastest growing industry as more organisations outsource their non-core functions. Internationally, service industries are the most versatile and flexible when it comes to generating employment, particularly through the establishment of small and medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs). In South Africa, the service sector is taking on an increasingly important role as more and more organisations outsource some of their non-core functions. Business service is the fastest growing industry – it has overtaken manufacturing in its contribution to South Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP). Crime has also led to a significant growth in industries such as private security and insurance services. As noted earlier, globalisation is placing a greater demand on some industries (such as banking and other financial services) to align themselves to international standards and practices. These changes demand a flexible and sophisticated workforce that can adapt quickly to changes in the working environment (DoL, 2003; Reddy et al., 2016).

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

The South African government has committed itself to raising the skills profile of the labour market. Short-term measures to address immediate shortages, and longer-term solutions have been in place since 1994 (the post-apartheid regime) to address structural imbalances in the labour market. Some of the most important decisions taken by government in this regard include: •• The Green Paper on the National Skills Development Strategy for Economic and Employment Growth in South Africa (March 1997), published by the Department of Labour, which stated that there was a need to increase competency levels in the country to promote economic and employment growth and social development; To address the inequalities in the workforce, legislation makes provision for levy grants for employers who promote the development of previously disadvantaged people. •• To address the inequalities in the educational and equity profile of South Africa’s workforce, skills development legislation (e.g. the Skills Development Act No. 97 of 1998; the Skills Development Amendment Act 31 of 2003; the Skills Development Amendment Act 37 of 2008; the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2011; the Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999, including the Revised Sector Education and Training (SETA) Grant Regulations of April 2013) makes provision for levy grants for employers who promote the development of black Africans, coloureds and Indians, women and people with disabilities; •• The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008, which was enacted to ensure, among other objectives, the integration of education and training in South Africa. The NQF Act provides for the responsibilities of the Minister of Higher Education and Training, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and Quality Councils (e.g. Umalusi, Council for Higher Education and Training [CHET] and Quality Council for Trades and Occupations[QCTO]); •• The signing of National Skills Accords on 13 July 2011, which spell out the key commitments by government, labour, business and communities to curbing the skills challenge facing South Africa. One of the key commitments is to facilitate the placement of new entrants in the labour market through learnerships, apprenticeships and internships; A key commitment is to facilitate the placement of new entrants in the labour market through learnerships, apprenticeships and internships. •• The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS I [April 2001–March 2005], NSDS II [April 2005–March 2011] and NSDS III [April 2011–March 2016 as extended to 31 March 2020: Government Gazette No. 40505, 15 December 2016) articulated government’s priorities for achieving its medium- and long-term goals with regard to training and development. The NSDS served as the blueprint for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of skills development in South Africa. 13

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The NSDS emphasised, inter alia, the need to confront racial inequalities by giving more opportunities to previously (and currently) disadvantaged South Africans.

•• ••

•• ••

••

••

••

 e NSDS emphasised, inter alia, the need to confront racial inequalities by giving Th more opportunities to previously (and currently) disadvantaged South Africans. Such opportunities include assisting unemployed people from designated groups to participate in skills upliftment programmes. Through these programmes, unemployed people can acquire the skills they need to enter the labour market or start their own small businesses. These programmes include learnerships, apprenticeships, internships, bursaries and new venture-creation initiatives. NSDS III incorporates PIVOTAL (occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical and Academic Learning) programmes that are linked to a qualification and PIVOTAL (occupationally-directed learning programmes) grants; Facilitating the recruitment of skilled foreign workers in fields with critical skills shortages; Ensuring the development of South Africans in fields with critical skills shortages (see the latest national list of occupations in high demand: on the DHET website); Providing career guidance and counselling to school leavers to assist them in pursuing further studies in fields that meet the needs of the economy; Ensuring the integration of government strategies to achieve the goals of the Medium Term Strategic Framework and the Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa (HRDSSA II: 2010–2030); Enhancing the labour market intelligence by constantly monitoring and evaluating trends through skills demand and supply research and reports by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET); The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (‘White Paper’: 15 January 2014, Government Gazette No. 37229) which focuses on providing guidelines to the DHET and the institutions for which it is responsible on developing strategies to improve the capacity of the post-school education and training system to meet South Africa’s skills needs; The draft Proposal for the National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: Government Gazette Vol. 630, No. 41332, 15 December 2017). The NSDP 2030 has been developed in response to the ‘White Paper’ to improve, within the context of the objectives of the Skills Development Act, (1) the integration of the post-school education and training system (PSET), and (2) the interface between PSET institutions (including universities and colleges) and the world of work. The NSDP addresses the expiry of the NSDS III on March 2016 (as extended to 31 March 2020: Government Gazette No. 40505, 15 December 2016) to allow for the finalisation and phasing in of the NSDP.

Table 1.1 provides an overview of the key pieces of national legislation that govern human capital or workforce skills development in South African organisations.

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Table 1.1  Overview of national legislation governing human capital skills development in post-apartheid South Africa (Coetzee, 2018)

National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

Skills Development Act 97 of 1998

To develop the skills of the South African workforce –

This Act provides for the establishment of an institutional framework to devise and implement national, sector and workplace strategies to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce. It integrates those strategies within the NQF; it provides for learnerships that lead to recognised occupational qualifications; and among other things, provides for the financing of skills development by means of a levy grant scheme and a National Skills Fund. Included in the Skills Development Act was the legal establishment of what is now referred to as the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs). Other key sections in the Act include those dealing with the national skills development strategy, governance of the SETAs, sector skills plans, learnerships, learning programmes and quality assurance.

•• to improve the quality of life of workers, their prospects of work and labour mobility; •• to improve productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of employers; •• to promote self-employment; and •• to improve the delivery of social services. To increase the levels of investment in education and training in the labour market and to improve the return on that investment; To encourage employers – •• to use the workplace as an active learning environment; •• to provide employees with the opportunity to acquire new skills; •• to provide opportunities for new entrants to the labour market to gain work experience; and •• to employ persons who find it difficult to be employed. To encourage workers to participate in learnerships and other training programmes; To improve the employment prospects of people who were previously disadvantaged by unfair discrimination and to redress those disadvantages through training and education; To ensure the quality of education and training in and for the workplace; To assist – •• work seekers to find work; •• retrenched workers in re-enter the labour market; and •• employers to find qualified employees.

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National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) of 1999 and related regulations

The Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (SDLA) established the system of levy financing to fund skills development, and allowed for additional regulations under the SDLA which, in turn, provide for the allocation of grants by SETAs. The principal aim of the Act is to finance learning programmes aimed at developing scarce and critical skills by way of a compulsory levy system. Based on this Act, every company that exceeds the threshold set for the annual payroll (i.e. a threshold is a total payroll of R500 000 per annum), as calculated for pay-as-you-earn (PAYE), has to pay 1% of its total payroll as a Skills Development Levy (SDL).

The levy was only 0.5% of the monthly payroll until March 2001. From then on, the levy was 1% of the payroll. Although public service departments do not pay a levy, they are required to budget 1% of payroll for training purposes. They should report on the usage of that 1% when they submit their workplace skills plans, annual training reports, PIVOTAL Plans and Reports to their SETA.

The key amendments introduced in relation to SETAs were:

The key objective of which was to strengthen the then Minister of Labour’s powers to influence the work of, and to hold to tighter account, the SETAs. This was in response to various problems that had been experienced in a number of SETAs and the perceived inability of the Minister to intervene decisively under the legislation in force at the time. The skills development unit to which SETAs account has since been transferred to the Ministry of Higher Education and Training.

Skills Development Amendment Act 31 of 2003

•• Amending the Minister of Labour’s regulation-making powers to prescribe requirements for the performance of SETA functions; •• Providing for the amalgamation and dissolution of SETAs; •• Requiring that SETAs conclude annual service level agreements with the Director-General: Labour concerning the performance of their functions under the Act and the National Skills Development Strategy, their annual business plans and any assistance to be provided to the SETA by the Director-General to enable it to perform its functions;

Of the SDL paid over to SARS, 20% of the amount is transferred by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) to the National Skills Fund (NSF). This is used to fund largescale development projects that will address national skills needs, such as training those who are unemployed, the youth, people living in rural communities and people with disabilities. The funding may be accessed by a range of stakeholders, including SETAs.

•• Empowering the Minister of Labour to issue written instructions to SETAs when they fail to perform their functions or comply with service level agreements, do not manage their finances in accordance with the SDA or when their membership is not representative of their constituencies or they have not prepared and implemented an employment equity plan as contemplated under the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998;

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

•• Requiring SETAs to ensure that their membership is representative of designated groups (black people, women and people with disabilities); •• Requiring SETAs to be managed in accordance with the Public Finance Management Act (PFMA); •• Extending the grounds on which the Minister may take over the administration of a SETA to include the failure by a SETA to comply with its service level agreement or with an instruction issued to it by the Minister of Labour; and •• By adding an additional statutory function – promoting the national standard of good practice on skills development. Skills Development Amendment Act 37 of 2008

Outlines the revised SETA functions, which include the following: •• The development of a sector skills plan; •• The establishment of learning programmes; •• The approval of skills plans; •• The allocation of grants, promotion of learning programmes and registration agreements for learning programmes; •• Performing any other function delegated to it by the QCTO; and •• Liaison with provincial offices, labour centres, the National Skills Authority (NSA) and skills development forums.

The Skills Development Amendment Act 37 of 2008 provides anew for both the functions and composition of the National Skills Authority; provides anew for the functions of the SETAs; and provides clarity on the continuation of apprenticeship training; and among other things, provides for the establishment of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QTCO). Learning programmes include a learnership, apprenticeship, learning programme or any other prescribed programme, including a structured work experience component.

•• Administration, in turn, is handled by establishing a Skills Development Planning Unit. •• Established labour centres to: –– provide information to workers, unemployed and employers; –– assist workers and other categories of persons to find placements; –– assist workers and other categories of persons to start income-generating projects; and –– help workers enter, say, learning programmes.

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National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

Artisan development involves the following: •• The establishment of a National Artisan Moderation Body (NAMB) to monitor the performance of accredited artisan trade test centres; develop and maintain a national databank of trade tests; tests; develop and maintain a databank for national artisan trade assessors and moderators; record artisan achievements; determine appeals against tests; and recommend certification of artisans to the QCTO. The QCTO will issue the certificate. The National Qualifications Framework Act 67 of 2008

The NQF Act provides for the NQF; provides for the responsibilities of the Minister of Higher Education and Training; provides for the South African Qualifications Authority; and amongst others, provides for Quality Councils (for example, Umalusi, the Council for Higher Education and the QCTO). The revised NQF consists of the following important features: •• A 10-level NQF; •• Unit standards-based qualifications and whole qualifications being equally valid; •• The replacement of the 12 National Standard Bodies by Standards Advisory Panels for the purposes of standard setting (to streamline the NQF); •• The replacement of Standard Generating Bodies (SGBs) by Communities of Expert Practices (CEPs); •• A smaller SAQA Board; and •• Three quality councils: Umalusi, the Council for Higher Education (CHE) and Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO).

The NQF should be seen as a representation of an integrated learning framework in South Africa. It is intended to integrate institutional training and workplace practice. Figure 1.2 details how the NQF Act integrated the three sectors. •• The General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Framework (GFETQF: NQF levels 1 to 4) – falling under the Department of Basic Education but with the FET sector falling under the DHET (Quality Council: Umalusi); •• The Higher Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF: NQF levels 5 to 10) – falling under the DHET (Quality Council: CHE) •• The Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF: NQF levels 1–10) – falling under the DHET (Quality Council: QCTO). Figure 1.3 provides an overview of the role of quality councils in the South African education and training system.

These quality councils manage the three sub-frameworks that fall within a single NQF and are co-ordinated by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

The objectives of the NQF are to contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large. It aims to: •• create a single integrated national framework for learning achievements; •• facilitate access to, mobility and progression within education, training and career paths; •• enhance the quality of education and training; and •• accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities. Skills Development Amendment Act 26 of 2011, published 28 March 2012

The Act seeks to provide for: •• The prohibition of a SETA board member from conducting business with the SETA concerned; •• The disclosure of a conflict of interest on the part of a SETA board member; •• Issues not addressed when the Act’s statutory functions were transferred from the Minister of Labour to the Minister of Higher Education and Training, including: –– Mergers, dissolution and closure; –– Incorporating a subdivision of one SETA into another; –– Annual service level agreements and business plans; –– The appointment of board members and chairpersons; and –– SETA constitutions.

Revised SETA Grant Regulations of April 2013 (re-promulgated 13 January 2016).

•• 1% of payroll paid to SARS: (see Figure 1.4);

Re-confirmed in draft National Skills Development Plan (NSDP) 2030 (15 December 2017)

•• The mandatory grant to employers has been reduced from 50% to 20%;

•• 0.5% paid to QCTO; 10% to SETA administration and 20% to NSF;

This Act provides for an amendment of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, so as to effect the necessary amendments to the provisions relating to the establishment of SETAs; amalgamation and dissolution of SETAs; the incorporation of sub-sectors from one SETA to another; the composition of the SETA Accounting Authority; disqualification of a member to a SETA Accounting Authority; constitution of a SETA; conduct of a member of staff or Accounting Authority from engaging in business with the relevant SETA; disclosure of conflict of interests; the repeal of sections which were excluded in the transfer of the statutory functions to the Minister of Higher Education and Training dealing with employment services and Productivity South Africa; and to provide for matters connected therewith. Mandatory grants are used to fund education and training programmes (levy paying companies, submission of workplace skills plan, annual training report, PIVOTAL plan and report, nonPIVOTAL plan and report) The discretionary grant policy of the SETA must set out how discretionary funds will be used in order to meet sector needs.

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National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

Discretionary grant (49.5%): 80% allocated to PIVOTAL (occupationaldirected programmes) Grants (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the NQF) and that address scarce and critical skills in the sector.

The discretionary grants policy must also set out how PIVOTAL programmes can be delivered through public education and training institutions (in other words FET/TVET colleges and HET institutions). Grant applications must be made available within the sector to allow access by any legal body or enterprise, SMME’s and NGO’s to apply for any of the various grants available. The policy must ensure openness and fairness.

The remaining 20% of discretionary grant may be allocated to funding of other programmes related to priorities outlined in the SSP. Pivotal grants are accessed by the submission of a PIVOTAL Plan and Report. Unclaimed discretionary grants shall be transferred to the National Skills Fund. SETAs must have spent or committed to spending at least 95% of the grant funds. The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) I: April 2001– March 2005

Objectives included: •• To develop a culture of high quality lifelong learning; •• To foster skills development in the formal economy for productivity and employability; •• To stimulate and support skills development in small businesses; •• To promote skills development for employability and sustainable livelihood through social development initiatives; •• To assist new entrants into employment.

The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) II: April 2005 – March 2011

Objectives included: •• To prioritise and communicate critical skills for sustainable growth, development and equity; •• To promote and accelerate quality training for all in the workplace; •• To promote employability and sustainable livelihoods through skills development; •• To assist designated groups, including new entrants, to participate in accredited work-integrated learning and work-based learning programmes to acquire critical skills to enter the labour market and self-employment;

It is a sub-component of the HRDSSA and speaks directly to the trainingrelated aspects of the HRDSSA II (2010–2030). The NSDS guided the strategic planning of the DHET, the NSF, the SETAs and related agencies. The NSDS I emphasised equality and the need to cultivate lifelong learning in a workplace environment. Learning was supposed to be demand driven based on the needs of employees in both the public and private sectors. The effectiveness of delivery was essential to ensure the desired outcomes were achieved. The emphasis in NSDS II was placed again on equity, quality training and skills development in the workplace. The need for the promotion of employability was identified. This strategy also identified the need to assist designated groups to gain knowledge and experience in a workplace environment in order to acquire critical skills. The quality of the provision was identified as a problem area needing improvement.

•• To improve the quality and relevance of provision.

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) III: April 2011– March 2016 as extended to 31 March 2020

The NSDS III seeks to encourage and actively support the integration of workplace training with theoretical learning, and to facilitate the journey individuals make from school, college or university, or even from periods of unemployment, to sustained employment and in-work progression.

Emphasis is placed on training to enable trainees to enter the formal workforce or create a livelihood for themselves. The emphasis is particularly on those who do not have relevant technical skills or adequate reading, writing and numeracy skills to enable them to access employment.

The NSDS III seeks to promote a skills development system and architecture that effectively responds to the needs of the labour market and social equity. The strategy seeks to establish and promote closer links between employers and training institutions and between both of these and the SETAs. This strategy also seeks to accelerate the development of the much-needed skills that have constrained the South African economy.

Under NSDS III, employers play a key role in the talent pipeline. Employers are now required to become actively involved in the curriculum of professional, vocational, technical and academic (PIVOTAL) programmes: these are programmes that provide a full occupationally directed qualification. This will ensure that what learners are taught is relevant to the world of work.

Policy objectives:

The White Paper outlines policy directions to guide the DHET and the institutions for which it is responsible in building the post-school education and training system to meet South Africa’s skills and societal needs.

The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (‘White Paper’: 15 January 2014)

•• A post-school education and training (PSET) system that can assist in building a fair, equitable, non-racial, non-sexist and democratic South Africa;

Finally, there is a very strong focus on quality assurance of everyone in the pipeline in the NSDS III and monitoring is not viewed as an add-on, but as an integral part of what institutions, such as SETAs, do.

•• A single, co-ordinated post-school education and training (PSET) system; •• Expanded access, improved quality and increased diversity of provision •• A stronger and more co-operative relationship between education and training institutions and the workplace; •• A post-school education and training system that is responsive to the needs of individual citizens, employers in both public and private sectors, as well as broader societal and developmental objectives.

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National legislation

Purpose/objectives

Additional notes

The draft Proposal for the National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: 15 December 2017)

The NSDP is grounded in the overarching policy objectives of the White Paper.

The NSDP addresses problems and opportunities in the skills landscape that are summarised and addressed in the White Paper; i.e. the need to integrate organisations in the skills landscape with PSET institutions, including universities and colleges; the need to outline a clearer mandate and role for SETAs for the longer term; the need for better aligned funding, planning and monitoring mechanisms; and the reduction of multiple accountabilities.

The NSDP addresses the expiry of the NSDS III on March 2016 (as extended to 31 March 2020).

The skills development legislation provided for the establishment of a number of statutory structures and supporting bodies which are summarised in Table 1.2. Table 1.2  Statutory structures and supporting bodies created by the skills development legislation

Governing body

Roles and responsibilities

Department of Higher Education and Training(DHET)

The DHET represents government and sets policy and strategic direction for all matters pertaining to skills development in the post-school education and training system (PSET) and all three sub-frameworks of the NQF. The DHET has, inter alia, a planning, monitoring and evaluating role in the performance of the NSA, NSF, SAQA, SETAs and the QCTO.

Department of Basic Education(DBE)

The DBE represents government and sets policy and strategic direction for all matters pertaining to skills development in the General Education and Training Band (GET sector).

South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)

SAQA advises the Minister of Higher Education and Training on NQF matters in relation to the NQF Act, such as: •• Advancing the objectives of the NQF; •• Overseeing the further development of the NQF; and •• Co-ordinating the NQF sub-frameworks. Its board is required to perform its tasks after consultation and in co-operation with all bodies and institutions responsible for education, training and certification of standards affected by the NQF. It must also comply with the various rights and powers of bodies in relation to the Constitution and Acts of Parliament. The members of the board are nominated by identified national stakeholders in education and training. SAQA also coordinates quality assurance matters in terms of the three NQF sub-frameworks: Umalusi, CHE and QCTO (SAQA, 2009).

National Skills Authority (NSA)

The NSA advises the Minister of Higher Education and Training on policies and strategies for the new skills-building system. The NSA works closely with the DHET. The NSA comprises representatives from organised business, labour, government and other bodies that reflected community and provider interests, such as SAQA, skills development providers and experts on employment services. The community representatives include people who represent women, youth, the general public, rural groups and people with disabilities (RSA, 2008).

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Governing body

Roles and responsibilities The NSA has to ensure that systems are in place to support, monitor and evaluate the SETAs and QCTOs implementation of the NSDP (i.e. the allocation of funds and budget analysis, programme access and outcomes, and the work of the NSF). The NSA will also evaluate DHET performance reports on SETA and QCTO performance within the context of the NSDP, and make recommendations to the Minister (DHET, 2017).

National Skills Fund (NSF)

The National Skills Fund (NSF) was established under section 27 of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998. The Fund must be credited with the following (DHET, 2017): •• 20% of the skills development levies, interest and penalties collected in respect of every SETA, as required by sections 8(3)(a) and 9(a) of the Skills Development Levies Act; •• The skills development levies, interest and penalties collected by the SARS Commissioner from employers, which do not fall within the jurisdiction of a SETA, as required by section 8(3)(c) of the Skills Development Levies Act; •• Money appropriated by Parliament for the fund; •• Interest earned on investments contemplated in section 29(3); •• Donations to the fund; and •• Money received from any other source. The 20% allocated to the NSF must be allocated to research into the PSET system and to programmes (i.e. skills development offered through the community education and training system; youth programmes, building small businesses, and co-operative and rural development) that will address the needs of the poor (marginalised and disadvantaged groups) in an equitable manner. The NSF is responsible for the funding of skills development aligned to national development strategies and priorities (DHET, 2017).

Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)

There are currently 21 SETAs (see Table 1.3) who report to the Minister of Higher Education and Training. Each SETA serves a specific sector of the economy. A sector covers a group of linked and related economic activities. SETAs have stakeholderdriven governing bodies (accounting authorities nominated by business, labour and government, and appointed by the Minister of Higher Education and Training). SETAs are responsible for ensuring that the respective sector contributes to the realisation of the NSDS III, White Paper and New NSDP 2030 objectives regarding skills development. They need to understand demand and to signal supply regarding skills and qualifications (on all three NQF sub-frameworks) in occupations that support economic growth, encourage employment creation and enable social development through stakeholder engagement (employers, labour, government and professional bodies). Demand analysis and supply planning (i.e. analysis of existing workforce and projected skills needs against occupations) are key to the sector skills plans (SSPs) which are informed by the employers’ annual workplace skills plans and annual training reports, including PIVOTAL plans and reports. The SETA planning cycle will in future align with the DHET medium-term strategic framework (MTSF) 5-year planning cycle, and National Development Plan goals and priorities, and the medium-term expenditure framework MTEF 3-year budget cycle. The SETAs and the QCTO must submit annual performance plans (APPs) to the DHET, who will undertake a 3-year review of SETA and QCTO contributions toward national objectives.

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Governing body

Roles and responsibilities SETAs manage budgets and expenditure, and use the levy grant to support the PSET system to ensure funding concentrates on driving the provision of quality qualifications and/or workplace-based experience (as part of a qualification) to the existing workforce, the pre-employed (students) and the unemployed. SETAs administer skills grants against agreed upon sector priorities and timelines. They inform career-guidance processes regarding learning and occupational pathways. SETAS also undertake quality assurance relating to workplace issues and currently support the QCTO in quality assurance duties (DHET, 2017).

Quality Council of Trades and Occupations (QCTO)

The QCTO is responsible for quality assurance and standards-setting with regard to occupational qualifications in South Africa. It manages its sub-framework, the OQF, to ensure quality in the design and development of occupational qualifications, and the delivery, assessment and certification processes required to develop occupational competence. Key functions include: •• Establishing and maintaining the occupational standards and qualifications; •• The quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for the workplace; •• Designing and developing occupational standards and qualifications and submitting them to the SAQA for registration on the NQF; •• Ensuring the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for the workplace; •• Promoting the objectives of the NQF; •• Liaising with the National Skills Authority (NSA) on the suitability and adequacy of occupational qualifications standards and qualifications and on the quality of learning in and for the workplace; •• Liaising with SAQA, other quality councils and professional bodies responsible for establishing standards and quality assurance of standards and qualifications; and •• Performing any other function delegated to it by the Minister of Higher Education and Training. The QCTO planning cycle will, in future, align with the DHET medium-term strategic framework (MTSF) 5-year planning cycle, and National Development Plan goals and priorities, and the medium-term expenditure framework MTEF 3-year budget cycle. QCTOs must submit annual performance plans (APPs) to the DHET who will undertake a 3-year review of QCTO contributions to the national objectives (DHET, 2017).

Council on Higher Education (CHE)

The CHE functions as a quality assurance council for programmes and qualifications developed and provided on NQF levels 5 to 10 (universities).

General and Further Education and Training Quality Council (Umalusi)

Umalusi functions as a quality assurance council for programmes and qualifications developed and provided on NQF levels 1 to 4. Umalusi accredits the following institutions: •• Independent schools; •• Private Further/Technical and Vocational Education and Training colleges (FET/ TVET colleges); •• Private Adult Education and Training providers; •• Private assessment bodies that assess the qualifications that Umalusi certifies.

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Governing body

Roles and responsibilities

National Artisan Moderating Body (NAMB)

NAMB monitors the performance of accredited artisan trade test centres; develops and maintains a national databank of trade tests; moderates trade tests; develops and maintains a databank for national artisan trade assessors and moderators; records artisan achievements; determines appeals against tests; and recommends certification of artisans to the QCTO. It oversees the training and assessment of artisans in South Africa. To become an artisan, a school-leaver would have to complete a N-rated course; take part in a formal learning programme linked to a SETA; undergo practical and then in-service training; and pass a trade test (SEIFSA, 2010). NAMB working together with the QCTO will go a long way to ensuring that artisan training is of a high quality and standard, and that all artisan training is subjected to a single national regime of quality assurance.

Communities of expert practice (CEP)

CEPs are not a statutory body but fall under the jurisdiction of the QCTO. The QCTO involves CEPs in the design and development of occupational qualifications. A community of expert practice (CEP) is a group of practitioners currently active in the occupation. CEPs consist of education, labour and professional bodies that have an interest in the relevant field and draw on relevant experts and knowledgeable individuals. This approach ensures that occupational qualifications remain relevant and are responsive to changing needs in the labour market. Where there is a professional body, institute or occupational association to represent practitioners, these can be used to convene and manage the processes in line with QCTO regulations. Where no such bodies exist, or where there are competing bodies, the QCTO will set up and maintain a database of practitioners who are willing to contribute to the delivery of the outputs (CHE, 2007).

The skills development legislation and new NSDP 2030 provide for social partners and stakeholders that are represented on the various statutory bodies. All social partners and stakeholders are required to support the goals and principles of the NSDP and skills development legislation, as agreed under the National Skills Accord of 2011. The NSDP outlines eight commitments that cover key areas across the PSET system (DHET, 2017a): 1. Expand the level of training using existing facilities more fully; 2. Improve the role and performance of TVET colleges (previously called FET colleges); 3. Increase internships and placement opportunities available within workplaces; 4. Improve the level of training in occupations in high demand (list on DHET website); 5. Improve the funding of training and the use of funds available for training and incentives on companies to train; 6. Set annual targets for training in state-owned enterprises; 7. Improve SETA governance and financial management and stakeholder involvement; and 8. Align training to the National Development Plan and ensure that there is effective planning at the national and sectoral level.

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Table 1.3  The current SETA landscape

SETA

Scope of industry coverage

Agriculture Sector Education and Training

Primary and secondary agriculture

Authority (AGRISETA) Banking Sector Education and Training Authority (BANKSETA)

Banking and microfinance sector

Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Education and Training Authority (CATHSSETA)

Culture, arts, tourism, hospitality and sports sectors, which comprises the following sub-sectors: Arts and culture Hospitality Gaming and lotteries Conservation and tourists Sports/recreation/fitness Tourism and travel

Construction Sector Education and Training Authority (CETA)

Construction industry

Chemical Industries Education and Training Authority (CHIETA)

Chemical industries sector

Fibre Processing and Manufacturing Sector Education and Training Authority (FP&M SETA)

Clothing, textiles, footwear and leather sector

Energy and Water Sector Education and Training Authority (ESETA)

Energy and water sector

Education, Training and Development Practice Sector Education and Training Authority (ETDP-SETA)

Education, training and development sector

Financial and Accounting Services Sector Education and Training Authority (FASSET)

Financial and accounting services sector

Food and Beverages Sector Education and Training Authority (FOODBEV)

Food and beverages sector

Health and Welfare Sector Education and Training Authority (HWSETA)

Health and welfare sector

Media, Advertising, Information and Communication Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority (MICT‑SETA)

Media, advertising and ICT sectors

Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority (INSETA)

Insurance sector

Local Government Sector Education and Training Authority (LGSETA)

Local government sector

Manufacturing, Engineering and Related Services Sector Education and Training Authority (MerSETA)

Manufacturing, engineering and related services sector

Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA)

Mining and minerals sector

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

SETA

Scope of industry coverage

Public Services Sector Education and Training Authority (PSETA)

Public service sector

Safety and Security Sector Education and Training Authority (SASSETA)

Safety and security sector

Services Sector Education and Training Authority (SERVICE SETA)

Services sector

Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA)

Transport sector

Wholesale and Retail Sector Education and Training authority (W&R SETA)

Wholesale and retail sector

Apart from the National Qualifications Framework Act, the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (‘White Paper’: Government Gazette No. 37229, 15 January 2014) and the draft Proposal for the National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: Government Gazette Vol. 630, No. 41332, 15 December 2017) currently serve as important pieces of legislation relevant to human capital skills development in South African workplaces. The White Paper and NSDP 2030 fall within the ambit of the Skills Development Act, as summarised in Table 1.1. The following section discusses these government policies in more detail.

2.1 National Qualifications Framework Act The NQF is a framework, or set of principles and guidelines, that provides a vision and structure for the construction of a national qualifications system. It is a national effort to integrate education and training into a unified structure of recognised qualifications. Education and training are brought together into a single, co-ordinated system designed to encourage lifelong learning. Learners’ achievements are captured on the National Learner Record Database (NLRD). In this way, the acquired skills and knowledge of all learners are recognised. The NQF is an institutional framework for ensuring that there are qualifications available to meet the individual, social and economic needs of the nation. Only qualifications that have been registered by SAQA are recognised (Jewinson, 2008). The NQF provides a vision for a national qualifications system that integrates education and training into a unified structure of recognised qualifications. 2.1.1 NQF objectives

The NQF seeks to (SAQA, 2011a,b): •• Create an integrated national framework for learning achievements; •• Facilitate access to and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths; •• Enhance the quality of education and training; •• Accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities; and •• Contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large. 27

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The NQF applies to all qualifications, giving education and training the same status. It measures what people know and can do, not where and how they acquired their skills and knowledge. The current framework (shown in Table 1.4) is made up of 10 levels of learning and pathways for learning specialisations, with varying degrees of complexity in skills and knowledge. Different qualifications fit into the framework according to their focus and difficulty. The level of a qualification is based on the exit level; in other words, on what people will know and be able to do when they complete a qualification. This new way of recognising learners’ achievements applies to all qualifications, giving education and training the same status. It measures what people know and can do, rather than where and how they acquired their skills and knowledge (Coetzee et al., 2013). It is clear from Table 1.4 that provision has been made for progression (moving from one level to the next). Provision has also been made for horizontal articulation between qualifications. NQF Level 1 is the basic level of compulsory education (school and Adult Basic Education [ABET]) which everyone in the country should have. It fits into what is called the General Education and Training Band (GET sector). It includes workplace learning at elementary level. The responsibility for education and training at this level is shared by both the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the DHET. NQF levels 2–4 represent additional education that takes place below university or at tertiary education level. It is called the Further Education and Training Band (FET sector). This includes workplace learning at intermediate level. The responsibility for education and training at these levels is shared between the DBE and the DHET. NQF levels 5–10 fall within the Higher Education and Training Band (HET) sector. Education and training at these levels can be achieved through tertiary education (at universities, universities of technology and TVET colleges) or through workplace and private skills development providers. The responsibility for education and training at these levels lies with the DHET.

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5

6

7

8

9

10

NQF level

(Level 5)

Occupational certificate

(Level 6)

Higher Certificate

Occupational certificate

Diploma

(Level 7)

Advanced Cerificate

Occupational certificate

(Level 8)

Occupational certificate

Advanced Diploma

Public and Private Higher Education Institutions

Bachelor’s Degree

Postgraduate Diploma

Bachelor’s Degree

Bachelor Honours Degree

Master’s Degree (Professional)

Master’s Degree

Doctoral Degree (Professional)

Doctoral Degree

Qualifications and certificates

Qualifications and certificates

Public and private skills development providers

Institutions

Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO)

Institutions

Quality council:

Council on Higher Education (CHE)

NQF Band: OQSF (Occupational Qualifications SubFramework)

Quality council:

NQF Band: HEQSF (Higher Education and Training Qualifications Sub-Framework)

Table 1.4  The 10-level NQF structure (based on SAQA, 2018)

Qualifications and certificates

Umalusi

Quality council:

Institutions

NQF Band: GFETQSF (General and Further Education and Training Qualifications SubFramework)

Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

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1

2

3

4

NQF level

NQF Band: HEQSF (Higher Education and Training Qualifications Sub-Framework)

Grade 9/ABET 4 General Certificate

(Level 1)

Elementary Certificate

(Level 2) Occupational certificate

Grade 10

Intermediate Certificate

(Level 3) Occupational certificate

Grade 11/N2/NC(V)

National Certificate

Occupational certificate

Grade 12/N3/NC(V)

(Level 4)

Schools/TVET Colleges/ Community Colleges

NQF Band: GFETQSF (General and Further Education and Training Qualifications SubFramework)

Occupational certificate

NQF Band: OQSF (Occupational Qualifications SubFramework)

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2.1.2 Principles of the NQF

The principles and guidelines of the NQF are based on and grounded in (SAQA, 2001): •• The eradication of injustice; •• The achievement of reconstruction and development goals; and •• The transformation and promotion of quality in education and training. The following principles (see Table 1.5) underpin the objectives of the NQF and contribute to the benefits of the NQF: Table 1.5  Principles of the NQF (Fasset, 2009)

NQF principle

Description

Integration

Education and training should form part of a system of human resource development that provides for the establishment of an underlying approach to education and training.

Relevance

Education and training should be, and remain, responsive to national development needs.

Credibility

Education and training should have international and national value and acceptance.

Coherence

Education and training should work within a consistent framework of principles and certification.

Flexibility

Education and training should allow for multiple pathways to the same learning ends.

Standards

Education and training should be expressed in terms of a nationally agreed framework and internationally acceptable outcomes.

Legitimacy

Education and training should provide for the participation of all national stakeholders in the planning and co-ordination of standards and qualifications.

Access

Education and training should provide ease of entry to appropriate levels of education and training for all prospective learners in a manner that facilitates progression.

Articulation

Education and training should enable learners who successfully complete accredited prerequisites to move between components of the delivery system.

Progression

Education and training should ensure that the framework of qualifications permits individuals to move through the levels of national qualifications via different appropriate combinations of the components of the delivery system.

Portability

Education and training should enable learners to transfer credits of qualifications from one learning institution and/or employer to another.

Recognition of prior learning

Education and training should, through assessment, give credit to learning that has already been acquired in different ways.

Guidance of learners

Education and training should provide for counselling of learners by specially trained individuals who meet nationally recognised standards for educators and trainers.

2.1.3 Sub-frameworks of the NQF

The NQF has three qualifications sub-frameworks that are managed by three QCs, as depicted in Figure 1.1 and Table 1.4. The roles of the three quality councils are depicted in Figure 1.21. These frameworks describe the different levels of training and education in South Africa, and they are as follows: 31

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•• The General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Subframework (GFETQSF) comprising levels 1–4. This framework accommodates the Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) levels, the schooling system up to Grade 12 and Further Education and Training (FET) from levels 2–4. •• The Higher Education Qualifications Subframework (HEQSF) from levels 5–10. This framework accommodates qualifications from universities and universities of technology.

NQF

Level 9

Advanced Certificate Diploma

Level 6

Higher certificate

Level 5

General Education and Training Certificate (Grade 9)

Adult National Senior Certificate

Grade 11/N2/NC(V) Intermediate Certificate

National Certificate (Vocational) 2

Level 4

OQF OQSF

Level 3

FLC

Units of learning to be accumulated

National Certificate (Vocational) 4

Incl. subject/ unit certificates

GFETQSF

Adult National Senior Certificate

UMALUSI

National Senior Certificate (Grade 12)

NOPF

Level 7

QCTO

Bachelor’s degree Advanced diploma

Occupational assessment specifications

Level 8

National Skills Certificates

CHE

HEQSF

Occupational certificates

Master’s degree (Professional) Bachelor Honours Degree Bachelor’s Degree Postgraduate Diploma

Occupational curriculum

Level 10

Doctoral degree (Professional)

Level 2

Level 1

Figure 1.1  How the NQF is linked to the GFETQSF, HEQSF and OQSF (DHET, 2010b)

•• The Occupational Qualifications Subframework (OQSF) from levels 1–10 (currently only up to NQF level 8). This is a new sub-framework in the NQF that provides a structure for designing, delivering and assessing learning that is highly responsive to the needs of the workplace and the social development sector, in contrast to the other two qualification frameworks that are focused on learning for foundational knowledge and skills, and academic or discipline-based knowledge and research (NSDH, 2009). The OQSF will eventually cover all NQF levels with regard to all occupational qualifications and related skills sets. 32

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National Qualifications Framework Act

Department of Higher Education and Training

South African Qualifications Framework (SAQA) National Qualifications Framework (NQF)

General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Subframework (GFETQSF)

Occupational Qualifications Subframework (OQSF)

Higher Education Qualifications Subframework (HEQSF)

Umalusi

Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (OCTO)

Council for Higher Education (CHE)

General and Further Education Amendment Act

Skills Development Amendment Act

Higher Education Laws Amendment Act

Figure 1.2  The NQF Act and its three qualifications sub-frameworks (BANKSETA, 2011)

2.1.4 NQF level descriptors

The purpose of level descriptors for levels 1–10 of the NQF is to ensure coherence in learning achievement in the allocation of qualifications and part-qualifications to particular levels, and to facilitate the assessment of the national and international comparability of qualifications and part-qualifications. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is responsible for the development of the content of the level descriptors for each level of the NQF in agreement with the three Quality Councils, namely, Umalusi, the Council on Higher Education, and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (SAQA, 2010). The NQF level descriptors appear in Appendix A. SAQA is responsible for the development of the content of the level descriptors for each level of the NQF in agreement with the three Quality Councils. The three Quality Councils are Umalusi, the Council on Higher Education, and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations.

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Minister of Higher Education and Training

Recommend qualifications and part qualifications to SAQA for registration (NQF)

Make recommendations

Collaboration between QCs and SAQA

SAQA

CHE

Develop and manage subframeworks:

Develop and implement policy and criteria for:

NQF

HEQSF

QCTO

OQSF

Umalusi

GFETQSF

Development, registration and publication of qualifications and part qualifications

Assessment, recognition of prior learning and credit accumulation and transfer

Quality assurance of sub-framework

Submit learner achievements to SAQA for record keeping (NLRD)

Development of sectordriven qualifications and part qualifications

Develop measures for the assessment of learning achievement

Maintain learner achievements database

Conduct quality assurance of subframework

Organise and publish/ inform on research on sub-framework matters

Figure 1.3  The role of quality councils in the South African education and training systems (BANKSETA, 2011)

2.1.5 Contextual application of the level descriptors

The following principles underpin the application of the level descriptors across the three sub-frameworks of the NQF (SAQA, 2011a, b): •• There is one common set of level descriptors for the NQF to be used in different contexts. •• The level descriptors incorporate 10 competencies. •• The level descriptors are designed to meet the needs of academic, as well as occupational qualifications. •• There must be a correlation between qualification levels and occupational levels in the world of work. 34

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•• The critical cross-field outcomes of SAQA are embedded in the level descriptors. •• Level descriptors are cumulative, that is, there is progression in the competencies from one level to the next. •• Level descriptors are applicable to the recognition of prior learning (RPL) see Chapter 7. •• Level descriptors are descriptive and not prescriptive. •• The nomenclature for qualifications is dealt with in the sub-frameworks of the NQF. Level descriptors embrace learning in a wide variety of contexts (vocational, occupational, academic and professional) and environments (classroom, laboratory, field, clinic, community, etc.). Contextual interpretation of the level descriptors within each of the three sub-frameworks across academic, professional and occupational contexts is encouraged. Level descriptors provide a scaffold from which more specific descriptors can be developed by a variety of different sectors and practitioners, for example, discipline- or professionbased. It is also recognised that in the processes of curriculum design and development, the interpretation of these generic level descriptors will be influenced by, for example, fielddiscipline and context-specific nuances (SAQA, 2011a,b). Level descriptors (see Appendix A) are designed to act as a guide and a starting point for, inter alia: •• Writing learning outcomes and associated assessment criteria for qualifications and part-qualifications; •• Pegging a qualification at an appropriate level on the NQF, used together with purpose statements, outcomes and assessment criteria; •• Assisting learners to gain admission through RPL at an appropriate level on the NQF; •• Making comparisons across qualifications in a variety of fields and disciplines pegged at the same level of the NQF; and •• Programme quality management used together with purpose statements, outcomes and assessment criteria. Level descriptors are not learning outcomes or assessment criteria, but give general descriptions of the nature and characteristics of learning at a particular level in the NQF. Level descriptors are not learning outcomes or assessment criteria, but rather provide a broad frame from which the specific and contextualised outcomes and assessment criteria for a particular programme can be derived. The competencies listed at a particular level in the framework broadly describe the learning achieved at that level, but an individual learning programme may not necessarily meet each and every criterion listed. Level descriptors give general descriptions of the nature and characteristics of learning at a particular level in the NQF. They do this by identifying a progressive hierarchy of achievement – that is, they aim at describing growth from the simple to the more complex, in relation to learning, and applying knowledge and skills. They are aimed at developing a common understanding of what a particular level of achievement means across different fields, but at the same level.

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Consequently, a qualification or part-qualification registered at a specific level of the NQF shall comply with the following categories of level descriptors. The tables in Appendix A show the applied competencies required at each level in order for learners to be declared competent (SAQA, 2011a, b).

2.2 The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training in South Africa The White Paper of Post-school Education and Training in South Africa was launched by the DHET on 15 January 2014 (Government Gazette No. 37229). The White Paper outlines policy directions to guide the DHET – and the institutions for which it is responsible – in how to build a developmental state with a vibrant democracy and a flourishing economy. The main policy objectives of the White Paper are: •• A post-school system that can assist in building a fair, equitable, non-racial, non-sexist and democratic South Africa; •• A single, co-ordinated post-school education and training system (PSET); •• Expanded access, improved quality and increased diversity of provision; •• A stronger and more cooperative relationship between education and training institutions and the workplace; •• A post-school education and training system that is responsive to the needs of individual citizens, employers in both the public and private sectors, as well as broader societal and developmental objectives. The White Paper (WP) is an intensive 76-page document that contains a description of specific challenges and current problems in addressing the challenges, together with decisions/actions to correct the divide between PSET institutions and the world of work. The White Paper focuses on using the post-school education and training system to achieve the government’s objectives; for example, addressing, inter alia, the apartheid legacy and inequalities. The skills needs of employers are not the focus of this paper. The White Paper also brings in more centralised controls in an attempt to ‘fix’ problems and direct the skills development system in the direction desired by the DHET. The White Paper views the skills level of both existing employees and those entering the labour market as an important pillar of government’s strategy to attract investment, industrial expansion and job creation. The government’s view is that to achieve inclusive growth there has to be much better coordination across government departments, with the state playing a more effective role in stimulating and sustaining the economy. The White Paper views the skills level of both existing employees and those entering the labour market as an important pillar of government’s strategy to attract investment, industrial expansion and job creation. Table 1.6 provides a summary of the key policy areas.

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Table 1.6  Summary of key policy areas outlined in the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (WP PSET) (Coetzee, 2017; Hattingh, 2017)

Policy area

Brief description of policy goal decisions

FET vs TVET colleges

•• FET colleges and private higher education institutions are renamed: Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges.

SAIVET Private training providers (PTP)

•• SA Institute for Vocational and Continuing Education and Training will be established to support the FET colleges; e.g. with research, upgrading skills of staff, developing curricula, promoting dialogue between parties, monitoring and evaluation of TVET institutions. •• TVET colleges will be supported to develop capacity to train adult educators. •• The DHET sees the public institutions as the core of the PSET system, and will direct public resources to them. The government’s main thrust will be to direct public resources primarily to meeting national priorities and to provide for the masses of young people and adult learners through public institutions.

Community colleges

Current public adult learning institutions will be converted into community colleges to train adults and young people in literacy and other basic skills. They will also partner with Expanded Public Works Programmes and public entities responsible for promoting SMMEs and cooperatives.

Unaccredited training and provider-specific programmes

The WP is very critical of unscrupulous private providers who have utilised gaps and weaknesses in the quality assurance system to their advantage by offering what are called provider programmes. Students enrolling for these programmes are misled into believing that they are proper higher education programmes accredited on the NQF, when in fact they are not even quality assured. Similarly, some private providers, including large and apparently reputable ones, openly advertise unaccredited courses in the knowledge that the authorities do not have the capacity to deal with their transgressions.

Programmes not aligned to qualifications

The WP confirms that there is much learning that does not lead to a national qualification. Such education and training need not be rigorously quality assured, as long as it meets the needs of learners, the relevant government department, private employer or community. Non-formal educational provision targeted at specific community needs, as well as on-going professional development, need not always lead to qualifications or be provided through accredited providers.

Universities

Three core functions are emphasised: (1) to provide people with highlevel skills for the labour market; (2) producers of new knowledge; and (3) opportunities for social mobility and to strengthen social justice and democracy. The three core functions are recognised as: teaching, research and community engagement. Community engagement involves socially responsive research, partnerships with civil society organisations, formal learning programmes that engage students in community work as a formal part of their academic programmes, and many other formal and informal aspects of academic work.

Articulation

Articulation must improve between all post-school institutions. In developing and supporting an articulated post-school education and training system, institutions should make every effort to avoid unfair and irrational barriers to acceptance and credit transfer.

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Policy area

Brief description of policy goal decisions

International links

The DHET supports the international exchange of research, scholarship, academics and students, as well as academic partnerships between South African and other universities. The DHET will develop a framework of principles and guidelines for institutions concerned with offering and receiving cross-border distance education and ensure that providers of cross-border education and training meet acceptable criteria and are subjected to suitable quality assurance supervision.

Work-integrated learning (WIL)

The WP strongly supports WIL because many graduates lack practical workplace experience. Workplace learning must be seen as an integral part of qualification and programme design. The WP sees a key role for employers in the integration of education and training. This will include a very significant expansion of work-integrated learning and workplace-based learning, including apprenticeships, learnerships and internships.

Workplace training

The WP encourages universities to build strong partnerships with employers to promote the expansion of workplace training opportunities, especially in those areas where qualifications or professional registration depends on practical workplace experience.

Open/distance learning

WP promotes open learning through diverse modes of provision to complement classroom-based delivery. Learning support centres and free national Open Education Resources (OER) are to be established to improve access to learning opportunities. To increase enrolments, the DHET has decided that predominantly contact universities may choose to offer distance programmes on condition that effective quality-control measures are in place. The DHET will also encourage all universities to expand online and blended learning as a way to offer niche programmes, especially at postgraduate level, to those who are unable to attend full-time programmes, either due to their employment status or their geographical distance from a campus. The WP also proposes that more education and training below university level (e.g. TVET colleges) should be offered through distance learning.

CPD (continuous professional development programmes)

The DHET expects providers to focus on programmes that will give successful graduates enhanced employment opportunities after completion (especially continuing professional development programmes).

Skills Planning Unit (SPU)

A national Skills Planning Unit will be established to coordinate information about skills needs and research and produce credible national skills plans. One of the functions of these plans will be to inform norms that determine which programmes are funded. The SPU will engage with industry and other stakeholders to ensure that comprehensive information is available on skills gaps and the kind of training taking place in the workplaces.

SETAs and levy grants

The SETAs will remain as they are. However, their future role will be reviewed (see the draft National Skills Development Plan 2030). The WP also comments on issues such as SETA funding, roles and the levy grant system. The discretionary grant will be for programmes intended to support existing businesses, for current and potential new entrants to the labour market. Providers could be public, private or in-house, on condition they have the capacity to provide all or substantial parts of qualifications.

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Policy area

Brief description of policy goal decisions The focus of the mandatory grant will be exclusively on gathering accurate data on sector skills needs. Companies will be required to provide information on current levels of skills, experience and qualifications of staff, all training that is taking place in that workplace and skills priorities and gaps for the short as well as medium term.

Workplace skills plans

Workplace skills plans and annual training reports must provide reliable data about the sector or even the workplace. The data should be adequate to inform strategic decisions at either sectoral or national level.

NQF sub-frameworks

The three Quality Councils (CHE, Umalusi and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations – QCTO) remain largely unchanged – but with greater flexibility on the qualifications they quality assure. Educational institutions should not necessarily be limited to offering qualifications in a particular sub-framework. So, e.g., TVET colleges may be in a position to offer programmes on the Higher Education Qualifications Framework, say at Level 5 or even Level 6.

National Institute for Humanities & Social Sciences (HIHSS)

The HIHSS was established to do research in areas related to humanities and social sciences, e.g. in African languages.

National Skills Fund (NSF)

The 20% of the skills levy that is allocated to the National Skills Fund will be used to fund skills development aligned to national development strategies and priorities, e.g. youth programmes, building small businesses and cooperatives, rural development and fund research.

Apprenticeships

The DHET is committed to re-establishing a good artisan training system as an urgent priority. The DHET will consider if the theoretical component of apprenticeships can be delivered through distance learning.

Internships/learnerships/ apprenticeships

The possibility exists for the TVET colleges and the SETAs to work together to restructure occupational programmes (such as N-courses, which include a period of work experience after completion of the college programme) as learnerships or apprenticeships, or for the work placement to become a more structured internship.

National Infrastructure Plan to promote apprenticeships, learnerships

The government’s National Infrastructure Plan provides a major opportunity to expand the country’s skills profile. In all of its 18 Strategic Integrated Projects, there will be a requirement that service providers have a skills plan showing how apprenticeships, learnerships and other occupational programmes will be rolled out during the project. Where skills are sourced from abroad, contracted employers must demonstrate how skills transfer will be achieved and how the project will enable South African capacity to be built. The intention is to use the projects to expand the country’s skills base. Occupational teams (OTs) must be established. These teams will bring together representatives of employers, education and training providers, professional bodies and others, such as trade testers and licence issuers. OTs address problems of curriculum relevance and alignment between institutional (theoretical) and workplace (practical) learning, as well as work placement problems at a systemic, national level.

National Skills Authority (NSA)

A restructured and refocused National Skills Authority will have its functions concentrated specifically on the monitoring and evaluation of the SETAs. This implies that it will become an expert body with high-level monitoring and evaluation skills.

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Policy area

Brief description of policy goal decisions

QCTO

A concerted effort will be made in the coming years to build the capacity of the QCTO and reduce the quality assurance work carried out by SETAs on behalf of the QCTO.

Quality assurance

Staff who work in quality assurance need extensive experience in and knowledge of the specialised areas which they quality assure.

External assessment

Strengthening external assessment systems (outside the university system) for national qualifications is a priority.

Recognition of prior learning (RPL)

There must be a significant improvement in the availability of RPL services across sectors and regions. This strategy must include the establishment of a coordination mechanism for RPL.

2.3 The National Skills Development Plan 2030 The National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: DHET Government Gazette No. 41332, 15 December 2017) builds on the goals of the National Skills Development Strategy III (NSDS III) and supports the policy goals of the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (PSET) in the context of the Skills Development Act (SDA). NSDS III (see Table 1.7 and Table 1.8) will expire on 31 March 2020 and will be replaced by the NSDP 2030. The NSDP retains the original purpose of the Skills Development Act, namely to provide an institutional framework to devise and implement national, sector and workplace strategies to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce. As such, the NSDP outlines the future roles of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs), the National Skills Fund (NSF), the National Skills Authority (NSA) and the Quality Council for Trade and Occupations (QCTO). The NSDP also suggests improvements necessary to develop more effective skills planning mechanisms and the roles of social partners in supporting formal skills development as part of PSET. 2.3.1 Purpose and strategic intentions of the National Skills Development Plan

The NSDP serves as a strategic document which outlines the purpose of the NSDP as aiming to achieve the following in support of an integrated PSET system (DHET, 2017a): •• To address the expiry of the NSDS III on March 2016 (as extended to 31 March 2020) to allow for the finalisation and phasing in of the NSDP. •• To build on the important policy shifts that were introduced in NSDS III (see Table 1.7 and Table 1.8) and highlighted in the White Paper (see Table 1.6), including the need to: –– provide greater levels of access to education and training in rural areas; –– increase collaboration between the skills system, government and industry; –– drive skills development primarily through the public education system and, in particular, through universities and TVET colleges; and –– focus less on numerical targets and more on outcomes and impact. •• To address challenges that emerged from NSDS III, including work placement difficulties for graduates and limited practical workplace experience, highlighting that 40

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workplace learning must be an integral part of qualification and programme design, and that tertiary institutions must be strengthened and changed where appropriate. •• To provide a plan for the DHET to: –– ensure that the levy-paying institutions contribute to the vision of the White Paper and, in so doing, support the work of the DHET with funds from the National Treasury; –– indicate the roles played by the DHET and the key institutions implementing the NSDP; –– guide the disbursement of the levy grant system; and –– indicate how the DHET will work with social partners to realise the intention of the plan. The four strategic intentions of the NSDP include: 1. Understanding demand through labour market information analysis. Data of SETAs gathered from the workplace will be used as a source to understand and verify, in collaboration with SETAs, employers and labour, the demand for occupational qualifications nationally and within sectors. 2. Steering supply (qualifications and provision). The DHET will engage with quality councils to ensure that qualifications and related curricula are in place to meet the occupations in high demand (available from the DHET website: http://www./dhet.gov.za). The DHET will avail resources to support the improvement of the throughput and quality of these programmes (for example, incentives for materials and lecturer development, and incentives for students). Partnerships with SETAs, institutions and workplaces will be encouraged. 3. Steering supply (funding mechanisms). Creation of a framework for collaboration between the Skills Planning Branch and Community Education and Training, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and Higher Education branches for planning purposes to consider how SETAs can (i) finance institutions to fund enrolments and throughput in occupations, (ii) support workplace and institution partnerships for integrated programmes, and (iii) design and implement workplacebased learning incentives. Funding mechanisms and sources must support occupational priorities and medium- and long-term planning. 4. Developing the capacity for growing supply. The DHET will be responsible for provision and the SETAs will coordinate efforts to meet supply demand. Funding will come from the fiscus and be complemented by funding to institutions in support of occupational priorities (aligned to five-year planning cycle and three-year funding cycle to enable incentives to support institutions in building capacity to address occupations in high demand, including additional bursaries in these areas). The DHET, through institutions responsible for materials development in each sector, will take responsibility for ensuring that the materials required to deliver learning programmes against the occupational qualifications are in place.

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Table 1.7  The strategic intentions of the NSDS III (DHET, 2011b) •• The NSDS III promotes the growth of Further Education and Training (FET) colleges (now called Technical and Vocational Education and Training – TVET – colleges) to address national skills needs. Better use of workplace learning programmes is encouraged, as is the use of worker-initiated training initiatives. Improved public sector service delivery is seen as an imperative. The issue of language and literacy is of concern in terms of enabling additional learning. •• The NSDS III demonstrates high-level, directional thinking, linked to very good mapping, to initiatives such as the New Growth Path, the Industrial Policy Action Plan, the outcomes of the Medium-Term Strategic Framework, the Human Resource Development Strategy, sector developmental plans, government’s goals for rural development and the new environment strategy. •• The integration of education and training and accountability for delivery are the two cornerstones of the NSDS III. This strategy seeks to support the integration of workplace training with theoretical training. It also seeks to facilitate the journey from school, college or university, and even for periods of unemployment, to sustained employment and in-work progress. There is a strong emphasis on linking skills development to career paths and to career development. •• For the first time ever, there is a strong focus on middle- and higher-level skills (Goal 2 of the NSDS III – see Table 1.8). There is also the recognition that South Africa is primarily a knowledge economy, as well as an acknowledgement that there has been an overemphasis on National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 3 learnerships in the past, with insufficient progression to more appropriate, higher-level skills (Fasset, 2011). •• The strategy places a heavy emphasis on relevance, quality and sustainability of skills training programmes, to ensure that they are able to impact very positively on poverty reduction and inequality. •• For the first time, under NSDS III, employers will now play a key role in the talent pipeline. Employers are now required to become actively involved in the curriculum. This will ensure that what learners are taught is relevant to the world of work. •• There is a very strong focus on quality assurance of everyone in the pipeline in the NSDS III and monitoring is not viewed as an add-on, but as an integral part of what institutions, such as SETAs, do (DHET, 2011b; Fasset, 2011) Table 1.8  NSDS III goals, outcomes and outputs (DHET, 2011b)

NSDS III (April 2011–March 2016) Goals

Outcomes

Outputs

Goal 1: Establishing a credible institutional mechanism for skills planning

Outcome 1: National need in relation to skills development is researched, documented and communicated to promote effective planning across all economic sectors.

Output 1: Capacity is established in the DHET to co-ordinate research and skills planning.

Goal 2: Increasing access to occupationally directed programmes, both intermediate level and higher level professional qualifications

Outcome 1: Middle-level skills needs are identified and addressed in all sectors.

Output 1: SETAs research and identify middle-level skills needs in their sectors and put in place strategies to address these, particularly through the use of the public FET colleges and universities of technology working in partnership with employers providing workplace-based training.

Output 2: Sector skills plans, which are professionally researched, provide a sound analysis of the sector and articulate an agreed sector strategy to address skills needs. Output 3: Sector and national research is commissioned, and data are analysed, validated and captured in an integrated database that is accessible to all relevant stakeholders.

Output 2: Projects are established to address middle-level skills in each sector.

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

NSDS III (April 2011–March 2016) Goals

Outcomes

Outputs

Outcome 2: 10 000 artisans per year qualify with relevant skills and find employment.

Output 1: SETAs establish projects and partnerships to enable the relevant number of artisans for their sector to be trained in order to qualify and become work ready.

Outcome 3: High-level national scarce skills needs are addressed by work-ready graduates from higher education institutions.

Output 1: Sector skills plans identify the supply challenges in relation to high-level scarce skills gaps and set out strategies for addressing these.

Outcome 4: Relevant research and development and innovation capacity is developed and innovative research projects established.

Output 1: Sector skills plans identify the focal areas for research, innovation and development.

Output 2: The national Artisan Development Project developed by JIPSA, and now located in the DHET and M&E framework, is planned, managed and reported on, with interventions where blockages occur.

Output 2: Agreements are entered into between SETAs, university faculties and other stakeholders on appropriate interventions to support improved entry to priority programmes, increased work experience and experiential learning for students and access to postgraduate work.

Output 2: Agreements are entered into between SETAs, university faculties and other stakeholders on flagship research projects linked to sector development in a knowledge economy. Output 3: Programmes are put in place that focus on the skills needed to produce research that will be relevant and have an impact on the achievement of economic and skills development goals.

Goal 3: Promoting the growth of a public FET/TVET college system that is responsive to sector, local, regional and national skills needs and priorities

Outcome 1: The National Certificate (vocational) and N-courses are recognised by employers as important base qualifications through which young people can obtain additional vocational skills and work experience, entering the labour market with marketable skills and obtaining employment.

Output 1: The NCV is reviewed with inputs from stakeholders and the curriculum is revised to ensure that it provides a sound foundation of relevant skills for building the labour market.

Outcome 2: Partnerships between the DHET, SETAs, employers, private providers and public FET/TVET colleges are resulting in increased capacity to meet industry needs throughout the country.

Output 1: The capacity of FET/TVET colleges to provide quality vocational training is reviewed. Each college has a strategic plan in place to build capacity and engage in learning programmes, including programmes offered in partnership with employers.

Output 2: The programmes offered to meet industry needs, including those supporting apprenticeships and N-courses, are reviewed, updated and made available to and accessed by employers. Output 3: A highly articulated system of qualifications between the FET/TVET and universities programmes is in place.

Output 2: SETAs identify FET/TVET colleges with relevant programmes and put in place partnerships to offer vocational courses and work experience for college learners.

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NSDS III (April 2011–March 2016) Goals

Outcomes

Outputs

Outcome 3: The academic staff at colleges are able to offer relevant education and training of the required quality.

Output 1: The capacity of college educators to deliver programmes is reviewed. Skills development programmes, including work placement opportunities, are developed to meet the needs of the college educators.

Goal 4: Addressing the low level of youth and adult language and numeracy skills to enable additional training

Outcome 1: A national strategy is in place to provide all young people leaving school with an opportunity to engage in training or work experience and improve their employability.

Output 1: A DHET-led process, including stakeholders, develops a strategy supported by all stakeholders.

Goal 5: Encouraging better use of workplacebased skills development

Outcome 1: Training of employed workers addresses critical skills, promoting improved productivity, economic growth and the ability of the workforce to adapt to change in the labour market.

Output 1: SETA stakeholders agree on the provision of substantial quality programmes for employed workers and report on the impact of the training.

Goal 6: Encouraging and supporting co-operatives, small enterprises, worker-initiated, NGO and community training initiatives

Outcome 1: Co-operatives supported with skills training and development, expand and contribute to sector economic and employment growth.

Output 1: SETAs identify in their skills planning research, established and emergent co-operatives and their skills needs.

Outcome 2: Partnership projects to provide training and development support to small businesses are established in all sectors and their impact reported on.

Output 1: SETAs, through their skills planning research, identify the skills needs of small and emerging businesses in their sector and promote relevant programmes.

Outcome 3: Worker, NGO and community-based education programmes are supported and their impact measured and reported on.

Output 1: SETAs engage with trade unions, NGOs and community-based organisations in their sector and identify skills needs and strategies in order to address needs.

Output 2: A national database tracks training and work opportunities and reports on the implementation of the strategy. Output 3: The DHET partners with stakeholders in the youth sector to put in place training and work experience projects for young people.

Output 2: Sector projects are put in place to address specific sector skills gaps. Output 3: Cross-sectoral projects are established to address skills needs along local supply chains aimed at supporting local economic development.

Output 2: Sector projects are established by sector stakeholders, supported by the NSF. Output 3: A national database of co-operatives, supported by skills development, is established and the impact of training reported on.

Output 2: Sector projects that are piloted by SETAs and expanded through partnership funding, are developed. Output 3: A national database of small businesses, supported by skills development, is established and the impact of training reported on.

Output 2: SETAs establish quality pilot projects. Output 3: Stakeholders expand successful projects with support from the NSF.

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

NSDS III (April 2011–March 2016) Goals

Outcomes

Outputs

Goal 7: Increasing public sector capacity for improved service delivery and supporting the building of a developmental state

Outcome 1: There is a thorough analysis of and reflection on the provision of education and training in the public sector and the contribution of the various role-players.

Output 1: SETAs with responsibility for public sector training conduct an analysis and reflect on achievements and challenges.

Outcome 2: Education and training plans for the public sector are revised and programmes are implemented to build capacity.

Output 1: Sector skills plans set out the capacity needs of relevant departments and entities.

Outcome 1: Career paths are mapped to qualifications in all sectors and sub-sectors, and communicated effectively, contributing to the improved relevance of training and greater mobility and progression.

Output 1: Career guides are developed with labour market information from SETAs, addressing sub-sectors in their sector.

Goal 8: Building career and vocational guidance

Output 2: DHET leads a discussion on the factors impacting on provision and publishes proposals on improving the institutional framework for public sector education and training.

Output 2: Plans and funding arrangements are agreed upon between the relevant departments/entities and the SETAs, and are reported on.

Output 2: Sector stakeholders are engaged and programmes adjusted to meet the skills and qualification needs in order to promote comprehensive career development.

2.3.2 Principles of the NSDP

The NSDP (DHET, 2017a) is guided by five overarching principles that inform the policy statements of the plan: 1. Advancing an equitable and integrated PSET system. The NSDP emphasises the commitment to transformation and redress by addressing equity in relation to gender, race and disability, and that skills development reaches those in employment, those who are unemployed and those who are pre-employed (students). The levy grant institutions must facilitate access to qualifications and part qualifications as registered on any of the three NQF sub-frameworks. Funding from the fiscus will provide the base-funding for PSET institutions, complemented by levy grant funding to enable stability of the system. The NSDP emphasises the commitment to transformation and redress by addressing equity in relation to gender, race and disability. 2. Greater inclusivity and collaboration across the system. Collaboration through partnerships within the public sector, as well as between the public and private sectors, to support effective skills development is emphasised. There is a strong focus on: •• quality and articulation to ensure effective pathways; •• workplace-based learning in both public and private sectors; 45

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

•• forging partnerships across the skills development system within public and private providers; •• effective and meaningful stakeholder engagement to support ownership and participation among stakeholders, including social partners, individuals, employers, labour, providers, prospective learners and the public. Funding from the fiscus will provide the base-funding for PSET institutions, complemented by levy grant funding to enable stability of the system. 3. Focusing on support systems for learners. Prospective learners and the public are aware of when and how to apply for programmes and have access to a simplified and centralised process. The efficiency and effectiveness of decision-making, planning, fund allocation, implementation and quality assurance must be improved. Where relevant, the use of technology will be applied to standardise processes across all SETAs to improve efficiencies and increase stakeholder involvement through online portals and accurate data analyses for improved decision-making. 4. Strong emphasis on accountability. Commitment and mechanisms to improving the monitoring and evaluation capacity in the PSET system (i.e. the DHET interface with the NSA to understand effectiveness, efficiency, challenges and impact of the work on the NSF, the SETAs and the QCTO). Review of the system will be done to address non-performance and reallocate underutilised funding. 5. Rationalising the system. Ensure greater coherence across the skills landscape (SETAs, NSF, NSA and QCTO). Rationalisation and streamlining of processes and structures will take place to consolidate the skills landscape to reduce overlaps, enable efficient use of scarce resources and ensure effective collaboration. 2.3.3 Levy grant funding within the NSDP

The Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (SDLA) and Revised SETA Grant Regulations (April 2013 as re-promulgated in January 2016 and reconfirmed in the NSDP, December 2017) established the system of levy financing to fund skills development, and allowed for additional regulations under the SDLA which, in turn, provide for the allocation of grants by SETAs. The principal aim of the Act is to finance learning programmes aimed at developing scarce and critical skills by way of a compulsory levy system. Based on this Act, every company that exceeds the threshold set for the annual payroll (currently this threshold is a total payroll of R500  000 per annum), as calculated for pay-as-you-earn (PAYE), has to pay 1% of its total payroll as a Skills Development Levy (SDL). The Skills Development Levies Act aims to finance learning programmes aimed at developing scarce and critical skills by way of compulsory levies on companies. The levy payment is regarded as fair because it is based on payroll. This is such a small cost that employers will not employ fewer workers to reduce costs. Although public 46

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

service departments do not pay a levy, they are required to budget 1% of payroll for training purposes. They should report on the usage of that 1% when they submit their workplace skills plans, annual training reports, PIVOTAL plans and reports to their SETA. Chapter 3 discusses these plans and reports in more detail. The levy payment is regarded as fair because it is based on payroll. This is such a small cost that employers will not employ fewer workers to reduce costs. As shown in Figure 1.4, of the SDL paid over to SARS, 20% of the amount is transferred by the DHET to the National Skills Fund (NSF). This is used to fund large-scale development projects that will address national skills needs, such as training those who are unemployed, the youth, people living in rural communities and people with disabilities. The funding may be accessed by a range of stakeholders, including SETAs. SETAs are not guaranteed funding via the NSF, however, although they always endeavour to do so, and they have successfully received funding to train learners who are ultimately intended to enter their sectors. Therefore, although employers are not able to claim back 20% of their levy amount, they will ultimately see the benefit of the 20% in the increased supply of skilled labour into their sector. SETAs receive the remaining 80% of the levy paid by the employers, and 10% of this levy is retained by the SETA to fund its administration expenses. (a) The use and allocation of funds administered by SETAs The use and allocation of the funds administered by SETAs involve the following: •• Administration activities; payment of grants, implementation of the SETA Sectoral Skills Plan (SSP) and Annual Performance Plan (APP) through the allocation of discretionary grants. SETAs must not use more than 10% of the total levies paid for administration. •• SETAS will transfer 0.5% of the total levy paid by the employer to the QCTO. A key focus of SETAs must be to address scarce and critical skills through occupational-directed programmes aligned to qualifications that are designed to address skills needs in occupations high in demand, and which may or may not include work-integrated learning; 49.5% of the levy grant is, therefore, allocated to the discretionary grant fund. Of this 49.5% discretionary fund, 80% must be allocated to occupational learning programmes or PIVOTAL grants (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the NQF) that address scarce and critical skills in the sector. The remaining 20% of the 49.5% discretionary grant fund may be allocated to funding of other programmes related to priorities outlined in the Sector Skills Plan (SSP). Pivotal grants are accessed by the submission of a PIVOTAL plan and report. The organisation must appoint a stakeholder applicant who will do the submission on behalf of the company. The organisation should preferably also have a training committee in place if they have 50 or more employees. •• 20% of the levies are allocated to mandatory grants for non-pivotal, credit-bearing or non-credit-bearing education and training programmes for the workforce, as outlined 47

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

••

•• ••

•• •• ••

in the company’s workplace skills plan and PIVOTAL plan and annual reports. Mandatory grants can only be accessed by levy-paying companies and on submission of a workplace skills plan and annual training report. All unclaimed mandatory funds must be transferred to the discretionary fund by 15 August each year. Mandatory grants must be paid quarterly each year. In order for an organisation to submit a mandatory grant application, they must appoint a skills development facilitator (SDF) who will do the submission on behalf of the company. If the organisation has 50 or more employees, they must also have a training committee in place. Chapter 3 discusses the roles of the skills development facilitators and the training committee in more detail. All money received on an annual basis must be used up in the same year and no more than 5% may be carried over (that is, 95% must be spent by the SETAs in the levy cycle year). Discretionary grants may be paid to public education institutions (FET/TVET colleges), employers and other legal persons. The discretionary grants policy must also set out how occupational learning programmes/PIVOTAL programmes can be delivered through public education and training institutions (in other words FET/TVET colleges and HET institutions). Grant applications must be made available within the sector to allow access by any legal body or enterprise, SMMEs and NGOs to apply for any of the various grants available. The policy must ensure openness and fairness. Project management expenses are not permitted to exceed 7.5% of the grant payable for SETA projects. The SETA criteria for grants must be approved by the SETA Accounting Authority before funds are allocated. Unclaimed discretionary grants shall be transferred to the National Skills Fund.

The revised SETA grant regulations have some major implications for workplace training and development initiatives. The levy grant incentive for employee training (accessed through the mandatory grants) has been drastically reduced (from 50% to 20%). The workplace skills plan and annual training report are also now complemented by the PIVOTAL plan and report. The reduced incentive for mandatory grants could lead to a significant reduction in investment in employee training in support of skills development in companies. The SETA grant levy incentives are now predominantly focused on funding PIVOTAL (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning), that is, workplacebased occupationally directed learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework. The focus on occupational learning programmes/PIVOTAL programmes is seen to be important to address the shortages in critical and scarce skills. Another issue of concern is that if employers do not claim mandatory grants or if insufficient discretionary projects are approved by the SETAs within the stipulated time frames each year, it will result in the major portion of the funds being swept into the National Skills Funds. The new grant regulations further allow only public further and higher education and training providers to claim discretionary funds unless through a public TVET. Private providers of education and training will no longer be able to claim 48

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

any discretionary funds, unless through a public TVET, implying that they may be seen to be excluded from the revised skills development system. Over the long term, the exclusion of the private education and training sector may be to the detriment of the economy as these providers actively participated in work-integrated learning over the past 12 years. They may now be at the mercy of public institutions to create partnerships to help address the limited capacity of public further and higher education institutions to produce an acceptable throughput rate of qualified graduates.

Levy grant distribution 20% Sector Skills Plan priorities

NSF 20%

Discretionary grant: Occupational programmes

NSF 20% Mandatory grant 20%

49,5% 80% PIVOTAL programmes

100%

20%

Mandatory Grant 10%

SETA Admin 10% QCTO 0,5% Occupational programmes 49,5%

SETA Admin 0,5% QCTO

Figure 1.4  SETA levy grant distribution (Coetzee, 2018)

By law, all SETAs are required to develop sector skills plans (SSPs) outlining their skills priorities and possible interventions to achieve these skills. (b) Sector skills plans By law, all SETAs are required to develop sector skills plans (SSPs) outlining their skills priorities and possible interventions to achieve these skills. SSPs combine the skills plans and training reports of individual member organisations within their sector, consolidate these into a sectoral snapshot and add research to arrive at a strategic sector development plan for that particular SETA. This includes an analysis of the skills supply, skills demand, critical and scarce skills and the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. The workplace skills plans, PIVOTAL plans and annual reports of employers are important sources of information for SETAs in compiling their SSPs. Skills development facilitators (SDFs) and training committees (TCs) play an important role in assisting the organisation to compile and submit workplace skills plans, PIVOTAL plans and reports that reflect accurate data to SETAs and to claim appropriate levy grants from the SETAs. 49

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

SETAs play a vital role in gathering statistics and other relevant information on labour market skills needs and training provision. SETAs play a vital role in gathering statistics and other relevant information on labour market skills needs and training provision. Their close contact with industry places them in an excellent position to document and communicate recent and emerging trends, as well as to develop solid baseline indicators. This information is essential in planning to meet the country’s skills needs and guiding investment in education and training provision. The SETA sector skills plans (SSPs) must cover the whole sector, from the biggest to the smallest business. Sector skills plans are necessary to ensure that SETAs know their sector, understand how it is changing and what skills are needed to support growth. The sector skills plans should include (Coetzee et al., 2007): •• A profile (description) of the sector that should include a description of current education and training happening in the sector; •• Factors that might bring about future changes in the sector; •• Employment and skills needs based on an analysis of the current situation and expected changes, including a list of scarce and critical skills in the sector; •• A vision of where the sector hopes to be in a few years, how the SETA plans to get there, and how it will measure success; and •• A budget and methods for monitoring, reporting and evaluating progress and successes. The Skills Development Act states that SETAs can implement their skills plans by setting up learnerships, approving the skills plans from workplaces in the sector, allocating grants to employers, providers and workers, and monitoring education and training in the sector. The close contact between SETAs and industry places them in an excellent position to gather recent and emerging trends, as well as to develop solid baseline indicators. (c) Workplace skills plans and reports A workplace skills plan (WSP) outlines the planned training and education interventions of an organisation, including the planned PIVOTAL training. It is best practice for every organisation, regardless of its size, to determine the skills gaps within the organisation and decide how it will address these gaps through training (Fasset, 2009). SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which contains a WSP, as well as an annual training report (ATR). SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which contains a WSP, as well as an ATR. Payment of discretionary grants is based on the submission of a PIVOTAL plan and annual report (i.e. workplace-based occupationally directed training). A skills plan should be well 50

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

researched, contain accurate data and reflect the training needs of the company before being documented in the WSP (Coetzee et al., 2013). Chapter 3 elaborates on the WSPs and ATRs. The NSDP (DHET, 2017a) states that the WSP and ATR are crucial mechanisms in capturing accurate and relevant data on the skills of a company’s existing workforce, as well as projected skills needs (against occupations). The DHET will in future provide standardised templates for the WSP/ATR to ensure that WSP/ATR data contributes to a better understanding of the sector trends in terms of the actual and projected demand for and supply of skills needs against occupations in demand in the various sectors. (d) Skills development committees (SDC) Every workplace with more than 50 workers should preferably have an SDC, also called a workplace skills development committee or a training committee. This committee includes representatives from the various departments in an organisation. If there is a trade union in a workplace, that union must also be represented on this committee. The SDC takes part in discussions about the workplace skills plan, annual training report and other training and development initiatives (Fasset, 2009). Every workplace with more than 50 workers should preferably have a skills development committee (SDC), also called a workplace skills development committee or a training committee. It is strongly recommended that for organisations with more than 50 employees, an SDC be established for the purposes of consultation on training matters. This committee, as a whole, should reflect the interests of employees from all occupational categories in the organisation’s workforce. In workplaces where such a committee has not yet been established, an existing consultative forum should be used for this purpose, for example, an existing diversity committee, affirmative action or employment equity forum (Fasset, 2009). All stakeholders should be included in this forum, including, for example: •• Representative trade unions; and •• Employee representatives from designated groups, non-designated groups, all occupational categories and levels, and senior management, including the managers assigned with responsibility. This forum should engage in proper consultation. Proper consultation includes (Fasset, 2009): •• The opportunity to meet and report back to employees and management; •• Reasonable opportunities for employee representatives to meet with the employer; •• The request, receipt and consideration of relevant information; and •• Adequate time being allowed for each of the above steps. Ongoing interaction with and accessibility to senior management with regard to workplace skills issues is critical to the success of this process. The frequency of consultative forum meetings will vary from employer to employer, depending on size, sophistication, existing levels of diversity, and what has already been accomplished in the workplace with regard to skills development. Meetings should, however, take place regularly and employers should allow time off for these meetings (Fasset, 2009). 51

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The scope of the committee comprises the activities in the organisation, as these have been decided in consultation with employees, as identified and described in the Employment Equity, Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act and any regulations, codes of good practice, directives and administrative guidelines published in terms of these Acts. The committee is responsible for making recommendations to the management or board of directors of the organisation. The SDC is not responsible for the implementation of its recommendations. It may not be utilised as a forum in which to raise grievances and/ or demands not related to its scope and objectives (Fasset, 2009). An SDC should have a Constitution in place with a given mandate and should be performance driven to ensure commitment. An SDC should have a Constitution in place with a given mandate and should be performance driven to ensure commitment. The committee should, aside from its legal obligations in terms of the Employment Equity and Skills Development Acts, be committed to the following (Fasset, 2009): •• Improving the quality of life of all workers, their prospects of work and mobility; •• Improving productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of the organisation; and •• Increasing the levels of investment in education and training and improving the return on that investment. This committee should represent the interests of all levels of the organisation and should consult on the implementation and monitoring of its employment equity and skills development plans in terms of the relevant Acts and the organisation’s requirements. The key objective of this committee is to promote the purpose and goals of the Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act within an organisation by (Fasset, 2009): •• Promoting skills development, by assisting and advising on the development of competency levels of employees so that individual and team performance can be improved, and the objectives of the employment equity plan realised; •• Proposing actions to enhance the skills level of employees continuously so that technology, process and structural changes can be effectively implemented; •• Developing a WSP for an organisation; •• Monitoring and reporting on the progress made in implementing the WSP in the workplace; •• Facilitating employee mobility through outcomes-based education and training in an organisation; •• Assisting employees to utilise the opportunity to use workplace skills development as a mechanism to achieve nationally recognised unit standards and qualifications; •• Enhancing the organisation’s quality of education and training; •• Addressing the organisation’s past discriminatory practices and workforce imbalances; •• Contributing to the personal development of employees; and •• Optimising the levy rebates from the SETA. 52

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Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape

The SDC is a key structure for workforce development in an organisation. The SDC is a key structure for workforce development in an organisation (see Figure 1.5). Some of its roles are as follows (Fasset, 2009): •• To authorise and sign off the mandatory grant applications; •• To drive and direct the skills development process; •• To ensure that representative consultation takes place regarding the up skilling of employees; •• To ensure that the skills development facilitator (SDF) is leading the way in terms of the skills development process; and •• To support the SDF in its efforts to create awareness and promote training and development opportunities in the workplace. Communication Roadshows/newsletters Obtain buy-in and commitment Monitoring

Promote concept

Budget (cost centres, people, comply to plan)

Liaise with others

Skills Audit and Development Plans Job profiles SWOT, skills analysis

WSP/EE plan

People assessment/ career pathways Evaluation

Other Reintroduce cultural diversity training CEP involvement Implementation strategy Support EE plan

Skills Development Committee (SDC)

Skills Development Committee Mandate Establish milestones Capacity building

Assessment system

Vision, mission, scope

Assessors RPL Quality assurance systems

Compliance with SDF legislation

Learnerships

WSP

Policies and procedures

Implementation

Job profiles for committee (role of individual vs role of group) and responsibilities Time to invest

Timeframes Reporting International benchmarking

Figure 1.5  Roles of the skills development committee (Fasset, 2009)

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(e) Skills development facilitator The person who advises on and helps to plan skills development for a workplace is called a skills development facilitator (SDF). In terms of the Skills Development Act, an employer must appoint an SDF. The SDF’s details must be sent to the relevant SETA. In larger organisations, a currently employed training or human resources (HR) manager may be appointed as an SDF. However, in smaller organisations, there is often no dedicated training or HR professional fulfilling this role, and so a manager or company owner may assume this role. This can also be outsourced to a professional external SDF. A skills development facilitator (SDF) advises on and helps to plan skills development for a workplace. Some of the small organisations may appoint someone from outside the organisation to be their SDF (referred to as an independent skills development facilitator: ISDF). Others with similar needs may agree to club together and appoint one person to act as the SDF for all of the organisations. SETAs will accept any of these ways of choosing an SDF if the employer thinks that the person has the ability to do the job. An SDF is responsible for the planning, implementation and reporting on workforce training and development initiatives in an organisation, with SETA-related duties (Coetzee et al., 2007). The OFO (Organising Framework for Occupations) version 2017 describes the general role of the SDF (OFO code 2017-242302) as being responsible for analysing the skills requirements within an organisation and co-ordinating the execution of the personal development plans of employees, and monitoring the implementation of the workplace skills plan and reporting accordingly. In terms of the Skills Development Act, an employer has to appoint an SDF. The SDF performs the following general functions: •• Assists the employer and employees in developing a WSP, which complies with the requirements of the SETA; •• Submits the WSP to the relevant SETA; •• Advises the employer on the implementation of the WSP; •• Assists the employer in drafting an ATR on the implementation of the WSP; •• Advises the employer on the quality assurance requirements set by the SETA; •• Acts as a contact person between the employer and the SETA; •• Serves as a resource with regard to all aspects of skills development in the workplace; •• Communicates SETA initiatives, grants and benefits to the employer; and •• Communicates with branch offices, and all employees in the main office and branch offices, concerning events and grants being offered at the SETA. The duties and activities of the SDF need to be understood against the background of the new legislation driving training and development, which will require the SDF to 54

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take on a more strategic role in terms of skills development in the workplace. These new legislative changes, therefore, have implications for the future role and functions of SDFs (Coetzee, 2011). During 2004–2005, the functions of the SDF included a strong emphasis on the quality assurance of skills development (now termed ‘learning’) in the workplace. However, few SDFs were participating at a high enough level to give relevant input to human resource development and workplace learning at a strategic level within the company. Furthermore, most SDFs were ill-equipped or under-capacitated to completely understand the strategic nature of their role. The focus on scarce and critical skills since 2006, and the establishment of the Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) and other initiatives, such as the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) and the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) Codes of Good Practice, have led to the professionalisation of industry, including skills development facilitation under the QCTO. SDFs have been identified as the people to assist with the implementation of all these new legislative initiatives. The professional registration of SDFs is driven by the Association for Skills Development in South Africa (ASDSA). The professional registration of SDFs is driven by the Association for Skills Development in South Africa (ASDSA) and sponsored and supported by the Services SETA under the Business Consulting Chamber. The ASDSA is registered as a professional body by SAQA (ID 866). Skills development facilitators can apply for membership and professional designation registration with the ASDSA (website: www.asdsa.org.za or email: info@ asdsa.org.za). The ASDSA assesses the workplace competence of candidates applying for professional designation status. The evaluation certifies that the individual is (1) knowledgeable and capable of performing a specific occupational task (i.e. has the required academic study knowledge and skills, and work competence), and (2) that the candidate is qualified to present themselves as a practitioner in a specific field. There are currently two designations conferred on ASDSA by SAQA for which SDFs can apply at the ASDSA: •• Skills Development Technician (SDT) SAQA ID 493; •• Skills Development Practitioner (SDP) SAQA ID 494. The designation Skills Development Master is in the process of registration with SAQA. Table 1.9 summarises the guideline criteria for ASDSA designations. A professional designation refers to a professional title or status conferred by a professional body in recognition of a person’s expertise and/or right to practise in an occupational field. A professional designation status for an SDF gives them credibility because they obtain a professional title verified by a professional body, which means that their knowledge and experience have been evaluated against a registered standard. SDFs registered as members of ASDSA must pay an annual membership fee to retain their membership and also engage in continuous professional development (CPD) by bi-annually building up evidence of 60 CPD points, as shown in Table 1.10, to retain their professional designation status (ASDSA, 2016). 55

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Table 1.9  Guideline criteria for ASDSA designations (ASDSA, 2016)

Qualifying criteria for applicants

Skills Development Technician

Skills Development Practitioner

Skills Development Master

Experience in business administration/consulting/HR

3 years

5 years

Designation under development

Submission of signed off WSP/ ATR/Pivotal plans

2

1

Recommendation by supervisor/ manager

Yes

Yes

Achieved competence in SDF unit standard

3 unit standards

7 unit standards

15217, 15221,15227

15217, 15218, 15221, 15222, 15227, 15228, 15232

Qualifications currently accepted by ASDSA

QDETDP qualification 50331

ODETDP qualification 50331

Business administration qualification

ND: HR Management & Practices 61592

SDF Unit Standards SAQA 15217

Develop an organisational training and development plan.

SAQA 15218

Conduct an analysis to determine outcomes of learning for skills development and other purposes.

SAQA 15221

Provide information and advice regarding skills development and related issues.

SAQA 15222

Promote a learning culture in the organisation.

SAQA 15227

Conduct skills development administration in an organisation.

SAQA 15228

Advise on the establishment and implementation of a quality management system for skills development practices in an organisation.

SAQA 15232

Coordinate planned skills development interventions in the organisation.

SDFs need to shift away from focusing on what people need to learn (training) to what people in the company must be able to do to perform (occupational competence). The establishment of the QCTO, the OLS (occupational learning system) and OFO implies that SDFs need to shift away from merely focusing on what people need to learn (training) to what people in the company must be able to do to perform (occupational competence) as these relate to the OFO; that is, they must become strategic business partners by focusing on ways to uplift the skills profile of the organisation’s human capital, while helping to address the skills needs of the country.

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Table 1.10  Examples of building up CPD points for SDFs registered as members of ASDSA (ASDSA, 2016)

Category

Activity

CPD points

Workshops, seminars and conferences

Full-time study

CPD points = 10

Two-day workshop

CPD points = 7

Full-day workshop

CPD points = 5

½ day workshop

CPD points = 3

Community projects

Pro bono work on a WSP or ATR

CPD points = 1 per hour

Mentoring

You mentor to someone

CPD points = 1 per hour

Being mentored by someone

CPD points = ½ per hour

Membership: professional body

CPD points = 1

Participation in a committee

CPD points = ½ per hour

Two-day workshop

CPD points = 5

Full-day workshop

CPD points = 2

½ day workshop

CPD points = 1

Professional development Personal development

SDFs need to become strategic business partners and focus on ways to uplift the skills profile of the organisation’s human capital. The strategic role requires that SDFs develop the skills of a trainer or have access to people who have those skills, business knowledge, knowledge of human performance technology, partnering skills and consulting skills. SDFs will have to learn to familiarise themselves with the business and operational goals of the company for the following 12 months and the metrics used to measure the results and success of the company. It is also important for SDFs to know the industry in which their organisation operates and to have specific information about that industry, such as scarce and critical skills, other organisations that are key players in the industry, what differentiates their organisation from others in the industry, and the global factors that impact the industry. SDFs will have to learn to focus on delivering results in the form of occupationally competent people, and not just on the training and development solutions reflected in the WSP. Further education and training in strategic human resource management and development has, therefore, become crucial for the SDF (Coetzee, 2011). Chapter 3 and Chapter 10 focus on the role of the SDF in relation to the learning and development (L&D) professional.

3. OUTCOMES-BASED LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA Outcomes-based learning and development focuses on what learners need to achieve at the end of the learning process. The word ‘outcomes’ is used broadly to refer to everything that is learned, including social and personal skills, the activities of learning and how to learn, and concepts, knowledge, methodologies, values and attitudes. In addition, seven critical outcomes, including lifelong learning developmental outcomes were adopted as the basis 57

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for the design of all learning programmes. These eight learning outcomes are known as critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOS – see point 3.6) (Coetzee et al., 2007). Outcomes-based learning and development focuses on what learners need to achieve at the end of the learning process. The government established the NQF as a broad, outcomes-based and assessment-led strategy to transform education and training in South Africa. According to this approach, SAQA (as the formally recognised Apex body of authority – see Table 1.2) decides on detailed criteria that any learner should meet before being issued a qualification. These criteria are formulated as unit standards, which include a description of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values a qualified learner should be able to demonstrate in the future (Coetzee et al., 2007). The government established the NQF as a broad, outcomes-based and assessment-led strategy to transform education and training in South Africa.

3.1 Qualification, unit standard and credits SAQA defines a qualification as a planned combination of learning outcomes, with a defined purpose or purposes, which is intended to provide learners with applied competence and a basis for further learning. National qualifications can be based on unit standards, but not all of them are. Qualifications based on unit standards consist of a cluster of unit standards that are combined according to the rules of combination prescribed by SAQA. Qualifications that are not based on unit standards consist of clusters of learning outcomes combined as learning units. The learner has to progress through these units to complete the qualification (Coetzee et al., 2007). SAQA defines a qualification as a planned combination of learning outcomes, with a defined purpose or purposes, which is intended to provide learners with applied competence and a basis for further learning. Qualifications are made up of a number of unit standards equalling a minimum of 120 credits. Each qualification will, however, specify the number of credits required to obtain that specific qualification. Qualifications, as with unit standards, are registered by SAQA on the NQF. Qualifications from the three NQF sub-frameworks are quality assured by their respective quality councils (namely, Umalusi and CHE) (Fasset, 2009). A qualification on the educational sub-frameworks generally consists of the following components (SAQA 2001a): •• Fundamental unit standards; •• Core unit standards; and •• Elective unit standards. Qualifications are structured in this way to ensure that learners are developed holistically. 58

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3.2 Occupational qualifications An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification (i.e. it is a qualification associated with a trade, occupation or profession resulting from work-based learning comprising theory/knowledge; practical; and work experience), which encapsulates the response of the OLS to labour market needs (QCTO, 2011). It represents the achievement of a planned combination of learning outcomes, which is intended to provide qualifying learners with the applied competence to practise an occupation, and provides a basis for further learning. This qualification is designed by expert practitioners currently practising the occupation and is registered with the NQF. An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification, designed by expert practitioners currently practising the occupation and is registered with the NQF. Occupational qualifications combine knowledge, practical skills and work experience skills into a meaningful, integrated description of what it means to be competent in an occupation. It contains more detailed information relating to the curriculum, delivery and assessment than previous kinds of NQF qualifications and, therefore, promotes a more consistent and credible kind of qualification delivery system (NSDH, 2009). There are two types of occupational qualifications issued in the OQF, namely National Occupational Awards and National Skills Certificates. There are two types of occupational qualifications issued in the OQF, namely National Occupational Awards and National Skills Certificates. Learners accumulate credits that contribute towards a qualification. Credits indicate the approximate time it would take a learner to complete a particular learning programme (one credit = 10 notional hours). This is an estimate of the time the average learner would take to master the learning outcomes of the learning programme, the unit standard or qualification. Notional learning time does not only refer to the time spent sitting in a classroom but also includes time spent reading, researching, writing assignments and practising the theory, as well as past work experience that is relevant to the programme (CIPD, 2008a).

3.3 Unit standards Historically, a SAQA registered unit standard is a registered statement of education and training outcomes and their associated assessment criteria, together with administrative and other information, as specified by SAQA regulations. It describes the scope and context within which the learner’s competence is assessed. The results of the learning, not the processes, are described in unit standards (Fasset, 2004). The national unit standards are available from the SAQA website. A unit standard is made up of a table of elements, as shown in Table 1.11.

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Table 1.11   Elements of a unit standard (Fasset, 2009)

Component

Description

SAQA logo

Used to indicate that the unit standard has been approved by SAQA.

Unit standard title

The outcome of learning or training.

Unit standard ID number

Allocated by SAQA, used as a reference number.

ABET band

If applicable.

Unit standard type

e.g. regular.

Registration status

e.g. reregistered.

NQF level

The level at which a unit standard is pitched based on the 10 levels of the NQF.

Credits

Credits refer to the weight assigned to a unit standard; it indicates the time an average learner will take to achieve the unit standard.

Originator and primary or delegated quality assurance functionary

Name of the CEP and quality assurance functionary involved in compiling the unit standard.

Field and subfield

Indication of where in the 12 fields of learning identified, this unit standard falls.

Registration start date

Date on which the unit standard is registered by SAQA.

Registration end date

Date on which the unit standard registration expires.

SAQA decision number

Decision number used by SAQA.

Last date of enrolment and last date for achievement

Indication of time period of relevance of unit standard.

Purpose of the unit standard

States what a learner will be capable of upon completion of the specific unit standard (should be read in conjunction with the unit standard title). It also provides an indication of whom the standard is aimed at.

Learning assumed to be in place and RPL

Indicates the knowledge and skills that are a prerequisite of this unit standard.

Range statements/outcome range

Defines the context and scope of the unit standard as a whole and/or the specific outcomes and assessment criteria.

Specific outcomes

Indication of what the learner will need to achieve within the context of the job or task for which the unit standard is written.

Assessment criteria

Used to assess learners. Provides guidelines on what is expected from a specific outcome.

Accreditation and moderation options

Accreditation: specifies requirements that the provider should meet; Assessment: specifies requirements that the assessor should meet; Moderation: specifies moderation requirements.

Essential embedded knowledge

Summarises the underlying knowledge learners require to master the unit standard.

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Component

Description

Unit standard developmental outcomes and linkages

Linkages to other unit standards and development outcomes expected.

Critical cross-field outcomes

Consists of qualities the NQF has identified for development in students; these outcomes apply across all learning fields.

A unit standard is the smallest learning achievement (the essential ‘embedded’ knowledge needed to do something) that can be credited to a learner on the NQF. Unit standards are the building blocks of qualifications, learnerships and accredited learning programmes. A unit standard is the smallest learning achievement (the essential ‘embedded’ knowledge needed to do something and the outcomes which a learner must demonstrate) that can be credited to a learner on the NQF. A unit standard is a description of the evidence someone will be able to demonstrate once they have mastered a skill. Unit standards can stand alone, be grouped in clusters to form learning programmes or be combined in line with SAQA’s rules of combination for qualifications registered on the NQF (Stuart, 2011). Unit standards are the building blocks of qualifications, learnerships and accredited learning programmes. A unit standard is a description of the evidence someone will be able to demonstrate once they have mastered a skill. Although the process of writing unit standards is changing under the occupational learning system (OLS), traditional (SAQA) unit standards are still relevant to the design of qualifications under Umalusi’s (Council for Quality Assurance on General and Further Education) qualifications sub-framework and the Council on Higher Education’s (CHE) qualifications sub-framework, as well as during the transitional phase of operation of the QCTO. Unit standards based qualifications will still be relevant until after 2021. The new approach to unit standards under the OQSF includes the following three new types of unit standards that are being introduced to describe occupational-related learning and skills development in the workplace. In terms of the OQSF and OLS, these three types of unit standards will eventually replace all existing unit standards (Stuart, 2011): •• Knowledge and theory learning; •• Practical skills learning; and •• Work experience learning.

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Existing SAQA registered unit standards and qualifications will be adapted (and not totally redesigned from scratch) in as far as they differ from the curriculum and assessment specifications of an occupational qualification.

3.4 Specific outcomes Specific outcomes are statements regarding elements of competence. They indicate what the learner will need to achieve within the context of the job or task for which the unit standard is written. These outcomes refer not only to subject content, but also include actions, roles, knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes that a learner needs to perform to demonstrate competence (SAQA, 2001a, d, e). The criteria provided, indicating how these outcomes will be assessed, are the assessment criteria for those outcomes.

3.5 Assessment criteria Assessment criteria are statements that help an assessor to judge whether the evidence provided by a learner is sufficient to demonstrate competent performance for each related outcome. Learners have access to the assessment criteria and are thus prepared for assessment – they know what is expected of them to achieve the outcomes and competence (Fasset, 2009). Assessment criteria are statements that help an assessor to judge whether the evidence provided by a learner is sufficient to demonstrate competent performance for each related outcome.

3.6 Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) All unit standards contain CCFOs. CCFOs consist of qualities that the NQF has identified for development in students; they are essential life skills and act as the foundation upon which other skills are built. CCFOs are generic and apply to learners across all fields of learning (Fasset, 2009).

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There are eight critical cross-field outcomes: 1. Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking; 2. Work effectively in a team; 3. Organise and manage oneself and one’s activities; 4. Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information; 5. Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in oral or written form; 6. Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others; 7. Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation; 8. Contribute to the full personal development and lifelong learning of an individual through awareness of: •• how to learn more effectively; •• how to be a more responsible citizen; •• how to be culturally and aesthetically aware; •• how to explore education and career opportunities; and •• how to develop entrepreneurial opportunities.

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Most unit standards do not use all eight critical cross-field outcomes: •• Only the CCFOs that relate to the purpose, specific outcomes and ‘essential embedded knowledge’ of the unit standard are incorporated in the unit standard; and •• CCFOs are adapted in each unit standard to relate to that specific unit standard, that is, learners are required to produce evidence that they can identify and solve problems in the context of the unit standard. Assessors need to ensure that their learners have addressed the CCFOs appropriately at the level of the unit standard. Activity Study the eight critical outcomes in point 3.6 and then rate your ability (in your role as a learning and development practitioner) to demonstrate these behaviours. Rate yourself according to the following criteria on a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high): 3. Outstanding performance; 2. Standard performance; 1. Unacceptable performance. Critical outcomes

Rating

Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking. Examples: insight, problem-solving. Work effectively with others as a member of team or group. Example: working with other staff members to get information. Collect, analyse and manage yourself and activities responsibly and effectively. Examples: obtaining relevant information, displaying the ability to analyse information, suggesting improvements. Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in oral and written communication. Examples: writing skills, discussing issues, doing presentations. Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others. Examples: adopting a professional and scientific approach to L&D practices, safety awareness, using technology, such as computers to plan, design and deliver learning programmes. Explore various learning and development strategies, apply the most appropriate one and evaluate the effectiveness of the learning and development strategy applied. Example: Continued professional development strategies. Demonstrate employment-seeking skills for entry into the field of L&D using all of the theoretical principles and reflecting on the effectiveness of such applications. Apply your occupational competence within the organisation and local community, showing an understanding of and sensitivity for diversity.

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3.7 Where to find unit standards? All unit standards are published on SAQA’s website: http://www.saqa.ac.za. If you would like to find a unit standard on a specific topic, you can visit this website. You can select these options: •• Qualifications and unit standards; •• Registered qualifications and unit standards; and •• Search for a unit standard. You can then enter the topic for which you would like to find a unit standard under ‘unit standard title’. All unit standards are published on SAQA’s website.

3.8 Applied competence The term ‘outcomes’ also refers to the applied competence that learners should be able to demonstrate when they complete a learning programme. As shown in Table  1.12, applied competence is the combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive competence (SAQA, 2005). These competencies (shown in Table 1.12) are also reflected in the NQF level descriptors (see Appendix A). The QCTO (see Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014) added to the NQF level descriptors, the workplace-based required competencies in terms of typical activities, role tasks and workplace focus, relevant to each level descriptor. These are also indicated in Appendix A. Table 1.12   Elements of applied competence (Coetzee et al., 2007) Foundational competence

Demonstrating an understanding of the knowledge and thinking which underpin the actions taken

Practical competence

Demonstrating the ability to consider a range of practical actions and make a decision about which action to do Demonstrating skills based on acquired knowledge

Reflexive competence

Demonstrating whether one is able to integrate knowledge and skills with understanding Demonstrating an ability to apply knowledge and skills in different contexts, and to adapt to change in unforeseen circumstances

Applied competence is the combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive competence; i.e. the ‘outcomes’ that learners should demonstrate after a learning programme.

3.9 Recognition of prior learning (RPL) RPL is one of the principles of the NQF and forms a cornerstone for occupational learning. Many learners possess skills and knowledge for which they have no formal certificate. These skills and knowledge have, however, been gained through practical work experience. RPL is the recognition of this learning and the awarding of NQF unit standards, learning programmes or qualifications as a result (NSDH, 2007). 64

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Recognition of prior learning (RPL) is one of the principles of the NQF and forms a cornerstone for occupational learning. For example, an employee could have conducted duties relating to baking for a number of years without any formal qualifications. This employee could now achieve the Further Education and Training Certificate in Baking through RPL without having to undergo training that will duplicate what they already know. The employee can contact an RPL centre at a relevant training institution to be assessed against the whole qualification or they can ask to be assessed against specific unit standards which they believe they can achieve. According to Meyer et al., (2004), there are four steps in the recognition of the prior learning process (see chapter 7): 1. Identifying what learners can do and what knowledge underlies their ability to do something; 2. Comparing this knowledge and skill with what is required in the unit standard; 3. Assessing whether learners have achieved the outcomes of the learning programme by evaluating evidence of their performance against the standard; and 4. Giving the learners the appropriate credits if their knowledge and skills meet the required standard.

3.10 Quality assurance partners (QAPs) Under the SAQA Act, an ETQA was a body that was responsible for ensuring the quality of the delivery and assessment of registered standards and qualifications by providers in its relevant sector. There were 33 ETQAs (21 SETAs and 12 recognised professional bodies) accredited by SAQA. With the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework Act and subsequent repeal of the SAQA Act, all quality assurance roles of the ETQAs have been relinquished to the QCTO. In terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, the QCTO may delegate its functions. The QCTO has delegated some of its functions to QAPs. These include the 21 SETAs and some professional bodies referred to above. Historically, the functions of an ETQA were to (SAQA, 2001a, d, e): •• Accredit skills development providers (SDPs) to conduct assessments against unit standards and qualifications registered on the NQF; •• Promote quality among constituent providers; •• Monitor provision of training – conduct quality audits at specified intervals; •• Evaluate assessment and facilitate moderation among constituent providers; •• Register assessors and moderators; •• Certificate learners; •• Co-operate with relevant moderating bodies; •• Recommend new standards or qualifications to advisory panels of experts; •• Recommend modifications to existing standards and qualifications to the advisory panel of experts; and •• Maintain a database of records and submit reports to SAQA. SAQA previously accredited ETQAs and monitored and audited them to assure the quality of the execution of the above functions. However, this function has been shifted to the QCTO, 65

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which has the power to appoint quality partners and to delegate some of its functions to these partners. As previously stated, the QCTO has delegated some trade and occupational qualifications design and assessment to development quality partners (DQPs) and assessment quality partners (AQPs), replacing ETQAs and some functions of the SETAs. The QCTO, which is responsible for the trades and occupational quality assurance and is responsible for registered occupational qualifications in the NQF, adopted a policy on the delegation of trade and occupational qualifications design and assessment to DQPs and AQPs in July 2011. Post-school higher education and training (for example, universities) remains under the Council on Higher Education (CHE), and school-level training remains under Umalusi, while the QCTO is responsible for occupational training. The QCTO is in the process of taking over the delegated functions from SETAs and professional bodies. The functions delegated to QAPs and which will be taken over by the QCTO are: •• Accreditation of skills development providers; •• Development of occupational qualifications; •• Assessment of occupational qualifications; •• Certification of occupational qualifications; and •• Upload of learner information in the National Learner Record Database. Post-school higher education and training remains under the CHE, and school-level training remains under Umalusi, while the QCTO is responsible for occupational training. The QCTO indicated that some training quality assurance functions (eg. workplace approval processes) remains the function of SETAs and recognised professional bodies. SAQA has so far registered more than 200 occupational qualifications in the Occupational Qualifications Sub Framework (OQSF) of the NQF, which are quality assured by the QCTO through QAPs. Unit standard qualifications are still quality assured by SETAs and professional bodies and the QCTO monitors the accredited SDPs (skills development providers). However, the NSDP 2030 states that the QCTO will also take over this role from SETAs and professional bodies. The QCTO will, from June 2018, be collaborating with SETAs and professional bodies in the accreditation of SDPs offering unit standardbased qualifications.

3.11 Accreditation of skills development providers Skills development providers (SDPs) are required to deliver curriculum components and carry out internal assessments against related unit standards. The approach to accreditation in the new skills development landscape is based on (Mkhonza, 2010): •• Self-evaluation against general criteria and specific requirements specified in the relevant occupational curriculum components (subjects and or modules); and •• Recommendations from industry and/or a good track record. The culture of self-regulation and strong links to relevant professional, occupational and industrial bodies and associations is encouraged to maintain and raise standards. No accreditation certificates are issued – the scope will be recorded and regularly updated 66

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on the QCTO’s website, and the details with the exact date can be printed at any time. However, quality monitoring and audits will be conducted as and when required, for example, in the event of a complaint or when checking the final assessment results. An education institution already accredited by another Quality Council (QC) (Mkhonza, 2010): •• Will be deemed to have met the general criteria for accreditation as a skills development provider; and •• Must meet the QCTO’s criteria for accreditation for the specific curriculum components of the occupational qualifications they wish to offer. Skills development providers accredited by the QCTO wishing to offer qualifications from the other NQF sub-frameworks must follow procedures, as determined by the relevant QC.

4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS) The amended Skills Development Act (DoL, 2008) ushered in the new system of occupational learning in South Africa. This innovative way of learning was triggered by increasing pressure to integrate education and workplace training. The White Paper and NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a) also emphasise the integration of education and workplace training in the new PSET system. An occupational learning system (OLS) is a structured and systemic way of linking the skills needs of the labour market to education and training processes and the development of a skills pipeline (Vorwerk, 2010a). This approach to skills development describes the essential structural element for skills development, the process flow and the role-players at each stage of the process. It indicates hierarchical relationships and dependencies at national, sectoral, industry and enterprise levels. The OLS in South Africa consists of several components, as shown in Figure 1.6 and discussed in the subsequent sections. These components include the labour market, the reporting system and framework, planning and data management systems and learning systems. •• The labour market. The labour market is a valuable source of information that provides role-players with insight regarding the decline of certain occupations and changing skills needs in occupations; in other words, vital signals that role-players should heed if they are to invest in relevant learning opportunities. •• Reporting system and framework. This system and framework are essential for capturing accurate, real-time data from the labour market and reporting on it in a language and format that facilitates the design and improvement of appropriate learning solutions (NSDH, 2009). The Labour Market Intelligence System (LMIS) and the Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) are important examples of such reporting and framework systems. •• Planning and data management. These systems are used to interpret the information gathered and structured by the reporting system and frameworks so that matching learning intervention can be designed (NSDH, 2009). These systems include the Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF), the National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) and the Sector Skills Plans (SSPs). 67

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•• Learning systems. These are used to take the data on skills needs and develop appropriate learning solutions to match them. Learning systems include the QCTOs and CEPs (see Table 1.2).

4.1 Labour market intelligence system (LMIS) The LMIS is a mechanism established by the DHET to enable the use of labour market intelligence in the post-school education and training environment, which will help to achieve a better match between the supply and demand for skills, improve on skills planning and promote growth, employment, productivity gains and gains in social and economic equality. Labour market intelligence involves the systematic and coherent analysis and interpretation of national information, together with its effective presentation, distribution and use by stakeholders (DHET, 2017). The skills planning unit introduced by the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training will function as a repository of labour market information, develop skills-demand forecasting models, and promote and build labour market research and skills analysis for the country. The key elements of skills planning within the LMIS centre on the supply of skills (driven by employer demand for skills acquisition); skills mismatches (imbalances between the skills that are available and the skills that employers require); and the demand for skills (the jobs that are available and the skills that are needed to do them). The LMIS is used for policy and planning by its key users: the DHET; the Human Resources Development Council; the National Skills Authority; the SETAs; the Department of Home Affairs (responsible for immigration); education and training providers (including higher education institutions and colleges); the unions; career advisers at all levels (including the school system); and learners and parents (DHET, 2017).

4.2 Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) is a skills-based coded classification system that encompasses all occupations in the South African context (ETDP SETA, 2017; ISETT SETA, 2007). It is built on similar principles to those of the South African Standards Classification of Occupations (SASCO), which is familiar to all players because of its use by Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) to compile the October Household and Labour Force Surveys. It is a framework for categorising all occupations and groups of occupations, from entry level to advanced levels of competence, and its purpose is to promote labour market dialogue by establishing a common language for talking about skills demand and supply (ETDP SETA, 2017). This framework is cross-sectional so that snapshots of occupational supply and demand can be analysed at national level. It clusters specialisations within an occupation, which allows broad occupational problems and solutions to be identified and understood more easily. The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) is a skills-based coded classification system of all occupations in SA.

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DHET

Scarce and critical skills

SETAs

LMIS

Report

Reflect industry needs

QCTO

Economy

tion

rma

Info

NOPF

Develop

Impact assessment

Curriculum

Occupational qualifications

& OFO

Qualification assessment specifications

Flow

kills

of s

Labour Market

&

Assessment centres

Provider system

NLRD

Accredited providers

& Approved workplaces

Register and promote learning programmes

Society

SAQA

Learnerships Apprenticeships Skills programmes

Figure 1.6  A demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa (Vorwerk, 2009a,b; 2010a)

The OFO promotes labour market dialogue by establishing a common language for talking about skills demand and supply. The classification of occupations is based on a combination of skills levels and skills specialisations, which makes it easy to locate a specific occupation in the framework (ETDP SETA, 2017). A skills construct is used in the context of competency, rather than a description of tasks or functions. Because the OFO is used as a tool for identifying, reporting and monitoring scarce and critical skills, it is revised and updated annually. The OFO (version 2017) clusters occupations into eight major groups: 1 Managers; 2 Professionals; 3 Technicians and associate professionals; 4 Clerical support workers; 5 Service and sales workers; 6 Skilled agricultural, forestry, fishery, craft and related trades workers; 7 Plant and machine operators and assemblers; 8 Elementary occupations. 69

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The skills level of an occupation is related to competent performance of the tasks associated with an occupation. A comparison can, therefore, be made between the skills level of an occupation and the general education (cognitive) level associated with that occupation on the NQF, as well as with the entry, intermediate and advanced levels referred to in the NSDS (see Table 1.8). The skills level of an occupation is a function of the field of knowledge required, the tools and equipment used, the materials worked on and the goods or services provided in relation to the tasks performed (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014). Based on the skills level and skills specialisation, occupations are divided into major (one digit), sub-major (two digits), minor (three digits) and unit (four digits) groupings, as illustrated in Table 1.13. Occupations (six digits) are sub-divisions of the unit groups and further detailed through specialisation and alternative occupational titles (ISETT SETA, 2007). The OFO indicates the detailed level of specialisation by the use of the singular form at the occupation level, whereas all other groupings (major or units) are expressed in the plural. Table 1.13 illustrates the OFO structure as relating to the classification of skills development facilitators and training and staff development professionals. Table 1.13  The OFO structure groupings (DHET: OFO version 2017)

OFO structure groupings

Skills development facilitators

Training and development professionals

Major group

2017-2

2017-2

Professionals

Professionals

2017-24

2017-24

Business and administrative professionals

Business and administrative professionals

2017-242

2017-242

Administrative professionals

Administrative professionals

2017-2423

2017-2424

Personnel and career professionals

Training and staff development professionals

2017-242302

2017-242401

Skills development facilitator/ practitioner

Training and development professional

Year + 1st digit

Sub-major group

Year + 2nd digit

Minor group

Year + 3rd digit

Unit group

Occupation

Year + 4th digit

Year + 5th & 6th digits

4.3 Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF) The Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF) is a sub-framework in the NQF (see Figure 1.1) that provides a structure for designing, delivering and assessing learning that is highly responsive to the needs of workplaces and the social development sector. This is in contrast to the other two qualification frameworks, which are focused on learning for foundational knowledge and skills, and academic or discipline-based knowledge and research (NSDH, 2009).

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4.4 National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) The National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) is used to take the analysis provided by the OFO data and translate it into appropriate skills development strategies and interventions (NSDH, 2009). While the OFO interfaces with the labour market and helps to provide an understanding of occupational changes in the labour market, the NOPF interfaces with the NQF, and seeks to respond to the patterns and trends with matching skills interventions. The NOPF maps the OFO data onto NQF levels, and clusters the skills-related occupations, so that vertical progression (within occupations) and horizontal progression (across occupations) can easily be achieved. It allows for the simple translation of the data from the LMIS into appropriate skills-development strategies and interventions.

4.5 Communities of expert practice (CEPs) Communities of expert practice (CEPs) are groups of expert practitioners who are currently practising in occupations and who are convened to contribute to the development and quality assurance of occupational qualifications (Van Rooyen, 2009). Practitioners are involved in the quality assurance and standards-setting responsibilities of the QCTO to ensure that occupational qualifications remain relevant and responsive to the labour market skills needs. Working jointly with skills development providers and facilitators, they design and develop occupational qualifications, curricula and qualification assessment specifications. They replace the SGBs that were central during the first NQF (NSDH, 2009).

4.6 Occupational qualifications An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification that encapsulates the response of the OLS to labour-market needs (NSDH, 2009). It represents the achievement of a planned combination of learning outcomes, which is intended to provide qualifying learners with the applied competence to practise an occupation and to provide a basis for further learning. This qualification is designed by expert practitioners (CEPs) practising the occupation and is registered with the NQF. It combines knowledge learning, practical learning and work experience learning into a meaningful, integrated description of what it means to be competent in an occupation. It contains more detailed information relating to curriculum, delivery and assessment than did previous NQF qualifications, and therefore promotes a more consistent and credible kind of qualification. An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification that encapsulates the response of the OLS to labour-market needs. The purpose of an occupational qualification is to specify the requirements that a learner must meet to be certified as competent to practise an occupation, or a specialisation related to an occupation, reflected on the OFO. The Skills Development Act 37 of 2008 (SDA) defines an occupational qualification as ‘a qualification associated with a trade, occupation or profession, resulting from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge unit standards, practical unit standards and work experience unit standards’. In terms of the 71

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OLS, occupational qualifications or part qualifications will be awarded after an external integrated summative assessment for an occupational qualification in terms of the rules of combination. The assessment is based on the exit level outcomes that are derived from the occupational purpose and tasks. Formal recognition of competence is recognised by certification (QCTO, 2011). Characteristics of occupational qualifications include: •• An occupational curriculum – representing inputs from expert practitioners and covering three forms of learning (that is, knowledge, practical skills and work experience); and •• Occupational qualification assessment specifications – including internal assessment and final external integrated summative assessment. Internal assessment guidelines are for the assessment of each curriculum component. These internal assessments carried out for the theory/knowledge and practical components of occupational qualifications are the responsibility of the provider. External integrated summative assessment is for the occupational qualification as a whole. The aims of occupational qualifications assessment specifications are to: –– Set national standards for external integrated assessment of occupational competence; and –– Specify requirements for accreditation of assessment centres or trade test centres where required. •• Qualification descriptions (three components in a qualification – knowledge and theory learning, practical learning and work experience learning); •• A link to the OFO; •• Fitness-for-purpose – by representing labour market requirements (that is, it must be demand-led and not supply-driven); and •• Reflect all three forms of learning, that is: –– Knowledge and theory (minimum 20%); –– Practical skills (minimum 20%); and –– Work experience (minimum 20%). Each of the occupational qualifications must reflect three components of learning (DoL, 2008a, DHET, 2010b), as highlighted above: 1. The acquisition of general knowledge and theory learning (plus specialised and contextual theory and knowledge). Conceptual knowledge/theory and information is acquired systematically through a set of purposefully organised learning activities – this component is offered by a skills development provider; 2. The acquisition of general and occupationally relevant practical learning. Practical focuses on the ability to perform certain skills at a particular level, safely, productively, within legal prescripts and with due regard for social responsibility – this component may be acquired in a simulated environment; and 3. The requisite work experience learning in an occupationally relevant context. Work experience focuses on the ability to integrate conceptual knowledge and practical learning in concrete situations within the workplace.

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A combination of all three components (knowledge, practical skills and workplace experience) is necessary to obtain competence in terms of qualifications in the occupational qualifications sub-framework and the selection and proportion of these is driven by the occupational purpose, as well as by the need to ensure progression.

4.7 Progression The QCTO has developed related occupational qualifications and associated curricula to ensure progression from the lower levels to higher levels in progressive steps (QCTO, 2011). The occupational curriculum components must be assessed both internally and externally.

4.8 Internal assessment or assessment against curriculum components Knowledge learning, practical learning and work experience learning are assessed by accredited skills development providers and approved workplaces in accordance with the criteria outlined in the various curriculum components. This assessment is referred to as internal assessment or assessment (ISA) against curriculum components, and culminates in statements of results by accredited skills development providers. Statements of work experience must be issued by approved workplaces. The same assessment criteria linked to each curriculum component must be applied when conducting assessments for the purpose of recognition of prior learning (RPL) already completed at a prior site and to identify learning gaps (QCTO, 2011).

4.9 External integrated summative assessment of occupational qualifications or part qualifications The purpose of an external integrated summative assessment (EISA), or assessment against the occupational qualification or part qualification, is to promote consistency and credibility of the occupational qualifications or to promote articulation of the part qualification issued. The criteria for this assessment are specified in the assessment specifications document and captured in the occupational qualifications document (QCTO, 2011). The EISA is a competency based assessment, based on the execution of work tasks from the exit level outcomes of a qualification. The final EISA is conducted and managed by the approved QAP (quality assurance partner) including DHET. The purpose of an external integrated summative assessment is to promote consistency and credibility of the occupational qualifications or to promote articulation of the part qualification issued. Assessment of the individual qualification learning components is not sufficient to confirm competence to perform an occupation and the associated occupational tasks. Assessment of occupational competence is conducted through the application of nationally standardised assessment instruments and procedures at accredited assessment centres or registered sites. This assessment is required for part qualifications. It is referred to as external integrated summative assessment (EISA) or assessment against the occupational qualification or part 73

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qualification and results in a QCTO certification. Skills development providers may apply for accreditation to conduct the external integrated summative assessments. To qualify for an external assessment, learners must provide proof of completion of all required components by means of statements of results and work experience (QCTO, 2011).

4.10 Assessment of foundational learning The QCTO may require that all learners undertaking occupational programmes registered on NQF levels 3 and 4 be assessed against the ‘foundational learning’ part qualifications and, if found ‘not yet competent’, must complete the specified communication and mathematical literacy courses. The primary reason to assess learners’ foundational competence is to ensure that they (Van Deventer, 2010): •• Cope with occupational learning demands; and •• Are able to benefit from the learning process. The assessment of foundational learning is not an entry requirement, but must be completed prior to the external integrated summative assessment. The completion of this aspect of the curriculum is over and above the knowledge, practical and work experience components outlined above.

4.11 Development quality partners (DQP) The development quality partner (DQP) is responsible for the development of occupational qualifications and performs the functions outlined below (QCTO, 2011): •• Managing the development and review of occupational qualifications and curricula, for the approval of the QCTO; •• Managing the development and review of qualification assessment specifications, in co-operation with the AQP, for the approval of the QCTO; •• Compiling a database or co-ordinating the process of identifying relevant expert practitioners, facilitators and assessors (not limited to their own constituency or stakeholders) to participate in the development and verification of occupational curricula and qualification assessment specifications and associated occupational qualifications; •• Convening working groups consisting of: –– expert practitioners (CEPs) to develop the occupational profile; –– expert practitioners to develop practical skills modules and work experience modules; –– facilitators to develop discipline knowledge subjects; and –– expert practitioners, facilitators and assessors to develop qualification assessment specifications. •• Developing a qualifications development process report outlining: –– the processes and participants involved in the development and verification of the occupational curriculum; –– the processes and participants involved in the development; and –– verification of the qualification assessment specifications. and •• Conducting quality audits of skills development providers, if requested by the QCTO. –– The QCTO will, over time, take these processes in house. 74

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4.12 Assessment quality partners (AQP) The assessment quality partner (AQP) is responsible for both the internal and external assessment of occupational curriculum and qualifications (QCTO, 2011).

General knowledge & theory

General practical skills

Specialised Specialised practical knowledge skills & theory

Work experience

General

“Stage 2” learning

qualifications Vocational & occupational directed qualifications

Work-related learning

Integrated summative external assessment of competence

All forms of learning

Certification

RPL process

Other QCs

QCTO & quality partners

Industry-defined criteria

Designation by professional body (representative)

Figure 1.7  Scope of qualification (DHET, 2010a,b; Vorwerk, 2010a)

4.13 Occupational learning programmes The NSDS III and the revised SETA grant regulations of 2013 refer to occupational learning programmes as PIVOTAL or occupationally-directed programmes. PIVOTAL occupational programmes are occupational-directed professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that are linked to a qualification that meets the critical needs for economic growth and social development. A PIVOTAL programme combines course work at universities, universities of technology and colleges with structured learning at work (professional placements, work-integrated learning, learnerships and internships). The White Paper on post-school education and training and the NSDP 2030 also emphasise occupational learning programmes with structured workplace-based components as important elements of training and development in South African workplaces. A PIVOTAL programme combines course work at universities, universities of technology and colleges with structured learning at work.

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In terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, a learning programme includes a learnership, an apprenticeship, a skills learning programme (‘skills programme’) and any other prescribed learning programme that includes a structured work experience component. Learners participating in these programmes have to demonstrate sufficient foundational competence in communication and mathematical literacy to cope with the occupational learning demands and benefit from the learning process. The different types of occupational learning programmes in South Africa are discussed below. These include the learnership, apprenticeship and skills learning programmes. Table 1.14 differentiates between these three types of learning programmes. 4.13.1 Learnerships

Learnerships enable government to invest massively in skills development for empowerment and economic purposes, especially to reduce unemployment and poverty. In terms of the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, a learnership includes an apprenticeship. Learnerships enable government to invest massively in skills development for empowerment and economic purposes, especially to reduce unemployment and poverty. Combining both knowledge and work experience components of learning, learnerships are believed to be the most time and cost-effective way to empower learners with economically relevant skills that give them better employment prospects than traditional knowledgedriven qualifications, or work experience-driven trades (NSDH, 2011). The learnership system – as one approach to implementing the objectives of the Skills Development Act – provides the opportunity to transform the process of skills formation by creating the mechanism needed for a skills revolution in South Africa. The learnership regulations (DHET, Government Gazette No. 30010 of 29 June 2007) outlines the policy and procedures for learnerships. Learnerships are believed to be the most time and cost-effective way to empower learners with economically relevant skills that give them better employment prospects. In the OLS, a learnership is a supervised, structured and planned experiential learning programme that, firstly, includes the three curriculum components of knowledge, skills and work experience of a specific type and duration; and secondly, is governed by a contractual agreement between the employer, the learner and the training provider or SDP that leads to a National Occupational Award or a National Skills Certificate. The skills certificate forms a distinct but recognised portion of an occupational award as determined by the DHET. The learnership should result in much better employment prospects for graduates because of the tighter link between the labour market needs and occupational qualification design in the OLS. Learnerships must be delivered by an accredited training or SDP (Stuart, 2011).

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A learnership is governed by a contractual agreement between the employer, the learner and the training provider or SDP that leads to a National Occupational Award or a National Skills Certificate. Generally, a learnership will be registered by the CEP responsible for developing the National Occupational Award or National Skills Certificate to which they are linked. In the case of higher education providers offering learnerships, the learnership design must be approved by the QCTO, which is responsible for the design of all learnerships. SETAs have a brief to create learnerships, guided by the skills shortages in their economic sector (Stuart, 2011). In terms of the NQF, learnerships will not be offered against qualifications on the further or higher education frameworks, but only on the OQSF. Generally, a learnership will be registered by the CEP responsible for developing the National Occupational Award or National Skills Certificate to which they are linked. A learnership seeks to bridge the articulation gap between institutional and occupational learning. This programme includes a complex contractual agreement for a fixed period between the learner, the SDP and the employer. The contractual agreement provides a framework for formalising the relationship between these three parties in realising the qualification. Beyond the formality of the agreement, this relationship requires high levels of co-operation to ensure the smooth planning and operation of the learnership (Akoojee et al., 2005). 4.13.2 Apprenticeships

In terms of the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, an apprenticeship refers to a learnership in respect of a listed trade, and includes a trade test in respect of that trade. A trade is an occupation for which an artisan qualification is required in terms of the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008. In this context, an artisan is a person who has been certified as competent to perform a listed trade in accordance with the Act. An artisan is a person who has been certified as competent to perform a listed trade in accordance with the Skills Development Act. Apprenticeship, as a form of learning, has developed over centuries and can be regarded as a form of vocational and occupational training, with varying approaches to organisation in each country (Pattayanunt, 2009). Many countries view apprenticeships as a key component for skills development, with Australia and Germany leading in this regard (Board of Vocational Education and Training [BVTE], 2005; Keating et al., 2002). Pattayanunt (2009) argues that apprenticeship is most relevant as a model of skills development and occupational learning in contemporary society if it is adaptable to the changing skills demands of the labour market, in terms of types and levels, and if it responds to mutual interests of the social partners and is efficiently regulated and standardised. The outcomes 77

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of the apprenticeship system are difficult to measure, but some quantifiable measures, such as the rate of apprenticeship activity, participation, completion and qualifications, are widely used to evaluate the success of the system (Pattayanunt, 2009). The South African apprenticeship system is regulated by the Skills Development Amendment Act 2008 and administered and managed by various government departments, SETAs and overseas funders such as the SSACI (Swiss South African Corporate Initiative). The South African apprenticeship system is regulated by the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008 and administered by various government departments, SETAs and overseas funders such as the SSACI (Swiss South African Corporate Initiative). The system of apprenticeship commits employers, learners, education and training institutions and the state to fulfil various obligations in the training process, which have been agreed to at sector level. The apprenticeship contract is a legally binding agreement that is normally structured in specific sector contexts, and is monitored and quality assured by SETAs, reflecting a social compact struck between employers, unions and individual learners/workers (Kraak, 2008b). This social contract often specifies the demarcation of work that only artisans can do, and the wage to be paid to apprentices in training and to qualified and experienced artisans. 4.13.3 Skills learning programmes

Prior to the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, skills learning programmes were regarded as occupationally based learning programmes which, on completion, constituted a credit towards a qualification registered in terms of the 10-level NQF. In the context of NSDS III and the OLS, a skills learning programme is not PIVOTAL in the sense that it does not include an academic qualification, linked with workplace experience, that qualifies an individual to enter a particular trade or profession (DHET, 2011). Although the new definition of skills learning programmes is still under discussion, in the context of the NSDS III (DHET, 2011), they are regarded as shorter programmes with a specific application or specialisation in mind – for example, how to operate new technology in the workplace or how to undertake community ventures. They also include programmes, such as those required for continuing professional development (CPD), which enable graduates from occupationally directed/ PIVOTAL programmes to remain up to date and relevant (DHET, 2011). The role of skills learning programmes is to up-skill and multi-skill the South African workforce, as well as new entrants into the relevant economic sectors. A skills learning programme is recognised throughout the Skills Development Act. It is one of the most dynamic and relevant features of the education and training system in South Africa. The role of skills learning programmes is to up-skill and multi-skill the South African workforce, as well as new entrants into the relevant economic sectors. The provision of skills learning programmes assists workplaces to develop meaningful and relevant career and learning pathways for their employees in a highly accessible manner. This, in turn, 78

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leads to the improvement of workplace practices, employability and mobility of the South African workforce (MQA, n.d.). A skills learning programme must be composed of clusters of unit standards that together enable the learner to earn an income; it should constitute an employable skills unit; the learner should be able to write the end-product (outcome) of the learning programme on a CV; after completion, the learner should be able to go to an employer and say, ‘I am able to perform this function/service if you employ me’ (Hattingh, 2004). A skills learning programme should contain the following elements (MQA, n.d.): •• Must have a total credit value of less than 120; •• Must be unit standards based; •• Must have a structured workplace learning component; and •• Employers or accredited SDPs may develop learning programmes. However, the learning programme must be registered with the relevant SETA and the QCTO. A skills learning programme serves the following purposes (MQA, n.d.): •• Provides learners with practical (hands-on) experience where appropriate; •• Increases employability, self-employment and mobility in the workplace; •• Provides occupationally directed and focused learning; •• Contributes to closing the gaps identified in the workplace skills plan (WSP), sector skills plan (SSP) and provincial skills plan (PSP) or research; •• Advances career aspirators of employees; and •• Addresses the principles of portability, access redress and equity in the workplace. Table 1.14  Distinction between a learnership, an apprenticeship and a skills learning programme (SAQA, n.d.)

Type of learning programmes

Feature

Learnership

Apprenticeship

Relevance to occupations

Appropriate in all occupations in all economic sector in which workbased learning paths are available.

Tended to be restricted to blue-collar trade.

It is specific to an occupation, but also develops employability across a wide spectrum of work. Target group

Many trades are relevant in a wide variety of sectors, e.g., electricians and machine operators.

Skills learning programme (‘skills programme’) Appropriate in all occupations in all economic sectors in which workbased learning paths are available. It is specific to an occupation, but also develops employability across a wide spectrum of work.

Learners in most occupational fields.

Mostly in the traditional trades.

Learners in most occupational fields.

Can be employed, unemployed or preemployed at the time of entering the learnership.

Apprentices are employed for the duration of the apprenticeship.

Can be employed, unemployed or preemployed at the time of entering the learning programme.

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Type of learning programmes

Feature

Learnership

Apprenticeship

Skills learning programme (‘skills programme’)

NQF Level

The qualifications that learnerships lead to can span across all 10 NQF levels.

The qualification is not higher than the trade level, i.e. equivalent of NQF level 4.

The qualifications that a learning programme leads to can span across all 10 NQF levels.

Age of learners

No age restriction on learners entering learnerships.

Usually entry-level employees.

No age restriction on learners entering a learning programme.

Duration

Duration is determined by the minimum of 120 credits, so learnerships are usually 12 to 18 months.

Three to four years depending on the programme.

Duration is determined by the number of credits in the programme, which should be less than 120.

Contract with learner

Formal learning programme agreement is signed by the learner, employer and the skills development provider.

Contract is signed between the apprentice and a single employer for the duration of the apprenticeship.

Formal learning programme agreement is signed by the learner, employer and the skills development provider.

Qualification

Designed to meet legally specific criteria for NQFalignment, e.g., it is portable and serves as a building block for further learning.

The certificate issued is trade-specific, making portability difficult.

Unit standards are designed to meet legally specific criteria for the NQF.

Qualifications enjoy wide national and international recognition in respect of the specific trade.

Unit standards are registered with SAQA and nationally recognised by employers and training institutions.

SAQA-registered and nationally recognised by employers and training institutions. Builds occupationalspecific skills and develops generic (critical cross-field) competencies, which are relevant in all work contexts.

The qualification is not necessarily recognised by training institutions as a stepping-stone to further learning.

Unit standards contribute to the achievement of a qualification.

Credit for outcomes achieved

Learners are awarded credits for the outcomes successfully achieved, even if they do not complete the learnership.

No formal recognition for learning outcomes if apprentices do not complete the apprenticeship.

Learners are awarded credits for the unit standards successfully completed, even if they do not complete the learning programme.

Curriculum and learning programme

Jointly planned by relevant stakeholders. The interrelationship between and integration of workplace and institutional learning is formally structured into the learning programme.

Integration and interrelationship between institutional and workplace learning is not formally structured, and the integration seldom happens.

Jointly planned by relevant stakeholders. The interrelationship between and integration of workplace and institutional learning is formally structured into the learning programme.

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Type of learning programmes Skills learning programme (‘skills programme’)

Feature

Learnership

Apprenticeship

Programme structure

Comprises a number of unit standards registered with SAQA on the NQF.

Comprises a number of modules or learning units.

Comprises a number of unit standards registered with SAQA on the NQF.

Institutional learning component

Delivered by a wide spectrum of training institutions, and contextualised to the needs of the occupation for which the learnership is designed.

Delivered by FET/TVET colleges.

Delivered by a wide spectrum of training institutions, and contextualised to the needs of the occupation for which the learning programme is designed.

Work-based learning component

Learner gains a broader spectrum of work experience that is not limited to the work he or she is doing with one employer. Integrated workplace learning and foundational learning are not necessarily a requirement or clearly defined.

Learner’s work-based experience is restricted to the work context of a single employer.

Learner gains a broader spectrum of work experience that is not limited to the work he or she is doing with one employer. Integrated workplace learning and foundational learning are clearly defined.

Purpose of learning

Promotes access to employment, as well as FET opportunities in the field of the learnership, as well as in other fields.

Aimed at developing trade-specific skills and consolidating the worker’s ability in that trade.

Promotes access to employment, as well as FET opportunities, in the field of the learning programme, as well as in other fields.

Role of the learner

Primarily that of a learner for the duration of the learnership.

Primarily that of an apprentice, who is in employment.

Primarily that of a learner for the duration of the learning programme.

Approval/ registration

Must be approved by the relevant SETA in terms of the Skills Development Act, which submits for registration to the QCTO.

Must be approved by the relevant SETA in terms of the Skills Development Act, which submits for registration to the QCTO.

Must be approved by the relevant SETA in terms of the Skills Development Act, which submits for registration to the QCTO.

Assessment

Learner’s final assessment of competence is done by the workplace and SDP.

Apprentice’s competence is assessed through trade tests conducted by an accredited assessment quality partner, e.g. INDLELA or COTT.

Learner’s final assessment of competence is done by workplace and SDP.

Disputes regarding assessment may be dealt with by the relevant SETA. Core, fundamental and elective components are assessed.

Customised to the needs of the specific trade.

Disputes regarding assessment may be dealt with by the relevant SETA.

Moderation of assessment is dealt with by the NAMB. Application and practical skills are assessed.

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Type of learning programmes

Feature

Learnership

Apprenticeship

Employment opportunity

Employment is not guaranteed with the current employer after the learnership, but the learnership prepares the learner for employability outside the scope of the current employer.

Employment is not guaranteed; although employers often take on apprentices with a view to keeping them as permanent employees after successful completion of the apprenticeship.

Skills learning programme (‘skills programme’) Employment is not guaranteed with the current employer after the learning programme, but the learning programme prepares the learner for employability outside the scope of the current employer.

The 2007 learnership regulations were revised and, on 29 March 2017, the DHET issued the Draft SETA Workplace Based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations (DHET Government Gazette No. 40730) for public comments. The focus on workplace-based learning programmes as an important element of learnerships is in line with the focus areas of the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and the NSDP 2030 objectives. The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations define a workplace-based learning programme as: •• An educational approach with a quality-assured curriculum through which a person internalises knowledge, gains insights and acquires skills and competencies through exposure to a work-place to achieve specific outcomes applicable for employability; and •• An educational approach without a quality-assured curriculum through which a person internalises knowledge, gains insights and acquires skills and competencies through exposure to a workplace to achieve specific outcomes for employability. Within the workplace-based learning programme context, a learnership refers to a period of workplace-based learning culminating in an occupational qualification or part qualification. Within the workplace-based learning programme context, an apprenticeship refers to a period of workplace-based learning culminating in an occupational qualification. The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations also refers to three types of internships: 1. Student Internship, Category A: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as part of the requirement for the Diploma, National Diploma, Higher Certificate or Advanced Certificate as a vocational qualification stipulated in the HEQSF. 2. Student Internship, Category B: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as part of the requirement for a professional qualification. 3. Student Internship, Category C: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as part of the requirement for the Occupational Qualifications of the QCTO.

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For purposes of workplace-based skills programme agreements, only the following internships are relevant: •• Graduate internship: a period of workplace-based learning for the purposes of allowing a person who has completed a post-school qualification to gain workplace experience or exposure to enhance competence and/or employability. This may include academic staff with existing qualifications who need industrial exposure or experience. •• Student internship: a period of workplace-based learning for a person who is enrolled at an education and training institution for a SAQA-registered qualification and may include vacation work. •• Other: a period of learning related to workplace-based competencies and/or the transfer of skills, as determined and confirmed by a SETA, and may include continuous professional development (CPD) courses. Individuals can apply for the following types of workplace-based learning programmes: •• Apprenticeship; •• Learnership; •• Candidacy; •• Student Internship, Category A; •• Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma; •• Student Internship, Category B. The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations (DHET, 2017b) further outlines the policy and procedures for agreements between the employer, learner and skills development provider, and assessment, certification and quality assurance matters.

5. Q  UALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is a quality assurance and standards-setting body responsible for occupational qualifications within the OLS. It assumes overall responsibility for the quality-assurance functions that were previously given to SETA ETQA bodies and professional bodies (ETQAs); it may delegate some of these functions back to the SETA quality-assurance divisions (NSDH, 2009). However, the NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a) states that the quality-assurance role of the SETA ETQAs and those undertaken by the National Artisan Moderating Body regarding the quality of occupationally relayed programmes must be integrated into the QCTO. The QCTO must collaborate with the other two quality councils to enable learners to move across the three sub-frameworks of the NQF. The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is a quality assurance and standards-setting body responsible for occupational qualifications within the OLS. The South African skills development system is built around the quality management model at macro level, as shown in Figure 1.8. Quality management is encapsulated in the Cabinet’s vision, which cascades down through intervention strategies developed by both the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Higher Education and Training (Vorwerk, 83

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2010c). The DHET is responsible for implementing these strategies through appropriate interventions and programmes at SETA level. The SETAs then operationalise these strategies by promoting the successful development and implementation of appropriate occupational learning programmes at the workplace level. These occupational learning programmes ultimately contribute to the supply of skills in the labour market. At micro level, a quality management system in the new OLS encompasses all aspects of quality (including, ultimately, impact assessment); quality assurance (the management, design and development of occupational curricula and qualification assessment specifications and working with quality partners representing CEPs); quality control (accreditation of skills development programmes, registration of assessment centres and registered constituent assessors, and monitoring of data); and quality improvement (responding to issues in the system at local level) (DHET, 2010b). Within the OLS, the NSDS III and NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a), quality assurance for occupational learning revolves around the QCTO. The QCTO will set occupational standards, manage quality, and monitor and evaluate the implementation of occupational learning programmes. According to Vorwerk (2010b), quality management is a strategic decision in an organisation. Quality is dependent on the utility of the learning, which includes managing the system (that is, monitoring and evaluating the system delivery, programme evaluation and impact assessment) (DHET, 2010b). Figure 1.8 depicts the QCTO model for quality management in South Africa. Quality improvement through MONITORING AND EVALUATION • of development and design processes • of implementation of learning programmes

• data analysis and impact assessment

Quality assurance of development and design of CURRICULA by applying nationally standardised processes and systems • occupational curricula • foundational learning competence • occupational qualifications and

unit standards

QUALITY PARTNERS

Quality assurance of development and design of ASSESSMENT PROCESSES by applying nationally standardised processes and systems • Qualification Assessment Specifications (QAS) • Nationally standardised assessment

instruments Quality control of PROVISION, IMPLEMENTATION and CERTIFICATION •A  ccreditation of skills development providers (requirements specified in curriculum) • Implementation of assessment strategies (requirements specified in QAS)

• Establishing a secure certification system Figure 1.8  QCTO model for quality management (DHET, 2010a)

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It is clear from Figure 1.8 that quality is vital across all aspects of occupational learning programmes, namely, curriculum development and design; monitoring and evaluation; design and development of assessment processes; and provision, implementation and certification. The QCTO remains small, but works through its partners. It has the responsibility to manage the consistency of the design and development process and certification of occupational qualifications; it controls the quality of provision and assessment through accreditation and registration; it monitors data and improves processes and quality-control mechanisms; and it improves development and design processes (DHET, 2010a,b). The elements of the QCTO model for quality management are discussed briefly below.

5.1 Quality assurance of development and design of curricula The process of occupational qualification development is extremely rigorous and is initiated at industry level by the constituents, the SETAs or an association or professional body on the basis of existing needs. The needs may originate from the scarce skills list or demands from an industry or sector, and be preceded by research. An application for qualification or curriculum development is then forwarded to the QCTO, which sets the process in motion. Key stakeholders, including a curriculum/qualification development facilitator, a qualifications development partner and an assessment quality partner, are identified and become involved in the process (DHET, 2010a,b). The process of occupational qualification development is initiated at industry level by the constituents, the SETAs or an association or professional body on the basis of existing needs. The curriculum/qualification development facilitator guides and directs the various working groups that are responsible for the development of an occupational profile, the development of the learning process design and the development of assessment specifications. These working groups collaborate with the CEPs. The result of this process is an occupational curriculum and qualification. The curriculum/qualification development facilitator, with inputs from the CEPs, compiles and submits the development process report, including occupational curricula, qualification assessment specifications and occupational qualifications, to the qualification development partner. Thereafter, the qualification development partner registers occupational curricula and qualifications assessment specifications on the NOPF and, finally, submits an occupational qualification to SAQA for registration. The QCTO oversees the whole process of occupational curriculum/qualification development to ensure that it meets the quality standards set (Vorwerk, 2009).

5.2 Controlling the quality of provision, implementation and certification The QCTO controls the quality of provision, assessment and certification by applying specified criteria in terms of: •• The approval of regulated occupational learning; •• Accreditation of skills development providers (SDPs); and •• The implementation of assessment strategies. 85

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The QCTO approves all regulated occupational learning programmes developed by the QAPs prior to the registration by the DHET to ensure validity and compliance with occupational qualification rules of combination. Accreditation of skills development providers (SDPs) is vital because SDPs are required to deliver curriculum components and conduct internal assessments against related learning components. SDPs are accredited on the basis of their ability to provide the theory/ knowledge and practical skills development components outlined in the curriculum. The approach used by the QCTO to accredit SDPs is based on evaluation against general criteria and the particular requirements specified in the relevant occupational curriculum components. SETAs will have to focus on workplace approval for work experience learning and monitoring the implementation of occupational learning programmes in line with the DHET regulations.

5.3 Quality assurance of development and design of assessment processes The QCTO is responsible for accrediting assessment centres to conduct an external integrated summative assessment of occupational competence.

5.4 Quality improvement through monitoring and evaluation The QCTO conducts research to monitor the effectiveness of learning interventions in the context of the larger occupational learning system. The QCTO conducts research to monitor the effectiveness of learning interventions in the context of the larger occupational learning system. The process of monitoring and evaluation revolves around the development and design processes, the implementation of occupational learning and data analysis, and impact assessment (qualitative and quantitative). Qualitative impact assessment focuses on the appropriateness and relevance of skills, the credibility of assessment, enhanced employability and increased productivity and the quality of work. Quantitative assessment focuses on whether the learning programme is delivering the right number of people, as well as on the balance between demand and supply. Along with the QCTO, the SETAs’ role has changed from education and training quality assurance bodies to real quality assurance involving quality monitoring of programme implementation and programme evaluation research, including impact assessment. The QCTO will conduct the statistical analysis of learner data collected, including enrolment, completion and certification rate. These data will be analysed in terms of SDPs and workplaces, assessment centres, learners, occupational learning programmes and qualifications (DoL, 2008b). Qualitative impact assessment focuses on the appropriateness and relevance of skills, the credibility of assessment, enhanced employability and increased productivity and the quality of work.

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Quantitative assessment focuses on whether the learning programme is delivering the right number of people, as well as on the balance between demand and supply.

5.5 Quality control mechanisms in the development of occupational curricula and qualifications Overall, quality mechanisms in the new OLS include consultations with the CEPs, hence the notion of quality partners – one for the development of curricula, qualifications and assessment specifications, and the other for the management of the assessment process, using nationally standardised instruments. Figure 1.9 depicts the occupational curriculum development process, as managed by the development quality partner within the framework of the QCTO (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014, p. 1). RESPONSIBLE

QCTO monitors performance of the DQP in Processes 4, 8 & 9

PROCESS Submit Curr, Ass Specs, Qual & Process Report

9

Manage Verification Process (Curr & Ass Specs)

8

QCTO

Evaluates DQP with Constituency Group

DQP

QDF with AQP & Expert Practitioners, (incl Assessors)

7

Develop Module Specifications

6

Appoint AQP

5

QCTO Staff

4

DQP with Expert Practitioners and proposed AQP

3

DQP with Expert Practitioners (incl Assessors)

Develop Occupational Profile

10

DQP

Finalise Assessment Specs

Manage Verification of Occupational Profile & Proposed AQP

QUALIFICATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

QDF with Expert Practitioners, AQP & Educationalists

DQP

Oversee Scoping QCTO Meeting with Constituency & 2 Staff Appoint DQP Receive and Process Application

RESULTS

1

QCTO Staff Qualification Scope & SLA with (DQP)

A

Occupational Profile & SLA with (AQP)

B

Curriculum Component Specifications (incl Internal Assessment)

C

External Assessment Specifications

D

Verified Curriculum (B+C) and Assessment Specifications

E

Occupational Qualification (A+B+D)

F

Figure 1.9  Occupational curriculum development process managed by development quality partner (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014:1)

The QCTO is responsible for the design of all qualifications and their related unit standards in the OQF. The QCTO is responsible for the design of all qualifications and their related unit standards in the OQF. It utilises the National Occupation Pathways Framework (NOPF) as a management tool to identify related clusters of occupations, minimise duplication 87

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and ensure that occupational qualifications and curricula are designed in line with the skills needs of the labour market. The design process for occupational qualifications is expert-driven and is based on the desired occupational profile (CEP). The QCTO may appoint moderating bodies to perform agreed quality-assurance functions for specific occupations or occupational families. These moderating bodies are professional bodies or occupational associations that have a strong and demonstrated interest in the particular occupations. Assessment of occupational competence is performed by constituent assessors. These constituent assessors are members of the relevant CEP, that is, they are practising the occupation or are active in the occupational context. This ensures credibility of the assessment process. The other two quality councils with whom the QCTO must collaborate are Umalusi and the CHE. Quality partners are involved in the promotion of quality in occupational learning and these include professional bodies, occupational associations, SAQA and the SETAs, as illustrated in Figure 1.10. These partners are involved from the initial stages of occupational qualification development, during implementation and during assessment. Labour market

QCTO Professional bodies

Other QCs

QA framework

Design • Curriculum • Qualifications

Value added by QCTO in terms of ensuring right inputs

Assessment • Standardised • Nationally creditable

Research and data analysis

Quality implementation

SETAs

providers

SAQA

Performance indicators e.g. learner enrolment, throughput,

employment

Value added by QCTO in terms of credible learner achievements

Quality partners

employers

Figure 1.10  Quality assurance partners in the new OLS (DoL, 2008b; DoL, 2009)

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Quality partners are involved in the promotion of quality in occupational learning and these include professional bodies, occupational associations, SAQA and the SETAs. According to Vorwerk (2010), a focus on quality assurance is misleading if it is not embedded in a broader approach to quality management. Based on overall organisational strategy, quality assurance of occupational learning programmes ensures the predictability and repeatability of processes under the organisation’s control against the strategic criteria in the quality management system (Vorwerk, 2010a). Quality assurance of occupational learning programmes is largely an issue of quality control (DHET, 2010b).

6. M  ANAGING QUALITY IN WORKPLACE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT In the South African workplace, HRD operates within the national requirements for quality outcomes-based L&D. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines ‘quality’ as ‘degree of excellence’ and ‘assurance’ as ‘formal guarantee’ or ‘positive declaration’. From these definitions, ‘quality assurance’ is a formal guarantee of excellence. The SAQA Act defines quality assurance as the process of ensuring that the specified degree of excellence is achieved. The unit standards and regulation requirements specify these degrees of excellence. Quality management is defined as all activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy, objectives, strategies, responsibilities and implementation of these by means of a combination of managerial processes (Coetzee, 2007a). The SAQA Act defines ‘quality assurance’ as the process of ensuring that the specified degree of excellence is achieved. In L&D, the move towards a quality management system approach is being driven by: •• Stakeholders (particularly the state) that demand a higher level of quality in education and training, particularly where learners and employers have to invest in learning opportunities; •• International expectations that each country will ensure the quality of its graduates and learners; •• L&D providers that demand flexibility, requiring self-approval and review of new learning programmes; •• A move away from expensive, unresponsive centralised systems; and •• Standards and qualifications. South African organisations that want to use the NQF to best advantage will need to establish their own L&D quality management systems. South African organisations that want to use the NQF to best advantage will need to establish their own L&D quality management systems. This approach is consistent with the 89

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international trend towards self-management and devolved responsibility for quality; this means that everyone is responsible for quality. Quality management is also fundamental to every other qualifications framework in the world. A robust and coherent L&D quality management system provides learners and other stakeholders with an assurance that the HRD department and its staff have the capacity to meet the needs of its clients. Quality can only be measured when these requirements are known and defined. Table 1.15 summarises important elements of the workplace L&D quality management system. Table 1.15  Elements of the workplace L&D quality management system (Coetzee, 2007a)

Quality assurance element Management system

Description Management is responsible for overseeing the design of the quality management system. The following are management functions regarding the quality management system: •• Compiling the departmental business plan, workforce plan, workplace skills plan, strategic HRD plan and budget; •• Establishing policies and procedures, which specify the standards of performance and service delivery; •• Reviewing performance and service delivery against the set standards; •• Developing a strategy to achieve business goals and strategies; and •• Developing a quality and service delivery culture.

Personnel and material resources

Management should provide sufficient and appropriate resources to implement the quality system and achieve the quality objectives. The motivation, competence and thus L&D, communication capacity and performance of personnel involved in quality management are crucial. Effective performance management processes must be in place for all staff involved in facilitating the quality management system. Employees must also be educated in the principles of the quality management system. Regular communication on quality performance is essential for improvement purposes.

Administrative, physical and financial resources

These include service provisioning equipment and stores; accommodation, transport and information systems; quality assessment facilities; operational and technical documentation; the funding of learning provision; administrating, recording and storing of learner achievement, education, training and development. An employee’s biographical information, qualifications, educational level and performance appraisal data should be maintained and updated on the personnel administration system.

L&D records

HRD and L&D records are normally kept to:

HRIS LMS (see Chapter 3)

•• Make strategic skills development decisions; •• Keep track of the status of skills in the department/organisation; •• Enable HRD management staff to respond to enquiries from top management and outside institutions; and •• Guide employees to reach their full potential in the organisation by devising individual development plans that suit their particular needs.

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Quality assurance element

Description The type of records could be any of the following: •• Strategic HRD plan, L&D plan, workplace skills plan and annual training report; •• HRD budget and expenditure; •• Workforce planning data; •• Records of learning programmes attended; •• Employees’ personal HRD and L&D records; •• Performance and development appraisal records; •• In-service training records; •• Assessment and moderation records of learner achievements; •• Course evaluation records; and •• Quality audit and self-evaluation records.

Communication system

An effective communication system allows for an effective flow of information between all the parties involved in the development of people. The communication system must eliminate the blockages and obstacles interrupting the flow of information and ensure that all information is available to all levels of staff within the agreed timeframes.

A quality management system includes the following: •• Quality management policies that define what the HRD function wishes to achieve; •• Quality management procedures that enable the HRD function to practise its quality management policies; and •• Review mechanisms, which ensure that the quality management policies and procedures are applied and that they remain effective. As shown in Table 1.15, the quality management system governs all L&D practices (Coetzee, 2007). Table 1.16 and Table 1.17 include checklists that can be used in the management of workplace L&D quality systems. Table 1.16  Checklist for setting up the L&D quality assurance system (Coetzee, 2007a)

In place Yes

No

Key performance areas

Responsible person

Evidence

1. Establish the QA structure: •• Manager responsible for L&D provision QA; •• Assessors; •• L&D professionals; •• Skills development facilitator; •• Skills development committee; •• Coaches; •• Moderators;

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In place Yes

No

Key performance areas

Responsible person

Evidence

•• RPL advisors; •• Mentors; •• Quality auditors; •• Administrative support; and •• Occupational and job profiles for all these positions. 2. Recruit, appoint and train QA staff. 3. Negotiate performance contracts and development plans with QA staff. 4. Obtain physical, administrative and financial resources to operate the learning provision QA function. 5. Draft strategies and an operational business plan for the learning provision QA function (including mission, vision, values, goals and objectives). 6. Identify the quality assurance areas to be managed. 7. Draft policies and procedures for each of these areas. These will form the basis of the quality management system, which must be formally managed using ISO guidelines. 8. Set up a management information system to review, on at least a monthly basis, the established goals. 9. Train stakeholders, management and staff in learning provision QA (orientation sessions). Ensure that they understand policy and procedure requirements. 10. Set up a documentation and administrative system that complies with SAQA/QCTO standards. 11. Design an internal quality audit (self-assessment) and customer review system (identify main quality areas; draw up checklists, measurement scales and other tools; and draw up quality audit procedures). 12. Orientate stakeholders and involve staff in the quality audit process.

Activity

Checklist for L&D interventions

Study chapters 2 to 8 and then complete the checklist in Table 1.17 below. L&D professionals will have to carry out certain checks that everything is running according to schedule, that the required learning outcomes are being achieved and that the required standards are maintained.

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Table 1.17  L&D intervention quality checklist: learning facilitation, administration and quality assurance management (Coetzee, 2018)

Yes ✓

No ✗

Comments

1. Planning of learning/training event 1.1 I know and understand the learning outcomes to be achieved. 1.2 I have thoroughly studied the facilitator guidelines: •• sequencing of training methods and learning activities; •• time allocation; •• opportunities for application and practice; •• use of projector, video, textbook, learner workbook; and •• formative and summative assessment activities. 2. Organisation resources for a learning event/programme 2.1 I have identified the equipment and resources I need: •• writing boards; •• flip chart; •• projector; •• pens; •• presentation data; •• monitor and visual equipment; and •• recording equipment. 2.2 Requisitions for equipment and materials are submitted in time to the appropriate person. 2.3 Quantity of learning support materials/equipment ordered matches anticipated number of learners. 2.4 Materials/equipment to be used are available and organised in an orderly manner. 2.5 Venue is arranged in a way that promotes learner participation and suits learning activities. 3. Facilitation of learning programme 3.1 I make a conscious effort to be seen and heard by all learners when speaking. 3.2 The pace, and the level of language are suitable for the learning group. 3.3 I repeat, rephrase and sum up new information at adequate intervals. 3.4 Demonstrations of practical tasks are done at a pace slow enough for learners to assimilate essential information.

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Yes ✓

No ✗

Comments

3.5 Learning is contextualised into real-life situations, whenever possible. 3.6 Previous learning is referred to and built on. 4. Use of materials to facilitate learning 4.1 Learning support materials are used in an appropriate manner at appropriate stages of the learning cycle. 4.2 Clear instructions are given to learners regarding the use of materials. 4.3 Checks are carried out to ensure that learners understand and follow instructions regarding the use of materials. 4.4 Gaps in existing materials are identified and simple strategies are used to address these (for example, extra explanation is offered to learners; supplementary materials are introduced). 4.5 Audio-visual material can be seen and heard by learners. 5. Effectiveness of learning programme 5.1 Purpose and intended outcomes of the learning event are explained to learners. 5.2 Training methods and learning activities are appropriate for the subject matter. 5.3 Opportunities for application and practice are provided within the learning event. 5.4 Activities are varied within a single learning event. 5.5 Learners are actively involved in each stage of the learning event. 5.6 Learning needs of individual learners are dealt with adequately. 5.7 Each learning event is summarised and an indication of what is planned for the following event is given to learners. 6. Assessment of learners within a learning situation 6.1 Learners are informed of impending assessment events. 6.2 The purpose of the impending assessment event is explained to learners (placement; formative; summative). 6.3 Outcomes that learners will be expected to demonstrate in the assessment are explained to learners in accessible terms. 6.4 Prescribed assessment instruments are used as specified. 6.5 Learners are given clear instructions regarding the assessment event. 6.6 Judgements on learners’ performance are made in accordance with prescribed guidelines.

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Yes ✓

No ✗

Comments

6.7 Moderation/verification procedures for internal assessment are followed where necessary, according to policy. 6.8 Results of internal assessment are made available to learners within a specified period. 6.9 Administrative requirements of the external assessment agency are fulfilled. 6.10 Specified measures are taken to ensure the security of the assessment documentation. 6.11 Assessment is ethically administered. 6.12 Learners are given an opportunity to ask questions about their assessment results. 6.13 Feedback is given to all learners on their individual strengths and weaknesses with regard to their performance in the assessment event. 6.14 Implications of assessment results are clarified with learners in a sensitive manner (for example, the need to repeat a level, the need to improve on identified weaknesses). 6.15 Records are kept of learners’ performance in assessment events, in accordance with the requirements of the organisation. 6.16 Information from assessment results is used in lesson planning in order to build on learners’ strengths and to help them to improve their weaknesses. 6.17 Appropriate forms of formative and summative assessment for illiterate/semi-literate learners are used, where applicable. 7. Fulfilling administrative requirements of a learning group 7.1 I have an attendance register, which records learners’ names, surnames, dates and times of classes and absenteeism. 7.2 I have records of learners’ addresses, contact telephone numbers and contact people. 7.3 Reasons for collecting personal information are explained to learners. 7.4 Records are accurate, complete and up to date. 7.5 Records are available to learners and relevant authorities. 7.6 Records are systematically organised. 7.7 The venue is secured (through the relevant authority) for the duration of the event. 7.8 The venue and equipment are organised timeously. 7.9 Damage to equipment or the venue is promptly reported to the appropriate person.

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Yes ✓

No ✗

Comments

7.10 Situations that may affect the health and safety of learners are promptly reported to the appropriate person. 7.11 Dates, times of learning events, venues, registration procedures, fees, absentee procedures are communicated to learners. 8. Evaluation of own facilitation performance 8.1 Feedback on the learning event is sought from learners in the form of open-ended questions. 8.2 Learner feedback is synthesised into a few valid points. 8.3 Relatively successful and unsuccessful aspects of a learning event are identified. 8.4 Actual outcomes of the event are compared to planned outcomes. 8.5 Plausible reasons are given for the relative success/failure of the event. 8.6 Feedback from learners and your own refection are formulated into resolutions about future learning events. 8.7 Your own learning and development needs and areas for selfimprovement are identified. 8.8 Resolutions are formulated to build on own strengths or address own development needs. 8.9 Assistance and advice are sought from a senior practitioner or supervisor when necessary. 8.10 Reports on progress of learning groups are produced according to requirements. 8.11 Reports accurately indicate progress made and difficulties encountered. 8.12 Exceptionally high incidents of absenteeism and dropout are recorded and plausible explanations offered. 9. Helping learners with language and literacy across the curriculum 9.1 Learners are consulted on language(s) to be used for all activities (for example, in whole group, small groups, materials, written and oral work). 9.2 Strategies for dealing with language difficulties, which may affect learning, are suggested. 9.3 Relevant terminology of the subject (including acronyms and abbreviations) is explained. 9.4 The level and style of the language used for instructions is suitable for learners.

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Yes ✓

No ✗

Comments

9.5 Relevant symbols and their uses are explained to learners. 9.6 The layout and style of visuals used in support materials are explained to learners. 9.7 Learners are helped to use the different parts of a text (for example, contents page, glossary, index, page numbers, charts, graphs, diagrams, uses of colour, worksheets). 9.8 Learners are questioned on the purpose of a text to ascertain how much is understood; fuller and alternative explanations are given when required. 9.9 Learners are shown how to use textbook and learner workbooks. 9.10 Learners are helped to fill in forms and worksheets relevant to the learning situation. 10. Identifying and responding to learners who have special needs 10.1 Learners who may have special learning, counselling or health needs are referred to relevant services and appropriate actions are taken within the learning situation. 10.2 Learners who have special needs (for example, physical disability, such as sight or hearing impairment, impairment of movement or motor skills, learning disability as a cause of impaired performance in writing, reading, spelling, numeracy ability) are recognised. 10.3 Learners with special needs are referred for further intervention by someone other than the trainer. 10.4 Adequate information regarding the referral is provided to the learner to reduce anxiety (for example, address, time, the nature of referral, people involved). 10.5 Strategies are implemented to assist the learner. 10.6 The learning environment is organised to alleviate difficulties (for example, seating closer to the front, negotiating help from other learners).

Review and discussion questions 1. How can the South African skills development legislation improve the skills situation in the country? 2. What are the aims of the institutional structures created by the skills development legislation? How do these structures impact on the training and development efforts in South African organisations? 3. How do the three sub-frameworks of the NQF differ? What are the key aspects of each sub-framework?

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4. What are the purposes and contributions of the various pieces of skills development legislation? 5. What is the purpose and strategic intent of the National Skills Development Plan 2030? 6. How does the approach to outcomes-based learning and development benefit South African workplaces? 7. What are the elements of the occupational learning system? 8. Which quality assurance mechanisms govern learning and development in workplaces?

Summary The South African government recognises skills development as a crucial tool in enabling the South African economy to change and grow in line with global trends. This chapter explored how the local and global contexts of human capital challenges shape the skills development system of South Africa. Furthermore, this chapter highlighted the skills development legislative framework, including aspects such as the Skills Development Acts, the National Skills Development Strategy, the White Paper on Postschool Education and Training, the new National Skills Development Plan 2030 and the institutional framework for skills development and other structures that represent a vision of an integrated training and development system. The various Acts introduced new structures, programmes, requirements and funding policies for training and development initiatives in South African organisations. These are designed to increase investment in skills development and to improve the quality and relevance of education and training to the economy. Skills development providers and CEPs contribute to the vision of integrated skills development by ensuring that their occupational qualifications and other programmes, methodologies and practices comply with the quality requirements for outcomes-based education and L&D (training and lifelong learning).

Skills development is a crucial tool in enabling the South African economy to change and grow in line with global trends.

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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee

CHAPTER

2

Key points of the psychology of learning •• In an organisational context, learning occurs through learning and development (L&D) and organisational learning processes. •• L&D design begins with an understanding of how learning occurs. Adult learners’ characteristics (readiness to learn, motivation to learn) and training design characteristics (principles of learning, objectives) affect the learning process and learning outcomes. •• L&D professionals use principles from learning theories and approaches to design learning programmes and to enhance learning processes during training. •• Learning at an individual level strongly influences organisational learning processes. •• Employee performance is a function of employee motivation, level of competence and organisational factors. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Describe the link between L&D and learning and performance in an organisational context. •• Explain how the characteristics of adult learners influence the learning process and the design of learning programmes. •• Differentiate between the various theories and approaches to learning and training. •• Explain how L&D professionals can apply the principles of learning theories and approaches to the design and delivery of training. •• Explain how multiple intelligences influence adult learning.

1. INTRODUCTION The focus of this book is on learning and development (L&D) in the context of the South African workplace. Historically, various terms have been used to describe the L&D field, which traditionally was referred to as training and development (T&D). Although T&D still remains a popular term, contemporary professionals view training through formal, structured learning programmes – usually presented in classroom scenarios – as only one way of achieving development. The term learning reflects the contemporary importance placed on continuous development as a lifelong learning activity. The term learning also reflects the self-directedness and independence of adult learning, and the contemporary move towards online and social learning enabled by advances in smart mobile and internet technology (King, 2017). The term L&D focuses on the learning needed for organisational and individual development to occur. L&D also extends beyond those working within the organisation to those who make an essential contribution to the organisation’s success (for example,

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outsourced contract workers and suppliers) (Harrison, 2009). The South African Board for People Practices (SABPP), the national professional body for human resource practitioners and L&D professionals, also adopted the term learning and development (L&D) as the preferred term to reflect the dynamic role of the profession in the workplace (SABPP, 2014). The SABPP (2014) describes L&D as the practice of providing occupationally directed and other learning activities that enable and enhance the knowledge, practical skills and workplace experience, and behaviour of individuals and teams based on current and future occupational requirements for optimal organisational performance and sustainability. The global knowledge economy of today increasingly demands people with high-level technical and social skills, knowledge and expertise to solve a constant stream of competitive problems. The SABPP’s description of L&D corroborates the global and local view that the economic competitiveness of a nation is related to its skills base (Arnold et al., 2016; DHET, 2017a). The global knowledge economy of today increasingly demands people with high-level technical and social skills, knowledge and expertise to solve a constant stream of competitive problems. For this, as well as for historical reasons, the South African government directs considerable effort into encouraging organisations to invest in the skills development of their staff (see Chapter 1). However, companies also increasingly recognise that the continued improvement of employee work performance through L&D is vital to ensure organisational survival and success in the new millennium. More and more organisations are starting to realise that investment in employee learning and development at a strategic level is an essential element of organisational renewal, adaptability and competitiveness in a dynamic global business market. Companies increasingly recognise that the continued improvement of employee work performance through L&D is vital to ensure organisational survival and success in the new millennium. Organisations are realising that investment in employee L&D at a strategic level is an essential element of organisational renewal, adaptability and competitiveness in a dynamic global business market. Learning and development (L&D) is also beneficial for employees. By proactively and strategically engaging in L&D initiatives, employees can develop a portfolio of skills, enhance their opportunities for promotion, take part in more challenging and interesting work and move easily between jobs and organisations. The job changes that are driven globally by technological development and constant information flow imply that individuals must continually learn new skills, how to use new tools and systems, and stay abreast of the smart technology, knowledge and information, just to keep up with job demands (Arnold, et al., 2016). 100

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By engaging in L&D initiatives, employees can develop skills, enhance their opportunities for promotion and more interesting work, and move easily between jobs and organisations. Given how expensive and important L&D initiatives are, it is important for L&D professionals to use a systematic approach to the design and delivery of their L&D interventions (such as learning programmes) to build employee competence and improve their performance. A systematic approach includes assessing and analysing the organisation’s and employees’ L&D needs, incorporating principles of learning in training delivery, considering transfer of learning to the workplace, assessing learners’ achievements and evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D programme. Chapters 3 to 8 will discuss this scientific approach (also called the learning cycle), particularly as it applies to the design, delivery and evaluation of learning programmes, and the assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements. In this chapter, the concept and principles of learning that form the foundation of effective work-based learning design and delivery in the workplace will be explored.

2. EMPLOYEE COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE L&D efforts are focused on improving employee knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs (competencies), and employee work performance to build organisational capability. Competencies and employee motivation influence work performance. It is generally believed that improved employee performance is a result of a combination of the required competencies and motivational attitudes.

2.1 Competencies Competencies are typical behaviours (supported and influenced by attitudes and beliefs, knowledge and skills) that individuals demonstrate when performing the tasks necessary for producing occupation-related and/or job-related outcomes within a given organisational context (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work tasks or job outputs that have to be achieved to demonstrate satisfactory job performance. Competency frameworks are used to define the dimensions of a job, and provide criteria by which the effectiveness of performance can be evaluated. Employees should possess several sets of competencies in order to perform a particular job successfully (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). To remain employable, employees may also be required to develop various diverse sets of competencies. The outcomes-based and work-based L&D approach (see Chapter 4) supports the notion of competency development by focusing on developing an individual’s ability to apply his or her newly acquired competencies at work (see Chapter 3). Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work tasks or job outputs that have to be achieved to demonstrate satisfactory job performance.

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2.2 Attitudes and beliefs Attitudes and beliefs influence employee behaviour and can either support or restrain the development of new competencies. Attitudes are general positions of approval or disapproval that we all have towards specific situations, ideas, events or people (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Employee attitudes should be considered in training interventions because they influence motivation (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Shaping or changing attitudes and beliefs through training might involve raising awareness of prejudices to modify behaviour; developing flexibility and co-operation in team work; or cultivating a culture of courtesy and sensitivity when dealing with customers. Attitudes and beliefs are regarded as the affective outcomes of learning programmes. Attitudes and beliefs influence employee behaviour and can either support or restrain the development of new competencies.

2.3 Knowledge Knowledge is the accumulated information, facts, principles and procedures associated with a specific subject that individuals collect and store in their memories as time goes by (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Knowledge is regarded as the cognitive outcome of a learning programme. Knowledge relates to the way in which people process information and attach sense and meaning to it. A distinction can be made between explicit knowledge (that is quantifiable and easily transferred and reproduced) and tacit knowledge (that is concerned with understanding and application). Tacit knowledge is often combined with experience and interpretation, and consequently more difficult to include in a learning programme. Knowledge is a vital requirement for learning and developing skills. Knowledge is, therefore, the foundation of learning (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Knowledge is the cognitive outcome of a learning programme – it relates to the way in which people process information and attach sense and meaning to it.

2.4 Skills A skill is the ability to execute a job to a required standard (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Skills are those aspects of task behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level to ensure effective job performance. How effectively and efficiently an employee performs a job may give an indication of the individual level of skill (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Skills-based outcomes of learning programmes are the procedural knowledge component of an individual’s set of competencies. A range of skills can be identified, such as: •• Manual or technical skills; •• The application of specific competencies, knowledge and skills to perform a task; •• Interpersonal skills, such as the ability to work in a team; and 102

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•• Analytical and problem-solving skills involved in making sense of complex situations, applying judgement and making decisions (Marchington et al., 2016). Skills are those aspects of task behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level to ensure effective job performance.

2.5 Learning and performance In the broader context of L&D, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of productive interaction with one’s surroundings. Acquiring facts and knowledge through studying, being taught and lived experiences lead to learning (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). In other words, the individual is affected in some way or another as a result of exposure to L&D activities or interventions in the workplace. Learning therefore implies sustained change, as it is expected to increase job performance. Anything that produces only a short-term effect is not regarded as true learning. For example, a student who crams as much information as possible into her head before an examination, and forgets most of it after the examination, has not learned anything (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Learning, therefore, also excludes changes in behaviour that result purely from growing older. Whereas performance can be directly observed, learning can only be inferred from behaviour or performance, and behaviour (or rather, behavioural change) possesses the characteristic of being a measure of learning (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of productive interaction with one’s surroundings. Learning implies sustained change, as it is expected to increase job performance. From Figure 2.1, it is clear that employee performance depends on more than just employee attitudes and work behaviours (Kramar & Holland, 2015). The organisational context, determined by management decisions, policies and procedures and organisational culture all affect employee performance. Employee ability involves two categories of employee knowledge. The first category is the knowledge of facts, objectives, principles and knowledge of self (also called declarative knowledge). The second type is procedural knowledge, which includes cognitive, psychomotor, interpersonal and self-management competence. Motivation is about individual decisions to perform and the degree of exertion and diligence in application (Kramar & Holland, 2015). However, opportunity to perform should also be considered when employee performance is investigated. The resources provided to support persistently acceptable performance, work and organisational contexts affect employee opportunity to perform at acceptable levels. Human resource (HR) policies, strategies, procedures and practices affect employee ability and motivation. Employees should have clear impressions of what is expected from them in terms of job performance content and standards (Kramar & Holland, 2015).

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A simple description of employee performance are illustrated as Figure 2.1. Ability to perform

Motivation to perform

Individual job performance

Opportunity to perform

Figure 2.1  Components of employee performance (Botha, 2018)

Employee performance depends on the organisational context which is determined by management decisions, policies and procedures and organisational culture. HR policies, strategies and procedures affect employee motivation: employees should have clear impressions of what is expected from them in terms of job performance. Individual employees usually perceive their work performance as acceptable (Page-Tickell, 2014). Employees tend to compare their efforts with those of their co-workers and also with their own personal goals, and substantiate their performance accordingly. Acceptance of this fact is vital to understanding employee workplace learning. In addition, as discussed earlier, an individual’s belief in their capacity to be successful in learning affects their workplace learning participation and success (Page-Tickell, 2014). An individual’s belief in their capacity to be successful in learning affects their workplace learning participation and success.

3. THE NATURE OF LEARNING How people learn and how they acquire skills for effective job performance are important considerations for the design, delivery and management of effective learning programmes. Knowing how people learn can help managers and L&D practitioners to diagnose performance problems, assess L&D needs and identify development strategies (Noe, 104

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2014). Cognitive psychology research indicates that people generally learn in two ways, namely through implicit learning and explicit learning (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012; Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Cognitive psychology research indicates that people generally learn in two ways, namely through implicit learning and explicit learning.

3.1 Implicit learning Implicit learning refers to the implicit (unconscious) knowledge that people use daily. They use this knowledge in most of what they do, but they cannot describe how they have acquired the knowledge. For example, people learn their mother tongue through implicit learning. They are not always consciously aware of the knowledge they gain from implicit learning, but they can still apply that knowledge when the situation requires them to do so. People cannot always explain why they understand and are able to respond to what their parents ask or tell them to do. They cannot necessarily describe the relevant knowledge, unless they are taught the rules of the language (such as grammar and syntax). Implicit learning is, therefore, described as noticing regularities in the world and responding to them in consistent ways. Implicit learning is automatic; it occurs without our conscious control and leads to implicit knowledge (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012; Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Implicit learning is automatic; it occurs without our conscious control and leads to implicit knowledge.

3.2 Explicit learning Explicit learning requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort. Educational institutions facilitate explicit learning. They help learners to think deliberately and consciously about the meaning of things, how to solve problems and how to remember information. Explicit learning can be divided roughly into three activities: memorising, problem-solving and understanding (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012; Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Explicit learning requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort. Educational institutions facilitate explicit learning.

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Activity The seven wonders of the short-term memory The short-term (working) memory of most people seems to have a capacity of roughly seven bits of information. It can be described as a closet with seven hangers. The wonderful thing is that, although there are only seven hangers in a person’s closet, what they hang on each of them is almost unlimited (Dooley et al., 2005). People can deal with more than seven pieces of information by dividing information into chunks. Look at the following 15 letters: SAASACPANCSANDF Try to memorise them. (Difficult, isn’t it?) Now chunk the letters into something that makes sense: SAA SACP ANC SANDF We can increase the capacity of our short-term memory by creating larger and larger chunks of information. If we want to remember something for longer than the 15 to 30 seconds so that it remains in the working memory, we must repeat the information and then encode it. We encode information by relating new information and concepts to information already present in our long-term memory. If we arrange information in some kind of logical order (for example, chronologically, or according to size, colour or importance), it helps us to remember more information for longer periods. Research has found that the best way to remember is to use meaningful connections to things we already know. One way of doing this, is to compare or contrast new information to old information. For example, compare your beliefs about how learning occurs to the information you have gained in this chapter (Dooley et al., 2005).

3.3 Memorising Learners who focus only on memorising and problem-solving have a shallow approach to their own learning. They only want to reproduce the subject matter in some way, for example, by answering assignment questions. When learners and facilitators of learning concentrate on understanding, they take a much deeper approach. They think about what they are learning and they try to understand the material so that they can use it to develop and change their pre-existing ideas (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Explicit learning is a conscious action, therefore it requires deliberate effort and the use of memory. Memory serves as a storage facility for everything we have learned about the world (all the knowledge we have acquired in our lives so far) and provides a facility for conscious thinking. The long-term memory is our storage facility. The short-term memory is the workspace in which we work with information. For this reason, it is also called the working memory. The working memory has a storage function as well: it stores the ideas we are thinking about while we are thinking about them. The working memory has a limited capacity; it can hold between five and nine ideas at one time. Usually, people can think about only one idea at a time. A computer works in a similar way. The hard drive is the computer’s long-term memory; the RAM (random-access memory) is the computer’s working memory, and this is where the processing of data takes place. 106

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The long-term memory is our storage facility. The short-term memory is the workspace in which we work with information, so it is also called the working memory. The limited capacity of the short-term memory explains why explicit learning is difficult. If the demands made by explicit learning exceed the capacity of the working memory, learning will not occur or will occur to a limited extent only. But when learners practise what they have learned through explicit learning, it becomes implicit (automatic), and the information or knowledge is stored in the long-term memory. This frees up space in the working memory. When learners practise what they have learned through explicit learning, it becomes implicit (automatic), and the knowledge is stored in the long-term memory. Memorising happens when we read or listen to material because we want to memorise it. How do you prepare for examinations? Do you read through the work, summarise the sections you think are important and then repeatedly read through your summaries until you feel that you remember enough of the work to pass an examination? We memorise by rehearsing or repeating information and sometimes by integrating the new material with existing knowledge. When we memorise information, we are accumulating the information in our memories. We can either combine the new information with our existing knowledge or add it to our memories without linking it to existing knowledge. Memorising does not change the new or existing knowledge in any way. The emphasis is only on the accumulation of knowledge. Research has shown that repetition alone is not a good technique for memorising facts. Memory (and thus learning) improves when learners organise the learning material in a way that is logical to them and the material is integrated with pre-existing knowledge. Memory (and thus learning) improves when learners organise the learning material in a way that is logical to them, and the material is integrated with pre-existing knowledge.

3.4 Problem-solving A problem can be described as a goal that seems to be out of the reach of a person, either because of a lack of information or a lack of resources (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). When the person does something that leads to achieving the goal, the problem is solved. When the goal is achieved, the person learns something new about that situation or problem. So, when a learner finds a solution to a problem, they learn something new. When the learner applies the solution so often that the behaviour becomes automatic, further learning occurs. In this way, the learner frees up working memory for more complex or difficult problems or situations. For example, when we learn to multiply, we learn that 2 × 2 = 4. At first, this is a difficult problem for us. But when we apply what we have learned from the problem to different problems, the calculation becomes automatic. 107

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Problem-solving does not require the use and explicit awareness of prior knowledge. This is why learners are not afraid to get involved in problem-solving situations. The danger is that learners may use only problem-solving and memorising when they learn, while neglecting true understanding. The ability to solve problems, as described in the example above, is limited to situations in which the learner must know that 2 x 2 = 4. The knowledge gained cannot be used in new situations unless it is similar to the one described. For the learner to use the generalised knowledge that is gained through understanding, they must be able to understand the conceptual principles that underlie a range of problems that seem different from one another (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). For example, if learners know only how to multiply with a pocket calculator, they may find the solution to a problem, but they will not be able to apply the solution in any situation in which they do not have a calculator. For them to do the calculation without the calculator, they must understand the mathematical concepts behind the solution or the steps that will lead to the solution (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). The danger is that learners may use only problem-solving and memorising when they learn, while neglecting true understanding.

3.5 Understanding Understanding requires not only the use of the working memory, but also the ability to think about and deliberately control knowledge and thought processes. This is a high-level cognitive (thinking) activity; it takes years to develop this ability (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Most people find this type of learning difficult and many avoid trying to use it. To grasp the concept of understanding more clearly, try to think of it in terms of your new knowledge and your existing knowledge. When understanding occurs, there is interaction between your existing knowledge and the new knowledge that you are processing. Existing knowledge is used to make sense of the new knowledge. At the same time, the new knowledge may lead to a change in our existing knowledge. Learners often do not achieve understanding because they fail to evaluate their existing knowledge by using information from the new material they are studying. Learners who attempt to understand new work deliberately use their prior knowledge to help them to make sense of the new information. They also try to modify their existing knowledge with the new information (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). Existing knowledge is used to make sense of the new knowledge. At the same time, the new knowledge may lead to a change in our existing knowledge. The kind of knowledge that is enhanced and modified through the activity of understanding is called conceptual knowledge. This knowledge describes the world around us. One of the important reasons why we should learn through understanding is that it assists us to understand and change our understanding of the world. Why was Alexander Graham Bell the one to ‘discover’ the telephone? Why was Copernicus the person who proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun? They used understanding to evaluate their existing 108

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knowledge and incorporate new information into the existing knowledge. In this way, they created new knowledge. The kind of knowledge that is enhanced and modified through the activity of understanding is called conceptual knowledge. Although all learning does not result in better performance, careful attention to learning design, principles of implicit and explicit learning and work environment characteristics can greatly increase the likelihood that learning will result in improved job performance (Landy & Conte, 2004). Training increases the probability of learning, and learning increases the probability of better performance. However, for learning to be effective, it must take account of the factors that accelerate, enable and hinder the learning process. Table 2.1 provides an overview of typical barriers to learning. Training increases the probability of learning, and learning increases the probability of better performance. Table 2.1  Barriers to learning (Lee-Davies, 2007; Martin, 2005)

Barrier

External factors

Physical

Inappropriate time or place.

Specific environment

Unsupportive colleagues or superiors; Pressure to participate in a learning programme.

Barrier

Internal factors

Perceptual

Inability to see that there is a problem.

Personality

Learning style and preferences; Demographics (including race, gender, age and cultural background); Habits.

Cultural

Conditioning about the way things are currently done.

Emotional

Mood, anxiety.

Motivational

Unwillingness to take risks.

Cognitive

Previous bad learning experiences.

Intellectual

Limited ability; Memory limitations.

Expressive

Ineffective communication skills; Learning experience.

Situational

A lack of opportunity; Poorly designed learning event.

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Activity Read through the following descriptions. Determine whether implicit or explicit learning is taking place. Description

Implicit/Explicit

Nomsa is learning how to behave at the dinner table. Pieter has started working at his new place of work, and he is still getting used to the new ideas of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Jonathan is studying for an examination and memorising the names of the different learning theories and their characteristics. Siviwe is participating in a group exercise in which he is learning to apply interviewing skills. Seshni has to apply the interpersonal communication principles she learned on a supervisor’s training course in her work situation. Alice is doing a case study in which she has to solve the planning problems of a production manager.

4. ADULT LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS In the workplace, L&D activities and interventions are developed for adult learners. While children learn because they are curious or simply for the sake of learning, adults are more orientated to learning for application in the near future. Several characteristics of adult learners affect the learning process and outcomes. These include the learners’: •• Motivation or need to know; •• Mastery orientation; and •• Readiness to learn; •• Experience level (Noe, 2014). •• Performance orientation; The need-to-know aspect is the perceived value of the knowledge to learners, and learners’ interest in attending a learning programme, learning from the training and transferring the competencies acquired in training back to the job. Adult learners often prefer learning programmes that focus on life issues, job tasks or specific problems, in other words, learning programmes that are personally meaningful in some way (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Adult learners often prefer learning programmes that focus on life issues, job tasks or specific problems, i.e. ones that are personally meaningful in some way. Readiness to learn is the amount of prerequisite knowledge the learners possess and the learners’ subjective opinion of their ability to learn the material. It also includes the learners’ general mental ability, goal orientation, experience level and desire to participate in the learning programme (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). For example, in a group of learners with widely different cognitive abilities, high-ability learners will be bored, while low110

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ability learners will have trouble keeping up with their peers. In a group of learners with similar abilities, learning facilitators can proceed through material at a pace appropriate to the backgrounds of the participants. Research has shown that the participants’ belief in their ability to master the learning material directly influences their motivation to participate in the learning opportunity (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Learners with a performance orientation are concerned about doing well in training and being evaluated positively. They perceive their abilities as somewhat fixed and they are generally not open to learning environments in which errors and mistakes are encouraged. They direct their energies to performing well on tasks, often at the expense of learning. Performance-orientated learners are often sensitive to feedback. To avoid criticism, they might reduce their efforts and goals in challenging situations. In contrast, individuals with a mastery orientation are concerned with increasing their competence for the task at hand, and they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. Mastery-orientated individuals are flexible and adaptable in learning situations, which is particularly important when learning dynamic tasks and making complex decisions (Landy & Conte, 2012). Compared to performance-orientated learners, individuals with a mastery orientation are more motivated to learn, more actively engaged in the training task, more prepared to acquire new skills in training, and more effective at transferring their new skills to the job. Individuals with a mastery orientation are concerned with increasing their competence for the task at hand and they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. Activity • When learning new information in your studies or on the job, do you tend to have a mastery orientation or a performance orientation? • Does this orientation help or hinder what you learn, and how you later apply that information when you take a test or perform on the job? (Landy & Conte, 2012).

An additional characteristic of adult learners that influences the learning process is experience level. Inexperienced learners with lower levels of competency generally benefit more from longer and more structured learning programmes. In contrast, experienced learners with high levels of competency thrive in shorter, less structured learning programmes. All of these characteristics of adult learners must be addressed in order for them to feel capable of learning and willing to engage in the learning experience (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). L&D professionals must, therefore, evaluate the relevance of the learning material and process to the learner’s goals, values, needs, readiness for and orientation to learning, and experience level. The role of the learning facilitator or trainer should always be to support and enhance the adult learner’s natural energies and talents for learning. Inexperienced learners with lower levels of competency generally benefit more from longer and more structured learning programmes. 111

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Adults prefer self-directed learning strategies. It seems that adults want to set their own pace, establish their own structure, and keep open the option to revise their learning strategy. Adults walk into learning situations with a fairly well-defined cognitive map. This map is based on their experiences of the world, and the older they are, the more detailed their map is likely to be. This means that L&D professionals must consider the differences between members of a training group in terms of their learning strategies and needs. Differences in experience should also be regarded as a valuable learning resource. L&D professionals (in their role as learning facilitators) must be skilled in guiding learners to share those experiences in a nonthreatening manner. Learning approaches that emphasise an individualised and self-directed learning strategy, and use other group members as resources for learning, will be most likely to succeed with adult learners (Blaschke, 2012; Knowles, 1972). Adults tend to prefer self-directed learning strategies – they want to set their own pace, establish their own structure, and keep open the option to revise their learning strategy. Adult learners are regarded as lifelong learners who have critical insight, independent thought and the ability to analyse reflectively. They can make judgements about different theories or arguments (Coetzee, 2016a). These learners can manage their own learning because they act out of their own free will and initiate the learning themselves. Adult learners are lifelong learners with the ability to: •• Develop and be in touch with curiosities; •• Formulate questions that can be answered through enquiry (finding out the facts); •• Identify the information required to answer different kinds of questions; •• Locate the most relevant and reliable sources of information; •• Select and use the most efficient methods of collecting the required information from the appropriate sources; •• Organise, analyse and evaluate the information to get valid answers; and •• Generalise, apply and communicate answers (King, 2017). L&D professionals can nurture and develop these abilities of adult learners by adopting the principles of andragogy (adult learning) in their L&D practices and processes. The andragogical approach utilises the learners’ experience of the world in the development and implementation of learning programmes. L&D professionals develop learning programmes that are personally meaningful to adult learners, ensuring that the learners can participate actively in the learning programme, which ensures that learners maintain motivation throughout the learning programme (Blaschke, 2012). L&D professionals can nurture and develop the abilities of adult learners by adopting the principles of andragogy (adult learning) in their L&D practices and processes.

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L&D professionals who adopt an andragogical approach to training are regarded as true facilitators of learning. Learning becomes a participative process in which the learner shares the responsibility for the learning with the facilitator. Mutual respect, trust and supportiveness are evident in the relationship between the facilitator and the learners. L&D professionals and managers should strive to develop an environment that facilitates learning. The learning experience can be enhanced by using principles from several learning theories and various approaches to learning in the training design. An andragogical approach to training involves a participative process in which there is mutual respect, trust and supportiveness in the relationship between the facilitator and the learners. Activity Reflect on your personal learning journey so far. Would you describe yourself as an adult lifelong learner? Compile a checklist of the principles of adult learning and lifelong learning. Indicate which of the principles you can identify in your own learning journey and which principles you still need to practise.

Case study: Reflecting on qualities of adult lifelong learning Mpho is the third of six daughters of a single mother. Mpho’s mother struggled to find the money to ensure that her daughters would receive a good education and to provide access to tertiary education. Mpho decided to use the local TVET college to qualify as an electrical engineering technician. When she failed to find a job after qualifying, she became a house cleaner and saved the money to further her qualifications. She subsequently qualified as a boilermaker and is currently looking for a suitable position. Questions 1. Which of the qualities of an adult lifelong learner does Mpho exhibit? Use the qualities of a lifelong self-directed learner to substantiate your answer. 2. Which of the qualities of an adult lifelong learner would you advise Mpho to focus on developing, if any? Use the qualities of a lifelong self-directed learner to substantiate your answer.

5. THEORIES OF LEARNING Various theories of learning have been developed over the years. These can be classified into the classical theories and the modern theories of learning. Theories of learning have their roots in the study of psychology. Initial theories were developed from research into animal behaviour and learning. From these early studies, different perspectives were developed, which provided insights into the nature of individual learning (Noe, 2014).

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5.1 Classical theories of learning Four classical theories of learning can be identified, namely the behaviourist theories, cognitive theories, social learning theories and humanist perspectives on learning. Each one of these adds to the understanding of the learning process by building on the earlier approaches and making sense of different learning experiences. L&D professionals, as learning facilitators, have to think critically about how learners learn and what they can do to assist learners. Learning theories help learning facilitators to understand the learning process. By incorporating the principles behind the learning theories into the design and development of learning materials, L&D professionals can enhance the learning process. Four classical theories of learning can be identified, namely the behaviourist theories, cognitive theories, social learning theories and humanist perspectives on learning. 5.1.1 Behaviouristic perspective on the learning process

The behaviourist approach has been influential in highlighting specific elements in the learning process that need to be considered when designing or facilitating learning events. This approach demonstrates how behaviour can be shaped through appropriate reinforcement techniques (Robinson, 2006). The behaviourist approach explains learning in terms of what happens in the world around us. We learn because someone praises us when we do something right. Mental processes are not taken into account in this theory. The basic principle of the behaviourist approach to learning is that we form associations between a stimulus (a mother praises a baby who takes a step) and a response (the baby takes a step) (Noe, 2014). Learning occurs when desired behaviour is praised (enforced) and this increases the likelihood of the person repeating that behaviour in the future. For example, a mother repeatedly encourages her baby to take a step and praises the baby warmly when the baby does take a step. The baby learns that, when she takes a step, her mother will praise her, so she takes another step. The behaviour is reinforced and the probability that the behaviour will be repeated in the future increases (Noe, 2014). The behaviour that the mother wants to see (the baby walking by herself ) can be caused by repeated practice. This means that the relationship between the behaviour and the reinforcement is important, as long as the reinforcement (reward) is given immediately after the behaviour. The more the mother praises the baby’s efforts, the more the baby will try to repeat those efforts, but only if the mother praises her while the effort is being made or immediately afterwards. The rewards that each of us finds important, or reinforcing, are unique. We cannot assume that everyone’s behaviour will be reinforced using the same rewards.

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What are the implications of the behaviourist approach for learning interventions? The learning intervention that will be presented when the L&D professional uses this theory as a basis for designing the intervention will be subject-focused. Learning outcomes will focus on clearly specified behaviours, skills and competencies. The behaviourist approach assumes that learners are passive recipients of input and that the L&D professional is the expert who is in control (Noe, 2014). The training environment will be more formal, the L&D professional will be the one in control and the participants may tend to be externally motivated, inactive and rely heavily on the L&D practitioner (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Typical training methods will include: bite-sized chunks of information, repeated instructions, repeated practice at tasks, role-plays, instruction and reinforcement. The behaviourist approach is not recommended for more complex learning outcomes and higher level skills (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). The behaviourist approach is not recommended for more complex learning outcomes and higher level skills. 5.1.2 Cognitive approach to learning

Cognitive approaches to learning build on the work of Kohler (1925), who researched how animals solved problems and Piaget (1926), whose work focused on child development. Cognitive theories focus on how individuals process and interpret information, while acknowledging that humans do not always learn by performing a task and receiving direct reinforcement. Instead, humans can use memory, judgement, problem-solving, reasoning and understanding to make connections between what they observe and how they should behave or perform in situations (including work situations). For example, a young woman touches a red-hot coal. It burns her fingers and she pulls away her hand. When this woman sees a red-hot coal again, she will not touch it, because she knows that it will burn her fingers. According to the theory of cognitive information processing, the woman received information from the environment (the coal is hot!). She processed the information (don’t touch, it is hot!) and stored this information in her memory. This stored information is expressed in her behaviour when she is in a similar situation. Every day we receive information through our senses, but we process only that information to which we pay attention. This is called selective attention (Dooley et al., 2005). Think of a time when you were engrossed in a conversation with someone and then clearly heard your name mentioned by someone else in the same room. This is an example of selective attention. Another example is when you start thinking of buying a car or cell phone. Have you noticed how often you see the same model of car or cell phone that you want to buy? You probably saw that model of car or cell phone just as often before you made your decision, but you did not pay attention to it at the time.

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Every day we receive information through our senses, but we process only that information to which we pay attention. This is called selective attention. Sometimes, behaviours become automatic. We do not have to pay as much attention to these behaviours as we had to when we first started doing them. Think about making a cup of coffee. How much attention do you pay to all the tasks involved in making the coffee? And yet, how often do you burn yourself with hot water or forget to add sugar? This is called automaticity (Dooley et al., 2005). You have made coffee so often that it has become automatic. You can make a good cup of coffee without consciously thinking about it. This links with implicit and explicit learning. Pattern recognition is another important concept in cognitive information processing. When we receive new information, we try to fit it into a pattern that is already established in our memories. Pattern recognition enhances the transfer of new stimuli (information people receive through their senses) from the environment to our working memories. There is no conscious thought involved in pattern recognition (Dooley et al., 2005). Pattern recognition is another important concept in cognitive information processing. When we receive new information, we try to fit it into a pattern that is already established in our memories. Cognitive information processing relies on the following processes: the senses must pass on information; the individual must pay sufficient attention to the information; and an appropriate pattern must exist in the sensory memory for pattern recognition to occur. When all three of these processes are completed, new information can enter the working memory. Conscious processing can then start to take place: information is retrieved from the long-term memory and used in processing new information (Dooley et al., 2005). In cognitive information processing, the senses must pass on information, the individual must pay attention to it and an appropriate pattern must exist in the sensory memory for pattern recognition to occur. According to the cognitive information-processing model, learning materials must be well organised to help learners process and encode information. Learners must also be allowed to practise what they have learned. In this way, certain skills become automatic, and this frees up learners’ attention for more learning. L&D professionals must include graphic material, such as mind maps, diagrams and pictures in the learning material, to help learners process and encode the information more efficiently. Lastly, learners must be encouraged to notice, think about and experiment with how they learn so that they can improve their own learning (Dooley et al., 2005).

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How will the cognitivist approach influence the learning intervention? The content of the intervention will be more problem- or task-focused, while the L&D professional will assume the role of facilitator and presenter of the training. Participants must play an active role and demonstrate self-directed and self-evaluating behaviours. The cognitive approach to learning assumes learners to be cognitive information processors and the L&D professional is an expert who, being in control of the process, will vary the format of training to accommodate the learner’s learning style. The focus of the training will be on clearly specified job roles and competencies (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). The participants may be more internally motivated and the training environment will be more mutually respectful, collaborative and relaxed. Typical training methods include: concept maps, varied presentation methods and formats, a framework and sequenced learning steps, and clearly specified KSA (knowledge, skills and attitudes) objectives, making progress from simple to complex tasks. The cognitive approach is not recommended for more complex learning outcomes because it tends to focus on the assessment of memory, not ability and the inappropriate use of learning style models (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). 5.1.3 Social learning

Social learning theory, or observational learning, is a refinement of behaviourist and cognitive approaches (Noe, 2014). According to social learning theories, people learn by observing other people. By observing, they acquire knowledge, beliefs and attitudes and learn rules, skills and beliefs (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). For example, consider how children learn to clean a room or to dress themselves. They do so by watching others and trying to copy them. Social learning helps us to observe the consequences of certain behaviours of others in a social setting (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Social learning theory introduces the concept of the role model. It suggests that people will seek to model themselves on others whom they perceive to be successful. In other words, they will try to imitate the behaviour of their role models (Noe, 2014). A technique called behaviour modelling is often used to apply principles of social learning theory to the development of interpersonal skills. Behaviour modelling works through observing employees (or recordings of employees) who demonstrate positive modelling behaviours; rehearsing the behaviour using a role-playing technique; receiving feedback on the rehearsal and finally, trying out the behaviour on the job. Role modelling also underpins mentoring initiatives within organisations (Landy & Conte, 2012). Social learning theory is not concerned with the cognitive processes and conceptual structures involved in learning. It focuses on the social environments and relationships that will provide the correct context for learning (Landy & Conte, 2012). In the context of training, learners participate in a structured environment (the organisational environment); at the same time, they contribute to that structure (their own behaviours influence the organisation). Learners learn by practising the required behaviours in a group. In the context of training, learners, practise, learning, participation and the group context are interconnected; they cannot be isolated from one another. This means that the whole group is affected by the learning that takes place in each participant. 117

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Social learning can often be unintentional: learners master certain situations or behaviours as a result of their participation in the group. Social learning does not require mastery of specific knowledge, but rather full engagement (participation) in the specific situation or group (Noe, 2014). The focus is on the group, not on the individual. The situation and the group provide information about probable consequences of behaviours and motivate the participants to act in certain ways. Social learning theory introduces the concept of the role model. It suggests that people will seek to model themselves on others whom they perceive to be successful and this can often be unintentional. How does the social learning approach influence the learning intervention? L&D professionals should remember that learning is a social process. The learner, learning and the social environment are all interconnected. Advancements in mobile technology and social media facilitate principles of social learning. When designing learning processes, L&D professionals should apply this knowledge by making provision for group work and social interaction. Social media via mobile and internet technology should be utilised to engage the learner in meaningful ways, especially for younger generation learners whose brains are wired for social media technology (King, 2017). 5.1.4 Humanist perspectives on learning

The humanist perspective views knowledge as a personal, subjective issue, not an external commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of content (Noe, 2014). Based on the work of Carl Rogers (1969), the humanist perspective says that individuals have a natural aptitude for learning and have control over their own learning processes and outcomes. All training should therefore take a learner-centred approach. The role of the L&D professionals shifts to that of learning facilitator, while the responsibility for learning rests firmly with the learner (Noe, 2014). The humanist perspective views knowledge as a personal, subjective issue, not an external commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of content. What are the implications of the humanist perspective for learning facilitation? Facilitation involves creating an environment in which people are motivated to think, contribute ideas, listen to others, share perspectives and experiences as adult learners and evaluate their learning and contribution. Humanist approaches thus emphasise a shift from traditional, instructor-led, content-based L&D interventions to self-directed, work-based learning processes. Humanist approaches also thrive in an organisational culture that encourages individual and collective learning and embraces change (Noe, 2014). The humanist perspective on learning is applicable to the South African outcomes-based approach to L&D practices. 118

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Humanist approaches emphasise a shift from traditional, instructor-led, content-based L&D interventions to self-directed, work-based learning processes. Activity From the following examples, identify which learning theory is being described. Explain how you identified the learning theory and the implications for learning facilitation. Description

Learning theory

Explanation

Implications for facilitation

People learn because they are offered a reward for doing specific things. People are concerned with the thinking processes involved in learning. People’s longand short-term memories, and the attention they pay to the information they receive from the world, influence the way they learn. People learn through social situations. They are influenced by the situation, but they also influence the situation. People have a natural ability to learn and control their own learning.

6. MODERN THEORIES OF LEARNING Modern theories of learning incorporate the classical learning theories into new perspectives, identified in research, to construct newer theories of learning, focusing particularly on adult learning and how adults learn best.

6.1 Experiential learning A theme of cognitive learning theory is that learning does not occur only in formal, structured situations: learning can be informal and spontaneous. A theme of cognitive learning theory is that learning does not occur only in formal, structured situations: learning can be informal and spontaneous. The experiential learning approach sees learning as a cyclical, dynamic and continuous process. It also emphasises that learning is an active process. Learners are not passive recipients of training, but actively seek out opportunities to apply their behaviour in new situations (Noe, 2014). The dynamic, continuous and cyclical nature of learning is best described by means of Kolb’s (1985; 2015) famous learning cycle (see Figure 2.1). According to this model, effective learning results from progression through four stages, which are repeated all the time as learning progresses (Kolb, 2015). The cycle includes the following: 119

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1. Reflective observation (watching). Reflecting on previous experiences and feelings occurs during this stage. Watching, listening and actively thinking through issues ensure that careful consideration is made before taking action. 2. Abstract conceptualisation and generalisation (thinking). During this stage, theories for the future are developed. Using reflections, information is analysed and conceptualised in an abstract form. That is, the learner thinks through the possible repercussions of ideas and applies previous learning to increase the success of the idea. Logical thought and modelling (brainstorming) give rise to new things to try out. 3. Active experimentation (acting/doing) Testing implication of concepts in new situations occurs during this step. This involves learning through doing. Previous thoughts and ideas are applied in a practical situation. Trial and error gives rise to further thoughts and ideas, which can be followed through the entire cycle. 4. Concrete experiences (feeling). Following active experimentation, the learner gains concrete experience in terms of the development of feelings. These feelings are used as a reference point for future actions. Kolb’s model sees learning as goal-directed. As individual goals may vary, individuals will pay more attention to different stages of the cycle (Kolb, 2015).

Concrete experience Concrete experience in terms of developing feelings

Active experimentation

Reflective observation

Testing implications of concepts in new situations

Reflecting upon previous experiences and feelings

Abstract conceptualisation and generalisation Developing theories for the future

Figure 2.2  Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 2015)

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Activity Think about a learning programme in which you have been involved. Can you identify the stages of Kolb’s learning theory in that learning programme? Which stages of Kolb’s learning theory would you add to ensure that all the participants pass through all four stages of the learning process?

6.2 Action learning Action learning is a form of organisational and individual learning. It is also cyclical and experiential in nature. In action learning, individuals and the organisation learn how to deal with problems and situations by developing an understanding of problems and then creating change. Change is followed by reassessment and further adaptation, as and when necessary, based on the new learning achieved. In practice, it is learning through action, a form of continuous development. In individual learning terms, action learning follows the same experiential learning process described by Kolb (Noe, 2014). In action learning, individuals and the organisation learn how to deal with problems and situations by developing an understanding of problems and then creating change.

6.3 Preferred learning styles An important question about learning is why everyone is not equally successful at the learning to which they are exposed. For example, not everyone achieves the same marks in an examination, even though they study the same course, with the guidance of the same lecturer. Some individuals learn to drive a car quickly, while others need many lessons before they pass the driving test. According to Kolb (2015), individuals have a preference for one of the four stages of the learning cycle. This is known as the individual’s preferred learning style. 6.3.1 The Kolb and Fry learning style inventory

Kolb and Fry (1975) argue that individuals prefer using different stages of the learning cycle. Most individuals prefer to use one stage – the one with which they are most at ease – most of the time. While a person’s style can be modified over time with a great deal of persistence and effort, people have a natural inclination to use their dominant style in preference to others. Trying to learn in another style is difficult, stressful and unpleasant (Kolb, 2015). The learning style inventory (Kolb, 2015) developed by Kolb and Fry can be used to identify an individual’s dominant learning style. Table 2.2 gives an overview of the four learning styles (converger, diverger, assimilator and accommodator) within Kolb’s learning cycle (Kolb, 2015).

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Table 2.2  Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles (Kolb, 2015) The converger uses abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation abilities to learn.

•• Can apply ideas in practical ways •• Performs well when there is a single correct answer •• Uses hypothetical, deductive reasoning to solve specific problems •• Not emotional; would rather deal with objects than with people •• Usually specialises in physical sciences

The diverger uses concrete experience and reflective observation abilities to learn.

•• Well developed imaginative ability •• Sees situations and problems from different perspectives •• Good at generating ideas •• Finds people interesting and has broad cultural interests •• Usually specialises in arts

The assimilator uses abstract conceptualisation and reflective observation abilities to learn.

•• Good at creating theoretical models •• Very good at inductive reasoning •• Concerned with abstract concepts; does not worry about the practical use of theories •• Not overly concerned with people •• Usually specialises in basic science and mathematics

The accommodator uses concrete experience and active experimentation abilities to learn.

•• Good at doing things (application) •• Does not shy away from taking risks •• Can adapt quickly to changing circumstances •• Solves problems intuitively •• Gets information from other people •• Prefers action-oriented jobs

6.3.2 Gregorc’s learning styles

Gregorc (cited in Rogowsky et al., 2014) bases his learning styles theory on the following two variables: 1. How people order the world (random or sequential); and 2. How people view the world (abstract or concrete). This creates four learning styles, each with its own preferences in learning activities and learning environments. Table 2.3 gives an overview of these four learning styles. Table 2.3  Gregorc’s learning styles (Rogowsky et al., 2014)

Preferences

Learning style

Characteristics

•• Concrete

Concrete/random

•• Random

•• Prefers practical situations

•• Divergent thinkers

•• Uses models to learn •• Can see the big picture

•• Can make intuitive leaps in reasoning

•• Prefers to use trial and error

•• Wants choices

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Preferences

Learning style

Characteristics

•• Concrete

Concrete/sequential

•• Sequential

•• Makes lists

•• Likes details

•• Prefers hands-on activities

•• Prefers procedures

•• Enjoys learning

•• Encourages timeliness •• Prefers order

•• Abstract

Abstract/random

•• Random

•• Enjoys feelings and emotions

•• Is flexible and spontaneous

•• Prefers a supportive environment

•• Prefers variety

•• May know the answer but cannot always explain how it was reached

•• Well-developed visual imagination

•• Abstract

Abstract/sequential

•• Sequential

•• Must be given time to process new information

•• Prefers order

•• Uses analytical strategies to solve problems

•• Enjoys personal connections with others

•• Reasoning is rational and logical

•• Prefers to investigate and analyse

6.3.3 McCarthy’s 4MAT model

McCarthy’s 4MAT model (cited in Goyal, Yadav & Tripathi, 2015) identifies four types of learner: 1. The imaginative learner; 2. The analytical learner; 3. The common sense learner; and 4. The dynamic learner. Table 2.4 summarises the characteristics and preferred learning styles of each of these types. Table 2.4  McCarthy’s 4MAT model (cited in Goyal et al., 2015)

The imaginative learner

The analytical learner

The imaginative learner learns through experiencing and asks ‘why’?

The analytical learner learns by conceptualising and asks ‘what?’

•• Wants to know why something must be learned

•• Wants facts and information

•• Asks questions

•• Works systematically

•• Says ‘what if?’

•• Work must be organised

•• Questions content and purposes

•• Must have purpose, directions and expectations

•• Wants to understand

•• Must be able to think and reflect before taking action

•• Seeks alternative solutions

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The common sense learner

The dynamic learner

The common sense learner learns through applying and asks ‘how?’ or ‘how to?’

The dynamic learner learns by creating and asks ‘what can this become?’ or ‘what can this be used for?’

•• Work must be practical and learner must be able to use it

•• Uses knowledge and skills to create something

•• Content should be applicable to life and experience •• Compares and contrasts new information to old to make sense of it

•• Must be allowed the freedom to take risks and enjoy new ways of thinking •• Thinks creatively and in unusual ways •• Prefers working alone but will work with others •• Dislikes routine •• Likes applying ideas

One of the most important implications of learning styles is that they indicate how people prefer to learn. This may have a big impact on how well learners interact with one another and in a learning programme. Knowledge of learners’ preferred learning styles is, therefore, important for L&D professionals. Learning facilitators should avoid designing learning programmes from the perspective of their own learning styles, as they may ignore the preferences of their learners and lose them in the learning process. Activity What is your learning style preference? Think back to a mathematics, science or language class when you were at school. Some of the learners always understood what the teacher was trying to explain, while others were completely lost. This has as much to do with learning styles as it has to do with intelligence. How many of you were good at mathematics and science, but poor at languages? And for whom was it the other way around? Did you do well in a test when the subject matter was easy to memorise (such as business management), or did you perform better when you were required to understand and apply your knowledge or skills (such as science or languages)?

6.3.4 Are learning style preferences valid?

According to Rogowsky et al., (2015), insufficient empirical evidence exists to support the theory of learning style preferences. Furthermore, L&D professionals fail to distinguish between preferred learning styles and aptitudes. Learning style theories define and classify learning behaviours, but do not describe the underlying practices and learning structures that create the specific learning behaviours. In addition, the reliability and validity of the learning style theories have not been proven sufficiently (An & Carr, 2017). Kolb’s experiential learning model has received some critique from researchers in the field (Bergsteiner et al., 2010 ), which should be noted by L&D professionals. The following aspects are regarded as flaws in the model which undermine its efficacy: •• It does not differentiate plausibly and consistently between concrete/active/primary and abstract/passive/secondary learning processes. •• It fails to differentiate appropriately between learning activities and learning typologies. 124

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•• The bi-polar dimensions (for example, concrete–abstract) are flawed. •• Certain viable learning constructs are not recognised, and other learning constructs are not taken into account. The critique on the theory of preferred learning styles indicates that the theory still needs to be researched thoroughly to determine its validity and reliability for application in learning opportunities.

6.4 Mentoring and coaching Mentoring and coaching are growing in popularity as learner-centred development tools (Noe, 2014). Mentoring refers to a relationship in which a senior, experienced individual provides support, advice and friendship to a younger, less experienced member of staff. Mentoring can be formal or informal, and it can take different forms. For example, some organisations use mentoring arrangements for new employees and people from historically disadvantaged groups as a strategy to accelerate the development of potential. Mentoring refers to a relationship in which a senior, experienced individual provides support, advice and friendship to a younger, less experienced member of staff. The concept of coaching is used to describe a one-to-one relationship between a manager and an individual employee. The aim is to develop or enhance the employee’s on-thejob performance. This form of learning relies on one individual (manager or supervisor) teaching a particular skill to the employee, through demonstration. The employee literally sits next to the coach to watch and practise under their guidance. The concept of coaching is used to describe a one-to-one relationship between a manager and an individual employee to develop or enhance their on-the-job performance.

6.5 Connectivist learning theory Connectivist learning theory was first proposed by Siemens (2004, cited in Kizito, 2016) and is associated with learning in digital contexts. According to connectivist learning theory, knowledge does not exist within the individual, but can be distributed using a complex set of connections. Learning is associated with the individual capacity to create, access and navigate the knowledge networks. The knowledge networks are created and sustained through individual experience and interactions within a particular community (such as a community of practice or a community of learners). Collaboration is a vital foundational component of connectivist learning theory. Collaboration exists where the members of a community co-operate to achieve a predetermined goal. Consequently, interaction between the members of the community is a requirement for knowledge acquisition. Teamwork creates a more efficient and relevant learning process, because of the acceptance that the knowledge and capability already reside in the network. Individuals and groups can learn from the collaborative interaction. 125

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Collaboration is a foundational component of connectivist learning theory. Learning is associated with the individual capacity to create, access and navigate the knowledge networks and capability that already reside in the network. Siemens (2004, cited in Kizito, 2016) indicates the following eight main beliefs of connectivist learning theory: 1. The diversity of opinions that exists within a community create the learning and knowledge. 2. Creating connections between specific knowledge items (or artefacts) lead to learning. 3. Knowledge may also reside in the accepted systems, procedures and practices of a community. 4. The desire and capability to increase knowledge is more important than what is already known. 5. Continued learning requires the nurturing and cultivation of connections and the creation of new connections. 6. The capacity to identify associations between disciplines, departments, ideas and concepts is an essential competence. 7. The purpose of all connectivist learning is to ensure that knowledge remains current – accurate and up-to-date. 8. The act of making a decision is fundamentally a learning process. The connectivist learning theory implies that facilitators of learning have varied roles, such as equipping learners with the capacities to create and nurture the required connections in their personal learning networks. In addition, the learning facilitator should provide the required resources for learning systems to function effectively and construct learning opportunities that inspire the desire for continued learning. Connectivist learning theory depends on sufficient and adequate technological frameworks to support connections, provide valid and reliable knowledge resources and deliver motivating and stimulating learning opportunities (Kizito, 2016).

7. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING A thorough knowledge of learning principles helps L&D professionals in their role as learning facilitators. These principles include practice and overlearning, physical and psychological fidelity, whole versus part learning and massed versus distributed practice (Landy & Conte, 2012).

7.1 Practice and overlearning Practice is critical to retaining newly learned skills. This is why many learning programmes emphasise active practice. For example, musicians actively practise scales on their instruments. They cannot retain and develop their skills by passively watching someone else. Overlearning is the practice of presenting learners with several extra learning opportunities even after they have demonstrated mastery of a task. Overlearning tends to lead to automaticity (the ability to perform a task with limited attention) and thus adequate, long-term task performance (Landy & Conte, 2012).

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Overlearning is the practice of presenting learners with several extra learning opportunities, even after they have demonstrated mastery of a task.

7.2 Identical elements (physical and psychological fidelity) Fidelity is the extent to which the task in the training situation is similar to the task required on the job. There should be elements in the training environment and tasks that are identical to the environments and tasks in the work environment (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). The existence of fidelity in training tasks increases the benefit that training will have on job performance (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Physical fidelity refers to the extent to which the training tasks, equipment used and environment mirror the physical features of the actual work situation (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). For example, aircraft simulator tasks possess physical fidelity if they accurately represent the layout of the cockpit and the motion that occurs in actual aircraft (Landy & Conte, 2012). Fidelity is the extent to which the task in the training situation is similar to the task required on the job. Fidelity in training tasks increases the benefit of training on job performance. Psychological fidelity is an indication of how trainees attach related meanings to both the training environment and the work environment (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Psychological fidelity influences how well training activities support participants in developing the competencies (attitudes, knowledge, skills and abilities) and other characteristics that are necessary to perform the job successfully. For example, lieutenant candidates in a fire department are trained (and assessed) in a simulated setting in which they have to respond to a fire by actually speaking the directions and orders they would give. This setting highlights their communication and decision-making skills and possesses psychological fidelity (Landy & Conte, 2012).

7.3 Whole versus part learning Another important consideration in training is the size of the learning tasks. Whole learning occurs when the entire task is practised at once. Part learning occurs when sub-tasks are practised separately and later combined. L&D professionals should consider the task’s difficulty level (task complexity) and the extent to which the sub-tasks are interrelated (task organisation) to determine the usefulness of whole and part learning (Landy & Conte, 2012). For example, developing the skills to land an aircraft involves a number of complex tasks. An example of part learning is the way actors rehearse various parts of a play (such as dance steps, fight scenes and pieces of dialogue) separately. L&D professionals should consider the task’s complexity and the extent to which the sub-tasks are interrelated to determine the usefulness of whole and part learning.

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Activity • Describe how learning to drive involves part learning. • Next, describe whether you think the learning sequence is likely to be different for learning to drive a car with an automatic transmission compared to one with a manual transmission (Landy & Conte, 2012).

7.4 Massed versus distributed practice Massed practice conditions are conditions in which learners practise a task continuously and without rest. Distributed practice gives learners rest intervals between practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time. In general, distributed practice results in more efficient learning and retention than massed practice, because the rest periods reduce fatigue and allow time to strengthen learned associations. For tasks with high complexity (such as air traffic control), longer rest periods between practice sessions are more beneficial for learning and skill acquisition (Landy & Conte, 2012).

8 .THE BRAIN AND LEARNING Various theories explain the role of the brain in adult learning.

8.1 Accelerated learning Accelerated learning is the process of creating and maintaining a positive learning state by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence in their ability to learn and perform. The positive learning state reduces mental barriers to learning and improves performance (Clement, 1992; Center for Accelerated Learning, 2018). Accelerated learning is a well-researched, learner-centred approach. It uses learners’ natural talents to give them the best opportunity to maximise their learning, retention and performance. Accelerated learning technology accomplishes this by creating stress-free, positive, joyful, and psychologically and physically healthy environments that enhance self-esteem and focus on the needs of learners. Accelerated learning is the process of creating and maintaining a positive learning state by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence in their ability to learn and perform. Accelerated learning techniques help to create an optimal learning environment because the techniques encourage involving the whole body/mind with all its emotions, senses and receptors. Optimal learning environments create a sense of wholeness, safety, interest and enjoyment, which is essential for optimising human learning. Accelerated learning is activity-based rather than materials-based or presentation/instruction-based and so learners are totally and actively involved and take full responsibility for their learning. Collaboration between learners in a social learning community is encouraged. A rich variety of learning options is offered, which allows learners to use all of their senses and to

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exercise preferred learning styles. Learners are exposed to a process of solving problems in real-world scenarios, receiving continual feedback, evaluation and self-reflection (Center for Accelerated Learning, 2018). Accelerated learning techniques help to create an optimal learning environment – the techniques encourage involving the whole body/mind with all its emotions, senses, and receptors Activity Accelerate your learning Visit google+ to access the following links from Brian Tracy. He provides valuable accelerated learning techniques. Brian Tracy states that when he started off his career, he had not graduated from high school and was working manual labour jobs. Because he didn’t get good grades in school, he assumed he wasn’t smart. What he found is that learning is actually a skill that can be developed just like driving a car or riding a bike. In this video, he teaches you a proven technique that you can use to accelerate learning and absorb information at a rapid pace. See: YouTube: http://ow.ly/ScHSb Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/BrianTracyPage Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/BrianTracy Google+: +BrianTracyOfficialPage Pinterest: http://www.pinterest.com/BrianTracy Instagram: @TheBrianTracy Blog: http://ow.ly/TXzAT To discover how you learn best, take Brian Tracy’s Personal Learning Assessment: http:// bit.ly/1RjLpNs

To understand accelerated learning approaches, we must first understand how our brains work. Research in the neurosciences has led to the development of the following brain models.

8.2 Split-brain theory The split-brain model stems from work done by Sperry (1974) and Ornstein (1977). According to the left/right brain hemisphere model, the left brain is verbal, logical and sequential and can generally do only one thing at a time. Most traditional L&D programmes present information in a manner that appeals to the left brain. The right brain, by contrast, is creative, visual and holistic. Apparently, it has direct access to people’s enormous memory banks. The right brain can absorb huge amounts of information with little effort. Its visual memory is essentially perfect and, with memory techniques that link lists of data to visual images, most memorisation activities become rapid and easy. Given the analytical capabilities of the left brain and the visualisation ability of the right brain, co-operation between the two hemispheres leads to optimal learning and performance outcomes. This is called whole-brain learning (Clement, 1992).

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Accelerated learning technology involves the entire person (mind, brain and body) in the learning process. All efforts (from needs assessment and initial learning material development to delivery and follow-up) focus on maximising the abilities and success of the learner. An important task of accelerated learning is to engage the right brain in cooperation with the left brain. The left brain wants step-by-step information (to analyse), while the right brain wants rich information (to synthesise). Balancing the involvement of the left and right brains requires that we use the logical and the emotional, the sequential and the global, and the linguistic and the musical in more or less equal proportions. Both hemispheres are involved in activities such as exercises and games that evoke the playful part of the learner, provide an overview, and draw on analytical resources to integrate details. Processes that involve both hemispheres imprint subject matter deeply into memory (Center for Accelerated Learning, 2018; Clement, 1992). An important task of accelerated learning is to engage the right brain, which wants rich information (to synthesise), in co-operation with the left brain, which wants step-by-step information (to analyse).

8.3 Regenerative brain theory Diamond’s (1984) classical regenerative brain theory teaches that a rich emotional classroom environment stimulates brain-cell activity in certain parts of the brain. Sensory stimuli with emotional content cause the brain to release opiate-like neurotransmitters, which produce a sense of well-being and a state of heightened awareness. So, elements of accelerated learning, such as relaxation, music, games, art and storytelling, trigger a powerful learning state that enhances long-term memory. The pleasurable feelings induced by the natural opiates released in the brain make the learning experience desirable (Clement, 1992). Sensory stimuli with emotional content cause the brain to release opiate-like neurotransmitters, which produce a sense of well-being and heightened awareness.

8.4 Triune brain theory Triune brain theory (MacLean, 1973) divides the evolutionary development of the brain into three phases: the reptilian brain, the old mammalian brain (limbic system) and the neomammalian brain (neocortex). Each of these parts of the brain has its own special functions, and each part is important to learning. The neocortex surrounds the limbic system, which, in turn, surrounds the reptilian brain. All three parts of the brain are interconnected. The reptilian brain automatically handles our basic physical needs (such as heart rate, breathing and hunger). It contains the reticular activating system which, like a computer, runs our stored mental ‘programmes’ without judgement. Many people have internal programmes that negatively influence their learning ability. For example, these programmes might cause an inner voice to say, ‘I can’t learn this’ or ‘I’m a slow learner’ (Clement, 130

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1992). The limbic system is the seat of our emotions and feelings. It also contains the hippocampus, which is essential to long-term memory. The neocortex contains our higherlevel thinking skills. It is this part of the brain that separates people from other animals. The neocortex performs its function effectively only when the other parts of the brain have processed the information according to their specific functions. Long-term memory depends on all three parts of the triune brain (Clement, 1992).

9. HUMAN INTELLIGENCE Human intelligence is no longer defined only by intellectual quotient (IQ). Research has shown that intelligence is a concept that incorporates a multiplicity of variables. L&D professionals should keep these multiple intelligences in mind when designing and conducting training. Every participant has something to contribute, therefore the course design and presentation should make it possible for participants to contribute from their own type of intelligence.

9.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences Gardner (2017) identified and tested seven distinct intelligences, and proposed an eighth form of intelligence. These intelligences are divided into three categories: communication, relating to objects and relating to the self. Table 2.5 gives an overview of the eight intelligences and how these apply to individual learning. Table 2.5   Gardner’s eight intelligences (Gardner, 2017)

Category

Intelligence

Application in learning

Communication

Verbal/linguistic

•• Uses words as communication and thinking skills •• Becomes involved in debates, storytelling and poetry •• Uses metaphors, puns, analogies and similes •• Can read for long periods •• Chooses to listen, speak, read and write

Musical/rhythmic

•• Can recognise and produce melody, rhythm and rhyme •• Is conscious of the impact of music •• Likes music •• Responds to music and rhythm sources •• Responds to sounds

Relating to objects

Visual/spatial

•• Attuned to pictures, symbols and drawings •• Can see detail •• Enjoys graphs, charts and representations that explain ideas •• Thinks in pictures

Bodily/ kinaesthetic

•• Keen sense of the tactile and aware of own body •• Prefers manipulating and handling materials to make sense of information •• Learning should involve some kind of activity, such as walking, building or role-play

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Category

Intelligence

Application in learning

Logical/ mathematical

•• Enjoys numbers and reasoning •• Can identify patterns, and recognise cause and effect and sequencing •• Likes solving problems and posing and answering questions •• Wants to analyse, assess and organise information and use spreadsheets

Relating to objects

Naturalist

•• In touch with the natural world (animals and plants) •• Enjoys geography, landscapes and the weather •• Wants to be outdoors •• Can see details in nature and can recognise patterns and characteristics •• Uses patterns and attributes to classify information •• Appreciates the environment

Relating to the self

Interpersonal

•• Interacts well with others •• Social beings, sensitive and intuitive to other people’s moods and feelings •• Often friendly and extroverted, in touch with others’ temperaments •• Valuable member of a team

Intrapersonal

•• High degree of self-awareness •• Knows and can manage own emotions and feelings and can use this knowledge to manage own behaviour •• Self-refection and goal setting are important •• Acts on a strong awareness of own strengths and needs

9.2 Sternberg’s three intelligences Robert Sternberg (2015) identified three intelligences: practical, analytical and creative intelligence. •• Practical intelligence. This kind of intelligence applies new information practically. It asks, ‘What can I do with this?’ Information is used to solve problems and make decisions to apply to real-world situations. •• Analytical intelligence. This kind of intelligence identifies problems, creates different solutions, decides on an optimal solution and applies the solution in practice. Information is used to judge situations critically. •• Creative intelligence. This kind of intelligence challenges existing assumptions and concentrates on new ways of doing things. It involves using cognitive processes to create questions, problems and projects that internalise new learning. According to Sternberg, intelligent people can use knowledge combined with these intelligences to make sense of information. In other words, information must be used intelligently to be of any value.

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9.3 Emotional intelligence The term emotional intelligence was originally coined by Salovey and Mayer (1990) to complement the traditional view of general intelligence by emphasising behaviour that requires emotional and behavioural control in social situations (Maguire et al., 2016). Emotional intelligence is distinct from, but related to, other intelligences. More specifically, it is intelligence (the ability to grasp abstractions) applied to emotions. Emotional intelligence differs from person to person (some people are more emotionally intelligent than others). This form of intelligence develops over a person’s lifespan and can be enhanced through training. Emotional intelligence involves particular abilities to reason intelligently about emotions, including identifying and perceiving emotion (in self and others). It also provides the skills to understand and manage those emotions successfully (Maguire, et al., 2016). Emotional intelligence differs from person to person. It develops over a person’s lifespan and can be enhanced through training. The literature distinguishes between ability models and mixed models of emotional intelligence (Maguire, et al., 2016). The ability model defines emotional intelligence as a set of abilities that involves perceiving and reasoning abstractly, using information that emerges from feelings. The mixed model incorporates the underlying abilities identified by the ability model. It further defines emotional intelligence as a set of abilities that includes social behaviours, traits and competencies such as self-awareness, managing one’s emotions, motivation, empathy and social skills, each of which is discussed in more detail below: •• Self-awareness is an awareness of, and appreciation of, one’s own emotions. •• Managing one’s emotions means allowing the situation to determine appropriate ways of expressing emotions. •• Motivation refers to the ability to focus on a task despite obstacles and challenges. •• Empathy means being sensitive to and responding appropriately to others’ emotions and feelings. •• Social skills are skills that equip us to manage the emotions of other people and deal with their emotions and feelings (Maguire, et al., 2016). People who are self-aware can put names to their feelings. They can recognise their emotions and ask others for support by expressing their emotions. These people also have strategies to cope with their emotions and can change them when they feel the need. When we manage our emotions, we are guided by a situation; we can adapt our emotions to the demands of the situation. This means that we can calm our emotions when we know that they are not appropriate or that we will gain nothing by expressing or feeling our emotions in the situation. Strategies we can use to calm ourselves include counting slowly to 10 (or more if we need to), taking several deep breaths, going for a walk or looking inwards to get in touch with our feelings at that moment.

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People who are self-aware can put names to their feelings. They also have strategies to cope with their emotions and can change them to the demands of the situation. When we are able to keep going even when things are not going according to plan (or seem to be working against us), we are behaving in a motivated way. Our ability to use intrinsic or internal motivation to persist at a task is enhanced when we receive ongoing feedback on our progress, when we are sure that we are up to the challenge and when we have a sense of control over our progress. When we are sensitive to other people’s feelings and respond to them appropriately, we show empathy. We learn this ability in an environment of mutual respect and concern for other people’s problems and emotions. When we deal with other people and their emotions positively and constructively, we are using our social skills. This means that we are attuned to other people’s body language signals, their needs and behaviours. By using our social skills we can respond appropriately. Activity Review the statements in the table below, and answer the following questions. • Identify your preferred emotional style. • How does your preferred style influence your interpersonal relations and your ability to learn individually, in a group and in a connectivist learning context? (Source: Wechsler cited in Wolmarans, 2004.) • Keeping in mind your preferred emotional style, and within the context of emotional intelligence, which components of emotional intelligence do you think you should still develop to have a well-balanced emotional intelligence profile? Friendly helper

Strong achiever

Logical thinker

Rejects strong emotions – hostility, animosity, aggression

Rejects tender emotions – love, affection, endearment, compassion

Uncomfortable with all emotions – blocks out emotions

Accepts tender emotions

Accepts strong emotions

Displaces emotions with logic, data, facts and figures

✓ Which is true of you?

✓ Which is true of you?

✓ Which is true of you?

•• Prefers warmth, harmony and co‑operation •• Peacemaker, non‑assertive

•• Task-orientated, initiates action, co‑ordinates, pushes for results

•• Prefers information gathering and clarification of words and ideas

•• Attempts to minimise tension

•• Prefers to be in command

•• Praises others, looks for common ground, does favours for others

•• Assertive and readily accepts aggressive qualities in themselves and others

•• Replaces emotion with logic, accuracy and self-reliance

•• Fears conflict and emotional hurt

•• Influences by giving orders, threatening, withholding rewards or challenging others

•• Rejects strong and tender emotions •• Fears confusion, loss of structure or being wrong •• Dislikes being obligated to others or being overpowered by emotions and impulse

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Friendly helper

Strong achiever

Logical thinker

•• Reaction to stress

•• Fears being perceived as soft and sentimental or losing control

•• Influences by logic, fact and clever arguments and their knowledge of rules and regulations

–– dependence or depression •• Needs to learn: –– to assert themselves –– to ask for what they want –– to be critical and evaluative of ideas

•• Reaction to stress –– domination or impulsive over-activity •• Needs to learn:

•• Reaction to stress –– withdrawal or rule bound •• Needs to learn:

–– patience –– how to support others

–– awareness of own feelings –– acceptance of closeness and intimacy –– expression of emotion

What are the implications for L&D? In addition to taking into account different learning styles of learners, L&D professionals also have to consider the principles of accelerated learning and the various kinds of intelligence when they design learning programmes. They should attempt to involve as many different kinds of intelligence as possible in the learning process and think of ways to develop the different aspects of emotional intelligence in all learners. Table 2.6  Stimulation of intelligences (based on Clement, 1992)

Intelligence

Stimulus to accelerate learning and performance

Linguistic

•• Incorporate reading and writing. •• Encourage learners to speak to one another in a topic-specific manner. •• Use dyads, or pairs of learners, to allow learners to discuss what they have just learned. •• Use plays.

Logical/ mathematical

•• Play games and puzzles.

Musical

•• Listen to songs, raps, background music, concert readings, and so on.

•• Use exercises that are different from the traditional to entice those who are weak in these areas. •• Keep a variety of music at hand to create different moods.

Visual/spatial

•• Use colourful models, patterns, pictures and symbols. •• Draw simple posters to describe key points, using colourful markers, and post them around the room. •• Encourage the use of mind maps. •• Replace words with icons. •• Use guided imagery to introduce a subject and review it.

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Intelligence

Stimulus to accelerate learning and performance

Bodily/kinaesthetic

•• Exercise, walk and dance. •• Make models of what you are teaching. •• Let learners touch objects pertinent to the subject. •• Include stretching exercises and educational kinaesthetic exercises. •• Use ball tossing to stimulate memory exercises. •• Use role-play and mind maps.

Interpersonal

•• Work in dyads or small groups. •• Converse about the subject matter and have learners actively listen to others. •• Get learners to share how they feel about the subject.

Intrapersonal

•• Keep a journal of feelings, discovered blocks and assets. •• Teach relaxation procedures to help learners to let go and reflect.

Practical

•• Ask learners to demonstrate learning by designing models. •• Give workplace assignments such as conducting interviews or collecting evidence for a portfolio to demonstrate workplace application.

Analytical

•• Give puzzles to solve. •• Ask learners to provide solutions to problematic situations by means of case studies and brainstorming.

Creative

•• Give learners challenging projects, such as researching real issues of concern in the workplace and coming up with solutions and recommendations for improvement.

Emotional intelligence

•• Ask learners to identify their own moods and emotional states before starting a workshop. •• Create a positive mood by means of music and relaxation exercises. •• Use dyads to help learners to find creative solutions to identify and deal with their anxiety and concerns. •• Use small groups to guide learners in expressing their concerns and finding creative solutions to deal with them.

Review and discussion questions 1. How does the SABPP describe L&D for the South African context? 2. How do the characteristics of adult learners influence the learning process and design of learning? How can L&D professionals improve their learning design by incorporating the needs of adult learners? 3. How do the various theories of learning support the design and delivery of effective learning programmes? Describe the important principles of each learning theory as they apply to adult learning. 4. Why is it important for L&D professionals to incorporate the principles of learning in the design and delivery of learning programmes? 5. Why is it important for L&D professionals to have a sound knowledge and understanding of learning styles, multiple intelligences and emotional intelligence? How would you, as a learning facilitator, develop the emotional intelligence of your learners?

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Summary In this chapter, we explored the characteristics of the adult learner. We saw how the principles and theories of learning can be applied to enhance, not only the design and delivery of learning programmes, but also to optimise individual and organisational learning and performance. A solid understanding of the psychology of learning is critical to creating a learning environment that motivates adult learners in the workplace to engage in continued education and L&D initiatives. It is important for L&D professionals to use a systematic approach to training that assesses training needs, incorporates principles of learning in the design and delivery of training, assesses learner achievements and evaluates the effectiveness of learning programmes. In chapters 3 to 8, this scientific approach (also called the learning cycle) is discussed. The first phase in effective learning programme design, namely analysing an organisation’s and employees’ L&D needs, is introduced in Chapter 3.

No one can be a great facilitator of learning unless they see their learners as unique and capable individuals, and have a genuine desire to impart to learners what they believe to be of value.

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PART

2 THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE

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CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee

CHAPTER

3

Key points of conducting a learning and development needs analysis: •• A learning and development (L&D) needs analysis (LDNA) is the first step in the dynamic learning cycle, which consists of planning, design, delivery and evaluation of any L&D initiative. •• An LDNA is concerned with both current and future employee performance and drives the successful implementation of organisational strategy. Consequently, it involves gathering and evaluating data about existing employees’ capabilities and the organisation’s current and future demands for skills. •• Before learning design issues are considered, a careful LDNA is required to develop a systematic understanding of where L&D is needed, what needs to be taught or trained and who needs to be trained. •• The information generated by a well-planned and executed LDNA directly affects the efficacy of any L&D intervention. •• An LDNA typically addresses four interrelated focus areas of analysis, namely sectoral, organisational, task and person. •• LDNA models and employs a systematic process and technology for improving employee and organisational capability. •• During the LDNA phase, the L&D professional should get clarity on the preferred organisational outcomes of the intended learning intervention and the organisational support that learners will receive after the programme to enhance the transfer of learning in the workplace. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Explain the various phases of the dynamic learning cycle. •• Evaluate the importance of the dynamic learning cycle. •• Identify the various levels of an LDNA. •• Discuss the purposes of an LDNA. •• Explain the methods a learning and development (L&D) professional can employ to gather data for an LDNA. •• Evaluate the appropriateness of the needs analysis methods for the four focus areas of analysis. •• Explain the steps involved in conducting an LDNA. •• Describe how the information gathered from an LDNA informs the design of outcomes and workplacebased learning programmes (discussed in Chapter 4). •• Explain the importance of establishing an LDNA information system. •• Discuss the tasks of the various role-players involved in the annual LDNA and skills planning process. •• Differentiate between the role and tasks of the skills development facilitator (SDF) and learning and development (L&D) professionals.

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1. INTRODUCTION Right-skilling the workforce has become the main focus of all human resource development (HRD) strategies and learning and development (L&D) efforts and initiatives in organisations. In Chapter 1 we pointed out how organisations world-wide are finding themselves ill-equipped to compete in the VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) economy of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era that characterise the 21st century Workplace 4.0 (Deloitte, 2017). The reason is that too many workers lack the right skills to help their employers grow and succeed. The connection between human capability and organisational success is even clearer today, as skills shortages threaten the short- and long-term success of businesses and industries throughout the world (Crous & Attlee, 2016; Deloitte, 2017; Noe et al., 2014). The business perspective is augmented by a shift towards the transformative effect of workplace learning. The human (people) component in the L&D field is being recognised increasingly. Workplace learning is no longer only about equipping employees to do their given jobs as effectively as possible, but is also about allowing employees to grow and develop as human beings – focusing on the question of ‘Who am I in this job, this organisation and this world?’ (Van Dellen & Cohen-Scali, 2015). Workplace learning is no longer only about equipping employees to do their given jobs as effectively as possible, but is also about allowing employees to grow and develop as human beings. With the global, technological information and knowledge-based economy placing an ever-growing premium on the talent, creativity and efficiency of the workforce, business leaders talk of a widening gap between the skills their organisations need and the current capabilities of their employees. In Chapter 1, we discussed how in South Africa, the Skills Development Acts, White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and National Skills Development Plan 2030 (DHET, 2017a) introduced new structures, strategies, programmes and funding policies designed to increase investment in skills development and to improve the quality and relevance of education and training and skills development in workplaces. These government policies also introduced a systematic and planned approach to developing skills, which integrates skills planning and development at national, provincial, sector and company level (DHET, 2017a; Hattingh, 2003a,b; Stuart, 2011). Working together, individuals, business leaders, skills development or L&D providers, L&D professionals and the government must meet the challenge of right-skilling head on to bring about future growth and success in a VUCA global economy. These changes, along with the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and National Skills Development Plan 2030 (DHET, 2017a) and the focus on occupationally specific and workplace-based learning design (see Chapter 1 and Chapter 4), will increasingly influence the nature of the HRD function and L&D practices in the organisation (see Chapter 9). Increasingly, we shall see a shift from the focus on providing training programmes to a more comprehensive focus on creating learning organisations in which L&D becomes an integral part of the organisation’s short- and long-term business strategy, and knowledge 140

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Chapter 3 | Conducting a learning and development needs analysis

creation and sharing are the norm (Noe, 2008; Opperman, 2015; Tannenbaum et al., 2017). Top-performing organisations are moving away from merely training their employees to investing in a lifelong learning and development (L&D) culture for a number of reasons (Opperman, 2015; SABPP, 2014): •• L&D supports the continuous upskilling of employees for sustainable business and individual performance. •• L&D enables employees to adapt to the strategy and changing market conditions and technology. •• L&D enables a better skills match between the employee and the organisation. •• L&D develops the human capability of the organisation, which ensures long-term sustainability for the business and the industry or sector in a competitive market. •• L&D creates an occupationally competent and engaged workforce, which builds organisational capability, providing employees with opportunities to develop new knowledge and skills, increase their competence and enhance their opportunity for promotion. •• L&D accelerates skills development and achievement of employment equity and organisational transformation, and limits the impact of skills shortages. •• L&D serves as a catalyst for continuous improvement, change and innovation. Top-performing organisations are moving away from merely training their employees to investing in a lifelong learning and development (L&D) culture. Increasingly, we shall see a shift from providing training programmes to a more comprehensive focus on creating learning organisations in which L&D will be an integral part of the business strategy. As explained in Chapter 2, the South African Board for People Practices (SABPP) also stipulated learning and development as one of the human resource (HR) standards for high performing organisations. Learning and development is seen as the practice of providing occupationally directed and other learning activities that enable and enhance the knowledge, practical skills and workplace experience and behaviour of individuals and teams, based on current and future occupational requirements for optimal organisational performance and sustainability (SABPP, 2014). LDNA is, therefore, regarded as crucial to the planning, design, delivery and evaluation of any L&D initiative in the workplace. In the context of organisational and human capability development, a needs analysis is understood to be the systematic collection and evaluation of information to find the gaps in the existing competency levels, skills, knowledge and attitudes of employees. It involves gathering and analysing data about employees’ existing capabilities and the organisation’s demand for skills, and analysing the implications that new and changed roles have for changes in capability (CIPD, 2007; Werner & DeSimone, 2009). The information obtained from an analysis of the assessed needs provides the foundation for human resource development (HRD) as a profession and L&D as an HRD practice. 141

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A sound LDNA defines whether a performance discrepancy, indeed, exists or may exist in the foreseeable future; whether an L&D intervention would be the best approach to manage an identified performance problem; what is required to reduce the gap between the competencies demanded by a specific position and the current competencies of the occupant(s); identifies the individual employees who should be included in the L&D intervention and the required content of the L&D intervention (Ferreira et al., 2015). A progressive LDNA further considers the organisational culture, philosophy and value system; is preferably proactive instead of reactive; zooms in on the development of identifiable and observable competencies and not individual perceptions; utilises a variety of data collecting methods and sources and is able to produce a cost/benefit analysis (Ferreira et al., 2015). In reality, organisations will always face some type of skills gap. This may be caused by shifting market conditions, technological advancement, global financial crises, evolving industries or changing customer needs. The extent to which HRD decisions are rationally justifiable is dependent on the extent to which a rigorous L&D needs analysis has been performed (to explain the actual why and how to carry out L&D activities), and whether formal training or L&D programmes are, in fact, the best solution for the performance problem or development need.

2. THE DYNAMIC LEARNING CYCLE AND NEEDS ANALYSIS A systematic L&D needs analysis (LDNA) is the first phase in the dynamic learning cycle (see Figure 3.1). A learning cycle is a reiterative or repeating process comprising five phases: 1. L&D needs analysis (LDNA); 2. Learning design (see Chapter 4); 3. Learning delivery (see Chapter 6); 4. Assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements (see Chapter 7); and 5. Evaluation of programme effectiveness (see Chapter 8). The focus of the dynamic learning cycle (see Figure 3.1) is the continuous improvement of employee learning, development and performance in the workplace to create a sustained competitive advantage for the organisation and to facilitate organisational flexibility and innovation. To achieve organisational agility and employee adaptability, a novel approach to learning and development is called for (Noe et al., 2014). Employee learning no longer takes place primarily through tertiary education programmes or formally developed organisational learning interventions, but encompasses the work milieu and work and social networks. Active learning, social interaction, the construction of shared meaning and transfer of implicit knowledge are all components of learning in the 21st century Workplace 4.0 (Noe, et al., 2014). Active learning, social interaction, the construction of shared meaning and transfer of implicit knowledge are all components of learning in the 21st century Workplace 4.0.

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Phase 1 L&D needs analysis

Phase 5 Evaluation of programme effectiveness

Phase 2 Learning Programme design THE LEARNING CYCLE

Phase 4 Assessment and moderation of learner achievements

Phase 3 L&D intervention delivery

Analyse Evaluate

Design

Assess and moderate Deliver

Like cogs in a machine, every phase in the learning cycle contributes to the eventual success of a learning programme. All phases are equally important.

Figure 3.1  The classical systematic dynamic learning cycle

The new insights into learning in a fast-paced, connected world implies that the design of L&D opportunities should emphasise active participation on the part of the learner, social networking with other learners, focusing on extensive content areas and not only job-specific training and development, and, lastly, create and implement learning opportunities that facilitate collaborative learning (Noe, et al., 2014). Consequently, the 143

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dynamic learning cycle concentrates on the development and nurturing of individually important competencies to create knowledgeable employees who can play an active role in managing their own learning and future career development, and serve as a knowledge repository or learning partner for their colleagues. Knowledgeable employees who are capable of fulfilling the multiple demands of their jobs, and are also willing and able to manage their own learning and future career progression, are key demands in the 21stcentury VUCA workspace (Coetzee, 2014; Van Veldhoven et al., 2017). L&D in the workplace is a systematic process facilitating continuous learning and development. The dynamic learning cycle, an example of which is shown in Figure 3.1, emphasises that L&D in the workplace is a systematic process facilitating continuous learning and development. The behaviour and values of employees in their roles as learners change or are modified by organisational and personal L&D interventions. Therefore, organisational and employee needs change and evolve during the course of their working lives, creating a continuous cycle of development or lifelong learning. The various phases of the dynamic learning cycle are discussed in Chapters 4 to 8.

3. PURPOSES OF NEEDS ANALYSIS The point of departure for any L&D intervention is the expected organisational results based on predetermined expectations and needs – what observable change(s) do the organisational stakeholders expect at the end of the learning intervention? Consequently, the development of an L&D intervention starts with the end in mind – what should be achieved and how will the L&D professional indicate to organisational stakeholders that the desired end has been reached? The point of departure for any L&D intervention is the expected organisational results based on predetermined expectations and needs. The assessment of organisational and employee needs determines the design content of a learning programme, which influences the delivery of the programme. As the needs of the various organisational role-players change, the type, content and delivery methods of L&D interventions should be adapted. The design and implementation of L&D interventions, in turn, affect assessment and moderation methods. L&D programme evaluation ensures the continuous improvement and enhancement of learning design and programme delivery, and assessment and moderation practices. Often, new needs arise from the assessment and evaluation results. The dynamic learning cycle illustrates the dynamic nature of learning and development in the workplace context. As the needs of the various organisational role-players change, the type, content and delivery methods of L&D interventions should be adapted. 144

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The LDNA serves several purposes in L&D planning, design, delivery and evaluation. It mainly illustrates where an organisation stands in relation to the competencies currently available and the competencies needed – currently or in the future, as determined by the organisation’s goals and objectives. In addition, the LDNA identifies the root causes of performance problems and the most appropriate solutions to the identified performance problems. The LDNA also provides information on the type of L&D intervention(s) that may be needed, the facilities that should be made available and an estimate of the cost versus the benefit of implementing an L&D intervention (Rothwell et al., 2016). The purposes of an LDNA are briefly summarised in Table 3.1 Table 3.1  The purposes of the L&D needs analysis

Purpose

Description

Decide the LDNA approach.

Ascertain whether a proactive or reactive approach toward LDNA should be taken.

Identify performance gap.

The performance gap exists because there is a discrepancy between what employees are actually capable of doing and what is expected of them in terms of the requirements of the position.

Identify the root cause(s) of performance discrepancies.

All performance discrepancies are not necessarily caused by a lack of knowledge, skill or experience on the part of the employee. The root causes of the performance discrepancies should be identified before a learning intervention is recommended.

Specify performance discrepancies in knowledge, skills or attitude that can be addressed by means other than a learning intervention.

Some discrepancies in knowledge, skill or attitude should be addressed by means other than a learning intervention.

Identify performance discrepancies in knowledge, skills or attitude that should be addressed by a learning intervention.

Those performance discrepancies that are clearly caused by a lack of knowledge, skill or attitude on the part of the employee(s) should be addressed by means of a learning intervention.

Identify the type of learning intervention.

The identified performance gap indicates the learning outcomes to be formulated, the type of learning intervention to be utilised, the required facilities and so on.

Provide feedback on the efficacy and effectiveness of the learning intervention.

The performance discrepancies provide information for feedback on the efficacy and efficiency of the proposed solution, and can also be used to improve any learning intervention that was developed.

3.1 Proactive and reactive needs analysis As shown in Figure 3.2, a needs analysis can be proactive or reactive (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Handshaw, 2014). A proactive needs analysis focuses on the future. Performance problems that may occur in the future are identified in the present in order to address them before they may occur and possibly have a negative impact on the organisation. These possible performance gaps may be created by changes in organisational goals, or by changes 145

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in technology, legislation or product offerings that require new employee skills (Noe, 2014). Employees are exposed to learning programmes that address identified needs before they can cause performance problems. L&D interventions are developed and implemented proactively to prepare employees for future changes.

Proactive needs analysis

Identify performance problems that may occur in the future and expose employees to L&D programmes to prevent performance problems.

L&D Needs Analysis Assessing the gap between current and desired performance and identifying causes and solutions

Reactive needs analysis

Identify and address performance problems in the present.

Desired performance

GAP ANALYSIS

Current performance

Figure 3.2  Proactive and reactive needs analysis

Proactive needs analyses focus on performance problems that may occur in the future so that they can be addressed before they have a negative impact on the organisation. A proactive needs analysis is an excellent approach to empower employees to drive an organisation’s future goals and strategies, particularly if changes in organisational goals and strategies require new competencies (Handshaw, 2014). Furthermore, a proactive LDNA is a strategic approach to use if an organisation plans to go into a new venture that requires different knowledge, skills and competencies from its employees. Consequently, proactive LDNA requires the L&D professional to become a strategic positioner in the business context, identifying possible performance gaps before they exist and suggesting solutions to facilitate the smooth running of the business organisation. A proactive LDNA is an excellent strategic approach if an organisation plans to go into a new venture that requires different knowledge, skills and competencies from its employees. A reactive needs analysis focuses on the present (Noe, 2014). It identifies a current performance shortfall that should be addressed now to improve employee performance and facilitate the achievement of organisational goals. Information for reactive needs analyses are usually identified from an employee (or a team’s) performance appraisal, accident reports, wastage and unnecessary breakages, and unplanned work stoppages or 146

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bottlenecks (Noe, 2014). One can assume a triage approach to reactive LDNA. Triage is used in emergency situations to identify patients who need immediate attention (red) – those needs that should be addressed urgently because the performance gap constitutes an immediate crisis for the organisation. Patients who require urgent attention but are in no immediate danger of death or an adverse outcome are classified as orange in the emergency room triage language. In a reactive LDNA, orange performance gaps can be addressed after the crisis has been managed, but before they become an organisational threat. The last category is the green patients. These are the patients who should be treated, but waiting for treatment poses no immediate danger to their health. In LDNA terms, green performance gaps are those that cause a problem and should be addressed within the foreseeable future, but currently pose no immediate danger to the organisation. A reactive needs analysis focuses on current performance shortfalls that should be addressed to improve employee performance to achieve organisational goals. Care should be taken to address all reactive L&D needs as effectively and efficiently as possible, to prevent them from causing a threat to the organisation’s continued sustainability and success. In the case of reactive needs analyses, the L&D professional will have to deal with managers at all levels who perceive an identified competency gap as an immediate danger to the organisation, which should be addressed as soon as possible (Handshaw, 2014). The L&D professional should use a predetermined set of steps to complete the L&D needs analysis to get an objective view of the performance discrepancy, which is substantiated by performance information (Handshaw, 2014). It is important for L&D professionals to keep in mind that they will have to deal with fewer requests for reactive needs analyses when they actively adopt and practise the role of strategic business positioner (that is, L&D professionals understand the business and the context in which it operates, develop stakeholder relationships, and produce actionable innovative solutions to organisational capability challenges [Ludike, 2014]). To successfully execute the role of strategic business positioner, the L&D professional should interrogate the organisation’s strategic plan and goals, proactively identify possible performance gaps and take the initiative to suggest innovative solutions that will address those gaps preemptively. Activity Proactive and reactive LDNA Which of the following performance gaps require a proactive and which require a reactive LDNA? 1. A builder’s labourer is injured because he walked into the path of a bulldozer while he was chatting with a colleague. It transpired that the labourer was hired only that morning because the usual labourer fell ill and could not work. The labourer received no safety training.

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2. A cashier at a bank is continually short on his float. It transpires that the cashier has trouble distinguishing between R 20 and R 200 notes. 3. A clerk in a lawyer’s office is frequently late for work, which causes the lawyer, who needs her to take down customer details, to run late on her appointments. 4. An organisation that used to specialise in handling the billing requirements for a number of medical practices will be implementing a sophisticated billing system. 5. A manufacturing organisation is upgrading its manufacturing equipment. 6. An engineering company that builds cell-phone towers plans to appoint at least 50 new employees to install the equipment at the top of the towers. Feedback: Any LDNA that should address a performance problem that has arisen in the present requires a reactive LDNA. Consequently, numbers 1, 2 and 3 are all examples of a reactive LDNA. An LDNA that attempts to address performance issues that may arise in the future is a proactive needs analysis. These are numbers 4, 5 and 6.

3.2 Identify existing or future performance gap(s) With the data gathered from an LDNA, the gap between actual and desired performance is illustrated for managers, employees and L&D professionals alike. The gap analysis can be used to identify the causes of existing performance-related problems and their possible future consequences if it becomes apparent that the performance gap is not addressed effectively and efficiently. In a reactive LDNA, the performance gap is the difference between the desired performance in a specific position and the actual performance. The data can usually be gathered from the individual’s quarterly or yearly performance review. Information on workplace accidents and health and safety incidents can also serve as an information source for a reactive gap analysis. Furthermore, a comparison of the individual employee’s capacities with the job description can yield information on possible performance gaps that may exist. In a reactive LDNA, the performance gap is the difference between the desired performance in a specific position and the actual performance. In a proactive LDNA, the document mostly used to pre-emptively identify a performance gap is the organisation’s strategic plan and goals. The L&D professional should scrutinise the organisational strategic plans and goals frequently to ascertain whether a change in organisational direction will necessitate a comprehensive retraining or upskilling of employees. The implementation of new technology or a new system, such as a payroll, e-learning, quality management or performance management system, will require largescale upskilling of all employees. In addition, if an organisation intends to go in a whole new strategic direction, which would require employees to perform different kinds of duties, a planned reskilling of employees is necessary. A skills matrix, as illustrated in 148

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Tables 3.5 and 3.8, is a good source of information on the current skills in the organisation and can be used fruitfully in a proactive needs analysis. The workplace skills plan of the company also contains skills matrices of planned skills development per OFO skills categories. The SETA skills planning guide on scarce and critical skills provides important documents to consider in a proactive needs analysis. In a proactive LDNA, the organisation’s strategic plan and goals are scrutinised to ascertain whether a change in organisational direction will necessitate retraining or upskilling of employees.

3.3 Identifying causes of performance discrepancies In the LDNA, a systematic process and technology are used to improve human performance capability. A systematic analysis is orderly and consistent. Most importantly, the output (result) of each LDNA becomes the input (information source) for subsequent L&D interventions and decisions (Noe, 2014). Once the L&D professional has identified the cause of the performance problem, the focus shifts to finding a solution to the performance discrepancy. It is vital to realise that an L&D intervention is not always the required solution to a performance problem (Noe, 2014). It is vital to realise that an L&D intervention is not always the required solution to a performance problem. The ability to delve deep down to the root causes of performance problems, and not just focus on their observable symptoms or predisposed individual perceptions, is an essential competence of the L&D professional (Handshaw, 2014). It is only when L&D professionals are capable of distinguishing between the root causes of performance problems and their observable symptoms that performance problems can be successfully addressed where they emanate (Noe, 2014; Rothwell et al., 2016). Table 3.2 gives a few guidelines on the root causes of performance problems. It is important to identify the causes of performance problems, because recommended solutions to performance gaps are based on the identified causes of performance discrepancies. For example, learning interventions and job-support tools can be extended to enhance motivation and to increase skills and knowledge. Problems caused by improper environments and incentives are usually handled through a broader strategy, which often involves management and organisational redesign (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). An effective LDNA will ensure that only those performance problems that can be addressed effectively through the intervention of training will be the focus of learning interventions. Problems caused by improper environments and incentives are usually handled through a broader strategy, which often involves management and organisational redesign. 149

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Table 3.2  Root causes of performance problems and suggested methods to address them (adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2007)

Needs analysis

System problems

•• Analyse the work environment (including job profiles). •• Implement necessary changes indicated by environmental analysis.

Poor communication about performance expectations and actual performance

•• Communicate clearly and proactively about performance expectation and standards.

Incongruence in rewards for, or punishments of, behaviour

•• Change punishment/reward systems of the organisation. Identify the source of the incongruence (such as performance goals that are not aligned with organisational goals or group/team norms and standards that cause poor performance).

•• Provide adequate and timely feedback on actual performance.

•• Review group dynamics and investigate possible implementation of group/team intervention. •• Review and/or modify organisational performance management and/or reward system. •• Review and/or modify organisational disciplinary system. Gaps in knowledge, skills and attitudes that do not need the implementation of a learning intervention

•• Provide on-the-job assistance. •• Give employee time to practise new skills and knowledge. •• Change the nature of the job or work environment. •• Transfer employee to another job. •• Institute appropriate disciplinary intervention.

Gaps in knowledge, skills and attitudes that do require the implementation of a learning intervention

•• Provide appropriate L&D interventions.

System problems are caused by the environment in which employees must work. Here is an example of a systems problem: the organisation’s mission is to improve innovation, but employees must seek permission before they can try something innovative. In this case, training in innovative behaviour is not the answer; a change in policy is needed. System problems that prevent the achievement of organisational goals must be removed before employees can perform. These changes usually require support from senior management, and frequently require a restructuring of communication and/or reporting lines, or a change in a range of policies. Lack of or inadequate feedback on work performance is frequently a deficit in supervisor–employee communication. Supervisors may be afraid to give negative feedback, so poorly performing employees often think that they are performing well. In this case, training the employee will not be the only solution to the performance discrepancy. Instead, the supervisor should be trained to give appropriate feedback (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013) and the reasons for the employee’s poor performance should be investigated to determine if the employee needs training or an L&D intervention. 150

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Lack of or inadequate feedback on work performance is frequently a deficit in supervisor– employee communication, in which case, training the employee will not be the only solution. Incongruencies in rewards for, or punishment of, behaviour. Organisations should consider the messages they send to employees with the reward system. Does the employee who works hard receive the same increase as the employee whose work is only adequate or even mediocre? When hard-working employees suddenly start underperforming, the performance management and reward system should be reviewed before considering training as an option. Peer pressure also plays a role in poor performance. When a group of employees set a production standard, it is easy to spot employees who do not meet this standard. Consequently, when one of the employees fails to meet the standard, the other employees ‘punish’ them through ridicule or exclusion. Training these employees, who are apparently underperforming, is not the answer to the performance problem. Rather, the organisational performance management and/or reward system should be reviewed, as well as the disciplinary system. When the performance discrepancy is caused by team or group pressure, a team-wide intervention should be considered instead of training the ‘problem’ employee (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). When hard-working employees suddenly start underperforming, the performance management and reward system should be reviewed before considering training as an option. Sometimes, training is not the best solution, even when there are deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitudes. Deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitudes. Sometimes, training is not the best solution, even when there are deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitudes. Some employees may possess the required knowledge and skill, but not the required attitude for a variety of reasons. Employees may find the job boring, or they may feel threatened or intimidated by the work environment. There are employees who feel uncertain when confronted with new environments, technology or work processes. An employee may be experiencing personal or health problems, which he or she does not wish to discuss with the supervisor. Some employees just do not want to perform at the required level. In these instances, L&D professionals should consider alternatives, such as the following (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Noe, 2014): •• Provide on-the-job assistance. Give the employee time to practise new skills and knowledge. When tasks are performed infrequently, employees may become less proficient at performing them. Providing adequate practise opportunities may prevent performance gaps. For example, police officers are required to practise at a shooting range a given number of times every year in order to develop their ability to use weapons effectively and safely. 151

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•• Change the nature of the job. When a specific part of a job requires a skill or knowledge that is difficult to acquire, the job may be changed to exclude the difficult parts. For example, call-centre staff can deal with routine enquiries, but any unusual enquiry is referred to the call-centre manager or technical staff. •• Transfer the employee to another job. Sometimes, employees may possess the knowledge and skills required to do a job well, but they do not like the job. It is possible that they do not find the job stimulating, or they find the environment intimidating or unsupportive. It may solve the problem if the employee is transferred to another job. •• Refer the employee to the organisation’s employee assistance programme. Employees who experience personal problems or health issues may not feel comfortable discussing these issues with their supervisor because of the existing power relationship between the two. In such cases, employees should be referred to the employee assistance programme in order to find solutions to the performance discrepancy. •• Implement disciplinary action. If the employee has received a lot of training, time to practise, support and so on, and still refuses to perform to the required standard, disciplinary action may be implemented provided that a full record of performance management and L&D interventions over a period can be produced.

3.4 A lack of competence that indicates the implementation of an L&D intervention When a lack of knowledge, skills and attitudes is the cause of a performance problem, and if the alternatives above have been eliminated, some form of L&D intervention is the required solution to address the performance discrepancy. L&D professionals can then proceed to list and describe the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are lacking. These will form the basis for the development of training objectives and learning outcomes. It is essential to involve the main organisational stakeholders in the LDNA. The way to ensure that training impacts positively on the organisation is to design and implement the kind of L&D interventions that really contribute to individual and organisational performance improvement. This can be achieved by negotiating with the relevant stakeholders regarding the required results or outcomes of any learning programme. The organisational strategy provides a point of departure for the LDNA and all L&D initiatives should be aligned with it (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Noe, 2014). The organisational strategy provides a point of departure for the LDNA and all L&D initiatives should be aligned with it. Activity Determine root causes of performance problems Refer to the previous activity. Try to determine the root causes of the performance problems explained in numbers 1–3 and explain what the L&D professional’s next step should be.

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Feedback: The performance problem in example 1 is caused by a lack of knowledge. The next step would be to decide whether a training intervention is necessary or not. The performance discrepancy in example 2 may be caused by a problem with near sight, or it may be caused by haste. The next step for the L&D professional will be to discuss the matter with the employee and/or supervisor and then decide whether the employee should be referred for an eye check or reassigned to another position. The performance issue in example 3 may be caused by personal circumstances, such as a dependence on public transport, which is frequently unreliable, or a childminder who is unreliable, or a responsibility to a sick parent or other relative. The next step for the L&D professional would be to interview the employee and/or supervisor to determine the cause of the late arrivals at work and to find a solution to that problem. The employee may be referred to the employee assistance programme if necessary. Is an L&D intervention the solution for a performance deficiency? (based on Swanepoel et al., 2003) Quick reference checklist What is the performance discrepancy?

What is the difference between what is being done and what should be done? What is the evidence and is it reliable?

Is the discrepancy important?

What does it cost? Will the problem grow? Is it worth fixing?

Is it a lack of skill/knowledge/ attitude?

Could they do it if their lives depended on it? Did they know how to do it in the past? Have they forgotten? Do they get regular feedback on how they are doing?

Is there a simpler way?

Can the job be simplified? Could job aids be used? Can they learn by being shown instead of through training?

Do they have the potential to do the job well?

Are they physically fit? Do they have the mental potential? Are they qualified or underqualified?

Are employees being punished for delivering the required performance?

Do the employees experience peer pressure when they perform at the required level? Are employees rewarded for non-performance by being included in a specific team or group? Is there some perceived reward for non-performance (less work, worry, tiredness, more attention)?

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Quick reference checklist Does correct performance really matter for the individual?

Is there a favourable outcome for performance? Is there any status or job satisfaction connected with the job? Are there any obstacles to performing? Are the resources available (time, equipment, tools, space, support)? Are there any other barriers (policy, work environment, culture, motivation, systems, improper incentives, authority or conflicting time demands)?

What is the best solution?

Are there any solutions that are unacceptable to the organisation? Are the solutions beyond the resources of the organisation?

3.5 Providing information for L&D interventions The LDNA provides the background information needed to plan, design and deliver an L&D intervention or learning programme. An LDNA identifies the following aspects: •• The gap between desired competence or performance and current competence or performance; •• The cause of the gap; •• The learning outcomes to be achieved through the learning intervention; •• The specific learning intervention that would achieve the learning outcomes; and •• The specific target group. L&D solutions are then chosen from a wide range of possibilities, which flow from the causes of the problem. The needs and characteristics of the target group are identified, and these needs determine the objective of the learning programme and the appropriate learning outcomes of the programme (read more about learning outcomes in Chapter 4).

3.6 Providing feedback on the effectiveness and impact of L&D interventions The LDNA provides a basis for feedback, for tracking change and evaluating the outcomes of an L&D intervention (Noe, et al., 2014). When results are positive, the information can be used to ensure that the L&D initiative continues. When results are negative, the L&D professional can decide to take corrective action or stop the L&D intervention. The decision to continue, adapt or discontinue an L&D intervention should be based on the evaluation results (including impact) of an L&D intervention. Hard facts, such as proof that learning outcomes have been achieved, or that employee performance has improved, or that accidents or wastage have decreased, should be used for feedback purposes. Intuitive impressions, such as the opinion of a supervisor or a participant in an L&D intervention will not suffice (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Rothwell et al., 2016). The evaluation of L&D interventions should clearly show how they contributed to organisational strategic priorities, including gains compared to costs (Noe, et al., 2014). 154

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The evaluation of L&D interventions should show how they contributed to organisational strategic priorities, including gains compared to costs. Intuitive impressions will not suffice. It is valuable to give all organisational stakeholders, including employees, feedback about the results of the LDNA and L&D intervention evaluation. Feedback can give L&D interventions momentum and lead to proactive action as managers and individuals gain a better understanding of the performance discrepancies they face and how they can be addressed effectively. An evaluation of the L&D intervention can provide tangible information on the value the learning intervention added to the organisations’ growth and success. The efforts of the L&D department can be quantified and explained in the organisational budget (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Rothwell et al., 2016). In the light of organisational accountability and ethics, it has become imperative for L&D professionals to consult and communicate with all stakeholders throughout the dynamic learning cycle (CIPD 2018). You will learn more about L&D evaluation in Chapter 8. In the light of organisational accountability and ethics, it is imperative for L&D professionals to consult and communicate with all stakeholders throughout the dynamic learning cycle.

4. FOCUS AREAS OF L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS In South African workplaces, an LDNA addresses four focus areas: (1) a sector of the economy, (2) the organisation as a whole or a specific group or department in the organisation, (3) the employees’ occupational tasks/job roles, and (4) the individual (person). Irrespective of the focus, the LDNA can zoom in on identifying the competency gap that exists between what the job incumbent should be able to do and what the incumbent is actually capable of doing. In addition, the LDNA can zoom in on the competencies that will be needed in the future and the competencies that employees, groups, organisations and economic sectors currently possess. Both of these approaches may be called a ‘gap’ analysis, however, one is reactive (focusing on addressing competency gaps that currently exist) and the other is proactive (focusing on competency gaps that may exist in the future). The LDNA can zoom in on the competencies that will be needed in the future and the competencies that employees currently possess – this may be called a ‘gap analysis’. Table 3.3 summarises the four focus areas of LDNA that L&D professionals have to consider in the South African environment. The sectoral and person analyses in South Africa are regulated through the legislation related to skills development (see Chapter 1). It is important to note that the four focus areas of LDNA are interrelated and often conducted at the same time. Data from one analysis are often used to ensure that the data for another analysis are complete. Take the workplace skills plan as an example. Information on individual and departmental needs is needed to compile a workplace skills plan. Information gathered in job analysis is also needed to identify L&D needs at the 155

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individual level. So, while we can identify four focus areas of LDNA, these must never be considered in isolation. Table 3.3 describes the focus areas of each basis of LDNA. Table 3.3  Focus areas of L&D needs analysis (Coetzee et al., 2013)

Focus area

Description

Focus area 1

•• Identify key skills shortages and assess the relative importance of the identified shortages in the sector.

National and sectoral analysis Focus area 2 Organisational analysis

•• Feed skills gap information into the national skills plan by means of the sector skills plan. •• Examine company-wide goals and problems to determine where training is needed by means of a formal skills audit. •• Feed skills gap information into the sector skills plan by means of the workplace skills plan.

Focus area 3 Occupational/job task/ role analysis

•• Examine tasks performed and competencies required to determine what employees must do to perform successfully. Consult the OFO occupational/job tasks and organisational job profiles. •• Feed skills gap information into the workplace skills plan by means of the department/section plan.

Focus area 4 Person analysis

•• Examine competencies, current performance and career development needs to determine who needs training. •• Feed skills gap information into the workplace skills plan by means of the personal development plans and department/section plan.

4.1 Focus area 1: Sectoral analysis The SETAs are required to gather statistics and other relevant information on labour market skills needs and training provision, document and communicate recent and emerging trends, and develop baseline indicators (ETDP SETA, 2017). A sectoral needs analysis therefore identifies key skills shortages (i.e. scarce and critical skills in terms of occupations in high demand in the sector – see Table 3.4 and Table 3.5) and assesses the relative importance of the identified shortages in the sector as these relate to the National Skills Plan. Sectoral skills shortages are shortages that seriously endanger the successful operation of an important economic and/or social activity. These shortages are identified through a study of the workplace skills plans submitted to a SETA by the employers in a particular economic sector and the skills shortages that are identified in this way will be regarded as L&D priorities for the sector. Generally, in administering the levy grant regulations, SETAs have a workplace monitoring strategy to ensure that employers submit accurate and reliable data on the workforce and skills needs, because the SETAs use the data to develop and implement their sector skills plans (SSPs), which contribute to national skills needs. Poor data submitted by the employers would affect the development of the SSPs as information on scarce and critical skills would be unreliable. A sectoral needs analysis identifies key skills shortages in the sector and assesses the relative importance of these shortages as these relate to the National Skills Plan. 156

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Sectoral skills shortages are shortages that seriously endanger the successful operation of an important economic and/or social activity. Generally, in administering the levy grant regulations, SETAs have a workplace monitoring strategy to ensure that employers submit accurate and reliable data on the workforce and skills needs. The DHET requires all stakeholders across all SETAs to use the latest version of the Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) to compile the SSPs, and the national skills demand list, as shown on the DHET website, to enable the identification of trends across all economic sectors. As discussed in Chapter 1, the OFO enables labour market dialogue regarding skills demand and supply in a common language across all sectors. For example, using the OFO codes in SSPs and the workplace skills plans and reports helps to ensure that there is consistency in the way organisations report on scarce and critical skills and occupations in demand. For this purpose, organisations are required to update their organograms annually to be aligned with OFO codes linked to job profiles and descriptions. Present and future job vacancies are also mapped in terms of the OFO codes on the organisational charts (ETDP SETA, 2017). The DHET requires all stakeholders across all SETAs to use the latest version of the Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) to compile their SSPs. Table 3.4  Understanding scarce and critical skills (adapted from Coetzee et al., 2013)

Scarce skills Scarce skills refer to those occupations in which there are a scarcity of qualified and experienced people, currently or anticipated in the future. This scarcity is usually caused by the unavailability of employees with the required skills or they are available but they do not meet the company’s employment criteria. The scarcity can arise from one or a combination of the following, grouped as absolute or relative: •• Absolute scarcity: suitably skilled people are not available at all, for example: –– A new or emerging occupation, i.e. there are few, if any, people in the country with the requisite skills (qualification, competence and experience) and education and skills development (training) providers have yet to develop learning programmes to meet the skills requirements. For example, if you look at the MerSETA example below, employees who can operate and maintain the equipment and machinery in an advanced manufacturing plant that is not labour-intensive but operated through robots. –– People have chosen not to pursue training or careers in the occupation, for a variety of reasons. •• Relative scarcity: suitably skilled people are available but do not meet other employment criteria, for example: –– Geographical location; i.e. people are unwilling to work outside urban areas. –– Equity considerations; i.e. there are few, if any, candidates with the requisite skills (qualifications, competence and experience) from the designated groups available to meet the skills requirements of the company or job. For example, if you refer to the MerSETA example below, you will see that there is a shortage of previously disadvantaged female managers.

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Scarce skills –– Long skills development and learning (training) lead time; i.e. there are people in education and training (formal and workplace learning) who are in the process of acquiring the necessary skills (qualifications, competence and experience) but where the lead time will mean that they are not available in the short term to meet replacement demand. Priority skills refer to those that are required by a sector for resolution of immediate skills shortages. For example, if you refer to the MerSETA example, you will see that automotive or motor mechanic is listed on both the critical and scarce skills list for the manufacturing and engineering sector, and is also earmarked for PIVOTAL development. This indicates a priority skill for the sector.

Critical skills Critical skills refer to specific key or generic and ‘top-up’ skills within an occupation. •• Generic ‘top-up’ skills, including cognitive skills (problem-solving, learning to learn), language and literacy skills, mathematical skills, computer literacy skills, team work, self-management skills. In the MerSETA example, these are called ‘critical skills for success’. •• Technical ‘top-up’ skills are skills that are required on top of the generally accepted skills associated with an occupation. These skills might have emerged as a result of changing technology, new forms of work organisation or even the operational context in which the occupation is being applied. In the MerSETA example, these would be ICT skills that are required to operate and maintain new machinery, such as those used in the servicing of new-generation cars.

Examples •• If a municipality cannot recruit any town planners because there are simply none available – no-one responds to adverts or the company has used a recruitment agency, which has been unsuccessful – then town planning is an absolute scarce skill. •• If people do respond to a company’s recruitment advert, but none of the potential applicants want to relocate to the small rural town in which the municipality is located, then town planning is a relatively scarce skill, for reasons of geographical location. •• If the company has determined, in its Employment Equity Plan, that it requires a black woman in the position of town planner, and only white people or men respond to the recruitment adverts, then town planning is a relatively scarce skill, for reasons of employment equity. •• If the company cannot recruit anyone to the position, but it has two young women doing work experience in the town planning department, who will complete their degrees only in two years’ time, then town planning is a relatively scarce skill, for reasons of long training (learning) lead times. •• If the company can recruit town planners, but finds that it has difficulty in working in teams and supervising others, then team work and supervisory skills are generic ‘top-up’ skills attached to the occupation of town planner. •• If the municipality can recruit town planners, but finds that it has difficulty in developing plans for labourintensive developments in a rural environment, the ability to develop plans for labour-intensive developments in a rural environment is a technical ‘top-up’ skill attached to the occupation of town planner (LGSETA, 2007/08).

Activity Scarce skills analysis Study the list of scarce skills across the various occupations provided on the DHET website. Which of these skills are applicable to the company in which you work or where you intend to work? Are human resource management or skills development listed at scarce skills in any of the sectors you studied? Also see Table 3.5 (ETDP SETA scarce skills list).

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Table 3.5  Examples of scarce and critical skills and occupations in high demand in the ETDP SETA (ETDP SETA, 2017)

Scarce skills (examples only) OFO code

Occupation

NQF Level

Total

134507

Head of Department (Teacher)

7

8 228

134501

School Principal

7

5 694

233102

Natural Sciences Teacher (Grades 4–9)

7

1 016

231101

University Lecturer

8

509

233101

Maths Teacher (Grades 4–9)

6

469

Critical skills (examples only) OFO code

Occupation

Critical/top-up skill

234101

Foundational Phase School Teacher

Language teaching across curriculum, Reading assessment, Assessor, Information technology, Pedagogical content and Methodological knowledge

5 100

232119

Language Teacher

Afrikaans, African languages, Pedagogical content and Methodology knowledge

4 280 2 605

(Grades 10–12)

Estimated number

231101

University Lecturer

Statistics, Fundraising, Moderation and assessment, Coaching and mentoring, Curriculum development and assessment, Advance research, Supervision, Research article publication, Project management, Curriculum development, Material development, Monitoring and evaluation, Records management, Facilitation

121201

Personnel/Human Resource Manager

Coaching and mentoring, Performance management, Electronic records management, Monitoring and evaluation, Strategic planning, Financial management, Information systems management, Organisation development

520

242302

Skills Development Facilitator/ Practitioner

Project management, Communication skills, Report writing, Computer skills

179

233101

Maths Teacher (Grades 4–9)

Classroom management, Computer skills

153

Scarce and critical skills: Case scenario – MerSETA The Manufacturing and Engineering and Related Services SETA (MerSETA) is one of the largest SETAs in South Africa. The SETA is divided into five chambers, covering a range of occupations and business ventures in the manufacturing and engineering sector: 1. Auto chamber 4. Plastics chamber

2. Motor chamber 5. New tyre chamber.

3. Metal chamber

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The manufacturing and engineering SETA collates and manages the development of the 539 154 employees of 4 434 employers. In the current economic climate, the sector continues to experience job shrinkage because of a variety of factors. Each of the five chambers has employers submitting workplace skills plans (WSP), annual training reports (ATR) and grant applications to the SETA. The information from these reports and applications are collated to produce a sector skills plan (SSP) for the manufacturing and engineering sector for a specific period. The information reported here was retrieved from the most current SSP, which is set for 2017/18–2021/22, a period of five years (MerSETA SSP 2017/18–2021/22). The purpose of the MerSETA is to ‘promote artisan development for employability’ (MerSETA SSP 2017/18– 2021/22). The SSP is informed by the National Development Plan, Human Resource Strategy, Rural Development Strategy and Strategic infrastructure projects. The MerSETA has identified seven key issues that should be addressed by its SSP within the following five years: 1. Transforming the national economy by implementing beneficiation and through investing in the development of high level skills, including research and development. 2. Inclusive growth by escalating access – by increasing access to education, training and development opportunities for people from previously disadvantaged backgrounds. 3. Community development by implementing or becoming involved in skills development activities that address community development needs. 4. Increasing access to opportunities for people living with disabilities by increasing access to workplace training and development opportunities. 5. Supporting the green and blue economies by providing development opportunities for the artisans and engineers that are required to fully exploit the opportunities provided by South Africa’s ocean and other natural resources. 6. Providing support to informal, small and medium business enterprises by providing relevant training and development opportunities to facilitate their growth and address the challenges they face. 7. Supporting rural development projects by providing relevant skills initiatives that will create economic opportunities for employment and entrepreneurship. The sector experiences grave skills shortages that affect the sector negatively. For example, skills shortages reduce the capacity of manufacturing organisations to install new technology, which would require highly skilled operators. This affects production costs, profitability and profit margins. Consequently, skills development of lower-level employees is a priority. The MerSETA has identified a list of behaviours and attitudes (called critical skills for success) that employees should possess in order to ensure their continued employability in the sector. Some of the critical skills identified by the MerSETA are as follows: •• Critical thinking and holistic problem solving (practical application of theoretical knowledge); •• Teamwork, collaboration and leadership; •• Innovation (including the capacity to question, criticise and produce alternative solutions); •• Familiarity with and knowledge of technological applications and usage; •• Intrapersonal, reflective competence; •• Communication and interpersonal competence; •• Resilience, agility and adaptability; •• Lifelong learning and learning self-management. In addition, MerSETA has identified the following skills gaps in their sector: •• Science, technology and mathematics competence; •• Supervision skills; •• Engineering skills related to manufacturing, robotics and maintenance; •• Automation and optimisation of manufacturing processes; •• Electrical, electronic and ICT skills; •• Maintenance skills related to automation.

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To address the skills shortages in their sector, and to address the seven key issues that are priorities in their sector, MerSETA has implemented both learnerships and apprenticeships. The MerSETA skills programmes consist of unit standards or groups of unit standards that relate to the relevant qualifications. All MerSETA qualifications are registered with SAQA and offer NQF levels from 1 to 5. The learnerships and apprenticeships in which the MerSETA is involved are summarised below:

Apprenticeships

Learnerships

Motor mechanic

Welding application

Diesel fuel-injection mechanic

Manufacturing and assembly of automotive components

Electrician (engineering)

Production technology

Fitter

Automotive repair and maintenance

Millwright

Metals production

Management development The MerSETA believes that future managers should be grown from current employees, consequently they are involved in management development programmes such as the Women in Leadership Programme. In addition to learnerships, apprenticeships and management development, the MerSETA has identified a list of occupations earmarked for PIVOTAL/occupational-directed development: •• Automotive mechanic •• Manufacturing •• Electrician •• Mechanical fitter

•• Welder •• Production/operations supervisor •• Metal engineering process worker •• Boilermaker •• Product assembler •• Diesel mechanic •• Industrial engineer

Learning partners To ensure that the SSP is implemented, the MerSETA has partnered with formal post-school education and training providers, such as Universities of Technology and TVET colleges who offer learning opportunities for the NQF Level 4 National Certificate (Vocational) (NCV). In addition, since a severe shortage of artisans exists in this sector, the MerSETA is investing in the artisan development initiative by means of the NCV artisan training programme, which offers learners an alternative method to becoming qualified artisans, instead of utilising the apprenticeship route. In addition, partnerships have been established with international organisations, public higher education institutions, SETAs, trade unions, not-for-profit organisations and employer organisations. Advanced manufacturing, innovation and growth The MerSETA believes that advanced manufacturing, innovation and growth requires the development of futurerelevant skills. The MerSETA believes it is vital to research new occupations relevant to the sector, specifically research into curricula. Advanced manufacturing should receive specific attention in order to develop sectoral capacity for global competitiveness. Furthermore, future advanced manufacturing and technology adoption in the sector implies an imperative to invest in high-level skills such as engineers and artisans who can work efficiently with newly adopted manufacturing equipment and processes. Source: adapted from the MerSETA SSP 2017/18–2020/21

4.2 Focus area 2: Organisational analysis The purpose of an organisational needs analysis is to examine the internal environment of the organisation that may influence employee job performance. The internal environment consists of organisational goals (such as those described in the HRD strategy for the company), available resources, and the external influences on the organisation. This information is used to determine where L&D interventions should be directed. The LDNA 161

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at the organisational level is often referred to as a skills audit. The LDNA exercise aims to identify critical and scarce skills (see, for example, the ETDP and the MerSETA examples), and to compare these to the skills required by the organisation now and in the future. The LDNA at the organisational level is often referred to as a skills audit – its aim is to identify critical and scarce skills. The sector skills planning guide serves as a valuable source of information regarding what data is required by the SETA for reporting purposes on a national level. A skills audit helps to assess the shortfall or surplus of key skills so that any skills gap can be determined (Werner & DeSimone, 2016). After the completion of the skills audit, a skills matrix (see, for example, Table 3.8) can be compiled, which indicates the types and levels of skills currently available in the organisation. Activity Sector skills planning guide Visit the web of any SETA. Access the SETA’s skills planning guide. Critically think about the usefulness of the SETA skills planning guide in an organisational LDNA.

To conduct a skills audit (see Table 3.6), also referred to as an organisational skills needs analysis, a competency profile linked to the OFO can be developed for each job within a company. The competency profile will list the knowledge, skills, values and other behaviours employees require to be successful in their jobs (Fasset, 2009). Conducting a skills audit involves using the list of competencies of a given job and comparing these to the list of competencies of the employee filling that particular position. Any variances should be recorded and noted as the skills gaps (if there is a shortfall in the competencies of the staff member). As noted earlier, organisations are required to update their organograms annually to be aligned with OFO codes linked to job profiles and descriptions. Present and future job vacancies are also mapped in terms of the OFO codes on the organisational charts. This enables the company to report on skills demands and projected supply needs in the OFO terminology (codes) required by the SETA and DHET. In an organisational context, a skills gap analysis compares the actual skills of the current workforce with real skills requirements. The skills gap analysis also assesses the L&D needs of different departments or sub-units in the organisation. Lastly, the skills gap analysis determines the extent to which managers, peers and technology support the transfer of learning, or the workplace application of learning. The information gathered from the skills gap analysis is used to compile the workplace skills plan (WSP). A skills gap analysis compares the actual skills of the current workforce with real skills requirements and also determines the extent to which managers, peers and technology support the transfer of learning or the workplace application of learning. This is used to compile the workplace skills plan (WSP). 162

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The skills needs analysis can result in lengthy lists of skills gaps in the company. The most required skills and L&D needs should be prioritised. The remaining needs should be recorded and can be addressed during the following WSP period. There are various methods of conducting skills needs analyses from empirical methods to the informal processes similar to the above-mentioned method. The SDF should research different methods to suit the company’s needs and budget (Coetzee et al., 2013). Compiling and submitting a WSP helps the company to apply for a skills levy grant in support of planned L&D programmes. A WSP reflects the company’s skills planning, which involves the measurement and subsequent interventions surrounding the supply and demand for skills in the business. In essence, the WSP summarises the identified scarce and critical skills needs of an organisation and the relevant interventions to address these skills needs (ETDP SETA, 2017). Table 3.6   Planning a skills audit (based on CIPD, 2007)

Type of data

What to include

Business objectives

•• Requirements in terms of outputs, levels of customer service and interactions with other parts of the organisation. •• How are these measured? •• What is going to change?

National and sectoral requirements

•• What are the national and sectoral requirements regarding scarce and critical skills? •• How are these linked to the company’s scarce and critical skills categories? •• How does the company perform in terms of equity requirements?

Technology and organisation of work

•• How are jobs done now in terms of the organisation and resources available? •• What technologies do people use, and how might this change? •• Changes may be planned in terms of the number of people to carry out the targeted performance or in terms of the way in which they are supervised or managed.

Employee demographics

•• Who is currently employed in the area you are analysing? •• Who is joining and leaving the organisation? •• What categories of employees are included?

Education

•• Basic education, vocational or academic qualifications. •• Link education to assumptions about people’s expectations around L&D provision, cognitive or thinking abilities and their level of current skills and knowledge.

Past experience

•• What previous knowledge, skills and behaviour have been expected in the past and are required currently? •• This may be linked to the organisation’s competence framework. •• What is the experience of past L&D interventions?

Occupational tasks/job roles and responsibilities

•• What are individuals doing at the moment? •• What implications will any changes have for their roles? •• How do job profiles compare with OFO codes and scarce/critical skills list?

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Type of data

What to include

Current competence

•• Current performance levels of individuals and teams and any areas where competence needs to increase. •• This can be measured against both current and changed roles.

Employee status

•• Are people employed permanently or part-time, on a fixed or short-term contract?

Location

•• What is the physical location of employees and their access to L&D provision?

Length of time in job

•• The length of time people have spent in their current role might have an effect on their training needs and the forms of training they require.

Employee attitudes and culture

•• How do employees feel about changes; do they see the changes as opportunities or threats? •• How will this affect their willingness to learn and acquire new skills? •• Does the organisation want to change attitudes or focus on particular performance standards?

Notwithstanding that companies are required by law to submit a WSP to be supported for the funding of L&D programmes, it is best practice for every organisation, regardless of its size, to determine the skills gaps within the organisation and decide how it will address these gaps through training (Fasset, 2009). SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which contains a WSP, as well as an annual training report (ATR). A skills plan should be well researched and reflect the training needs of the company before being documented in the WSP (Coetzee et al., 2013). Based on a review of several SETA websites, Table 3.7 provides a summary of the typical information required by a SETA in a WSP. The skills development facilitator (SDF), in collaboration with management, employees, the training committee and other relevant stakeholders, assists the company in compiling and submitting a WSP and ATR, and the subsequent claiming of levy grants. SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which contains a WSP, as well as an annual training report (ATR). Table 3.7  Example of typical information required in a workplace skills plan and annual training report (Coetzee, 2018)

WSP element

Field description

1

Administrative details including SDF details

Company and SDF details.

2

Banking details

Users must either confirm the banking details, as reflected on the system, or submit a stamped letter from the bank if the company’s banking details have changed.

3

Employment summary

The total number of employees per OFO code must be captured (all employees for whom the company pays SDL). It is important that the geographical area of the employee/s must be the store where they are working.

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WSP element

Field description

4

Planned beneficiaries of training

The number of people to be trained in the financial year must be captured. This must include both employed and unemployed, and the number of beneficiaries trained per intervention; therefore the same beneficiary may be reported more than once if more than one training will be done.

5

Scarce skills WSP

Refers to those occupations in which there is a scarcity or shortage of qualified and experienced people and takes longer than three months to fill.

6

Total projected budget

The total amount of money planned to be spent for all the training planned for the financial year must be captured. This must also include the amount of money expected from occupationally directed/PIVOTAL programmes allocation.

7

PIVOTAL planned beneficiaries of training

List of beneficiaries of education and training to be implemented who belong to the occupationally directed/PIVOTAL programmes.

8

Development and consultative process

This aspect is compulsory for all large and medium entities and must outline the process used to develop the WSP. Evidence of employee consultation must be uploaded onto the SETA system. This can be in the form of minutes of the training committee or performance management plans or minutes of any other meetings where training plans were discussed with employees.

9

Checklist

This must be used to check all fields that are applicable to the organisation before submission is done. Once the company has submitted, no changes can be made.

ATR FORMS 10

Number of actual beneficiaries of training

Beneficiaries who participated in all learning interventions in the previous SETA financial year. Include the number of beneficiaries trained per intervention, therefore the same beneficiary may be reported more than once if more than one training was done.

11

Impact assessment

What impact has the training had on the company? This must include financial and operational impact.

12

Actual spent on training

This must be the total amount spent on training in the previous financial year. All invoices must be kept by the company as evidence for verification purposes.

13

PIVOTAL no. of actual beneficiaries of training

This section will be populated with information from the number of actual beneficiaries of training.

14

General comments

This section must be completed with any clarification or comments regarding the WSP/ATR or PIVOTAL report.

15

Variance report

Variance between training planned and the actual training implemented.

16

Vacancies difficult to fill

This section must be completed by indicating what vacancies the organisation is finding difficult to fill and the reasons thereof.

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17

WSP element

Field description

Authorisation and stakeholder support (WSP, ATR, PIVOTAL report and banking details) declaration

This section must be signed by all three signatories and must be scanned and uploaded under the document uploads section on Indicium. Original signature pages must be kept by the company for audit purposes. The original signature pages must not be submitted to the SETA.

By compiling a WSP, a skills development facilitator (SDF) has the opportunity to obtain input from various role-players within the organisation to ensure that the plan focuses on the needs that exist within the company. It is important to work with management to ensure (Coetzee et al., 2013): •• buy-in and co-operation from management; and •• resource allocation. To achieve the full benefit of training, training has to be based on needs identified within the organisation. Only then can it contribute to: •• the upgrading of skills; •• enabling change and transformation; •• assisting the organisation to achieve and maintain a competitive edge; and •• instilling a culture of lifelong learning. By documenting the L&D interventions that they have planned in the WSP, companies can measure the implementation of the plan to ensure that the development of employees, whose skills are a company’s most important commodity, does not get sidetracked (Coetzee et al., 2013). The SDF, with the support of HRD professionals, is an important role-player in conducting a company skills audit and interfacing with the SETA on the WSP, ATR and levy grant claims. The employer must provide the SDF with the resources, facilities and training necessary to perform the functions set out. An SDF is a (Fasset, 2009): •• Facilitator: to facilitate the development of an employer’s skills development strategy; •• Expert: to serve as an expert resource for accrediting the employer as a skills development or L&D provider and for the implementation of appropriate learning programmes (learnerships and learning programmes); •• Administrator: to complete and submit the WSP and ATR and assist in claiming skills development levies from the SETA; •• Adviser: to advise the employers and employees on the National Skills Development Plan (NDP) and on the implementation of its WSPs and assist in assessing the impact of skills development interventions in the workplace; •• Skills development/training and needs evaluator: to assess the skills development needs of the organisation by conducting skills audits and/or L&D needs analyses; •• Mediator: to serve as a contact person between the employer and the relevant SETA; and •• Quality assurer: to ensure that skills development interventions captured on the WSP, and reported in the ATR, comply with the company, QCTO and SAQA requirements.

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Total

HET

TVET

GET

Training & Education Band

6 7 8

General/career-focused diplomas

General Bachelor’s/career-focused degree

Postgraduate degrees (Honours, Master’s, Doctorate/Professional)

4

Gr 12 (Std 10) or Technical N3 5

3

Gr 11 (Std 9) or Technical N2

Career certificates

2

1

NQF Level

Gr 10 (Std 8) or Technical N1

Gr 9 (Std 7) and lower ABET 4

ABET 3 and lower

Type of Qualification

Table 3.8  Example of a skills matrix

African

Male Asian

Coloured

White

African

Female Asian

Coloured

White

Total

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Case study: Conducting an LDNA A South African global investment company embarked on an LDNA to explore and identify the current gaps in the competency of employees with a focus on areas such as leadership culture and practice, technical ability, teamwork and strategy, and strategy delivery knowledge. The L&D professional’s approach was to collect information from a variety of sources both qualitative and quantitative. The following records (quantitative data) were consulted to obtain previous results: • Performance data from 2010; • Goal achievement from 2010; • Employee survey results from 2010; • Customer feedback 2010; and • LDNA data from 2010/2009. To explore current thinking, qualitative data were obtained from: • Focus groups divided in grade, job title and divisional cluster; • Interview with managing directors and executive directors; • Interview with Head of Talent and Performance; and • Interview with Chief Office of Human Capital. To predict the future, qualitative data were obtained from: • Interview with managing directors and executive directors; • Interview with Chief Office of Human Capital; and • Interview with Managing Director of Strategy and Direction. Interview questions • What are the current organisational challenges? • What capabilities are needed to tackle these challenges? • How equipped are we to tackle them (rate on a scale)? • How prepared are you to release your team members for training/L&D interventions (rate on a scale)? • What are the foreseeable changes in the organisation in 2011? • What capabilities are needed to navigate these changes successfully? • Team strengths? • Team development needs? • Certification requirements (scale of importance to business)? • What does the L&D function do well? What can be improved? How would you rate the services of the L&D function? • Does learning get transferred to the workplace after an L&D intervention/learning programme (i.e. do learners apply the knowledge and skills in the workplace – do you see any change/improvement?

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The LDNA template that was used by the L&D professional looked as follows: Job Title

Department/ team name

Manager

Date

Level (1–5)

Level (1–5)

Importance (1 to 3)

Required

Current

Intervention(s)

Months

Primary business objectives Secondary business objectives Experience required Behaviour and skills assessment Behaviours Computer skills required Technical skills required L&D requirements identified High priority training/L&D intervention within 6 months

Complete

Medium priority training/L&D intervention within 12 to 18 months Low priority training/L&D intervention within 18 to 24 months

The L&D professional drew up the following L&D plan after completion of the LDNA: L&D intervention plan – high priority (within 6 months) Area (division/ team) needing L&D intervention

Number of learners

Nature of L&D intervention planned

Arranged (date)

Complete

Learning gap closed

Cost

Learning gap closed

Cost

L&D intervention plan – medium priority (within 12 to 18 months) Area (division/ team) needing L&D intervention

Number of learners

Nature of L&D intervention planned

Arranged (date)

Complete

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L&D intervention plan – low priority (within 18 to 24 months) Area (division/ team) needing L&D intervention

Number of learners

Nature of L&D intervention planned

Arranged (date)

Complete

Learning gap closed

Cost

TOTAL COST

The L&D professional also made a note of alternative ways of learning, apart from attendance of a formal learning programme or L&D intervention: Books/ e-books/ audio books

On-line

Coaching/ mentoring

Shadowing

Job swap

Journals/

Webinars

Networking

blogging

(including face-toface or social media technology)

Activity Conducting an LDNA Review the case study example above. Identify the advantages of the approach followed by the L&D professional. Would you describe the approach as proactive or reactive? Give reasons for your answer. Discuss the example with a colleague. Share your thoughts on how you would have approached the LDNA. Explain your reasons for the chosen approach.

4.3 Focus area 3: Occupational/job task/role analysis Occupational or job task analysis examines what employees must do to perform their jobs to the required standard (Morgeson et al., 2016). An occupational and/or job analysis identifies and describes the tasks performed by employees in a specific occupation and/ or job, and the knowledge, skills, attitudes and other behaviours needed for successful job performance (Morgeson, et al., 2016). If available, the results of an occupational or job analysis are helpful in determining training needs (see Chapter 4). Task analysis generally consists of: •• Developing task statements; •• Determining homogeneous task clusters, which are more usable and manageable than individual task statements; and •• Identifying competencies or knowledge, skills, attitudes and other behaviours (KSAOs) required for the job (Landy & Conte, 2016; Noe, 2014). 170

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The links between task clusters and KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes) can be used to develop skills programmes that enhance the most important KSAOs. The occupational learning system utilises the components of jobs to identify the knowledge, skills and work experience needed to perform an occupation or job effectively (Noe, 2014). Therefore, the task analysis informs the content of qualifications, learning and learning programmes in the occupational learning system. Activity Identifying job tasks Select a job profile or job description of a job with which you are familiar. • Identify one job performance area. • List three main tasks to be performed in the job. • Using the graph below, analyse the main tasks in terms of: –– frequency of use (scale: 0% to 100%); and –– importance (criticality) to organisation (scale: 1–10).

Frequency

100%

50% 0% 0 (Low)

Importance (criticality)

10 (High)

• Analyse one main task in terms of the KSAOs required to complete the task successfully. • Complete a competency matrix.

Description of main task

Knowledge required

Skills required

Attitudes and values required

Other behaviours required

• Using the following graph, analyse the competencies (knowledge, skills, attitudes/ values and other behaviours) in terms of: –– frequency of use (scale: 0% to 100%) –– importance (criticality) to organisation (scale: 1–10)

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100% 90% 80% Frequency

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (Low) (High) Importance (criticality)

• Analyse the results and identify the most important competencies to be addressed. Are the identified competencies: –– skills shortages; –– scarce skills; –– core competencies; –– core skills; or –– generic skills?

4.3.1 Applied competence

As discussed in Chapter 1, SAQA distinguishes between applied competence and applied occupational competence. Applied competence consists of the following three sub-types: 1. Foundational competence is the knowledge, underpinning theory and principles that learners must acquire and apply in their lives and work. 2. Practical competence is the skills that learners must be able to demonstrate in their lives and work. 3. Reflexive competence is the ability of learners to reflect on their own learning and growth and the ability to reflect on how the acquired knowledge and skills could be applied in different social contexts. Applied competence is the core focus of outcomes-based learning programmes (see Chapter 4). The L&D needs analysis is an important part of identifying and developing applied competence. Applied competence is the core focus of outcomes-based learning programmes.

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Activity Applied competence 1. Study the three types of competency described (applied competence). Think about the career you have chosen. What are the foundational, practical and reflective competencies that an L&D professional requires? (Hint: use the information in this book as a guideline. Which activities require theoretical knowledge, which require you to apply your theoretical knowledge and which require you to think about your theoretical knowledge?) Feedback: A L&D professional should know why a skills audit should be conducted (foundational competence); the L&D professional should know how to conduct a skills audit (practical competence); and, lastly, the L&D professional should be able to think about their own learning in the context of skills development in order to build their own comprehensive knowledge of L&D. 2. Study the role of a skills development facilitator (SDF) described in Chapter 1, then complete the following statements: • An SDF requires the following foundational competence … • An SDF requires the following practical competence … • An SDF requires the following reflective competence …

4.3.2 Applied occupational competence

In the occupational learning system, the competency that learners should develop is referred to as applied occupational competence. Applied occupational competence consists of the following: •• Knowledge and theory, which the participants will acquire through formal learning; •• Practical skills, which is the application of knowledge and theory, and includes the practising of occupational skills in a controlled environment; •• Work experience, which is experience gained in the workplace after completion of the knowledge and theory, and practical skills components of a qualification/learning programme (see chapters 1 and 4). Activity Applied occupational competence Consult the critical and scarce skills list and the descriptions on learnerships and apprenticeships in the MerSETA case scenario. Identify at least four occupations that require applied occupational competence. Remember that applied occupational competence consists of knowledge and theory, practical skills and work experience. Feedback A learnership or apprenticeship that results in a national occupational certificate or national occupational award is based on occupational competence. If you look at the MerSETA example, the learnerships and apprenticeships in which they are involved will all be occupational qualifications.

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4.4 Focus area 4: Person analysis Person analysis identifies the individuals within an organisation who should receive training, and the kind of training they need. The knowledge that an individual employee possesses is the most important contributor to a sustained competitive advantage for the organisation (Cascio, 2014; Noe et al., 2014). In addition, since employees as lifelong learners are expected to be creative, innovative and to actively manage their own learning and careers, the development of individual competence is becoming increasingly essential (Van Veldhoven et al., 2017). Employee L&D needs can be assessed using a variety of methods. For example, assessments of KSAOs can be obtained from the performance evaluation system or from a 360-degree feedback system that provides input for training and development activities. A 360-degree feedback system includes feedback from managers, peers, customers and other stakeholders, and a self-evaluation. Objective data on accidents and job performance are examined as part of the needs analysis and written or practical tests are used to assess employees’ current job knowledge. Assessments of an employee’s personality, ability and prior learning experience are increasingly being used as part of the needs analysis process (Noe, 2014). A 360-degree feedback system includes feedback from managers, peers, customers and other stakeholders, and a self-evaluation. At the individual (personal focus area) level, LDNA is the process of finding out what an employee is supposed to do (the desired performance) and what the individual can actually do (the actual performance or what the employee is doing incorrectly, inadequately or not at all). An individual’s learning and development needs may be personal, performancerelated or career-related. An individual’s learning and development needs may be personal, performance-related or career-related. Individual learning and development needs include the following: •• Updating knowledge, skills and job-related competencies; •• Increasing job satisfaction and fulfilling personal goals; •• Making decisions about career choices; •• Identifying personal strengths and growth areas; •• Identifying and achieving personal work values and work targets; •• Developing communication, personal effectiveness and life skills; •• Improving qualifications; •• Facilitating individual learning and self-development; and •• Building self-awareness, self-confidence and motivation. Any job requires a person to meet certain standards. Standards are levels of expertise, skills or performance that a person needs to comply with to do a job properly, and are usually 174

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derived from the job description, which flows from the occupational task/job profile analysis process. Training might be necessary if an employee does not meet the required performance standards. Training based on such a need (or needs) will aim to address that need by giving the employee the opportunity to develop the competence to do the job to the required standard (Noe, 2014). Organisations use personal development plans to identify and document the L&D needs of staff and possible ways to meet those needs. Organisations use personal development plans to identify and document the L&D needs of staff and possible ways to meet those needs. Personal development plans are evaluated within the context of the individual’s overall career progression and within the context of the organisation or department’s objectives. By using personal development plans, organisations show that all staff are entitled to meaningful training and education opportunities. Personal development plans identify the following: •• Employees’ existing competence (which will help to form the basis for an effective skills audit); •• The work values of staff (for example, career progression, helping others, creativity, being skilled and respected in one’s work); •• The work and career targets of staff; •• The competencies that need to be developed to enable staff to meet their work and career targets; and •• An individually tailored programme of development, training, education and support (including learnerships where appropriate), designed to enable staff to acquire the relevant competencies to meet their work targets, personal and career objectives, and sustain their general employability. By using personal development plans, organisations show that all staff are entitled to meaningful training and education opportunities. Personal development plans are negotiated between the line manager or supervisor and the individual staff member, and should be reviewed regularly. Managers and L&D professionals try to find a balance between individual and organisational needs (but because of budgetary constraints, this is not always possible). Conflicts may arise between the needs of different individuals, between different organisational needs and between individual and organisational needs. To resolve such conflicts, L&D professionals should prioritise organisational and individual L&D needs according to budgetary constraints, national priorities for transformation, priorities for a specific SETA, local circumstances and strategic planning priorities. Such decisions should be transparent and should be taken in consultation with training committees, staff members, unions and other relevant stakeholders. Since employee knowledge is a source of competitive advantage for the organisation, investment in employee development is an essential part of the organisational budget (Cascio, 2014). 175

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Since employee knowledge is a source of competitive advantage for the organisation, investment in employee development is an essential part of the organisational budget. Activity Personal development planning Prepare for a development conversation with your manager. Follow the guidelines provided below: Personal development discussion planner Name: Date of discussion: Manager/supervisor: My expectations of the session with my manager/supervisor:

Issues to discuss: •• Career plan •• Internship/learnership programme •• L&D goals and needs •• Development opportunities •• Further education opportunities •• Work performance •• Personal problems What is important to me •• What have I achieved and to what standard or level? •• What evidence do I have (portfolio of evidence) of my achievements? •• Whose evidence is this (own work, correspondence, references or commendations from customers, colleagues)? •• What have I learned during the development process? How do I learn this? •• What am I satisfied with? What do I want to develop further? Talk about yourself in the areas of skills, working style, interests and values. Skills: What do I do really well? Personal reflection What is my working style and personal style? How do others see me? What feedback have I received from others? •• Supervisors •• Co-workers •• Interactions with others.

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Interests: What work-related ideas/activities do I find fulfilling? Use the interest sort below. Interest sort: High interest and high competence

High interest and low competence

High satisfaction area

Development opportunity areas

Low interest and high competence

Low interest and low competence

Burnout areas

Red flag areas

Values: What ideas do I cherish about my career (for example, challenges, clear-cut procedures, creativity, flexibility, independence, mental stimulation, teamwork, stability)? List the values you cherish in order of most important to least important.

What specific feedback do I need?

What information do I need in terms of trends? Identify the future trends in your industry, organisation and profession in respect of the four factors listed below, and understand the implications for making career decisions and ensuring your general employability. •• Organisational structure

•• Norms and culture of organisation

•• Environment

•• L&D opportunities

Which two options are the most appealing? Set multiple career directions and determine the resources critical for success and continued employability. Multiple options •• Vertical (seeking promotion and more responsibility on current path) •• Lateral (moving to new duties or areas, but at the same level) •• Enrichment (enhancing present skills and duties; adding new challenges) •• Realignment (starting over or returning to a position with less status) •• Exploratory (testing changes without permanent commitment; researching options) •• Relocating (looking outside the organisation for a better career fit). Future thinking Keep in touch with mentor and other sources on new developments. Enrichments Identify activities/projects related to your present opportunities that will provide a greater challenge. Education, learning and development opportunities (NQF aligned) Identify development opportunities related to your current L&D needs and career path.

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What two development activities are most important?

Conversation tips •• Be candid, constructive and to the point. •• Take some time to think before your first meeting. •• Keep an open mind. Your first task is to explore, brainstorm and build on ideas about options and how to accomplish them. Do not get locked into one goal, one development area or one strategy too early. After reflecting on your current job, work through the items below. •• Draw up your personal development plan. If you do not have a job profile, use your ultimate career goal and your current competency profile to determine your development gaps and L&D needs. Your personal development plan Employee name:

Position:

Date captured:

Date updated:

Actions

Responsibilities

1. Do a self-assessment of how your current competencies compare You with those required in your job. Do this by looking at your current competencies, job profile, competency profile and the ultimate career development plan you have chosen. 2. Identify areas in which you need to improve your competence.

You

3. Complete your personal development plan:

You

•• List the competency gaps that prevent you from achieving your job outputs. •• Identify where learning and development are required. •• Describe your future career aspirations. 4. Discuss your personal development plan with your manager:

You and your manager

•• Discuss your performance in terms of the gaps that have been identified. •• Agree on a suitable learning solution. •• Prioritise learning needs. •• Draw up a timeline that indicates when you plan to complete training. 5. Implement L&D solutions by integrating the learning outcomes of the learning programmes you intend to complete into your career pathway.

You, your manager and the organisation

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Example of an individual needs analysis questionnaire Name:

Position:

Highest qualification:

Time in position:

Next possible (future) position:

Time needed to prepare for next possible (future) position:

List your five most important technical/operational job tasks:

Rate your competence in these How important is each task tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 – most important)?

List your five most important people-related job tasks:

Rate your competence in these How important is each task tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 – most important)?

List the three most important tasks or competencies you should master in order to prepare for a future position:

Rate your competence in these How important is each task tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 – most important) for your future career?

What assistance do you require from your employer to enable you to prepare for a possible future position?

5. GATHERING DATA FOR L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS Various methods can be used to gather data from employees and employers in an organisation. The most common methods include questionnaires, observation, skills and knowledge tests, personal development plans, performance appraisal data and critical incidents.

5.1 Questionnaires Questionnaires are used widely as a method of gathering data (Landy & Conte, 2016). Usually, a survey is done on a sample or representative group of the organisation (for example, a number of randomly picked employees and managers each complete a 179

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questionnaire). But sometimes a whole department or the entire organisation is involved in the survey. A questionnaire is an inexpensive way to gather data and a large number of people can be reached in a short time. Respondents also get the opportunity to give their opinions without fear of recrimination or embarrassment. The data gained from questionnaires can be summarised and reported easily. A questionnaire is an inexpensive way to gather data and a large number of people can be reached in a short time. Questions must be clear and unambiguous. Questioners should avoid asking two (or more) questions in one. Questionnaires cannot always identify the causes of performance problems and they do not allow for free expression or responses other than the options provided. Often, not many employees complete and return the questionnaire, resulting in a poor response rate. In addition, only literate employees can take part in surveys (Landy & Conte, 2016). Questionnaires cannot always identify the causes of performance problems and they do not allow for free expression or responses other than the options provided.

5.2 Observation During observation and work sampling, employees are observed doing their jobs or specific parts of their jobs (Landy & Conte, 2016). The biggest advantage of this method is that it does not interrupt the work of a person or department. Observation requires a highly skilled person who has a good understanding of the job being observed and the process of observing. Conversely, employees may sometimes react negatively and feel that the observer is spying on them. Observation is a more subjective technique than questionnaires, but it provides information on the employee’s behaviour and the results of that behaviour. The effectiveness of the technique is influenced by the type of job being observed and the expertise of the observer (Landy & Conte, 2016). Observation requires a highly skilled person who has a good understanding of the job being observed and the process of observing.

5.3 Individual interviews The individual interview is a popular and versatile way to gather information. Managers and employees accept this as a valid method of gathering information, because they can contribute their own views to the information (Noe, 2014). Furthermore, some kinds of information can be obtained only through the personal interaction of an interview. Respondents can explain their views in their own terms and, because the interview is a discussion, respondents may gain insight into their own situations. Literacy is not a requirement when the interview method is used. When in-depth questions are used, participants may reveal their feelings and explore causes of problems and possible solutions. Other advantages of the interview method are that all the questions of the survey are answered and a higher response rate is achieved. 180

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On the other hand, the information obtained from an interview may be biased or distorted. Sometimes, important information is lost because the interview is a stressful situation for some respondents. It is also a time-intensive and expensive way to gather information. The confidentiality of the information cannot always be ensured and the results may be difficult to analyse and quantify (Noe, 2014 a,b). The individual interview is a popular and versatile way to gather information, but it is also time-intensive and expensive, and can be stressful for some respondents.

5.4 Skill and knowledge tests Tests can be designed for a specific job, or standardised. Well-constructed tests will determine employees’ abilities to perform certain aspects of a job to a certain standard. The test should measure job-related qualities. The scoring mechanism should be developed by a trained person to ensure validity and reliability. Cognitive tests measure levels of knowledge in a specific area, while behavioural tests measure skills. Tests can usually be scored easily and can be administered to a large group of employees at once. However, tests are time consuming and expensive to develop. In addition, South African legislation requires that all psychological assessments should be proven to be valid and reliable, and should avoid bias (Coetzee, 2010; SAQA, 2014a,b). Cognitive tests measure levels of knowledge in a specific area, while behavioural tests measure skills.

5.5 Personal development plans A personal development plan sets out an employee’s future L&D opportunities to achieve long-term career goals, and the L&D opportunities to which the employee has already been exposed by the organisation (Utting, 2017). A personal development plan assists both the employee and employer to keep the employee’s long-term career goals in mind when discussing L&D needs. It provides an opportunity to identify areas in which knowledge and skills should be improved in the current job and as preparation for future positions. The personal development plan lists the employee’s knowledge and skills that must be developed, how and when these will be developed and the person responsible for ensuring that the development is implemented (Utting, 2017). A personal development plan assists both the employee and employer to keep the employee’s long-term career goals in mind when discussing L&D needs.

5.6 Performance appraisal data Performance appraisal data can be relevant in the needs analysis process, if the performance appraisal system allows for the identification of employee training needs (Noe, 2014). Strengths and weaknesses in past performance are identified. Action plans and goals are 181

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developed to address the weaknesses and build on the strengths. Training and development can often solve performance problems (Noe, 2014). As part of the performance appraisal, the personal development plan can be used to plan the employee’s future development and identify development opportunities. Performance appraisals must be conducted regularly for the information to be useful in the needs analysis process. Supervisor bias and misuse of the system may invalidate the information gained from performance appraisals (Noe, 2014). To ensure that performance appraisal information is relevant, reliable and valid for needs assessment, the following principles should apply: •• The appraisal system should be relevant to the job and acceptable to both parties; •• The manager who does the appraisal must have regular contact with the employee to ensure that the manager has access to performance-relevant information; •• The appraisal should be for developmental purposes only; and •• The employee should understand the benefits (in the form of development and training) they will derive from the appraisal. Performance appraisals must be conducted regularly for the information to be useful in the needs analysis process.

5.7 Critical incidents The critical incident or samples of behaviour method is a relatively easy method to use, especially if a proper job description is available (Noe, 2014). To use this method for L&D needs assessment, critical incidents are sorted into dimensions (based on the job description) and separated into examples of good and poor performance. Dimensions with many examples of poor performance indicate areas in which many employees are performing poorly. Additional training is required for these areas (Noe, 2014).

5.8 The organisation’s human resource and workplace skills plans The human resource plan for the organisation is a valuable resource in the organisational needs analysis and should be utilised to assess what kind of competencies will be needed in the coming year and what kind of L&D interventions should be implemented to ensure that these competencies are developed. A skills audit is usually conducted at organisational level to provide information on the current competency levels. This can be compared to the future requirements with regard to employee competencies in order to establish what the training priorities should be to prepare employees for future organisational directions. Information of a skills audit is also used in the compilation of a WSP (Powell et al., 2016). A skills audit is usually conducted at organisational level to provide information on the current competency levels. The WSP is created out of an in-depth evaluation of the organisation’s strategic goals and an understanding of the challenges and forces at work, both for and against the organisation in the wider business environment, that affect the organisation (Powell et al., 2016). The 182

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compilation of a WSP requires that information should be gathered yearly at all three levels. As discussed in Chapter 1, the WSP is the document that outlines the planned L&D interventions for a specific organisation in the coming year. The WSP is a legal requirement of organisations wishing to claim a mandatory grant from their SETA. The WSP and annual training report (ATR) form an integral part of the company’s annual L&D plan and are used to assist companies to qualify for skills development levy grant rebates (see Chapter 1). The WSP and the ATR form an integral part of the company’s annual L&D plan and are used to assist companies to qualify for skills development levy grant rebates. It is good practice for organisations to establish a routine information-gathering exercise to ensure that the information provided on the WSP is correct and that the L&D interventions planned for the year will be relevant to the actual needs experienced within the organisation. The needs analysis information at organisational level can be accessed by studying the organisation’s strategies and goals, and the implementation plans for these strategies.

5.9 Which data collection method to use When deciding on which method to use to collect data for needs assessment, consider the following: •• The involvement of employees and management; •• The time available to do the analysis; •• The costs involved with each method and the available budget for the needs analysis; •• The type of data required; and •• The geographical distribution of the respondents. Choosing the appropriate method to gather data is only one of the steps in the needs analysis process. After sufficient data has been gathered, an evaluation or assessment of the data must be conducted to determine which, if any, conclusions can be drawn from the data. Only then can the L&D professionals make any recommendations about existing L&D needs (Noe, 2014). We now look at the L&D needs analysis process in more detail.

Case example Data collection methods AllSport is a leading sport broadcaster on the African continent. The organisation forms part of a broader television, internet and video entertainment group with a specific focus on the African continent. Allsport was established in the late 1980s and has grown over time to become a global leader in sport broadcasting and is widely acknowledged as being one of the ‘best in the business’. The organisation has grown from strength to strength, extended its viewer base, number of sport offerings provided, as well as signing various international agreements to bring overseas sports to African viewers across the continent.

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This growth led to a challenge in terms of available talent to support and drive the broader organisational growth ambition. Locally, the organisation battled to access talent pools, given the nature of its business and, as such, a grassroots growth strategy was adopted to source and develop talent internally. Further to growing its own internal talent, an additional challenge was that senior talent in the organisation experienced a ‘glass ceiling’ effect due to a lack of individual growth opportunities, which led to higher levels of disengagement and an unwillingness to impart skills to younger talent, given the legacy of the organisation. Given this background, a company-wide L&D intervention programme was initiated with the following objectives: • Diagnose the current organisational landscape in order to identify talent development opportunities to build a robust and multicultural workforce; • Develop a practical talent development matrix that can be used to identify training and development requirements between levels; • Develop the talent matrix in such a manner that it allows for multiskilling and crossfunctional opportunities for talent to be developed. The L&D professional in collaboration with the organisation development professionals decided to follow a multimethod data collection process: Method

Description

Desktop analysis

Analysis of all strategic documents related to the strategic intent of the organisation as well as currently documented work design, policies and processes.

Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were done with the executive team to understand the current organisational landscape.

Focus groups

Focus groups were held with all team members across all levels within the organisation using an open space design collecting both quantitative and qualitative data.

Observational analysis

Team members job-shadowed the AllSport staff members when they were at physical sport broadcasting events to observe their processes and also conduct informal discussions with team members on the job.

An overall participation rate of more than 80% was achieved through the multimethod approach. Based on the data collection outcome, a multifaceted L&D intervention programme was initiated that focused on the following: • Policies and process redesign –– This work stream focused on creating a consistent policy environment across all divisions, as well as addressing identified inefficiencies in current processes. • Communication –– This work stream focused on developing new and innovative technology-driven communication channels. • Organisational and work design –– This work stream relooked at the organisational structure, work design and individual job profiles to ensure the correct distribution of accountability in the organisation.

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• Talent development matrix (TDM) –– This work stream focused on the development of a robust talent matrix that enabled multiskilling, cross-functional skills development and career pathing. Criteria used for the design of a talent development matrix (TDM) were as follows: • Knowledge: theoretical knowledge of industry, sport and specific discipline; • Experience: required practical experience within specific discipline; • Qualification: obtained qualifications or certifications relevant to job; • Technical competency: technical skills required to perform in role; and • Behavioural competency: people management competencies required to lead others. Once the design of the TDM was agreed with critical stakeholders, it was implemented in practice. A structured approach was followed which entailed the following: • Positioning the talent development matrix (TDM) to all employees and gathering their input into the criteria and design process. This was crucial to gain buy-in into the utilisation of the matrix. • Critical was to position the TDM as a developmental process and further position the benefits to individuals in terms of their own development, understanding of what is required to move up and across levels and disciplines, and how to meet specified criteria for each step. • Appointing a specific individual with the role of managing the matrix and supporting line and individuals to utilise the matrix. This individual was also responsible for continuous improvement on the matrix. An important consideration was the fact that this individual was identified from business and, as such, had a very good understanding of the different disciplines. • A train-the-trainer programme for line managers on how to effectively use the matrix for their talent. • Assessing all talent within the organisation against the matrix criteria to plot all individuals on the matrix. • Feedback from individual team members regarding where they were plotted on the matrix. These conversations were also utilised as a developmental conversation, with individuals being able to craft their development plans aligned to their own growth ambitions. The TDM was really useful as first-time employees understood what was required for them to grow to the next level or decide if they had the desire to move over to a different discipline. • Integration of the TDM into other human capability processes and aligning learning curricula to the different levels and criteria. • Automation and integration of the matrix into other systems to allow the TDM to become a master file for workforce planning. • The last step entailed continuous monitoring of the effectiveness of the TDM, as well as the refinement of measurement criteria over time aligned to business realities and requirements. Source: Veldsman, 2018 (used with permission)

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6. L  &D NEEDS ANALYSIS AND THE ANNUAL SKILLS PLANNING PROCESS As previously indicated, an annual LDNA forms an integral part of the national skills development process. According to Hattingh (2014), skills development should be a continuous, planned and structured process that is influenced by the SETA requirements, but not dependent on them. The company workplace skills plan/annual training report (see Chapter 1) should be the end result of a business-driven skills planning process of which the LDNA is a core element (see Chapter 9). The workplace skills plan should be derived from and integrated into other human performance improvement processes focused on developing the human capabilities needed to achieve the organisation’s business goals and objectives, such as talent management, succession planning and retention of scarce skills (Hattingh, 2014). This will ensure the return on investment (ROI) from L&D interventions, as programmes will be focused on the competence required for the key performance areas of the business (Hattingh, 2014). An example of the skills planning process is shown in Figure 3.3. Skills development should be a continuous, planned and structured process that is influenced by the SETA requirements, but not dependent on them. The skills planning process should include: •• A skills audit (about every three to five years) to determine the current state of skills in the company; followed by •• An annual L&D needs analysis to identify the main skills gaps and training needs that must be addressed to improve the organisation’s performance; resulting in •• A comprehensive L&D plan for learning and other learning programmes to improve employee and organisational performance. This document should be used as a basis for compiling the WSP/ATR, which includes only information that is relevant for the SETA.

Develop data-gathering methods and procedures • Develop competency charts for each department • Design L&D needs analysis questionnaires

Plan to plan • HRD committee • Departmental training committees • Administrative rules

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Evaluate L&D effectiveness and compile ATR • Provide feedback • Apply for levy grants

HRD INFORMATION SYSTEM

Develop datagathering cycle

Compile workplace skills plan and HRD plan

Analyse L&D needs and plan L&D interventions

Implement L&D needs analysis (gather data)

Figure 3.3  The skills planning process

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As shown in Figure 3.3, the HRD department generally initiates the L&D needs analysis process to ensure that the company will be able to submit the workplace skills plan on time to the relevant SETA and qualify for the mandatory grant. Table 3.9  Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development planning process (Hattingh, 2014)

Timeframe

Conducting L&D needs analysis

Mid-August

SDF and training committee plan the L&D needs analysis and LDNA questionnaire.

1st week Sept.

SDF sends LDNA questionnaire to line managers and staff via the relevant training committee members in the business units.

4th week Oct.

SDF completes consolidated list of training and other L&D needs identified.

1st week Nov.

HRD/L&D manager provides feedback to EXCO to confirm L&D needs priorities.

Timeframe

Develop L&D plan

2nd week Nov.

SDF finalises the list of training and other L&D programmes for the coming year.

3rd week Nov.

SDF finalises the L&D plan, with delivery schedule, for the next year – approved by the training committee and HRD/L&D manager.

4th week Nov.

SDF distributes L&D plan to managers and staff.

2nd week Jan.

SDF sends reminder to managers/staff to check the online L&D calendar

3rd week Jan.

Commencement of L&D interventions, as recorded in L&D plan.

Timeframe

Update HRD/L&D plan

1st week April

SDF and training committee plan the review of the LDNA to update L&D needs.

2nd week April

SDF and training committee send simplified LDNA questionnaires to managers for revision of the previous year’s needs.

3rd week April

SDF consolidates revised L&D needs.

4th week April

Updated HRD/L&D plan completed, approved and distributed.

Timeframe

Complete WSP and ATR

Continuously

SDF monitors implementation and ensures that L&D intervention information is recorded.

1st week May

SDF commences the preparation of the final WSP/ATR and determines the latest SETA requirements.

2nd week May

SDF starts recording required information from the updated L&D plan in the WSP and L&D records from the database for learning programmes completed for the ATR.

1st week June

SDF submits first draft of the WSP/ATR to the training committee and HRD/L&D manager for feedback.

2nd week June

Management approves WSP/ATR and SDF obtains required signatures.

3rd week June

SDF submits completed WSP/ATR to SETA.

4th week June

Organisation meets deadline for submission of WSP/ATR and qualified for the Mandatory Skills Levy Grant (see Chapter 1).

Continuously

The SDF submits applications for Discretionary Grants to the SETA for the programmes that meet specified SETA requirements.

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The HRD department sends the questionnaires to the departmental training representatives, collects the completed questionnaires, analyses the data, prepares the results (with the help of the departmental training representatives) and communicates the outcome to the L&D unit of the HRD department. On the basis of their feedback, the HRD department develops a final HRD plan and WSP, which will be submitted to the SETA as a requirement for the mandatory grant. The HRD plan comprises the broader HRD strategies to address the L&D needs in the short term (a financial year), medium term (two to three years) and long term (three to five years). The HRD plan will also include capability-building strategies, such as talent pool development, managerial development and succession development. The short-term strategies are included in the workplace skills plan. Table 3.9 outlines the core activities related to an LDNA process that is integrated with the company’s annual skills development planning process. The process outlined below was developed by Hattingh (2014) to ensure the active involvement of managers and staff in determining the annual skills training and informal in-house development needs that would drive personal and organisational performance. Although the annual WSP and ATR should result from a well-structured and planned process involving the accurate and reliable analysis of the skills needs in the organisation, it is not the end of the annual skills planning process. The learning programmes or L&D interventions planned for the year need to be promoted and the implementation of the WSP monitored by all the role-players involved (see Table 3.10). The actual impact on achieving the desired business results (ROI) and delivering on stakeholders’ expectations (ROE), as discussed in Chapter 8, must be evaluated (Hattingh, 2014). The last step of the L&D needs analysis is to ensure that the following information is documented: •• The agreed organisational success indicators of the planned learning intervention, including the return on expectations (ROE) and the return on impact (ROI); •• The present and prospective L&D needs at all levels of the organisation; •• The possible integration of the identified L&D needs with national and sectoral needs; and •• The HRD/L&D plan and completed WSP. The information above is used in the evaluation of the learning programme. (This is also the topic of Chapter 8.) The main objective of the evaluation of L&D programmes is to find out whether the planned L&D programmes achieved the desired organisational outcomes. Evaluation of L&D programmes is also an attempt to find weaknesses in the needs analysis system, provide feedback on the developed and implemented L&D programmes and suggest any changes needed to the concerned parties. The HRD department should develop a system for evaluating L&D programmes to ensure the quality of the learning programmes (also discussed in Chapter 8). The main objective of the evaluation of L&D programmes is to find out whether the planned L&D programmes achieved the desired organisational outcomes.

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Chapter 3 | Conducting a learning and development needs analysis

As companies may qualify for a Skills Levy Grant (see Chapter 1), based on their workplace skills plan and annual training report, the company level skills planning process is generally driven by the internal or external person designated as the skills development facilitator (SDF). The SDF is commonly someone from the human resource development or L&D unit in a company, or the person responsible for staff training (Hattingh, 2014). As shown in Figure 3.4 and Table 3.10, training committees are usually established in companies to assist the HR development department and the skills development facilitator (SDF) to collect the L&D needs of the various departments and to ensure that the LDNA process is fair and addresses equity needs. Training committees assist the HRD department and the SDF to collect the L&D needs of the various departments and to ensure that the LDNA process is fair and addresses equity needs. Representatives from the various job levels and various race and gender groups usually form the training committee of a department. Administrative policies and procedures should be established to manage the activities of the HRD department and training committees. Some of the most important matters that should be described in policies and procedures are: •• The number of meetings each year; •• The duration of each meeting and the dates, if possible; •• General objectives of each meeting; •• General guidelines for recording and distributing minutes of meetings; and •• The responsibilities of, and co-ordination between, the various departments, the departmental training representative, the training committee and the HRD department. Administrative policies and procedures should be established to manage the activities of the HRD department and training committees.

HRD department

HRD committee

Departmental training representatives (one per department)

Department training committee

Department training committee

Department training committee

Department training committee

Representatives from all job levels, race and gender groups in the department

Figure 3.4  The skills planning support structure

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As shown in Table  3.10, skills planning processes must be conducted in consultation with the organisation’s management, especially line-functional managers and employee representatives to ensure that they ‘own’ the process and do not regard it as an HRD department responsibility. The number of people involved in gathering the required information will depend on the number of employees in the organisation. Table  3.10 provides some examples of the contributions of different role-players to the skills planning process (Hattingh, 2010b). Apart from the role-players listed in Table  3.10, the SDF and the L&D professionals are critical to the success of the LDNA process. Table 3.11 differentiates between the roles of the SDF and L&D professionals in the skills planning and L&D implementation process. Table 3.10  Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process (Hattingh, 2010b)

Contributions of role-players to the skills planning process Top and senior management •• Formulate strategic plans and goals in which current/future skills needs are described. •• Make decisions about the overall skills planning process to ensure its relevance. •• Promote skills development through vocal support and encouragement. •• Build and support a culture that values human capital development and lifelong learning. •• Approve the allocation of the financial, human and other resources needed for effective skills planning and development. HR manager •• Ensures that the skills planning process is integrated into HR processes, such as human capital management, performance appraisal, succession planning, talent management and skills retention. •• Ensures that the competency profiles (or job descriptions) are clearly formulated so that they can be used for measuring the employees’ performance against job requirements. •• Makes relevant information available to the SDF, especially the results from performance appraisals and other information on performance gaps and skills needs. HRD manager (or other manager responsible for training and development) •• Ensures that the skills planning process is focused on developing the skills the organisation needs to achieve its current and strategic objectives. •• Works in close consultation with managers and the SDF to ensure that the WSP is aligned to the strategic priorities of the organisation. •• Organises and oversees the nomination, selection and capacity-building of the SDF and training committee to ensure that they have the competence required to perform these functions. Line managers, team leaders and supervisors •• Provide input on the performance problems and training needs in their work units. •• Support the participation of employees in learning and other development programmes. •• Monitor staff performance after training to track the impact of training. •• Provide feedback to the SDF and skills planning team on the success of the learning programmes, measured in terms of improved on-the-job performance.

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Contributions of role-players to the skills planning process Training committee •• Represents the interests of business units, sections or divisions in the organisation to ensure that their skills needs are addressed. •• Assists the SDF to fulfil their role by identifying skills needs in the unit and feeding them into the skills planning process. •• Promotes and supports skills development within their own unit. •• Assists in monitoring, tracking and evaluating the impact of skills development on the performance of the business unit. •• Could include representatives from the employment equity committee to ensure that the WSP is used to promote the achievement of the organisation’s equity targets. Employees •• Accurately indicate learning needs during the training needs analysis. •• Provide feedback on learning programmes completed to indicate relevance to their own work role, so that feedback can be used to evaluate the quality, relevance of impact of such programmes. Table 3.11  Occupational tasks of skills development facilitators, L&D professionals and trainers (DHET: OFO, 2017)

Skills development practitioner (SDP) (skills development facilitator)

Learning and development professional

Occupational instructor/ trainer

OFO occupational title and tasks: 2017-242302

OFO occupational title and tasks: 2017-242401

OFO occupational title and tasks: 2017-242402

Analyses the skills requirements within an organisation and coordinates the execution of the personal development plans of employees and monitors the implementation of the workplace skills plan and reports accordingly.

Plans, develops, implements and evaluates L&D programmes to ensure management and staff acquire the skills and develop the competencies required by an organisation to meet organisational objectives.

Conducts and assesses training/ learning and development to ensure management and staff acquire the skills and develop the competencies required by an organisation to meet organisational objectives.

OFO generic occupational tasks: 2017-2423

OFO generic occupational tasks: 2017-2424

Advising on and performing personnel functions relating to employee recruitment, placement, training, promotion, compensation, and employee–management relations or other areas of personnel policy

Identifying training needs and requirements of individuals and organisations.

Studying and analysing jobs performed in an establishment by various means, including interviews with workers, supervisors and management, and writing detailed position, job or occupation descriptions from information obtained.

Setting human resource development objectives and evaluating learning outcomes. Preparing and developing instructional training material and aids, such as handbooks, visual aids, online tutorials, demonstration models, and supporting training reference documentation.

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Skills development practitioner (SDP) (skills development facilitator) Preparing occupational information or working on occupational classification systems. Advising and working on the foregoing and other aspects of job and occupation analyses in such fields as personnel administration, workforce research and planning, training, or occupational information and vocational guidance. Studying and advising individuals on employment opportunities, career choices and further education or training that may be desirable. Identifying training needs and requirements of individuals and organisations.

Learning and development professional

Occupational instructor/ trainer

Designing, co-ordinating, scheduling and conducting training and development programmes that can be delivered in the form of individual and group instruction, and facilitating workshops, meetings, demonstrations and conferences. Liaising with external training providers to arrange delivery of specific training and development programmes. Promoting internal and external training and development, and evaluating these promotional activities. Monitoring and performing ongoing evaluation and assessment of internal and external training quality and effectiveness, and reviewing and modifying training objectives, methods and course deliverables. Gathering, investigating and researching background materials to gain an understanding of various subject matters and systems.

7. H  UMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS The human resources (HR) function is responsible for tracking existing employee data, which generally includes personal histories, skills, capabilities, accomplishments and salary. To reduce the manual workload of these administrative activities, organisations began to automate many of these processes by introducing specialised, electronic, human resources information systems (HRISs). These integrated systems are designed to help provide information used in HR decision-making, such as administration, payroll, recruiting, training or L&D interventions (including the WSP and ATR information), and performance analysis. An HRIS is an integrated electronic system designed to provide information used in HR decision-making, such as administration, payroll, recruiting, L&D and training, and performance analysis. The HRIS has two uses: (1) an administrative use by means of which employee records are consolidated and electronically stored for daily operation purposes – the administrative HRIS is integrated with the company information technology system; and (2) a strategic HRIS which mainly aids the decision-making process. The administrative information is used to make decisions about the recruitment and retention of people. 192

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As a whole, the HRIS enables the HR function to play a more strategic role in the company by improving information sharing and communication between the company and employees (Majunder, 2016). The basic advantage of an HRIS is to not only computerise employee records and databases, but also to maintain an up-to-date account of the decisions that have been made or that need to be made as part of a human resource management plan, the HRD/L&D plan and the annual WSP/ATR. The HRIS enables the HR function to play a more strategic role by improving information sharing and communication between the company and employees. Specific components of an HRIS may include (Majunder, 2016): •• Database: Employee data (for example, compensation history, emergency contact information, performance review information, absence/leave history, L&D records) are electronically stored and can be accessed from anywhere, anytime. •• Payroll function: Employee hours, cheques or payroll deposits to employees, for example, can be downloaded easily by HR. Salaried employees can be paid with substantially reduced risk of error and tax compliance is improved. •• Time and labour management: Absence management (vacation or sick leave matters, for example) can be more easily recorded, verified and tracked by HR. •• Benefits: an HRIS software package can facilitate medical benefits and retirement investments. •• Employee interface: Although some HRIS packages allow employees limited user access, employees can update their personal information electronically, review pay scales, change retirement benefit options, or download salary and benefit information. •• Recruitment and retention: Employee appointments, performance reviews and L&D are electronically recorded and managed. The training or L&D component of the HRIS provides a system for organisations to administer and track employee training and L&D efforts. The system, normally called a learning management system (LMS) if it is a stand-alone product, supports the LDNA process because it allows HR to track the education, qualifications and skills of employees, and outlines what training courses, books, CDs, web-based learning or materials are available to develop which skills. Courses can then be offered in date-specific sessions, with delegates and training resources being mapped and managed within the same system. A sophisticated LMS allows managers to approve training, budgets and calendars alongside performance management and appraisal metrics. The LMS component of the HRIS is a valuable resource for compiling the annual training report which, together with the WSP, is required to qualify for skills development levy grants rebates. The LMS component of the HRIS is a valuable resource for compiling the ATR which, together with the WSP, is required to qualify for skills development levy grants rebates.

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7.1 Ethics and processing of employee information in an LDNA An LDNA and/or skills audit collects sensitive information, particularly in respect of an individual’s knowledge and skills gaps. An individual’s needs and rights have to be respected. In addition, major planned changes in an organisation may give rise to new L&D needs. Senior management may wish to keep the planned changes secret. In these situations, L&D professionals may need to convince senior management that they need to gather data to plan timely L&D interventions that will contribute to the success of the initiative. L&D professionals then have to conduct an LDNA while maintaining confidentiality (CIPD, 2007). Because the HRIS and LDNA practices involve handling employees’ personal information, the HR function and L&D professionals are required by law (i.e. Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act, No. 4 of 2013) to treat personal information, including the collection, usage, storage, dissemination, modification or destruction (whether such processing is automated or not) ethically and with respect. Because the HRIS and LDNA practices involve employees’ personal information, the HR function and L&D professionals are required by law to treat personal information ethically and with respect. Personal information (as described by the POPI Act, 2013) includes: •• Contact details: email, telephone, address, etc. •• Demographic information: age, sex, race, birth date, ethnicity, etc. •• History: employment, financial, educational, criminal, medical history, etc. •• Biometric information: blood type, etc. •• Opinions: of and about the person. •• Private correspondence, etc. •• Special information: information concerning a child, religious or philosophical beliefs, race or ethnic origin, trade union membership, political opinions, health, DNA, sexual life and criminal behaviour. Some of the obligations of responsible parties under the POPI Act (2013) include: •• Allowing the data subject (e.g. employee) to see the information on request; •• Ensuring that the data is relevant and up to date; •• Applying reasonable security measures to protect it; •• Only collecting information that is needed for a specific purpose; •• Only holding as much information as is needed, and only for as long as the information is needed. The POPI Act promotes transparency with regard to information collected and how it is to be processed. This openness is likely to increase employee/customer confidence in the organisation/employer. This is also likely to reduce the risk of data breaches and the associated public relations and legal ramifications for the organisation/employer (POPI Act, 2013). 194

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The POPI Act (2013) outlines eight core principles relevant to processing the information of people: 1. Processing limitation: Processing must be lawful and personal information may only be processed if it is adequate, relevant and not excessive, given the purpose for which it is processed. 2. Information quality: The responsible party must take reasonably practicable steps to ensure that the personal information is complete, accurate, not misleading and updated where necessary, taking into account the purpose for which it was collected. 3. Accountability: The responsible person must ensure that the eight information processing principles are complied with. 4. Purpose specification: Personal information must be collected for a specific, explicitly defined and lawful purpose related to a function or activity of the responsible party. The responsible party must take steps to ensure that the data subject is aware of the purpose for which his/her personal information is being collected. 5. Further processing limitation: In circumstances where personal information is received from a third party and passed on to the responsible party for further processing, the processing must be compatible with the purpose for which it was initially collected. 6. Openness: Personal information may only be processed by a responsible party that has notified the Information Protection Regulator. Further certain prescribed information must be provided to the data subject by the responsible party, including what information is being collected, the name and address of the responsible party, the purpose for which the information is collected and whether or not the supply of the information by that data subject is voluntary or mandatory. 7. Security safeguards: The responsible party must secure the integrity of personal information in its possession or under its control by taking prescribed measures to prevent loss of, damage to or unauthorised destruction of personal information and unlawful access to or processing of personal information. 8. Data subject (individual) participation: A data subject has the right to request a responsible party to confirm, free of charge, whether or not the responsible party holds personal information about the data subject and request from a responsible party, the record or a description of the personal information held, including information about the identity of all third parties, or categories of third parties who have, or have had, access to the information. A data subject may request a responsible party to: •• Correct or delete personal information about the data subject in its possession or under its control that is inaccurate, irrelevant, excessive, misleading or obtained unlawfully; •• Destroy or delete a record of personal information about the data subject that the responsible party is no longer authorised to retain.

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Review and discussion questions 1. What is a systematic dynamic learning cycle? How do the various phases relate to one another? 2. Why is an L&D needs analysis (LDNA) such an important phase in the systematic learning cycle? What are the purposes of an LDNA? 3. What is the difference between a reactive and a proactive LDNA? 4. What are the four focus areas of LDNA? What information is gathered at each level and what can the information be used for? 5. What methods can an L&D professional employ to gather data for an LDNA? Which methods would be the most appropriate for the different levels of training needs analysis? Give reasons for your answers. 6. Who should be involved in an LDNA? 7. Why is it important to establish an HRD information system? 8. Why should L&D professionals have a sound understanding of the POPI Act when conducting an LDNA?

Summary L&D needs analysis (LDNA) is the starting point of the learning cycle. This chapter explored the importance of performing an LDNA on various levels to explain why and how to carrying out L&D activities and whether training is, in fact, the best solution for the performance problem or development need. Before learning design issues are considered, a careful LDNA is required to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what needs to be taught or trained, and who will be trained. The next phase in the learning cycle, namely using the results of an LDNA to design quality outcomes-based learning programmes, is explored in Chapter 4.

Employees become increasingly committed to jobs in which they can learn new skills, and to jobs they find personally challenging. Allowing employees to customise their growth opportunities provides them with further opportunities to learn and shifts responsibility for that learning to the employees themselves (Ulrich et al., cited in Palmer, 2002).

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OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE LEARNING DESIGN Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha

CHAPTER

4

Key points of outcomes-based workplace learning design •• This chapter focuses on the design of work-based learning programmes and other short learning programmes that are generally contained in the annual workplace skills plan (WSP). •• The effective L&D professional recognises that few (if any) of the desired learning outcomes will be reached unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning as valuable to them. This implies moving away from a content-driven approach to a learner-centred approach in learning design. •• The effectiveness of the learning process depends on developing learning outcomes that are meaningful and appropriate to the needs of the learners and the organisation. •• The L&D facilitator guide contains guidelines on how to enable learners to achieve the learning outcomes. It also facilitates quality assurance in respect of learning design, delivery, assessment and the evaluation of value added. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Evaluate the benefits of adopting a learner-centred approach to learning design. •• Explain the ‘design down and deliver up’ approach to outcomes-based learning design. •• Explain the 10 stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design. •• Differentiate between programme objectives and learning outcomes. •• Discuss how learning taxonomy levels guide the formulation of learning outcomes. •• Develop a learning delivery and assessment strategy for a learning programme. •• Develop a course outline for a learning programme. •• Explain the characteristics of well-designed learning activities. •• Discuss the aspects to be considered when choosing training/learning methods. •• Discuss the elements of well-designed, outcomes-based learning materials. •• Describe the process of selecting sources of and sequencing learning content. •• Discuss the function and content of the L&D facilitator guide in outcomes-based learning design.

1. INTRODUCTION This chapter explores the second phase in the systematic learning cycle, namely the design of outcomes-based workplace learning as it relates to the design of work-based learning programmes and other short learning programmes that are generally contained in the annual workplace skills plan (WSP). Whereas an L&D needs analysis tells us what needs to be learned and developed, learning design is concerned with how that learning occurs and how changes in knowledge, skills and attitudes can be achieved (Arnold & Randall, 2010).

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Within the context of the NQF and the OQF, outcomes-based workplace training has moved beyond content to focus on the outcomes or measurable end products or services of a learning process. The L&D philosophy and methodology that the L&D professional chooses to follow, will direct and inform all L&D activities (needs analysis, learning design and delivery, assessment and evaluation). In the past, L&D tended to be content driven. Learning materials and activities were designed around content, which supported the content orientation of curricula and modes of instruction. Within the context of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and the Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQSF), outcomes-based workplace training has moved beyond content to focus on the outcomes or demonstrable and measurable end products or services of a learning process. The reasoning is that content is not studied for its own sake; rather, learners should be able to apply and reflect on the content in real-life contexts (the workplace). The outcomes of the learning process can include learner achievements in the following areas (Stuart, 2011): •• Actions that are performed; •• Rules that are acted out; •• Knowledge that is evidenced; •• Understanding that is shown; •• Skills that are demonstrated; •• Values and attitudes that a learner has to demonstrate; •• The criteria and performance standards against which the learner achievements will be assessed; and •• The particular workplace contexts of these achievements.

Phase 1 L&D needs analysis

Phase 5 Evaluation of programme effectiveness

Phase 2 Learning programme design THE LEARNING CYCLE

Phase 4 Assessment and moderation of learner achievements

Phase 3 L&D intervention delivery

Figure 4.1  The learning cycle

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Chapter 4 | Outcomes-based workplace learning design

Although the focus of this book (and this chapter) is not on the design of occupational qualifications and the formal learning and learning programmes that constitute them, the principles that underpin their design are used as broad guidelines in the design of work-based short courses or learning programmes. As discussed in Chapter 1, the newly established Occupational Learning System (OLS) requires that all workplace L&D or skills development interventions be linked to the scarce and critical skills embedded in the occupations listed on the Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO), which is linked to the current labour market skills needs. In other words, the L&D interventions must be based on the skills demanded by employers to perform optimally as a business in a globally competitive and turbulent business environment. The general rule of thumb is, therefore, that work-based learning programmes must support the occupational learning principles of developing employees’ occupational and/or job competence in terms of the three curriculum components: knowledge, skills and work experience (discussed in Chapter 1). The newly established OLS emphasises on-the-job training and skills development in the workplace. The newly established OLS (see Chapter 1), emphasises on-the-job training and skills development in the workplace. The learning design of short courses and learning programmes should support the principles and aims of skills development in South African workplaces. Research has also shown on-the-job training to be more effective than classroom training because it enables learners to transfer their learning to the workplace, leading to greater productivity for the organisation and enhanced employability for the individual (Rees & French, 2016). On-the-job training is more effective than classroom training because it enables learners to transfer learning to the workplace, leading to greater productivity and enhanced employability. Developing employees’ occupational and job competence in terms of the three curriculum components (i.e. knowledge, skills and work experience) enables both the organisation and its employees to be responsive to changing labour market needs and to remain up-todate and relevant. In the context of the OFO, the term ‘occupation’ refers to a set of jobs involving main tasks and duties that are characterised by a high degree of similarity of skill specialisation (field of knowledge required, tools and machinery used, materials worked with and kinds of products and services produced). A job is a set of tasks and duties carried out – or meant to be carried out – by one person for a particular employer, including self-employment (Vorwerk, 2009a,b; Stuart, 2010). The job tasks and duties are usually described in a company-specific job profile or a job description. In terms of the OFO, occupational/job tasks are broken down into: •• Products or services to be delivered: conceptual knowledge/theory required; •• Occupational/job responsibility: practical on-the-job skills required; and 199

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•• Context in which tasks will be performed: settings, circumstances, interfaces and/or range of work experience required. We shall use the term occupation/job in this book to refer to both the occupations listed on the OFO and the particular job described by the job profile or job description relevant to the organisation or workplace. The occupations listed on the OFO (which is updated annually to reflect the changing skills and profile needs of the labour market) are nationally recognised as sets of jobs embedding scarce and critical skills needed in the labour market at a particular educational/cognitive level (NQF). Occupational-based and, therefore, work-based learning design, considers in the needs analysis process whether the identified skills gaps of a particular job are linked to occupations listed on the OFO. Because the OQF is focused on providing a structure for designing, delivering and assessing quality learning that is highly responsive to the skills demands of the workplace (Stuart, 2011), the occupational focus assists L&D professionals to identify whether a learning programme addresses the development of occupationally related scarce and critical skills, in addition to the identified company job-specific skills. This approach will help to ensure that employees in the workplace develop and acquire the relevant skills that are in demand in the labour market, which, in turn, will help employees to increase their productivity, employability, mobility and progression within the NQF/OQF. You will also remember from our discussion of the annual workplace skills plan and annual training report in Chapter 1 and in Chapter 3 that the skills development facilitator is required to categorise the intended and actual L&D interventions according to the OFO occupational categories in the annual WSP. This assists management and the SETAs to monitor the development of scarce and critical skills in a particular company and sector, and ensures that the company and sector remain responsive to the changing labour market needs. Occupational/job competence relies on employees acquiring the required general and specialised knowledge and theory, and general and practical skills, which underpin occupational/job tasks, and relevant work experience to ensure the transfer of learning to the workplace and job. Research by Bersin and Associates (cited in Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009) also indicates that as much as 70% of employee learning occurs on the job. This is also the focus of work-based learning design, which aims to equip employees (learners) with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours they need to consistently and competently perform critical, on-the-job behaviours, which ultimately result in an increase in productivity in the workplace (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009). Research by Bersin and Associates indicates that as much as 70% of employee learning occurs on the job. This is the focus of work-based learning design. The general knowledge and theory, and specialised and contextual (workplace-specific) theory and knowledge relate to the specific subjects and topics (content) that will be addressed in the learning programme. The general and practical skills component of the learning programme relates to the general and occupational or specific job-relevant skills. 200

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This may include the application of knowledge and theory in the workplace context and/ or the development of practical skills required by the occupation/job. The work experience component of the learning programme includes opportunities for occupational/jobrelevant practice and experience in the workplace. The elements of these three forms of learning for occupational/job competence will be based on the L&D needs analysis (see Chapter 3). Conceptual knowledge/theory and information are acquired systematically through a set of purposefully organised learning activities. A work-based learning programme therefore comprises a series of structured learning activities or events that are intended to equip learners with (1) the knowledge and theory, (2) practical skills and (3) work experience needed to fulfil a particular occupational/job role, and to perform competently those tasks and responsibilities associated with that particular role in the workplace. Conceptual knowledge/theory and information are acquired systematically through a set of purposefully organised learning activities. Practical/applied knowledge and skills focus on the ability to perform certain skills at a particular level, safely, productively, within legal prescripts and with due regard for social responsibility – this component may be acquired in a simulated environment. Work experience focuses on the ability to integrate and apply conceptual knowledge and practical skills in concrete situations in the workplace and on the job (that is, transferring the learning to the workplace and job). Practical/applied knowledge and skills focus on the ability to perform certain skills at a particular level, safely, productively, within legal prescripts and with due regard for social responsibility. As discussed in Chapter 2, the effective L&D professional recognises that few (if any) of the desired outcomes will be realised unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning as valuable to them. Therefore, determining the L&D needs and expectations of the organisation and the learner (as discussed in Chapter 3) is a prerequisite for planning the learning design of a work-based learning programme. An effective L&D professional recognises that few of the desired outcomes will be realised unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning as valuable.

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L&D needs analysis Define business needs/expectations and success indicators

DESIGN DOWN

Product/service

Define and unpack occupational/job tasks in relation to expectations

Occupational/ job tasks and responsibility

Develop additional occupational/job tasks (workplace context specific)

Workplace context

Impact assessment/ Return on investment (ROI) Return on expectations (ROE) Pilot/adjust/modify programme

Analyse L&D needs in relation to occupational/job tasks (required knowledge, skills, work experience) Analyse learners’ profiles

Product/service

Knowledge

Determine learning programme objective

Occupational/job responsibility

Skills

Workplace context

Work experience

Knowledge unit standard

Subjects/topics

Skills unit standard

Modules

Work experience unit standard

Modules

Formulate learning outcomes at particular NQF/OQF level Develop learning delivery and assessment strategy and specifications Determine, source and sequence learning content Design learning materials, assessment and evaluation tools

Quality assurance

Evaluate effectiveness of programme/

Develop learning facilitation process guide

Monitoring and reinforcement

Deliver training

Transfer learning to workplace

Assessment and moderation

Ongoing mentoring and support

DELIVER UP

Figure 4.2  Steps in designing outcomes-based/workplace learning programmes (Coetzee, 2007b)

SAQA (2005) refers to outcomes-based, work-based learning design as a ‘design-down, deliver-up approach’ to learning design. 202

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2. OUTCOMES-BASED, WORK-BASED LEARNING DESIGN Outcomes-based, work-based learning design can be differentiated in terms of 10 important stages which are discussed in this chapter: Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and stakeholder expectations; Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/occupational tasks; Stage 3:  Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in terms of knowledge, practical skills and work experience; Stage 4: Analysing the learners’ profiles; Stage 5: Defining the learning programme objective and outcomes; Stage 6: Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning content; Stage 7: Designing learning activities; Stage 8: Developing a learning delivery and assessment strategy; Stage 9: Choosing training and learning methods; Stage 10: Designing learning support materials. The activities involved in the stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design are illustrated in Figure 4.2. The process outlined in Figure 4.2 is similar to what SAQA (2005) refers to as a ‘design-down, deliver-up approach’ to learning design. Once the design-down process is complete, learning designers deliver up; that is, they design learning activities to prepare learners for the assessment activities set out in the curriculum of the learning programme. Learning and assessment activities help learners to build up evidence that they have achieved the learning outcomes at the required NQF/OQF level. Once the design-down process is complete, learning designers deliver up; that is, they design learning activities to prepare learners for the assessment activities set out in the curriculum. The activity at the end of this chapter also provides a real-life case scenario of the application of the various elements outlined in Figure 4.2. We suggest that you study the case scenario when working through the various steps of outcomes-based, work-based learning design.

2.1 Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and stakeholder expectations Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

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The L&D needs analysis may have produced generic expectations outlined by the various business stakeholders. The generic expectations could be related to the job performance of learners that needs to be improved, or a particular business problem the company may be experiencing, or the need to develop new skills to take advantage of a market opportunity. These must be converted into observable, measurable success outcomes, that will ultimately accomplish return on stakeholder expectations. Learning designers thus start with the end in mind – the desired end result – hence the term ‘outcomes-based learning design’ is used. Learning designers in consultation with the business stakeholders, such as management, determine what success will look like. They then also determine the subsequent critical knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that must be applied in the learners’ jobs to bring about the identified outcomes, which will ultimately help the company to achieve the predetermined performance or success indicators (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009). Learning designers thus start with the end in mind – the desired end result – hence the term ‘outcomes-based learning design’ is used. Success and effectiveness of work-based learning design comes from the recognition and satisfaction of wider stakeholder expectations of company-specific L&D initiatives. Clarifying the expectations of stakeholders (such as those of management who is sponsoring the L&D initiative), is a crucial step to ensure that strategic alignment is achieved and that the L&D initiative will contribute to the business goals of the company. In this regard, L&D professionals strive to make a business case for L&D interventions in the workplace and to articulate the value proposition (see Chapter 9) of any L&D activity (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). Clarifying stakeholder expectations upfront helps to guide clear and appropriate learning programme objectives, alignment with the business strategy and design and delivery support and capability. Typical expectations may include the extent to which employees will show ‘strategic readiness’, new behaviours and improvement in their performance after completion of a learning programme (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). Clarifying stakeholder expectations upfront helps to guide clear and appropriate learning objectives, alignment with the strategy and design and delivery support and capability. Work-based learning design focuses on optimal job performance within a specific occupational/job context as a desired end result. Therefore, in line with the design of occupational qualifications, the starting point for designing work-based learning is an analysis of the occupational/job tasks of the particular group of learners in relation to the three elements of (1) knowledge and theory, (2) practical skills and (3) work experience needs, identified by means of the L&D needs analysis process (see Chapter 3). Work-based learning design focuses on optimal job performance within a specific occupational/job context as a desired end result. 204

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As shown in Table  4.1, the NQF level of an occupation/job is related to competent performance of the tasks associated with an occupation/job. The skills level of an occupation/job is a function of the field of knowledge required, the tools and equipment used, the materials worked on and the products or services provided in relation to the tasks performed. The LARF (Levels, Activities, Role and Focus, and Time span of Discretion) tool (see Table 4.1) is used to align occupational/job tasks to an NQF level (Stuart, 2011). Appendix A in this book shows the NQF level descriptors and the link with the OQF/ LARF descriptors. The NQF focuses only on learning for foundational knowledge and skills, and educational/academic or discipline-based knowledge and research. In addition to the NQF level descriptor aspects (see Chapter 1), the OQF focuses on the time span of work experience needed in a particular occupation/job role to function at a particular NQF/OQF knowledge and skills level in the workplace. The LARF tool is used to align occupational/job tasks to an NQF level. Table 4.1  The LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the appropriate NQF level (Stuart, 2011; Vorwerk, 2009 a,b)

NQF levels

Time span of discretion

Typical activities

Role

Workplace focus

10

Envisioning future scenarios

Visionary leadership

Future shape of the organisation, industry, profession

1–15 years

9

Set and implement strategies

Leading and directing

The ‘business landscape’ or profession

5–10 years

8

Manage or design systems

Resource management

Policy, resource allocation

3–5 years

7

Manage or design processes

Changed practices

New technology systems

1–3 years

6

Develop and implement changes

Optimisation

Improvements

3 months–1 year

5

Maintain efficiencies

Stability and consistency

Systems

1 week–3 months

4

Set up processes and solve process problems

Process management

Process data

1 week–3 months

3

Adjust, maintain and oversee

Procedures

Productivity

1 week

2

Monitor, support

Operations

Machinery

1 day

1

Perform elementary tasks

Task

Machines, tools

Less than 1 day

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NQF levels

Typical activities

Role

Workplace focus

Process questions in using the LARF tool:

Process questions in using the LARF tool:

Process questions in using the LARF tool:

What are the predominant common things people routinely do? Verb + noun

What is the purpose of these typical tasks?

Time span of discretion

The people or things with which the person is expected to interact or deal: Noun

What is the characteristic or expected function? To … verb + noun + [adverbial phrase]

Note: These level descriptors for work-based learning design are a work-in-progress and need to be tested in more contexts. See Appendix A for the link with the NQF level descriptors.

2.2 Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/ occupational tasks Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

Proper planning and design of a learning programme can be done only after a thorough L&D needs analysis (as discussed in Chapter 3) and an occupation/job tasks analysis. This step involves comparing the analysis of the required occupational/job knowledge, skills and work experience and performance standards in relation to the specific needs of the targeted learner group identified in the needs analysis. The analysis process helps to identify the knowledge, skills and work experience gaps in terms of the occupation/job requirements and performance standards that must be addressed in the learning programme. The needs and expectations of stakeholders are also considered in relation to the required occupational/ job tasks and performance standards. The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) 206

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and the organisational job profiles are useful sources of information on what is expected from the employee on the job. Proper planning and design of a learning programme can be done only after a thorough L&D needs analysis and an occupation/job tasks analysis.

2.3 Stage 3: Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in terms of knowledge, practical skills and work experience Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

The purpose of an occupation/job is usually outlined in the occupational profile for a specific qualification and in the job description or job profile. During this step, learning designers review the occupational/job purpose of an occupation, as described on the OFO (see Chapter 1) or the particular job description or profile, and clarify it in terms of the specific job role requirements that are of relevance to the learning design. Typical questions that must be asked are (Vorwerk, 2009a,b): •• Why does this occupation/job exist? •• What is the unique contribution that this occupation/job makes within the company and to the strategic business plan? •• How does the occupation/job relate to the specific business needs/expectations and success indicators determined by the business stakeholders (management)? The purpose of an occupation/job is usually outlined in the occupational profile for a specific qualification and in the job description or job profile. 2.3.1 Unpacking occupational/job tasks

Unpacking the occupational/job tasks involves a process of identifying the following components (Vorwerk, 2009a,b): •• The unique product or service that is delivered by executing the task. Identifying the product or service will assist in determining the theoretical knowledge that is required. For each task, the learning designer asks: ‘If this task is completed successfully, what will it produce? What will the result be (product or service)?’ 207

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‘If this task is completed successfully, what will it produce?’ •• The specific occupational/job responsibility regarding the identified product or service. Occupational/job responsibilities will guide the learning designer to the skills required to perform the occupational/job tasks. For each product/service, the learning designer asks: ‘What specifically does the incumbent in this occupation/job do to deliver this product or service?’ ‘What specifically does the incumbent in this occupation/job do to deliver this product or service?’ •• The specific context within which the product or service must be delivered. The occupational/job context will direct the learning designer towards identifying the work experience required within the specific organisational context. For each responsibility, the learner designer asks: ‘What is the specific occupational/job context within which the work is done?’ ‘What is the specific occupational/job context within which the work is done?’ •• The learning designer also identifies the NQF/OQSF level for the specific occupational or job tasks (see Chapter 1). Using the LARF tool, the NQF level guides the level of cognitive complexity at which the learning programme will be pitched, which, in turn, informs the formulation of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria. 2.3.2 Developing additional occupational/job tasks

This step involves a process of developing or identifying additional tasks that must be executed within the occupation/job, as well as the tasks for each specialisation. Identifying additional tasks will ensure that the total occupation/job is covered and that all the relevant skills and knowledge components are identified. This is achieved by defining the additional products and services that must be delivered and selecting the appropriate occupational/job responsibilities regarding each product/service. The relevant contexts for each responsibility are also described (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b). 2.3.3 Defining required knowledge, skills and work experience

This step involves analysing each occupational/job task and defining the skills and underpinning knowledge that are required to execute the specific task. This step ensures that the learning is structured to meet the required occupational/job outcomes. The learning designer asks the following questions for each product or service (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b): Knowledge/theory

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•• What must a person know about it (the product or service) to deliver it effectively? These could include disciplinary knowledge, practice-related knowledge and systems and contextual knowledge.

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•• •• •• •• ••

What legal requirements must the person know or understand in order to deliver it? What theories must the person understand and apply in order to deliver it? What policies and procedures must the person know or understand in order to deliver it? What else should the person know or understand to deliver it? How will it be assessed?

Practical skills

For each occupational/job responsibility, the learning designer asks: •• What are the required general and practical skills (including the skills underpinned in the SAQA critical cross-field outcomes)? •• How will it be assessed? •• What are the resource requirements: human resources (for instance, ratio of trainer to learners) and physical requirements (for example, equipment, tools; and safety, health, quality and environmental [SHE])? Work experience

The work experience component ensures that the learning designer can structure workplace learning that will lead to the demonstrated application of knowledge and skills. To define the relevant work experience, the learning designer describes the work that a person must be able to do in the workplace to demonstrate competence in applying the knowledge and skills within a specific work or occupational context. Work experience relates to the structured learning and prepares the learners for competence assessment. The work experience component ensures that the learning designer can structure workplace learning that will lead to the demonstrated application of knowledge and skills. Typical questions that the learning designer asks in describing the relevant work experience are (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b): •• What must the person be able to do in the workplace to demonstrate application of the various skills? •• What workplace-specific knowledge will be needed (such as standard operating procedures, code of conduct, organisational or product/service specific)? •• Under what conditions and situations must the performance take place? •• What settings must the learner be exposed to? •• What interfaces must the learner engage with? •• For what duration must the experience be maintained? •• What is the scope for practice? •• Where will the work experience and practical tasks be done? •• What will be the outcome of the learning process? •• What will inform the learning process and what is the focus of the learning? •• How will it be assessed? •• What are the resource requirements: human resources (such as ratio of trainer to learners) and physical requirements (for example, equipment/tools; and safety, health, quality and environmental [SHE] requirements)? 209

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The occupation/job task analysis information is then captured on a template (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b), as shown in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 provides an example of an occupational/job task analysis of the knowledge, skills and work experience required from a HR manager. An additional example is also provided in the case study at the end of this chapter. Table 4.2  An example of a knowledge, skills and work experience analysis: HR managers (OFO version 6) (Straulino, 2010)

Occupational task

Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance.

NQF level

6

Product or service

Appraised and improved individual and team performance.

Knowledge focus (Embedded or underpinning knowledge/subject or learning topics) Process questions: What theory must the learner understand and apply in order to deliver the products/services? What else should the learner know/understand in order to deliver the products/services? What legal requirements must the learner know/understand in order to deliver the products/services? Human capital management concepts Job analysis methods Leadership and management styles Behavioural theories of learning and motivation Strategic performance management processes Performance appraisal methods Individual and team performance indicators Performance improvement methodology South African labour legislation, including the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Skills Development Act, Employment Equity Act and Labour Relations Act

Occupational responsibility

Developed ability to research and integrate relevant information. Demonstrated interpersonal and communication skills, such as listening, questioning and persuasion skills.

Practical skills (Skills required to execute responsibility) (NOTE: includes critical cross-field outcomes) Process question: What are the skills that must be mastered in order to execute the responsibility? Research and integration skills Interpersonal skills

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Occupational task

Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance. Applied planning, analytical and problem-solving skills to determine most appropriate course of action.

Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and persuasion skills Planning and organisational skills Performance gap-analysis skills Problem identification and problem-solving skills Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that problems do not exist in isolation Team work and co-operation skills Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment

Work (occupational) context

Business goals, organisational structure and strategies. Organisational culture and values. HR business model and levels of work. Standard operational procedures. Service-level agreements. Implemented performance management system. Performance management policy. Reward system and remuneration policy. Training policy and framework.

Work experience Process questions: What must be used/known in the organisation to gain the experience? To which settings must the learner be exposed? With which interfaces must the learner engage? What additional knowledge is required to perform the tasks in the specific context? Exposure to HR strategy and goals Understanding of HR business model Understanding of previous/current performance appraisal processes Exposure to HR and performance management system Exposure to service level agreements Understanding of relevant HR policies, including performance management policy, remuneration policy, training and development policy, incapacity policy

Incapacity policy.

Understanding of reward system

Union considerations.

Exposure to training framework Specialised or contextual knowledge Company-specific strategy/goals Organisational culture and values Stratified systems theory Standard operating procedures Understanding of union dynamics

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2.4 Stage 4: Analysing the learners’ profile Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

The planning and designing of learning materials and content, and delivery and assessment methodology, are dependent on sound knowledge of the targeted audience and andragogy. Outcomes-based and work-based L&D revolves around learners (it is learner-centric) and their ability to achieve the learning outcomes of a particular work-based learning programme. Because outcomes-based/work-based L&D follows a learner-centred approach, the identified L&D needs in relation to the required occupation-/job-specific knowledge, skills and work experience, and the level and preferences of the targeted learner audience, will largely determine the learning content, structure, presentation and language level. Planning and designing learning materials, course content, and delivery and assessment methodology are dependent on sound background knowledge of the targeted learning audience and the principles of adult learning (discussed in Chapter 2). Apart from the aspects listed in the checklist below, L&D professionals are required by SAQA to record the following information about their learners: •• Learner’s prior experience; •• Gender; •• Generation, age; •• Geographic location; •• Socio-economic status; •• Cultural background; •• Educational background; •• Employment status; •• Language; •• Technological literacy and experience; •• Access to communication and social learning technology; •• Physical disability; and •• Unique L&D needs and motivation (personal reasons and expectations) for attending a learning programme.

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Table 4.3  Quality checklist for analysing learners’ profile (Coetzee, 2007b)

Demographic information What is the average experience of the learners? What is the ratio of male to female learners? Indicate the percentages. How many learners are employed? In what different fields are the learners employed? Where do most of the learners live – in rural or urban areas? What is the ratio of the different cultural groups? Indicate the percentages.

Language level Are they first-language, second-language or third-language English speakers? Indicate the percentages. Do they have access to technology? Do the learners have access to tape recorders, video recorders and/or computers?

Entry level of the learners What is the highest level of education? If applicable, indicate through which education department of the previous government they matriculated? What are the prerequisites for each of the subjects?

Motivational information Why did the learners enrol for the course? How does the learning programme relate to their work/job/occupational tasks? What is the learners’ attitude towards the learning programme? What are the hopes and fears of the learners?

Information on learning What previous experience do the learners have of learning by means of a study text? How much time do the learners have available to study and master a programme? Do the learners have enough time to study? Do they have enough resources available for reference purposes, if necessary?

Skills programme information What do most learners know about the learning programme? Do they have any previous experiences of laboratory work, if applicable? What personal interests and experiences relevant to the learning programme do the learners have?

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2.5 Stage 5: Defining the learning programme objective and outcomes Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

L&D professionals should keep the following in mind when designing the learning embedded in the work-based learning programme: •• The overall goal or objective of the learning programme; •• The learning outcomes formulated for the programme; •• The unique L&D needs of the targeted learner group in relation to their occupational/ job tasks, the expectations of stakeholders, and the required skills and performance standards; •• The education/cognitive level (NQF level) within the context of the OQF (see Table 4.1 and Appendix A) •• The goals of the learning process; •• The nature of the learning process; •• The construction of knowledge; •• The context of the learning; •• Learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn; •• The effect that motivation to learn will have on learners’ efforts; and •• Individual differences between learners (Dooley et al., 2005; Vorwerk, 2009 a,b). 2.5.1 Determining the learning programme objective

Based on the information obtained from the occupational/job tasks, needs and learner profile analyses, the next step is to define the learning programme objective. This is a broad goal that explains the overall purpose of the learning programme, that is, what the learning programme should achieve for the organisation. The objective of a learning programme should, therefore, begin with a description of the intended purpose and results of the training. The objective should state the desired organisational outcomes and success indicators of training. The objective of a learning programme should begin with a description of the intended purpose (the desired organisational outcomes) and success indicators of training. 214

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The following aspects need to be considered when determining the learning programme objective: •• What kind of organisation do we want? •• What are the needs of the organisation and the expectations of stakeholders? •• What are the organisational and learning contexts? What are the requirements? •• What types of learner will contribute to such an organisation? •• Who are the stakeholders in the organisation and what are their expectations in terms of learners’ education/cognitive and skills level and performance standards? •• Who are the learners? •• What are the business success indicators associated with this learning programme? •• What organisational support is required to ensure the successful transfer of learning? •• What are the needs of the learners? •• What are the roles and tasks that learners will have to fulfil and what knowledge, skills and work experience do they need to fulfil these roles and tasks at the required educational/cognitive and skills level and performance standard? •• What real-life, workplace-related problems do competent, responsible learners encounter? •• What are the actions competent, responsible learners undertake? •• What skills and tools do learners need to be effective? •• What should the workplace conditions be like to support the transfer of learning to the workplace and job?

Outcomes-based L&D focuses on the need for a new society within the context of a productive, competitive organisation (transformation).

Who are the learners?

What kind of organisation do we want?

What is the context? What are the rules?

What type of learner will contribute to such an organisation?

Who are the stakeholders in the environment?

Learning outcomes

What problems do competent, responsible learners encounter?

What are the roles learners will have to fulfil?

What are the actions competent, responsible learners undertake?

What skills and tools will learners need to be effective?

Figure 4.3  Aspects to consider when determining the learning programme objective (based on Prinsloo, 2007)

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Table 4.4  Example of a learning programme objective and learning outcomes

Title of learning programme: Coaching for performance improvement Objective:

Learning outcomes:

The objective of the learning programme is to enhance the coaching skills of HR managers for the purpose of improving employee performance.

On completion of the learning programme, learners will be able to: –– Conduct effective coaching sessions; –– Coach an employee within a performance discussion so that the employee is able to reflect successfully on their performance and gain insights on how they can perform better.

However, as shown in Table 4.4, a general objective statement is generally too broad to be of much help in developing a set of procedures and activities that will lead to an effective learning experience. The next step, therefore, is to formulate learning outcomes. 2.5.2 Formulating the learning outcomes

Learning outcomes are more specific and measurable than objectives in terms of what learners should be able to do after participating in the learning programme. Formulating the learning outcomes is based on the identified needs and required knowledge, skills and work experience for performing the occupational or job tasks and responsibilities competently at a particular educational/cognitive (NQF level). Learning outcomes are more specific and measurable than objectives in terms of what learners should be able to do after participating in the learning programme. Learning outcomes are defined as specific, measurable learning results that learners have to demonstrate at the end of each learning experience. Outcomes are things that learners can actually do with what they remember, know, believe and understand. Learning outcomes need to be formulated in such a way that they indicate the actions or demonstration process required from the learner. Learning outcomes are regarded as appropriate if they are closely related to the learning programme objective. 2.5.3 Developing learning outcomes

There are three requirements for developing a learning outcome: 1. An outcome needs to include a verb or ‘doing’ word. This indicates the type of learning activity that will take place. This verb must indicate behaviour that can be observed and measured. Examples of these verbs are: ‘develop’ (a business plan), ‘analyse’ (a case study), ‘compile’ (a budget), ‘formulate’ (training needs) and ‘build’ (a wall). 2. An outcome also needs to include a noun. The noun indicates the object associated with the verb. For the above-mentioned examples, we can use the following nouns: ‘business plan’, ‘case study’, ‘budget’, ‘training needs’ and ‘wall’. In other words, learners need to know what they have to develop, analyse, compile, formulate or build. These are the objects linked to the verbs. 216

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3. Lastly, an outcome must also include a qualifier, which indicates the scope, standard or method of how the action indicated by the verb will be measured or should be executed. To formulate useful learning outcomes, the L&D professional should answer the following questions: •• What must the participants be able to do at the end of the training? The answer to this question includes the verb and noun of the learning outcome. •• How well must they be able to do this? The answer to this question includes the qualifier for the learning outcome. Let us take the building of a wall as an example: after completion of the learning programme, the learners will be able to build (verb) a wall (noun) according to the relevant municipal regulations (qualifier). A learning designer can add more criteria to the three core criteria; for example, by indicating how the learning facilitator will assess the outcomes; how the learner will demonstrate the outcomes; and what learning activities and methodology will accompany the learning experience. Activity Which of the following is an effective learning outcome for a course on conflict resolution? • The participants will be able to define the concept ‘conflict’ and describe all five conflict management techniques. • The participants will be able to identify correctly which conflict management technique will be appropriate in a specific situation and utilise that technique to resolve a conflict situation in a role-play. Feedback The second learning outcome will be more effective for a course on conflict resolution. The second learning outcome focuses on resolving a conflict situation, while the first focuses on knowledge of conflict, which is not necessarily what is required in the resolution of conflict. As we learned in Chapter 3, we (and learners) cannot apply that which we (they) do not know. The content to be covered in the first learning outcome is therefore implicit in the second learning outcome, and the second learning outcome will illustrate what the participant will be able to do and how well they will be able to do it after the training course. The learning outcomes help learning designers to design learning activities that give learners extensive practice in achieving the outcomes. Furthermore, learning outcomes form the foundation of the design of assessment activities, which help learners to build up and provide evidence that the outcomes have been achieved.

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Activity Write a learning outcome that contains all three criteria for a module on emotional intelligence. Here is an example of such a learning outcome: Verb: describe Noun: five abilities (of the emotionally intelligent person) Qualifier: as identified by Goleman. At the end of this session, the learner will be able to describe the five abilities of the emotionally intelligent person, as identified by Goleman. Write an outcome for a module on L&D needs assessment. Here is an example: After studying the first phase of the learning cycle, that is, L&D needs analyses, the learner must be able to formulate training needs based on the discrepancy or gap experienced in the workplace. Identify the verb, noun and qualifier from this learning outcome. Verb: Noun: Qualifier:

2.5.4 Classifying learning outcomes

All learning outcomes do not require the same level of knowledge, skills and attitudes to achieve. As discussed in Chapter 1, unit standards are written at the various NQF levels. Some learning outcomes refer to simple ideas, while others refer to more complex issues. This means that learners can learn at different levels of complexity and may be required to demonstrate abilities at different difficulty levels. Learning is, therefore, not only about identifying information, but also about interacting with and applying the content in a specific workplace or occupational context. The learning content will also determine the complexity of the information or skills to be learned and, therefore, the complexity level of the learning outcomes that will be formulated (O’Neil, 2008). Generally, learners interact with or utilise information across three domains of learning: 1. The cognitive domain focuses on thinking processes. Learning outcomes for this domain focus on learners’ knowledge needs (see Figures 4.4 and 4.5). 2. The affective domain focuses on feelings and emotions. Learning outcomes for this domain focus on fostering certain values, attitudes and preferences in learners (see Figure 4.6). 3. The psychomotor domain (see Figure 4.7) focuses on physical skills. Athletes and dancers are highly skilled in this domain. Learning outcomes for this domain focus on developing physical skills (such as using a computer keyboard) (Erasmus et al., 2015). These domains of learning are generally classified according to levels of complexity (refer to Table 4.5 and Figures 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7). Such classification systems are referred to as taxonomies. They describe how the different levels build on (and often include) previous levels (O’Neil, 2008; Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997).

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Table 4.5  Taxonomy of learning outcomes (adapted from Gregory, 2005; Erasmus et al., 2015) Cognitive domain (thinking) based on Bloom’s taxonomy of learning (Bloom cited in Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997)

Knowledge To know and remember information, but not use or apply it. Knowledge is foundational – learners cannot accomplish other levels if they do not have knowledge. Comprehension Remembering and using information, understanding the meaning of learning material. Application Applying material already learned to new, concrete, comprehensive situations. To transfer information when needed and use it in a new context. Analysis Identifying and looking at the different parts of the information, indicating the relationship between the different parts and recognising the principles involved in the organisation of the different parts. Synthesis Using different kinds of information or knowledge in new ways to create something unique to the learner. The end result should show that critical thinking was involved, thus indicating planning. Evaluation Considering alternatives and making a judgement based on criteria that the learner developed. Being able to defend the decision by substantiating the reasons.

Affective domain (feeling) based on Krathwohl’s taxonomy (Krathwohl cited in Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997)

Receiving or attending The learner receives information but pays minimal attention to it. Responding The learner reacts to the information and enjoys reacting to it. Valuing The learner attaches a certain value to an activity or phenomenon and reacts voluntarily to increase participation in the activity.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: name, list, define, label, select, state, and identify.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: describe, convert, illustrate, distinguish, discuss, summarise, and give examples. Words commonly used in outcomes are: calculate, demonstrate, construct, solve, and apply.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: analyse, classify, categorise, differentiate, and compare.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: plan, adapt, combine, create, compile, compose, construct, model, revise, design, develop, formulate, and organise.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: assess, judge, criticise, rate, argue, justify, recommend, and conclude.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: ask, choose, describe, follow, give, identify, locate, name, select, and use. Words commonly used in outcomes are: answer, assist, discuss, help, label, greet, perform, practise, present, select, read, and write. Words commonly used in outcomes are: complete, demonstrate, differentiate, explain, initiate, invite, join, justify, propose, report, share, and work.

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Organising The learner organises values in a way that is characteristic of the learner. Characterisation The learner conceptualises the value to which he or she is responding by forming characteristics to evaluate a matter. Psychomotor domain (physical)

Words commonly used in outcomes are: arrange, alter, combine, compare, defend, integrate, modify, relate, and synthesise. Words commonly used in outcomes are: act, discriminate, display, influence, listen, perform, qualify, question, revise, solve, and verify.

The learner receives information; the sense organs guide physical activity.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: detect, differentiate, choose, describe, feel, relate, draw, select, and isolate.

The learner is physically ready to take action.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: begin, display, explain, move, process, react, show, and volunteer.

The learner imitates actions from others, and uses trial and error.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: copy, trace, follow, reproduce, respond, and watch.

The learner can do a task alone in less time and without describing the steps.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fix, manipulate, measure, mix, and sketch.

The learner can do a task without error, is skilful in performing physical acts that involve complex movements, and is highly co-ordinated.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, manipulate, measure, mix, and sketch.

The learner can do a task in a different way. Skills can be modified to respond to special requirements.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganise, revise, and vary.

The learner can do a task in an original way, or create a new pattern to fit a specific situation or problem.

Words commonly used in outcomes are: arrange, build, combine, compose, create, design, and make.

Bloom’s taxonomy of learning outcomes, revised by Anderson (cited in Blumberg, 2009), indicates that learning follows a hierarchy of cognitive processes. This hierarchy – indicating Bloom’s traditional terms of the cognitive domain in brackets – is depicted in Figure 4.4. The new descriptions of the cognitive learning levels take into account the kind of thinking processes that are involved in individual learning. Bloom’s revised taxonomy also indicates that four different types of knowledge are used and constructed at each of the six levels of the taxonomy. This indicates that we (and learners) use and create various kinds of knowledge at each level of the taxonomy and L&D professionals should keep this in mind when formulating learning outcomes. In their role as learning designers, L&D professionals should ask: ‘What kind of knowledge should the learners utilise and what kind of knowledge should learners create, and what cognitive processes should they engage in the learning

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Create (Evaluation)

Evaluate (Synthesis) Analyse (Analysis) Apply (Application)

Factual knowledge Conceptual knowledge Procedural knowledge Meta-cognitive knowledge

Understand (Comprehension) Remember (Knowledge)

Figure 4.4  Cognitive domain (based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy of learning)

process to use and create the relevant knowledge?’ As can be seen from Figure 4.4, all four types of knowledge are utilised and created at all six cognitive levels of the taxonomy. 1. Factual knowledge is what we would call foundational knowledge – the knowledge of terms, definitions, elements and so on. This knowledge may be seen as surface knowledge, but it forms the foundation for the development of the other three types of knowledge. Therefore, learners need to possess factual knowledge before they can understand, apply, analyse, evaluate or create in order to use and create the other three types of knowledge. But, when learners possess only factual knowledge, they are unable to use their knowledge in the working world to do their jobs efficiently and to solve problems in the workplace. 2. Conceptual knowledge revolves around categories, principles, generalisations, models, structures and theories. When learners possess this kind of knowledge, they thoroughly understand the information content of a specific subject or field and can apply it to perform a job better and to solve certain problems. This kind of knowledge is preferred to factual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge revolves around categories, principles, generalisations, models, structures and theories and is preferred to factual knowledge.

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3. Procedural knowledge focuses on the knowledge associated with a specific discipline, and the utilisation of the knowledge to perform jobs (demonstrate skills), or utilise methods or techniques. This kind of knowledge is demonstrated through application and often includes a sequence of steps. Procedural knowledge focuses on the knowledge associated with a specific discipline, and the use of the knowledge to perform jobs or use methods or techniques. 4. Meta-cognitive knowledge is about comprehending knowing and learning. It involves thinking about one’s learning and thinking in order to know one’s self. It can also be seen as strategic knowledge. Meta-cognitive knowledge involves thinking about one’s learning and thinking in order to know one’s self. It can also be seen as strategic knowledge. The importance of Bloom’s revised taxonomy is the close fit that exists between the cognitive levels and different kinds of knowledge that should be the focus of the learning outcomes and the NQF level descriptors (discussed in Chapter 1, see Appendix A), which indicate the level at which the learning outcomes of a learning programme should be focused. NQF level descriptors provide a quality check to determine whether the content that L&D professionals teach in their learning programmes is at the correct educational/ cognitive level. Figure 4.5 indicates how closely the levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain are linked with the NQF level descriptors for NQF Level 5 (refer to Chapter 1). Learning outcomes can be formulated at all six levels using the associated verbs indicated in Figures 4.4 and 4.5. Using these verbs will ensure that learning outcomes accommodate all six levels of the cognitive domain and do not focus only on the first level of the revised taxonomy. In Table 4.5, the verbs in the various learning taxonomy levels are guidelines to assisting learning designers to formulate appropriate learning outcomes. When writing learning outcomes, learning designers should attempt to engage all aspects of each domain. For example, if learners are required to demonstrate their ability to differentiate between two theories, they should not only be required to describe those theories, but also be required to discuss, evaluate and differentiate between the advantages and disadvantages of those theories. Using the various domains as guidelines when writing learning outcomes will also ensure that the learning design accommodates the needs of different learning styles and preferences (as discussed in Chapter 3).

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Blooms taxonomy

Associated verbs

Create

Design, create, construct, develop, devise, plan

Adjust application of a solution within relevant parameters; evaluate the change using relevant evidence.

Evaluate

Judge, evaluate, criticise, choose, estimate, predict, argue

Use knowledge to solve well-defined problems (routine and unfamiliar) in a familiar context.

Analyse

Analyse why, support, categorise, classify, put in order

Interpret, convert and evaluate text and operational symbols/ representations.

Apply

Solve, choose, determine, employ, interpret, demonstrate, relay

Apply essential methods, procedures and techniques of the field.

Understand

Describe rephrase, relate, explain

Apply informed understanding of important terms, rules, concepts, principals and theories.

Name, list, recall, state, identify

Obtain fundamental knowledge base of the main areas of one or more fields of disciplines.

Remember

NQF level descriptors (level 5)

Figure 4.5  Links between the NQF level descriptors and Bloom’s revised taxonomy (cognitive domain) (Botha, Louw & Oosthuizen, 2011, unpublished)

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CHARACTERISATION ORGANISING VALUING RESPONDING RECEIVING/ ATTENDING

Complexity

Figure 4.6  The affective domain (Botha, 2007)

RECEIVES INFORMATION

IS READY FOR ACTION

CREATES NEW PATTERNS

IMITATES ACTION (Trial & error)

MODIFIES TASKS

DOES TASK ALONE DOES COMPLEX MOVEMENTS

Figure 4.7  The psychomotor domain (Botha, 2007)

2.5.5 Critical cross-field outcomes

The eight critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) (discussed in Chapter 1) are the foundation for developing learning outcomes. CCFOs are general life skills outcomes designed by SAQA; they apply to all the learning areas. The CCFOs are broad statements of intent, and of the learning activities that will lead to the achievement of those goals. These outcomes should serve as broad, basic guidelines when formulating more specific learning outcomes for a learning programme (SAQA, 2005). The traditional SAQA unit standards do not include all the CCFOs. However, learners should achieve all the CCFOs during the course of completing a full qualification (or at least the CCFOs relevant to the particular learning programme). Within the context of the OLS and OQF, the CCFOs are integrated into the occupational/job responsibility and practical skills components of the learning programme 224

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because they represent important work readiness skills (see Table 4.1 and Table 4.2). The CCFOs are outlined in Table 4.6 below. The CCFOs are broad statements of intent, and of the learning activities that will lead to the achievement of those goals. Activity CCFOs and employer requirements Careers24 (https://www.careers24.com/jobs) advertised the position of a recruitment consultant. The job tasks of the position involve competency-based recruitment and training; and the screening of interview applicants. Work readiness skills required by the employer include problem-solving skills, initiative, written and verbal communication skills, and being a team player. Review Table 4.6. Which critical cross-field outcomes do the work ready skills address? Visit the website of Careers24 and study the requirements of HR of L&D-related positions. Can you identify the work readiness skills required by employers. Note how the critical cross-field outcomes of various positions speak to general important work readiness skills. L&D programme design must focus on developing these important skills in all employees. Table 4.6  The critical cross-field outcomes (SAQA, 2005) Learners must be able to: •• Identify and solve problems;

•• Lifelong learning

•• Work effectively with others in teams;

•• Explore strategies to learn more effectively;

•• Organise themselves effectively; •• Collect, analyse, organise and evaluate information;

–– Participate as responsible citizens in community life;

•• Communicate well orally or in writing;

–– Be culturally and aesthetically sensitive;

•• Use science and technology responsibly;

–– Explore education and career opportunities; and

•• Understand that the world is a set of related systems.

–– Become entrepreneurial.

Activity Visit SAQA’s website: http://www.saqa.org.za. Source any unit standard. Identify which CCFOs the unit standard addresses.

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2.6 Stage 6: Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning content Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

Content refers to the underpinning knowledge, skills and values that learners have to master, combined with the different ways in which the L&D professional, as a learning facilitator, will convey it to the learners. In effect, the content that is decided upon in the design phase will determine what the participants will learn and whether the learning programme will have the desired organisational effect (Barker, 2008). In a learner-centred approach, the L&D professional does not teach the content, but facilitates a learning experience driven by outcomes. The selection of content for a learning programme is, therefore, determined by the learning outcomes. As shown in Table 4.7 and Figure 4.8, content can be classified into essential, helpful and peripheral. The discussion and practise of essential content should be the main focus of the learning content, and helpful content could be added to this. The discussion of peripheral content should be avoided. Learning designers should avoid including all the information they have been able to gather in the course content – only the content that will assist with the achievement of the course learning outcomes should be included. A learning designer normally selects course content from several sources. The content must then be arranged in a specific sequence to enable learners to achieve the learning outcomes of the learning programme. In a learner-centred approach, the L&D professional does not teach the content, but facilitates a learning experience driven by outcomes. Table 4.7  Categories of content (Erasmus et al., 2015)

Essential content

Helpful content

Peripheral content

Must know

Should know

Nice to know

What the learner must be able to do after the learning programme.

Information that supplements the essential information and can be included if time and other constraints permit.

Information that is not essential, but may have a bearing on how well a learner masters the learning outcomes.

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ATTENTION

ASSESSMENT

WHAT/ HOW? ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

WHAT/ HOW? ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

C

GUIDANCE

WHAT/ HOW? ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

CONTENT

_________ A ___________ _ ________ B ___________ _ ________ C ___________

MUST ___________ SHOULD ___________ NICE ___________

PRACTICE

A

B

WHAT/ HOW? ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

MUST ___________ SHOULD ___________ NICE ___________

MUST ___________ SHOULD ___________ NICE ___________

Figure 4.8  An example of a course mind map (Botha, 2007)

A number of factors influence a learning designer’s selection of relevant course content. These factors will also influence the way in which the content is presented to the learners. The factors that influence content selection include the following: •• The type of subject presented; •• Differences between learners; •• The ability of the learning facilitator; and •• The sources of the content. Each of these factors will be discussed in the following section. 2.6.1 The type of subject presented in the learning programme

Each subject uses specific types of content, whether it is figures (such as in economics) or words (such as in history). The same applies to areas within an organisation, such as sales training (where the emphasis is on profit margins), human relations (where the emphasis is on interpersonal relations) or management (where the emphasis is on processes and structures). The subjects or topics of a learning programme are based on the identified required knowledge component of the occupational/job task analysis (see Table 4.2). 2.6.2 Learner differences

It is impossible to know exactly how each learner learns. However, some key aspects in respect of learner differences can be considered when selecting course content. These aspects include the learners’ generation (i.e. background/exposure to technology, technological/ 227

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digital literacy), access to technology, cultures and cultural differences, and language ability, or the learners’ ability to understand the language of instruction and express themselves in that language. The learners’ learning styles also influence the selection and presentation of content (see Chapter 2). 2.6.3 The ability of the learning facilitator

L&D professionals who are experts in the field of study are the right people to select content for a learning programme. But sometimes L&D professionals are not experts in the field in which they have to train employees. They need to consult an expert to help them to select the relevant content. 2.6.4 Sources of content

An L&D professional needs to investigate relevant sources to find the content for a learning programme. The primary, or most important source, is occupational/job data which include occupational profile information registered on the OFO, company-specific job analysis reports and performance agreements. It is useful to use learners’ job descriptions as the point of departure, as these consist primarily of a series of job outcomes, in other words, what employees need to know and be able to do in their jobs. Other documents that can assist the L&D professional to find appropriate content for a learning programme include: technical and operator manuals; standard operating procedures; standard reference books; textbooks in libraries or bookshops; and organisation and function manuals. (Table 4.9 provides a list of learning resources or online repositories of learning that could be used.) Use the following question as a guideline when selecting content: Is the information from this source (or the content that you wish to include in the programme): •• Essential (absolutely necessary to reach the outcome)? •• Helpful (adding some value to the programme, such as examples or case studies)? •• Peripheral (not really essential or helpful, but nice to have and something that will increase the performance level of trainees, such as a discussion given by some expert in the field)? or •• Unrelated (no relevance to the learning outcomes)? An L&D professional needs to investigate sources to find the content for a learning programme. Table 4.8  The links between the training need, learning outcome and learning content

Training need

Outcome

Content

A number of employees are not able to make a garment (such as a dress) according to specific measurements taken from a pattern.

After training this worker, she will be able to make (verb) garments (noun) from patterns (qualifier).

•• Reading material on how to interpret a pattern; •• Examples of different types of pattern; •• Instructions on how to measure with a measuring tape.

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Table 4.9  Examples of learning resources (Landy & Conte, 2004)

Learning resources •• Books and other printed matter, such as study guides;

•• Subject matter experts and current professionals or practitioners;

•• Video and audio tapes, CDs and DVDs;

•• User or interest groups;

•• Hyperlinks to websites with open educational resources;

•• The work environment;

•• PowerPoint slides, photographs and video clips;

•• Museums, art galleries and exhibitions;

•• Departmental procedures and checklists;

•• Online repositories of learning;

•• Sales literature, magazines and newspapers;

•• Government documentation;

•• Collection of raw data;

•• The internet.

•• Smart phone learning technology;

•• Email, newsgroups, chat rooms and list servers;

2.6.5 Sequencing the content of a learning programme

Proper sequencing of content can make a significant difference to the effectiveness of the learners’ learning experience. There are various ways to sequence learning content and the learning experience as a whole. These include: •• Chronological sequencing. The content is arranged according to dates or a series of events, for example, from past to present. •• Step-by-step sequencing. Learners analyse how a task is performed, and then each step of the process is explained. This sequencing is used in instructions on how to cook a certain dish. •• Whole-to-part sequencing. Learners are exposed to a whole model, situation or procedure. Thereafter, the parts of the model, situation or procedure are explained in more detail. This sequencing was used to explain Bloom’s taxonomy in this chapter (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). •• Part-to-whole sequencing. Learners are exposed to each part of a model, process or situation. The parts are combined into a whole at the end of the learning experience. This kind of sequencing is often used in school textbooks. •• Known-to-unknown sequencing. The learning experience starts out with material that is familiar to the learner and then moves on to new material. •• Unknown-to-known sequencing. Learners are exposed to new material at the start of a learning programme or learning session (for example, by asking a question to which the learners will probably not know the answer). Learners are then guided towards the information that they do know. Some facilitators believe that this sequencing creates a motivation to learn more. •• General-to-specific sequencing. Learners are given an overview of a topic. Each aspect of the topic is then discussed in detail. This sequencing is often used at conferences. Speakers give an overview of what they will be talking about, and then continue with a more detailed discussion of the content. •• Specific-to-general sequencing. This type of sequencing starts with specific topics or information the learner should have, and ends with a general overview of the topic. •• Concrete-to-abstract sequencing. This type of sequencing starts with learning experiences that are easy to understand and define. The learner is then guided through a learning 229

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experience that becomes gradually more complex, challenging and abstract. For example, a learning experience may start out with a description of a theory (including advantages and disadvantages, and applications of the theory) and end with a debate between learners on the relative merits of two different theories on the same subject (Erasmus et al., 2015). Proper sequencing of content can make a significant difference to the effectiveness of the learners’ learning experience. Table 4.10  An example of a course outline Learning outcomes

At the end of the learning programme, learners should be able to:

Capture attention

Ask a question, show a diagram or picture, describe a scenario, give learners a case study or problem to solve, make an argumentative statement or let them play a game.

Content

Must know

Should know

Nice to know

A B C D Learner guidance

How will I help learners to understand the material? I can give examples, do a demonstration, let them practise a skill, do a role-play or let them evaluate a situation.

Practice

Provide exercises to practise.

Assessment

How will I know that learners have mastered the material and that they are ready to move on?

Table 4.11 provides guidelines on sequencing content. Table 4.11  Guidelines on sequencing content (Erasmus et al., 2015.) How to sequence content •• Start out with information that is easy to learn. •• Start out with broad terms and technical concepts or cover them as early as possible in the learning experience. •• Practise new concepts immediately after you introduce them. •• Link new knowledge and skills by placing previous knowledge and skills just before the new material. •• If certain knowledge and skills are essential for mastering later parts of the work, allow enough time and opportunity for practise. •• Use sequencing that makes sense to you and will make sense to the learners. •• Complex tasks and tasks that need a lot of new knowledge should be placed later in the sequence.

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2.7 Stage 7: Designing learning activities Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

Once the sequence of the content has been finalised, the L&D professional can focus on designing the learning activities – those activities that will help the learners to understand, practise and master the course content. Learning activities are the tools L&D professionals use to expose learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour they need to master the learning outcomes. In this book, for example, there are various learning activities designed to help you achieve the learning outcomes formulated for each chapter. Activities differ in how information is transmitted, how the learners will practise the knowledge, skills and attitudes, and how the practitioner will assess whether learners have enough understanding of the content to move on to the next part of the content. Outcomes describe what learners must be able to do with the information they receive and understanding they develop during the learning process. Learning activities are the tools L&D professionals use to expose learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour they need to master the learning outcomes. Outcomes describe what learners must be able to do with the information they receive and understanding they develop during the learning process. Well-designed activities can help learners to remember information for later recall and use, practise new skills and provide feedback on their mastery of the information and skills. Learning activities must do the following: •• Allow the learner to take information (descriptions, rules, guidelines, advantages and disadvantages, definitions, and so on) and apply it to practical situations; •• Help learners to practise what they have learned; •• Allow learners to make mistakes and guide them to deal with or correct them; •• Refine knowledge and skills so that learning outcomes can be achieved; •• Allow learners the opportunity to practise new knowledge, skills and attitudes in a safe, non-threatening environment and in different contexts and situations. 231

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Examples of learning activities are provided in Table 4.12. Table 4.12  Examples of learning activities Learning activities Examples of learning activities that L&D professionals can use include: •• Reading materials independently to prepare for participating in discussions; •• Summarising information to extract key points; •• Exercises, such as listing advantages and disadvantages, or creating definitions; •• Problem-solving, such as analysing a case study and making suggestions on possible solutions to problems; •• Observing and noting what is happening in a role-play or on a video; •• Making a drawing or other representation; •• Conducting a survey; and •• Simulating a real situation (this method is often used in management games).

Research has shown that a competitive advantage can be gained when learners are proactive in the learning process (Rees & French, 2016). Following a self-directed, work-based (occupational-based) process supports the idea of andragogy (adult learning) proposed by Knowles (1990), which was discussed in Chapter 2. The notion of self-directedness in adult learning suggests that learners (employees) within the organisation need much more involvement in the learning process for it to be effective. Research has shown that a competitive advantage can be gained when adult learners are proactive (self-directed) in the learning process. A learner-centred approach attempts to involve learners in the learning process; enables learners to apply their knowledge to emerging issues; and helps learners to integrate discipline- or subject-based knowledge in the learning process. A learner-centred approach generally leads to a more positive attitude towards what is being learned, which improves learners’ motivation to learn. It also leads to understanding at a deeper level and, therefore, new knowledge is retained better. Learning materials should be clear and understandable, support the ways in which adult learners learn, and communicate and engage learners’ interests and motivations. By creating detailed, measurable learning outcomes, selecting relevant course content, designing supportive and interactive learner guides and incorporating support materials in the design of the learning programme, L&D professionals guide learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour they need to master and be able to apply in the respective workplace or occupational context. Effective designers of learning stimulate learners’ curiosity and think of ways to improve learners’ motivation and confidence. Learners must have direct access to the knowledge base. They should be allowed to work individually and in groups to master the material by solving problems, trying to understand and apply the material, and memorising important concepts. 232

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A learner-centred approach generally leads to a more positive attitude towards what is being learned, which improves learners’ motivation to learn. A learner-centred approach generally leads to understanding at a deeper level and, therefore, new knowledge is retained better. In the learner-centred approach, the L&D professional’s role (as a designer of learning) is to develop work readiness skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving and decisionmaking (see SAQA CCFOs). This can be achieved by helping learners to access, interpret, organise and apply information to specific workplace or occupational situations (Dooley et al., 2005). In a learner-centred approach, L&D professional are led by learners’ characteristics (such as learning pace, learning style and motivation to learn) when they design the learning embedded in the learning programme. The learning design should be flexible to allow learners to master the knowledge at their own pace and to address the individual learner’s needs. In the learner-centred approach, the L&D professional’s role is to develop work readiness skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making. The learning design should be flexible to allow learners to master the knowledge at their own pace and to address the individual learner’s needs.

2.8 Stage 8: Developing a learning delivery and assessment strategy Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

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A learning delivery and assessment strategy is a broad, detailed plan for achieving the learning programme objective and enabling learners to master the learning outcomes. Before starting to design learning materials, L&D professionals, as learning designers, should have accomplished the tasks set out in stages 1 to 7 of outcomes-based learning design. These stages help the L&D professional to gain important background insight in terms of the following: •• Understand their learners and their occupational/job tasks; •• Identify or formulate the learning outcomes at the appropriate NQF/OQF level (see the LARF tool); •• Identify the learning content and assessment standards and criteria; •• Decide which media they will use to deliver the learning content; •• Organise (sequence) the content of the material; •• Select methods that will create the required learning experience for the learners; and •• Choose the environment or occupational/work context in which learners will be engaging with the material. L&D professionals need an outline or framework (such as those shown in Table 4.10 and Figure 4.9) that sets out the different ways to guide the learners to achieve the learning outcomes. (Boot et al., 2007; Coetzee, 2007b). Some of the basic principles that apply to the learning delivery and assessment strategy are the following: •• In outcomes-based/work-based learning, learning outcomes are the starting point in learning design. Learning outcomes always determine the content and design of the learning process. The number of learning outcomes is determined by the objective and curriculum of the learning programme. In outcomes-based/work-based learning, learning outcomes are the starting point in learning design. •• Include the content that will help the learners to master the basic knowledge, skills and attitudes required at a specific level. If learners are required to delve deeper into some of the information, optional activities or further reading suggestions can be included. It is essential to keep learning focused on the learning outcomes. •• Learners cannot learn everything there is to know about a certain subject in a single learning programme. Learners cannot learn everything there is to know about a certain subject in a single learning programme. •• It is important to capture the learners’ attention before presenting the content. This will help learners to be more attuned to the experience of learning. Various methods can be used to capture learners’ attention before presenting the content. These are discussed in Chapter 6. 234

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Learning unit specification: Learning outcome 04 – Assessing development needs

Self-study

Collect information

Knowledge questionnaire

Lecture

Analyse, plan and make decisions

Group discussions and presentations Case studies

Workplace assignments

Execute, assess and evaluate

What

Learning process description A presentation/ lecture followed by group discussions and presentations that are then consolidated by completing self-assessment activities. How Learners attend a presentation/lecture regarding the process and principles of assessing development needs.

Learners participate in group discussions and design a process model for assessing development needs.

Skills portfolio

Learners compile skills matrices.

Complete selfevaluation questionnaire

Learners contract learning.

Course evaluation

The learning is consolidated when learners complete self-assessment activities.

Learning unit Assessment criteria

The assessor will observe and confirm that learners are able to: • design a process

for ensuring the effective development of the department’s employees; • design a process for determining the departmental and employees’ training and development needs; • compile skills matrices

for the department; and • contract learning with

employees.

Notional hours 20

Figure 4.9  Planning the learning delivery and assessment strategy: example (Coetzee, 2007b)

•• Present the learning content in a meaningful and understandable way and in ‘chunks’ (small manageable learning units). The learners should not only understand the information, but also its context and meaning. They should also be able to use the information to create their own meaning and understanding in different situations or examples. Present the learning content in a meaningful and understandable way and in small ‘chunks’. •• Guide the learners through the material. This helps the learners to understand how the material relates to their needs and helps with long-term memorisation. •• Provide sufficient opportunity for learners to practise what they have learned. In this way, information is captured in the long-term memory. Practice also provides feedback opportunities on how well learners are mastering the learning outcomes (learning facilitators should give feedback on this step so that learners know where they are in the learning process). 235

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Provide sufficient opportunity for learners to practise what they have learned. •• Identify and use appropriate assessment activities, criteria and standards to assess learners’ mastery of the content. Develop appropriate and relevant assessment guidelines. Designing the learning delivery and assessment strategy involves planning the duration of the learning programme, notional hours and credits. It further involves identifying the most appropriate learning activities that will enable the learners to master the learning outcomes of the learning programme. The assessment strategy is also developed for the integrated assessment of occupational or job competence. The assessment strategy enables the learning designer to formulate the assessment specifications by determining the optimum combination of assessment tasks. The learning designer has to determine the most economical and efficient way to assess learners’ achievement of the learning outcomes (Stuart, 2011). The learning delivery and assessment strategy must be captured on a template (Vorwerk, 2009a,b), such as those shown in Tables 4.13 and 4.14. Designing the learning delivery and assessment strategy involves planning the duration of the learning programme, notional hours and credits. Table 4.13  Example 1: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR managers (OFO version 6: 1323) (Pauw, 2010)

Occupational task

Developing and implementing performance management systems to plan, appraise and improve individual and team performance. A sub-task within the performance management system is coaching.

NQF level

6

Title of course

Coaching for success

Total credits

3.5 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)

Total time frame

35 hours (3-day contact workshop and workplace experience)

Underpinning

•• Revise performance management and what it entails (Module 1).

Knowledge Notional hours: 10 hours

•• Understand what coaching is and why it is important. •• Understand when to use coaching and the benefits of coaching. •• Understand the basic coaching principles. •• Understand and apply the ‘coaching towards change’ technique. •• Understand and apply the ‘SMART GROW’ coaching technique.

Learning activity guidelines Focus groups with experts – people with extensive practical experience who will be able to share stories and indicate the importance and life-changing experience that coaching can bring about in each of the three coaching techniques. Focus groups – groups will work together to discuss the role of a coach. They will put together a job description that will include the competencies, knowledge and skills needed to perform it successfully.

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Occupational task

Developing and implementing performance management systems to plan, appraise and improve individual and team performance. A sub-task within the performance management system is coaching. •• Understand and apply the ‘well-formed outcome’ coaching technique. •• Be aware of pitfalls in coaching.

Video clips – these will assist the learners to remember what they have learned – visual examples make it a lot easier to remember. These are also very practical and fun. Reading and audio books – the delegates will receive handouts to read, as well as CDs with audio-book recordings to transfer knowledge. Formulating questions – this will indicate an understanding of each of the coaching techniques. Role-play – practise each of the three coaching techniques through role-play exercised in front of the class. The class will give feedback on each person’s performance as coach.

Practical skills

•• Listening skills;

Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: 10 hours

•• Communication skills;

Role-play – to practise to listen and to display the correct body language. This will indicate some sense of interpersonal skills and if there is a need to develop this skill to a greater extent.

•• Interpersonal skills; •• Body language – to come across in an open and approachable manner.

Comprehension/listening test – to indicate the importance of listening in the world of coaching and to see how well delegates can listen. Video clips – to indicate the importance of the skills, as stated by others in a different way, in order to keep it interesting and exciting. Focus groups – discussions will assist employees to engage with one another and will indicate a level of communication. The discussions with the experts at the end of the three days will test the transfer of knowledge through active and engaged conversations.

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Developing and implementing performance management systems to plan, appraise and improve individual and team performance. A sub-task within the performance management system is coaching.

Occupational task Work experience

•• Exposure to organisational policies and procedures;

Notional hours: 15 hours

•• Exposure to the performance management process; •• Conducting performance discussions; •• Understanding the organisation’s performance management system; •• Understanding the work performed by the employee who will be coached and the context in which it is performed.

Learning activity guidelines Build up a portfolio of evidence with the following: 1. Conduct nine coaching sessions – three sessions with each of the new techniques learned under the observation of an executive coach. 2. Reflect on how you felt during each of these different sessions – what you found difficult and what you enjoyed. 3. Get feedback from people who have gone through coaching sessions. Include it in a portfolio of evidence. 4. Put a development plan in place for those aspects of your coaching that you would like to improve, as well as action plans on how to address these.

Table 4.14  Example 2: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR managers (OFO version 6: 1323) (Straulino, 2010)

Occupational task

Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance

NQF level

6

Title of course

Performance improvement: Within reach

Total credits

10 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)

Total time frame

100 hours (3-day contact workshop and workplace experience)

Underpinning Knowledge

•• Human capital management concepts;

Notional hours: 5 hours

•• Job analysis methods;

Learning activity guidelines Pre-course reading material.

•• Leadership and management styles;

Pre-course research.

•• Behavioural theories of learning and motivation;

Team-based quiz.

•• Strategic performance management processes;

Group discussion: Pitfalls and benefits of performance management.

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Occupational task

Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance •• Performance appraisal systems and best practice methods; •• Individual and team performance indicators; •• Performance improvement methodology; •• South African labour legislation, including the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Skills Development Act, Employment Equity and Labour Relations Acts.

Practical skills

•• Research and integration skills;

Notional hours: 15 hours

•• Interpersonal skills; •• Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and persuasion skills; •• Planning and organising skills; •• Performance gap analysis skills; •• Identifying and problem-solving skills; •• Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that problems do not exist in isolation; •• Team work and co-operation skills; •• Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment.

Learning activity guidelines Translating job information to performance measures – individual task. Developing a template to plan for performance appraisal – group task and presentation. ‘Conducting a performance appraisal’ – group task/role-plays. Analysis of a scenario to identify performance issues and possible solutions – group task. Case study – homework. Translate performance gaps to action plan – discussion group. Psychometric assessment to identify primary management style (15FQ+). Training DVD – Solving performance problems: The performance improvement plan

Work experience

Exposure to HR strategy and goals;

Notional hours: 60 hours

Understanding of HR business model and levels of work; Understanding of previous/current performance appraisal processes; Exposure to HR and performance management system; Exposure to service level agreements;

Learning activity guidelines Research previous/current performance appraisal method used in department and prepare a report to provide to the supervisor to identify the pros and cons of the method. Research the performance appraisal method used in a different organisation to identify the pros and cons of the method. Include this comparative information in the report.

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Occupational task

Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Understanding of relevant HR policies, including performance management policy, remuneration policy, training and development policy, incapacity policy.

Include section in report analysing alignment of performance criteria for at least three different jobs to level of work and organisational strategy.

Practical skills

Understanding of reward system;

Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: 20 hours

Exposure to training framework.

Attend training on the use of the performance management system used in the organisation. Read HR policies, highlight questions and schedule short meetings with relevant persons to answer questions. Interview a manager to find out hindrances and facilitating factors to performance appraisal. Report findings back to trainer by agreed deadline.

2.9 Stage 9: Choosing training and learning methods Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

Once the learning programme objective, learning outcomes and activities, and delivery and assessment strategy have been established, the next step in designing a learning programme is to choose the most appropriate training method for the objective and learning outcomes, and delivery of an assessment strategy. For example, if a learning outcome is to learn and assess an actual skill, some type of hands-on training, such as role-play or simulation, will be necessary, including building a portfolio of evidence of workplace experience in the skill as assessment type. Most learning programmes have a number of learning outcomes and various learning activities and forms of assessment (see Chapter 7), so the best learning programmes use a variety of methods (Aamodt, 2007). The different training methods are

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discussed in more detail in Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 discusses assessment types. The most common training methods are as follows: •• Lectures deliver uniform information to a large group of people in a short time. It is the most common method, but it is not interactive. It is not effective for teaching behaviours or learning skills. •• Discussions are structured conversations between learners and facilitators. They provide immediate feedback on contributions, creating higher motivation levels and better participation from the learners. •• Case studies are written descriptions of an organisational problem that can be analysed by a group or an individual. Recommendations are presented for further discussion in the larger group. •• Role-play is the simulation of organisational problems by learners, followed by a discussion. This is a good method to teach and learn skills such as interpersonal communication, conflict management, interviewing, performance appraisal and assertiveness. •• Management games are simulation exercises that replicate conditions in real organisations. Teams compete against one another, making decisions about planning, organising, financial issues, production and control of a hypothetical organisation. •• In-basket exercises develop problem-solving skills. A manager or trainee manager is given an in-basket filled with the typical problems that a manager should be able to solve. The learner must make an immediate decision on how to solve the problems. •• Demonstrations are actual displays of how to perform a specific task or set of tasks. •• Sensitivity training focuses on feelings and how one person’s behaviour affects the feelings, behaviours and attitudes of others. •• Self-directed, independent learning through mobile technology-enabled, self-paced digital books, microlearning videos, interactive real-life scenarios, collaborative online learning (i.e. interactive discussions) and audio books. •• Technology-based methods (see Table 4.15) include computer-based methods, social learning, web-based training or e-learning, interactive multimedia and virtual reality training (Grobler et al., 2006; King, 2017). It is important to note that, while these methods differ in their specific applications, they all have the learning principles discussed in Chapter 2 in common. Learners generally react more positively to integrated learning (learning that uses a wide range of methods). Using a wide range of methods will also require learners to use different learning styles. This ensures that most of the learners get involved. Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) and King (2017) note that most effective learning methods are created around eight basic principles: 1. They present relevant and meaningful information and content to be learned. 2. They represent learner-centric design. 3. The learning content and activities are presented micro-sized and modular (i.e. short bursts of information). 4. Multiple methods are applied to encourage learner engagement and effective learning and retention (reading, watching, sharing, interacting and applying).

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Table 4.15  Technology-based training methods

Computer-based methods

Web-based training or e-learning

•• Learning materials are made available on computer and learners can access the materials when it is convenient for them.

•• These methods offer training opportunities that are accessible wherever the learner can access the internet.

•• Learners can also set their own pace for the learning.

•• Learners can develop their skills and knowledge while sitting at their computers, at any time and in any place.

Interactive multimedia

Virtual reality training

•• This method combines text, video, graphics, animation and sound to create a training environment with which the learner can interact.

•• With these methods, the learner learns in an artificial threedimensional environment. •• Situations that the learner may experience in the work environment are simulated. •• The learner must interact with the environment to accomplish goals.

Social learning •• Mobile technology enabled social media as learning tools such as social web (i.e. blogs, wikis, social networks that drive community building and collaboration). •• Video-sharing sites, e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Linkedln, YouTube, Vimeo. •• Audio books and e-books.

5. They are built for mobile access (i.e. provide for learning ‘on-the-go’ through mobile/ smartphone technology, e.g. microlearning videos, e-books, and audio books that can be consumed while walking, talking, running, commuting) 6. They demonstrate a focus on work-related applied competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes and behaviour) to be learned. 7. They create opportunities for learners to practise the required skills. 8. They provide feedback to learners during and after practice. Learners generally react more positively to integrated learning (learning that uses a wide range of methods). This also ensures that most of the learners get involved. When choosing training methods, L&D professionals should consider the aspects listed in Table 4.16. Table 4.16  Aspects to consider when choosing training methods (based on Galbraith, 1990) The learners The facilitator

•• Characteristics;

•• Learning styles;

•• Differences.

•• Generational preferences.

•• Strengths and weaknesses;

•• L&D philosophy.

•• Facilitation style. The content

•• Nature of the content

•• Resources that will be needed.

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The situation

•• One-to-one;

•• Group work;

•• Classroom-based;

•• Computer-based or online, mobile or social learning.

•• Mobile, social media technology; •• Web-based, online technology. Other considerations for L&D professionals

•• How much time and money do I have? •• Will I have adequate equipment and materials for development? •• Do I possess the required skills?

•• Can I create an appropriate learning environment? •• Am I using the appropriate design, given the learning content and the learners? •• How easy will it be to update the material?

Activity • Do you think that classroom lectures are an effective outcomes-based training method? • Think also about the training preferences of the various generations. Which training method would you recommend for each generation? Give reasons for your answer.

2.10 Stage 10: Designing learning support materials Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Job/occupational requirements & stakeholder expectations

L&D needs and job/occupational tasks analysis

Job/occupational purpose & tasks

Learner profile analysis

Learning programme objective and outcomes

Stage 6

Stage 7

Stage 8

Stage 9

Stage 10

Learning content development

Learning activities design

Learning delivery and assessment strategy

Training and learning methods

Learning support materials

Knowledge/practical skills/workplace experience

Learning support materials must be relevant to the learning area and suitable for the target group. Learning support materials include a complete package of learning resources that have been designed to enable the achievement of learning outcomes (for example, online openeducational resources, learner manuals, handouts, books, slides and posters). Learning support materials must be relevant to the learning area and suitable for the target group. Based on the profile of learners, the L&D professional designs a framework for the learning support materials, ensuring that support materials are suitable for the learners. The framework needs to include specific details, including the mode of delivery and media 243

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to be used; the content; the structure and sequence of learning activities and materials; and training methodology. As with the learning programme, it is advisable to test the learning materials with a representative sample of learners and practitioners, and to revise and adapt the materials and methodology, if necessary. Refer to Table 4.17 for a checklist on what elements to include in learning materials and Table 4.18 for tips on developing effective learning materials. It is advisable to test the learning materials with a representative sample of learners and practitioners, and to revise and adapt the materials and methodology, if necessary. Some examples of learning materials are: •• Self-study materials; •• Modules; •• Handouts; •• Workbooks; •• Lesson plans; •• Evaluation forms; •• Checklists for course planning; and •• Report formats and procedures. Self-study materials

Self-study materials should be developed if learners need to gain some knowledge before the training session. Learners work through self-study materials at their own pace and without trainer assistance to bring all learners to the same level of understanding. Self-study materials should: •• Explain the aim of the particular study method to learners; •• Define the objectives clearly and be set out systematically; •• Ask appropriate questions and provide opportunities for self-evaluation; •• Be relevant and related to actual practice; and •• Provide support if the learner wishes to clear up uncertainties. Self-study materials should be developed if learners need to gain some knowledge before the training session. Modules

The layout of a module should be neat, user-friendly and should provide a clear indication of the structure of the module. Each module of learning material should consist of three sections: 1. An introduction that provides learners with a motivational preview of the objectives and material;

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2. The main section that contains explanations of the subject matter and includes examples and exercises; and 3. The conclusion that reviews content and helps learners to remember and apply new information. Handouts

Examples of handouts include exercise instructions, written case studies or guidelines for role interpretations. Handouts must be relevant to the subject matter. They should include an introduction that clearly and logically sets out the aims of the programme/subject matter, the content to be mastered and the assessment tasks and questions to be completed. Workbooks

Workbooks should contain appropriate modules and/or handouts and possibly checklists, self-evaluation questionnaires and other material. A workbook should be an organised collection of relevant material and should save learners time. Evaluation forms

Evaluation forms are used to assess the effectiveness of a learning programme by getting feedback from learners. Evaluation forms should ensure that information is unbiased. The layout should be neat and the results should be quantifiable. A combination of closed and open questions should be used. Closed questions make use of multiple-choice questions or rating scales (quantitative information). Open questions provide an opportunity for respondents to give reasons, comments or suggestions (qualitative information). Evaluation forms are used to assess the effectiveness of a learning programme by getting feedback from learners. Checklists for course planning

Drawing up checklists, as shown in Table 4.20, to plan, control and carry out a presentation will ensure that the learning process runs smoothly. Table 4.17  Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material (Coetzee, 2007b)

Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material •• Skills programme title;

•• Headings;

•• Guidance on how to use the material;

•• Sub-headings;

•• Learning route map;

•• Numbering system;

•• Flowchart showing progression to qualification (qualification, standards and credit guide);

•• Manageable chunks;

•• Personal record book;

•• Portfolio activities and evidence;

•• Portfolio of evidence examples;

•• Performance self-assessment activities and evidence;

•• Overview of learning programme;

•• Learning experiences and activities;

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Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material •• Content assumptions;

•• Assessment (formative and summative) process and evidence requirements;

•• Structure;

•• Feedback and evaluation;

•• Methodology;

•• Pictures or icons, flow diagrams and mind maps;

•• Learning outcomes;

•• Interactive, learner-friendly text;

•• Specific outcomes;

•• Summary;

•• Critical cross-field outcomes;

•• Self-assessment (readiness for assessment/ achievement of learning outcomes);

•• Purpose and learning outcomes;

•• Assessment criteria;

•• References;

•• Evidence requirements; •• Discussions or explanations;

•• Glossary.

•• Content and theory; Table 4.18  Characteristics of effective learning materials (based on Chang, 1994)

Characteristic

Description

Stimulating

They involve all the senses.

Understandable

The content is easy to understand and limited in scope. Important words and concepts are highlighted.

Accurate

Information provided is accurate, factual, properly ordered and complete.

Interesting

The layout is attractive and the sequencing makes sense to the learners.

Practical

The programme is practical; learners can easily identify with it.

General guidelines

Use headings in learning materials. Whether lectures, demonstrations, case studies or computer-based methods are used, learners must be able to determine where they are in the learning experience. Keep the information short and to the point, real and accessible. Involve the learners in the learning experience, right through the experience. Tell a story. Stories are a good way to involve learners’ emotions and commit learners to learning. Be specific, especially when using examples. Link examples to experiences with which the learners will be able to relate.

3. THE L&D FACILITATOR GUIDE In terms of the QCTO’s requirements for quality outcomes-based workplace learning design, L&D professionals need to demonstrate that the design of their learning programmes complies with the quality requirements for provider accreditation. The L&D facilitator guide is part of the evidence that the learning programme is aligned with the QCTO’s requirements for NQF-aligned outcomes-based/work-based learning programmes.

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The L&D facilitator guide is part of the evidence that the learning programme is aligned with the QCTO’s requirements for NQF-aligned work-based learning programmes. Moreover, it facilitates quality assurance in respect of learning delivery, and facilitates the evaluation of programme effectiveness. The L&D facilitator guide is a complete package containing written descriptions of the learning delivery and assessment strategy, the learning facilitation process and quality assurance aspects related to the programme design and delivery (Coetzee, 2004). Facilitator/Trainer Guide • Learning programme strategy • Process guide (lesson plan) • Logistical information • Training support material • Worksheets • Learner support information • Policies/procedures • Provider information • Quality assurance information

Learning programme strategy

Learning programme strategy: • Learning programme overview • Unit standard alignment • Curriculum design • Learning programme delivery strategy • Assessment strategy • Learner support information • Programme evaluation strategy

FACILITATOR/ TRAINER GUIDE

Facilitator/trainer process guide (lesson plan)

Facilitator/trainer process guide: • Description of learning facilitation process for each module and each phase of the learning facilitation event • Description of learning support material and application in each phase of the learning facilitation event • Description of learning activities, assessment events and evaluation events • Description of time interval for each activity • Description of roles/responsibilities of learners and the trainers

Figure 4.10  Contents of the facilitator/trainer guide (Coetzee, 2004a,b)

3.1 The learning facilitation and assessment process guide The process guide provides a broad outline of the learning facilitation strategy, which generally describes how the learning facilitator plans to present, manage and monitor the learning process and environment so that learners can be effectively and productively engaged in learning (Coetzee, 2004 a,b). The process guide is a very useful document, not only to guide inexperienced learning facilitators, but also to ensure the quality and cost 247

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effectiveness of the learning facilitation process. The L&D facilitator process guide (see Figure 4.10) generally includes a description of the following: •• Learning outcomes to be achieved during each phase of the learning programme; •• Each stage of the experiential or practical learning programme; •• Approximate duration of the learning programme; •• When to introduce visual support material, exercises and handouts; •• Roles of the learning facilitator and learners; •• Learning and assessment activities relating to knowledge, skills and work experience (captured on templates designed for this purpose and which serve as work-based learning unit standards); •• Formative assessment activities, materials and worksheets; •• Detailed questions to be asked to promote learner participation in discussions; •• Debriefing or planning activities to ensure that participants put into practice what they have discussed and learned during the learning programme; •• Training venue layout and equipment requirements; •• Visual learning support material to prompt and help the learning facilitator/trainer; •• Handouts that provide a record of the learning programme’s important messages, and exercises and formative assessment activities, such as case studies; •• Personal action plans for the participants, so that they may record their commitment to improve in the areas identified during the learning programme; •• Portfolio of evidence guidelines for work-based assignments; •• Formative and summative assessment worksheets and marking memoranda; •• RPL processes and procedures for assessing the learning programme. The process guide is very useful, not only to guide inexperienced facilitators, but also to ensure the quality and cost effectiveness of the learning facilitation process. Figure 4.10 outlines the desired contents of a facilitator/trainer guide and Table 4.19 shows an example of a facilitator process guide.

3.2 General quality assurance documentation As discussed in Chapter 1, skills development providers and L&D professionals are required by the QCTO to provide evidence that they manage the quality and relevance of their learning programmes. Compiling a comprehensive facilitator/trainer guide, which describes the learning delivery and assessment strategy and the learning facilitation

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Table 4.19  Example of a facilitator process guide

Trainer activity

Learning support

Approx. timing

PPT slides 1–5

10 mins

DAY ONE Welcome Welcome the learners and take them through the agenda. Explain the objective of the learning programme and the learning outcomes. Ice-breaker Take the learners through the procedure for the icebreaker.

20 mins

Expectations Go around the room getting course expectations from each individual.

Flipchart

10 mins

Flipchart

20 mins

Reflection on pre-course work Ask the group where they experienced difficulties with the precourse work and elicit discussion to determine what they have learned. Also request any insights or questions on the reading material provided. Group quiz

30 mins

Based on the research and reading done, the following quiz will be facilitated. Divide the group into a maximum of three teams and provide each team with a buzzer so they can indicate if they know the answer. The following questions will then be posed and members of the group are required to moderate one another to ensure that quality answers are received. Module 1: Strategic performance management Introduce learners to the first module. Explain the different aspects of strategic performance management, emphasising the link to organisational objectives.

PPT slides 10–14

45 mins

Flipchart

30 mins

Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 1. Group discussion – pitfalls and benefits of performance management. Request that the learners divide into groups again (different groups) and discuss 10 reasons for and 10 against performance management. The groups are to feedback their findings, which you will transcribe to the flipchart.

15 mins

Reference: http://managementhelp.org/perf_mng/benefits.htm Module 2: Performance appraisal planning process Introduce learners to this module by describing the elements of planning for performance appraisal. Indicate that there are various forms of performance measure types and rating scales. These all have to be decided on before embarking on the performance appraisal discussion. A process of goal-setting and goal negotiation should also be undertaken in terms of best practice criteria. Planning for performance measurement in team settings is also described. Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 2.

PPT slides 16–20

45 mins

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Trainer activity

Learning support

Approx. timing

Handout 1

30 mins

Lined paper and rulers

30 mins

15FQ + question booklet and answer sheets

5 mins

Flipchart

10 mins

Psychometric resource

5 mins

PPT slides 23–28

45 mins

Handout 2

45 mins

Individual task – translating information to performance measures. Provide every learner with a copy of handout 1, which includes example job tasks for three different positions (secretary, computer programmer, manager). Ask the learners to pick any one position and define appropriate performance objectives. Each person will then indicate one measure that they have developed. Group task – checklist/template creation Explain to the learners that they will need to develop a checklist or template to assist with the performance appraisal planning process in their small groups. Review the groups’ documents in the large group. Homework Provide every learner with the paper and pencil version of the 15FQ+, which is a psychometric assessment that identifies primary management styles. They should complete this and return it in the morning to get scored. Ensure that you describe the instructions for completing the assessment thoroughly to learners. Review of day one – expectations Review the expectations to see if any were met on the first day and to reflect on learning that has taken place thus far. DAY TWO Collect the homework for the previous day and co-ordinate the scoring and report writing to be ready for day three. Module 3: Conducting the performance appraisal Introduce learners to this module by describing the performance appraisal discussion and how to make it a more effective meeting. The role of listening is also described and the learners can be referred to a listening test in the appendix of their manual to complete in their own time. Various rater errors will also be described and tips for avoiding such errors highlighted. Elicit group input into this process as this will be necessary for the role-play exercise that follows. Some specific theory to assist with difficult performance appraisal discussions is also provided. Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 3. Group exercise – role-plays The learners need to divide into groups of three to participate in role-play exercises to allow them to demonstrate their interpersonal skills in potentially difficult performance discussion situations. Three role-play exercises are available and can be distributed (one sheet for manager, one sheet for employee, one sheet for observer) through the class, namely:

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Trainer activity

Learning support

Approx. timing

Flipchart

30 mins

PPT slides 31–32

1 hour

Handout 3

1 hour

Appendix of learner manual or handout 4

5 mins

Flipchart

10 mins

PPT slides 37–38

45 mins

Training DVD

45 mins

•• John Langley – average performer; •• Harry Jones – reticent about opening up with information; and •• Pam Reid – experiencing personal problems at home. Evaluation of group exercise, whereby the observers are requested to provide feedback to the larger group. Module 4: Improving individual and/or team performance – performance analysis and cause analysis Introduce learners to this module by describing different reasons for performance gaps and potential ways to address these gaps. The various elements of the human performance model are then also described, with examples, to illustrate a logical analysis of performance issues. Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 4. Group activity – scenario analysis Provide the smaller groups with a scenario in which they need to follow a process to identify performance issues and possible solutions. Review the groups’ findings in the large group. Homework Provide every learner with the case study, which they need to take home and work through, to be discussed the following day. This is also stored in the appendix of the learner manual. Review of day two – expectations Review the expectations to see if any were met on the second day and to reflect on learning that has taken place thus far. DAY THREE Module 4: Improving individual and/or team performance – implementing the plan of action (continued) Continue with this module by describing methods to evaluate and then improve on team performance and the individual employee performance improvement plan. Consideration should be given to the important aspects to ensure successful implementation of such a plan. Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 4. Training DVD Provide delegates with background and then play the DVD entitled: Solving performance problems: The performance improvement plan. This DVD helps managers to tackle performance issues willingly and constructively. It gives managers the skills, tools and confidence to solve performance problems constructively and swiftly.

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Trainer activity

Learning support

Approx. timing

Appendix of learner manual or handout 4

45 mins

PPT slides 41–46

45 mins

Guest speaker

45 mins

Flipchart

15 mins

Learner manual – workplace assignment requirements

15 mins

The Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) is shown to deal with the next stage in performance improvement. Managers can raise performance levels in their teams by using PIP in formal and informal appraisals alike. Using PIP, managers will be able to: •• Recognise that there is a real performance issue; •• Articulate clearly and concisely what the problem is; •• Gain agreement that there is a performance-expectation gap; •• Identify what needs to be done to improve performance; •• Manage the steps the staff member will need to take; and •• Monitor and support the staff member in his or her efforts. Review of homework case study Discuss the five issues for discussion that the delegates were to prepare for today. Although the case study is American, relevant SA legislation should be referred to. Module 5: Understanding different management styles Feedback reports should be handed out to the learners at this point, after which a qualified person should take the group through the results of their assessments, providing a broad understanding of the instrument and the different kinds of management styles. Continue this session by describing a further model of management styles, namely, transactional and transformational leadership and the defining characteristics of each. Awareness of these styles is encouraged in order for learners to adjust and practise different styles according to the situation. Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 5. Guest speaker Topic: A manager’s journey to performance excellence Introduce the manager who has been invited to speak to the group in terms of employee performance improvement initiatives s/he has undertaken. The intricacies of the process, interpersonal aspects and influencing factors are to be highlighted. Review of day three – expectations Review the expectations for the course and evaluate the extent to which these have been covered. Address any outstanding expectations or final questions from learners. Workplace assignments (assessment) Explain that, for learners to be assessed as competent against the outcomes of this workshop, they will be required to demonstrate the knowledge and skills (competence) that takes place both in this course and in the workplace.

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Trainer activity

Learning support

Approx. timing

Hand out the workshop evaluation sheets for completion and collect them before the delegates leave.

Workshop evaluation form – handout 5

30 mins

Analyse and summarise participants’ feedback and compile a report for the HRD department. Display PPT slide 50.

PPT slide 50

Refer learners to the section in the learner manual headed: Workplace assignment requirements. Explain the requirements of the workplace assignments and assessment procedures. Arrange dates for the submission of the skills portfolios. Record any specific needs. Invite any questions on the assignments and address these. Workshop evaluation and closure

Thank learners for their participation, and adjourn the session.

process, helps to ensure that L&D professionals comply with the requirements for quality outcomes-based learning design and delivery. In addition, L&D professionals are required to record and document the following as part of the quality assurance process: •• A learner information form; •• An attendance register form; •• Learning facilitator information, such as a curriculum vitae to describe the L&D professional’s competence, educational background, expertise and experience; •• Assessor and moderator information, such as a curriculum vitae to describe the competence, educational background, expertise and experience of the assessors and moderators involved in the learning programme; •• Skills development provider information, such as accreditation or recognition status, skills levy number and contact details; •• An example of the certificate that successful learners receive for achieving the learning outcomes (the certificate of completion) and/or the attendance certificate for learners who participate in the learning programme; •• A learning programme effectiveness evaluation form (evaluating reaction and learning in the classroom context); transfer of learning/work experience learning; behaviour/ performance improvement on the job; return on customer expectations (ROE) and return on economic investment (ROI) (see Chapter 8); •• Learner achievement record forms; •• Quality assurance checklists, as shown in Table 4.20; •• Self-evaluation forms (quality checklists) for the learning facilitator and improvement/ development plan; •• Moderator assessment report formats (as discussed in Chapter 7); and •• Company training and development assessment and moderation procedures that describe how these are aligned with the QCTO provider accreditation requirements.

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Table 4.20  Quality checklist: Skills programme design (Coetzee, 2007b)

Standard

Evidence required

Are learning experiences designed in accordance with identified training needs or skills development needs?

Skills plan;

Are formulated learning outcomes aligned with the occupational/job tasks and the learning programme objective?

Unit standards.

Are the knowledge, skills and work experience components clearly specified?

Unit standards.

Do learning experiences consist of a series of activities that will enable learners to achieve the intended outcomes?

Activities learning outcomes.

Are reliable and valid assessment methodologies in place to measure the intended outcomes to be achieved by the learner?

Assessment methodologies and procedures.

Are learning support materials in place for each activity? Are these support materials appropriate to the level of learners and the purpose of the activities?

Learner support.

Do the learning materials contain selfassessment activities to enable learners to assess their own progress?

Self-assessment activities.

Are the learning materials designed in a way that will facilitate learner comprehension, retention and motivation/support to apply the knowledge and skills?

Learning material.

Is the learning material content non-discriminative, unbiased and learner-centred?

Learning material (examples, case studies, tasks, activities, illustrations).

Are the learning materials evaluated and revised continuously to ensure relevance?

Learning material; Evaluation reports; Assessment reports.

Are the learning materials customised to ensure that the learner can relate the materials to real-life situations?

Evaluation reports.

In place: Yes/No

In progress

Action

Formulated learning experience outcomes.

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Standard

Evidence required

Will the learning programme lead to a national qualification, or part of a qualification? Is it clear how learners will progress through the qualification (if applicable)?

Learning design; Qualifications description.

Is the course outline clear? Is the purpose of the course clear? Are the outcomes, assessment methodology and mode of delivery specified?

Course outline.

Is the learning curriculum clearly defined in terms of learning outcomes?

Curriculum.

Is the assessment framework clearly defined?

Assessment framework; Assessment report; Assessment plans.

In place: Yes/No

In progress

Action

Case study Designing outcomes-based/work-based learning A large private South African engineering company identified a number of their young BCom (HRD) graduate interns as young talent they would like to train and develop as potential future HR managers for their various office branches across the country. The graduate interns had only recently been appointed and lacked the required skills and experience they would need to function effectively in the role of future HR managers. In a meeting with the executive management team of the company, the HRD manager was requested to develop a range of learning programmes that would prepare the graduate interns for their future roles as potential HR managers, and to help them to develop the critical knowledge, skills and attitudes they would require to fulfil an HR manager role successfully. The range of learning programmes would also ensure that the graduate interns would be able to transfer the newly acquired knowledge and skills to the workplace by ensuring that they gained the relevant workplace and job experience in a relatively short time span. Because the company had experienced quite a high turnover of HR managers, the successful development of a future pipeline of potential talented HR managers was regarded as a high priority. The executive management stated the following expectations in terms of the learning programmes’ outcomes: At the end of the L&D initiative, the graduate interns must: • Show proven entry-level competence (knowledge, skills, attitude, abilities) in respect of the relevant HR manager tasks in the company (NQF Level 6). This would allow the graduate interns to do job shadowing with an experienced HR manager in the near future.

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• Demonstrate ‘strategic’ readiness to step into the HR manager role within one to three years; and • Have a clear understanding of the purpose of the L&D that they would undergo and develop realistic expectations regarding their future role as potential HR managers. The L&D effort should be as cost-effective as possible, delivering ‘competent and job-ready’ HR manager candidates to ensure return on investment (ROI). The executive management team also stated that the HRD manager must report on the effectiveness of the L&D effort and provide evidence that its expectations had been successfully met – it wanted to see an official return on their expectations (ROE). Due to the urgency of the L&D project and the current lack of skilled L&D professionals in the company, the HRD manager decided to contract in the services of a QCTO-accredited skills-development provider to develop the range of learning programmes. This would ensure that the company appointed the services of a skills development provider who was able to design and deliver quality, work-based learning programmes. The invitation went out on a tender to ensure that only the best skills development provider would be appointed – one that would ensure ROE and ROI. The skills development provider, which was appointed to design and deliver the range of learning programmes, was fully briefed on the expectations and needs of the executive management team. The skills development provider appointed a number of its experienced L&D professionals to assist in delivering the required product and service to the company. This would also ensure that the company would be able to apply for the Mandatory Skills Levy Grant by means of the workplace skills plan and annual training report, which would bring an economic return on the L&D investment (ROI). As a starting point, the team of L&D professionals met with the HRD manager to ensure that it had clarity regarding the needs and expectations of the company. It then requested to meet with the group of graduate interns identified to attend the learning programmes. During the meeting with the graduate interns, team members ensured that they got to know the needs and expectations of the intended learner group. The L&D professionals also collected information on the current performance of the group of interns, their current job roles, educational backgrounds and biographical profiles. The L&D professionals then analysed the company’s job and competency profiles for their HR managers in the various branches. Being aware of the purpose of workbased learning design in the context of the OLS and OQF, they also downloaded the occupational profile of an HR manager from the OFO version 10 and compared the occupational tasks with the required job tasks and duties of the company-specific job and competency profile for their HR managers. This allowed them to define the purpose of the HR manager’s job in the company and occupationally wise. They summarised the information as follows: Occupation: HR manager – OFO version 10 (1212) Human resource managers plan, direct and co-ordinate policies concerning the personnel, industrial relations and occupational health and safety activities of an enterprise or organisation, or of enterprises that provide human resource services to other enterprises and organisations.

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Occupational descriptor: HR manager (121201) Plans, organises, directs, controls and co-ordinates human resource and workplace relations activities within an organisation. Occupational tasks: HR manager (121) • Consults with the chief executive and with managers of other departments or sections. • Controls expenditure and ensures the efficient use of resources. • Controls the selection, training and performance of staff. • Ensures compliance with relevant legislation, regulations and standards. • Establishes and directs operational and administrative procedures. • Formulates and administers policy advice, strategic and financial planning. • Implements, monitors and evaluates strategies and policies. • Prepares budgets and oversees financial operations. • Provides advice to senior managers and board members on financial and administrative policies and programmes and legislative issues. • Represents the organisation in negotiations and at conventions, seminars, public hearings and forums. Company HR manager job/competency profile Occupational/job description Plans, directs and co-ordinates human resource management activities of an organisation to maximise the strategic use of human resources and maintain functions such as employee compensation, recruitment, personnel policies and regulatory compliance. Job tasks 1. Administers compensation, benefits and performance management systems, and safety and recreation programmes. 2. Advises managers on organisational policy matters, such as equal employment opportunity and sexual harassment, and recommends needed changes. 3. Allocates human resources, ensuring appropriate matches between personnel. 4. Analyses statistical data and reports to identify and determine causes of personnel problems and develops recommendations for improvement of the organisation’s personnel policies and practices. 5. Analyses training needs to design employee development and health and safety programmes. 6. Conducts exit interviews to identify reasons for employee turnover. 7. Develops, administers and evaluates applicant tests. 8. Identifies staff vacancies and recruits, interviews and selects applicants. 9. Maintains records and compiles statistical reports concerning personnel-related data, such as hires, transfers, performance appraisals and absentee rates. 10. Negotiates bargaining agreements and helps to interpret labour contracts. 11. Facilitates change in the organisation to help transition all levels. 12. Forecasts future staffing and organisational needs. 13. Develops new programmes to attract and retain staff.

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Knowledge The HR manager requires knowledge of: 1. Principles and procedures of personnel recruitment, selection, training, compensation and benefits, labour relations and negotiation, and personnel information systems; 2. Business and management principles involved in strategic planning, resource allocation, human resources modelling, leadership techniques, production methods, and co-ordination of people and resources; 3. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications; 4. Structure and content of the English language, including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition and grammar; 5. Principles and methods for curriculum and training design, teaching and instruction for individuals and groups, and the measurement of training effects; 6. Laws, legal codes, court procedures, precedents, government regulations, executive orders, agency rules and the democratic political process; 7. Human behaviour and performance; individual differences in ability, personality and interests; learning and motivation; psychological research methods; and the assessment and treatment of behavioural and affective disorders; 8. Human resources programme development to attract, reward and retain employees; and 9. Resources available for referral of employees and how to quickly diffuse a critical situation. Skills, knowledge, abilities (competencies) (Technical and functional expertise) Skills The HR manager would require the ability to: 1. Motivate, develop and direct people as they work; identify the best people for the job; 2. Communicate effectively in writing, as appropriate for the needs of the audience; 3. Talk to others to convey information effectively; 4. Understand written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents; 5. Give full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions at appropriate times, and not interrupting at inappropriate times; 6. Use logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems; 7. Determine how a system should work and how changes in conditions, operations and the environment will affect outcomes; 8. Use mathematics to solve problems; 9. Adjust actions in relation to others’ actions; and 10. Be aware of the reactions of others and understand why they react as they do. Abilities The HR manager requires the ability to: 1. Read and understand information and ideas presented in writing; 2. Listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences;

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Communicate information and ideas in speaking so others can understand; Communicate information and ideas in writing so others can understand; Speak clearly so others can understand; Apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense; Tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only recognising there is a problem; 8. Combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events); 9. Shift back and forth between two or more activities or sources of information (such as speech, sounds, touch or other sources); and 10. Concentrate on a task over a period of time without being distracted. Personality attributes The occupations that HR managers deal with have enterprising, social and conventional characteristics, as described below: • Enterprising: Enterprising occupations frequently involve starting up and carrying out projects. These occupations can involve leading people and making many decisions. Sometimes they require risk-taking and often deal with business. • Social: Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with, and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or providing service to others. • Conventional: Conventional occupations frequently involve following set procedures and routines. These occupations can include working with data and details more than with ideas. Usually there is a clear line of authority to follow. Based on the occupation/job tasks and competency analysis, the L&D professionals decided to design a range of learning programmes to address the themes/topics related to the various occupational/job tasks. For the purpose of this case example, we shall concentrate on the design of only one of the various learning programmes, namely administering and controlling the performance management system and performance of staff. The L&D professional responsible for designing the learning programme on performance management then analysed and unpacked the occupational/job tasks related to administering and monitoring performance management. Using a template designed for this purpose (see the example that follows), she identified: • The unique product/service that would be delivered by executing the tasks; • The specific occupational/job responsibility of the HR manager in terms of the tasks; • The specific workplace context in which the product/service had to be delivered and the tasks be fulfilled; and • The required NQF level. In terms of the OFO, the HR manager’s job tasks start at NQF Level 5/6 (as the entry/ basic level). The L&D professional also used the LARF tool to identify the time span of work experience required at NQF Level 6 (see Table 4.1). The LARF indicated the time span of discretion as three months to one year, meaning that the work experience learning activities would have to be designed to give the learners exposure to HR

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manager-related tasks that allow them to address real-life problems and make decisions over a period of at least three months. Using the process questions in the template that follows, she then continued to define the required knowledge, skills and work experience. Again, she inserted the information into the template. She then reviewed the particular needs, current performance information, and profile of the group of graduate interns and added any additional knowledge, skills and work experience aspects that had to be addressed in the learning programme. Based on her analyses and taking the expectations of the executive management team into account, she then formulated the title. To make the learning programme more learner-friendly, she incorporated the objectives and the learning outcomes of the learning programme on performance management into the title. In formulating the learning outcomes, she used the NQF level descriptors (Chapter 1) and Bloom’s taxonomy of learning (Figure 4.5). She also considered the critical cross-field outcomes (see Table 4.6). She then continued to identify the learning content, performance standards, learning and assessment activities, the learning mode, methods and media that she added to the template designed for this purposes. Note that the templates she completed were kept for quality assurance purposes and served as a form of unit standard for the work-based learning programme. Based on the learning and assessment strategy captured on the templates, the L&D professional went ahead to source and develop the learning materials and sequence the activities. She also developed the learning delivery (see Chapter 6) and evaluation strategy (see Chapter 8), which she outlined in the learning facilitation process guide designed for this purpose (see the example provided in this chapter). In the design process, she also took great care to adhere to the professional code of ethics for L&D professionals (see Chapter 10). Note that the examples that follow do not contain all the learning outcomes and all the learning and assessment activities. Using your own creativity and insight, what would you have liked to add to improve the learning content and activities of the programme? Title of the learning programme: Giving an edge to your team’s performance Objective of the learning programme To develop candidate HR managers’ skills in planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance in the company. Learning outcomes On completion of the learning programme, learners will be able to: • Explain the principles of performance management and appraisal within the context of the company performance management system; • Explain the process of planning for performance appraisal; • Critically evaluate whether performance criteria meet required standards; • Assess and regulate their performance appraisal approach to identified principles; • Explain factors underpinning performance issues and their impact on organisational strategy; • Critically evaluate whether appropriate action plans were identified to address performance gaps;

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• Advise management on poor performance; and • Critically evaluate the role of the HR manager in administering and controlling the company performance management system. Example: Analysing and unpacking the occupational/job tasks (Straulino, 2010) Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance NQF level

6

Product or service

Appraised and improved individual and team performance

Knowledge focus Embedded or underpinning knowledge/subject or learning topics. Process questions: What theory must the learner understand and apply in order to deliver the products/services? What else should the learner know/understand in order to deliver the products/services? What legal requirements must the learner know/ understand in order to deliver the products/services? Human capital management concepts. Job analysis methods. Leadership and management styles. Behavioural theories of learning and motivation. Strategic performance management processes. Performance appraisal methods. Individual and team performance indicators. Performance improvement methodology. Knowledge of South African labour legislation, including the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, the Skills Development Act, the Employment Equity Act and the Labour Relations Act.

Occupational responsibility

Developed ability to research and integrate relevant information;

Practical skills

Demonstrated interpersonal and communication skills such as listening, questioning and persuasion skills; and

Process question:

Skills required to execute responsibility (Note: includes critical cross-field outcomes). What are the skills that must be mastered in order to execute the responsibility?

Applied planning, analytical and problemsolving skills to determine the most appropriate course of action.

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Research and integration skills. Interpersonal skills. Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and persuasion skills. Planning and organising skills. Performance gap analysis skills. Identifying and problem-solving skills. Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that problems do not exist in isolation. Team work and co-operation skills. Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment. Work context (occupational)

Business goals, organisational structure and strategies; Organisational culture and values; HR business model and levels of work; Standard operational procedures;

Work experience Process questions: What must be used/known in the organisation in gaining the experience? What settings must the learner be exposed to? What interfaces must the learner engage with? What additional knowledge is required to perform the tasks in the specific context?

Service level agreements; Implemented performance management system; Performance management policy; Reward system and remuneration policy; Training policy and framework; Incapacity policy; and Union considerations. Exposure to HR strategy and goals. Understanding of HR business model. Understanding of previous/current performance appraisal processes. Exposure to HR and performance management system.

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Exposure to service level agreements. Understanding of relevant HR policies, including performance management policy, remuneration policy, training and development policy, and incapacity policy. Understanding of reward system. Exposure to training framework. Specialised or contextual knowledge. Company specific strategy/goals. Organisational culture and values. Stratified systems theory. Standard operating procedures. Understanding of union dynamics.

Example: Learning and assessment strategy (Straulino, 2010) Human resource managers Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance NQF level

6

Title of course

Performance improvement – within reach

Total credits

10 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)

Total time frame

100 hours (3-day contact workshop and workplace experience)

Underpinning Knowledge

•• Human capital management concepts; •• Job analysis methods;

Learning activity guidelines

•• Leadership and management styles; and Notional hours: 5 hours

•• Behavioural theories of learning and motivation. •• Pre-course reading material. •• Pre-course research. •• Team-based quiz. •• Strategic performance management processes; •• Performance appraisal systems and best practice methods; •• Individual and team performance indicators; •• Performance improvement methodology; and •• Knowledge of South African labour legislation, including the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Skills Development Act, Employment Equity Act and Labour Relations Act. •• Group discussion: Pitfalls and benefits of performance management.

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Practical skills Notional hours: 16 hours

•• Research and integration skills; •• Interpersonal skills;

Learning activity guidelines

•• Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and persuasion skills; •• Planning and organising skills; •• Performance gap analysis skills; •• Identifying and problem-solving skills; •• Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that problems do not exist in isolation; •• Team work and co-operation skills; •• Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment. •• Translating job information to performance measures – individual task. •• Developing a template to plan for performance appraisal – group task and presentation. •• ‘Conducting a performance appraisal’ – group task/ role-plays. •• Analysing of a scenario to identify performance issues and possible solutions – group task. •• Case study – homework. •• Translating performance gaps to action plan – discussion group. •• Psychometric assessment to identify primary management style (15FQ+). •• Training DVD – Solving performance problems: The performance improvement plan.

Work experience Notional hours: 80 hours

Exposure to HR strategy and goals; •• Understanding of HR business model and levels of work;

Learning activity guidelines

•• Understanding of previous/current performance appraisal processes; •• Exposure to HR and performance management system; •• Exposure to service level agreements; and •• Understanding of relevant HR policies, including performance management policy, remuneration policy, training and development policy, incapacity policy. •• Research previous/current performance appraisal method used in department and prepare a report to provide to supervisor to identify the pros and cons of the method. •• Research the performance appraisal method used in a different organisation to identify the pros and cons of the method. Include this comparative information in the report. •• Include section in report to analyse alignment of performance criteria for at least three different jobs to level of work and organisational strategy.

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Practical skills

•• Understanding of reward system; •• Exposure to training framework.

Notional hours: 80 hours

Learning activity guidelines

•• Attend training on the use of the performance management system currently used in the organisation. •• Read HR policies, highlight questions and schedule short meetings with relevant persons to answer questions. •• Interview a manager to find out hindrances and facilitating factors to performance appraisal. Report findings back to trainer by agreed deadline.

Methods

Mode

Learning support material (Media & equipment)

•• Online pre-course material;

•• Online learning;

•• Media;

•• Instruction;

•• 3-day contact workshop;

•• Reading material;

•• Facilitation;

•• Self-directed learning with feedback from supervisor; and

•• Learner manual;

•• Attendance of related learning course.

•• Training DVD;

•• Group work; •• Case studies; •• Role-plays; •• Individual exercises;

•• PowerPoint slideshow; •• Handouts; •• Flip charts.

•• DVD; •• Guest speaker; •• Homework. Role/responsibility of learner

Role/responsibility of trainer/facilitator

The learner must:

The trainer/ facilitator must:

Do pre-course preparation and complete activities;

•• Coach learners;

Participate actively in workshop;

•• Guide and support learners;

Complete self-assessment activities;

•• Provide information; and

Complete homework; and

•• Monitor learner progress.

Reflect on learning and plan further development. Assessment guidelines Scope of the module/course

The learning in this module covers the total range of planning for performance appraisal, conducting appraisals to measure performance and developing action plans to address identified performance gaps in order to improve performance.

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance What are the required standards of performance and the most appropriate assessment methods?

Standards of performance Check that learners can: •• Explain the principles of performance management and appraisal; •• Explain the process of planning for performance appraisal; •• Critically evaluate whether performance criteria meet the required standards; •• Assess and regulate their performance appraisal approach to identified principles; •• Explain factors underpinning performance issues and their impact on organisational strategy; and •• Critically evaluate whether appropriate action plans were identified to address performance gaps. Conditions of performance Given the specific organisational context, learners should be able to prepare for performance appraisal and, based on the evaluation of performance, be able to develop appropriate solutions and implementable action plans to address gaps, both on an individual and team level. Assessment methods •• Quiz outcome; •• Knowledge questionnaires; •• Observation; •• Group assessment; •• Interviews; •• Portfolio of evidence/report; and •• Self-evaluation of on-the-job experiences.

Special requirements Human resource requirements

The facilitator of learning must have a good understanding of the South African occupational learning system and skills-based approach to training design and assessment, including the organisational business and structure, HR strategy and goals. In addition the facilitator must have: •• Knowledge and understanding of the company mission and values and general climate; and •• Knowledge of the relevant HR policies. •• The facilitator of learning must have expertise and have demonstrated competence in training design and outcomes-based assessment (i.e. must be suitably qualified).

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Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance Physical requirements

The facilitator of learning must have a good knowledge of training venue layout, technology and equipment.

SHE requirements

The facilitator of learning must have good knowledge of safety and health operating procedures and evacuation routes.

Review and discussion questions 1. What are the benefits of adopting a learner-centred approach to occupational/ work-based learning design? 2. Why is it important to formulate accurate and appropriate learning outcomes? What are the characteristics of well-formulated learning outcomes? 3. Explain the 10 stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design. 4. Why is it important to align learning outcomes of a work-based learning programme to the NQF levels? What is the purpose of the LARF tool? 5. What are the characteristics of well-designed learning activities? 6. Which aspects do L&D professionals need to consider when they choose training methods for their learning programmes? 7. What is the purpose and benefit of the L&D facilitator guide?

Summary In this chapter, we examined how the outcomes-based L&D philosophy directs and informs the design of workplace learning programmes. L&D professionals, in their role as learning designers, follow a ‘design-down, deliver-up’ approach to the design of learning programme curricula. Skilful learning designers recognise that few, if any, of the desired outcomes will be achieved unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning as valuable to them. This implies moving away from a content-driven approach to a learner-centred approach. The effectiveness of the learning process depends on developing learning outcomes that are meaningful and appropriate to the needs of learners. L&D professionals are also required to develop a comprehensive facilitator/trainer guide to demonstrate that the design of their learning programmes complies with the QCTO’s requirements for NQF-aligned, outcomes-based, occupational/work-based learning. The facilitator/trainer guide also facilitates quality assurance of learning delivery and assessment, and facilitates evaluation of the value added. Strategies for delivering quality outcomes-based learning programmes are discussed in Chapter 6. The various ways of evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes are explored in Chapter 8.

Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll understand (Chinese proverb).

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CHAPTER

5

ONLINE LEARNING DESIGN Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee

Key points of e-learning design •• The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era is fundamentally transforming the nature of learning and development (L&D) design and delivery. •• L&D professionals have to adopt modern learning approaches, especially when the L&D intervention involves the younger generation employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/ iGeneration) who are digital natives. •• E-learning can be synchronous or asynchronous, or blended. •• A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver an online learning programme. •• L&D professionals need a sound knowledge base of psychological theories when designing online learning programmes. •• L&D professionals need to understand the advantages, disadvantages and barriers to online learning design. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Describe synchronous, asynchronous and blended e-learning and give examples of each. •• Explain the concept of a learning management system (LMS) in online learning design. •• Evaluate the contribution of various theories to online learning design. •• Differentiate between an e-learning programme needs analysis and a needs analysis for face-to-face learning programmes. •• Explain the importance of investigating the characteristics of participants in e-learning programmes prior to learning design. •• Explain the steps in designing an online learning programme. •• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of online learning. •• Identify barriers to e-learning.

1. INTRODUCTION Online learning (also referred to as e-learning/electronic learning) is quickly becoming a dominant characteristic of the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0). As an era of rapid technological advancement (i.e. artificial intelligence, mobile platforms, sensors and social collaboration systems), the 21st-century workplace is branded as the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era, which is fundamentally transforming the broader economy and world of work, society and business, including the nature of learning and development (L&D) design and delivery (Deloitte, 2017). Moreover, people’s (young and old) increasing interaction with the digital environment and smart information

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technology, such as computers and smartphones, are changing how they think and process information. In Chapter 2, we explained how information processing influences people’s capability for learning. L&D professionals therefore need to consider the impact of the digital era on their approaches to L&D design in Workplace 4.0. They have to adopt modern learning approaches (see Chapter 6), especially when the L&D intervention involves the younger generation employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/ iGeneration), who are digital natives, that is, they naturally speak the digital language of computers, video games and the internet. Social learning as a modern form of learning, via the use of smartphone technology and socially sharing and learning new information, is a way of life for them (Vai & Sosulski, 2011; King, 2017). Today’s digital-era learners, also called modern learners, are used to high levels of engagement, collaboration, interactivity, speedy access, visual stimulation and instant feedback. They prefer to be players in multiuser environments and use their imagination and creativity freely and openly in working, playing and competing with people around the globe (Vai & Sosulski, 2011; King, 2017). Modern-day L&D professionals therefore need to consider basic principles of online or e-learning in their L&D design and delivery. Today’s digital-era learners are used to high levels of engagement, collaboration, interactivity, speedy access, visual stimulation and instant feedback. E-learning is growing globally and is frequently offered as a solution to the need for quick and easy access to opportunities to update competencies in Workplace 4.0 (Arthur-Mensa, 2014). The human resource development function (HRD) and L&D professional can utilise the advantages offered by e-learning technology effectively and efficiently in the provision of just-in-time learning opportunities (Arthur-Mensa, 2014). Economies of scale, in that e-learning can reach many learners at a reduced eventual cost, is one of the drivers for the implementation of e-learning in organisations. For adult learners, one of the drivers is the flexibility and relatively easy access to learning, while they also adopt other life roles, such as work and family commitments (Arther-Mensa, 2014). Economies of scale, in that e-learning can reach many learners at a reduced eventual cost, is one of the drivers for the implementation of e-learning in organisations.

2. THE NATURE OF E-LEARNING Online or e-learning refers to any type of learning situation in which instructional content is delivered through the use smart mobile and computer networked technology such as over the intranet or through the internet where and when required (Bondarouk & Ruël, 2010). E-learning comprises learning opportunities offered via integrated information communication technology (ICT) such as computers and smartphones (Horton, 2012; Arthur-Mensa, 2014). E-learning can be either self-paced or facilitated, depending on the content to be communicated and the competence levels of the intended participants. In addition, e-learning

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can be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous e-learning requires of all participants to be engaged in the learning programme at the same time. Asynchronous e-learning allows participants to engage in the learning programme at a time that is suitable to each individual, instead of at the same time. Self-paced e-learning is an example of asynchronous learning, while facilitated e-learning is an example of synchronous e-learning. E-learning can be either self-paced or facilitated, depending on the content to be communicated and the competence levels of the intended participants. Table 5.1  Synchronous and asynchronous e-learning

Form of learning

Description

Synchronous online learning

•• Real time facilitated e-learning; •• All participants are engaged in the learning programme at the same time (may be online or on-site); •• Learners and instructors/learning facilitators communicate/interact within same time frame (i.e. scheduled time/meeting).

Asynchronous online learning

•• Self-paced e-learning; •• Flexible learning space in terms of time, place, pace and participation; •• Learners participate at a time of day that is convenient for them (i.e., it follows the personal schedule of each participant within a time period stipulated by the instructor); •• Class meets at no particular time and is of no specific length (i.e. learners do not need to be online together at any particular time); •• Learners who may be situated anywhere in the world can access the material and respond to it any time within a defined number of days.

Blended online learning

•• Combines asynchronous and synchronous online learning.

Asynchronous e-learning allows participants to engage in the learning programme at a time that is suitable to each individual, instead of at the same time.

2.1 Self-paced e-learning Self-paced e-learning is usually aimed at participants who possess the required technical and cognitive capacities and self-directedness to manage their own learning experience. Self-paced e-learning is useful to update competence when changes in policies, procedures and practices are implemented. Self-driven e-learning is based on learning outcomes. Various media are incorporated into the learning design, for example, written information, graphic representations, audio and video clips, game-like interfaces and simulations. The learning support is usually incorporated into the learning material to allow participants to learn as independently as possible. In some instances, a measure of support using email or e-tutoring is incorporated into the learning programme (Arther-Mensa, 2014).

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Self-paced e-learning is usually aimed at participants who possess the required technical and cognitive capacities and self-directedness to manage their own learning experience.

2.2 Facilitated e-learning Facilitated e-learning is applicable for learning programmes aimed at geographically distributed learners who need a measure of guidance and collaboration to ensure deep learning. The learning programme follows a planned structure, with learning content and activities that include opportunities for collaboration and reflection, and culminate in some form of final assessment. Various tools for communication and collaboration can be used, depending on the learning management system in use in the organisation (ArtherMensa, 2014). Facilitated e-learning is applicable for learning programmes aimed at geographically distributed learners who need a measure of guidance and collaboration to ensure deep learning.

2.3 Blended learning Blended e-learning relates to the use of a combination of delivery methods (such as faceto-face and e-learning delivery in one learning programme). However, blended delivery can also include a classroom-based learning programme where rich media are used to enhance the learning experience, or the use of interactive technologies is combined with face-toface learning experiences. Blended delivery is mainly used to address the shortcomings of e-learning while harvesting its benefits. Blended learning increases interaction between participants and creates a rich learning environment where knowledge building is facilitated. Furthermore, blended learning incorporates learning contexts in which most participants can feel comfortable and safe to learn. Since e-learning will probably not replace face-to-face learning in workplace contexts, the use of blended delivery options is a viable alternative to expensive and inflexible face-to-face learning (King, 2017). Blended e-learning relates to the use of a combination of delivery methods (such as face-toface and e-learning delivery in one learning programme). E-learning is changing continuously as information communication technologies (ICTs) advance. In addition, the refinement or advancement of learning theories affects the evolution of e-learning programmes. Learning management systems (LMS) are the foundation of the e-learning process. The LMS is used to deliver and manage the e-learning content, can keep track of individual participants’ progress through the learning material and can be used to provide support to the participants. In addition, the LMS determines the e-learning development software that is used to develop the e-learning programmes.

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Irrespective of the LMS used, the creation of an environment in which meaningful learning can take place and foster learner self-management is imperative (Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver an online learning programme.

2.4 Learning management system A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver an online learning programme (Vai & Sosulski, 2011). L&D professionals involved in online learning design must be computer/digitally literate and have a working knowledge of online ICT to manage an LMS. Table 5.2 provides a summary of some of the most popular LMSs used by online learning programme designers (Keleş &Őzel, 2016). Table 5.2  Examples of learning management systems (LMS)

LMS

Description

Typical online tools

ATutor

•• Free, open-source learning programme system;

Blog, forum, photo gallery, glossary, site map, chat, directory, tests surveys, myTracker.

•• Web-based learning content management system (LCMS) under GNU General Public License; •• Can be used in any type of computer system and all operating systems; •• Includes facilities for instructors/learning facilitators and learners; •• Support Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards and instructional management systems (IMS). Blackboard

•• Web-based commercial distance education system dedicated to education containing teaching resources and user hierarchy;

Various multimedia and interaction tools.

•• Instructors can post programme information and materials as well as readings and assignments; •• Flexible system – facilitates interactions between users, such as basic discussions and other collaboration tools; •• Focus on teachers delivering programme content (especially large programmes). Claroline

•• Open source e-learning and e-working platform; •• Can be used to manage public education activities on the web and to create effective online programmes;

Interaction tools such as chat, forum and wiki.

•• Support Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards and instructional management systems (IMS).

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LMS

Description

Typical online tools

Desire2Learn

•• Commercial educational system based on competency education and promotes cloudbased learning suite;

Exams, discussions, assignments, quizzes, grades, portfolio-based activities, learning repository, coursecreation tools, e-portfolio module, mobile delivery, analytics, lecture capture facilities.

(Brightspace LMS)

•• Supports mobile learning and web-conferencing; •• Supports foreign languages and mathematical notations.

Sakai

•• Free open-sourced learning system designed for educational institutions (course design platform) – Educational Community License (ECL); •• Java-based LMS; •• Web-based and platform independent; •• Can be downloaded from internet free;

Various multimedia and interaction tools, e.g. calendar, additional resources, announcements, discussions, forums, tests, learning units, assignments, blogs, wiki, statistics, email, dropbox.

•• Sakai version 11.4 has computer, tablet and mobile learning interface platforms. Moodle (Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment)

•• Free, online course management system under GNU General Public License; •• Designed for internet-based courses and websites; •• Supports mobile learning (Moodle Mobile application).

OLAT (Online Learning and Training) Docebo

•• Java based open source LMS under Apache 2.0 Open Source License; •• Effectiveness of learners and tutors can be monitored. •• Based on SaaS/cloud platform; •• Users can organise, track and distribute online courses for formal learning;

Assignments, chat, choice, database, external tool, feedback, forum, glossary, lesson, quiz, SCORM, survey, wiki, workshop.

Forums, chat, blogs, surveys, grading and submission modules, wikis, quizzes, discussions. Interface video conferences, blogs, course catalogues, labels, discussions.

•• Instructors can create users as well as groups and create reports about them; •• Used in education and corporate sectors; •• SCORM, Aviation Industry CBT Committee and xAPI compatible; •• Mobile-ready platform, includes mobile learning. Dokeos

•• Free online open-source course management system; •• Learning content management system.

E-learning templates, e-learning course authoring tools, documents, announcements, tests, agendas, forums, links, tracking tools, chats.

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LMS

Description

Typical online tools

eFront

Modern e-learning course management system;

Project management, extended statistics, files management, reports generators, assignment builders, internal messaging system, forum, calendar, chat, surveys.

Virtual learning environment; Supports blended learning; Educational platform; Designed to help create online courses; Supports Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards.

Activity Exploring Sakai version 11.4 LMS Visit Sakai website at https://www.sakaiproject.org/. Watch the video that explains the Sakai 11.4 LMS. Which of the asynchronous tools do you find most appealing?

2.4.1 LMS asynchronous e-learning tools

As you can note from Table 5.2, an LMS contains typical asynchronous e-learning tools, the most popular being the following (Vai & Sosulski, 2011): •• Syllabus/programme overview: an overview of the modules of the learning programme/ course and their content, including purpose, objectives, assignments, requirements; •• Calendar: schedule of deadlines for assignments, online collaborative learning tasks/ discussions, self-assessment tasks (e.g. tests, quizzes), reading tasks and course events; •• Instructor/learning facilitator announcements: learning facilitator/instructor updates and reminders; •• Course email: correspondence between instructor/learning facilitator and learners; •• Lessons: learning units (modules), organised by topic and themes; •• Discussion forums/chats: collaborative tasks, debates, forums among learners/class group. Instructors/learning facilitators usually monitors learner interaction and debates and provide feedback to the collaborative learning group; •• Wiki: online environment that can be shared and edited by all members of a collaborative team; •• Blog: online learning space where one author (i.e. learner or instructor) creates a posting (i.e. article, critique, some type of narrative) and others comment; •• Testing/quizzing: assessments that determine how successfully outcomes have been achieved. Ungraded or graded self-assessments help learners adjust the pace of and reflect on their learning; •• Additional resources: instructors/learning facilitators post learning materials and/ or links to open educational sources (e.g. free YouTube, video clips, audio e-books, e-books, and other online learning materials) for learners; •• Dropbox: an online dropbox for submitting documents by learners; •• Assignments: an online tool for submitting assignments by learners. Learners can also track grading of assignments

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Activity Self-reflection Review the characteristics of synchronous versus asynchronous online learning. Which form of online learning do you prefer? Give reasons for your answer. Now look at asynchronous online learning tools available on an LMS. Which of those tools do you find most useful? Give reasons for your answer.

2.4.2 LMS online material

Developing an online learning programme on an LMS requires clear, concise writing that will address the needs of all types of online learners. Clear, concise writing in an accessible style supports good communication and learning. The focus should be on simplicity, clarity and openness. White space, bold and italic fonts and different typefaces and type sizes are used purposefully to make distinctions and to emphasise and enhance readability, comprehension and learning. Moreover, online material should be attractive and graphically appealing to keep learners actively engaged in the learning experience. Colour should be used with purpose and there should be good contrast between text and background. Visual elements such as icons, shading and colour are used consistently to distinguish between different types of course elements (e.g. learning units/modules, assignments, audio and video) (Vai & Sosulski, 2011). Online material should be attractive and graphically appealing to keep learners actively engaged in the learning experience.

2.5 Evolution of e-learning design models Although we discussed the LMS here because of its usefulness in online learning design and delivery, L&D professionals should note that researchers distinguish between diverse e-learning models based on different aspects of the learning experience. First, the e-learning model was material-intensive, using e-learning or online content that was supported by written material and augmented with digital resources. The second e-learning model focuses on LMSs, and makes huge amounts of online and e-resource learning materials available, which supplement existing learning resources (called learning objects). Learner interaction is enabled using discussion forums and/or messaging systems. Lastly, the flexible e-learning model focuses on specialised content made available to learners from diverse sources, including the learning participants. The flexible learning model utilises gaming tools, reflective activities, e-portfolios and interactive quizzes to create rich learning environments (Gros & GarcíaPeñalvo, 2016). The various models of e-learning are illustrated in Figure 5.1.

Material-intensive

LMS

Flexible learning

Figure 5.1  The various design models of e-learning

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Modern learners are self-directed, taking ownership of their learning, and prefer the self-paced learning offered by asynchronous learning platforms. Progressive L&D professionals, who engage with modern learning approaches to online learning design, embrace diverse learning modalities that offer the flexibility in learning which modern learners find appealing. Time pressures, work habits and pervasive technology are driving the flexibility offered by digital learning via the internet, social media and smartphone technology (King, 2017). Modern learners are self-directed, taking ownership of their learning, and prefer the self-paced learning offered by asynchronous learning platforms. An effective LMS with well-developed and well-utilised asynchronous online learning tools and platforms (e.g. interfaces between computer, tablet and mobile smartphone technology) may help to empower learners and keep them more engaged throughout the learning experience. Using emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, gaming and virtual realities via mobile platforms may help to create rich asynchronous learning spaces, which especially the younger generational workforce may find appealing. Blended e-learning approaches may also offer rich learning experiences that learners may find engaging and supportive of learning (King, 2017). L&D professionals must ensure they keep abreast with technological developments in learning design and develop the technological/digital literacy they need to create engaging and meaningful learning experiences for learners of all generations. L&D professionals must keep abreast of learning design and develop the technological literacy they need to create engaging and meaningful learning experiences for learners of all ages.

3. THE EVOLUTION OF E-LEARNING CONTEXTS The evolution of e-learning contexts is frequently described within the context of scholarly generations. Some researchers report that e-learning was first based on a behaviourist approach to learning (discussed in Chapter 2), which focused on learning materials, followed by a cognitive basis for e-learning, focusing on independent or learner-driven activities and harnessing the power of computer technology. The next scholarly generation of e-learning uses the constructivist approach in e-learning as the basis, focusing on the benefits of interaction between participants, harnessing the possibilities of the internet. Later, the availability of content on the internet and the flexibility provided by powerful technologies, combined with almost unlimited online resources, drove e-learning development (Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). A diagram of the scholarly generations approach is provided in Figure 5.2. Behaviourism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

Humanism

Flexible learning

•• Learning materials

•• Engagement

•• Interaction

•• Self-motivated; and Andragogy

•• Harnessing available resources

•• Self-directed Figure 5.2  The various scholarly generations of e-learning

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The theories that stem from the various scholarly generations play an important role in the design of online learning. L&D professionals need a sound knowledge base of these theories (as discussed in Chapter 2) when designing online learning programmes.

3.1 Behaviourism Behaviourism believes that learning is achieved through external stimuli and the subsequent response. Knowledge acquisition and observable behaviour are emphasised at the expense of individual differences in learning. Some of the positive implications of behaviourism for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017): •• Immediate feedback can be provided for improved learning; •• Assessment activities should be built into online instruction; •• The content can be designed to promote learning through improved practice. Behaviourism emphasises knowledge acquisition and observable behaviour at the expense of individual differences in learning.

3.2 Cognitivism Cognitivism focuses on organised, structured and logical presentations, and the engagement of all learners, regardless of their motivation. Cognitivism neglects the affective and motivational domain in learning by its emphasis on the cognitive domain. The emphasis is also more on the instructor to engage learners in the learning experience. Some of the positive implications of cognitivism for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017): •• The presentation of material should be engaging, interesting and stimulating to grab the learner’s attention; •• Micro-learning (chunks of learning, e.g. short video clips) may be more appealing to maintain learner attention; •• Online activities should be structured logically and systematically to grab learners’ attention. Cognitivism neglects the affective and motivational domain in learning by its emphasis on the cognitive domain.

3.3 Constructivism Constructivism believes that learners create their own learning and emphasises the active involvement of learners in the learning experience through experiential learning experiences. The theory relies on differences among learners in creating/constructing their own meaning. Some of the positive implications of constructivism for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017): •• Online activities can be designed to promote creative thinking in constructing meaning; •• The focus should be on real-life problem-solving, creative writing and meaning-making; •• Principles of social constructivism are relevant to creating online learning tasks, such 277

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as communities of collaborative learning (e.g. discussion forums and online group tasks); individuals are autonomous in their self-expression, in the authoring of their own content and in sharing that content with others in efficient and meaningful ways (Arquero & Romero-Frias, 2013; Coetzee, 2016). Constructivism believes that learners create their own learning and emphasises the active involvement of learners through experiential learning experiences. Table 5.3 provides an overview of four social collaboration preferences when learners are engaged in online discussions, for example: (1) active-initiator, (2) independent-evaluator, (3) reflective-evaluator and (4) passive-independent (Coetzee, 2016 a, b). Table 5.3  Social collaboration preferences

Preference

Description

Active-initiators

•• Take the lead in initiating discussions and debates because they see the collaboration as an opportunity to demonstrate their own insights and originality; •• Regulate the contributions of others by taking a critical evaluative stance and commenting on other members’ ideas and viewpoints; •• Invite debate from other members because their contributions are seen to stimulate new insights.

Independentevaluators

•• Regulate others by preferring to ignore the ideas and viewpoints already posted; •• Contribute their own unique ideas about the subject matter to bring a new perspective to the debate; •• Are often seen by other members as dominating the debate by their preferred critical and argumentative stance and questioning of other members’ contributions and viewpoints.

Reflectiveevaluators

•• Regulate others by responding to the ideas and viewpoints of other members; •• Build on and add to the contributions of the group members; •• Encourage other members by showing their appreciation for members’ contributions; •• Search for and find new ideas and information that may help the group to complete the joint task successfully.

Passiveindependents

•• Avoid regulation of other members; •• Prefer to work on their own, independent from other group members, in completing the task; •• Act as an impartial observer of the group’s ideas and debates, and tend to focus on other members’ responses and comments rather than contributing their own ideas; •• Slow to catch up with the group debate and tend to be the last one to make any contributions; •• Find it difficult to participate in collaborative social activities and would prefer to keep their ideas and viewpoints to themselves.

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Activity Social collaboration preference Think of when you were involved in an online learning discussion forum or online collaborative group task. Review the four styles of social collaboration. Which style do you typically exhibit when having to participate in an online group discussion or collaborative learning task such as debating a topic?

3.4 Humanism Humanism focuses on behaviour and believes that people control their own destiny; they are inherently good and self-motivated with unlimited potential for growth; behaviour is, therefore, a consequence of human choice and free will. Some of the implications of humanism for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017): •• Online learning content should be made relevant to learners’ interests, feelings and attitudes; •• It may be difficult to decipher learners’ interests in an online environment as feedback and interaction are asynchronous.

3.5 Andragogy Andragogy assumes that all adults learn identically. This ideology focuses on intrinsic motivation and sees adults as being self-directed. Adults are seen to learn best when they choose the content and method of learning. Variations in learners are ignored as the theory focuses more on process and less on content. Prior conditioning, serendipity and play in the lives of adults are mostly ignored. Some of the positive implications of andragogy for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017): •• Create online discussion forums to encourage self-directed learning; •• Design online instruction to provide unique learning opportunities; •• Allow flexibility for learners to learn at their own pace; •• Blogs, online activities and videos can help L&D professionals to design online activities that encourage self-directed learning. Andragogy assumes that all adults learn identically. Variations in learners are ignored as the theory focuses more on process and less on content.

3.6 Flexible learning Modern learning theory believes that digital and smartphone technologies should be used to create rich, flexible and engaging online learning experiences for learners. Flexible learning approaches use a blend of synchronous and asynchronous forms of learning and online learning tools to engage the learner in appealing, meaningful and interesting learning experiences. Flexible online learning reflects the positive principles embedded in the scholarly generations of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and andragogy.

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Flexible online learning reflects the positive principles embedded in behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and andragogy.

4. WHEN TO DEVELOP E-LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES E-learning will not replace traditional, face-to-face workplace learning opportunities, but will be used to augment face-to-face learning and to provide opportunities for updating competencies (Carruth & Carruth, 2013; King, 2017). To establish whether to use faceto-face delivery or e-learning, consider the following: •• What is the specific training need and what would be the most suitable learning delivery method? •• How complex is the content that should be delivered? More complex content is best delivered over a period of time instead of in one or two crowded sessions. (You will have learned about distributed learning in Chapter 2.) •• Will all the individuals identified in the target group have access to the required technology? •• Will all the individuals in the target group possess the required technological competence to benefit from an e-learning opportunity? •• Do the learners that will participate in the e-learning programme possess the necessary self-directedness competence? •• How geographically distributed are the intended participants?

5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING Although e-learning is often offered as the solution to the requirements of employee training and development and the costs involved, the decision to use e-learning should be carefully considered, as stated earlier. The following advantaged and disadvantages should also be borne in mind (Carruth & Carruth, 2013; Stephens & Daley, 2015). Table 5.4  Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning

Advantages

Disadvantages

The flexibility of the e-learning design and delivery model allows for easy revision as training needs change.

E-learning is not appropriate for all learners and/or or learning contexts.

E-learning can reach a large number of participants at a reduced cost.

The initial investment in the technological backbone of an e-learning system is substantial and often underestimated by organisations.

E-learning opportunities are accessible by a geographically distributed workforce.

It is difficult to ensure the authenticity of the participation, particularly where certification is concerned.

The use of rich resources in e-learning design allows for the provision of simulated experiences, which allows realistic practice and contributes to deep learning experiences.

The development of e-learning is more expensive than the development of traditional training programmes, although cost savings are achieved once the development is completed.

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Advantages

Disadvantages

Collaborative learning is possible when collaboration opportunities are included in the design of the learning programme.

Not all employees possess the necessary technological competencies to use e-learning effectively.

Employees develop technological competence that is not necessarily available to them prior to entering the workforce in developing economies.

E-learning requires well developed self-directed learning competence, self-motivation and organisation capacity, which cannot be assumed to be present in all employees.

Employees can schedule learning and development for times that suit their lifestyles and needs.

Unless the learning programme is developed to incorporate collaborative experience, participants can feel alienated.

Integration of the e-learning management system with the knowledge management system facilitates talent management and retention.

The effectiveness of e-learning in workplace learning has not yet been established.

Employers can implement just-in-time training opportunities.

Maintaining learner engagement may be challenging, but can be addressed through development of learning programmes.

Compression of learning – the time taken to deliver training programmes is reduced.

6. NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR E-LEARNING The proposition of e-learning requires additional needs analysis before the decision is made to develop and implement an e-learning programme. In addition to the learning outcomes, which should inform the delivery method, the learners’ technological competence (ICT/ digital literacy) and access to the technology involved should be considered carefully. In addition, the LMS being utilised and system technological requirements have to be taken into account. As indicated in the disadvantages (Table 5.4), the initial investment in the technology to implement and support the e-learning programmes is expensive and should be investigated carefully to ensure that the chosen LMS is up to date and can be adapted easily to changing demands. In addition, the limitations of the required LMS should be evaluated within the context of the learning content to be delivered (Stephens & Daley, 2015). For example, a learning programme that requires synchronous learning should have the required technological basis to ensure seamless synchronous learning. Lastly, an analysis of the stakeholders that will be involved in the e-learning programme design should be made. The development and implementation of an e-learning programme requires the involvement of a learning materials developer; a graphic designer; a content matter expert; an editor; a project sponsor; a technical expert who can translate and transfer the learning content in the correct way into an e-learning programme that addresses the identified needs; and a quality expert to ensure that the content is at the required level and of the required standard. Some e-learning courses also employ a narrator when needed.

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7. E-LEARNING DESIGN When designing e-learning opportunities, the focus should be on creating valid, up-to-date and engaging learning material. Since the participants are geographically dispersed, the content should include opportunities for collaboration if the programme is to be offered as synchronous learning. In addition, opportunities for reflection and self-assessment should be included in all e-learning programmes. Furthermore, clear instructions, which can be easily understood, should be provided to all participants (Sinclair et al., 2017).

7.1 Know the participants Knowledge of the participants in the learning is essential. Since interaction between the participants and the facilitator is limited, even in synchronous e-learning, the developer of the learning content should be conversant with the participants’ levels of competence with respect to technology, as well as the learning content. A clear differentiation should be made between novice learners and advanced learners (Sinclair, et al., 2017). The principles of adult learning should guide the development of the learning content. In Chapter 2, the principles of adult learning were explained. The principles are as follows (Green et al., 2015): •• Adult learners willingly participate in learning when the purpose is clear and they experience a need to acquire the relevant knowledge and experience. •• Adult learners have a rich collection of life experiences, which can be used fruitfully in the learning experience, particularly to engage the learners in the experience. •• Adult learners possess diverse capacities for self-directed learning, but still expect to be treated as autonomous individuals who can control their own learning experiences. •• Adult learners may be inhibited by negative past learning experiences and need to feel secure in their learning environment. •• Adult learners may be either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to participate in the learning experience. •• Adult learners have a well-developed capacity for critical personal reflection. Adult learners willingly participate in learning when the purpose is clear and they experience a need to acquire the relevant knowledge and experience.

7.2 Identify learning goals (outcomes) Identify the learning goals (outcomes) that will achieve the course objective (which will address the training need identified in the needs analysis phase). The work performance problem identified in the training needs analysis phase indicates the learning content. The learning content is broken down into learning outcomes (discussed in Chapter 4). Each learning outcome should address one specific piece of knowledge and/or experience that the learners should master in order to achieve the course objective. The learning outcomes determine the delivery method to be used. If e-learning is the preferred delivery method, the learning outcomes will also indicate the type of e-learning opportunity that should be developed.

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Each learning outcome should address one specific piece of knowledge and/or experience that the learners should master in order to achieve the course objective.

7.3 Develop an e-learning strategy Once the learning outcomes have been finalised, the design process can commence. The e-learning design strategy starts with the development of a story board, which indicates the content to be developed, the media to be used to augment the content, the graphics and narration that may be required and the team that will be involved in the development of the e-learning programme, along with each individual’s responsibilities in the process. The design of learning experiences for adults usually comprises four segments, namely (Merrill, 2015): 1. Presenting the learning content in such a way that it harvests past knowledge and experience; 2. Allowing several progressively difficult practice opportunities to apply the new knowledge in order to develop competence; 3. Presenting a problem related to the learning content that learners have to solve; 4. Developing learning practice opportunities to integrate the new knowledge into real-world activities in order to facilitate a transfer of learning. In e-learning programme design, a fifth segment is added, namely designing the interface – where the participants will access and interact with the learning content. Interface design depends on the LMS and the specific application for interface design that will be supported by the particular LMS, and will, therefore, not be discussed in this chapter. However, the individuals involved in the e-learning interface design should form part of the team that develops the e-learning programmes for organisations. The elements of the e-learning design process are illustrated in Figure 5.3. Link learning content to harvest past knowledge

Develop progressively more difficult practice opportunities

Design the learner–e-content interface

Develop practice opportunities that relate to real-world problems

Present a content-related problem that should be solved

Figure 5.3  Elements of the e-learning design process

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7.4 Determining and sequencing learning content Determine the learning content, learning activities and sequencing of content. Learning content is determined by the learning outcomes. As discussed in Chapter 4, the content should be restricted to what the learners need to know (essential content). Learning activities provide practice opportunities to assimilate the learning content. Learning activities can be clustered into three main types, namely engaging activities, action activities and linking activities. Engaging activities include activities that expose learners to the learning content in various ways, such as presentations, examples and reading. Action activities actively involve the learners in the learning programme since they require some kind of action/response from them. Linking activities link the new learning content to what the learners already know (lived experiences) and to what they will need to do in the workplace (Horton, 2012). In addition to deciding on the learning content and the learning activities that will facilitate mastery and transfer of the learning content, the e-learning design team should decide on the sequencing of the content and activities. Sequencing is discussed in Chapter 4. Learning activities can be clustered into three main types, namely engaging activities, action activities and linking activities. Activity E-learning strategy Use the following link to watch a video on important considerations in developing an e-learning strategy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o • Why should you consider the business requirements in the development of an e-learning strategy? • What is an integrated learning environment? • How can you create quality content at an affordable price? • How can you integrate on-the-job learning, social learning and formal learning in your business context?

7.5 Assess learner progress Decide how the e-learning programme will assess learner progress on mastering the learning outcomes. Assessments can be used to assess learner progress, to enable learners to assess their own progress, to assess knowledge and/or competencies developed and to ensure continued motivation to complete the learning programme (Horton, 2012). Assessments can focus on tests using true/false questions, requiring learners to sequence a process correctly, matching lists, questions and multiple choice questions. Questions that require written answers can also be incorporated into the e-learning design, but a strategy for marking or grading these questions should then be developed. Assessments can focus on tests using true/false questions, requiring learners to sequence a process correctly, matching lists, questions and multiple choice questions. 284

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7.6 Provide meaningful feedback Provide meaningful feedback on activities and assessments. Meaningful feedback is timely and provides an indication of whether the learner has mastered a significant part of the specific chunk of learning. Provide the correct answer and indicate why that specific answer is correct. Refer back to the original content and learning activity(ies) that preceded the assessment. Ensure that the feedback is brief and continues to engage the learners’ attention and motivation.

7.7 Design the e-learning programme Table 5.5 presents the elements of the design process that facilitate the design of learning material, which will engage learners, utilise their previous experience and allow for deep learning that can be transferred to the workplace context. Table 5.5  Steps in designing e-learning programmes

Design element

Examples of relevant activities

Develop a storyboard;

The storyboard serves as a guideline for the team involved in the development and production of the e-learning programme.

Use the following link to watch a video on storyboard design: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=73Wbwxp3yC8

It indicates the content that should be covered, how participants will be assessed, which animations, rich media and other resources will be required. The storyboard provides an indication of the technological support required in the development of the learning programme, as well as the support the participants will need once the course is rolled out. In addition, the storyboard provides an early indication of the budget requirements to develop and implement the e-learning programme. The learning outcomes, developed after the training needs analysis, are used in the storyboard to guide the development of the learning programme.

Create a template.

E-learning content is developed using a template, similar to the templates one finds in the Microsoft PowerPoint option in the MS Office package. The e-learning content development application used will determine how the template is developed. The template should be simple to navigate, ensure that participants can easily read the text and retain their attention. The navigation options and instructions should be clearly explained to avoid frustration. The e-learning template should be consistent to ensure that the learners’ attention is retained and to avoid frustration.

Chunk the learning content.

The e-learning environment requires that learning content should be broken down into manageable chunks – pieces of knowledge that focus on one element of the subject matter to be mastered. Learning content can be chunked according to the learning outcomes that were developed as a result of the training needs analysis. Prioritise the information to be communicated in the learning programme. Chunk screen to screen (or slide to slide) – try to contain all the information relevant to a specific chunk of information on one screen or slide.

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Design element

Examples of relevant activities

Engage participant attention.

Use video clips, Infographics, diagrams, animation or other visuals that will attract the learners’ attention and pull them into the learning material. Ensure that the participants’ attention remains engaged throughout the learning programme by periodically, and at appropriate stages, using a variety of the relevant options.

Indicate the purpose of the learning programme and the content learners will master. Learning objectives are useful in this situation, but there is no reason for offering all the learning objectives the participants will master at this stage.

Draw a timeline or roadmap to indicate the content learners will master in the learning programme. A mind-map can also be used.

Assess the participants’ current knowledge of the content.

Use a quiz or a collaborative discussion to establish learners’ prior knowledge.

The narrative style and content to be mastered will inform the specific artifact used at this stage. Place the learning objectives in a context with which learners can identify.

Gamification techniques can be used fruitfully in all e-learning assessment activities, depending on the LMS and the amount of collaboration required in the learning programme. Gamification is useful to ensure continued learner engagement and motivation. Facilitate the learning process to guide participants through the learning material.

Support is required for mastery of the learning content.

Use rich media to engage participants and aid retention.

Visual aids such as graphs, charts, diagrams, photos and animations support content explanation and comprehension.

Options to access explanations of certain concepts are useful. Indicate progress so that participants remain motivated to continue and for guidance.

Video and sound clips provide auditive support. Interactive learning features engage participants in active learning and prevent loss of interest. All learner supports included in the learning programme should serve a purpose. Avoid inserting graphs, charts and pictures for their aesthetic value and only use those that contribute to learning. Provide practice opportunities.

Allow learners to apply their new knowledge throughout the learning programme. Develop practice opportunities that are progressively more difficult and provide proportionally limited support so that learners can gain competence as well as develop self-efficacy, self-management and self-directedness capacities. Simulations and virtual reality activities are useful for applying knowledge and practising new competence. Reflective activities and recapping what has been learned using a quiz are useful activities for practice. Recapping activities, such as requiring a one-sentence summary or using a quiz can be used to identify participant knowledge at specific intervals.

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Design element

Examples of relevant activities

Provide sufficient, relevant and timely feedback.

Provide feedback after every practice opportunity.

Assess participant progress and competence developed.

Implement appropriate assessments to determine learner competence development.

Feedback should be relevant, supportive and motivate participants to continue with the learning programme.

Assessments should be aligned with learning outcomes and should focus on significant content. Assessment can include collaborative work and reflective activities to cultivate deep learning. Augment retention of content and transfer to the work context.

Elements that can assist with retention and transfer are checklists, examples from the work context and opportunities to discuss content with peers in collaborative learning experiences.

Pilot the programme.

Pilot the e-learning programme on a selected group of participants to identify and solve any content, comprehension and technical issues that may hamper mastery of the learning material.

Evaluate the programme

E-learning programmes should be evaluated regularly to ensure that the content is still applicable, useful and up to date. In addition, links to video clips, other online material (such as subject matter, expert blogs and professional bodies) should be checked to ensure that the links are still usable.

Activity Assessing e-learning content Use the following link to a free Open University online course in creating open education e-sources. Please note, you have to register as a user to access the content. It takes about 15 hours to complete the course. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/creating-open-educational-resources/ content-section-0?intro=1 Assess the value of the content in terms of the following: • Did the initial page grab your attention? • Did the pages following retain your attention? • Did the pages provide you with the necessary information about the creation of open-education resources (OERs)? • Was the information clear and easy to understand? • Could you navigate the site easily? • Did the site provide timely and useful feedback on assessments? • Did the course use rich media to support learning?

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8. S  PECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR E-LEARNING PROGRAMME DESIGN E-learning programmes are delivered using media with which learners are not necessarily familiar, and that require competencies that differ from those needed in a face-to-face learning programme. E-learning content is written, not spoken, and interactions and collaborations should be carefully planned to ensure a rich and rewarding learning experience for the participants. Keep the following in mind when designing e-learning experiences: •• The template used for conveying the course content should be uncluttered. Participants should focus on the content and not be distracted by unnecessary decoration of the template. •• Allow for sufficient white space on the template. White space indicates what is important in the text, promotes improved design of the template and assists with participant comprehension of the text. •• Use meaningful images that support or complement the text. Images are valuable for facilitating retention, but only when they are appropriate and communicate a message similar to that of the text. •• Be conservative with the use of colour. Colour is a significant factor in the design of visual learning content. Various colours evoke diverse emotional reactions from participants. Preferably use quiet background colours and darker colours for the text. Avoid creating a rainbow effect – simplicity is best. •• Be consistent in the various design elements. Use the same font type and colours for headings and text, and use graphics that are similar in lay-out and sequence to avoid frustration on the part of the participants. Use the same background theme and the same theme for navigating the site. •• Ensure that the visual impact of the template is sufficient to maintain participant engagement and motivation. •• Break up the content into manageable sections. Remember that not all relevant information can be communicated on one template. •• Avoid crowding the template. Ensure that only significant content is communicated in the text. •• Be aware of all areas of ambiguity and ensure that no ambiguity exists in the final design. Ambiguity will lead to learner frustration and withdrawal from the course. Activity Scriptwriting and storyboarding Use the following link to access a video clip on storyboarding: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73Wbwxp3yC8 • Assess the first section of the video clip. How well does the narrator/facilitator indicate how to navigate the site? • List the eight people who are involved in e-learning design and who are discussed in the video clip. • As an L&D professional, which of those roles would you fulfil? • How is this an example of a synchronous e-learning opportunity?

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9. E-LEARNING TRENDS Recent research tends to describe e-learning in the context of an ecology and ecosystem (Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). The technological ecosystem is allowed to evolve and grow by using input from the participants in the ecosystem. The ecosystem approach attempts to capture the complex nature of the continued development of learning and learning systems through relationships, activities, innovation and contexts to generate value. A learning ecology, on the other hand, is an open, adaptive system comprising diverse dynamic and interdependent elements. The diversity contributes to the adaptability of the learning ecology, making it both a powerful learning tool and a driver for change (Gros & GarcíaPeñalvo, 2016). A learning ecology is an open, adaptive system comprising diverse, dynamic and interdependent elements, making it both a powerful learning tool and a driver for change. Learning ecologies consist of diverse learning possibilities augmented by learning methods and content that support individual learning needs and situations. The various elements of the learning ecology should be dynamic, interdependent, relevant and chunked in such a way that they can be reorganised easily when the need arises. Individual participants in e-learning ecosystems can develop their own learning ecologies, consisting of learning materials, learning activities and interactions that combine to provide learning opportunities. Learning ecologies consequently include both formal and informal learning (Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). Learning is driven by the interactions between the learners, the content and the facilitator, and knowledge is constructed from these interactions. Consequently, knowledge is personal. Individual participants in e-learning ecosystems can develop their own learning ecologies, comprising learning materials, activities and interactions that combine to provide learning opportunities. Activity E-learning trends Use the following link to access a video clip on e-learning trends: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=darOvcpbU8M • The video clip illustrates current e-learning trends. • What are the six e-learning trends illustrated by the video clip? • How did the developers of this video clip use animation and colour to retain the participant’s attention? • Can you list three different e-learning design tools featured in this video clip? • Why are organisations using e-learning for customer support?

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10. BARRIERS TO E-LEARNING Adult learners may be willing to participate in learning experiences that they find personally meaningful and which they can control to a greater or lesser degree. However, the designers of learning experiences for adult learners should take heed of the factors that create barriers to successful adult learning. Incorporating factors that will break down the barriers to successful learning is of particular importance in e-learning, since the retention and completion rate of e-learning opportunities are low (Monaco, 2014). Incorporating factors that will break down the barriers to successful learning is of particular importance in e-learning, since the retention and completion rate of e-learning opportunities are low. Senior managers in organisations frequently display resistance to e-learning, consequently influencing subordinates’ attitudes to e-learning. Senior managers should be the frontrunners in the adoption and support of e-learning in order to motivate employees to use the e-learning opportunities offered by the organisation (Walsh, 2014). Furthermore, technology can create a barrier to e-learning in an organisation. E-learning relies on dependable, stable internet connectivity and technical support when required to support the flexibility of the learning opportunity (Walsh, 2014). An e-learning context is highly complex and requires the development of employees’ technical competence to ensure successful implementation and a positive impact on employee and organisational performance. Inadequate financial support of the required technological infrastructure can create a huge barrier to the successful implementation and continued use of e-learning in organisations. Funding of required upgrades in technology, when required, is paramount to ensuring success (Walsh, 2014). Senior managers in organisations frequently display resistance to e-learning, consequently influencing subordinates’ attitudes to e-learning. Inadequate financial support of the required technological infrastructure can create a huge barrier to the successful implementation and continued use of e-learning in organisations. Individual internal characteristics can create barriers to the learning of adults. Motivation plays a vital role in learning – an unmotivated adult who does not see the personal benefit of a learning experience will learn with difficulty (Green et al., 2015). In addition, adult learners fear failure and can easily be influenced negatively by a learning experience, learning material that is difficult to navigate and negative feedback from the facilitator. Motivation plays a vital role in learning – an unmotivated adult who does not see the personal benefit of a learning experience will learn with difficulty. 290

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11. T  HE PROCESS OF THE ADOPTION OF E-LEARNING IN A WORKPLACE The implementation of e-learning opportunities in workplace contexts tends to follow three phases, namely, the initial need to adopt e-learning, the need to build competence in e-learning development and the need to support learning opportunities, irrespective of the delivery method and learning context (Walsh, 2014). During the first stage, organisational L&D professionals realise the benefits of offering e-learning opportunities, but are not fully informed of the technological requirements and the new competencies necessary to produce the required e-learning content. E-learning programmes and technological support is investigated and implemented in this phase. The second phase is one of realisation. L&D professionals who deliver e-learning opportunities require a different approach to the design of the learning material and have to consider the technological expertise and capacity for self-directed learning of the intended participants. At this stage, L&D professionals start investigating the learning theories that support and inform the development of e-learning content. By the third phase of e-learning, L&D professionals have come to understand that the role of e-learning (and L&D in general) is to support employee learning in various ways; for example, by supporting knowledge dissemination, informal learning experiences and formal learning experiences alike. Based on recent research findings, it is necessary to include a fourth stage, namely that of continued support – financial support, technological upgrades and the redevelopment required as a result of changing needs and technological requirements (McGill et al., 2014). The four stages of e-learning adoption are illustrated in Figure 5.4.

FUTURE loading...

Provide continued support on all fronts Virtual HRD

Use e-learning platforms to support all types of learning in organisation

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Improve L&D professional’s competence in e-learning development

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Figure 5.4  The phases of e-learning adoption in an organisation

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12. ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT FOR E-LEARNING Learning and development (L&D) plays a significant role in an organisation’s continued growth and sustainability. Consequently, organisational support of e-learning is vital to ensure success. The following types of support have been found to be essential in the support of e-learning programmes (Schultz & Correia, 2015): •• Financial support. Continued financial support for the development and revision of e-learning, as well as for the technological upgrades that may be required, is essential to ensure the success of e-learning programmes. •• Organisational support in the form of support from senior managers, as well as support for the application of new knowledge in the work context. •• Time to participate in e-learning is essential. Some organisations may provide flexible working hours to accommodate e-learning. •• Technological support. The technology on which the e-learning programme is hosted and accessed should function effectively to avoid frustration. •• Learner support from peers, technological experts and the learning facilitator is vital to ensure continued engagement and successful completion of an e-learning programme. •• Maintaining participant motivation through engaging, interesting and personally meaningful learning material, assessments and interaction with peers. L&D plays a significant role in an organisation’s continued growth and sustainability. Consequently, organisational support of e-learning is vital to ensure success.

13. VIRTUAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT When engaging in online learning design, L&D professionals need to understand the concept of virtual human resource development (VHRD). VHRD attempts to encapsulate formal and informal employee and organisational learning processes in a computer-based context, which is strategically, horizontally and vertically aligned with the organisation’s vision, mission, strategic goals and objectives, for the organisation as a whole and all its employees (McWhorter, 2014). Virtual HRD comprises a computer- or internet-based learning environment that can incorporate and support – in a media rich context – informal learning as part of employee learning and as part of the organisational culture. A computer- or internet-based environment exists where computer applications, digital contexts and employees co-operate to create learning opportunities through the exchange of ideas, knowledge and experience. The virtual environment supports the work of virtual teams and knowledge management (McWhorter, 2014). Media-rich learning contexts include visuals, audio and virtual-reality supports or addons to learning opportunities to support a rich learning experience by engaging as many senses as possible. Informal learning comprises social learning, workplace learning and experiential learning. Some researchers indicate that informal learning is a powerful source of learning because of the availability of information via ICTs.

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Organisational culture drives individual behaviour in organisations because it provides a framework of shared assumptions, beliefs and values that indicate acceptable and unacceptable behaviours. Organisational culture drives individual behaviour in organisations because it provides a framework of shared assumptions, beliefs and values that indicate acceptable and unacceptable behaviours (McWhorter, 2014). Organisational policies and practices that support employee wellness in the form of work–life balance in a virtual HRD context should form part of the organisational culture. In addition, VHRD can contribute to the cultivation of a community of learning and knowledge sharing in an organisation, which could be a vital component of the organisational culture (McWhorter, 2014). VHRD can contribute to the cultivation of a community of learning and knowledge sharing in an organisation, which could be a vital component of the organisational culture.

14. T  HE COMPETENCIES REQUIRED FROM L&D PROFESSIONALS IN AN E-LEARNING ENVIRONMENT The design and implementation of e-learning programmes requires competencies from L&D professionals that are technology-oriented to ensure the development and implementation of useful and viable programmes. The following competencies are required: •• Competence in e-learning design and implementation; •• Social media skills for e-learning contexts; •• Competence in media-rich e-learning design; •• Project management; •• Knowledge of the technological requirements for an e-learning design and implementation platform; •• Theories of learning (e.g. behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, andragogy and modern flexible digital learning); •• Ethics in online learning design and delivery (see Chapter 10). E-learning has taken the business and education worlds by storm, to such an extent that the use of e-learning in both contexts has outpaced research on its efficacy for deep learning.

Case study Mandoza Mines Mandoza Mines was established 10 years ago as an affiliate of Polyus Gold, a Russianbased gold mining company. Mandoza Mines was affected severely in the global financial crisis of 2007 and 2008 and is struggling to recover. Over the past five years, the mine has had to lay off about 2 000 employees, and may have to lay off even more if the mine does not start producing a profit. The capital investment required to establish and run a gold mine is tremendous and the mine is currently struggling to show a profit.

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However, Polyus has offered Mandoza Mines a financial helpline, provided it reduces the number of accidents in the mine caused by mineworkers’ carelessness and ignoring safety mechanisms and safety requirements. On investigation, the management team has decided to invest in the infrastructure to develop and deliver online safety training courses to all mineworkers, as well as refresher courses every six months. You are the L&D manager and have been tasked with developing a strategy for the design and delivery of the e-learning programmes. Questions: 1. Given the financial situation at Mandoza Mines, would you recommend the use of an e-learning approach? Provide a motivation for your answer. 2. Based on the needs analysis for e-learning design, what information do you need to collect before starting the e-learning design? 3. Identify the members of the team that should be involved in the design of the e-learning programme. 4. Develop a template for the design of the e-learning programme 5. Indicate which rich media will be used to engage participant attention and ensure continued participation. 6. Indicate how assessments will be used to track participant progress and how feedback will be provided to participants. 7. In which phase of the adoption of e-learning is Mendoza Mines currently? Would you advise Mendoza Mines to move to one of the other phases? Support your answer with examples and sound reasoning.

Review and discussion questions: 1. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous e-learning and give examples of each. 2. How does the e-learning programme needs analysis differ from the needs analysis for face-to-face learning programmes? 3. Why is it particularly important to investigate the characteristics of participants in e-learning programmes prior to learning design? 4. What are the requirements of a template that encourage participation without confusing or overstimulating the participants? 5. Which types of organisational support are needed to ensure the successful implementation of e-learning programmes and why are these types of support necessary? 6. What steps must be followed in designing an online learning programme? 7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of online learning? 8. In which phase of the adoption of e-learning is the organisation in which you are employed? Support your answer with examples. 9. Which barriers to e-learning can you identify in the organisation in which you are employed? How can these barriers be addressed?

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Summary E-learning has taken the business and education worlds by storm, to such an extent that the use of e-learning in both contexts has outpaced research on its efficacy for deep learning. L&D in Workplace 4.0, in particular, has used the benefits of e-learning by rolling out learning programmes that are easily accessible, flexible and harness knowledge resources distributed throughout the internet. However, the successful implementation and continued use of e-learning programmes for organisational learning and development depends on its integration into the HRD and L&D practices and processes of the organisation and on continued support on a human, technological and financial level. E-learning delivery can be augmented by blended learning to reduce the disadvantages and harness the advantages offered by e-learning, but will most likely not replace face-to-face learning opportunities.

Just as collective generations have evolved, so must the formula for modern learning design in a fast-evolving digital era.

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CHAPTER

6

DELIVERING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee

Key points of learning and development intervention delivery •• The effective delivery of learning and development (L&D) interventions in the workplace depends on a number of factors considered in the design of a learning programme. •• Design and delivery decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the target group and the dynamics of the learning facilitation process. •• Learning facilitation means making the learner more of an active and vital component in the training or learning facilitation process. •• L&D professionals and training instructors apply principles of learning facilitation to ensure optimal transfer of learning to the workplace. •• Effective L&D professionals are skilful in managing the delivery of learning programmes. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Describe the various methods of learning and development (L&D) intervention delivery, including their uses and advantages in the workplace context. •• Explain the elements and characteristics of various forms of learning delivery. •• Explain the influence of digital technological advancement on modern learning and the social learning ecosystem elements. •• Describe how L&D professionals in their role as learning facilitators can ensure the effective transfer of learning to the workplace. •• Explain how the characteristics of learners and L&D facilitators influence the learning facilitation process. •• Evaluate the importance of applying L&D principles to learning facilitation. •• Describe the skills and characteristics of a skilled L&D facilitator. •• Explain the responsibilities of L&D professionals/facilitators in managing delivery of learning programmes.

1. INTRODUCTION As pointed out in Chapter 3, learning and development (L&D) professionals use a systematic approach to L&D facilitation and delivery, which includes assessing L&D needs, incorporating principles of learning in the design and delivery of learning programmes, assessing learner achievements and evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes. This scientific approach is also referred to as the learning cycle. This aspect is the focus of chapters 3 to 8. The delivery of L&D interventions, as a specific way of facilitating learning in an organisation, is introduced in this chapter. Learning and development in the workplace occurs in a variety of situations, some of which are planned and structured and others that are spontaneous and seemingly automatic (Swart et al., 2005).

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Phase 1 L&D needs analysis

Phase 2 Learning programme design

Phase 5 Evaluation of programme effectiveness THE LEARNING CYCLE

Phase 4 Assessment and moderation of learner achievements

Phase 3 L&D intervention delivery

Figure 6.1  The learning cycle

The focus of this chapter is formally planned L&D. It is a structured process characterised by an L&D professional acting as a learning facilitator, who aims to accelerate and structure learning through the delivery of well-designed, outcomes-based learning programmes. The effective delivery of L&D interventions in the workplace depends on a number of factors that have to be considered in the design of a learning programme (such as learning outcomes, the characteristics of the learners, the interactions between learners, the skills of the L&D professional, resources and facilities available, the management of the delivery process and the dynamics within the group of learners). Even the best designed L&D intervention is doomed to fail if the L&D professional cannot deliver it effectively.

2. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT DELIVERY METHODS Historically, classroom training and on-the-job training have been the most common methods of delivering L&D interventions in the workplace. These two methods are often blended with programmed-instruction and technology-based training (e-learning or online learning) approaches to enhance the transfer of learning to the workplace (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). Research has shown that being trained on-the-job was the most appealing learning method for 46% of recipients and was regarded as being most effective by 43% of recipients. On-the-job learning is still regarded as the most effective method because it enables learners to practise and gain feedback in real time. Learnercentred activities, such as practice and feedback in the workplace context, are regarded as essential for skills to become embedded (Rees & French, 2016). Similarly, although e-learning has long been heralded as the ultimate individualised learner-centred technique and has grown dramatically in popularity and effectiveness in recent years (Noesgaard &

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Ørngreen, 2015), the adoption of blended learning (i.e. a combination of face-to-face and technology-mediated instruction) has increased exponentially (Porter et al., 2014). Although on-the-job training and blended learning methods are still relevant in many workplaces today, accelerated technological advancements have seen an increasing emphasis on social media and the importance of social learning as an L&D strategy in workplaces. Contemporary L&D delivery approaches now incorporate social media, gaming, real-time feedback and advanced on-the-job and social training methodologies in their L&D delivery strategy (Meister & Willyerd, 2010). The younger generations (Millennials or Generation Y and Post-Millennials or Generation Z) are used to interacting via social media: they value the community and knowledge-sharing opportunities afforded by formal on-the-job and social training (e-learning and mobile learning) via digital technology, which allows them to collaboratively problem-solve, brainstorm and form relationships with peers and older generations (Andriotis, 2017). The transfer of learning to the workplace is recognised as essential for effective L&D intervention delivery. Modern approaches to learning and development recognise learning as an ecosystem that brings formal, informal and social collaboration into a continuous learning environment to help transfer knowledge and learning back into the workplace. Adult learners of all generations want meaningful work and opportunities for learning new skills as part of their career growth and lifelong learning goals. Any form of L&D intervention delivery must, therefore, be fit for purpose, that is, it should address the learner’s L&D needs in order to facilitate engagement in learning and transfer of knowledge and skills (King, 2017). On-the-job training and self-directed learning are effective because they are learner-centred and tailored to the learner as an individual as well as to the unique workplace context. These are all characteristics that increase the effectiveness of the learning transfer (Rees & French, 2016). Modern approaches to L&D recognise learning as an ecosystem that brings formal, informal and social collaboration into a continuous learning environment – transferring knowledge back into the workplace. On-the-job training and self-directed learning are effective because they are learner-centred and tailored to the learner as an individual and the unique workplace context. Activity You will have experienced learning and development in various contexts in your life, be it on the job, at school or in the university context. Think back on these experiences. Which of these made the most impact on you; i.e. can you remember a particular instance that caused your behaviour to change, or a particular instance that sits strongly in your memory? Why was this the case? What were the main reasons for this? Keep these in mind as you work through the following sections.

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2.1 Classroom training Classroom training refers to seminars, conferences, lectures and training sessions; all are forms of direct instruction. Direct instruction has strong research support as a method for enabling learners to achieve the learning outcomes of a programme. Direct instruction gives learning facilitators the most control over what, when and how learners learn, and it is also the most appropriate strategy for actively involving learners in developing the required foundational, practical and reflexive competencies (Killen, 2007). Classroom training – when matched with clearly defined learning outcomes – is regarded as a powerful means of enhancing job performance (Aamodt, 2007; Yelon, 1992). However, like all other training or learning facilitation methods (see Table 6.1), the success of classroom training depends on the L&D professional’s efforts and expertise. Table 6.1  Advantages and limitations of classroom training (Killen, 2007)

Advantages •• Trainers are in control of the content and sequencing of information, so they can maintain a clear focus on the outcomes. •• It is an effective way of teaching factual information and highly structured knowledge. •• It can be effective in all cultures, particularly those in which the trainer is seen as an authority figure. •• It can be used equally effectively with large and small groups. •• It allows trainers to present a large amount of information in a relatively short time; all learners are given equal access to this information. •• It is one of the most effective approaches for teaching explicit concepts and skills to low-achieving learners. •• It allows trainers to convey personal interest in the subject (through an enthusiastic presentation). This can stimulate the interest and enthusiasm of learners. •• Direct instruction that emphasises listening (for example, lecturing) and observing (for example, demonstrations) help learners who prefer to learn in these ways. •• Direct instruction allows trainers to provide a role model for learners in a particular field. They can show how to approach problems, how to analyse information or how to generate knowledge. Limitations •• The success of classroom training depends heavily on the image that the trainer projects. If the trainer does not seem well prepared, knowledgeable, confident and enthusiastic, the learners may become bored or distracted. •• Classroom training depends heavily on the communication style of the trainer. If the trainer is a poor communicator, not much learning will occur. •• It is difficult to cater for individual differences between learners’ abilities, prior knowledge, rates of learning, levels of understanding, learning styles or interest in the subject. •• The high level of structure and the trainer’s control of learning activities may have a negative impact on learners’ problem-solving abilities, independence and curiosity. •• If the classroom training does not involve some learner participation (such as asking and answering questions, experimentation and demonstrations), learners will lose interest and remember little of the content. •• Some things (such as psychomotor skills) cannot be taught through classroom training alone.

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2.2 Selecting appropriate classroom training methods Effective classroom training requires extensive planning and preparation, preferably using a broad range of activities to keep the participants involved (Sullivan & Wircenski, 2006). There are a wide variety of training methods available to the trainer. An L&D delivery or training method is chosen in the design stage of the learning cycle. However, design and delivery decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the target group and the dynamics between learners during the learning facilitation process. Trainer-centred methods focus on presenting the learning material, whereas learner-centred methods rely on learning facilitation. It is important to select an appropriate training method based on the nature of the learning outcomes, the characteristics of the learners and the dynamics in the classroom situation. Trainer-centred methods might work for some learners, while learner-centred methods will be more appropriate for others. The processes within the group (for example, the levels of energy) will also influence the choice of training method. A training delivery technique is adequate to the extent that it provides the minimum conditions for effective learning to take place. Minimum conditions for an effective training method include: •• Motivating the learners to improve their performance; •• Clearly illustrating the desired skills; •• Providing for the learners’ active participation; •• Providing an opportunity to practise; •• Providing feedback on performance while learners learn; •• Providing some means to reinforce the learner while they are learning; •• Structuring learning from simple to complex tasks; •• Being adaptable to specific problems; and •• Enabling the learners to transfer what is learned in training to other situations (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). The effective delivery of training in the classroom depends not only on the selection of an appropriate delivery method, but also on the selection of learning materials that support the delivery of training.

2.3 Learning support materials in classroom training Learning support materials are any materials that support the trainer in the delivery of the learning programme. Materials vary from technologically advanced PowerPoint or other digital presentations such as Prezi, for example, to pieces of paper used during a training game. The most important requirement for the selection of learning support materials is that materials should enhance and increase the effectiveness of the learning experience. To a large extent, this is achieved by stimulating a wider range of the learners’ senses. The more senses that are stimulated, the greater the impact the learning experience will have on the learner. Here are some general points to keep in mind when using learning support materials: •• Make learning support materials visible to all the learners in the class; •• Use a variety of learning support materials; 300

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•• Prepare and set up learning support materials before the training begins, and make sure that they work properly; •• Support materials are there to enhance content, not to replace it; and •• Face the audience rather than the learning support materials. The more senses that are stimulated, the greater the impact the learning experience will have on the learner. The most commonly used learning support materials in classroom training are PowerPoint and Prezi presentations, overhead slides, flip charts, whiteboards or chalkboards, handouts, videos and DVDs. (a) PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations

Microsoft PowerPoint and Prezi are electronic (and enhanced) versions of traditional overhead transparencies. They are fast becoming the standard for learning support material used in a classroom context. They have a number of advantages: •• It is easy to transport and store files; •• Presentations can be made colourful and exciting; •• Errors can be corrected during the presentation; •• There are numerous resources available online (for example, sound and video can be incorporated into presentations); and •• There are also a number of open source (free) slide presentations available, including Prezi. The main disadvantages include: •• The cost of computers and data projectors; •• If trainers rely too much on technology in the classroom, the classroom situation will foster passive learners (look on YouTube for ‘Death by PowerPoint’ videos); •• If the equipment fails, the whole learning process is interrupted (or even stopped); and •• Since presentations are more effective in a darkened room, learners’ attention might wander. The following guidelines apply when using PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations: •• Use keywords. Slides are used as an adjunct to a lecture to highlight key points; they should not be read. •• Use the default text style to prevent the presentation from becoming too busy. •• Use animations and GIFs (Graphics Interchange Format) to make slides more interesting. •• Practise the slide show beforehand to ensure that the animations and layout have the desired effect. •• Use an attractive background (various backgrounds are included with the software). •• Pace the slides. In other words, do not include too many slides in a presentation. •• Check the equipment beforehand to ensure that it is working properly. •• Use a laser pointer to focus learners’ attention on particular points. •• Ensure that the slides are visible and legible. 301

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•• Be careful when using colours such as red, yellow and orange. These colours become unreadable if they are shown with a data projector. •• Keep to the 6 x 6 rule for slides: maximum 6 words per line x 6 lines per slide. Activity Go onto YouTube and put in the following search term: ‘Death by PowerPoint’. You will find a wide range of videos on the topic of avoiding this; i.e. keeping your participants actively involved in training. List 10 factors that will help you use PowerPoint/Prezi effectively in the classroom. Also, search for examples of Prezi presentations as an alternative to PowerPoint presentations.

(b) Handouts

Handouts are printed sheets that the trainer can use to supplement training. The following points must be kept in mind regarding the use of handouts: •• Handouts of PowerPoint/Prezi/other presentations will ensure that the learners focus on the presentation, rather than continuously copying from the slides. Leave blank spaces on the handout to enable learners to record information from the lecture. •• When using games or exercises in class, hand out a prepared outline to learners. This saves time, structures the exercises and ensures some form of consistency between the various types of responses from the learners. •• Handouts can also provide additional information, such as chapters from books and articles from journals. Mitchell (2014) suggests a number of guidelines for developing effective handouts: •• Prepare them well beforehand. •• They should not simply be a printout of the PowerPoint/Prezi slides. •• The handouts should reflect the content of the presentation. •• The handouts should provide additional relevant information. •• Include references so that the participants can access additional materials. •• Create an action sheet that requires the participant to actively engage with the handouts. •• The handouts should stand alone, i.e. they should make sense to someone who has not attended the presentation/class. •• Provide spaces for notes and comments. •• Make the handouts look professional, both in their layout and their printing/binding. •• Consider providing the notes electronically as many learners now use tablets, smartphones and laptops. •• Distribute the handouts when relevant in the presentation as they can create surprise, be used for brainstorming and discussion, and the presentation can be adapted to the needs of the learner as the topic progresses. (c) Flip charts

Flip charts are powerful learning support materials and can be used for a number of purposes. The most popular use is to record the inputs of learners. The flip-chart pages are 302

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then placed on the wall of the training venue so that the learners or facilitator can refer back to inputs later. The facilitator can also use flip charts to illustrate diagrams or record important points. Flip charts have a number of advantages, including the following: •• They allow spontaneity; •• They do not require electricity, so they can be used anywhere; •• They are relatively economical; and •• Colour can be used effectively and easily. Issues to take note of when making use of flip charts are: •• They are better for smaller groups of learners (preferably fewer than 30), otherwise it becomes difficult for all the learners to see. •• Do not write in cursive, as this is difficult to read. •• Write in large, legible text. The 7 x 7 rule should be applied: no more than seven words in a line and no more than seven lines on a flip chart. •• Use colours that stand out to make the flip charts easy to read. Avoid colours such as yellow, light green and orange. Confirm with learners that the colours are easy to read. •• Use two or three colours on a flip chart, but use colours in a logical way (such as one colour for headings and another for content). •• Use flip-chart pens that do not bleed through to the next page or damage the page. •• If the pages need to be put up on the wall, use a tape or adhesive that does not remove paint from the wall. (d) Whiteboards/chalkboards

Whiteboards and chalkboards are used to record learner inputs, summarise key points or illustrate diagrams. The rules that apply to flip charts also apply here. The main difference is that the information is lost when the board is erased. (e) Videos/DVDs

Videos/DVDs can be used at any point in the delivery of a learning programme. They can serve as ice-breakers, provide an introduction to a topic, illustrate a particular outcome or serve as a powerful conclusion to a learning programme. Issues to consider when using videos include the following: •• When using a video/DVD as part of the training, it is critical that the video/DVD relates directly to the topic. •• The video/DVD must be viewed beforehand. This ensures that the facilitator is familiar with the content and that there are no surprises with regards to quality and content. •• Learners should not be expected to understand and remember everything in the video/DVD. •• Discuss the video/DVD with learners afterwards to gain maximum learning from the video/DVD. Learners can be asked to record key points during the video/DVD, or a discussion can take place afterwards about the key learning points in the video/DVD. A handout that summarises the key points can also be helpful. •• It is sometimes helpful to divide a video/DVD into smaller segments and to deal with these separately. 303

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•• The quality of the video/DVD should be such that technical aspects do not distract the learners from the content. •• Make sure that the quality of the speakers in the venue is adequate so that all the learners can hear the dialogue. Videos/DVDs can serve as ice-breakers, provide an introduction to a topic, illustrate a particular outcome or serve as a powerful conclusion to a learning programme. With the increasingly connected nature of the world it is becoming ever easier to access good quality training videos on YouTube and similar sites, many without cost. All you need to do is put in your desired topic and a wide variety of videos will be sourced. It is, however, important to make sure that the video you select is relevant, related to your topic and that it will achieve the outcomes for which it is intended. Using a blended learning approach to complement classroom training has been found to be more effective than relying on one particular method only.

3. BLENDED LEARNING METHODS Using a blended learning approach to complement classroom training has been found to be more effective than relying on one particular method only. Blended learning is an integrated approach to the training of adults. It allows L&D professionals to use a wide range of training methods, including information presentation techniques, simulation methods, small-group methods, self-instruction and on-the-job training methods (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005; Porter et al., 2014; Yelon, 1992). Blended learning allows trainers to involve more of the learners’ senses and accommodate a variety of learning preferences. Table 6.2  Guidelines for designing blended learning classes (adapted from Galvin & O’Neil, 2013) Don’t double-up work for either the facilitator or students. Divide learning activities and content based on their suitability to either online or face-to-face delivery. It is important not to duplicate the online with face-to-face formats or vice versa. Don’t get carried away with the multitude of opportunities offered by technology. The online component should remain relevant to learning and not distracting ‘nice-to-haves’. Focus on the course outcomes and whether online component is likely to improve the experience. It is useful to review similar case studies and to speak to experienced colleagues about their experiences, or to refer to ‘Teach Online’ episodes on YouTube dealing with choosing technology, designing assessment and using online resources. Ascertain which activities would benefit from or be better suited to online presentation. Move these to the online context and then enrich the key activities that benefit from a face-to-face environment such as those that allow for interaction, use games, videos or require completion of an activity.

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Start slowly. Introduce content in a graded fashion, i.e. add a few components initially to your blended class or programme; assess and evaluate how well they work and adjust your practices accordingly; and then gradually add more online components or more depth to the existing component, as required. Clearly explain the rationale of going online to your learners. Outline what you hope to achieve, and what the benefits might be for them. Learners are generally more willing to try new methods of learning when they can see the reasons for these creating a positive learning environment. Make sure your learners have access to electronic devices and data. Don’t assume that all your learners have access to computers and data. At the same time, most learners have access to smartphones, so make sure online content is suitable to use on a phone. Given that data is still quite expensive in South Africa, do not automatically assume that learners have access to large amounts of data. Make sure your learners are computer literate. The assumption is made that all learners are computer literate in the modern world. Owning a device does not always mean that the learner will necessarily be able to make full use of the online activities.

3.1 Programmed instruction Programmed instruction is a training method in which learners acquire information at their own pace (Aamodt, 2007). Programmed instruction – whether offered through books, technology-based training or e-learning – is an effective method, because it takes advantage of several important learning principles (Goldstein & Ford, 2002): •• Learning is self-paced, that is, each learner proceeds at their own pace. •• Each learner is actively involved in the learning. •• Information is presented in small units or chunks, because learning smaller amounts of material is easier than learning larger amounts. Activity You have to write an examination on the learning outcomes described in each chapter of this book. Would you do better in the examination if you read and reviewed one chapter each week, or if you waited until the night before the examination to read and study nine chapters?

3.2 Technology-based training Common forms of technology-based training methods include multimedia learning environments, intranet- and internet-based instruction, e-learning, full-scale simulations and virtual reality training. Technology-based training is characterised by its flexibility and adaptability with regards to: •• Customising a learning programme to accommodate the characteristics of learners; and •• Allowing learners to control or modify the learning environment to suit their learning needs (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).

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Technology-based training methods include multimedia learning environments, intranetand internet-based instruction, e-learning, full-scale simulations and virtual reality training. As shown in Table  6.2, technology-based learning may be self-paced and may be asynchronous (it does not involve a ‘live’ trainer) or may be synchronous (it does involve a ‘live’ trainer, subject matter expert or facilitator) (Ward & LaBranche, 2003).

3.3 Internet-based programmed instruction or e-learning E-learning is a popular internet-based training method. Most e-learning programmes provide learning material in small chunks and then pose a series of questions to the learner. If the learners do not answer enough questions correctly, the program informs them about the areas in which they need more work, and returns them to the appropriate material (Aamodt, 2007). While the design of e-learning programmes varies considerably, the most effective e-learning experiences provide for some form of interaction between the learners and trainer (for example, online chat, email or discussion forums). Resources such as internet links, glossary of terms, frequently asked questions and references are also commonly available. Often, online students are asked to complete assignments and exercises and take quizzes. Various media are used to convey educational material, including text, dynamic graphics, video/DVD and audio (Ward & LaBranche, 2003). The most effective e-learning experiences provide for some form of interaction between the learners and trainer, for example online chat, email or discussion forums.

3.4 Workplace training methods Workplace training is informal training provided by experienced peers and supervisors. It occurs on the job and during job tasks (DeRouin et al., 2005). Workplace training methods are popular in basic skills training and management training and development. Broadly, they include: •• Orientation training; •• Learnerships and apprenticeships; •• On-the-job training (see Table 6.3); •• Near-the-job training; •• Job rotation; •• Understudy assignments; •• Coaching; •• Mentoring; and •• Performance appraisal feedback (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).

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Table 6.3  On-the-job training methods (Aamodt, 2007; Cascio & Aguinis, 2005)

Method

Description and uses

Orientation training

Introduces new employees to organisational aspects, such as behaviours, attitudes, norms, culture and systems; Also known as induction or socialisation.

Learnerships/ apprenticeships

A structured learning programme that leads to a nationally recognised qualification on the NQF; An integrated, occupation-directed programme that combines learning at a training institution with practical, on-site experience and learning at the workplace.

On-the-job training

This is informal training by experienced peers and supervisors that occurs on the job and during job tasks.

Near-the-job training

This is training that duplicates the materials and equipment used on the job, but that takes place away from the actual job situation.

Job rotation

Employees are given the opportunity to perform several different jobs in an organisation.

Understudy assignments

An understudy relieves a senior executive of selected responsibilities, thereby allowing him or her to learn certain aspects of the executive’s job.

Coaching

A new employee is assigned to an experienced employee, who is told to familiarise the new employee with the workplace and job.

Mentoring

This builds relationships between a mentor and inexperienced employee; It provides the inexperienced employee with an adviser and tutor in the workplace.

Performance appraisal feedback

It is an effective training method in which supervisors meet with an employee to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of job performance; The supervisor and employee determine what training methods would help employees to improve their job knowledge or skills.

3.5 Team training A team is a group of individuals who work together to achieve a common goal. The changing nature of work has led to an increasing emphasis on team performance. Interactions between team members make team training unique. Team training always uses some form of simulation or real-life practice, and always focuses on the interaction of team members, equipment and work procedures. As with individual training, opportunities for guided practice and constructive feedback are particularly important for team training. Forms of team training include the following: •• Team co-ordination training focuses on teamwork skills that facilitate information exchange, co-operation and co-ordination of job-related behaviours. •• Cross-training provides exposure to and practice with other teammates’ tasks, roles and responsibilities in an effort to increase shared understanding and knowledge among team members.

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•• Guided team self-correction guides team members in reviewing team events, identifying errors, exchanging feedback, and developing plans for the future (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). Team training always uses some form of simulation or real-life practice, and always focuses on the interaction of team members, equipment and work procedures.

4. MODERN LEARNING Modern learning approaches recognise that, collectively, all generations have evolved socially to adjust to technological and digital advancements, which have influenced the way people prefer to learn in the workplace. Progressive L&D professionals embrace learning in the workplace as an ecosystem of social learning and adopt multiple modalities to deliver L&D interventions. Social learning is a form of collaborative learning that is immediate, relevant and presented in the context of an individual’s unique work environment (Meister & Willyerd, 2010: 34). Social learning is a form of collaborative learning that is immediate, relevant and presented in the context of an individual’s unique work environment. Whereas classroom and online training are typically event-centric, separated from the work itself, the social learning ecosystem is learner-centric and offers diverse learning modalities that more readily enable access to knowledge and the transfer of learning to the workplace (King, 2017; Meister & Willyerd, 2010). With the advent of social media, modern-day adult learners view collaboration and interdependence as a way of life. Mobile and smart digital technologies enable independent learning and emphasise the importance that modern learners place on the value of self-directed learning. Research shows that 41% of companies use social media for internal purposes while 34% connect with their customers through social media. Social networking software providers have found that modern-day knowledge workers greatly value the use of social media and digital technologies to find the information they need. Learning for today’s knowledge workers has become more participatory, collaborative, social, fun, engaging and integrated with work. For example, a text message, a post on Facebook or Twitter, a comment on a blog post, an entry on a wiki, a lecture accessed via Google on a mobile phone, or insight gained from viewing and commenting on a YouTube video are just some of the multiple modalities of social learning that yield new knowledge and insights (Meister & Willyerd, 2010). Learning for today’s knowledge workers has become more participatory, collaborative, social, fun, engaging and integrated with work.

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As also discussed in chapter 5, are some of the key elements of the modern learning ecosystem include the following (Katambur, 2018; King, 2017; Meister & Willyerd, 2010): •• Learner-centric. Learning experiences must provide personalised (individualised) ‘justin-time’, ‘just-for-me’ options and opportunities to gain new skills or take on new challenges. Learners want to be able to not only know where to find information, but also be able to choose what, how and when they want to learn. Learners also like flexibility in learning and prefer to follow their favoured learning path. The same learning content should be presented in different ways to address the varied needs of learners. The attention span of modern learners is generally short, so they appreciate on-demand training that is short and to the point. •• On-demand, micro-sized and modular. Due to limited uninterrupted time, learners want short bursts of information that can stand alone or combine into broader programmes. The attention span of modern learners is generally short, so they appreciate on-demand training that is short and to the point. They prefer microlearning, that is, learning that is delivered in small chunks. Modern-day learners also tend to be more impatient because of the easy access to information afforded by digital technology. If learning demands are not met instantly, a learner may, for example, just hop onto YouTube or Google and get the information they need. E-learning should be accessible 24/7. Self-directed learning is encouraged by additional content such as microlearning videos, e-books (digital books) and blogs. However, learner-support materials, such as handouts, PowerPoints/ Prezi/other slides and other written materials posted online or in print, are also valued. •• Incorporate varied treatments and formats. Combining varied interactive multimedia formats increases engagement and more effective learning. Game-based learning, learning simulations, animation, interactive real-life scenarios, virtual realities, artificial intelligence and facilitated online discussions that are ‘fit-for-purpose’ are examples of multimedia formats that make learning more fun and facilitate learner engagement. Integrate rich visuals for especially the younger generation learners such as Generation Z (Post-Millennials) whose brains are wired to sophisticated, visual images. GIFs, images, memes and videos may more readily capture the attention of Generation-Z learners who have been connected with technology since their developmental years. Research shows that more than 35% of Generation-Z users of mobile devices spent an average of 6–10 hours on their mobile devices every day. They would want the flexibility to access information on multiple devices and multiple platforms. Learning design should include learning apps that help learners download content and view it offline. Research shows that more than 35% of Generation-Z users of mobile devices spent an average of 6–10 hours on their mobile devices every day.

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•• Drive retention. Learning must offer opportunities for continuous application of formal and informal learning by reading, watching, experiencing and interacting. Ongoing practise and application help learners recall new knowledge and use that knowledge to change how they work. •• Embedded in and connected to learner’s work. Advancements in digital technologies help connect learners to content that is just right for them. Data about the learner should be leveraged to push and recommend the right resources at the right time. The content of resources should be relevant to the learner’s work (professional job role), personal and social lives so as to be regarded as personally meaningful enough for them to engage in the learning and transfer the knowledge to the environmental context. •• Learning must be built for mobile access. Learning must evolve with technology and learners’ increasing access to smartphones, and provide the most appropriate mode for access on the go. Although traditional e-learning programs still have a place, videos, e-books and audio-books, which can be consumed while walking, running, commuting and biking, are becoming compelling options for engaging the modern learner. Learning must evolve with technology and learners’ increasing access to smartphones, and provide the most appropriate mode for access on the go. •• On-demand mentoring, microfeedback and peer-to-peer learning: Mentoring and feedback remains important to provide information on the progress and impact of learning. Learning through mentoring and feedback should be continuous and enable learners to chart their progress easily. Modern learners still require face-to-face or online mentoring, as required by the individual. Digital technology allows remote mentoring via Skype and YouTube, for example. Online mentoring can also be anonymous and confidential. Microblogging and microfeedback, for example, allow users of digital devices to gather instant feedback from others. Social networks can be used to facilitate peer-to-peer learning and mentoring.

5. THE TRAINER AS LEARNING FACILITATOR In conventional training, the emphasis is on the trainer or L&D professional. The L&D professional is seen as a competent person who has superior knowledge and skills. It is the trainer’s task to convey the knowledge and skills to the learner, while the learner has to pick up and master whatever the trainer can offer. The usual method sees the L&D professional actively disseminating information, while the learner remains mostly passive. In this trainer-centred approach, the trainer is an instructor and presenter. The L&D professional is responsible for what learners should learn, how and when they should learn, and the effectiveness of their learning. In the context of the outcomes-based approach to workplace learning and training, with its emphasis on learner-centred training methods, the trainer has to adopt a facilitative approach to training. A facilitative approach changes the relationship between the L&D professional and learners to one in which there is an interdependent sharing of experience and a flow of information. In the outcomes-based context, the trainer is seen as a learning facilitator when delivering a learning programme. 310

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Facilitation involves getting people to work together to achieve a specific outcome. One of the fathers of the facilitative approach to learning, the psychologist Carl Rogers (in Laird, 1993), identifies facilitative trainers (as opposed to instructors or presenters) as: •• Less protective of their own beliefs; •• Able to listen to learners; •• Able to accept ideas that are different or even troublesome; •• Able to pay as much attention to the relationship with the learners as to the content of the programme; and •• Able to accept both positive and negative feedback and to use this to gain insight into and improve their own behaviour. Learning facilitation is a means of making the learner more of an active and vital component of the learning process. Facilitation is an L&D intervention delivery strategy that deliberately involves learners and maximises their input and importance in the learning process. Learners take a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. Facilitation corresponds to the concept of andragogy. Malcolm Knowles (1972) introduced this concept; it comprises the following core principles: •• Adults need to direct their own learning. •• Learners’ prior experiences are a rich resource for learning. •• Adults will learn something when they need to; this is normally related to their roles and responsibilities. •• Adults’ orientation to learning is problem-centred rather than subject-centred. In other words, they seek to acquire skills that can be applied to real-life problems. Facilitation is an L&D intervention delivery strategy that deliberately involves learners and maximises their input and importance in the learning process. Purposes of learning facilitation (based on Yelon, 1992) The purpose of learning facilitation is to: • Motivate learners to learn and apply the performance in the workplace; • Help learners to become mentally ready to learn; • Enable learners to practise; • Enable learners to improve their performance; • Help learners to retain learning and transfer what they have learned to the workplace; • Facilitate the integration of newly acquired skills with existing skills; and • Certify that learners have accomplished the learning outcomes.

The concept of learning facilitation has several advantages: •• It shifts the focus of training from the trainer to the learners’ needs and skills. •• It uses learners’ knowledge, experience and frame of reference as a valued and critical input to the learning process. The learners’ knowledge and experience serve as a basis for further learning experiences.

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•• It allows learners to become active partners with a vested interest in their own learning. Learning success is shared with other learners and the learning facilitator. •• It promotes experiential learning that is relevant, significant and meaningful. Facilitated learning relates more directly to everyday, real-life situations. •• It promotes learning that lasts beyond the immediate training sessions. Learning facilitation encourages learning that is readily transferable to the workplace. Simple rules for facilitating learning in the classroom (based on Cameron, 1998) • The facilitator must make the learning in the classroom interesting and stimulating to encourage contributions. Use a variety of facilitation techniques to achieve this. • The classroom training must have a clear purpose. • Learners attend because they have something to contribute. • The classroom training should run according to the agenda. • The classroom training should be designed to achieve specific, predetermined outcomes. • Everyone should be included in the discussion and encouraged to participate. • Learners are encouraged to listen to one another and understand one another’s points of view. • The facilitator should be well informed and unbiased, and should help the learners to distinguish between fact and opinion. • The classroom training should be part of a larger process; everyone should be kept informed of progress. • The facilitator must summarise or conclude learning experiences by asking questions about the experience, comparing and contrasting learners’ responses, and helping learners to draw conclusions about the objectives of these experiences.

5.1 Learning facilitation skills Facilitators have to be skilful in gauging the attitudes and anticipations of the group, and act accordingly. The L&D professional, as a facilitator of learning, should know how learning takes place and how the learner can be assisted to make learning easier. Learning facilitators should be able to make the subject matter, learning content and learning process interesting. A facilitator needs the following general skills: •• Knowledge of and skills in group processes and group dynamics. Facilitators should understand group behaviour and should have the skills to handle conflict. They have to observe the group carefully and try to determine the mood of the group. It is important to know why the group or individuals in the group behave in particular ways. Facilitators have to be skilful in gauging the attitudes and anticipations of the group, and act accordingly. •• Listening skills. By listening to the learners’ answers and reactions to discussions, facilitators can determine how they think. Not only the answers are important – the 312

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attitude and emotions with which they are given, and the ways in which the learners arrive at the answers, are equally as important. •• Questioning skills. Learning facilitators need to be skilful in asking questions that reflect the learners’ opinions and feelings, as well as questions that lead to problem-solving and interpretation of information. Open questions that require learners to analyse, synthesise and evaluate, and that may have more than one correct answer, are important to evoke discussion. Learning facilitators need to be skilful in asking questions that reflect the learners’ opinions and feelings, and that lead to problem-solving and interpretation of information. •• Feedback. The facilitator should be able to summarise, interpret, and communicate the group’s performance to the group. At critical and convenient moments during discussions, important information, opinions and conclusions should be summarised and shared with the group. This gives recognition to what was said and achieved and forms the basis for further discussion. At critical and convenient moments during discussions, important information, opinions and conclusions should be summarised and shared with the group. •• Flexibility. An effective facilitator is not rigid, but flexible and open-minded. Facilitators must be able to adjust, act and react according to the circumstances of the group and the group procedures. The facilitator should be provocative, supportive, serious or light-hearted as the situation requires, but always be in command of the situation. The facilitator should be provocative, supportive, serious or light-hearted as the situation requires, but always be in command of the situation. •• Time management. Facilitation must not deteriorate into lengthy, aimless and inefficient discussions. The facilitator should be able to use and manage time in such a way that the group can finish its learning tasks effectively. The wisdom of learning facilitation (based on Clement, 1992) Listed below are a number of important guidelines on learning facilitation: • A wise learning facilitator lets others have the floor. • A good learning facilitator is better than a spectacular learning facilitator. Otherwise, the learning facilitator outshines the learning. • Facilitate what is happening rather than what you think needs to happen. • Silence says more than words; pay attention to it. • Continual classroom drama inhibits inner or psychological learning processes. • Allow time for genuine insight.

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• A good reputation arises naturally from doing good work. But do not nourish the reputation: the anxiety will be endless. Instead, nourish the work. • To know what is happening, relax and do not try to figure things out. Listen quietly, be calm and use reflection. • Let go of selfishness. Let go of your ego, and you will receive what you need. Give away credit, and you will get more. When you desire nothing, much comes to you. The less you make of yourself, the more you are. • Instead of trying hard, be easy. Teach by example, and more will happen. • Trying to be brilliant does not work. • The gift of a great learning facilitator is to create an awareness of greatness in others. • Because the learning facilitator can see clearly, light is shed on others. • Teach as a leader and a healer. Constant force and intervention will backfire, as will constant yielding. • One cannot push the river; a leader’s touch is light. • To manage other lives takes strength; to manage your own life takes real power. Be happy, content and at peace with yourself.

5.2 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation Effective learning facilitation means that learners are active partners in the learning experience and are actively involved in learning new knowledge and skills. Credible and effective learning facilitators inspire learners to learn by demonstrating expertise in the field, using learning facilitation skills effectively and clearly linking the course content to the outcomes. The outcomes are then clearly linked to the learners’ work performance. The characteristics of effective learning facilitation are summarised in Table 6.4. Table 6.4  Characteristics of effective learning facilitation (adapted from Goldstein & Ford, 2002) Establishing and maintaining credibility •• The facilitator negotiates learners’ needs and expectations at the beginning of the training programme. •• Together with the learners, the facilitator sets rules so that the learners know what is expected of them and what they can expect from the facilitator. The ground rules include roles, responsibilities, expectations and group norms. It is important that the facilitator models the agreed-upon behaviours. •• The facilitator briefly refers to his or her own experience and qualifications to build credibility with the group. •• The facilitator arrives early and is ready when the learners arrive. •• The facilitator interacts with the learners individually and uses their names. Name tags are effective. •• The facilitator is well organised and prepared. Learning facilitation is structured and organised for impact •• An outline of the course is presented, which links the content to the learning outcomes. •• Materials are sequenced to achieve maximum impact. This may mean that the facilitator adapts the sequence of activities from time to time to match the energy levels of the group. •• The facilitator gives lectures that are well organised and that follow a clear pattern. •• The facilitator clearly links the topics to one another. •• The content in the lectures is linked to other aspects of the course. •• Conceptual learning is emphasised as opposed to simple rote learning.

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Learning facilitation is conducted in a responsive and collaborative manner •• The facilitator builds responsive and collaborative relationships with the learners. •• Realistic and challenging goals are set. •• Training and communication styles are adapted to meet the needs of the learners. •• The facilitator exhibits energy and enthusiasm. •• The facilitator responds to problems and learners’ needs as they arise. A safe and comfortable learning environment The facilitator answers questions thoroughly and clearly and creates a non-threatening environment. Positive feedback •• The facilitator encourages the learners to participate through positive feedback. •• The facilitator encourages the learners to engage with the material. •• Feedback should be positive and timely when learners have performed well. •• Follow the learners’ progress during exercises and activities and provide specific feedback to reinforce correct responses and to correct inaccurate responses. •• Preserve the learners’ dignity and self-esteem when giving feedback. •• Actively listen to the feedback of the learners and respond accordingly. Effective communication and presentation skills •• The facilitator uses examples that are relevant to the learners’ frame of reference. •• Class discussions are stimulated and encouraged. •• The facilitator is accessible outside the class situation. •• The facilitator: –– Manages the physical environment to ensure that it supports the learning process; –– Uses audio-visual equipment effectively and has a back-up plan in case of problems; –– Adapts the media used to accommodate the needs of the learners and the realities of the situation; –– Manages the time available to ensure that all learning outcomes are achieved; –– Actively listens to the learners for evidence of learning and engagement; –– Monitors individual and group behaviour; –– Asks for feedback on content and delivery and encourage learners to share new ideas to improve the learning experience; and –– Interacts with learners during meals and other free time. Provide opportunities for application of knowledge and skills •• The practical use of the content is emphasised. •• Assessments that identify strengths and weaknesses are used. •• The learners are given opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned through simulations, role-plays, games and case studies. •• The facilitator demonstrates skills using anatomical models, role-plays and commonly available equipment. •• The facilitator shows, in a variety of ways, the on-the-job benefits of meeting the learning objectives. •• The facilitator develops practical plans to enable the learners to apply their new knowledge and skills on the job.

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6. DELIVERING CLASSROOM TRAINING Classroom training has two distinct attributes. Firstly, classroom training is the training of a group of learners. Secondly, it requires the physical separation of the classroom from the workplace. Separation from the workplace distinguishes classroom training from onthe-job training. Although classroom training differs in certain aspects from other training methods, its purpose is the same: to provide learners with the skills or knowledge they need to perform successfully on the job (Yelon, 1992). L&D professionals choose classroom training as a solution for the following reasons: •• People lack the skills or knowledge to do a job well; •• People must learn and practise the required skills and knowledge; •• On-the-job training cannot provide the amount or degree of learning necessary to acquire the skills or knowledge (Yelon, 1992). Classroom training should form part of a comprehensive, co-ordinated and continuous system for improving performance. Such a system includes training inside and outside the classroom, as well as interventions before and after formal training. In the pre-class intervention, L&D professionals obtain information from learners and their supervisors before training begins. Next, L&D professionals combine training in and out of the classroom to teach learners the desired performance. After the training has been completed, L&D professionals maintain contact with learners and their supervisors to facilitate the transfer of learning to the workplace (Aamodt, 2007; Yelon, 1992).

6.1 Pre-class intervention In the pre-class intervention, L&D professionals obtain information from potential learners – through an L&D needs analysis (discussed in Chapter 3) – to make classroom training meaningful, transferable and understandable. The purpose of a target group analysis is to identify the characteristics and specific needs of the group of potential learners. A target group analysis is more specific than the L&D needs analysis, which determines the overall need for training. The following biographical details are important when conducting a target group analysis (Buckley & Caple, 2004): •• Size of the group. This will have an impact on the logistical arrangements and the methods that can be used to deliver training. •• Experience. What is the learners’ level of experience with the topic of the training programme? •• Age. What is the average age of learners? Are learners more or less the same age, or are there big differences in age? Age often implies experience. •• Skills and qualifications. What is the learners’ current level of skills relating to the topic of the learning programme? This will determine the level at which the training is presented. •• Gender. What is the distribution of male and female learners? •• Language proficiency. What is the learners’ level of proficiency in the language that will be used during the training? Is it their first, second or third language? •• Cultural groupings. Which cultures do the learners represent? Are there particular cultural practices that need to be considered (for example, diet), or do some topics need to be treated with sensitivity and understanding? 316

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•• Geographical location. Are the learners all located in one area, or are they spread over a wide geographical area? •• Specific needs. Do a particular group of learners have specific needs (for example, a particular focus in the course content, or some specific logistical requirements)? •• Disabilities. Are there learners with disabilities? What are their specific needs? •• Learning styles. Is there a particular learning style that is dominant? These and any other relevant characteristics of the learners will have an impact on the delivery of the training and the logistical arrangements of the learning programme. The most effective way to conduct a target group analysis is to send out detailed questionnaires to the potential learners, and then to compile a profile of the learners based on the results of the questionnaires. This approach will help L&D professionals to determine whether the learners identified for the training programme actually need the training. Another helpful approach is to conduct a session at the beginning of the learning programme during which specific needs are identified. Alternatively, focus groups can be conducted. Another option is to interview learners to identify their specific needs. However, interviews are time consuming. The main advantage of interviews is that it gives the trainer an opportunity to build relationships with individual learners. Once the characteristics and needs of the learners have been identified, the trainer needs to choose the most appropriate training methods. The target group analysis allows L&D professionals to assess prerequisite skills and knowledge and bring all participants up to the same level of understanding (regarding basic ideas and skills) before the classroom training starts. If L&D professionals know and understand their learners, they can relate the desired performance to learners’ needs and set the emotional climate for the rest of the learning facilitation process. The pre-class intervention also encourages learners to prepare for the training and helps to remove any barriers to the transfer of learning. How to get the most out of the pre-class intervention (based on Yelon, 1992) • To facilitate learning and assess prerequisites, an L&D professional gathers information from, for example, managers and their supervisors, about managers’ performance in meetings. • To relate the desired performance to the learners’ needs, the L&D professional might describe what new ideas and skills will be learned and how the resulting performance will be likely to increase productivity. • To reduce anxiety, the L& D professional also explains that meeting procedures will be learned quickly and painlessly. • To encourage learners to prepare for the formal parts of training, the L&D professional might ask managers and their supervisors to choose the next series of meetings as learning programme projects. • To remove barriers to the transfer of learning, the L&D professional discusses with managers and their supervisors ways to eliminate or work around possible blocks to using the new skills on the job.

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6.2 Learning facilitation Learning facilitation in the classroom is characterised by three distinctive elements. These elements are an introduction, the actual learning facilitation process and a conclusion to the classroom training. Each of these elements is discussed in the section that follows. In addition, Table 6.5 provides a summary of these three elements. (a) Introduction

A well-planned introduction captures attention and motivates learners. Good introductions achieve the following criteria: •• Establish expectations at the start of the training session by specifically stating what learners must be able to do by the end of the session and how they will be assessed. For example, the L&D professional could say, ‘For your final assessment, you will be required to conduct real meetings according to the meeting performance qualities checklist.’ •• Orient learners by showing how the content of the learning material and activities are organised. For example, the L&D professional provides a content framework by saying, ‘A good start to a meeting consists of two steps. Firstly, give an introduction to provide context and motivation for the meeting. Next, specify ground rules for the meeting to promote efficient progress.’ •• Provide a schedule of events (also called an agenda) to help learners follow the progress of the training session. For example, the L&D professional says, ‘You will hear a short lecture about starting a meeting. Then you will see a demonstration. Finally, you will plan, practise and get feedback on the start of your meetings.’ An example of an agenda is shown in Table 6.5. Table 6.5  Example of an agenda

Day 1 Time

Module

08:30–09:00

Learning theme

Learning activity

Welcome and orientation.

Introductions; Needs and expectations; Programme learning; outcomes; Assessment guidance; Agenda.

09:00–10:30

Module 1 Skills development legislation

10:30–11:00

Break

11:00-12:30

Module 1 Skills development legislation

Reflection on pre-course learning activity.

Small-group reflections on pre-course learning activity;

Module activities.

Small-group reflections on pre-course learning activity;

Completion of Activity 1.1 in the learning manual (competency self-assessment).

Report back to large group (discussions and learning reflections).

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Day 1 Time

Module

12:30–13:30

Lunch

13:30–15:00

Module 1

Learning activity;

Skills development legislation

Small-group discussions;

15:00–15:30

Break

15:30–16:30

Module 1 Skills development legislation

Learning theme

Learning activity

Large-group reflections and discussion.

Workplace application briefing;

Refection on the day’s learning;

Homework activity briefing;

Homework activity.

Discussion of workplace application;

Closure of day.

A useful way to record learners’ expectations is to write them down on a flip chart. The trainer should try to ensure that all expectations are addressed during the learning programme. If some of the expectations fall outside the scope of the programme, this needs to be stated before the training begins. Use the list of expectations as a checklist at the end of the learning programme to ensure that all the expectations have been addressed. Establish ground rules with the group, or learning contracts with individual learners. Ground rules are put in place at the beginning of the programme to serve as guidelines on how the programme is run and how the learners should interact. These rules are normally recorded on a sheet of flip-chart paper and displayed prominently for the duration of the training programme. Examples of ground rules are: responsibility for learning; administrative arrangements, such as starting times, breaks and submission dates for assignments; mutual respect and tolerance. If the nature of the programme allows it (for example, if the programme takes place over a long time) individual learning contracts can be established. In these contracts, the expectations and responsibilities of the learner and facilitator are stated. (b) Techniques for starting off on a positive note

•• Use an ice-breaker exercise to gain the attention of the learners and to help build rapport. There are numerous ice-breakers freely available on the internet and in books that specialise in training games. •• Relate an anecdote (a short story that is related to the training topic). •• Tell a joke or show a humorous video clip or cartoon. The humour should be related to the topic and it should not be offensive or discriminatory. •• Show a short video that contextualises the topic. •• Ask thought-provoking questions about the topic that challenge the learners and encourage discussion and debate. •• Illustrate the topic graphically (with diagrams or mind maps). •• Quote a startling statistic or make a powerful statement relating to the topic. The aim is to stimulate discussion and debate. •• Get a senior manager to welcome the learners and explain the importance of the learning programme. 319

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(c) Facilitating learning

During learning facilitation, L&D professionals prepare learners for the most realistic practice possible of new skills and knowledge. In their role as learning facilitators, L&D professionals do the following: •• Explain what the learners need to know to benefit from a demonstration of the desired performance; •• Demonstrate the skill; •• Allow learners the opportunity to practise the desired performance; and •• Provide feedback and guidance on improving skills by giving more explanations, demonstrations or practice, as necessary (Yelon, 1992). (d) Concluding the classroom training

Learning facilitators conclude classroom training in such a way that learners are likely to recall and use what they have learned: •• They summarise the main ideas. •• They relate the new skill to other job skills and to the job situation in which it will be used. •• They remind learners of the knowledge and skills they have learned and why these are important. •• They provide a final supervised practice as a test to assess what learners have learned, to reinforce the new skills and to instil confidence in learners (Yelon, 1992). Table 6.6  Elements of learning facilitation in the classroom (based on Yelon, 1992)

Element

Description

Introduction Used to start training session, learning units and lessons

Motivation State or show learners why they should learn to achieve the learning outcomes, where the knowledge, skills, values and behaviour are used, and what the consequences are. Objective and learning outcomes State or show learners what performance (knowledge, skills, values and behaviour) they will learn to do and how their performance will be assessed. Advance organiser State or show learners the main parts of the performance, how the parts are related to one another, and where this performance fits into their jobs. Review of past Remind learners of what they know, and how they can use the existing knowledge to learn this performance (achieve the learning outcomes). Agenda State or show learners the order of the learning activities.

Facilitating learning

Explanation State or show learners the essential information that they need to perform (that is, the steps to take when performing and the ideas needed to take each step properly).

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Element

Description Demonstration Show learners how to do the required performance (apply the knowledge, skills, values and behaviour) on the job. Practice Ask each learner to try (experiment with) the required performance on the job. Formative assessment Assess learners’ progress towards mastering the learning outcomes. Feedback and remediation Tell learners openly what they did well, what they need to improve on, and what they should do. Include more practice, as needed.

Conclusion Used to end training session, learning units, lessons

Summary of main ideas Remind learners of the main parts of the performance, how the parts relate to one another, and where this performance fits into their jobs. Integration with other segments State or show learners how this performance relates to other performances already learned or to be learned. Motivation State or show learners why they have learned the learning outcomes. Summative assessment Assess learners’ performance (achievement of learning outcomes) and provide guidance for further learning and development.

Example of a classroom activity for the training of trainers (based on Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a) Improving my effectiveness as trainer by letting go of old behaviours Method 1. Before the activity, encourage participants to consider behaviours they wish to change to improve their effectiveness as trainers. Ask them to complete Document 1, included in this document. If people have difficulty defining aspects of behaviour, some discussion might be needed. Examples could include: • Aggressive outbursts; • Talking too much; • Being insensitive to learners’ problems; • Being defensive when perceiving criticism; or • Always saying yes to requests. 2. Encourage participants to discuss the progress they made with their pre-class work. Ensure everyone has done enough preparation to continue with the remainder of the activity. 3. Working in pairs, allow participants time to help each other (through good listening and support) to decide on one behaviour they would like to change. The following pointers may be helpful in briefing participants: • Choose a behaviour that is easy to describe. • Choose something that can be practised during the training session. • Help each other to identify possible benefits of making the change. • Agree on and record a ‘contract’ that describes what the individual is aiming to achieve, and how the partner is prepared to assist.

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4. Bring participants together and ask them to declare their intentions for new behaviours. If possible, each participant should get a commitment from another participant to observe and give feedback about progress. The participants now need to practise their new behaviours. Conduct a short decision-making phase to discuss the different ideas and opportunities available to participants. 5. Ask participants to return to their pairs and help each other to reflect on the decisionmaking phase. 6. Ask participants to discuss their perceptions of the activity, their aims for further change and any opportunities for mutual support in the future. Timing Average total estimated time: 30 minutes. Materials required 1. Sufficient copies of Document 1; 2. Enough space for people to work undisturbed; and 3. Paper, pens and flip chart. Trainer/facilitator guidance The activities create opportunities for participants to reflect on their personal characteristics and beliefs, and to give and receive feedback. You need to promote an atmosphere of openness and trust. This may be difficult if the prevailing culture is resistant to these qualities. Your contribution to this process is as follows: • Help participants to understand and apply the skills of seeking and receiving feedback. Encourage the group to think about ‘feedback contracts’. • Assist people to define clearly the behaviours they wish to modify. • Give attention and support when new behaviours are being practised. • Encourage group members to offer support to one another. The most important point of the activities is to encourage participants to be honest, to take a longer-term view and identify behaviours that will help to unlock their potential ability to improve their effectiveness as trainers. Participants may find it difficult to detach themselves from their immediate situations. You may need to encourage them to think of the activities as an investment in their personal growth. Some may be reluctant to share their personal information and others may feel threatened. You are well placed to encourage participants to share their concerns within the group. Participants need to know that their right to privacy and confidentiality will be respected and honoured at all times. A maximum group size of six to eight is recommended, owing to the complexity of the tasks. Document 1 Improving my effectiveness as a trainer by letting go of my old behaviours:___________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Behaviour(s) being considered: _________________________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� Example of behaviour(s) to sharpen focus:_______________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� Perceived consequences of these behaviours:____________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� New behaviour (what could I change)?___________________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� Perceived benefits of new behaviour(s):_________________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� Assistance/support available to me?_____________________________________________ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������

(e) Post-class intervention

In the post-class intervention, L&D professionals aim to keep former learners interested in using what they have learned. They also help learners to continue to improve upon their new skills and to remove barriers to the use of the desired performance. For example, the L&D professional accompanies learners and observes them on the job. After each observation, the L&D professional discusses learners’ strengths and further development areas with them and their supervisors. To remove possible barriers, the L&D professional asks learners and their supervisors if anything interferes with the use of the newly acquired skills. If barriers are discovered, the ways to remove them are explored (Yelon, 1992).

7. THE LEARNING FACILITATION PROCESS Learning facilitation emphasises the principles of experiential learning. The learning facilitation process should therefore assist learners in their progress through the learning phases described by Kolb’s (1985) cycle of experiential learning, as shown in Figure 6.2.

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DOING Concrete experiences

THINKING Recalling and reflecting on experiences

ASSESSING SELF Assessment of mastering of new competencies

Learning cycle

EXPERIMENTING Testing new ideas and concepts in new situations

MAKING SENSE Forming concepts and generalisations

Figure 6.2  Experiential learning cycle (based on Kolb, 1985)

Learning facilitators consider the points outlined in Figure 6.2 before and during the training process. When using activities, facilitators need to think of ways to assist learners to progress through the learning cycle. Examples of these are given in Table 6.7. Table 6.7  Examples of behaviours to facilitate throughout the learning cycle (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Stage of learning

Behaviours to facilitate the learning cycle

Recall concrete experiences

Guide participants (or pairs helping each other) to recall previous experiences and record these. Use role-plays, case studies and video clips as concrete data. Also use group discussions and brainstorming techniques to let thoughts and memories flow.

Share aspects of experiences

Guide pairs/threes to share experiences and the associated thoughts and feelings. Encourage participants to listen, be sensitive towards others’ needs and to show care. Help participants to give and seek feedback (and see the value of this).

Reflect/process the information

Help participants to reflect in depth. Encourage and seek further feedback in areas that are still not clearly defined.

Arrive at understanding, concepts and generalisations

Help participants to ‘see it’ and ‘believe it’ for themselves. Make sense of the feedback and other data.

Test out new ideas and concepts in new situations

Use theoretical information and models to support this process. Encourage others to share the understanding and insights reached.

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Stage of learning

Behaviours to facilitate the learning cycle

Move on to further concrete experiences and continue the learning cycle

Express thoughts on areas for improvement and further practice. Use experiential techniques to reinforce and consolidate the learning.

Evaluate mastering of newly acquired competencies and ability to apply in real-life situations by means of self-assessment activities and further development planning

Help participants to draw up action plans for implementing newly acquired competencies. Encourage learners to share plans with others. Help the learners to feel confident about overcoming any perceived obstacles. Agree on a support structure and networks. Assist learners to reflect on their learning. Identify areas for further training and development. Provide guidance on further development resources and networks.

7.1 Group dynamics in the learning process Group dynamics, or the manner in which learners interact with one another, are influenced by the characteristics of the individual learners. In addition, trainers (L&D professionals) will often have to deal with learners from different generations. Different generations have unique needs and preferences, as shown in Table 6.8. Learners’ characteristics have a strong impact on how they interact with one another and how they react to the learning process. Newstrom and Lengnick-Hall (1991) identify 10 ways in which learners differ from one another: 1. Instrumentality is the degree to which learners are concerned with the immediate applicability of the knowledge and skills being taught. 2. Scepticism is the degree to which learners exhibit a questioning attitude that requires logical explanations, evidence and practical examples. 3. Resistance to change is the degree to which learners fear the process of moving to the unknown. 4. Attention span refers to the length of time that learners are able to pay attention. 5. Expectation level is the level (quality) and quantity (content) that learners expect from the training. 6. Dominant needs are the internal and external needs that drive learners. 7. Absorption level is the pace at which learners can absorb new information. 8. Topical interest is the degree to which the learners have a personal or job-relevant interest in the topic. 9. Self-confidence refers to the degree to which learners view their abilities positively, and the accompanying level of feedback, reinforcement and support required. 10. Locus of control is the degree to which learners regard their ability to implement new learning with or without organisational support.

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Table 6.8  Learning environment preferences of various generations (based on Codrington & Grant-Marshall, 2004; Jenkins, 2017)

Generation

Learning environment preferences

Silents

Tend to enjoy conformity, consistency, logic and discipline;

(born 1920s–1940s)

Do not like taking risks and want a clearly understood structure established from the moment they walk in; Like a classroom-style layout for training sessions and prefer conservative trainers who establish the ground rules early on and then stick to them; It is a good idea to send Silents a list of books and any other reading matter prior to the course; and Like trainers to stick to agendas.

Baby Boomers (born 1940s–1960s)

Prefer collaborative learning in large classrooms and enjoy opportunities for interaction, networking and teamwork; Excel at working in small teams; Turned off by an authoritarian approach; and Respond to brainstorming, lateral thinking and want to provide their own input.

Generation Xers

Do not prefer classroom-style interaction;

(born 1960s–1980s)

Prefer training that is related to personal skills development and increased marketability; Like to absorb learning with CDs, videos (DVDs) and computer-based training with access to a human guide and expert when they get stuck; Want training to be fun and multi-styled; and Have high need for developing life skills.

Millennials

Care about manners and believe in civic action;

(born 1980s–1995)

Look for attention and structure; Prefer personal challenges and team work; Prefer informal training room structure adaptable to quick seating changes; and Prefer electronic equipment to be part of training.

Generation Z/iGeneration (Post-Millennials)

More realistic about the world and their prospects;

(born 1996–2015)

Are digital natives who live online;

Are more independent than Millennials; Make public their opinions, thoughts and even menial life events; Are less personable, often preferring to communicate digitally; Are willing to explore alternative forms of education; Prefer to perform multiple roles that stimulate them; Tend to be global citizens who share global characteristics and values; Value innovation, uniqueness and originality; Value opportunities for collaboration and competition; and Embrace change and flexibility (adaptability).

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Activity Review Chapter 2, in particular multiple intelligences and stimulation of intelligences. • How could L&D professionals make use of the concept of multiple intelligences and mobile technology to increase learners’ participation and learning?

7.2 Increasing learners’ participation by asking questions It is important to ask questions in the right way. The number and type of questions and the way in which the trainer asks questions influences the level of participation by individual learners, as well as the group dynamics. The aim of asking questions in training is to get input from the learners, to get them to participate in the learning process and to guide them through the learning process. The aim of asking questions in training is to get input from the learners, to get them to participate in the learning process and to guide them through the learning process. Table 6.9  Guidelines for asking questions (based on Cameron, 1998)

Guidelines

Types of question

Make the meaning clear. If the learners do not understand the question, rephrase it.

Open-ended, broad questions that cannot be answered by a simple yes or no;

Do not ask questions simply to use up time. Pitch questions at the level of your audience.

Probing questions, with additional questions to get a more in-depth response;

Ask questions that will result in insight and reflection, rather than questions that have straightforward answers.

Clarifying questions to check understanding of learners’ responses, with additional questions and reflection (repeating in own words) of learners’ responses; Example questions that ask learners to provide examples of something; Reflective questions that ask learners to reflect on their feelings or understanding; Closed questions that require a simple yes or no answer; and Questions to which the facilitator genuinely does not have the answers.

7.3 Giving and receiving feedback Feedback plays an important role in learning facilitation. Learning facilitators give feedback on progress, the results of assessment or questions, and class discussions. The way in which feedback is given will determine the learners’ future participation; feedback may either build or obstruct insight and understanding. Most importantly, feedback should treat every input by learners with dignity and respect. It is irrelevant whether the facilitator agrees with learners’ inputs or not. Keep the following guidelines in mind when giving feedback: •• Give feedback to learners’ answers immediately; encourage learners and tactfully correct when necessary. 327

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•• Do not interrupt while a learner is answering a question, even if you do not agree with the answer. •• Rather than simply correcting answers with which you do not agree, probe these answers to understand the reasoning behind the learner’s conclusion. •• Always start with a positive remark. •• Be as specific as possible. •• Provide reasons for feedback. •• Address the topic; do not attack the learner personally. •• Be realistic (Erasmus & Van Dyk, 2003). Feedback is an integral part of the learning process. Feedback is an integral part of the learning process. Handled skilfully, both in terms of how it is given and received, feedback shows learners the effect they have on others and provides an opportunity for them to make changes in their behaviour. The learning process will benefit from this. A feedback contract, as shown in Table 6.10, is an agreement between all the people involved in the learning programme, including the trainer, on how to give and receive feedback during the learning process (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). Body language is a good indication of how feedback is received. Table 6.10  Example of a feedback contract (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Receiving feedback

Giving feedback

I agree to:

I agree to:

•• Be prepared to receive feedback as information; •• Decide for myself what to do with the information;

•• Check that the other person is receptive to feedback;

•• Avoid arguing with the person giving feedback;

•• Address the other person directly;

•• Seek clarification only if I do not fully understand the feedback;

•• Take responsibility for the feedback;

•• Avoid justifying those aspects of my behaviour that led to the feedback; and •• Avoid denying the feedback.

•• Be specific about which aspect of the other person I am giving feedback; •• Be clear that these are my reactions to the other person’s behaviour; •• Avoid blaming; •• Offer feedback as information, free from attached conditions; and •• Offer as much feedback as I think is useful and avoid giving long lists.

7.4 Reading the body language of learners Body language, also known as non-verbal communication, is the way in which people give information through conscious and unconscious gestures, body movements and facial expressions (Lambert & The Diagram Group, 1996). Our body language expresses

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our thoughts, attitudes, feelings and intentions. It is an important source of feedback for learning facilitators. Among other things, body language tells facilitators when learners need a break, when they are bored or confused, and whether they agree or disagree with the facilitator. The universal facial expressions, such as happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger and disgust, are examples of body language. Our body language expresses our thoughts, attitudes, feelings and intentions. It is an important source of feedback for learning facilitators. Examples of negative body language include: •• Making gestures such as shaking the head, crossing the arms and frowning may indicate negativity and disagreement with the learning points; •• Supporting the head with a hand under the chin, looking away, leaning back, stretching out legs and making bland facial expressions may indicate boredom; •• Drumming the fingers or fidgeting could indicate impatience; •• Stroking the throat, putting the hands in pockets, pulling at trouser legs or pulling an eyelid may indicate disbelief; and •• Fidgeting, showing a lack of attention and sleepiness could indicate tiredness. Positive body language includes positive facial expressions, such as smiling, leaning forward, eye contact, nodding and upright heads. These signs all show that learners are interested and involved in the material. Beware: body language is not universal. Different cultures have their own gestures and ignorance can cause offence. Beware: body language is not universal. Different cultures have their own gestures and ignorance can cause offence. Apart from reading learners’ body language (see Table 6.11), learning facilitators also need to be sensitive to how they come across to learners. When people communicate, they rely more on the message contained in the body language of the communicator than what is actually said. The body language projected by trainers (including posture, gesture and facial expression), and even their physical appearance (the way they dress) send messages about who they are, how they feel and what they think. Table 6.11  Reading body language (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Body language

Possible meaning

Eyes looking down or away:

Self-consciousness or guilt.

Raised eyebrow:

Disbelief.

Rubbing the nose or pulling the ears:

Learners do not understand, even if they say they do.

Smiling when greeting someone:

Friendly intentions, positive attitude.

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Body language

Possible meaning

Hand touching the mouth:

Anxious or trying to deceive someone.

Folded or crossed arms:

Nervous or shut off from someone (or feeling cold).

Hands on hips or active gesturing:

Aggression.

Tapping on the desk or chair:

Nervousness or impatience.

Tremor in voice:

Nervousness.

Shrugging the shoulders:

Indifference to what someone says.

Facing you squarely, full height, smiling, head forward:

Confidence.

Activity How do you come across? There is a special technique that uses a video camera and monitor to explore the effect you have on your learners, particularly in relation to non-verbal communication. You need another person to help you with this. • Sit in a chair facing the monitor, while your assistant focuses the video camera on you. • Your camera operator then invites you to talk about yourself for about four minutes. During the four minutes, the focus of the camera should be changed slowly to include close-ups and angles that concentrate on particular areas of your face and body. • While you are still looking at yourself on the monitor, your assistant should gently ask the following questions: –– Does this person draw your attention? –– Do you dislike what you hear? –– What are your feelings toward him or her? • Think about the things that help or hinder your message. • Does your body language support your message, or does it distract from your message? • How could you improve your presentation? • At the end of the exercise, replay the whole video and explore the feelings that the video brought forth in you. (Source: Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Learners often feel accepted or rejected based on what they read in the body language of trainers. Trainers’ body language and tone of voice can often determine the general classroom atmosphere. L&D professionals who smile and greet learners in a friendly way make learners feel respected and welcome in the classroom. On the other hand, those who are moody and grumpy make learners feel rejected and negatively influence their ability to concentrate on learning tasks. Table 6.12 describes dysfunctional and emotionally intelligent trainer responses to classroom behaviour. 330

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An L&D professional’s body language and tone of voice can often determine the general classroom atmosphere. Table 6.12  Dysfunctional and emotionally intelligent L&D professional responses to classroom behaviour (based on Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Dysfunctional behaviours

Emotionally intelligent behaviours

Alienating

Empathic

•• Continually stressing conformity;

•• Building rapport;

•• Failing to encourage;

•• Identifying feelings; and

•• Failing to give verbal responses; and

•• Being sensitive to emotional needs.

•• Listening passively. Critical

Supportive

•• Pointing out inconsistencies;

•• Acknowledging problems, concerns and feelings;

•• Repeatedly mentioning weaknesses; and

•• Accepting differences of opinion;

•• Belittling.

•• Showing understanding; •• Communicating availability; •• Committing support; and •• Expressing trust.

Directive

Exploring

•• Prescribing;

•• Asking open questions;

•• Giving orders;

•• Reflecting;

•• Threatening;

•• Sharing; and

•• Failing to provide options;

•• Probing.

•• Quoting rules and regulations; and •• Pointing out only one acceptable way. Language patterns

Language patterns

•• ‘You had better listen to me or I’ll kick you out of my class!’

•• ‘How are you all feeling today?’

•• ‘I’m the boss in this class. If you are not interested in this work, you don’t need to attend this class, anyway. I just want to finish this lesson.’

•• ‘I’m confident we can achieve these goals.’

•• ‘Don’t even think about asking questions. Don’t waste my time.’ •• ‘Don’t expect me to remember your names. I have a lot of work to cover.’ •• ‘Don’t try to act smart with me. I don’t have time for smart guys.’

•• ‘I really appreciate the effort you’ve made.’ •• ‘What do you think?’ •• ‘You really have done a good job, thank you!’ •• ‘I am really pleased with what we have accomplished.’ •• ‘How can we improve the learning process?’ •• ‘I really like the idea. It will help us.’ •• ‘I am really proud of you!’ •• ‘Thank you for helping me.’ •• ‘I appreciate how we all work as a team.’ •• ‘Now I understand what you have been trying to tell me.’

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Techniques to encourage positive behaviours (based on Leatherman, 1990) • Nod your head affirmatively to encourage learner inputs. • Voice agreement with learners’ constructive inputs. • Ask the group to comment on points. • Repeat important points. • Get learners to repeat or explain statements to the group. • Ask learners to lead discussions or demonstrate models to the group. • Smile and make eye contact. • Listen attentively to questions and inputs from the learners. • Use positive comments to reinforce learner participation.

7.5 Dealing with problem behaviour in the classroom While learners’ inputs, comments and participation are desirable in most instances, some behaviour interferes with the learning process. The facilitator should deal with bad behaviour in a timely and efficient manner. Examples of problem behaviour and suggested solutions are set out in Table 6.13. Table 6.13  Techniques for handling problem behaviours in the classroom (adapted from Leatherman, 1990)

Behaviour

Techniques for handling problem behaviours

Learners arriving late or missing sessions

•• Establish ground rules or individual learning contracts; •• Privately discuss reasons for lateness with the learner; •• Stress the importance of punctuality; •• Offer assistance to the learner; and •• Make sure you always start on time.

Challenges to the trainer’s credibility

•• Establish your credibility at the start of training by referring to experience and qualifications; •• Redirect questions to the group or supportive learners; •• Deal with the issues in private; and •• Point out that learning is a joint experience that involves all the participants.

Negative comments regarding the course content

•• Redirect questions to the group; •• Emphasise the positive aspects of the content; •• If the learners already have knowledge and experience in the course, involve them in the presentation; and •• If there are mistakes or gaps in the content, make an effort to correct these between sessions.

Undermining the course outside the class

•• Actively involve the learner in the presentation of the class; •• Confront the learner privately; •• Express your concern and explain the negative impact; and •• Ask the learner what could be done to address his or her concerns.

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Behaviour

Techniques for handling problem behaviours

Learners who dominate the discussions

•• Tactfully interrupt the learner and redirect to other learners;

Individuals who do not participate

•• Direct questions at the individual;

•• Draw other learners into the discussion by asking them for their inputs; and •• Point out to the learner that everyone should have an opportunity to participate. •• Make eye contact; •• Give the learner specific tasks to perform; and •• Positively reinforce any contribution by the learner.

Lack of participation by the group as a whole

•• Probe the reasons for non-participation; •• Change the nature of the activities (e.g., change from a lecture to group activities); and •• Actively involve the learners in the learning process.

Belligerent attitude or responses

•• Let the group handle the learner by asking them for solutions; •• Probe the reasons for the learner’s behaviour; •• Deal with the issue in private; and •• Appeal to the learner’s sense of fairness.

Distracting side discussions

•• Set clear ground rules at the beginning of the programme and refer the learner back to these; •• Give comments to the group; •• Ask the learners who are having discussions on their own to share their ideas; and •• Stop and wait for the learners to quieten down.

Group becomes side-tracked

•• Redirect the learners back to the topic; •• Ask questions related to the topic; and •• Take a break, if it is at an appropriate time.

8. CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO LEARNING The classroom environment, or emotional climate, refers to the conditions, circumstances and influences affecting the learning and performance of learners in the classroom. These include the physical conditions of the classroom and the trainer’s physical appearance, body language, language patterns, behaviour and attitudes towards learners. The personal values of trainers influence how they treat and interact with their learners. Values are the norms, beliefs, principles, and preferences that determine how people in a particular society, community or family behave and relate to one another (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). The values that L&D professionals model through their behaviour create a particular emotional climate. The emotional climate is the learners’ shared perception of the classroom environment, in other words, how they think and feel they are being treated by the facilitator and how they experience the general classroom conditions. The emotional climate can range from warm, welcoming and nurturing to cold and indifferent (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). The emotional climate has a significant impact on the learners’ attitudes and willingness

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to learn. In an emotionally warm climate, learners feel accepted for their uniqueness; their self-esteem is enhanced. Emotionally warm behaviour helps to create an emotional climate that facilitates optimal learning and performance. On the other hand, emotionally cold or distant behaviour slows down facilitation and learning, and negatively affects the performance of the trainer and the learners. The distinctive characteristics of emotionally warm and cold behaviour are summarised in Table 6.16. The emotional climate is the learners’ shared perception of how they think and feel they are being treated by the facilitator and their experience of the general classroom conditions. L&D professionals with an emotionally warm style are able to create a warm emotional climate in which learners feel accepted and safe. Such an atmosphere is characterised by feelings of mutual goodwill, empathy and co-operation between the trainer and learners. L&D professionals with a warm style are aware of learners’ cognitive and emotional needs, and accept and respect learners unconditionally. Furthermore, they show a real interest in learners’ well-being through open and honest communication (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). Emotionally warm behaviour is linked to emotional intelligence. Research indicates that the ability to manage emotions contributes positively to the quality of social interactions. Individuals who are socially well adapted tend to display emotionally intelligent behaviour. That is, they are aware of their own emotions and how they affect others. Emotionally intelligent people also express their emotions more appropriately and read and respond better to the emotions of others. Emotionally intelligent trainers use their emotional and cognitive presence to monitor the emotional climate and engage in behaviour that facilitates emotional security within themselves and their learners (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). Table 6.14  Characteristics of emotionally warm and cold behavioural styles (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Emotionally warm behavioural style

Emotionally cold behavioural style

This style shows:

This style shows:

Real interest in the learners, which results in the development of trust and emotional closeness;

Emotional indifference, often characterised by an attitude of mistrust and coldness toward learners;

Unconditional acceptance of and respect for learners, which makes them feel safe and sheltered in the classroom context;

Insincerity and disrespect for learners, characterised by superficial, hostile, vindictive, malicious and aggressive behaviour toward learners;

An optimistic and positive attitude with a sense of humour, allowing honest communication between trainer and learners;

A negative outlook with closed and secretive behaviour, resulting in an atmosphere of distrust and dishonesty;

How authority can be exercised in a reasonable, consistent and fair manner, which demonstrates respect for learners;

Authority used to elicit submission inspired by fear and disrespect for the learners. Behaviour typically includes unreasonable and unjust methods to maintain discipline (for example abusive language);

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Emotionally warm behavioural style

Emotionally cold behavioural style

This style shows:

This style shows:

How the trainer cherishes and embraces the relationship with learners, resulting in feelings of mutual goodwill, empathy and co-operation between the trainer and learners; and

No concern for the relationship with learners, resulting in disturbed relationships characterised by squabbles and negative criticism; and

An understanding of and empathy for learners’ unique cognitive and emotional development needs.

A lack of understanding of and no interest in the unique cognitive and emotional development needs of learners.

8.1 Creating an accepting and safe atmosphere It is important to create a non-critical atmosphere in which learners feels safe and accepted. It is important to create a non-critical atmosphere in which learners feel safe and accepted. Optimal learning occurs in an environment in which learners feel comfortable in expressing opinions, joining discussions and experimenting. Some strategies to help the learners feel relaxed and comfortable during the learning process include the following: •• Focusing on the value of mutual respect between participants, emphasising that issues should be addressed and that personal attacks are not acceptable; •• Pitching language at a level that is appropriate to the level of the learners. Remember that, although the majority of learning programmes are presented in English, this is often a learner’s second or even third language; •• Using name boards (on the tables) or name tags. By using names, learners can personalise their interactions with other learners and the facilitator; •• Emphasising that everyone has the right to an opinion. Encourage only constructive criticism that relates to the issues under discussion. Activity Developing a positive learning climate Think about a training session you would like to present on a favourite topic. How would you ensure that learners will enjoy and learn from the session? First thoughts An appropriate starting point for the trainer is to focus on his or her own preferred approach to learning. Where are you in relation to the following statements? 1. ‘I feel the focus is initially on me and others learn when I show them what to do.’ 2. ‘I help others learn. It is okay if I am not in the limelight.’ It is no doubt fashionable to be much closer to statement 2 than 1. It is more of a learnercentred approach than the first statement. The occasional inward look can help you to establish what feels right and what is appropriate.

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Getting a few basics right Trainers should ensure that they have prepared everything before the start of the activity. The extent of the trainer’s preparation will vary, depending on the level of experience and willingness to take risks. You will need to think in advance of the activity so that when it starts, you feel confident and that this is transmitted to the participants. Consider the participants’ possible needs and expectations and set out a probable agenda. This may be changed according to the needs of your participants, your own flexibility and your ability and willingness to take risks. Consider the size of the group. Ideally, the total group size for training sessions is six to 12 participants. The start The start can determine the success of your training event. This does not mean that a poor start will automatically lead to disaster. Consider using ice-breakers, and think about the mood you wish to set. Do you want everyone to relax as soon as possible or do you want people to learn under pressure? Your approach 1. Feelings. Some questions you might ask: • How am I feeling at the moment? • How would I feel if I were a participant? • How do the participants feel? 2. Your behaviour. By being sensitive to the participants’ feelings, you can demonstrate empathy. Your behaviour demonstrates that you care for the participants. This is not easy if you feel anxious yourself. Be aware of the effect of your anxiety on others. 3. Your material and how you use it. You will already have considered this at the planning stage. Consider the following: • Involving participants at an early stage; • Encouraging participants to voice their expectations of the training session; • Giving an indication of the specific outcomes for the training session at an early stage (but not too much, and being prepared to be flexible with the activities); • Being prepared to use the ‘here and now’ method of participants’ feelings and experience; • Being ready and willing to change direction; and • Not working straight through your programme without considering the effect on and needs of the participants. 4. Observing the individuals and their reactions, using your senses to decide how the individuals or group are developing, gauging their reactions and feelings, being sensitive to the participants’ needs. Final thoughts The learning climate you create is likely to be more significant than all the learning material you have put together. Remember that each group is unique. If you feel frustrated at the rate of progress, do not forget that, even though you might have done 20 similar training sessions, this is the first time for them.

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8.2 Arranging the physical learning environment The venue is an important element of the learning environment. A well-prepared venue gives a professional impression and assists in the transfer of learning. Conversely, a poorly prepared venue has a negative impact on the whole training experience. L&D professionals often have to make do with what is available, though, and this is frequently less than desirable. But creating a physical environment that is conducive to training is only part of the job. Learning facilitators can prepare the most comfortable and well-equipped training venue possible, but if their learners do not feel safe in an environment that encourages participation and learning, the training programme will fail. Guidelines for creating an environment conducive to learning (based on Leatherman, 1990) • Set out the learning intervention at the start so that the learners know exactly what is expected of them. Deal with the outcomes and how these will be achieved at the beginning of the programme. Revisit outcomes at important points during the training. • Create a physical environment that is as comfortable as possible for the learners. This includes comfortable chairs, enough working space, a comfortable room temperature and sufficient stationery. • Make sure that all learning support materials are available and working. • Keep distractions, such as noise and visual stimuli, to a minimum. • Make sure there is adequate lighting. • Make sure that sufficient learner manuals and other learning support materials are available and that these materials are free from errors.

Issues that a trainer will need to consider when deciding on the layout of the venue are: •• The number of learners; •• The training method; •• The physical layout of the venue; and •• The available resources. The training venue can be arranged in a number of ways. The trainer can use different layouts in the course of a training programme. In other words, the layout of the venue can be rearranged to suit the various outcomes of the programme. Different layouts are used for different purposes; the various options are shown in Figure 6.3. These layouts include: •• The theatre or classroom; •• The herringbone; •• The boardroom; •• The open boardroom or U-shape; •• The V-shape; •• The circle; and •• Clusters/syndicates.

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Each of these layouts is shown in Figure 6.3 and is discussed below. The theatre or classroom Trainer/facilitator

The boardroom Trainer/facilitator

The V-shape Facilitator

Clusters/syndicates (little/no lecturing)

The herringbone Trainer/facilitator

The open boardroom/U-shape Trainer/facilitator

The circle

Facilitator (either position)

Clusters/syndicates with lecturing Trainer/ Facilitator

Facilitator

Figure 6.3  The layout of training venues

(a) The theatre or classroom

This is the traditional layout for learning. The trainer stands in front and learners are arranged in rows. It is suitable for large groups of learners where the mode of instruction is a lecture or presentation. The interaction between the trainer and learners is limited to questions and answers.

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(b) The herringbone

This is similar to the theatre or classroom. The main difference is that the rows are angled diagonally, which allows for greater visibility among learners. (c) The boardroom

Learners are arranged around a large table or a number of smaller tables put together. This layout is appropriate for small to medium-size groups where interaction is required. It is used in training where learning is facilitated. (d) The open boardroom or U-shape

Similar to the boardroom, the U-shape leaves a space in the centre in which the trainer can move around. This layout works with or without tables and it allows for greater interaction between the trainer and the learners. It is also easy for the trainer to inspect the progress of learners in written exercises. (e) The V-shape

The V-shape is similar to the U-shape. It can also be used with or without tables. The main advantage is that visibility problems are minimised. (f) The circle

Seats are arranged in a circle. This format is particularly useful for discussions and debriefings. It also has the advantage of putting the learners on an equal footing with one another. (g) Clusters/syndicates

Learners are placed together in small groups (usually of six to eight members). The groups are separated from one another and placed in various parts of the room. The placing of the groups will depend on the type of training. If there is little or no lecturing, they may be placed randomly. A variation of the U-shape can be used where lecturing occurs. This format is useful if there are a number of group exercises and learning is predominantly facilitated. The trainer can move freely between the groups. Attention must also be paid to the age, race and gender composition of the groups. Factors to be considered when choosing the physical environment (based on Michalak & Yager, 1979) Consider the following when setting up your training venue: • Arrange the seats to ensure maximum visibility of the trainer, while enabling interaction among the learners. • Provide adequate lighting, preferably natural light. • Always lay out training materials and the chairs and tables beforehand. • Make sure there are no papers or other materials lying around. • Minimise noise and visual distractions. • Regulate the temperature in the venue to ensure that it is comfortable for the learners.

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• Schedule training and adequate break times. When you break and for how long will generally depend on the type of content and training methods being used. Rather let the training process guide you than rigidly sticking to times for breaks. • If food is provided, select light meals and snacks that will not sit heavily and induce sleepiness. Table 6.15  Quality checklist for the training environment

The training venue

Yes/No

Venue booked Enough syndicate/breakaway venues available Venue laid out properly Signs up to indicate to the learners where the training will take place Adequate toilet facilities that work properly Distractions minimised Contact details of person responsible for the venue to assist with problems Equipment

Yes/No

All equipment required available and working properly Materials

Yes/No

Name boards for tables and name plates/stickers for shirts Sufficient quantities of learning materials Sufficient quantities of consumables, such as flip chart paper, notepads and pens Physical needs

Yes/No

Meals and refreshments Cold water and glasses on each table Comfortable sleeping arrangements for learners (if relevant) Facilities for the learners to complete self-study work

9. PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM TRAINING Given the extent and complexity of training delivery, the success of effective classroom training delivery depends on the L&D professional’s flexible use, revision and adaptation of the following set of general learning facilitation principles (Yelon, 1992). (a) Meaningfulness

When learners find a topic personally relevant, the topic is considered meaningful to them. When learners can associate a new skill or a new idea with their experience, interests, values or aspirations, it is meaningful to them. 340

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(b) Assumed learning

Learners are said to have the assumed learning (knowledge and skills) for a task when they have mastered all contributing and related basic knowledge and skills. When learners have the assumed learning, they can readily understand instructions for the next level of skills and can learn the new skills without remediation. (c) Open communication

Learners must know what they are to learn, how they are to learn, and how they will be assessed before they put their attention and energy into learning. Learning facilitators/ trainers must tell learners everything that will help them to focus their attention. (d) Essential content

Time is a precious resource in learning facilitation. There is always more content than time to learn. One way to be efficient in learning facilitation is to select and give priority to essential content (in other words, the ‘must know’ content elements). (e) Provision of learning support material

Learners understand messages more quickly and recall them more completely and accurately when learning facilitators use mechanisms that simplify and organise complex content and connect new ideas to old ones. In the design phase, L&D professionals create learner support material, and in the delivery phase, they use the support material. During explanations, demonstrations and practice, learning facilitators provide several different types of learning support materials: •• Mnemonics, to recall a list of ideas and steps; •• Flow diagrams, •• Decision trees or drawings, to show the path to take in a task; •• Highlighted examples on slides or transparencies; •• Animated PowerPoint slides or DVDs, using arrows, colours, stars and subtitles to focus attention; and •• Checklists, to summarise the qualities of an acceptable performance. (f) Novelty

People cannot pay attention constantly in a classroom situation. L&D professionals can incorporate novelty into the learning facilitation process by varying the format, content and style of learning support materials. In the delivery phase, learning facilitators vary what they do, what they say and how they say it. They change volume, tone or pace when they want to gain and direct attention to important points. They gesture, move and continue to make moderate changes to maintain learners’ attention for the duration of a training session. Learning facilitators use humorous stories and novel experiences to focus learners’ attention. (g) Modelling

Learners can gain the most from practice if, in addition to listening to an explanation, they can observe a good demonstration. Learners are likely to imitate the demonstrated performance if they pay attention to the demonstration, if they perceive all the steps, and 341

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if they commit the steps to memory before practice. Therefore, demonstrations should capture attention, focus on the important aspects of each step and create a mental image of the skill. Behaviour modelling is based on social learning theory, which asserts that people learn by observing others (discussed in Chapter 2) (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). These principles are summarised in Figure 6.4.

MODELLING Learners watch, for example, video/DVD of model people behaving effectively in problem situation TRANSFER OF TRAINING Learners apply the newly learned behaviour in the job (with support and encouragement from supervisor)

• Learner attention • Learner retention • Learner’s ability to

reproduce learning

• Learner motivation

ROLE-PLAY Learners get opportunity to practise and rehearse the effective behaviours (as demonstrated)

SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT The learning facilitator provides reinforcement to learners in the form of praise and constructive feedback

Figure 6.4  Principles of modelling (based on Aamodt, 2007; Cassio & Aguinis, 2005)

(h) Active and appropriate practice

L&D professionals build in active practice to ensure that learners gain applied competence over learning outcomes. Learning facilitators apply the principle of active and appropriate practice by giving each learner the opportunity to practise the whole skill in a way that matches the performance required on the job. Practice must be challenging. It should allow learners to go beyond previous levels of competency in each practice set. Practice must also be distributed to promote retention and reduce fatigue and error. Learning facilitators, therefore, schedule skills practice in short sessions over time, and proceed from basic to advanced practice. L&D professionals build in active practice to ensure that learners gain applied competence over learning outcomes. Learning facilitators encourage learners to provide their own feedback (as they would on the job). When actual practice is inconvenient or inappropriate, learning facilitators teach learners how to relax and visualise the correct performance.

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When learners are given the opportunity to practise far beyond the point at which they perform a task correctly several times, the task becomes second nature (this is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2). This is known as overlearning. For some tasks, such as those that must be performed infrequently and under great stress (for example, CPR performed to save a patient’s life), overlearning is critical. It is less important in jobs in which workers practise their skills on a daily basis (such as mechanics, technicians and language editors). The advantages of overlearning include: •• An increase in the length of time that learned material will be retained; •• Learning becomes more reflexive, so tasks become automatic with continued practice; and •• Learning is effective for both cognitive and physical tasks (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). (i) Goal setting

Teaching learners to set goals for their learning helps to improve their motivation and their performance. When learners set explicit, challenging goals, they become highly motivated and committed to the training. They put in greater effort and learn more efficiently (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). The effects of goal setting on performance can be enhanced even more by explaining to learners how to work on a task and why the goal and task are important. When learners set explicit, challenging goals, they become highly motivated and committed to the training and learn more efficiently. (j) Pleasant conditions

People naturally want to learn. When people learn in a comfortable setting, they associate the good feelings they have with the subject and the process. From then on, the subject is associated with pleasant feelings. Learning facilitators provide pleasant conditions during all phases of learning facilitation. Before training, learning facilitators establish a pleasant climate by being friendly and showing interest during interviews. They should maintain a pleasant atmosphere during training by attending to the appearance, location and comfort of the classroom. Learning facilitators also create a safe or emotionally warm atmosphere by respecting and supporting learners in their learning process. (k) Pleasant consequences

To learn from practice, learners need to know how well they have performed. To be willing to perform again, learners must feel confident. Learning facilitators apply the principle of pleasant consequences by providing objective feedback through the use of checklists. They give complete feedback about what was performed correctly, what needs further development, what should have been done, and how to improve. To enhance confidence and self-esteem, learning facilitators add verbal encouragement, emphasise positive qualities of performance and point out positive consequences of proper performance. Learning facilitators also encourage self-assessment by asking learners to review their own performance before anyone else does. When commenting on inadequate performance, learning facilitators refer only to the performance and its consequences; they do not comment on a learner’s personality. 343

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Learning facilitators should encourage self-assessment by asking learners to review their own performance before anyone else does. (l) Knowledge of results (feedback)

If learners know their results or learning achievements, they can use the information to correct mistakes. Learners need to know why they have not achieved the learning outcomes of a programme or task, and how they can correct the behaviour in the future. Learners also need reinforcement. Knowledge of results may be intrinsic (stemming directly from the performance of the task itself ) or extrinsic (communicated by an outside individual). It may be qualitative (for example, ‘that new advertisement is quite pleasing to the eye’), quantitative (for example, ‘move the lever two inches down’), informative (for example, ‘that new machine has just arrived’) or evaluative (for example, ‘you did a good job on that report – it was clear and brief ’) (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).

10. TRANSFER OF LEARNING Transfer of training refers to the learners’ ability to apply the behaviours and competencies learned in training to the job itself. Transfer may be positive (for example, improve job performance), negative (that is, it may hinder job performance) or neutral (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). To maximise positive transfer, L&D professionals should consider doing the following before, during and after training (Machin, 2002): •• Ensuring that the work climate is positive (for example, that there is management support or on-the-job support); •• Maximising the similarity between the training situation and the job situation by providing a strong link between training content and job content; •• Providing learners with as many opportunities as possible to experience and practise the tasks, concepts or skills being taught; •• Ensuring that learners thoroughly understand the principles being taught, particularly in jobs that require the application of principles to solve problems; •• Maximising transfer in the context of team-based training as follows: –– Giving teams open, unrestricted access to information; –– Including team members who have diverse job functions and administrative backgrounds; and –– Ensuring that a team has sufficient members to draw on to accomplish its activities. •• Ensuring that what is learned in training is used and rewarded on the job. Table 6.16 summarises a number of different barriers to learning.

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Table 6.16  Barriers to the transfer of learning (Coetzee, 2006a)

Barriers to the transfer of learning

Description

Training takes place in artificial conditions

Training conditions cannot accurately reflect the reality of the job situation. Irrespective of how much the facilitator tries to recreate the actual situation (through scenarios, role-play or simulations), the training venue, the participants, the learning tasks and other variables will be different.

The training setting is a safe and controlled learning environment

Learners are able to disclose and exchange ideas freely, without cynicism or personal attacks. The facilitator manages conflict and poor interpersonal skills. The workplace is different. Training allows for mistakes and failure. In real-life situations, mistakes often have immediate consequences and there is little opportunity to try again.

Learners were not really committed

Learners may not be totally committed to the ideas and strategies developed on the course and may quickly slip back into the old way of doing things.

There is a lack of opportunity to practise acquired skills

If learners do not immediately have the opportunity to practise new competencies in the job situation, they will find it difficult to relate the training to their jobs.

There is no direct support for the transfer of learning

The opportunity to apply newly acquired knowledge and skills may not arise immediately. Learners’ efforts may not be supported by managers, friends or colleagues. Others may persist with old ways of thinking and hinder progress.

10.1 Self-management to maintain changes in behaviour Teaching learners to monitor their own behaviour reduces the likelihood of relapse or falling back on previous behaviour (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). The first step is to make learners aware of the relapse process itself. Thereafter, learning facilitators ask learners to identify situations that are likely to sabotage their attempts to maintain the new learning. Teaching learners to monitor their own behaviour reduces the likelihood of relapse or falling back on previous behaviour. For example, in a study designed to control the abuse of sick leave (Frayne & Latham cited in Cascio & Aguinis, 2005), learners listed family problems, incompatibility with supervisors or co-workers and transportation problems as the biggest reasons for using sick leave. Then learners were taught to monitor their own behaviour by recording their own attendance, the reason for missing a day of work, and subsequent steps to get to work. Learners did this using charts and diaries. In addition, learners were also taught coping skills to increase a feeling of mastery and to decrease the probability of relapse. Learners identified their own reinforcers (for example, self-praise, purchasing a gift) and punishers (a disliked activity such as cleaning the garage) to administer if they achieved or failed to achieve their goals. This system of self-management increased the responsibility of learners and their attendance significantly increased as well. 345

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10.2 Adaptive guidance Adaptive guidance is relevant, particularly in technology-based learning. It guides learners about future directions they should take in sequencing study and practice to improve their performance (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002). For example, in internet-based training, learners can customise the material they work with, determine the sequence of learning and control the amount of time they spend on a particular topic. Adaptive guidance includes evaluative information (formative assessment activities and feedback) to help each learner evaluate their progress and individualised suggestions about what the learner should study and practise. Adaptive guidance improves the acquisition of basic knowledge and performance capabilities early in training. It also improves the acquisition of strategic knowledge and performance skills later in training. Adaptive guidance develops the capacity to retain and adapt skills in a more difficult and complex situation (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). Adaptive guidance develops the capacity to retain and adapt skills in a more difficult and complex situation.

11. MANAGING CLASSROOM TRAINING L&D professionals apply learning facilitation principles to the design and delivery of training. Managing training delivery in the classroom requires that the trainer effectively performs the following functions: •• Presents lectures; •• Facilitates groups (dyads, small groups and large groups); •• Administers self-instructed learning; •• Follows customised procedures; •• Applies principles of learning and learning facilitation; •• Deals with easy and difficult learners; •• Answers questions; •• Creates schedules covering all learning facilitation elements; •• Accounts for possible interference; •• Allows time to work, practise, think and relax; •• Identifies, prepares and informs learners; •• Fills out the proper forms for training; •• Plans and creates a comfortable environment; •• Chooses and controls factors such as venues, rooms, facilities, furniture and air temperature; •• Secures and maintains learning materials, supplies, equipment and staff; •• Assesses, evaluates and certifies learners; •• Evaluates the training programme; •• Reports outcomes and results; and •• Implements actions to improve learning facilitation (Yelon, 1992).

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L&D professionals in their role as learning facilitators or trainers have several responsibilities regarding managing classroom training. These include reading and reviewing learning materials before the start of a training session; preparing training session activities; checking the classroom and seating; arranging for equipment; preparing learning materials and learning support materials; announcing the programme/training session; and reflecting on the learning. Table 6.17 sets out the responsibilities learning facilitators have in respect of classroom management. Table 6.17  Responsibilities in managing classroom training (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)

Responsibility

Description

Preparing training session activities

•• Select the activities that will be used and modify them, if necessary, to meet the needs of target audience. •• Plan the agenda for the training session, including the learning outcomes, schedule and time for breaks. •• Arrange for refreshments.

Check the room and seating

•• Reserve a room that is large enough to arrange seats in a way that is conducive to group discussion. •• Ensure that there are enough comfortable seats.

Arrange for equipment

•• Arrange for a working overhead projector, screen and extra transparencies and markers if needed (or for a laptop computer, data projector and screen). •• Provide a flip chart, Prestik®, markers and an eraser for a whiteboard. •• Arrange for a working video machine and monitor if video material will be used. •• When using electronic hardware, such as laptop computers and video machines, make sure that you have all the plugs, adapters and leads you need for the machines. Check that the machines work, and check that the electrical outlets in the room are in working order.

Prepare materials

•• Print handouts and reading material for all participants. •• Comply with copyright laws for reading material. •• Prepare overhead transparencies.

Announce the programme

•• Give sufficient notice and clearly specify the date, time and location of the training sessions. Remind participants to bring along course material, pencils, pens and notepads.

Reflect on learning

•• Reflect on the questions or issues that are raised during the training session. Record personal thoughts in a journal. Conclude each training session with an entry on any new insights on how to improve the learning facilitation process.

Activity You were requested to deliver a learning programme called ‘Attitudes to HIV/AIDS in the workplace’, using classroom training. The following outcomes have been formulated for the learning programme:

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After completing the learning programme, learners should be able to: • Understand the nature of HIV/AIDS. • Distinguish between myths and facts regarding HIV/AIDS (including how one can get infected and how one can avoid infection). • Understand the experience of a colleague infected with HIV/AIDS. • Understand the process that a diagnosed person will go through, from infection to possible death. • Know the ways in which an infected person can maintain a healthy lifestyle (way of living, eating, medication, etc.). Questions • What issues would your L&D needs analysis focus on? • How would you arrange the training venue? What are the different factors that you need to consider? • How would you create a positive learning environment? • What characteristics would be important in terms of the learning facilitator tasked with running this programme? • Analyse the outcome ‘Understand the experience of a colleague infected with HIV/ AIDS’ and apply the various stages of the experiential learning cycle. Explain what you would do in each of the steps to optimise the learning facilitation process. • While conducting the training, you encounter the following problems: –– Learners arriving late and returning late from breaks; –– A learner who continually makes negative comments about the course content; –– Two learners who are often involved in side discussions while the rest of the class is busy with the activities. Explain how you would deal with each of these problems. • Assume that the learners are entry level employees with little experience. What would be the most effective training delivery methods? Give reasons for your answer. • Which learning support materials would be particularly useful in the delivery of the programme? Give reasons for your answer.

Review and discussion questions 1. Discuss five different approaches used in workplace learning. 2. Compare five different approaches/techniques used in classroom-based training and the key uses of each. 3. What is blended learning? 4. Explain the core elements of modern learning. 5. How do the characteristics of learners and L&D professionals influence the learning facilitation process? 6. Discuss the different barriers to learning in the workplace. 7. Describe five different ‘emotionally intelligent responses’ that a trainer can use to create a positive learning environment in the classroom. 8. Why is the physical layout of a classroom important? What are the various options available to trainers?

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9. Describe the key characteristics that an effective learning facilitator needs to demonstrate. 10. Explain the different functions that a training manager needs to perform to ensure the effective delivery of a training programme.

Summary The effective delivery of L&D interventions in the workplace depends on a number of factors that have to be considered when designing a learning programme. Design and delivery decisions are influenced mostly by the characteristics of the target group and the group dynamics during the learning process. In this chapter, classroom training and on-the-job training – the most common methods of delivering training in the workplace context – were explored. These two methods are often blended with programmed instruction and technology-based training approaches to enhance the transfer of learning to the workplace. The influence of digital technological advancement on modern learning and the social learning ecosystem elements were also explained. Learning facilitation was examined as a delivery strategy that deliberately involves the learners and maximises their input and importance in the learning process. L&D professionals apply principles of learning facilitation to create a learning environment that is conducive to learning and to ensure the optimal transfer of learning in the workplace. Managing the delivery of learning programmes effectively is crucial in helping learners achieve the outcomes of a learning programme. The next phase in the learning cycle, namely the assessment of learners’ achievements, is examined in Chapter 7.

‘If you want to teach people a new way of thinking, don’t bother trying to teach them. Instead, give them a tool, the use of which will lead to new ways of thinking.’ (R. Buckminster Fuller)

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CHAPTER

7

ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Kiru Truman and Melinde Coetzee

Key points of assessment and moderation in learning and development •• Assessment and moderation of learning achievements are significant elements of outcomes-based learning and development (L&D). •• Valid and reliable assessment procedures, methods and instruments are required to measure whether learners have achieved the learning outcomes of a workplace-based learning programme. •• Assessors must be qualified subject-matter experts who are registered with the relevant assessment body. •• Outcomes-based assessment assesses learners’ ability to combine foundational, practical and reflexive competencies with critical cross-field outcomes, and then to apply these in real-life (practical) contexts or for a defined purpose. •• Moderation is the action of assuring that assessment practices comply with SAQA/QCTO quality requirements. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Explain the purposes of assessment and moderation in the context of outcomes-based L&D in the workplace. •• Identify the various role-players in the assessment process. •• Discuss the various different types of assessment and their uses in the assessment process. •• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of various assessment methods and instruments. •• Discuss the various steps in the assessment process. •• Explain the functions and purposes of the assessment plan and assessment guide. •• Explain the requirements for assessors. •• Explain the purpose of moderation in assessment.

1. INTRODUCTION Outcomes-based workplace learning and development (L&D) focuses on the learner’s achievement of learning outcomes. Assessment and moderation of learning achievements are, therefore, significant elements of outcomes-based workplace L&D. Accreditation of  L&D (skills development) providers is dependent on the quality of their assessment and moderation practices (see Chapter 1). Valid and reliable assessment procedures are required to measure whether learners achieve the learning outcomes defined for their particular learning programme. As discussed in Chapter 3, assessment is the fourth phase of the systematic learning cycle. It is an integral part of all L&D planning and design. Assessment procedures should, therefore, give a clear indication of what learners are intended to learn and achieve. Assessment methods need to be flexible and fair, and should be designed to

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match the learning outcomes learners are striving to achieve (SAQA, 2014a,b; Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997).

Phase 1 L&D needs analysis

Phase 2 Learning programme design

Phase 5 Evaluation of programme effectiveness THE LEARNING CYCLE

Phase 4 Assessment and moderation of learner achievements

Phase 3 L&D intervention delivery

Figure 7.1  The learning cycle

In this chapter, the general requirements for outcomes-based assessment and moderation are identified. The legislated approach to assessment of occupational qualifications within the Occupational Learning System (OLS) was discussed in Chapter 1. These legislated requirements should be taken into account when reading through this chapter in which the general functions, principles, types and methodology of assessment are discussed. Sound assessment and moderation practices are essential tools to ensuring that learning programmes lead to measurable outcomes that add value for stakeholders and learners. Assessment in South Africa is regulated by government policy. L&D professionals who are involved in learning design, delivery, assessment and moderation must have a sound knowledge of the following national policies: •• The National Policy and Criteria for Designing and Implementing Assessment for NQF Qualifications and Part Qualifications and Professional Designations in South Africa (SAQA, 2014a); •• The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level Descriptors developed by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2012 – see also Appendix A); •• The National Policy for the Implementation of the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) (SAQA, 2013); •• The National Policy for Credit Accumulation and Transfer (CAT) within the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) (SAQA, 2014b); •• The assessment policies developed by the Department of Higher Education and Training; the Department of Basic Education; the Council on Higher Education; the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations; and Umalusi (see Chapter 1).

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The national RPL, CAT and Assessment policies have been developed in an integrated manner to draw on a common conceptual basis and strengthen the interrelationships between assessment, RPL and CAT (SAQA, 2014b). Activity Visit SAQA’s website: www.saqa.org.za to access the National Policy and Criteria for Designing and Implementing Assessment for NQF Qualifications and Part Qualifications and Professional Designations in South Africa. Review the purpose, scope and standards for assessment practices in South Africa.

The National Policy and Criteria for Designing and Implementing Assessment for NQF Qualifications and Part-Qualifications and Professional Designations in South Africa (hereafter referred to as the National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment or the Policy) outlines minimum criteria and provides guidance for effective, valid, reliable and consistent, fair and transparent, and appropriate assessment in the context of the NQF. The specific context of each quality council (QC, see Chapter 1) and its sub-framework must be considered in the interpretation of the Policy (SAQA, 2014a). SAQA initially developed policy, criteria and guidelines for assessment in 2001 and 2005. These documents have been used widely but a need arose for these to be updated to align them with the NQF Act 67 of 2008, which replaced the SAQA Act 58 of 1995. The Policy (SAQA, 2014a) achieves the revision needed and takes into account the roles of the Department of Higher Education and Training, the Department of Basic Education, SAQA, the QCs, recognised professional bodies, providers at all levels in the system, and learners. Assessment is integral to a curriculum; and a curriculum together with assessment is integral to the quality of qualifications and the extent to which qualifications articulate with one another. The NQF Act 67 of 2008 mandates SAQA to develop, after consultation with the QCs, national policies on Assessment, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), and Credit Accumulation and Transfer (CAT). ‘Quality Council’ means that one of the three councils is tasked with developing and managing the sub-frameworks of the NQF to ensure that agreed quality standards are met, namely: • The Council on Higher Education (CHE) for the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF); • Umalusi for the General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Sub-Framework (GFETQSF); and • The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) for the Occupational Qualifications Sub-Framework (OQSF) (see Chapter 1).

The basic premise of the National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a) is that assessment should take a holistic approach toward the development of learners’ competence to enable them to successfully fulfil their occupational and work roles, as members of society and the economy. The overarching goal of lifelong learning 352

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and development is fundamental to assessment practices in South African workplaces (SAQA, 2014a).

2. PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014) describes assessment as ‘the process used to identify, gather and interpret information and evidence against the required competencies in a qualification, part-qualification, or professional designation in order to make a judgement about a learner’s achievement.’ Assessment can be formal, non-formal or informal; assessment can be of learning already done, or towards learning to inform and shape teaching and learning still to be done’ (SAQA, 2014a: 4). An assessor is ‘the person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment for specific qualifications, part-qualifications, or professional designations. Appropriately qualified lecturers, teachers, educators, trainers, examiners, moderators, chief markers, markers, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) specialists, and Credit Accumulation and Transfer (CAT) officials are all examples of assessors’ (SAQA, 2014a: 4). An assessor is the person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment for specific qualifications, part-qualifications, or professional designations. Assessment is a data-gathering strategy for measuring knowledge, skills, behaviour or performance, values and attitudes. Put simply, assessment is a process that a qualified and registered assessor follows to collect evidence of a learner’s learning achievements. Assessment is a data-gathering strategy for measuring knowledge, skills, behaviour or performance, values and attitudes. Assessors use the data gained from the assessment of collected evidence to make informed judgements about the learners’ competence and learning achievements. In outcomes-based L&D, the evidence is assessed against national standards registered with SAQA. As explained in Chapter 1, within the occupational learning system (OLS), the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) requires that the evidence be assessed by assessment quality partners (AQPs), in accordance with the criteria outlined in the modules for the three curriculum components: knowledge, skills and workplace experience (see Chapter 1). This is referred to as the formative and summative assessment of learner achievements toward a whole or part occupational qualification. In the context of the QCTO, formative assessment of the three curriculum components is not sufficient to confirm competence to perform an occupation and the associated occupational tasks. Summative assessment of occupational competence, in terms of whole or part qualifications, is also conducted by AQPs applying nationally standardised assessment instruments and procedures at accredited assessment centres or registered sites. It is important to note that this book (and this chapter) does not focus on the assessment of learner achievements in terms of occupational qualifications (see Chapter 1). Although assessment, as outlined in the national policy, focuses on standards that apply to the assessment of all formal programmes (unit standards-based and occupational standards-based, e.g. learnerships and skills programmes), the focus of the book is on the assessment of learner achievements in terms of skills and learning 353

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programmes. As discussed in Chapter 4, the design of workplace learning programmes must also adhere to the OLS principles that underpin workplace-based learning design. Assessment in the context of this book and chapter thus focuses on the internal formative and summative assessment of the three curriculum components: knowledge, skills and workplace experience by the accredited L&D professional. Assessment focuses on the internal formative and summative assessment of the three curriculum components: knowledge, skills and workplace experience by the accredited L&D professional. Learning is no longer something that is ‘done to’ the learner, but something in which the learner is actively involved. As such, the role of the assessor has changed from that of gatekeeper (who uses assessment to prevent learners from developing further) to that of supportive guide (who has the success of the learner at heart). The goal of assessment in outcomes-based L&D is to give learners access to further learning (SAQA, 2000a). Learning is no longer something that is ‘done to’ the learner, but something in which the learner is actively involved. The role of the assessor has changed from that of gatekeeper (using assessment to prevent learners from developing further) to that of supportive guide (with the success of the learner at heart). The content of assessment is informed by its purpose, as a systematic method of gathering information regarding the desired knowledge, skills and values. The scope of any assessment covers the programme’s curriculum, that is, the relevant knowledge, skills and values; relevant levels of cognitive challenge and complexity at the appropriate NQF level. The programme’s curriculum must be benchmarked in appropriate ways. Distinctions are made between quantity (volume of learning) and quality (type of learning) achieved. The goal of assessment is to focus on both – how much learning has taken place and what kind of learning has occurred – and the extent to which all of this learning is successful (SAQA, 2014a). Assessment requires a range of competencies such as the following, all of which are considered over time: (SAQA, 2014a,b): •• The reproduction of knowledge, skills and values; •• The application of knowledge, skill and values in known settings; •• The application of knowledge, skills and values in new contexts; and •• New ways of doing based on application and development of knowledge and skills, and evidence of deep analysis, synthesis and understanding, which enables making new connections.

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Assessment provides ways to assess the current skills and knowledge of a learner. Assessment also helps to identify further training needs by determining a learner’s current level of competence. Used appropriately by qualified L&D professionals, assessment can assist in the recruitment and selection of job candidates and can be used to monitor employees’ performance. Distinctions must be made between capabilities that learners actually demonstrate in relation to curriculum, and the potential they have to develop latent (hidden) capabilities in relation to curriculum, should suitable opportunities exist. Where possible and appropriate, efforts are made to assess learners’ latent abilities. Assessment also takes into account learners’ prior learning and experience, which should be used to facilitate learning. Assessment with instruction, engagement and feedback is adopted wherever feasible and appropriate (SAQA, 2014 a,b). Assessment requires the support of the organisation’s management team and can be costly and time consuming if it is not managed and supported at the appropriate levels. Used appropriately by qualified L&D professionals, assessment can assist in the recruitment and selection of job candidates and can be used to monitor employees’ performance. Outcomes-based assessment is sometimes referred to as authentic assessment. It is the measurement of complex performances and higher-order thinking skills in real-life contexts. Authentic assessment requires learners to demonstrate complex tasks rather than individual skills practised in isolation. This requires a holistic approach to measuring learning achievements (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Modern e-learning approaches (see chapters 5 and 6) use the digital tools that are readily available via the internet or web environment for multiple alternative forms of authentic assessment that further engage the learner in the learning process. Alternative forms of assessment are often referred to as blended learning. The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a) views blended learning as learning and assessment based on a variety of modes, types, sites, outputs, contexts, platforms and other aspects, including contact and technology-mediated learning. SAQA views blended learning as learning and assessment based on a variety of modes, types, sites, outputs, contexts, platforms and other aspects, including contact and technologymediated learning. In the modern learning context (see Chapter 6), authentic assessment involves real-world knowledge and skills (Crisp, 2012) and is: •• Personalised by being tailored to the knowledge, skills and interests of each learner; •• Engaging because tasks involve the personal interests of learners; •• A tool that assesses deep knowledge and not memorisation; •• Problem-oriented as tasks are original and require the application of genuine problem-solving; •• Collaboratively produced, and in partnership with fellow learners; and •• Based on self- and peer-assessment by self-reflection. 355

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The main purpose of assessment is to measure learning outcomes and to improve learning facilitation, the curriculum, learning design and conditions for learning. The main purpose of assessment is to measure learning outcomes. Additional purposes are to improve learning facilitation, the curriculum, learning design and conditions for learning (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Assessment is also used to encourage learners through the feedback they receive. Learners need the feedback that assessment provides: information about their learning, their understanding and their accomplishments, and input into their further development (Freiberg & Driscoll, 1996). Learners need the feedback that assessment provides on their learning, their understanding, their accomplishments and their further development. Assessment will improve learning only if it provides an overall picture of what learners know and are able to do. Assessment should always respect learners’ different ways of understanding. Furthermore, sound assessment practice should suggest actions that L&D professionals can take to enhance the development of their learners and the quality of their learning programmes. L&D professionals have a broader range of assessment techniques available to them than ever before to accomplish these goals. Using these techniques requires an understanding of assessment goals and procedures for constructing assessments, and criteria for judging and improving the quality of assessments.

3. ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES As shown in Table 7.1, various role-players are involved in the assessment process. Not all of these role-players are involved at the same time, but it is important to understand their roles and responsibilities within the assessment process. The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a) extends the role of assessors to include any person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment for specific qualifications, part-qualifications or professional designations. Assessors may, for example, include appropriately qualified lecturers, teachers, educators, trainers, examiners, moderators, chief markers, markers, RPL specialists and CAT officials (SAQA, 2014a: 4). Table 7.1  Role-players in assessment (SAQA, 2001a,e)

Role-player

Roles and responsibilities

Assessor

An assessor: •• Must be registered with the relevant assessment body or QCTO and must be a subject-matter expert; •• Plans and prepares for the assessment by reviewing the assessment requirements against the standard being assessed; •• Prepares the candidate and informs the relevant role-players involved in the assessment process; •• Conducts the assessment in accordance with the assessment plans and instructions;

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Role-player

Roles and responsibilities •• Evaluates the evidence and makes an assessment decision in accordance with the assessment criteria and guidelines; •• Provides the learner with developmental feedback and support. •• Records the assessment results in accordance with the organisation’s quality management systems (policies, procedures and practices in [L&D/HRD] management, planning and delivery); and •• Reviews the assessment to ensure that strengths and weaknesses in the learning programme design and process are captured and implemented in future assessments.

Learner/candidate

The learner (or candidate): •• Is the person whose knowledge, skills and performance are to be assessed against a particular standard, outcome or criteria; and •• Provides the assessor with as much evidence as possible of competence of the relevant assessment criteria.

Moderator

A moderator: •• Must be registered with the relevant assessment body (e.g. QCTO); •• Ensures consistency and quality of assessments; •• Ensures that the choice of evidence required, and the methods chosen for the assessment, meet the assessment criteria of the unit standard; •• Samples various assessments by different assessors to ensure that the quality of the assessments is maintained within the organisation; and •• Conducts regular meetings with assessors to ensure that the principles and process of assessments are maintained.

Designers and developers

•• Design and develop assessment guides and tools to be used in an assessment.

Witness or independent assessor

•• Ensures objectivity of the assessment process.

Workplace supervisor or manager

•• Supports the learner throughout the assessment process; •• Ensures that the assessment does not disrupt the learner’s obligations in the workplace.

Activity Role-players in assessment For each point below, write down which role-player is best suited. Choose from the following options: Assessor, Learner, Moderator, Supervisor, Designer, Witness. Roles and responsibilities

Role-player

1. Ensures consistency and quality of assessments. 2. Tebo was furious that Nancy was constantly late for work because she was practising for her assessments.

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Roles and responsibilities

Role-player

3. Michael Mtabo sat in on his colleague’s assessments and thoroughly enjoyed the experience. 4. Reviews the assessment to ensure that strengths and weaknesses in the learning programme design and process are captured and implemented in future assessments. 5. Samples various assessments to ensure that the quality of the assessments is maintained within the organisation. 6. Provides evidence to indicate competence against relevant assessment criteria. 7. Explores various methods and instruments to ensure that the best is developed. 8. Must be registered with the relevant assessment body and must be a subject matter expert. 9. Conducts regular meetings to ensure that the principles and process of assessments are maintained. 10. Jess was confident of her knowledge but concerned that she did not have enough experience so her performance would be weak.

3.1 Assessor competence According to SAQA (2001a,d,e), assessors should have technical and/or occupational expertise related to the field of learning that will be assessed. In general, all assessors should: •• Be registered against the national generic assessors’ unit standard. The unit standard (US 263976) can be accessed on SAQAs website: www.saqa.org.za. •• Know exactly what the unit standard or learning outcome expects learners to achieve; •• Have subject matter and/or occupational expertise; •• Have evaluative expertise; •• Understand the types of assessment that are appropriate to their field and to the NQF level being assessed; •• Understand the language, or jargon, of the field they are assessing; •• Keep up to date with developments in the field; •• Know the curriculum; •• Get to know the trainers through regular contact, and provide them with detailed feedback; •• Consider the rights and special needs of learners; •• Ensure that learners know what is expected of them; •• Treat learners with respect and sensitivity; and •• Demonstrate a broad understanding of outcomes-based assessment and the NQF. According to SAQA, assessors should have technical and/or occupational expertise related to the field of learning that will be assessed.

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Activity Visit SAQA’s website at: www.saqa.org.za and review the assessor unit standard (US 263976). Make a list of the key competencies required by an assessor to achieve the learning outcomes described in the unit standard.

Assessors also need to demonstrate planning, administrative and management skills. They need to manage assessment documentation and systems in a reliable, efficient and secure manner. Furthermore, assessors need good interpersonal skills and must communicate effectively with learners. The assessor must, therefore, be an excellent listener and observer. The assessor should also have questioning, feedback and evaluation skills. The learner needs to know that: •• The assessment is fair; •• The assessor acts with integrity; •• The assessor maintains confidentiality; •• The assessment is conducted according to the principles of good assessment; •• The assessor is working on the basis of a relationship built on trust; and •• The assessor has the learner’s best interests at heart. Assessors need to demonstrate planning, administrative and management skills, have good interpersonal skills and be able to communicate effectively with learners. Activity Assessor competence You have decided to become a qualified assessor. You have achieved your certification from the provider of training. Now what? 1. Decide which SETA you would need to register with. You will have to log onto the internet to conduct this research. 2. Once you have identified which SETA you would like to register with, explain the registration process you would need to follow. 3. Submit the forms or documents that may help you with this process.

3.2 The rights and special needs of learners All assessment candidates have certain rights. Chapter 1, section 6 of the South African Constitution states: •• The official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu.

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•• Recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of our people, the state must take practical and positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages. Chapter 2, section 29 of the Bill of Rights deals with the language of instruction and states the following: Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective access to, and implementation of, this right, the state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including single medium institutions, taking into account: •• equity; •• practicability; and •• the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices. It is worth noting that section 29 of the Bill of Rights is subject to certain internal limitations: a learner may receive instruction in a language of his or her choice to the extent that it is ‘reasonably practicable’. These legislative provisions give learners the right to determine the languages of their teaching and assessment. It is important that the organisation’s quality management and assessment policies take this into account. The rights of learners should be respected as far as possible. Learners are also entitled to the following: •• Learners should know how the assessment process works; they may not be pressured into being assessed when they are not ready. •• Learners may withhold past results. •• Learners have a right to an impartial observer. •• Learners have a right to appeal the assessment decision and should know the procedure to follow if they wish to appeal. •• Learners have a right to an interpreter, where appropriate. •• Learners must know to which qualification the assessment will lead, and should know how to further their learning on completion of the qualification. Learners’ special needs vary from matters related to the work environment to issues that affect an individual. These are some of the barriers to assessment: •• Special permission may be needed for an assessment to take place in a particular area. •• The environment can be noisy. •• The learner has poor hearing or vision. •• The learner is in a wheelchair. •• The learner is shy, ill or tired. •• The learner is experiencing personal problems that affect concentration. •• The learner needs a special apparatus for the assessment to take place. The assessor should consider all the rights and special needs of all learners if the assessment is to be fair, reliable and sufficient.

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4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a) differentiates between the following six forms of assessment: formative assessment, dynamic assessment, summative assessment, integrated assessment, diagnostic assessment and RPL assessment. Impact assessment is an additional form of assessment that is encouraged by the national skills development legislation (see Chapter 1).

4.1 Formative assessment Formative assessment is a range of formal, non-formal and informal ongoing assessment procedures used to focus teaching and learning activities on enabling learner attainment of learning outcomes. Formative assessment is, therefore, a form of engaging the learner in the learning process. Formal formative assessment involves recording results which count towards promotion marks. Assessment processes, tools and results are recorded towards the achievement of a qualification, part-qualification or professional designation. Non-formal and informal formative assessment involves dynamic assessment that focuses on a variety of alternative teaching and learning approaches which enable the learner to successfully achieve the learning outcomes of a programme (SAQA, 2014a). Formative assessment helps learners to improve their performance, maximise their learning and reflect on and improve their own learning. Formative assessment helps learners to improve their performance, maximise their learning and reflect on and improve their own learning. Formative assessments help L&D professionals to make decisions about the learners’ readiness to do a summative assessment. Credits may or may not be awarded. Formative assessment credits usually carry a weight towards the summative assessment results. These assessments do not have to be conducted by a registered assessor. The assessments use a range of assessment methods, such as observations, oral or written tests, interviews and demonstrations. In some instances, learners can include formative assessments in their portfolios of evidence. Formative assessments help L&D professionals to make decisions about the learners’ readiness to do a summative assessment. Formative assessment is conducted during instruction. The assessment takes place formally (for example, a test) or informally (for example, the learning facilitator’s questions or observations). Facilitators and learners all receive information, which they can use to adapt learning strategies and methods during the learning session. Formative assessment, therefore, has a teaching, a coaching and a development function. Figure 7.2 provides a detailed breakdown of the formative assessment process. Formative assessment has a teaching, a coaching and a development function. 361

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M O D E R AT I O N

1 Design a task to produce evidence of learning.

Activities, for example: • project • presentation • class work • drawing up checklists/evidence

2 Design a tool to assess evidence of learning.

Tools, for example: • checklist • rating scale • memorandum

3 Give learners the task.

Assessor/facilitator gives directions to learners.

4 Gather evidence from learners.

Learners do tasks, for example: • presentation • project

5 Apply assessment tools to evidence.

6 Make judgement/ recommendations.

7 Record the judgement.

8 Give feedback to learner.

9 Undertake further action.

C – Competent NYC – not yet competent And possible grading

Fill in: • Formative assessment grid • Summary of specific outcomes and unit standards Mediation of results and/or Appeals procedure Improve by doing again Learner goes for summative assessment

These steps are repeated continuously during the learning programme and all the evidence collected into a portfolio, which is kept by the learner.

Figure 7.2  Steps and processes involved in the formative assessment of a task (Coetzee, 2007b)

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4.2 Dynamic assessment Dynamic assessment involves formative assessment practices in which ‘mediation, learning, testing, frequent feedback to learners and systematic monitoring of changes in learning are explicit parts of the learning context’ (SAQA, 2014a: 5). Dynamic assessment consciously seeks to consolidate existing learning to build further learning through continuous feedback and learner-L&D professional interaction. The goal of dynamic assessment is to see whether, by how much and in what ways those being assessed change as a result of being presented with opportunities to learn (SAQA, 2014a: 15). The goal of dynamic assessment is to see whether, by how much and in what ways those being assessed change as a result of being presented with opportunities to learn.

4.3 Summative assessment A summative assessment is usually a formal assessment to evaluate a learner’s achievement of learning outcomes toward the certification of learning that has already taken place, and the extent to which this learning has been successful. As shown in Figure 7.2, summative assessments are usually conducted at the end of a learning programme, a set of outcomes or a single outcome (a unit standard) within the learning programme, to evaluate learning related to a particular qualification, part-qualification or professional designation (SAQA, 2014a: 15). It is the final measurement of what was learned and achieved. Summative assessments should include formative assessment evaluations and a final overall assessment of whether the learners have achieved the learning outcomes. A summative assessment contributes to the final grade of a learning outcome or qualification. This type of assessment summarises the learning process. It results in a formal statement declaring whether a learner has achieved competency or not. A summative assessment contributes to the final grade of a learning outcome and results in a formal statement declaring whether a learner has achieved competency or not. Summative assessments are not only in the form of written examinations. Summative assessments often include projects and performance tasks conducted in a real-life context after attending the practical component of a learning programme. A range of assessment methods can be used, such as observations, interviews, questioning the learner, listening to the learner and reviewing written material. These assessments provide evidence of the learner’s knowledge, application of this knowledge and evidence of the learner’s understanding and reflexive abilities. A summative assessment can be done only when: •• The assessor and learners agree that they are ready for the assessment; •• The assessor and learners have decided whether they are doing a summative or formative assessment; •• The learners know when and where the assessment will be held; and •• The learners are informed that the results will be formally recorded and reported. 363

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Table 7.2 highlights the differences between formative and summative assessment. Table 7.2  Formative and summative assessment (SAQA, 2001a,d,e)

Formative assessment

Summative assessment

•• Designed to support the teaching and learning process;

•• Occurs at the end of a learning programme;

•• Assists with the planning of future learning; •• Diagnoses the learner’s strengths and weaknesses;

•• Determines whether the learner is competent or not yet competent;

•• Provides the learner with feedback on progress;

•• Learner readiness determines when the summative assessment will take place;

•• Helps to make decisions on the learner’s readiness to do the summative assessment;

•• Carried out when the learner and assessor agree that the learner is ready for assessment;

•• Developmental in nature;

•• Credits are awarded when the learner is declared competent; and

•• Credits or certificates are not awarded; and •• Is conducted by the L&D professional.

•• Is conducted by a registered assessor.

4.4 Integrated assessment An integrated assessment is a holistic set of assessment tasks (e.g. diagnostic, formative, dynamic, summative) needed for a qualification, part qualification or professional designation. Integrated assessment could consist of a written assessment of theory together with a practical demonstration of competence – where a learner’s conceptual understanding of something is evaluated through the approach s/he takes to apply it practically. The intention is to assess learners in the modes in which they are expected to display particular competencies (SAQA, 2014a: 15). An integrated assessment is a holistic set of assessment tasks (e.g. diagnostic, formative, dynamic, summative) needed for a qualification, part qualification or professional designation. As shown in Figure 7.3, integrated assessment implies that an assessor should focus on assessing a learner’s ability to combine foundational, practical and reflexive competencies with critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) and apply these in a practical context or for a defined purpose. Developing guidelines for the assessment of the three curriculum components (knowledge, skills and work experience) now forms an integral part of the integrated assessment of occupational or job competence. The context of assessment should be as close as possible to real-life application. Integrated assessment refers to the following: •• Using one assessment activity for more than one outcome; •• Using one assessment activity for more than one unit standard; •• Integrating the critical outcomes with the learning outcomes in learning and assessment activities; •• Teaching and assessing theory and practice within the same activities; •• Using a complex assessment task (for example, a project) to integrate all the outcomes learners have dealt with throughout the learning period; and •• Assessing across learning areas (SAQA, 2005). 364

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Purpose/rationale/exit level outcomes/specific outcomes of the unit standard or qualification (What does the learner need to know, do and understand?)

Assessment strategy (What methods of integrated assessment will enable learners to demonstrate applied competence?)

Learning and teaching strategy (What methods and activities will best help learners achieve applied competence?)

Unit standards/ fields of learning and assessment criteria (How will the trainer know if the learner has achieved the learning outcomes?)

Figure 7.3  Teaching, learning and assessing in an integrated manner (www.saqa.org.za)

Assessing each outcome individually is a long and costly process. Furthermore, the principles of the NQF call for a unifying approach to education and training. If assessments are not integrated, the assessments become fragmented, place undue stress on all the roleplayers and produce a disjointed learning experience. It is important to note that integrated learning comes before integrated assessment. Figure  7.3, which details how assessment should be integrated, is taken from SAQA’s Guidelines for Integrated Assessment. It is important to note that integrated learning comes before integrated assessment. Integrated assessment demonstrates how teaching, learning and assessment activities can be developed as a coherent process while still upholding the principles of the assessment. The process emphasises the importance of carefully planning integrated teaching, learning and assessment. Other than integrating assessments, there are various ways to ensure that assessments are cost effective. These include: •• Not involving too many people in the assessment process. This can cause the assessment to become complex and time consuming. •• Ensuring that productivity in the workplace is not interrupted by the assessments. A time should be chosen that suits all the role-players. •• Keeping the resources needed for the assessments to a minimum. •• Encouraging learners to do self-assessments. Self-assessments help learners to determine whether they are ready for their final assessment. 365

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4.5 Diagnostic assessment Diagnostic assessment (or pre-testing) is a measure of the learner’s prior knowledge, skills, attitudes and values before teaching or training starts. Diagnostic assessment is done for the purpose of identifying learners’ strengths and weaknesses, in order to use the associated information for the purposes of creating suitable learning environments (SAQA, 2014a: 15). Diagnostic assessment identifies the learners’ strengths and weaknesses so the associated information can be used to create suitable learning environments. Informal and formal methods are used (in the form of questions) to assess the learners’ entry levels. Formal diagnostic assessments are scheduled and structured. A commonly used formal diagnostic assessment is a pre-test, which is a measure of a learner’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and values with regard to the curriculum. This form of assessment is also known as a baseline assessment; it helps to determine a learner’s level of competence before starting a learning programme. A diagnostic assessment can also be used during a learning session. If the learning facilitator identifies a problem, but cannot pinpoint the exact nature of the problem, diagnostic assessment is used to determine the nature of the problem or need. It is essential for L&D professionals, in their role as learning facilitators and assessment practitioners, to monitor learners’ understanding and interest continually. This ongoing type of assessment is called formative assessment, because it helps to shape or form the learning.

4.6 Assessment for recognition of prior learning Assessment for recognition of prior learning (RPL) involves evaluating the prior knowledge and skills of a person for the purposes of guiding the learner towards alternative access and admission, recognition and certification, or further learning and development. Assessment for RPL does not occur in isolation but as part of the RPL process, which includes candidate support before, during and after the RPL process; preparation for an RPL process or subprocess; mediation of knowledge obtained informally or non-formally and that which is required formally; assessment of competence, and certification (SAQA, 2014a: 14).

4.7 Impact assessment Impact assessment is a post-assessment activity that is included in the assessment process to ensure the quality of the overall process. L&D professionals may use learner feedback to evaluate the effectiveness of the assessment process. Evaluative assessment procedures help the L&D professionals to explain to learners and moderators how assessment decisions were reached. Evaluative assessment helps L&D professionals to identify gaps in unit standards and to make recommendations to managers and the QCTO. Information about learner achievements can be used to assist in curriculum development and evaluate the effectiveness of learning programmes.

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Evaluative assessment measures the impact of occupationally directed and work-based learning programmes on the performance and competence of learners in the workplace. The OLS and QCTO emphasise the assessment of the impact that occupationally directed and work-based learning programmes made on the performance and competence of learners in the workplace. When assessing the effectiveness of a learning programme, the following criteria are the most important (Tshilongamulenzhe, 2012): •• Quality research and data analysis must inform the impact assessment of skills development delivery in the workplace. •• Learners must have demonstrated competence in having acquired the professional/ occupational/job knowledge, skills and work experience relevant to an occupation/job after completing the programme. •• An occupationally directed learning programme must expose learners to a wide range of skills and work experience that they can apply and use in the workplace. •• Learners must have demonstrated the ability to apply and use the knowledge/theory acquired during the learning programme in the workplace. •• An occupationally directed learning programme must prepare learners to relate their training to the relevant occupation and job in the particular workplace context. •• Learners must be able to deliver occupationally/job relevant products and services after completing the learning programme. •• Learners must be able to perform occupational/job tasks after completing the learning programme. •• The occupationally directed learning or work-based learning programme must be designed to develop the work-based level of competence required in the workplace. Activity Types of assessment Read through the scenarios below: 1. Decide whether or not assessment would be an appropriate response. 2. Decide what kind of assessment is taking place in each scenario. Justify your answer. The new CEO at ABC Factory is determined to make the factory globally competitive, and is keen to upgrade workers’ skills. He plans on spending at least 5% of the payroll on training and decides to start the process by organising a full-scale audit throughout the factory. Rivers Khumalo is excited as she has been short listed to be interviewed for her dream job. She is told that after the interview she will be assessed in a simulated working environment.

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Makgathi Mokwena is an NQF Level 5 engineering student at a college. She has been granted a six-month placement with Electric Vision as part of her apprenticeship. Halfway through the placement, the training manager organises an assessment to see how she is doing. Marc Whitmill has worked at the Mont St Claire Hotel as assistant chef for more than 20 years. He has filled in as head chef on more occasions than he cares to remember. He now feels that his skills should be acknowledged financially. He approaches the HR manager who says that she will arrange for him to be assessed using the new assessment methods. Jayberries Pharmaceuticals has had a problem with weak management in the production department for a long time. Systems are poor and out of date and, in particular, Andre Maharaj, the manager in charge of the department, is known to be dictatorial and prejudiced. The union is actively raising the issue of the management problems in the company. The union’s shop steward, Ashley Harris, is called in by Andre Maharaj and told that he is going to be assessed.

5. ASSESSMENT METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS Assessment methods are tools that an assessor uses to gather evidence of a candidate’s performance. Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate evidence. Examples of assessment methods include observing learners, questioning learners, interviewing supervisors, colleagues or managers of learners, listening to learners, reviewing written material, and testing products. Assessment activities are the actual activities the learner is supposed to perform when following a particular assessment method. If observation is the assessment method, the actual assessment activity might, for example, be that the learner is required to strip the paint off the wall, or the learner cashier is required to pay out money to the customer. Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate evidence of a candidate’s performance. Assessment instruments are designed to make the assessor’s use of assessment methods more practical, consistent and effective. For example, a written test (method) needs a test paper and assessment criteria (instrument) to be assessed effectively. Other examples of assessment instruments are scenarios with questions, case studies, descriptions of tasks to be performed and descriptions of role-play scenarios. Assessment instruments are designed to make the assessor’s use of assessment methods more practical, consistent and effective.

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Table 7.3 shows which methods can be used with which instruments. Table 7.3  Assessment methods and instruments (SAQA, 2001a,d,e)

Assessment methods

Possible assessment instrument

Assignments

Assignment sheet and rubric clearly indicating the assessment criteria against which learners are measured.

Case studies

Printed case studies and questions based on the case study.

Written exams or tests

Examination paper, answer sheet and memorandum.

Multiple-choice questions

A bank of multiple-choice questions and answers.

Oral exams

Questions and possible answers, assessment criteria and a rating scale.

Personal interviews

Interview format, questions and a clear job description or description of what is required of the candidate.

Practical demonstrations

List of expected activities and prescribed levels to indicate required level of competence.

Projects

Clear purpose statement, scope of responsibilities, team members and instructions.

Role-plays

Clear instructions and outcomes to be achieved.

The assessment method (or blend of methods) chosen will depend on the type of evidence required, the number of learners and the resources and time available for the assessment. It is important to understand the strengths, weaknesses and uses of the assessment methods. Learners should have a say in the type of method used to assess them. Therefore, describe assessment instruments clearly, as this will determine their effectiveness during the assessment process. Table 7.4  Uses of assessment methods (SAQA, 2001a,e)

Assessment methods Observations

Description

Examples

Recording evidence of a candidate’s competency in carrying out a process or developing a product.

•• Judging performance against checklists; •• Logbooks; •• Diaries.

Written tests

Answering questions set by an independent assessor.

Aimed at remembering and recalling information, as well as analysing, reporting on and discussing issues and debating viewpoints.

Oral presentations

Communicating verbally about a researched and prepared topic.

Reporting on a project, briefing other employees and informing a supervisor on work done.

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Assessment methods

Description

Examples

Interviews

Discussing issues in a structured way.

Aimed at finding out whether an employee understands and can apply knowledge and skills.

Documents (reports, portfolios or case studies)

Supplying evidence of competence in written form, clearly demonstrating competence over a period of time.

•• Job reports; •• Scientific articles; •• Certificates; •• Completed and assessed assignments; •• Letters of recommendation from employer; •• Course outlines of previously studied courses; •• Rough notes and drawings; •• Photographs; •• Computer software; •• Proof of seminars attended; •• Letters from peers.

Simulations

Imitating a real-life situation and a real‑life task.

•• Work-based practical assignments; •• Rehearsals; •• Role-plays; •• Poster presentations; •• Models; •• Simulators.

Projects

Tasks undertaken by an individual or group, unique in terms of outcomes, parameters and criteria.

•• Reports; •• Dissertations; •• Models; •• Computer programs; •• Exhibitions; •• Portfolios; •• Posters.

Performance tests

Performing in a natural situation (such as a hospital, factory floor or classroom).

Assessing life-saving attempts by a nurse, fire-fighter or paramedic.

Table 7.5 identifies the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various assessment tools available.

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Evidence authentic

Evidence current

Alternative response questions

✓

✓

✓

Assesses the learner’s ability to recall information and discriminate.

Knowledge test

✓

✓

✓

This does not test the learner’s practical skill;

Instrument

Evidence sufficient

Evidence valid

Table 7.5  Uses of assessment instruments

Strengths and weaknesses

Encourages rote learning and favours learners with good writing skills; Assesses theoretical outcomes and can be cost effective if assessing a number of people. Assertion/reason questions

✓

✓

✓

Assesses the learner’s ability to weigh up options and discriminate.

Simulations

✓

✓

✓

Provides the learner with opportunities to make risk-free and non-threatening decisions; Depending on the simulation, this can produce evidence of all competencies; Is not a true indication of the actual situation.

Role-play

✓

✓

Learners act out a role with other role-players;

✓

It does not necessarily test the learner’s theoretical, practical or reflexive knowledge, hence the evidence is not sufficient; Can be cost effective. Practical

✓

✓

✓

✓

Depending on the practical, this can produce evidence of all competencies – involves the learners performing actual tasks; If conducted in real-life situations, it can provide authentic evidence; Learners may feel self-conscious and nervous when they carry out their practical tasks.

Assignments

✓

Written evidence is required for an assigned task;

✓

Depending on the assignment, this cannot always be verified as the learners’ own work; Favours learners with good writing skills. Portfolio of evidence

✓

✓

✓

✓

This method allows the learners to produce a written portfolio of the work they have done; Allows the learner to submit evidence of all applied competencies if signed off by roleplayers who have observed the learner’s practical abilities.

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Instrument

Evidence valid

Evidence authentic

Evidence current

Evidence sufficient

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Oral presentation

✓

✓

✓

✓

Strengths and weaknesses Allows the learner to prepare a presentation in the form of an oral to an audience; Depending on the oral, this can produce evidence of all competencies; Favours those who speak well; Can make learners feel nervous or self-conscious.

Examination

✓

✓

Usually given at the end of a programme;

✓

Tests the learners’ foundational and reflexive competencies. Case study

✓

This activity can be done orally or in writing, in groups or individually;

✓

Allows for creative problem-solving; Does not test the learners’ ability to actually perform the skill. Questionnaire

✓

The competencies of a number of people can be assessed;

✓

It does not test the theoretical knowledge and practical skill of the learners; hence the evidence is not sufficient. Demonstration

✓

✓

✓

Oral tests

✓

✓

✓

✓

This activity allows the learners to assess all competencies – it can include all aspects of VACS. (Evidence of requirements.) Depending on the oral, this can produce evidence of all competencies; Favours those with good communication skills.

Personal interviews

✓

✓

✓

This method does not test the learners’ abilities to actually perform the task.

Structured questions

✓

✓

✓

Set questions are asked to determine the learners’ competence – reflective and foundational skills may be assessed.

Extended response questions

✓

✓

✓

Assesses the learners’ problem-solving or analysing skills and ability to recall information.

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Evidence authentic

Evidence current

Grid questions

✓

✓

✓

Evidence sufficient

Instrument

Evidence valid

Chapter 7 | Assessment and moderation in learning and development

Strengths and weaknesses Presented in a grid format; Learners are given two lists – a statement list and a response list and they have to match the responses to the statements given; Each statement may have more than one given response; This method is usually used to simulate open-ended debates and arguments.

Multiple-response questions

✓

✓

✓

Comprises a choice of questions with a possibility of a few answers; Learners have to choose the correct answer.

Oral questions restricted response questions

✓

✓

✓

The form and the content of the responses are limited by the way in which the questions are asked; They do not have to have specific answers and the assessor can use personal judgement when interpreting a response; This style of questioning allows for selfexpression and creative thinking.

Log books

Used to assess the learners’ historical evidence;

✓

Authenticity cannot always be verified. Projects

✓

✓

✓

Depending on the project, this can assess most competencies.

Peer assessment

✓

✓

✓

Evaluations done by the learners’ peers or co-workers; Does not provide direct evidence of the learners’ competencies – can be used as supplementary evidence.

Self-assessment

✓

✓

✓

Cost- and time-effective methods of assessment; Can be done before an assessment to ensure that the learners are ready for the assessment.

5.1 Portfolio assessment A portfolio is a folder that contains samples of the learner’s work for a specific learning programme. The portfolio serves as evidence of the learner’s ability to demonstrate competency, as stipulated in the learning outcomes. Portfolios provide evidence of a learner’s knowledge,

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skills, attitudes and academic development; they can be assessed through formative and summative assessment. Portfolios also allow learners to evaluate their own work. When learners are responsible for deciding what to include in a portfolio, they are forced to examine their work from a new perspective (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Portfolios have the potential to enhance learning facilitation and learning, because they engage the trainer and learners in reflective self-evaluation. Portfolios also accomplish an alignment of curriculum, instruction and assessment, which is seldom achieved with other assessment methods. Portfolios have the potential to enhance learning facilitation and learning, because they engage the trainer and learners in reflective self-evaluation. The main reasons for using portfolios are to: •• Assess learners’ accomplishments of learning outcomes; •• Assess the quality of learners’ sustained work; •• Allow learners to turn their own special interests and abilities into a showcase; •• Encourage the development of qualities such as pride in quality workmanship; •• Improve learners’ ability to self-evaluate and accomplish meaningful tasks; •• Provide a collection of work that learners may use in the future for university applications, employment seeking and continued professional development; and •• Document improvements in work (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Portfolios provide important formative assessment data. A portfolio is an accumulated body of work in a real-life context. It provides evidence of the learning and growth that learners have achieved. Portfolios emphasise strengths, the development of skills, improvement and personal reflections. They provide a broad picture of a learner’s learning (Coetzee, 2007b). Today, learners can also use portfolios as a tool to involve their coaches and mentors in gathering evidence of their on-the-job experience and competencies in the workplace; in other words, it becomes a sort of enabler that encourages managers (who can sometimes be reluctant) to provide information and knowledge to learners.

5.2 Recognition of prior learning The revised National Policy for the Implementation of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) (SAQA, 2013) provides for the implementation of RPL within the context of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008. The new RPL policy replaces the policy document Recognition of Prior Learning in the Context of the South African NQF developed in 2002 by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) within the context of the SAQA Act, 58 of 1995. RPL is a multi-contextual assessment practice, which refers to principles and processes through which the prior knowledge and skills of a person are made visible, mediated and assessed for the purposes of alternative access and admission, recognition and certification, or further learning and development (SAQA, 2013; 2014). SAQA (2013) differentiates between two main forms of RPL: (1) RPL for access, which provides alternative access routes into programmes of learning; and 374

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(2) RPL for credit, which involves obtaining credit towards a qualification, part-qualification or professional designation, for learning/experience obtained informally or non-formally. RPL can be carried out at any NQF level. Activity National RPL Policy Visit SAQA’s website at www.saqa.org.za and obtain a copy of the National Policy for the Implementation of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) (SAQA, 2013). Study the various standards for RPL outlined in the policy. Recognition of prior learning Imagine that you are an expert in a particular field but have no formal qualifications. You decide to be assessed for RPL. List a step-by-step process you would follow in order to get an RPL assessment. Be sure to give a background, current qualifications you could be assessed against, evidence you could submit. This activity will require internet research.

RPL means that a person’s competencies are recognised and acknowledged. (This is discussed more fully in Chapter 1.) It does not matter how the competencies were obtained; in other words, competencies acquired through experience are equal to competencies acquired through a formal course. In practice, there is no fundamental difference in the assessment of previously acquired competencies and the assessment of competencies achieved through a full learning programme. RPL involves the following: •• Comparing the previous learning and experience of a learner against the learning outcomes required for a qualification; •• Accepting that those learning experiences meet the requirements to obtain the qualification; •• Allowing for accelerated access to further learning; •• Assessing and giving credit for evidence of learning that has already been acquired in different ways. RPL means that a person’s competencies are recognised and acknowledged: it does not matter how the competencies were obtained. As shown in Figure 7.4, the RPL process is about: •• Identifying a learners’ competencies; •• Matching the learners’ skills, knowledge and experience to standards and the associated assessment criteria of a qualification; •• Assessing learners’ achievements against these standards by evaluating the collected evidence; and •• Crediting learners for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal, informal and non-formal learning that occurred in the past.

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Identify

Match

Recognition of prior learning (RPL)

Assess

Credit

Figure 7.4  The RPL process

According to SAQA, RPL is important for the following reasons: •• It ensures that people’s skills and knowledge are current. •• It redresses the historical disadvantages, such as the exclusion of people from education, training and employment. •• It enhances the development of individuals. •• It facilitates access to jobs and progression in career paths. •• It assists recognition in terms of grading and salary. •• It assists planning through skills audits. •• It promotes employment equity.

6. THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS All assessments follow the same basic processes: •• Planning the assessment; •• Preparing the learner for assessment; •• Conducting the assessment, documenting the evidence; •• Evaluating the evidence and making assessment judgements; •• Providing feedback to the relevant parties; and •• Reviewing the assessment.

6.1 Planning the assessment Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

Figure 7.5 shows the application of assessment planning for RPL.

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Application for RPL

RPL evidence facilitator meets candidate to conduct pre-screening to ascertain viability of application

If viable, then pre-assessment stage:

If not viable, i.e. candidate will clearly not meet the minimum requirements in terms of language/numeracy and/or other competencies, the candidate is referred for further advice on alternative pathways.

RPL evidence facilitator takes candidate/s through preparation for assessment: • Portfolio development and related workshops, and/or • One-on-one advising • Assessment approaches, tools, mechanisms • Guidance on collecting evidence, which candidate then does Assessor (preferably with facilitator present) and candidate develop assessment plan: • Review unit standard(s) and requirements • Type and sources of evidence • Assessment tools to be used in this assessment • Dates and times of assessment

Assessment stage: • Candidate undergoes practical assessment, and/or • Candidate sits knowledge test, and/or • Candidate goes through pre- and post-interview, etc.

Judgement stage: Evidence judged by assessor

Moderation stage

Feedback stage

Credit not awarded

Appeal process may be initiated

Credit awarded

Post-assessment support

Related aspects assumed to be in place: • RPL policies, procedures and systems in place. • Information on RPL is readily available. • The provider has developed a criteria framework within which prescreening takes place; prescreening criteria are readily available to candidates. • Assessment instruments have been developed and moderated. • Alternative pathways/options, as well as additional counselling services. • Where no facilitators are available, assessors will undertake all functions. Note: Credit awarded could be replaced with ‘access’; ‘advanced status’, etc. depending on the context and purpose of RPL within the institution.

Figure 7.5  The RPL assessment process

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There are various steps that an assessor should follow when planning the assessment. If the assessor’s planning is not adequate, the assessment process will not achieve its goals. Assessors must be familiar with the learning programme and the learning outcomes against which learners will be assessed. To do this, assessors should: •• Familiarise themselves with the overall purpose that has to be achieved. The learning outcomes in terms of the three curriculum components, knowledge, skills and work experience (see chapters 1 and 4), critical cross-field outcomes, assessment criteria, and other requirements that will influence the design of the assessment should be identified. •• Discuss assessment with other facilitators and assessors to gain as much information as possible about the learning programme, the type of work done with the learner during the teaching and learning phase and resources used. •• Evaluate and revise previously used assessment processes and materials. •• Develop assessment instruments (if the organisation does not have existing instruments). •• Draw up an assessment plan that addresses all the requirements of the standard being assessed. The purpose of an assessment plan is to provide clarity to relevant role-players on the assessment and moderation processes. Assessors must be familiar with the learning programme and the learning outcomes against which learners will be assessed. The assessment plan should cover the following: •• The performance to be assessed; •• The types of evidence that is required to declare the learner competent; •• The assessment methods and instruments that will be used to conduct the assessment; •• The strengths and weaknesses of assessment methods and instruments; •• The sequence of events; •• The period of assessment, indicating the time allocated for each assessment, deadlines and availability of results; •• The physical and human resources that will be required; •• The logistics of the assessment; •• The role-players involved in the assessment, and their roles and responsibilities; •• The moderation of the assessment; •• The need for cost-effectiveness in the assessment; •• The special needs of learners and possible barriers to the assessment; •• The plans that are in place in case of unforeseen circumstances; •• The assessment context and strategy; •• The organisation’s assessment, moderation, RPL and appeals policies and procedures; •• The accessibility and safety of the environment; and •• The assessment documentation that will be needed. Table 7.6 provides a detailed example of an assessment plan.

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Table 7.6  Assessment plan Assessor’s name Assessor’s contact details Email Cellphone Telephone Learner’s name Learner’s contact details ID number Telephone Cellphone Email Address Learner’s position in organisation Manager’s name Manager’s contact details Email Cellphone Telephone Assessment context

Give the context of the assessment to be conducted. Describe what is being assessed.

Assessment strategy

State the assessment strategy to be followed. Describe how outcomes will be assessed.

Purpose of assessment

State the purpose of the assessment as given in the learning outcomes or unit standard. Also state whether the assessment is formative or summative. Describe why the outcomes will be assessed.

Performance to be assessed

Mention the specific outcomes to be assessed.

Evidence required

Describe the type of evidence needed to declare the learner competent (for example, direct evidence, indirect evidence and supplementary evidence). Give a thorough explanation of the requirements for evidence.

Methods and instruments to be used (including strengths and weaknesses)

Discuss the methods and instruments needed to determine the learner’s level of competence. Also describe the strengths and weaknesses of each method.

Date, time and period of assessment

Mention how long each assessment will take. Give an approximate date for the assessment and confirm it with the learner.

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Availability of results

Give an approximate date for the availability of results after the final assessment.

L ogistics of assessment, including safety of the environment

Discuss the logistics of the assessment, including where, when and how it will take place. Consider the safety of the environment.

Role-players in the assessment

Mention all the role players involved in the assessment. Give their names and contact details, and state how they are involved in the assessment.

Moderation

Describe the role of the moderator in the assessment. Explain exactly how the moderator is involved in pre-assessment and post-assessment moderation.

Policies and procedures

State the organisation’s assessment, moderation, RPL and appeals policies and procedures. Note any important matters to be considered in this regard.

Physical and human resources

State what resources you will need for this assessment. Note that this aspect may already be covered in the section on logistics and role players in the assessment.

Cost-effectiveness

Consider ways to keep costs low. Include integrated assessment in the discussion.

Special needs of learners and barriers to the assessment

Note any special needs that have to be considered. Consider any barriers that might impede the assessment.

Contingency plans

Consider contingency plans in the event of circumstances that might hinder the assessment.

Principles of assessment

Indicate how these principles are applied in the assessment.

Documentation

Consider the various documents needed for the assessment, including policy documents and appeals forms. The candidate must have some knowledge of SAQA, QCTO and the NQF. Ensure that they know the difference between the traditional learning and outcomes-based learning. Prepare this information for the candidate learner. If the candidate does not have this information, they will not understand the assessment process.

Sequence of events

Give a step-by-step explanation of the assessment process.

Quality assurance

Explain how feedback will be recorded and stored in keeping with the organisation’s quality assurance system.

Assessors are required to compile a comprehensive assessment guide. This should form part of the facilitator/trainer guide (discussed in Chapter 4). The assessment guide is the result of a thorough analysis of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria for the learning programme. Assessors use assessment guides to conduct an assessment. Assessment guides address the following aspects in detail: •• How will the assessment take place? •• What is needed to make the assessment happen? •• How will evidence be gathered, recorded and judged (SAQA, 2007)? Assessment guides include descriptions of the approach to the assessment, assessment conditions, assessment activities, instructions to assessors and learners, assessment 380

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methods, assessment instruments, resource requirements, guidance for contextualising assessments, relevant standard operating procedures, administrative procedures, moderation requirements, assessment outcomes and criteria, observation sheets, quality checklists, possible or required sources of evidence and guidance on expected quality of evidence (SAQA, 2007). Activity Planning an assessment 1. Log onto the SAQA website at www.saqa.org.za and find a simple unit standard that you, as an assessor, would like to use to assess a work colleague. 2. Decide what evidence you would require from your colleague in order to deem them competent in the unit standard. In other words, what you would require from your colleague in order for them to ‘pass’. 3. Decide how you would go about getting this evidence. What methods would you use to assess the learner? What instrument would you use to assess each method? 4. Draw up an assessment plan for this activity. Attach your unit standard to your feedback.

6.2 Preparing the learner for assessment Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

When assessors have planned and prepared the assessment process, the relevant role-players must be informed of the assessment. The most important role-player is the learner. The learner will probably be unfamiliar with the assessment process and terminology; it is therefore important for the assessor to explain the assessment thoroughly, in a manner and language that sets the learner at ease. Assessors may use the assessment plan as a guide to inform the learner of the process. This plan will inform the learner about the requirements for the assessment and the learner’s role and responsibilities during the assessment. It is important for the assessor to reach an agreement with the learner on how the evidence will be collected and presented. Learners should be made aware of the following: •• The process of the assessment and why the assessment will be conducted in a particular way; •• The key elements of outcomes-based assessment within the context of the NQF; •• The kinds of assessment activities they need to perform; •• The standard and level of performance required; •• The type and amount of evidence to be collected; •• Their rights as learners and their responsibilities regarding the collection of evidence; and •• The reassessments and appeals procedure to be followed, if learners are not satisfied with the assessment result. 381

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The assessor and learner must reach an agreement on the assessment process. The assessor and learners sign off the assessment plan (or any other document that constitutes an agreement). This gives the assessor documented proof of the learner’s readiness to proceed with the assessment. This is an important step in the assessment process. If learners later feel that they were forced into the assessment, they may appeal against the assessment decisions on the grounds that they were not ready for the assessment. The assessor and learner must reach an agreement on the assessment process and sign off the assessment plan. Table 7.7 includes an example of an assessment strategy an assessor might adopt for a particular assessment. Table 7.7  Example of an assessment strategy (Coetzee, 2006a)

Unit Standard 114924: Demonstrate understanding of the outcomes-based education and training approach within the context of the NQF. Specific outcomes

Method of facilitation

Reference in manual

Method of assessment

Reference in manual (section where assessment occurs in course)

Specific outcome 1

Pre-course and manual activities

Pre-course activities

Questions

Relates to all pre-course activities

Module 1

Learning manual activities

Activity 1.11

Pre-course activities

Self-assessment

Relates to all pre-course activities

Module 1

Workplace assignments

Workplace application (Portfolio 1.2)

Explain the outcomesbased approach to education and training.

Presentation Specific outcome 2 Describe the NQF.

Group work

Workplace application (Portfolio 1.2)

Specific outcome 3

Module 1

Activity 1.11

Describe and explain standards.

Module 3

Activity 3.2

Specific outcome 4

Module 1

Activity 1.11

Module 1

Activity 1.11

Describe and explain qualifications. Specific outcome 5 Develop a broad plan for implementing the NQF within an organisation.

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Unit Standard 114924: Demonstrate understanding of the outcomes-based education and training approach within the context of the NQF. Essential embedded knowledge

Method of facilitation

Reference in manual

Method of assessment

Reference in manual

The entire unit standard addresses issues of knowledge relative to the outcomes-based approach and the NQF, thus all the outcomes and criteria define the knowledge explicitly.

Pre-course and manual activities

Pre-course manual

Questions

Relates to all activities and assignments

Module 1

Activities

Critical cross-field outcomes

Method of facilitation

Presentation

Learning manual Self-assessment Workplace assignments

Reference in manual

Method of assessment

Reference in manual

CCFO Communicating

Questions

CCFO Demonstrating

Learning manual

Relates to all activities and assignments

Activities Self-assessment Workplace assignments

6.3 Conducting assessment Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

Assessment is a structured process of gathering evidence about learners’ achievements in relation to specific learning outcomes. Assessment is a structured process of gathering evidence about learners’ achievements in relation to specific learning outcomes. This evidence is used to make assessment decisions about the learners’ competence. The collection of evidence is the main focus of the assessment process. Assessors are required to do the following: •• Ensure that the assessment is conducted in an appropriate, non-threatening manner, and in accordance with the assessment plan. •• Collect evidence that is valid, authenticated, current and sufficient to determine the learners’ competence. Ideally, collect evidence that is directly observed by the assessor. Other types of evidence are also acceptable, but only if they are verified (Tables 7.8 and 7.9 show ways to verify the authenticity of learners’ evidence). •• Collect evidence that covers all the assessment criteria of the programme or unit being assessed. •• Collect evidence from a variety of sources to ensure a consistent and reliable assessment decision. This may include evidence of the learners’ previous or current work performance, testimonials and performance appraisals. 383

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•• Gather enough evidence – including evidence generated over time – to reach a valid, consistent and fair assessment decision. The collection of evidence is the main focus of the assessment process. Table 7.8  Example of candidate declaration of authenticity (Coetzee, 2006a)

Ethics and authenticity declaration Please complete the following and sign in the space provided. Sign the declaration and ask your manager or a senior colleague to sign the endorsement section. The contents of this portfolio will be verified. The person who signs the endorsement should be willing to stand by their endorsement of authenticity. Candidate declaration I declare that I have compiled this portfolio. This is my own work and the contents reflect evidence that I have gathered to demonstrate my competence as an assessor.

Signed: Date:

Workplace endorsement Name of person giving the endorsement: Position in the organisation: Tel (w):

Email (w):

I confirm that this portfolio of evidence is the work of:

Signed:



Date:

Table 7.9  Example of a witness declaration of authenticity (Coetzee, 2006)

Witness declaration of authenticity Candidate’s name: Please ensure that all witnesses who sign the candidate’s evidence, observe any activities performed by the candidate or write a report are included on this witness status list. Name and contact details of witness

Status of witness

Relationship to learner

Specified activities witnessed

Witness‘s signature

Date

To ensure that the entire assessment process is credible, certain principles of assessment, as outlined in Table 7.10, must be followed. These principles provide guidelines to ensure the integrity of the assessment process.

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Table 7.10  Principles of assessment (SAQA, 2001a,e; 2014a) Accountability

All role-players in assessment processes acknowledge and account for their areas of responsibility.

Appropriate

The methods of assessment are suited and appropriate to the performance being assessed.

Assessment range

The full range of relevant competencies needed for a qualification, part-qualification or professional designation is assessed.

Authentic

The work being assessed and the evidence produced must belong to the learner. In other words, the work submitted must be the work of the person being assessed. The learner or a witness can sign the work to indicate that it is authentic.

Consistent and reliable

The evidence produced must be consistent and reliable. Consistency means the extent to which the same judgement will be made in the same or similar situations. The results of the assessment must be the same if given by another assessor under similar circumstances; similar assessment-related judgements are made across similar contexts in consistent ways about: •• assessment tools and tasks; •• marking; •• moderation •• recording and dissemination of results; •• certification; and •• record keeping.

Credibility in the form of supportive administration procedures

Physical and other conditions under which assessment is conducted do not unfairly prejudice assessment activities and outcome.

Fair

The assessment process must be fair. The assessment methods must not present any barriers to achieving the learning outcomes. Assessment methods should be suited to the learning outcomes and the evidence required. Learners are assessed on what they know and have been taught, and the purpose of assessment is to enhance learning.

Supportive administration procedures include clear and accessible information; standardised conditions under which assessment is conducted; and standardised appeals processes which are the same for all similar instances within an institution.

An appropriate assessment range, where the full range of relevant competencies and levels of cognitive demand needed for a qualification, part-qualification or professional designation is assessed. This range includes types and levels of competence required at each NQF level (see Level Descriptors for the South African NQF [SAQA, 2012]). The assessment provides equal assessment opportunities for all learners regardless of their ethnicity, age, gender, culture, disability, social class, language and other contextual features. Absence of bias

Assessment practices do not in any way advantage or disadvantage particular learners or groups of learners.

Sensitivity to language

Care is taken to ensure that language does not become a barrier to learning; An accessible language of learning and teaching is used, which is mediated for those learners for whom it is not their mother tongue; Care is taken to use appropriate language that is free of ambiguity and technical jargon; and In cases of translation into different national languages, the assessment is consistent and the alternate forms comparable.

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Integrative

The purpose of assessment is to evaluate and enhance learning; The evidence collected must be integrated into the job or field of learning, where appropriate; Integrated assessment should assess the ability to combine foundational, practical and reflexive competence with critical cross-field outcomes and apply these in a practical context; The three curriculum components – knowledge, skills, workplace application and experience – are assessed; A range of modes of teaching and learning, including assessment, such as face-toface, distance, e-learning, full-time, part-time, portfolio, block release, mixed-mode and multi-modal approaches is attempted to facilitate lifelong learning and to maximise inclusivity.

Manageable or practical

The assessment must be manageable and practical. In other words, it must not be expensive and time consuming, or interfere with any learning.

Relevant

The evidence must be relevant to the outcome; for example, if the aim of an assessment is to assess a learner’s ability to drive a truck, it is not necessary to assess a learner’s ability to drive a car; The assessor must ensure that only the required outcomes are assessed.

Sufficient

The assessor must collect enough evidence to make an accurate judgement; The amount of evidence needed will depend on the type of assessment; The assessor will know sufficient evidence has been collected only if the evidence assesses the learner’s foundational knowledge, practical skill and reflective thinking.

Systematic

The assessment process must be planned and recorded in a systematic way; The user-friendliness and availability of assessment-related documentation is ensured.

Transparent or open

The assessment process should be transparent and open to all; Learners must be able to contribute to the assessment process and give their input regarding the collection of evidence; All relevant stakeholders, learners and educators have a clear understanding of the relevant purposes, processes, criteria and consequences of assessment; Evidence of the development and moderation of assessment tasks and instruments, where appropriate, is provided.

Valid

The assessment measures what it sets out to measure; Procedures, methods, instruments and materials are appropriate, useful and meaningful; There is a match between content to be assessed, learning outcomes, and purpose of assessment; The assessment relates to its stated purpose, learning outcomes, and assessment criteria (content and construct validity); Validation of assessment tools involves ensuring the match between what is to be assessed and the suitability of the tools chosen to measure this aspect; Validation of assessment tasks involves ensuring the match between what is to be assessed and the suitability of the tasks to make this aspect visible/audible; Validation of assessment processes includes developing assessment tools and tasks, marking, moderation, and providing feedback on assessment conducted – ensuring a match between the processes and goals of assessment; and Enhancing credibility or validation through a peer-review process where all aspects of the assessment process are documented and available for scrutiny.

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Integrity

There is honesty in every part of the assessment process; Assessment questions are based on work actually covered, or to enhance learning in a genuine way; Learners are honest about what they offer to be assessed; Markers strive to understand what is being offered by learners for assessment, and grading it fairly at all times; Moderators moderate a fair sample of cases; and Feedback is given to learners and educators after moderation.

The purpose of assessment is to evaluate and enhance learning. Activity Assessment tools You have already decided on a unit standard you would like to assess. You have decided on the evidence that would be required and on the methods and instruments you would use for this assessment. 1. Draw up one of the assessment tools. Be sure to draw up the questions and the checklist. 2. Indicate if this assessment tool is valid, authentic, current and sufficient.

6.4 Gathering and documenting evidence Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

Gathering evidence is a crucial part of the assessment process. Assessment evidence can be defined as evidence collected from workplace performance, supplemented by other performance. This evidence is weighed against the assessment criteria in the unit standard. The evidence that assessors are looking for may differ from one type of assessment to the next. Evidence will be different for assessing technical competence, occupational competence, critical outcomes, team performance or a learner’s ability to transfer knowledge as outlined in Table 7.11. There are many different ways to collect evidence. These include: •• Direct evidence is obtained when you directly observe learners’ performance in a normal or non-routine workplace situation, and in the execution of specific tasks. •• Indirect evidence is the opposite of direct evidence. It is collected through simulations, projects and the assessment of products or services. •• Supplementary evidence may be required to see whether a learner can perform in a variety of situations. Learners will have to give proof of their competence, and evidence can be gathered in a variety of ways (such as through written or oral exams). Thirdparty reports (from supervisors, fellow learners and clients) may also contribute to the evidence. 387

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Gathering evidence of performance is a crucial part of the assessment process. This evidence is then weighed against the assessment criteria in the unit standard. Table 7.11  Types of evidence

Direct evidence

Indirect evidence

Supplementary evidence

This is the preferred type of evidence. It is valid, authentic, current and sufficient. Direct observations give the assessor direct evidence of learners’ competence.

Indirect evidence can be used to supplement or support the direct evidence. It is evidence about the learner, usually from another source.

Supplementary evidence may include additional evidence that supports direct or indirect evidence and historical evidence. Historical evidence informs the assessor how learners performed in the past. It does not necessarily prove learners’ current competence.

Assessment documents should be developed to collect and record evidence. This will ensure the consistency of assessment results, especially if more than one assessor is involved in the assessment process. Assessors are required to record all the evidence collected in the learner’s portfolio of evidence. It is best to keep an assessment record for each learner, stating the outcomes assessed, the date and time of the assessment and the assessor’s details. These documents should be dated and signed by the learner, assessor and moderator. Assessment documents should collect and record evidence to ensure the consistency of assessment results, especially if more than one assessor is involved in the process. Table 7.12  Example of a summative assessment form (Coetzee, 2006a)

Learning programme: Developing people Unit standard title: Analyse the skills development legislation and apply it in the workplace (US 14551) NQF Level: 4   Credits: 4 Candidate’s name: Learning Unit 1

Assessor’s initials

Candidate’s initials

Date

Outcome title Demonstrate an understanding of the social contexts and values underpinning skills development. Assessment criteria The principles and values underpinning the institution are identified and explained in terms of their operations.

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Learning programme: Developing people Unit standard title: Analyse the skills development legislation and apply it in the workplace (US 14551) NQF Level: 4   Credits: 4 Current skills development legislation is identified and a summary of the underpinning principles and values is given in writing. Batho Pele principles are explained, with examples. Skills development priorities are linked to labour market opportunities. Application Interpret the objectives of the NSDS, HRDS and Batho Pele principles as they apply to the public service. Explore the challenges regarding people development within the public service and the specific department. Explore the roles of the various stakeholders in implementing the NSDS, HRDS and Batho Pele principles in the public service. Competent

Not yet competent

General comments: Assessor:

Candidate:

Signature:

Signature:

Date:

Date:

Evidence is the tangible proof that learners produce to show that they meet the criteria of the applicable learning outcomes or unit standard. The evidence must include the following: •• Evidence of knowledge. Learners should provide evidence of theoretical knowledge of the work (foundational knowledge). For example, a chef has theoretical knowledge about planning menus. •• Evidence of application of knowledge. Learners should show that they can actually apply the knowledge to practical situations (practical knowledge). For example, a chef plans the menu for a dinner. •• Evidence of understanding and reflection. In addition to foundational and practical knowledge, learners must show that they understand the work (reflective knowledge). For example, a chef designs and creates menus for various different events. Evidence should meet certain criteria before it can be used in the assessment process. These are shown in Table 7.13, which presents the VACS analysis of evidence. 389

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Table 7.13  The VACS analysis of evidence Valid

The evidence must be relevant to the standard or outcomes assessed.

Authentic

The evidence must belong to the learner.

Current

The evidence must indicate the current competence of the learner.

Sufficient

The learner must provide enough evidence (as defined by the performance criteria and the range statement) to enable the assessor to declare the learner competent.

6.5 Evaluating evidence and making assessment judgements Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

When the evidence has been gathered and documented, assessors need to judge learners’ competence. This judgement is based on an evaluation of the evidence. Assessors are expected to evaluate the evidence against each assessment criterion. The assessment decision must take into account any unexpected circumstances that may compromise the fairness and correctness of the assessment. In other words, learners must not be penalised for something that was not their fault. The assessment decision must take into account any unexpected circumstances that may compromise the fairness and correctness of the assessment. The assessment decision must be consistent. Consistency is the extent to which the same result will be reached if the assessor uses different methods to assess the learner or if someone else assesses the learner. If the results are not consistent, the assessor must reconsider the assessment methods and activities and reassess the learner. If the assessment takes place within an organisation, the assessors are required to store assessment records safely within the quality assurance system. This is done in case the assessment results are questioned, and for moderation and quality assurance purposes.

6.6 Providing feedback to the relevant parties Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

Assessment is considered to be a learning tool, because it provides learners with continuous feedback on their performance. Assessors are required to provide written and oral feedback to the learner and other role-players. However, assessors should handle assessment results with confidentiality.

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During the feedback phase of assessment, assessors provide detailed, clear and accurate feedback on the learner’s achievements. Feedback gives learners information about their performance on each assessment criterion and learning outcome. Assessors should provide positive and constructive criticism, because feedback has a significant impact on learners’ further learning. The assessor should also advise learners on further learning opportunities or, if the learner has been declared not yet competent, discuss ways to improve performance and opportunities for reassessment. Assessors should provide positive and constructive criticism, because feedback has a significant impact on learners’ further learning. Activity

Case study Read carefully through the case study and answer the questions that follow. Sibongile and Pamela must each assess three supervisors in the organisation. The unit standard that the supervisors worked towards is US 10981, Supervise work unit. Sibongile calls the three supervisors in for a meeting on Friday afternoon. She asks them to prepare themselves for their assessments on Monday. She asks all three to be available for a group interview at 10h00 on Monday. They ask her if they should prepare any documents or observations with their floor staff, and she says no. The assessment will be in the form of a 20-minute group interview. She tells the group that, as they have been with the company for more than two months, they do not have to worry about having to do additional assessments. Their work records can be drawn from the HR department; this can be their evidence. One of the employee’s states that she is not comfortable with this process; everything seems too quick and rushed. Another employee, Crystal, had received a written warning a year before. She does not want this to influence the assessor’s decision. Sibongile tells the whole group that time is money – they have no reason to worry. She ends the meeting abruptly. The second assessor, Pamela, contacts the HR department for more information about the three supervisors she has to assess. She reads through their files and the unit standard, and draws up a detailed assessment plan. She then approaches the manager of the division and reviews the timetable with him. Finally, she contacts the three supervisors and invites them to a meeting to discuss their assessments. At the meeting, she informs them that their prior learning will be recognised (RPL) in the assessment. She explains the process and arranges a time on the following Friday with each supervisor. Pamela asks the group for their suggestions on the assessment. There are none. She then gives them a detailed breakdown of her plan for the RPL. She asks the three supervisors to read the documents and contact her if they have any questions. All the employees leave her office excited about the prospect of being assessed.

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Questions 1. Compare Sibongile and Pamela’s assessment planning and preparation. 2. Discuss the assessment method Sibongile used. 3. Sibongile says the supervisors can be assessed because they have been with the organisation for more than two months and their work records can be drawn from the HR department. Explain why her reasoning is flawed. 4. Discuss Sibongile’s approach to the assessment. 5. How should she have conducted this assessment? 6. Why do you think Pamela decided that her group could be recognised for their prior learning? 7. What methods and activities do you think Pamela suggested to the group that made them excited about the assessment? 8. Explain how you would conduct this RPL assessment.

6.7 Reviewing the assessment process Planning

Preparing

Conducting

Documenting

Evaluating

Providing feedback

Reviewing

Assessors are required to review the assessment process. They do this by identifying the strengths and weaknesses in the process to improve future assessments. An evaluation of the assessment process will include the following: •• Consulting the learner and other relevant role-players for feedback about, and suggestions to improve, the assessment; •• Evaluating the impact the assessment process may have had on the results of the assessments; •• Reviewing the entire process with other assessors and moderators; •• Making appropriate changes, including recommendations about the learning outcomes or qualification; and •• Using the assessment results to evaluate the learning programme and strategies. The aim of reviewing the assessment process is not to be negative, but rather to influence future assessments and ensure that errors are not repeated. The aim of such a review is not to be critical and destructive, but rather to influence future assessments and ensure that errors are not repeated. The positive aspects of the assessment process must also be noted. These positive aspects add to the quality of future assessments and support the overall quality assurance of the organisation’s practices. An example of a candidate evaluation form is shown in Table 7.14. Reviewing the assessment process adds to the quality of future assessments and supports the overall quality assurance of the organisation’s practices. 392

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Table 7.14  Example of candidate evaluation of the assessment process (Coetzee, 2006)

Candidate evaluation Please answer the questions below. Was your assessor’s manner encouraging and designed to put you at ease? Was the assessment procedure explained and agreed with you? Was it clear and understandable? Were you encouraged to participate and be involved? Did your assessor ensure that all specific outcomes and the appropriate range were covered? Were you given clear, evaluative feedback against each specific outcome? Were all pieces of evidence considered? In what manner were assessment decisions communicated to you? Did you agree with the decisions? Was all the appropriate documentation completed and signed? Did you receive copies for your records? Candidate’s name: Candidate’s signature:

Date:

7. MODERATION OF ASSESSMENT Moderation in assessment means internal and external verification that an assessment system is credible and that assessors and learners behave in an ethical way; and that assessments are fair, valid, reliable and practicable (SAQA, 2014a: 7). Moderation means internal and external verification that an assessment system is credible and ethical, and that assessments are fair, valid, reliable and practicable. Verification is a form of quality assurance which gives everyone involved in the particular learning programme confidence in assessment decisions. Internal moderation is one aspect of quality assurance. It is the process of monitoring and verifying assessment practices to ensure that assessment decisions are consistently accurate. Moderation and verification involve: •• Monitoring the conduct of assessment; •• Evaluating assessment design, instruments and methods; •• Sampling candidate evidence to verify assessment decisions; •• Assuring quality of the assessment and moderation system and procedures; •• Supporting and advising assessors; •• Keeping verification and assessment records up to date; and •• Providing information for analysis by the assessment centre and or QCTO) (Coetzee, 2007a).

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The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a: 15) states that checking for validity/validation (i.e. verification) through moderation practices includes the documentation of internal moderation procedures and outcomes. In the case of statistical moderation, moderation includes procedures that – at minimum – present and explain the distribution of learner performance and the techniques used to moderate this performance. Moderation also includes documentation of processes for the appointment of external moderators with expertise and experience; documentation of external moderation procedures and outcomes; and documentation of processes by which internal or external grading irregularities or sources of error are or will be corrected. According to SAQA, the following points need to be considered when establishing a moderation system: the management structure; the functions of the moderation system; the components of the moderation system; and the moderation methods to be used.

7.1 Management structure The management team in the organisation is responsible for ensuring the implementation of a moderation policy and procedure that complies with SAQA’s requirements, the QCTOs, and the national unit standard for moderation and verification. Moderation is an integral part of the L&D provider’s quality assurance. External moderation of the company’s QA compliance with required standards in L&D provision is also conducted by professional bodies or other accredited moderation bodies, as relevant to the company’s type and the form of L&D provision.

7.2 Functions of the moderation system Organisations may use internal L&D professionals (who are not involved in presenting the learning or learning programme) as internal moderators. The QCTO, SETAs and professional bodies, for example, act as external moderators of the assessment procedures, methods and learner achievements. Internal moderators are responsible for: •• Checking the credibility of assessment methods and instruments; •• Checking the assessment system for effectiveness (including the use of resources); •• Monitoring and observing assessment processes and candidates’ evidence (through sampling); •• Checking assessors’ decisions; •• Providing advice and guidance to assessors on system improvements; •• Checking that all the staff involved in assessment are appropriately qualified and experienced; and •• Assuring that learners with special needs have been accommodated in the assessment process. The QCTO, SETAs and professional bodies act as external moderators of the assessment procedures, methods and learner achievements.

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The QCTO refers to assessment quality partners that assist with moderation matters relevant to occupational qualifications. The QCTO Assessment Quality Partners (AQP) Criteria and Guidelines document (QCTO, 2013: 8) stipulates that an AQP has the necessary credibility in the relevant constituency (industry/sector/profession) to assist with external, integrated summative assessment, which may include a moderating function. Depending on their current functions and areas of expertise, any of the following existing bodies may be appointed as AQPs for specific occupations or groups of occupations: •• Moderating bodies; •• Examining bodies; •• Professional bodies; •• Legislated boards; and •• Occupational associations.

7.3 Components of the moderation system The components of the moderation system include appropriate timing, extent, materials and personnel. 7.3.1 Timing

Assessment guides should be moderated before assessment takes place and after the final assessment decisions have been made. Moderation must be conducted on an annual basis. 7.3.2 Extent

The moderation activities should be evaluated in terms of the extent to which they protect the integrity of unit standards. Unit standards, assessment materials, assessor competence and learner evidence are assessed in the moderation process. 7.3.3 Materials

Moderation materials should include the following: •• Assessment activities; •• Assessment guides; •• Case studies; and •• Learners’ worked samples (for example, portfolios of evidence, knowledge questionnaire answer sheets, assignment answers, case study solutions, observation checklists and self-assessments). 7.3.4 Personnel

The personnel chosen as moderators need to have unquestionable expertise in the curriculum and assessment practices. Moderators should understand the expectations of all users. Moderators also need to be registered with the relevant assessment body and or QCTO. Moderators need to have expertise in the curriculum and assessment practices, and be registered with the relevant assessment body or QCTO.

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7.4 Methods Moderation methods that must be employed are: •• Revising moderation materials and benchmark materials; •• Recognising expert assessors; •• Doing statistical moderation; •• Reviewing common assessment activities and assessment guides; •• Getting external moderators to do site visits; •• Getting external moderators to conduct panel meetings; •• Establishing site consultative committees; and •• Reviewing the moderation system for effectiveness.

7.5 Moderation tools The moderation tools that must be employed are: •• A moderation plan; •• A moderation report (see Table 7.15); •• The national unit standard for moderation; and •• The QCTO’s requirements of the assessment and moderation of work-based learning programmes. Table 7.15  Example of a moderation report (Coetzee, 2006a)

Scope of moderation

Evidence

Assessment instruments covered the curriculum and unit standard

Assessment guide

Assessment design and methodology relevant to the unit standard and curriculum design and consistently applied by all assessors

Assessment guide

Assessment decisions recorded

Assessment records

Report and feedback mechanisms in place

Assessment records and reports

Assessment decisions: •• Fairness

Assessment records and reports

•• Reliability

Worked samples

•• Appropriateness

Learner evidence (portfolios, case studies, assignment answers, knowledge questionnaire answer sheets)

•• Validity •• Sufficiency

Compliance Yes/No

Recommendations

•• Practicality Candidates with special needs and RPL cases considered

Assessment records and reports Candidate feedback

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Scope of moderation

Evidence

Assessment practice reviewed for quality assurance purposes;

Quality review report

Compliance Yes/No

Recommendations

Improvement areas identified Learner support and guidance practices regarding assessment in place

Assessment guide

Assessor registered and competent

Assessor registration and qualifications

Assessment decision outcomes confirmed/rejected

Moderator’s report

General comments:

Moderator’s name: Moderator’s signature:

Date:

Assessor’s name: Assessor’s signature

Date:

Case study Providing feedback to the relevant parties Vallen and Thabiso are both assessors for a major retail company and are based at the head office in Cape Town. The company has branches nationally and employs over 30  000 people. Vallen is responsible for the assessments conducted in the Eastern Cape and Thabiso for the Northern and Western Cape. They are under pressure to round off assessments that were conducted six months previously. Thabiso contacts the managers of his 154 learners and arranges for a teleconference in which he plans to give each learner feedback on their assessment – 14 of his learners are not yet competent. He plans on speaking to learners in groups of 20. He explains that due to tight time frames, he is unable to fly to their training venue in the Northern Cape or to their individual stores in the Western Cape to give feedback. Plus, his feedback is simple and should not take too long. He has it all written down and can quickly read through the most important points during the teleconference. He then asks the groups to sign off the feedback form and fax it to him within 24 hours. Vallen has 101 learners and simply faxes the results to each store with a note asking the learners to sign off the feedback forms and return them via fax within 24 hours – seven of his learners are not yet competent. Questions 1. Compare the processes followed by Vallen and Thabiso. Do you think they are acceptable or is one more acceptable than the other? 2. Explain whether you think the processes followed by the two assessors were flawed or not.

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a) What did Vallen do that is unacceptable in terms of assessment? b) What did Thabiso do that cannot be accepted? 3. Describe how you would conduct the feedback to the learners in: a) Eastern Cape and Northern Cape; b) Western Cape. Note, you are under tight deadlines and have no financial budget. 4. Draw up the feedback form that Vallen and Thabiso want their learners to sign off.

Review and discussion questions 1. Why does outcomes-based L&D emphasise quality assessment and moderation practices? 2. Why should L&D professionals take the various role-players in the assessment and moderation process into account? What are the functions of these role-players? 3. How can assessors and L&D professionals apply the various types of assessment to enhance the quality of learning? 4. How do the various assessment methods and instruments help to assure valid and reliable assessment practices? 5. What is the function and purpose of drawing up a comprehensive assessment plan and assessment guide? What aspects of assessment should be included in these documents? 6. What are the various steps involved in the assessment process? 7. What are SAQA’s and the QCTO’s requirements for assessors? 8. How does moderation support the assessment process?

Summary Assessment and moderation of learning achievements are significant elements of outcomes-based L&D. Outcomes-based assessment assesses learners’ ability to combine foundational, practical and reflexive competencies with critical cross-field outcomes and to apply these in real-life (practical) contexts or for a defined purpose. In this chapter, the importance of identifying and applying valid and reliable assessment procedures, methods and instruments to measure learners’ achievement of learning outcomes are discussed. Assessors must be qualified subject matter experts who are registered with the QCTO or relevant SETA. Moderation (as an aspect of quality assurance) was explored. Assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements are important to ensure that a learning programme adds value and contributes to the overall HRD strategy of a company. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes are explored in Chapter 8.

‘I never teach (my learners); I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn.’ (Albert Einstein)

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EVALUATING LEARNING INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee

CHAPTER

8

Key points of evaluating learning intervention effectiveness •• Evaluation is a significant component of learning and development (L&D) provision. Compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation of L&D interventions and practices allow L&D professionals and managers to collect descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make effective L&D decisions regarding the selection, adoption, modification and financial evaluation of various L&D activities. •• L&D evaluation can take place before, during, at the conclusion of or sometime after a skills/training programme. •• Evaluation models are useful frameworks to determine the L&D evaluation dimensions and criteria to be measured. •• The L&D evaluation process should be planned properly and executed in a systematic manner to ensure the validity and reliability of compliance and value-added measurements. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Explain how properly planned and executed learning and development (L&D) evaluations help L&D professionals and managers to prove the quality of and value added by their learning programmes and other L&D interventions. •• Explain the purpose of compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation in the South African workplace. •• Evaluate the factors that discourage L&D evaluation in the workplace. •• Describe the steps that L&D professionals follow to ensure that their evaluations produce valid and reliable data. •• Describe how L&D professionals demonstrate to management the cost-effectiveness, resulting change and impact of learning programmes. •• Describe how the various evaluation models guide L&D professionals to determine evaluation dimensions and criteria. •• Explain the timing of conducting an L&D evaluation.

1. INTRODUCTION As the fifth phase in the learning cycle, the evaluation of learning programmes is a significant component of learning and development (L&D) provision. The aim of any L&D intervention, in particular work-based learning programmes, is to sustain employee and organisational performance capability, including present and future performance, or to solve problems that occur in the organisation. Organisations invest in L&D initiatives, such as work-based learning programmes, because they want to improve performance, reduce

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costs or improve working conditions. In this regard, L&D evaluation (simply called learning intervention evaluation) is the process of determining whether the learning intervention has achieved its goals in the most effective and efficient manner possible (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016; Swart et al., 2005). Basarab (2011) argues the importance of running the training function as a business, demonstrating real returns on the company’s investment. The long-term success of L&D initiatives and the human resource development (HRD) function is dependent on the following three principles: 1. L&D professionals need to excel at their job. 2. They need to plan, design, manage and evaluate learning programmes that not only have a positive influence on the mission and purpose of the organisation, but also add value for stakeholders. 3. They need to use information about their performance to prove to the organisation and its stakeholders that they are doing an excellent job and that they should be provided with the necessary resources to sustain their performance. Learning intervention evaluation allows L&D professionals and managers to collect descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make effective L&D decisions. Such decisions include the selection, adoption, modification and financial evaluation of various L&D activities (La Duke 2017; Goldstein & Ford, 2002).

Phase 1 L&D needs analysis

Phase 2 Learning programme design

Phase 5 Evaluation of programme effectiveness THE LEARNING CYCLE

Phase 4 Assessment and moderation of learner achievements

Phase 3 L&D intervention delivery

Figure 8.1  The learning cycle

This chapter clarifies what evaluation means in L&D and describes the various stakeholders involved in learning intervention evaluation. In addition, the various types, criteria and models of training evaluation relevant to the workplace are discussed. We explore the evaluation process, examine data-collection tools and discuss factors that discourage training or learning intervention evaluation in general.

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2. LEARNING INTERVENTION EVALUATION Learning intervention (training) evaluation is a set of planned, information-gathering and analytical activities. L&D professionals undertake these activities to provide those responsible for the management of the strategic HRD effort with a satisfactory assessment of the effects, progress, quality and added value of L&D interventions. Learning intervention evaluation also means placing a value on the L&D initiatives, in particular, the work-based learning programmes that employees attend. Evaluations of the effectiveness of learning programmes are usually done to provide information and influence a decision that has to be made about the HRD strategy, practices and procedures. Evaluation provides diagnostic information that shows where remedial actions should be undertaken and whether the L&D intervention should be continued. More broadly, the purpose of training evaluation is to identify performance solutions to improve the organisation as a whole. The purpose of L&D evaluation is to identify performance solutions to improve the organisation as a whole. L&D evaluation is a continuous process. It requires proper planning and a clear statement, in the form of objectives, of what is to be evaluated. It is a systematic process of making judgements about the quality of a programme in terms of effectiveness (how well it works and whether it adds value to the organisation’s bottom line) and efficiency (how well it is designed, delivered and managed). L&D/training evaluation also makes use of valid and reliable measuring instruments, or data-collection tools, to achieve its objectives. Validity is the extent to which the measuring instrument reflects the concept it is intended to measure. Reliability is the extent to which scores obtained on a measure are reproducible in repeated administrations under similar measurement conditions (Rossi et al., 1999; SAQA, 2014a). L&D evaluation is a continuous process. It requires proper planning and a clear statement, in the form of objectives, of what is to be evaluated. Similar to assessment (see Chapter 7), evaluation can take place at different times: before a training (learning) intervention (known as diagnostic evaluation), during a training intervention (known as formative evaluation), at the conclusion of a learning programme (known as summative evaluation), or sometime after a learning programme (known as longitudinal evaluation) (Rothwell et al., 2016). Assessment focuses on evaluating collected evidence of learners’ achievements against a set standard. Evaluation, on the other hand, makes judgements about the quality and added value of learning programmes and whether changes and/or improvements in learners’ performance in the workplace occurred as a result of the learning programme. The moderation of assessment practices, methods and instruments and learners’ achievements is an example of an evaluation activity.

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Advantages of L&D/training evaluation (based on Phillips et al., 2016) • L&D evaluation measures the difference between what was required and what has been achieved. The purpose of training is to improve performance in the organisation on an individual, group or organisational level. Evaluation shows to what extent this has been achieved. • It justifies the HRD department’s budget. Evaluation gives the department the opportunity to justify its existence to management. • It improves the design and delivery of learning programmes. Evaluation serves as a feedback system to judge the design and delivery of learning programmes. • It improves the transfer of learning. Evaluation measures the extent to which learning is transferred to the workplace and helps to identify barriers to transfer. • It identifies unnecessary or ineffective programmes. Evaluation helps the organisation to identify learning programmes that do not contribute to the goals of the organisation or do not achieve their purpose. • It improves the credibility of the HRD department. Evaluation data build respect and credibility for the HRD department and its staff. • It meets the needs of management and gains their support. Evaluation data illustrate to management that their needs have been met by the HRD department. This creates loyalty and support. • It shows the financial return on training. Depending on the type of evaluation conducted, evaluation data provide information on the return on investment (ROI) in training.

L&D evaluation has many advantages, including that the data provide information on the return on investment (ROI) in training.

2.1 Diagnostic evaluation Diagnostic evaluation is relevant in the design phase of a learning programme (design is discussed in Chapter 4). Some of the questions that can be asked in the evaluation are: •• Are the selected training and learning facilitation methods appropriate to achieve the outcomes? In other words, will the training methods be effective in providing the learners with the necessary knowledge, skills or attitudes? •• Do the training methods coincide with the learners’ preferences and learning styles? •• Has the programme been designed in the most efficient manner? In other words, is the programme curriculum designed to achieve the programme objective and learning outcomes in the shortest time and most cost-effective manner possible, without sacrificing quality? The most effective method to review these issues is to run a pilot learning programme. Diagnostic evaluation is relevant in the design phase of a learning programme.

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2.2 Formative evaluation Formative evaluation is relevant to the delivery phase of a learning programme (delivery is discussed in Chapter 6). During this phase, L&D professionals need to respond appropriately to these questions: •• Are the learners enjoying the delivery of the programme? •• Are the methods being used in the delivery of the programme effective in achieving the programme objective and learning outcomes? •• What is the quality of the delivery of the programme? In other words, are the trainers doing their jobs properly? •• Are all the administrative arrangements running smoothly? The most important time to discover errors or problems with a learning programme is while it is being implemented. The piloting or testing of a learning programme is, therefore, recommended to ensure that the most obvious problems are identified and corrected before the learning programme is implemented. The most important time to discover problems with a learning programme is while it is being implemented, so piloting is recommended.

2.3 Summative and longitudinal evaluation A number of important issues need to be evaluated during the summative and longitudinal evaluation processes. These evaluations occur when the learning programme has been completed. Summative evaluation occurs immediately after the learning programme. Longitudinal evaluation occurs sometime after the learning programme (from a few weeks to a year). Questions that need to be posed during these evaluations are: •• Have the learners achieved the learning outcomes? What are learners’ assessment results? •• Was the learning programme effectively delivered? •• Did the learning programme achieve its overall objective? It is important for L&D professionals and learners to reflect on the learning programme after it has been completed. Questions such as the following can be asked: •• What could we have done differently? •• What needs to be changed? •• How can we improve the learning programme? Diagnostic and formative evaluations provide an opportunity to address and rectify the identified shortcomings during the training delivery process. However, it is a lot more effective to identify problems before (diagnostic evaluation) or during the process (formative evaluation). Diagnostic and formative evaluations provide an opportunity to address and rectify the identified shortcomings during the training delivery 403

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process. The timing and purpose of evaluation are crucial to the relevance of and value added by an evaluation effort. As shown in Table 8.1, learner assessment data and other measures are used to determine the effectiveness of a learning programme. The L&D evaluation process not only determines whether a learning programme has achieved its objective, but also whether the assessment instruments were effective or appropriate for assessing learners. As pointed out in Chapter 4, the learning programme objective and learning outcomes are used to judge the effectiveness of the learning programme. L&D evaluation needs to be planned in advance, based on the overall learning programme objective and learning outcomes (Landy & Conte, 2004). The analysis of L&D needs (discussed in Chapter 3) and the design of learning programmes (discussed in Chapter 4) therefore form the foundation of any L&D evaluation activity. Table 8.1  Timing of evaluation and its related purpose

Evaluation timing

Focus of evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation

•• The design of the programme;

Before the delivery of the L&D intervention

•• Existing skills levels of learners as part of the L&D needs analysis.

Formative evaluation

•• The quality of the delivery process;

During the L&D intervention

•• The adequacy of the learning material; •• The appropriateness of the delivery methods.

Summative evaluation Directly after the L&D intervention

•• Satisfaction of the learners with the learning programme; •• The achievement of the outcomes by the learners; •• The overall effectiveness of the learning programme.

Longitudinal evaluation On the job

•• Transfer and application of learning in the workplace;

Three to 12 months after completion of the L&D intervention

•• Support for new knowledge, skills and attitudes in the workplace; •• Impact on individual performance in the organisation; •• Impact on the performance of the organisation.

Table 8.2  Example of formative classroom training evaluation (Coetzee, 2006a)

Module 6 Management and evaluation of L&D practices Name Assess your own skills by rating yourself with a ✓ on each aspect mentioned. I can ...

Poor

Fair

Excellent

•• Conduct an analysis of learning needs within the current and potential scope of provision.

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I can ...

Poor

Fair

Excellent

•• Evaluate the provider’s current management of learning. •• Plan the development of learning programmes and learning provision. •• Contribute to and promote L&D policies and quality assurance procedures within the organisation. •• Support the HRD team. •• Monitor and review learning provision and related systems. •• What did you like about the module and learning process? •• What about the module and learning process did you not like? •• What additional learning support do you require from the facilitator to achieve the learning outcomes set for the programme?

3. S  TAKEHOLDERS IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION The criteria for involving stakeholders in an evaluation should relate to whether they have a significant interest in the success of that learning programme. Stakeholders in L&D evaluation refer to those individuals, groups or organisations that have a significant interest in a learning programme or L&D intervention (Rossi et al., 1999). Any of the following people may be regarded as stakeholders in the context of a training evaluation: •• Present and past learners are the direct customers of any learning programme. They are directly affected by the quality of the programme. •• Learners’ supervisors and managers. Learners are sent on a learning programme to change or improve their performance. Learners’ managers or supervisors depend on the performance of learners in the workplace; they are thus directly affected by the effectiveness of learning programmes. •• Top management. The performance of learners affects the overall performance of the organisation. As this is the responsibility of top management, they will have an interest in the overall effectiveness of learning programmes. •• L&D professionals in the organisation. The L&D professionals are affected by the quality and effectiveness of learning programmes. This is their job, so evaluations may influence their future within the organisation. •• Representatives of labour unions represent the interests of their members (the learners). They are concerned with the quality and effectiveness of interventions that have an impact on the skills levels of their members.

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•• The training committee. As discussed in chapters 1 and 4, the Skills Development Act, 97 of 1998, states that each organisation is required to have a training committee that is responsible for L&D (skills development) matters within the workplace. •• SETAs are concerned with the development of skills within their particular sector. To this effect, organisations develop workplace skills plans (read more about this in Chapter 1). The SETAs’ success is influenced by the effectiveness of learning and learning programmes in the organisation. •• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is concerned with the standards of qualifications and learning programme design, delivery and management. L&D (skills development) providers are, therefore, required to comply with the national standards for NQF-aligned outcomes-based L&D practices. They have to apply for recognition and accreditation of their learning programmes, qualifications and HRD management systems with the QCTO. Read more about the requirements for accreditation and quality management in Chapter 1. •• Customers of the organisation are affected by the performance of the learners in the workplace. •• L&D professionals in other organisations may have conducted similar learning programmes or may be planning to do so in the future. •• Academic experts and consultants are valuable sources of expertise. They may be consulted for advice and support in conducting training evaluations. •• Professional associations, such as the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP) and the Institute for People Management (IPM), are valuable sources of information and expertise. •• Communities and the broader society. The communities within which organisations operate and the broader society are affected by these organisations. By implication, they are affected by the performance of the learners (Rothwell & Sredl, 1992). The list of stakeholders is exhaustive. All of these will not necessarily be involved in every evaluation. The criteria for involving stakeholders in an evaluation should relate to whether they have a significant interest in the success of a particular learning programme. Table 8.3  Example of summative evaluation (Coetzee, 2007a) Name of learning programme: Name of trainer/facilitator(s): Date learning programme was attended:

Evaluate your learning experience Questions

Absolutely yes

Fairly so

In a small measure

Absolutely not

Was the purpose of the programme clear to me? Do I understand the learning outcomes I have to achieve to successfully complete this programme?

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Did the learning objectives of the programme help me to achieve the learning outcomes? Was the time we spent on the various activities appropriate? Did the learning material help me to improve my understanding of what I needed to learn? Were instructions for learning activities clear? Did the learning experience satisfy my personal learning needs? Could I relate the learning activities, case studies and examples to my work situation? Was I encouraged to participate in the learning activities? Was I treated with respect? Was the facilitator professional and approachable at all times? Was I given plenty of help and support to complete the programme activities? Were the venue, time, refreshments and breaks well organised? Did the facilitator help me to identify ideas/actions that could assist me to learn more effectively? Was the assessment of my competencies well planned and clear to me? Did I know what evidence to provide to prove my competence in terms of the learning outcomes? Was the assessment of my competence fair and objective? Was I given the opportunity to ask questions about the assessment results? Did the feedback provided by the facilitator help me to know how to build on my strengths and how to develop my weaknesses? Do I feel confident in applying the knowledge and skills I have learned on-the-job? •• My learning points from the learning programme are ... •• The most useful part of the learning programme was ... •• The least useful part of the learning programme was ... •• The actions I am going to take as a result of the learning programme are ...

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As shown in Figure 8.2, there are two types of evaluation in the workplace, namely compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation: 1. Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices. 2. Value-added evaluation addresses the organisation’s bottom line. It measures the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions (Coetzee, 2007a). Compliance evaluation

Value-added evaluation

Compliance with quality standards for L&D practices, processes, products and services

Measurement of changes in learners and organisational pay-offs

Self-evaluation

Training content, design and delivery

Peer evaluation External review

QCTO/Standards body Formal evaluation

Changes in learners’ performance/transfer of learning

Tangible and intangible pay-offs/Impact on bottom‑line/Return on investment

Figure 8.2  Integrated L&D evaluation (Coetzee, 2007a)

Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices.

4. COMPLIANCE EVALUATION Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices. In terms of the national requirements for quality outcomes-based learning and learning programme design, delivery and L&D management, compliance evaluation (also called quality audit or quality evaluation) is a compulsory activity for all L&D/skills development providers. In terms of national requirements, compliance evaluation (also called quality audit or quality evaluation) is a compulsory activity for all L&D professionals. Compliance evaluation is a three-step process: 1. L&D providers first conduct a self-evaluation of their L&D practices, procedures and processes against the QCTO or professional body quality requirements/standards for the delivery of learning programmes in the workplace. Self-evaluation will typically 408

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comprise evaluating the effectiveness of learning and learning programme design, delivery, assessment, moderation, evaluation and management practices. Based on the findings of such a self-evaluation, L&D providers compile and implement an action plan aimed at improving the identified aspects. 2. The second step is to arrange a peer evaluation by external quality reviewers, based on the self-evaluation. This is done in preparation for the external compliance evaluation by the QCTO or standards body. 3. The third step is to prepare for and undergo a formal quality audit by the QCTO or relevant standards body, such as the South African Bureau for Standards (SABS), for accreditation and recognition. L&D quality assurance refers to all the activities that assure the quality of the design, delivery, management and evaluation of learning and learning programmes and their outcomes. These activities include the following: •• Clarifying and describing customer expectations and needs; •• Ensuring L&D providers, practitioners, assessors and moderators have a comprehensive and accurate understanding of the quality standards; •• Ensuring that the required resources are available for the design, delivery and management of qualifications and learning programmes, and that they meet the required standards; •• Ensuring that L&D providers, practitioners, assessors and moderators have the necessary skills, knowledge and motivation to make the products or deliver the service; •• Ensuring that quality assurance evaluation systems are in place to monitor the design, delivery, management and evaluation of qualifications and learning programmes; and •• Ensuring that the independent auditing and monitoring of quality and feedback systems by providers of learning and learning programmes, as well as by other stakeholders, who are in a position to contribute to enhancing quality, takes place (SAQA, 2001a). Table 8.4  SAQA quality requirements for L&D providers (adapted from SAQA, 2001a) 1. Policy statement What are the values and principles of your L&D/HRD department? Are these values and principles aligned with those of the NQF? What structures, systems and activities are in place in your department to apply these values and principles? 2. Quality management systems How does your L&D department/organisation create and sustain a quality culture? How, when and by whom is information collected about the workings of your L&D/HRD department? What processes are in place to ensure that you meet the needs of your learners? How often are the programmes delivered by your L&D/HRD department reviewed? What processes are in place to ensure that the facilitators are competent to facilitate and assess the learning standards, according to the requirements of the NQF?

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What processes are in place to monitor and review assessment activities? What processes are in place to ensure that the information gathered from reviews, audits and monitoring lead to improvements in your L&D/HRD department? What mechanisms exist for your L&D/HRD department to report back to people within your organisation? How does your L&D/HRD department ensure that its resources are utilised effectively and efficiently? How does your L&D/HRD department report to and generally relate to the ETQA (e.g. the QCTO)? How does your L&D/HRD department relate to other providers in the subject area in which they work? 3. Review mechanisms What review, monitoring, research and/or auditing mechanisms are in place in your L&D/HRD department? What process do these mechanisms follow? How often are reviews, research and audits carried out? Who is responsible for carrying out the reviews, research and audits? What process is used for reporting back findings within the organisation? How do the findings of the reviews lead to improvements in your L&D/HRD department? 4. Programme delivery What types of learning programme does your L&D/HRD department deliver? On which level/s of the NQF do these programmes fall? What are the different components of these programmes? How frequently are the programmes delivered? What processes are used to deliver the programmes (for example, classroom-based instruction, distance learning, computer-based instruction)? To what extent is the delivery of the programmes flexible? How do you ensure learner-centredness in the delivery of the programmes? How do you ensure that the delivery methods are relevant to learners? What assessment processes are used (when, where, how often and by whom)? What are the processes used to give the learners feedback on their performance? 5. Staff policies Who is responsible for the selection of the staff in your L&D/HRD department? What are the criteria used for selecting L&D/HRD department staff? What selection procedures are used for the selection of staff? How is the Employment Equity Act applied in the selection process?

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6. Learner policies What processes are followed to select learners for training programmes? How is recognition of prior learning applied in the selection procedures? What processes are in place to ensure that programmes are relevant to the needs and aspirations of learners? How is learner participation encouraged through the delivery of the programmes? What processes are in place to identify the nature of the support that learners require? What is the nature of the support given to learners? What guidance is offered to learners? What is the motivation for this? What opportunities for further learning are provided for by your L&D/HRD department? What process is used to give the learners feedback on their performance? 7. Assessment policies What is your L&D department’s approach to assessment? How are assessments conducted, by whom and how often? How is your department’s assessment policy aligned with the NQF’s principles and QCTO’s requirements? How does your L&D/HRD department/organisation’s assessment policy incorporate principles of lifelong learning, recognition of prior learning and integration of theory and practice? What mechanisms are in place to ensure the quality of assessments? How are learners given feedback on their assessments? Who does this and how often? How are assessments used to identify and provide the support and guidance that learners require? How are assessment results used in programme development? 8. Management systems and policies What is the management and administrative structure of your L&D/HRD department? What decision-making processes are used in your organisation? What process is used to allocate financial resources to your L&D/HRD department? Does your L&D/HRD department have adequate resources (physical, human and financial resources) to carry out its intended functions? What systems does your L&D/HRD department use to manage and account for its finances?

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Table 8.5  Steps to establish a L&D quality assurance system (Coetzee, 2006a,b)

Action

Evidence

1. Review current training practices, policies and procedures.

Review report

2. Evaluate these practices, policies and procedures in terms of alignment with the NQF outcomes-based and QCTO quality system requirements.

Review report

3. Ensure that the curriculum of learning programmes addresses the three aspects: knowledge, skills and work experience. 4. Identify areas for improvement.

Improvement plan

5. Draft a quality plan containing:

Quality plan

•• Quality statement; •• Goals, objectives and performance targets;

Quality manual containing plan and policies

•• Resource plan (people, finance, administrative and physical resources); •• Quality areas to be managed; •• List of policies that need to be written; •• Customer relations plan; •• Communication plan; and •• Quality audit plan. 6. Draft an organogram (structure of people required). The structure should address the following functions:

Organogram in quality manual

•• Manager/co-ordinator of quality assurance; •• Assessors; •• Internal and external assessors; •• L&D professionals; •• Mentors; •• RPL advisers; •• Administrative support; and •• Quality auditors. 7. Draft occupational/job profiles for the identified positions.

Job profiles

8. Draft a selection, screening and appointment plan.

Recruitment plan

9. Appoint identified people. Follow formal authorisation and accreditation procedures.

Advertisements Interview report Competency certificates Authorisation letters

10. Draft performance contracts with people.

Performance contracts

11. Conduct a competence assessment and draft a development plan with appointed people.

Development plans

12. Identify L&D interventions for people and integrate these in the workplace skills plan.

Workplace skills plan

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Action

Evidence

13. Draft organisation quality policies and procedures and obtain formal approval.

Approval

14. Orientate organisation management, stakeholders and employees in quality assurance system, policies and procedures.

Minutes of sessions Attendance reports Unit standards

15. Train management and HRD people in the quality auditing process.

Evaluation reports Unit standards

16. Obtain management and other customer requirements in terms of reporting on progress and standards.

Record and documentation system

17. Draft work-based unit standards for in-house training/learning programmes.

Management information system policy

18. Set up a documentation and record system for learner achievements, assessment reports, skills development needs and audits, QCTO and L&D/skills development provider evaluation reports.

Documentation system

19. Set up a management review system, including:

Management review system

•• Monthly progress review;

Minutes of meetings

•• Audit reviews and corrective action planning.

Audit review reports Corrective action plan

20. Conduct quality culture and climate surveys.

Survey results

21. Establish effective computerised information systems to support decision-making.

HR information system (HRIS) Learner management system (LMS)

Organisations that have to follow international standards and regulations are exposed to compliance evaluations by bodies such as the South African Bureau for Standards (SABS). The results or outcomes of a compliance evaluation identify the remedial actions that must be taken to ensure national recognition and accreditation as an L&D provider. L&D providers are also required to draw up and execute development plans that address the shortcomings highlighted by the compliance evaluations. An example of a compliance evaluation is shown in Table 8.6. Table 8.6  Steps in conducting a compliance evaluation (based on Coetzee, 2006a,b)

In place Yes

Key performance areas

Responsible person

Evidence

No Plan a time and compliance evaluation schedule with them. Give a written notice of the compliance evaluation (date, time, venue, area to be audited, evidence required and process).

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In place Yes

Key performance areas

Responsible person

Evidence

No Prepare the compliance evaluation (checklist, measurement scales, evidence to be collected, assessment criteria and performance areas). Orientate all evaluators to ensure reliability, validity and fairness of the evaluation process. Use assessment criteria as the guideline. Conduct the evaluation. Use worksheets to record findings. Analyse the findings. Meet with the stakeholders to discuss the report on findings and recommendations. Do joint action planning with them on corrective actions to be taken. Determine follow-up evaluations on corrective actions implemented. Draw up a formal plan of action and let all involved sign the plan. Keep minutes of these meetings as evidence and distribute to all involved. Conduct a formal follow-up evaluation, following the same process described above. Coach and mentor people involved. Evaluation is a development process; the aim is continuous improvement.

5. VALUE-ADDED EVALUATION A value-added evaluation is concerned with the organisation’s bottom line. It is conducted to measure the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions. The decision resulting from a value-added evaluation may involve continuing, expanding, or eliminating the learning programme. Evaluation may be carried out to determine if the cost of a learning programme is justified by its effects or the value it adds to the organisation. Evaluation of a learning programme’s effectiveness also provides useful information to market the programme or get the support of stakeholders (Kraiger & Surface, 2017). A value-added evaluation is concerned with the organisation’s bottom line – it measures the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions.

5.1 Evaluation criteria Organisations often neglect to evaluate the value added by their L&D interventions because they are uncertain about what should be evaluated. There is a wide range of evaluation models, each with a different emphasis and focus. L&D professionals find it difficult to decide which 414

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model to use (Kraiger & Surface, 2017). One approach to overcome this problem is to classify the purpose of evaluation into broad categories or dimensions. Each of these dimensions has a number of criteria. These are the standards or rules by which the dimensions are judged. Typical dimensions of evaluation are discussed below. The main aim of learning programmes is to address existing problems, improve current performance or to address future requirements. 5.1.1 Learning design

The design of the learning programme is evaluated in terms of the selection of appropriate content, training methods and the physical design of the curriculum and learning materials. These are examined in the context of good learning design practices (discussed in Chapter 4) and their appropriateness for achieving the objectives and learning outcomes of the learning programme. For example, if an L&D needs analysis indicates that knowledge of electronic circuitry is required to perform a job, then a seminar about electronic circuitry would have content validity. Although content analysis may ensure that a learning programme is job related, it still does not indicate whether a particular training method is effective (Aamodt, 2007). But if the content of a learning programme is valid and if the learning programme is conducted by a qualified L&D professional, the learning programme will most probably be successful. The questions to be asked when evaluating the content validity and overall design of a learning programme include the following: •• Are the methods selected appropriate to the learners? •• Is the programme pitched at the level of the learners? •• Does the content adequately relate to the outcomes? •• Is this the most efficient way to deliver the learning? •• What is the quality of the learning materials? 5.1.2 Learning intervention delivery

The evaluation of the quality of the learning intervention/training delivery is based on learner satisfaction and sound learning facilitation practices. The evaluation also includes the administrative and support processes related to the programme. The questions to be asked when evaluating the delivery of a learning programme include the following: •• Were the learners satisfied with the quality of the delivery of the learning programme? •• What was the quality of the logistical arrangements? •• Did the curriculum/course learning outcomes and formative assessment address the three components: knowledge, skills and work experience? Were work-based unit standards designed for these three curriculum components? •• Were the most appropriate delivery methods used for delivering the programme? •• Were the characteristics of the learners identified by means of a target group analysis? •• Were the characteristics and L&D needs of the learners taken into account in the delivery of the programme? •• Were the learning outcomes and assessments appropriate in light of the learning outcomes and at the appropriate NQF/OQF level? 415

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5.1.3 Competence

Competence relates to the quality of the assessment process, methods and instruments. The question that the evaluator asks is, ‘To what extent did the learners achieve the outcomes of the learning programme?’ The main criterion for competence is whether learners demonstrated mastery of the learning outcomes. 5.1.4 Transfer of learning

In this dimension, the extent to which acquired competencies are transferred to the workplace is evaluated. The evaluation question here is, ‘Does the workplace support the transfer of the competencies acquired during the learning process?’ Examples of criteria for the transfer of learning to the workplace include: •• Does the workplace allow the implementation of new knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour? •• Are learners provided with opportunities to practise their new skills? •• Do supervisors and managers encourage the implementation of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour? •• Are the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour acquired in the learning programme appropriate to the workplace? •• Could learners transfer their learning to the workplace and to the job? How were they assessed? What were the outcomes? •• Did learners receive the necessary support and mentoring during the on-job training? 5.1.5 Impact on the performance of the organisation

The main aim of learning programmes is to address existing problems, improve current performance or to address future requirements (La Duke, 2017; Swanson, 1994). The last dimension that is evaluated is the extent to which the delivery of the learning programme and the accompanying transfer of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour affect the performance of the organisation. Examples of questions to be asked when measuring the impact of a learning programme on the performance of the organisation include: •• Have the tangible outputs of the organisation increased (see Table 8.7)? •• Have the intangible outputs of the organisation increased (see Table 8.8)? •• What is the impact of the occupationally directed learning and work-based learning programmes on the skills levels, competence and performance of the employees/learners? •• What is the impact of the L&D interventions on the annual training report/PIVOTAL training report (ATR/PTR)? Also see the example included at the end of this chapter. Table 8.7  Tangible organisational results (based on Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994) Organisational outputs (usually expressed in terms of productivity) •• Number of units produced

•• Patients visited

•• Tonnes of goods manufactured

•• Applications processed

•• Sales volume

•• Students graduated

•• Forms processed

•• Tasks completed

•• Shipments sent

•• Targets achieved

•• Number of rejects

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Time •• Equipment downtime

•• Training and retraining time

•• Overtime paid

•• Time taken by meetings

•• Orders and shipments on time

•• Work stoppages

•• Lead times

•• Lost time

•• Time to process orders

•• Repair time

Monetary outputs •• Difference between budget and actual expenses

•• Operating expenses

•• Overhead expenses

•• Cost savings on projects

•• Cost reductions Quality outputs •• Number of rejects and product defects

•• Product failure

•• Levels of waste

•• Percentage of tasks correctly completed

•• Error rates

•• Number of accidents

•• Product repairs

•• Sick leave and days off

•• Deviations from set standards

•• Number of products that have to be reworked

Table 8.8  Intangible organisational results (based on Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994) Work habits •• Levels of absenteeism

•• Violations of health and safety rules

•• Lateness

•• Communication breakdowns

•• Accidents at work

•• Excessive and prolonged breaks

Application of new skills •• Quality of decisions made

•• Listening skills

•• Problems solved

•• Reading skills

•• Conflicts avoided

•• Use and application of new skills

•• Grievances resolved

•• Frequency of use of new skills

Work climate •• Number of grievances

•• Relations with the unions in the workplace

•• Levels of job satisfaction

•• Employee turnover

•• Instances of discrimination

•• Sick leave

•• Requests for transfer Development and advancement of employees •• Number of promotions

•• Product failure

•• Number of pay increases

•• Ratings in performance appraisals

•• Training programmes attended

•• Increases in job performance levels

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Attitudes and opinions •• Favourable attitudes towards the organisation and management

•• Perceived changes in performance •• General attitude towards colleagues and clients

•• Perceptions of duties and responsibilities Initiative •• Implementation of new ideas

•• Number and type of suggestions submitted

•• Successful completion of projects

•• Suggestions implemented

•• Employees taking responsibility and initiative

5.2 Measuring value added in L&D Measuring the value added by L&D interventions plays an important role in managing the quality and cost-effectiveness of learning programme design and delivery. A measurement system provides a frame of reference that helps managers and L&D professionals to carry out several important responsibilities: •• Measurement focuses staff on important issues. A measurement system is a management decision-making tool that helps to prioritise tasks. Measurement also shows L&D professionals the return on investment in a learning programme. HRD staff learn that cost, time, quality, quantity and learners’ and stakeholders’ reactions are all factors that influence L&D decisions and actions. Measurement also shows L&D professionals the return on investment in a learning programme. •• Measurement clarifies expectations. Once the objectives for L&D interventions are set in terms of cost, time, quality, quantity and stakeholder satisfaction, HRD staff and L&D professionals understand what is expected of them. Standards of performance and acceptable levels of deviation from those standards are known. Measurement sets objectives for L&D interventions and clarifies what is expected of HRD staff and L&D professionals. •• Measurement involves, encourages and fosters creativity. Once a measurement system is in place, staff tend to compete to meet or exceed the objectives. When the system is fully functioning, people bring forth new and important issues to measure and clever ways to measure them. Once a measurement system is in place, staff tend to compete to meet or exceed the objectives. •• Measurement brings the HRD function closer to departments. The L&D measurement system should include factors that relate to quality, productivity, services and profitability within the organisation. For example, it is important to track and report 418

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learners’ success rates, but connecting a new L&D delivery strategy to an improvement in operational quality, productivity and service is much more valuable to managers. •• Measurement improves HRD management and control. If L&D professionals and managers measure the value added by L&D initiatives, they can manage it. If they can manage it, they can improve it (La Duke 2017; Fitz-Enz, 1995). If L&D professionals and managers measure the value added by L&D initiatives, they can manage it and thus improve it. As shown in Figure 8.3, the value added by L&D emphasises the following three principal components of the L&D value chain. System and technology People and resources HRD practices INPUTS (PLANNING)

Quality L&D delivery methods and processes

Outcome and impact of L&D initiative (change in performance) ROE (stakeholder satisfaction)

EXECUTION (PROCESSES)

VALUE ADDED (MEASUREMENT)

ROI (cost benefit)

Figure 8.3  The L&D value chain

All L&D processes (for example, L&D needs analysis, planning, design and delivery of learning programmes) must be cost effective and fit for purpose. The objective of valueadded measurement is to develop ways to measure and evaluate changes in the L&D processes, results and the resulting value. For every improvement in a process, there should be a resulting improvement in results or outcomes. The difference between the improved outcome and the outcome before the improvement in the process is the impact. The cost improvement as a result of the impact is the value-added component. Example of cost improvement as a result of impact An L&D professional decides to shorten the hours of training provided (outcome), without affecting the quality of delivery, by improving the learning design and training delivery process. More employees can be trained in a shorter period of time; the resultant cost savings can be calculated. If learning programmes are delivered in a more cost-effective and efficient manner, the organisation will save on operating expenses. Furthermore, the cost of the product or service is lowered and the L&D initiative reaches the market faster. Lower product cost and shorter delivery time creates a competitive advantage in the marketplace, thereby increasing the organisation’s market share.

The three general measures of training are cost, change and impact: •• Cost refers to the expense per unit of training delivered. •• Change refers to the gain in competence or positive change in attitude and behaviour among learners. •• Impact refers to the results or outcomes of the learners’ use of new competencies. Impact is measurable in monetary terms (Fitz-Enz, 1995). 419

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5.2.1 Cost

Measuring the cost of training is relatively simple. The simplest calculation is a matter of adding up all the expenses and dividing the total by the number of people trained. Expenses will differ, depending on the number of direct and indirect costs included. Examples of direct costs are: consultant fees, training-room rental, supplies, refreshments, travel and accommodation, and L&D provider costs. Examples of indirect costs (mostly overhead costs) include learning facilitators’ salaries and benefits, learners’ salaries and benefits and the use of departmental equipment. Table 8.9  Example of a training cost spreadsheet (based on Fitz-Enz, 1995)

Costs

Phase People

Material

Facilities

Equipment

Miscellaneous

Total

L&D needs analysis Design and development Delivery Evaluation Total

5.2.2 Input analysis

An input analysis approach is a systemic method of identifying and comparing the many costs involved in two or more learning programmes (Fitz-Enz, 1995). The L&D professional forms a matrix of the main phases of the L&D process and the basic cost inputs. Each cell of the matrix is filled in with the appropriate cost, and the totals for all phases and inputs are calculated. One matrix is completed for each learning programme. The final set of matrices is compared for differences in cost. This approach shows only which programme cost the least (cost-efficiency) – it does not compare the cost-effectiveness of different programmes. Cost-effectiveness is measured in terms of the impact of the change or improvement; in other words, the outcome or result of the learning programme. Cost-effectiveness is measured in terms of the impact of the change or improvement; i.e., the outcome of the learning programme. 5.2.3 Change or outcome

Change or outcome usually describes the immediate consequences of a learning programme or L&D intervention (La Duke 2017; Kraiger & Surface 2017). Change can be measured at individual levels in terms of improvements in knowledge, skill, attitude or behaviour. Comparisons can be made across groups. The following box below gives

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an example of a calculation for measuring skill changes. Data for the skill change ratio can be gathered through questionnaires, interviews, demonstrations or observations with L&D professionals, employees, peers or supervisors. The key to obtaining something of value from any measurement is to be specific in describing the skills or behaviours to be evaluated (Fitz-Enz, 1995). 5.2.4 Impact

Impact describes the long-term effect of the change brought about by the learning programme (La Duke 2017; Kraiger & Surface 2017). The relationship between change and impact measurement is one of value. Whereas change and cost are two distinctly different variables, change and impact are sequential measures along the value-chain continuum. The example in the following text box illustrates the distinction between the measurement of change and impact (Fitz-Enz, 1995). Example of impact measurement (based on Fitz-Enz, 1995) A machine operator, Johannes, is taught to run a cutting machine. At the end of the learning programme, Johannes’s skill and knowledge is tested with a performance test. Before attending the learning programme, he could cut 80 units per hour. After the learning programme, the test shows that he can now cut 100 units per hour. Clearly, the level of skill and knowledge changed in a positive way: Johannes is more efficient as a result of the training. If he goes to work and consistently averages 100 cuts per hour, the training has an impact on the cost of goods manufactured. Assuming the reject and scrap rate is the same as before, Johannes is now 25% more productive. This is the amount of change. The cost of labour (as an input to the cutting cost) is thus reduced by 25%. That is the impact. If Johannes’s on-the-job performance had not been measured, the L&D professional and supervisor would not have known that the training added value to the organisation.

5.3 Measuring return on stakeholder expectations Whilst ROI (economic returns) might be important to managers and L&D professionals, evidence of the return on stakeholder (management) expectations (ROE) has increased in importance. To measure the ROE of a learning programme requires a thorough needs analysis before designing and delivering a learning programme (as discussed in Chapter 4). Only when the L&D professional has a clear indication of the expectations of a learning programme, will they be able to measure whether these expectations have been met after learners have completed the programme. Clarity of stakeholder expectations also informs and guides the design, delivery and evaluation of a learning programme. Clarity of stakeholder expectations informs and guides the design, delivery and evaluation of a learning programme.

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5.4 Levels of value-added evaluation There are several levels of sophistication in evaluating the value added by training. As the degree of sophistication increases, the value of the evaluation tends to increase as well (La Duke 2017; Fitz-Enz, 1995). These levels include: learner reaction surveys, which are administered during or at the end of the skills programme; knowledge tests; performance measurements after the learning programme; and performance measurements before and after the learning programme. •• The learner reaction survey is the lowest-value method, as the survey generally measures only the learners’ subjective experience of the learning programme, usually immediately after the intervention. Research shows a strong correlation between learning retention and how much the learners enjoyed the time spent on the learning intervention and whether they found it valuable (La Duke 2017). •• Knowledge tests are a slightly more useful method. They are given after the programme to measure how much the learner knows. However, as there is no pre-test against which to compare scores, there is also no proof that the learners’ knowledge level increased as a result of the programme. •• Measuring learners’ performance after the programme helps to evaluate the learners’ abilities to apply the newly acquired competencies in the workplace. •• Measuring performance before and after the learning programme is even more sophisticated. It involves an identical test of learners’ knowledge and skills before the learning event and some months after the event, and evaluating the difference between the learners’ pre- and post-test scores. Pre- and post-tests help to ascertain whether the participants of a learning intervention learned anything in the learning event (La Duke 2017).

6. EVALUATION MODELS There are many different models that focus on different dimensions and levels of training evaluation. This section will examine four different models that have a wide range of focuses.

6.1 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy of training evaluation criteria Kirkpatrick (1994) defines training evaluation as ‘the determination of the effectiveness of a training program’. Donald Kirkpatrick is recognised as the father of training evaluation. He published one of the first papers on the subject in 1954. Kirkpatrick (1994) defines training evaluation as ‘the determination of the effectiveness of a training program’. His model still has a major impact on evaluation practices today (La Duke 2017). His model is known as a hierarchy or taxonomy, because the different levels build upon one another. Kirkpatrick subsequently revised the four levels to emphasise that L&D professionals should start their learning design at level 4, the results level (the strategic business expectations of stakeholders and financial/economic returns expected), and then consider the three other levels. According to Kirkpatrick (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), the results level is usually neglected by L&D professionals. The results level (level 4) addresses the L&D needs analysis aspects discussed in chapters 3 and 4. Learning 422

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design is, therefore, also called a ‘design down, deliver up’ process (see Chapter 4). Kirkpatrick’s revised model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) now also emphasises the learning level (level 3), which addresses the transfer of learning to the workplace and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the on-the-job training and application, or the work experience component of learning design and delivery. 6.1.1 Level 1: Reaction

This level measures the extent to which learners liked the learning programme. Reaction evaluation normally takes place immediately after the learning programme. Questionnaires (often referred to as smile sheets) are used. Learners indicate their satisfaction with the various elements of the learning programme. Questions make use of Likert-scales (five- or seven-point scales that range from, for example, like to dislike, or poor to excellent). An example of some reaction questions are provided below. Example of a reaction evaluation 1 = Poor; 2 = Okay; 3 = Good; 4 = Very good; 5 = Excellent 1. How would you rate the presentation of the course? 2. What was the quality of the support materials? 3. How supportive was the trainer?

12345 12345 12345

Kirkpatrick (1994) provides the following guidelines for evaluating learners’ reactions: •• Determine what you want to find out. •• Use a written comment sheet that covers these items. •• Design the sheet in such a way that reactions can be tabulated and quantified. •• Keep the forms anonymous to encourage honesty. •• Encourage the learners to include comments not covered by the questionnaire. Alliger et al., (1997) suggest that Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy should be enhanced to include multiple criteria at level 1 (reaction). Their framework divides level 1 criteria into affective reactions (for example, ‘I found this programme to be enjoyable’) and utility reactions (for example, ‘This programme had practical value’ or ‘This programme was job relevant’). They conclude that affective reactions can be important, particularly when unfavourable reactions to training have negative effects on perceptions of the HRD department and future training efforts. However, utility reactions are more closely linked with learning and behavioural criteria than affective reactions. Accordingly, if the purpose of collecting reaction criteria is to predict the transfer of learning, L&D professionals should ask questions that require utility reactions. La Duke (2017) suggests that a good learning intervention evaluation will concentrate on three elements, namely course content, the physical environment and the L&D professional’s/instructor’s presentation skills. A good learning intervention evaluation will concentrate on three elements: course content, the physical environment and the L&D professional’s presentation skills. 423

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The evaluation should also request learners to make suggestions in terms of what they liked most about the intervention event and what could be improved. Reaction evaluation provides valuable insights that help to improve the quality of the L&D programme. Reaction evaluation is also important in the modern e-learning context (see chapter 5). L&D professionals usually assess learners’ reaction to their online learning experiences in terms of seven important elements (Coetzee, 2018): 1. Navigation. These include learners’ experiences of the website, for example, could they open the relevant website quickly and easily; were the font sizes easy to read; were the hyperlinks to resources (e.g. library, attachments, audio/video clips, YouTube; open educational resources) easily accessible; and were they satisfied with the technological support? 2. Relevance of content on the website. Learners are asked to evaluate whether the learning content focused on issues that: •• Are of interest to them, •• Are meaningful and important in terms of their professional occupational or job roles; •• Help them to improve their job performance; •• Provide sufficient supportive learning materials to enhance their learning; and •• Encourage independent, self-directed learning. 3. Learner reflection. Learners are asked to evaluate whether the online learning activities helped them to think critically about: •• How they learn and communicate or present their ideas/learning online; •• Their own ideas and learning; •• The ideas of others (readings, discussions, debates, group collaborative learning tasks); •• Their lifelong learning and employability in their job roles and careers. 4. Online interaction. Learners are asked to evaluate their role and style when interacting with others in online learning activities, for example: •• Do they actively participate and contribute new ideas to discussion forums, wikis, group collaborative tasks and debates? •• Do they respond to others’ ideas in discussion forums, wikis, group collaborative tasks and debates? •• Do they critique others’ ideas in discussion forums, wikis, group collaborative tasks and debates? •• Do the online collaborative learning activities enhance their learning and performance? 5. L&D professional/instructor and peer support. Learners are asked to evaluate whether: •• The L&D professional/instructor encouraged their participation in the online learning activities (for example, discussion forums, collaborative learning tasks); •• The feedback of the L&D professional/instructor added value to their learning; •• Their peers/fellow learners encouraged their participation in the online learning activities. 6. Making sense. Learners are asked to evaluate whether: •• They made good sense of other learners’ messages; •• They made good sense of the L&D professional’s/instructor/s messages;

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•• They made good sense of the various online learning units/modules and activities presented in the learning intervention/programme; •• The various online learning activities add value to their learning. 7. Suggestions for improvement. Learners are asked to make suggestions for improving the experience and quality of the online learning and what would help to make the learning experience more meaningful and engaging. 6.1.2 Level 2: Learning

Kirkpatrick (1994) emphasises that a favourable reaction to a learning programme does not ensure learning. Kirkpatrick (1994) emphasises that a favourable reaction to a learning programme does not ensure learning. To understand this, one simply has to think about all the pleasant experiences in life that do not lead to learning. The learning level evaluates whether there has been a change in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour. The main question is whether the learning outcomes set for the learning programme have been achieved. At this level, assessment and evaluation overlap. Evaluation occurs through the use of assessment instruments such as tests, examinations, assignments, presentations and portfolios of evidence. Again, Alliger and colleagues (1997) suggest multiple criteria for level 2. According to their framework, learning outcomes should be divided into immediate knowledge, knowledge retention, and demonstration of behaviours or skills before and after the learning event. Pre- and post-tests help to ascertain whether any learning took place as a result of the learning event or training/L&D programme (La Duke 2017). 6.1.3 Level 3: Behaviour

The question here is whether the knowledge, skills, attitudes or behaviour that have been acquired as a result of the learning programme are transferred to the workplace. In other words, do learners use what they have learned on the job? Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) note that seven requirements must be met before change in behaviour can occur. These include: •• The desire to change; •• Know-how of what to do and how to do it; •• The right climate in the workplace and supportive learning conditions; •• Ongoing reinforcement and monitoring; •• Support in applying the learning in the workplace; •• Consistent assessment of achievement of learning outcomes and providing feedback and mentoring; and •• Rewards for applying learning. Various methods can be used to collect the data. These range from questionnaires and interviews to observations and work samples. The people involved in the evaluation include all those who are affected by the learners’ performance in the workplace, including learners, their supervisors and managers, and their subordinates or colleagues. 425

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6.1.4 Level 4: Results

Ultimately, the L&D professional should be able to build and present evidence that the expectations and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D needs analysis, have been successfully met. Assessing the impact of a learning programme is one of the most important but also one of the most difficult areas to evaluate. It is often difficult to determine the exact impact of a learning programme on the performance of an organisation. For example, it is difficult to measure the impact of a learning programme that addresses interpersonal relations in the sales department. With poor interpersonal relations, sales will suffer. But what percentage of sales can be attributed to good interpersonal relations and not to other factors? Assessing the impact of a learning programme is one of the most important but also one of the most difficult areas to evaluate. If we refer back to the levels of evaluation, we see that Kirkpatrick’s model is concerned with the dimensions of competence, transfer of learning and impact on the performance of the organisation. To a lesser extent, the design and delivery of the programme is measured through learners’ reactions to the learning programme. The four levels of evaluation form an integral part of every phase of an L&D initiative, from the beginning to the end. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggest that L&D professionals should build a ‘chain of evidence’ by measuring the value-added outcomes of a programme at each of the four levels. In this way, the L&D professional builds a valuefilled and evidence-based story about the achievement of learners that he or she can present to management. Ultimately, the L&D professional should be able to build and present evidence that the expectations and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D needs analysis, have been successfully met. The L&D professional should be able to build and present evidence that the expectations and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D needs analysis, have been met.

6.2 Phillips’ return on investment model Phillips’ (1994) model incorporates the four steps of Kirkpatrick’s model, but adds a fifth step, namely return on investment (ROI). ROI attempts to determine the return on invested capital. The expected benefits are divided by the costs of the intervention. ROI is expressed as a formula: ROI = Operational savings + Increase in revenue Full cost of the intervention

A distinction is made between the direct and indirect costs of an intervention. Direct costs include expenses such as the salary of the trainer, the cost of the venue, the printing of training materials, meals and refreshments, travelling, accommodation and allowances. Indirect costs are more difficult to determine and include expenses such as loss in 426

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production and salaries of learners. All expenses related to the learning programme need to be determined; this is the sum of the direct and indirect costs.

6.3 Nadler’s model of evaluation Nadler’s model focuses on the evaluation of the design and delivery process of the learning programme in eight steps. These are: 1. Specify performance 2. Identify learner needs 3. Determine objectives 4. Build curriculum 5. Select instructional strategies 6. Obtain instructional sources 7. Conduct training 8. Provide feedback and recommendations. Every step from analysis to delivery of the learning programme is evaluated for effectiveness and efficiency. As Nadler (1982) notes, ‘that which is happening is directly related to the needs of those in the organisation who are involved as learners or decision-makers. It is not the performance of the designer that is being evaluated, but the outcomes of the activities for which the designer has responsibility.’ Nadler’s model states that: •• Evaluation is a continuous process, as opposed to a once-off activity; •• Evaluation should be integrated into every part of the training and delivery process; •• Each step in the process should be evaluated before moving to the next step; •• The emphasis is on formative evaluation, where the results of the evaluation of one stage serve as a point of departure for the next stage.

6.4 Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation Fourth generation evaluation is a form of evaluation in which the claims, concerns and issues of the stakeholders serve as focus points. These focus points determine what information is needed (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The model falls within the constructivist inquiry paradigm. This is the view that social reality is a creation of the observer, which means that reality is different for each person. Guba and Lincoln (1989) propose a 12-step model of evaluation. The steps include: 1. Initiating contact with the client or sponsor. The client is the person/s who is requesting the evaluation. 2. Organising the evaluation by selecting a team of evaluators who will carry out the evaluation. 3. Identifying the stakeholders, that is all the people who are affected in any way by the learning programme and the evaluation thereof. 4. Developing the evaluation constructs between the various groups of stakeholders. Here the stakeholders (through interviews and focus groups) indicate what they view as the main concerns, claims and issues relating to the intended programme. 5. Testing and validating the constructs with stakeholder groups. The different claims, concerns and issues are discussed with the other groups; this leads to the acceptance of some and the rejection or revisiting of others. 6. Sorting out the resolved concerns, claims and issues among the various stakeholders. The agreed upon concerns, claims and issues are listed and described. 7. Prioritising unresolved concerns, claims and issues. The unresolved concerns, claims and issues are prioritised according to criteria developed by the stakeholders. Examples 427

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of how these may be prioritised include: the possibility of resolution; the possibility of achieving a compromise; or importance to the value system of the stakeholder. 8. Collecting information about unresolved concerns, claims and issues. Detailed information is collected about the unresolved concerns, claims and issues. This gives both the evaluator and stakeholders an in-depth understanding of exactly what is involved with each concern, claim and issue. 9. Preparing an agenda for negotiation. An agenda is set up with as much information as possible about each concern, claim and issue. Stakeholders prepare for the negotiations. 10. Carrying out the negotiation process between the stakeholders. Negotiations are carried out between the various stakeholders in an attempt to attain consensus regarding the unresolved concerns, claims and issues. The aim is to create joint constructions about the learning programme with the input of all different stakeholders. 11. Reporting the joint construction as a case study. The results of the evaluation process are reported in such a way that the reader can see the facts pertaining to the evaluation, as well as the process that the constructors used to create these facts. 12. Recycling. Many issues will remain unresolved and many questions unanswered. Repeat the process. As Guba and Lincoln (1989) put it, ‘Fourth generation evaluations never stop; they merely pause.’ The main difference between the fourth generation model and earlier models is that the stakeholders decide what should be evaluated. Whereas earlier models assume an objective reality, fourth generation evaluation assumes that reality is a construction of those involved. The main difference between the fourth generation model and earlier models is that the stakeholders decide what should be evaluated.

6.5 Predictive evaluation Predictive evaluation (PE) is an alternate and integrated approach to evaluation that provides data to management which focuses on predicting the success of training/learning intervention in three areas; namely (1) intention – examining whether the participants’ goals and beliefs are aligned with anticipated goals upon completion of the programme; (2) adoption of behaviours – examining the degree to which the training has been implemented on the job and successfully incorporated into the work behaviours of the participants; and (3) impact on business results – measuring to see if success has been achieved. It differs from other approaches in that PE focuses on making before-the-fact predictions in order to decide whether training should occur in the first place and then conducting measurements after-the-fact to measure against these predictions (Basarab, 2011). The steps followed in PE include: 1. Choose the course to be evaluated, either a new course design or an existing course. 2. Review this comprehensively: understand what it is, what it is supposed to achieve, processes followed to deliver the content, the business issues it addresses, who attends, how this takes place, nature of pre-course preparations, type of post-course support

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mechanisms (if any), the course sponsors, and what they consider to be the purpose of the course. 3. Constitute a committee to predict the value of the training, create an impact matrix (the key features the programme is expected to impact) and present these to the key decision-makers; 4. Evaluate intention by monitoring the course during the pilot and following sessions, and make adjustments where necessary. 5. Evaluate adoption, that is, the degree to which participants have adopted the changes in behaviours promulgated by the course. 6. Evaluate impact by determining the degree to which the programme has impacted on the business results of the organisation. See example of an impact assessment at the end of this chapter.

7. THE TRAINING EVALUATION PROCESS Formal, professional evaluation of learning programmes is systematic. It relies on a whole range of special skills and knowledge, including the following: •• The use of planning skills to determine evaluation options and decide what information would be useful; •• Conducting the evaluation, which includes the process of collecting information; and •• Communicating outcomes, which includes putting the information in some convenient form and feeding it into the decision-making process (Coetzee et al., 2013; Kraiger & Surface, 2017). As shown in Figure 8.4, the steps in the evaluation process are similar to the steps that one would follow in any research process. Step 1 Identify stakeholders

Step 9 Communicate the evaluation results

Step 2 Collect background information

Step 3 Formulate research questions

Step 4 Identify evaluation dimensions and criteria

Step 5 Select and apply data collection tools

Step 8 Make recommendations

Step 7 Analyse and interpret the collected data

Step 6 Draw up an evaluation plan

Figure 8.4  The evaluation process

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7.1 Step 1: Identifying stakeholders The first step in evaluating a learning programme is to identify the decision-makers or stakeholders and their expectations or requirements. The first step in evaluating a learning programme is to identify the decision-makers or stakeholders and their expectations or requirements. Stakeholders include learning designers, L&D professionals involved in the learning programme, learners who will attend the programme and managers or supervisors. The main reasons for identifying the decision-makers or stakeholders are: •• To gain their commitment and support; •• To identify their needs and expectations; •• To communicate to them about the progress of the evaluation; and •• To ensure that the findings and recommendations of the evaluation are implemented.

7.2 Step 2: Collecting background information The L&D professional needs to collect background information about the learning programme and the organisational context. The information that will be collected about the learning intervention include: •• The objective(s); •• The learning outcomes; •• The size and scope; and •• The expected results. In addition, the L&D professional needs to collect background information about the organisation, including: •• The strategic direction of the organisation (vision, mission, goals and objectives) to determine the extent to which the objectives and outcomes of the programme are aligned; •• The culture of the organisation and how this supports learning; •• The political climate, including who supports and who opposes the changes brought about by the learning programme; •• The business policies and procedures, especially those that are related to training and development; •• The history of the performance problem that led to the initial implementation of the learning programme; •• The communication channels; and •• The human and financial resources available.

7.3 Step 3: Formulating research questions The next step is to translate decisions about requirements into research questions. Research questions describe the type of data to be collected, the people who will be measured and the standard or benchmark for evaluating a learning programme’s success. For example, 430

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an L&D professional might be asked to demonstrate the value of a new management development process. The evaluation might deal with the following research question: ‘Do managers change their approaches to self-development as a result of the learning programme?’ This question implies that the data will be a measure of self-initiated development activities; that the people who participate in the learning programme are managers; and that the standard will be the level of activity before the learning programme. Research questions should indicate what data the decision-maker will consider as valid and credible. This implies that the research question should be tested with the decision-maker before proceeding (Coetzee et al., 2013). Research questions describe the type of data to be collected, the people who will be measured and the benchmark for evaluating the L&D programme’s success.

7.4 Step 4: Identifying the evaluation dimensions and criteria Once the research questions have been formulated, evaluators and stakeholders need to define the dimensions of the evaluation. These are the aspects of the learning programme that will be evaluated and include issues such as the design and delivery of the learning programme, competence, the transfer of learning to the workplace and the impact on organisational performance. L&D professionals need to choose criteria to evaluate the different dimensions. In choosing the evaluation dimensions and criteria, evaluators can use various different evaluation models. The choice of an evaluation model will depend on the purpose and focus of the evaluation. Using a particular model will help the evaluator to focus and structure the evaluation process. The choice of an evaluation model will depend on the purpose and focus of the evaluation.

7.5 Step 5: Selecting and applying data collection tools Data collection tools or measuring instruments include questionnaires, observations, interviews and organisational records. The evaluator needs to select the most appropriate data collection tool based on the information that needs to be collected. 7.5.1 Questionnaires

Questionnaires measure learners’ reactions and opinions. They provide data that can be easily summarised. Petersen (in Lee, 2006) argues that there are seven distinct tasks in constructing an effective questionnaire. These include: •• Identifying the specific information required; •• Developing and prioritising a full list of questions that will access the required information; •• Carefully assessing each potential question; •• Determining what types of question need to be asked; •• Deciding on the specific wording of each question; •• Determining the structure of the questionnaire; and •• Evaluating the questionnaire. 431

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Guidelines for writing effective questions (based on Lee, 2006) •• Write simple, clear and short questions.

•• Emphasise important words in the questions.

•• Questions should be specific and precise.

•• Take care with sensitive questions.

•• Language usage should be appropriate to the audience.

•• Avoid negatives and double negatives.

•• Make sure the respondents are able to answer the questions.

•• Do not base questions on false premises.

•• Avoid biased or loaded questions.

•• Include one topic per question.

7.5.2 Interviews

Through interviews, information is collected directly from people. They provide in-depth information; during interviews, responses can be probed and checked. Interviews can be conducted on a one-to-one basis, in groups or by telephone. Interviews, as an evaluation technique, require a high level of skill (Swanson, 1994). Focus groups are group interviews during which the opinions and attitudes of group members are tested. Focus groups involve a targeted group of stakeholders who provide information about a specific topic (Swanson, 1994). Interviews, as an evaluation technique, require a high level of skill. Table 8.10  Advantages and disadvantages of interviews as an evaluation technique (adapted from Pershing, 2006)

Advantages

Disadvantages

•• The interviewer can seek clarification on issues.

•• Interviewers may influence or lead respondents.

•• They provide an opportunity to build rapport.

•• Note taking can distract respondents.

•• A wider range of subjects can be addressed, including unexpected issues that have arisen.

•• Interviews are expensive and time consuming. •• Results are often difficult to analyse if semistructured or unstructured questions are used.

Table 8.11  Steps to follow in an interview process (adapted from Pershing, 2006) Step 1: Determine the objective of the interview The evaluator needs to ask questions relating to the dimensions of the training intervention that is being evaluated. Step 2: Preparing for the interview Select the respondents. Who will be interviewed? •• Develop an interview protocol (the list of questions to be asked). •• Prepare a timetable for conducting the interviews. •• Conduct a pilot interview to test the protocol. •• Train interviewers. •• Schedule the interviews.

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Step 3: Carrying out the interview •• Open the interview by setting the respondent at ease. •• Conduct the interview. Go through the questions in the interview protocol. •• Close the interview and thank the respondent. •• Record the interview. If the interview has been taped or digitally recorded, the interview needs to be transcribed. Step 4: Concluding the interview The interviewing process is concluded when the information from several respondents become repetitive. Step 5: Compiling and analysing results The data are analysed either statistically (if the interview comprised closed questions) or qualitatively (if the interview comprised open-ended questions).

7.5.3 Observations

Learners can be observed before, during and after a learning event. Observation is particularly useful in evaluating the mastery of skills (Gibb, 2002; Swart et al., 2005). The evaluator observes employees performing their jobs in their natural environment. When practised in a systematic way, observing people at work will yield a great deal of qualitative and quantitative information about the work, the worker and the environment (Swanson, 1994). Observation is particularly useful in evaluating the mastery of skills. Observations are divided into two broad categories, namely overt observations (employees are aware that they are being observed) and covert observations (employees are unaware that they are being observed). A distinction is also made between structured and unstructured observations. Unstructured observations are characterised by an absence of premeditated tasks; the observer simply takes in as much as possible. Structured observations have specific goals and structured instruments (such as checklists) guide the observation. The observer’s degree of involvement also varies from an independent observer, to an observer who participates to some degree, to a participant who also observes. The purposes of observation as an evaluation technique are also regarded as the advantages of observation (Pershing, Scott & Rowe, 2006): •• First-hand information is obtained about task-performance problems in the work situation. •• Task, individual and group processes can be observed. •• Findings from interviews and questionnaires can be confirmed. •• Predicted performance can be compared to actual performance. 7.5.4 Organisational records

Organisational evidence and learners’ work samples can serve as evidence of the transfer of learning to the workplace. Organisational records are any documents (paper or electronic)

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kept by the organisation. Examples include records pertaining to employee turnover, sick leave, grievances, production statistics, policy and procedure manuals, memoranda and minutes of meetings. The method used to analyse organisational documents is known as content analysis. This is the process of searching through documents to answer specific questions (Thomas cited in Gilmore, 2006). The following questions need to be answered before analysing business records (Pershing cited in Gilmore, 2006): •• Who has access to the required records? •• Where will these be analysed? Can they be moved? •• Do the documents contain sensitive or proprietary data? •• Are confidentiality agreements required? •• Who should be consulted if additional documents are required? •• Is training needed to analyse the documents? •• Are there built-in biases in the documents? 7.5.5 Assessment instruments

Assessment instruments are the tests, assignments, projects, portfolios of evidence or other tools used to measure the competence of learners (read more about assessment in Chapter 7). These instruments provide information on learners’ competence once they have completed a learning programme. This information can also be used to determine whether the programme is achieving its intended goals. In this regard, pre- and post-course tests are valuable as evaluation tools. Assessment instruments are the tests, assignments, projects, portfolios of evidence or other tools used to measure the competence of learners. Once the appropriate data collection tool(s) have been selected, the evaluator starts to collect the data. The process of selecting and applying an appropriate data-collection tool comprises a number of steps. These include: •• Determining the type of information that is required; •• Selecting a data collection tool that is appropriate to the type of information required; •• If an appropriate tool is not available, designing a valid tool that will enable the evaluator to collect the required data; •• Testing the data-collection tool on a pilot group; •• Collecting the information from the target group; •• Analysing and summarising the collected data; and •• Reporting the findings.

7.6 Step 6: Drawing up an evaluation plan Research questions are expanded into an outline of the evaluation plan. From the example used in step 3 of the training evaluation process (formulating research questions), the way to measure self-initiated development activities might be selected from such options as training requests, self-reports by means of questionnaires or interviews, superior ratings, subordinate ratings, or a combination of techniques. In addition, the standard that will be 434

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used to evaluate performance is determined (the term ‘standard’ refers to a benchmark for judging the performance of the learning programme). Standards may be relative (normreferenced) or absolute (criterion-referenced). Relative standards compare two sets of data: one set to represent the effects of the learning programme (its impact); and the other to represent performance unaffected by the learning programme. For example, a learning programme may be evaluated by comparing pre-test performance to post-test performance; comparing learners’ performance to the performance of untrained employees, or a combination of these (Coetzee et al., 2013). Absolute standards are fixed indicators expressed in numbers; they are set independently of any group’s performance in the evaluation study. These standards may be derived from corporate policy or objectives, historical records of productivity, work quality, turnover rates, opinions of job experts, legal or government requirements (for example, SAQA and QCTO quality requirements) or assessment requirements. For example, the evaluator may choose to compare the managers’ development activities to their activities before the process, or to the activities of a similar group of managers who do not attend the learning programme (called a control group), or to both. Relative standards compare two sets of data. Absolute standards are fixed indicators expressed in numbers; they are set independently of any group’s performance in the evaluation study. When formulating research questions, participants are also described. The target groups are identified and the characteristics that define each group are listed. An evaluation of a learning programme for managers will, for example, comprise the group of managers who participated in the learning programme, and who have been back at work for at least two months, to demonstrate the expected behaviour. Managers from different departments and levels would be included in the target group. In the planning of an evaluation, the L&D professional identifies any constraints that may hinder the evaluation effort and the resources required for the evaluation (such as people, time, finances and instruments). The administrative requirements for the evaluation effort are also specified in the plan. The actual evaluation plan should be written and documented (Coetzee et al., 2013; Kraiger & Surface 2017). Table 8.12 shows an example of an evaluation plan. Table 8.12  Example of an evaluation plan (based on Coetzee et al., 2013)

Evaluation of management development programme Purpose Client

JB – Human Resources

Programme

Learning programme to help executives with self-development. Participation is voluntary.

Objective

Develop skills for executive succession.

Decision

Continue or modify programme design.

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Concerns

Learning facilitators (trainers) say it is too early to look for tangible outcomes.

Design question

Do executives do more self-development because of participation in the learning programme?

Constraints

JB wants a report in two months.

Measurements

Interviews to determine types and frequency of developmental activities.

Sampling

Random selection of 20 participants and 20 non-participants.

Standards

Participants’ change is greater than non-participants’ change over the same period.

Analyses

•• Frequency counts of different types of development activity reported by each group for each time period; •• Statistical test to see if groups differed significantly in frequency of development activities; •• Summary of suggested improvements.

Administration Staffing

One evaluator, half-time position for two months.

Budget

Salary and expenses estimated at R45 000.

Schedule

Measurement materials designed

4 April 2018.

Samples selected

10 May 2018.

Interviews completed

20 June 2018.

Report available

15 July 2018.

7.7 Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data Analysis of the data is about making sense of them. The evaluator has now collected data from various respondents. Once these data have been analysed, the evaluator needs to explain the findings drawn from the data. This is known as the interpretation of data. There are two broad categories of data analysis, namely: •• Statistical analysis, which uses various statistical techniques to analyse quantitative data (data that can be expressed in numbers, such as data from questionnaires); •• Content analysis, which is the analysis of qualitative data (such as organisational records and interviews) to identify trends.

7.8 Step 8: Making recommendations This step in the evaluation process is where the evaluator makes recommendations to the stakeholders about how the learning programme needs to be changed or improved, based on the findings of the evaluation. This is the most important step in the evaluation process as this is the reason why the evaluation was conducted in the first place.

7.9 Step 9: Communicating the evaluation results Once the evaluation process has been conducted, the results should be communicated to the stakeholders. The evaluation process and the results are put together in a report and presented to the stakeholders. Based on this report, the stakeholders will make decisions 436

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about their course of action. The quality of this report is, therefore, extremely important. The evaluation results are communicated in the form of an evaluation report. The following elements are generally included in an evaluation report: •• An executive summary, which provides an overview of the main points covered in the report; •• The methodology used to collect and analyse the data and reach conclusions; •• The programme costs per item, in as much detail as possible; •• The design of the learning programme, identifying what was done well and what needs to be improved; •• The reaction of the learners, expressed in terms of their level of satisfaction with the delivery of the learning programme; •• The learning results, where the results of the assessment of learner achievement are satisfactory; •• Transfer of learning to the workplace, identifying barriers and enablers of the transfer of learning to the workplace; •• The impact on the results of the business, showing the extent to which the results of the organisation were improved; •• The return on investment, weighing up the costs of the programme against the financial benefits for the organisation; and •• Conclusion and recommendations. There are also a number of important principles that need to be followed when communicating evaluation results. They include the following (Block, 2000; Phillips et al., 2016): •• Communicate at the right time. There is normally a ‘window of opportunity’ related to evaluation data; in other words, evaluation results need to be communicated when they will have the most impact. •• Communicate quickly. It is important to obtain evaluation results and to communicate these to the relevant stakeholders as quickly as possible. •• Aim the communication at the right audience. Make sure that the appropriate stakeholders (the ones affected by the learning programmes and those who have influence over the HRD department) are kept in mind. •• Keep the data simple and concise. Present the data in as simple and concise a manner as possible so that it is easy to read and understand. •• Present negatives positively. Discuss negative results as development opportunities rather than as criticisms. •• Use simple descriptive data. Describe the data in language that all the stakeholders can understand. •• Select the appropriate media. Select the media that will have the most impact and get the message across effectively. •• Provide unbiased data. Provide honest, unexaggerated data. •• Communicate consistently. Communicating evaluation results is not a once-off process. It should take place on a regular basis.

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•• Get the reactions of the stakeholders. Ask stakeholders for their reactions to the data and the recommendations. •• Provide the communication. Communicating evaluation results is not a random process. When planning the communication, decide why the communication is taking place, who will receive it, what will be communicated, and when, where and how the communication will take place. •• Act on the findings. It is pointless to evaluate if you do not do anything with the findings. Use these findings to bring about improvements to the organisation’s learning interventions. Table 8.13  Quality checklist for an evaluation report

Does the report contain the following sections?

Yes No

Comments

1. The purpose of the report Why was this report drawn up and for whom? What is the aim of the report? 2. Executive summary What programme was evaluated? What was the aim of the programme? How, when and where was the programme conducted? Who requested the evaluation? When was the evaluation conducted and over what period of time? What process followed was in the evaluation? Who was responsible for conducting the evaluation? What were the major findings of the evaluation? 3. Background What were the aims of the training programme? What outcomes is the programme intended to achieve? What process was followed to deliver the programme? Where was the programme delivered? What unique challenges did the programme face? Who was responsible for the delivery of the programme? 4. Evaluation What dimensions were evaluated? What criteria were used to evaluate the different dimensions? What evaluation design or process was used?

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Does the report contain the following sections?

Yes No

Comments

Any limitations on the results as a consequence of the design? What description of the data collection methods was used? Motivation for the appropriateness of the data collection methods? Ahe description of the data collection process, organisation of the data in the report and process used to analyse the data? 5. Findings Does it present the findings of the evaluation? Does it summarise the main findings in a user-friendly format? Does it explain the meaning of the findings? 6. Recommendations Does it recommend how the findings should impact on future training programmes? Does it recommend how the findings should be used to adjust the curriculum? Does it recommend how the findings will impact on any or all relevant stages of the training and development process? Other (specify):

8. FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE EVALUATION There are a number of reasons why organisations avoid evaluating their L&D interventions. These include: •• Barriers to evaluation and problems experienced with the evaluation process. •• Top management may not emphasise the importance of evaluation and may simply accept that training is valuable and effective. •• Managers of HRD departments may not have the necessary skills to conduct evaluations; they avoid this aspect of the HRD process. •• There may be uncertainty about what exactly should be evaluated. Owing to the wide range of models, each with a different emphasis, it is often difficult to decide on what to evaluate. •• Evaluation may be viewed as risky and expensive. It is often felt that the costs outweigh the benefits. There may also be a fear that an evaluation may bring negative attention to the HRD department (Grove & Ostroff cited in Goldstein & Ford, 2002). In addition, there are a number of issues that may result in organisations doing superficial evaluations or no evaluations at all. These problems include: •• Too many models and theories. There are many theories and models for evaluation. This is confusing, as the different models and theories focus on a wide variety of issues. •• The complexity of models. Models and theories tend to be complex and contain many variables. This makes it difficult for the average L&D professional to use them. 439

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•• A general lack of understanding about evaluation. •• The lack of research skills. Effective evaluation involves a research process. This implies that L&D professionals should have research skills; this is not always the case. •• There is difficulty in identifying the impact of training on specific variables. It is often difficult to identify specific variables or the specific impact that a training intervention has on an organisation. •• Evaluation is considered to be a post-programme activity. Most evaluation focuses on the end results of training programmes, rather than on the process. •• Managers do not see the long-term advantages. Evaluation is often aimed at individual programmes and interventions, rather than at the overall training and development functions. •• There is little support from the main stakeholders. Managers and other stakeholders often see evaluation as a ‘nice-to-have’ rather than a ‘must-have’. •• Evaluation is not focused on management needs. Evaluation data often focus on the learners’ needs rather than on those of management. •• Evaluation data are not used appropriately. Evaluation results are not used at all, do not reach the appropriate stakeholders, are not used to bring about improvements, or are used for political or disciplinary purposes. •• Inconsistent use. Evaluation will not be taken seriously if it is used in an inconsistent way across different learning programmes. •• No clear standards. No consistent standards exist for evaluation in terms of the process, methods and techniques. •• Lack of sustainability. Evaluations tend to be short-term processes aimed at specific goals, rather than at strategic long-term processes (Phillips et al., 2016).

Case study Read carefully through the following case study and answer the questions that follow. JK Electronics was a small, family-owned appliance store in Sea Point, staffed predominantly by family members. However, over the last 10 or so years it has grown substantially to a chain of 10 stores across Cape Town with more than 100 staff members. Each store has six sales people who have received little formal training. Management decided that this is no longer viable and has decided to create a formal in-house training programme, which will be attended by 12 sales people at a time. John Mahlangu, the newly appointed HR consultant, will be responsible for the design, development and delivery of the new training programme, which will be presented offsite in a face-to-face classroom setting. The programme will run over a five-day period and cost an average of R250 000 for each presentation. The learning intervention is called ‘Professional sales skills’ and is designed to provide the learners with an understanding and mastery of the personal selling process. The outcomes of the course are as follows: After completing the course, the learner will be able to: • describe the sales process; • demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the factors that affect successful sales; • have an in-depth knowledge of the different product ranges stocked by JK Electronics;

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• design a product-specific sales presentation; • understand and manage his/her performance as a sales person against set goals. The content that the programme will cover included: • The importance of personal selling; • The personal selling process; • Different sales techniques and tools; • Forecasting future sales; • Developing personal sales objectives; • Self-motivation; • The social, legal, and ethical issues that salespeople face. A year after the completion of the programme, JK Electronics’ after tax profits (adjusted for inflation) have increased from R5 million to R6.5 million. Questions 1. Which form of evaluation would be appropriate here; i.e. diagnostic, formative or summative evaluation? Motivate why you say so. 2. Who would the stakeholders be in the evaluation process here? Explain why each would be important to the evaluation process. 3. How would Kirkpatrick’s model be applied in the context of this programme? 4. What tools would you use to collect data relating to reaction and behaviour respectively? Motivate! 5. How would Phillips’ ROI model be applied here? Was it worth conducting the programme in monetary terms? 6. Briefly explain the training/learning intervention evaluation process and how this would be applied in this context. 7. What issues should John Mahlangu focus on when communicating the results of the evaluations? 8. Could the predictive evaluation (PE) model be applied in the context of this study? Why do you say so? EXAMPLE OF IMPACT ASSESSMENT: L&D INTERVENTIONS ON ATR/PTR BY SETA

Assessment element

Response categories

For what reasons did the organisation decide to undertake staff training/L&D?

Choose applicable category: •• In response to legislation; •• To meet organisational HRD policies and targets; •• To help the organisation resolve recognised problems; •• To help improve operation and function efficiency; •• To increase revenue from current operations; •• To reduce business risk; •• To improve product/service quality; •• To adapt to evolving industry/technologies; •• To be seen following ‘good practice’; •• Other (please specify).

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Assessment element

Response categories

On a scale of 1 to 5, how important was improving the following as part of the training/L&D intervention objectives:

Scale code: 1 = not at all important

4 = fairly important

2 = somewhat important

5 = very important

3 = important Reducing absenteeism; Improving the organisation’s performance; Improving staff knowledge; Reducing staff turnover; Improving staff morale and employment relations; In general, was the training/L&D intervention compulsory or optional? Thinking about the general attitude of staff to the underlying reason for training/L&D intervention, how would you describe their general attitude towards training/L&D interventions? Did you evaluate the training/L&D intervention? Describe how evaluation was done and methods used. In the period following the completion of training/L&D intervention, has each of the following changed? Rate on the scale of 1 to 4

Scale code: 1 = increased

3 = stayed the same

2 = decreased

4 = hard to say

The number of errors or grievances The number of disciplinaries Need for supervision Absence levels Staff turnover Staff morale and motivation Productivity For the increases/decreases noted above, to what extent can the changes in each be attributed to training/L&D intervention undertaken?

Scale code: 1 = nothing to do with training/L&D intervention 2 = partially due to training/L&D intervention 3 = largely due to training/L&D intervention

The number of errors or grievances;

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Assessment element

Response categories

The number of disciplinaries; Need for supervision; Absence levels; Staff turnover; Staff morale and motivation Productivity. On a scale of 1 to 5, how would you rate the impact the training/L&D intervention had on participants’ cognisance regarding each of the following: Key performance areas; Responsibilities; Attitude; Motivation; Lifelong learning needs. Adapted from MICTSETA (2018).

Review and discussion questions 1. How does a properly planned and executed training evaluation help L&D professionals and managers to prove the quality of and value added by their learning programmes and other L&D interventions? 2. What is the purpose of compliance evaluation in the South African workplace? How does it differ from and complement value-added evaluation? 3. Why do organisations sometimes neglect training evaluation? 4. How can L&D professionals ensure that their evaluations produce valid and reliable data? What steps would you recommend in executing an evaluation? 5. How would you demonstrate to management, the cost-effectiveness, the change that occurred and the impact of a learning programme? 6. How do the various evaluation models guide L&D professionals to determine evaluation dimensions and criteria? 7. When should L&D professionals conduct evaluation and impact assessment? Give reasons for your answer.

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Summary This chapter concluded the discussion of the learning cycle by exploring evaluation as a significant aspect of quality and value-adding L&D provision. The South African workplace emphasises compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation of L&D interventions and practices to measure the quality and impact of L&D interventions. Well-planned L&D/training evaluation allows L&D professionals and managers to collect descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make effective L&D decisions regarding the selection, adoption, modification and financial evaluation of L&D interventions. Various evaluation models were presented to indicate how they can be used to determine the training evaluation dimensions and the criteria to be measured. The training/learning intervention evaluation process should be executed in a systematic manner to ensure the validity and reliability of compliance and value-added measurements. The role of HRD management in ensuring the quality and sustainability of and value added by L&D interventions, practices, services and products in the workplace is discussed in Chapter 9.

Wise L&D professionals create an environment that encourages learners to teach themselves.

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PART

3 SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY

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CHAPTER

9

MANAGING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha

Key points of managing learning and development in the workplace: •• Learning and development (L&D) management is an integral part of the overall human resource development (HRD) strategy that aims to contribute to organisational capability and sustainability and employee productivity and employability. •• The strategic L&D plan facilitates the effective and efficient implementation of the workplace skills plan. •• Defining the L&D value proposition, strategising, organising, leading, assuring quality and evaluating results and outcomes are key HRD management functions. •• South African organisations, although based on the African continent, compete globally, particularly in the mining and agricultural sectors. South African business organisations therefore have to develop employees that are globally competitive. •• Global competition creates global labour markets. Talented employees can find employment globally and can also work remotely for global organisations. •• South African business organisations have a heterogeneous employee base. South African business organisations consequently have to develop leaders, managers and employees that are culturally aware and adaptable. •• South African business organisations operate within an environment and community and they should respect the expectations of the community and contribute to and sustain the environment After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Explain why the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0) requires a dynamic and flexible approach to learning and development (L&D) management. •• Explain how the concept of knowledge management relates to individual and organisational learning. •• Evaluate and discuss the concept of strategic L&D management. •• Describe the role of L&D management in addressing the seven core workplace issues in the 21st-century workplace. •• Discuss the importance of defining the L&D value proposition. •• Explain the link between the HRD strategy and L&D management. •• Discuss the L&D management process and the functions that support the effective and efficient implementation of the strategic L&D plan.

1. INTRODUCTION Managing learning and development (L&D) requires a dynamic and flexible approach that not only contributes to organisational flexibility and capability, but also adds value for stakeholders. L&D management is, therefore, a strategic activity that contributes to measurable, value-adding business results. An important role of the human resource

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development (HRD) function is to help build and enhance the organisation’s learning capability by supporting the implementation of the organisation’s overall HRD strategy. Learning capabilities are the set of core competencies that differentiate an organisation from its competitors and processes that enable an organisation to adapt to its environment and sustain its competitive advantage. The HRD function is, therefore, responsible for challenging the organisation and its members with new ideas, information and performanceenhancement solutions. This is done by constantly scanning the external environment, managing L&D activities in the workplace, ensuring the expertise and professionalism of L&D professionals, identifying talent pools and groups within the organisation for specific L&D interventions, and devoting resources to educate, train and develop these groups. The HRD function is to challenge the organisation and its members with new ideas, information and performance-enhancement solutions. Learning organisations are results oriented. L&D interventions in a learning organisation are designed and delivered within the broader organisational context (Tortorella et al., 2015). The HRD function needs to foster an environment in which employees are encouraged to expand their knowledge and skills, and use the newly acquired behaviours and operational processes to achieve corporate goals. In this chapter, the context of and approach to managing L&D in the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0) is discussed. The L&D value proposition, management process and functions are discussed to demonstrate how these contribute to the overall HRD strategy of an organisation. Learning organisations are results oriented.

2. H  UMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT The purpose of human resource management (HRM) is to create the systems that enable the employees to achieve the organisation’s strategic business goals. The purpose of human resource management (HRM) is to create the systems that enable the employees of the organisation to successfully achieve the organisation’s strategic business goals. Human resource development (HRD) is an important aspect of HRM; it provides the framework for helping employees to develop their personal and organisational skills, knowledge and abilities, which support the performance capability of the organisation (Heathfield, 2017). Developing employees’ human and social capital is important for the competitiveness and future sustainability of the business. The HRM and HRD systems help to build the human and social capital the organisation needs to sustain its performance capability in today’s VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) business environment (Van Eeden, 2014). The VUCA characteristic of the 21st-century 447

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business environment means that managers and the HR function have to innovate and execute strategies faster than the competition and be capable of change and learning. In the 21st century, the HRD function is expected to take on a more strategic role and help the organisation to achieve its business goals through effective and efficient practices, future-focused HRD programmes and agile solutions that result in organisational learning, adaptability, innovation, collaboration and speed (Ludike, 2014). Developing employees’ human and social capital is important for the competitiveness and future sustainability of the business. L&D professionals need to understand how the 21st-century workplace influences HRD and skills development practices in the workplace. The 21st-century workplace tends to differ from that of the 20th century (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). These days, employees are more likely to work in teams instead of as individuals, and employees overall are expected to be more productive with fewer resources (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). Equally, the focus and activities of HRM also tend to differ in the 21st century. HRM is expected to actively drive organisational profitability and sustainability. Effectiveness and efficiency are the new guiding principles in HRM, along with ethics and corporate citizenship. Effectiveness means to do the right things, while efficiency means to do things right, using as few organisational resources as possible (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). An effective HRM function enables the organisation to maintain a sustained competitive advantage by implementing structures, policies and procedures that facilitate the work of managers and employees. An efficient HRM function facilitates the utilisation of the right human resources at the right time in the right place in order to get the job done to the satisfaction of the customer (the manager or employee and the customer of the organisation). It follows that efficient utilisation of human resources is possible only when effectiveness has been well established. Consequently, in the 21st century, HRM focuses mostly on improving employee efficiency (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). Effectiveness and efficiency are the new guiding principles in HRM, along with ethics and corporate citizenship. The purpose of HRM is to create the infrastructure (policies, procedures and systems) that facilitates the effective use of efficient employees to achieve the organisation’s goals. Some of the challenges faced by 21st-century HRM, and the competencies required to deal successfully with the challenges, are summarised in Table 9.1. Table 9.1  Challenges of HRM in the 21st century and competencies required to deal successfully with the challenges

21st-century HRM challenges

HRM competencies required

Creating an organisational culture that will attract the most competent employees.

Business expertise (knowledge of the organisation’s production processes and logistics, knowledge of business indicators and HR analytics, facilitating strategic dexterity).

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21st-century HRM challenges

HRM competencies required

Retaining and compensating the most competent employees.

Executive guidance and governance.

Cultivating a succession of organisational and business leaders.

Managing relationships.

Creating strategic dexterity.

Communication and interpersonal competence.

Employee engagement.

Planner and facilitator of organisational competence.

Labour market polarisation – loss of routine jobs to automation and/or outsourcing.

Creating and implementing innovative solutions.

Growth of service-related jobs.

Personal credibility, professionalism and accountability.

Ethics and corporate social responsibility.

Ethical decision-making and management; accountability for the triple bottom line.

(Adapted from Lussier & Hendon, 2016, and the South African Board for People Practices HR competency model, 2013)

Human resource managers are involved in a partnership with the management of the organisation to ensure optimal organisational performance. The HRM function entails the following activities or functional areas: •• Human resource information systems; •• Human resource planning; •• Employment equity; •• Recruitment and selection; •• Compensation and benefits; •• Employee relations; •• Employee wellness, health and safety; •• Human resource development (HRD), which includes all L&D activities; •• Organisation and job design; and •• Performance appraisal and management. It is clear that HRD plays an important role in the 21st-century workplace. HRD can be grouped as one of the sub-functions of the HRM department, or can be a department of its own. This decision will usually be made by the organisation’s management, and will depend on factors such as the organisation’s size, geographical distribution, mission, vision and goals, and strategy.

2.1 Purpose and activities of HRD The main purpose of HRD is to facilitate optimal employee performance by creating and making available L&D and learning experiences to the employees in the workplace. Optimal performance can be achieved through various L&D interventions, such as employee training – skills and technical training, management development and employee orientation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). HRD is also a powerful means of creating organisational versatility and litheness (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). These are essential characteristics in the current turbulent, global organisational environment. Employees’ 449

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efforts should be focused on implementing and executing the organisational strategy and the HRD function is responsible for ensuring that employees are equipped for this task. HRD is linked to most other HRM functions. Workforce planners identify the quality and number of employees that the organisation requires. Projected workforce needs enable the human resource function to plan the L&D of both current and new employees. The recruitment and selection functions locate candidates in the market with the required skills. The need for formal L&D depends on the level of the job in the organisation. For example, high-entry requirements will diminish the need for intensive formal training, while a good in-house training course may reduce the need to recruit highly skilled candidates. Performance assessments and career planning are also directly related to HRD. Performance assessments allow for the identification of possible training requirements and possible career opportunities in an organisation. Similarly, remuneration and reward should also be linked to employees’ competencies (Kramar & Holland, 2015). Projected workforce needs enable the human resource function to plan the L&D of both current and new employees. Some of the important activities involved in HRD in the L&D context of this book are depicted in Figure 9.1. Skills and technical training

Coaching

Employee onboarding

Management development

Career development

L&D

Human resource development

Figure 9.1  Overview of HRD activities

L&D involves improving employee skills in order to perform a specific job to the required standard. Development focuses on preparing employees for future job roles, while the purpose of employee onboarding is to familiarise new employees with the organisation’s vision, mission, goals and strategy, organisational values and culture, reporting and communication relationships and general information, such as employee benefits. 450

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Employee onboarding programmes play an important role in ensuring employee retention. Skills and technical training focuses on the development of employee skills for optimal job performance, either because a performance gap exists or because of technical changes that require retraining of the employees. The focal point of management development programmes is to provide managers and supervisors with the competencies to be effective managers. Organisational learning and development interventions use the concepts of behavioural science to augment organisational performance and employee wellbeing and fulfilment. Special L&D issues involve the provision of learning interventions in areas in which the organisation has identified a particular organisation-wide competency need, such as employee health, safety and wellness, cultural diversity sensitivity, training in harnessing the advantages of information, media and technology, and so on (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2012). From this description, it is apparent that HRD, even if it is a separate department in an organisation, does not exist and act in isolation. HRD activities influence and are influenced by all the HRM activities, as well as by the organisational vision, mission, goals and strategy. The HRD function also influences all HRM activities, as well as the organisational mission and strategy. There is mutual interaction, both in the human resource arena and the wider organisational amphitheatre. HRD activities influence and are influenced by all the HRM activities, as well as by the organisational vision, mission, goals and strategy.

2.2 HRD strategy When the organisation changes business strategies, the HRM strategy should change, and so should the HRD strategy. The HRD function should ensure that all the employees have the competencies to implement and execute the new strategy. This can be achieved through any of the HRD activities described above. The organisational strategy therefore forms the foundation and source of all HRD activities. The HRD department should create internal and external alignment, and vertical and horizontal integration, to deliver excellent value to its internal and external stakeholders. •• Internal alignment is created when the organisational strategy supports the organisation’s vision, mission, goals and values. •• External alignment is alignment of the business with the external environment; that is, stakeholders outside the organisation, such as customers, suppliers and the broader community within which the organisation operates. •• Vertical integration exists when all the human resource activities (including HRD) support the human resource strategy. •• Horizontal integration is achieved when the strategies of all the functional areas of the organisation support the organisational strategy.

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What are the practical implications of this approach for HRD? It implies that the HRD strategy should always have as its purpose, the implementation and execution of the HRM strategy and organisational strategy. When the organisation decides to open up new markets by establishing offices in countries outside South Africa, the HRD strategy should indicate how the employees in the new offices will be equipped and empowered to fulfil their roles successfully. When the organisation decides to implement new technology, the HRD strategy should indicate how the strategy will ensure that all staff involved acquire the new skills in as short a time as possible, to ensure optimal work performance. The link between HRD strategy and business strategy is illustrated in Figure 9.2. Organisational strategy Human resource management strategy Human resource development strategy

Human resource development activities

Figure 9.2  Link between the HRD strategy and the business strategy

Case study HRD strategy implications WireLess is a high technology organisation situated in Midrand, Gauteng. The organisation supplies and installs the equipment necessary for WiFi communication. In the past six months, the company has been exploring the possibility of branching out to West Africa, and the board of directors has now made the decision to open an office in Nigeria. The human resource implications of this decision are as follows: • An office manager, two radio engineers, one engineering technician and one network engineer have to be appointed for the office in Nigeria. • The organisation can either transfer current staff to the new office or recruit new staff. • If current personnel are transferred to the office in Nigeria, new staff must be recruited for the office in Midrand, Gauteng. What are the HRD implications of the decision to open an office in Nigeria? If the organisation decides to open an office in Nigeria, the organisation is expanding its activities. If current staff will be transferred to Nigeria, they will need to be sensitised to cultural differences, how to conduct business in Nigeria and how to integrate with the local population in Nigeria. They will also need to be trained in the legalities of importing

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equipment and the legal issues surrounding the installation of a cell-phone network in another country. If new staff are recruited for the office in Nigeria, the HR manager will have to decide if local people will be recruited, or if South Africans will be recruited for a posting in a foreign country. If local Nigerians are recruited, they will need to be sensitised to the general organisational culture and values, as well as the communication and reporting structures (employee orientation). Depending on the level of work-specific knowledge and experience of the staff in this office, they will also need skills and technical training. If South Africans are recruited for the posting in Nigeria, they will need cultural sensitisation, employee orientation training and, depending on their competency level, also skills and technical training. In addition, irrespective of whether local Nigerians are recruited or South African staff are transferred, the local support services staff, specifically human resources, employee relations and compensation management staff, will have to be trained in how to manage employees located in another country. Some of the training the support staff will need are: • Employment regulations in Nigeria; • Requirements for work visas; • Taxation regulations and requirements; • Rules about medical and insurance coverage; • Compensation for relocation; • How to manage the relocation for the family of the employees (if employees are relocated). It is, therefore, clear that the HRD manager and department or section should play an active role in the implementation and execution of organisational strategy and decisions.

Case study Aligning HRD with corporate vision and values: South African Breweries VISION & VALUES South African Breweries (SABMiller) has adopted a Dream-People-Culture foundation, which is embedded in the 10 principles illustrated below. The Dream-People-Culture drives the organisational culture at SAB and encapsulates its value system. Although SAB operates globally, it is managed as one company with one uniting organisational culture, and has a strategy of ensuring that the right people are employed at the right time in the right place. The components of the organisational culture are ownership, informality, candour, transparency and meritocracy. Stretch targets, driven by a belief that results can always be improved, are two more elements of the organisational culture. SABMiller’s vision is to be ‘the Best Beer Company Bringing People Together For a Better World’.

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SAB’s 10 principles Our shared dream energizes everyone to work in the same direction to be the:

DREAM

#1

Our greatest strength is our people. Great People grow at the pace of their talent and are rewarded accordingly.

PEOPLE

#2 CULTURE

#4

CULTURE

Best Beer Company Bringing People Together For a Better World

We are never completely satisfied with our results, which are the fuel of our company. Focus and zero-complacency guarantee lasting competitive advantage. We are a company of owners. Owners take results personally.

#6

CULTURE

#8 Leadership by personal example is at the core of our culture. We do what we say.

CULTURE

We recruit, develop and retain people who can be better than ourselves. We will be judged by the quality of our teams.

CULTURE

#5

PEOPLE

#3

The consumer is the Boss. We serve our consumers by offering brand experiences that play a meaningful role in their lives, and always in a responsible way.

We believe common sense and simplicity are usually better guidelines than CULTURE unnecessary sophistication and complexity.

#7

We manage our costs tightly, to free up resources that will support sustainable and profitable top line growth.

#9

CULTURE

# 10

We never take shortcuts. Integrity, hard work, quality, and responsibility are key to building our company.

Source: http://www.sab.co.za/vision-and-values

From the above vision, mission and value information from SAB, identify the specific development initiatives that would support the mission, vision and values. For SAB, leadership development, quality assurance training, teamwork and collaboration, and health and safety (to reduce wastage and time lost caused by poor health and safety practices) stand out as opportunities the HRD section can harness to support SAB’s values, mission and vision. In addition, although SAB does not elaborate on how they allow their employees to grow, the expressed value is an indication of human capital development (investment in people).

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3. L&D MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST-CENTURY WORKPLACE HRD refers to a set of methods and processes for solving problems or realising opportunities related to people’s performance capability and employability. Managing L&D involves seeing that those methods and processes are applied with economy and care to ensure stakeholder value. The ultimate goal of any HRD and specific L&D effort is always a change in human behaviour to facilitate organisational capability and employee employability (Ulrich, 2014). The goal of any HRD effort is always a change in human behaviour to facilitate organisational capability and employee employability. Managing L&D activities as part of the HRD strategy in the 21st-century workplace makes heavy demands on managers, the HRD function and L&D professionals. They have to handle interactions with stakeholders and operate flexibly in response to changing information and conditions. Effective L&D management requires a balance between doing the right things (effectiveness) and doing them in the right ways (efficiency). As discussed in Chapter 8, measuring the return on investment (ROI) and return on expectations (ROE) of training efforts is a typical indicator of effectiveness. Such measures show that L&D costs are offset by improved skills and knowledge (for example, sales knowledge related to increased sales). Effectiveness also requires compliance with stakeholder requirements and legal regulations, reducing the risk of costly legal actions. Efficiency in L&D processes refers to the efficient use of resources, such as time and money. Effective L&D management requires a balance between doing the right things (effectiveness) and doing them in the right ways (efficiency). L&D priorities change all the time as new challenges confront organisations. But many observers believe that seven issues are receiving the highest priority in the 21st centuryworkplace (Arnold & Randall, 2016; Cascio, 2014). These issues are outlined below. 1. Quality improvement and learning programmes are instituted in response to increasingly higher demands for quality from the customer and the need to be more competitive in a global economy. 2. The economic competitiveness of a nation is related to its skills base. Today’s economy has driven an exponential growth in demand for people with high-level technical and social skills, who have the ability to adapt quickly to changing circumstances and needs. This makes L&D increasingly important at a strategic level within organisations (Arnold & Randall, 2016). Today’s economy has driven an exponential growth in demand for people with high-level technical and social skills, who can adapt quickly to changing circumstances.

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3. Technological change-related programmes will continue to challenge organisations. The rate of advancement of technology continues to accelerate. Employers must continue to offer occupation work-based L&D opportunities to employees to keep them from obsolescence, help them be adaptive and enhance and sustain their employability. 4. Customer service employee development programmes are now a priority for organisations that consider themselves service orientated. Financial, banking, insurance and governmental organisations are placing an increased emphasis on service to the customer as a possible competitive advantage. Total quality management or customer service excellence programmes focus on the responsibility that each employee has to the customer or client. 5. Promoting employability and sustainable livelihoods. Employability is a person’s ability to gain access to, adjust to, and be productive in the workplace. It is the set of competencies that enables a person to meet the demands of the 21st-century workplace. According to Coetzee et al., (2015), employability relates to the capacity to remain employed, even when jobs are scarce. As discussed in Chapter 1, the South African government’s societal transformation agenda, in particular, requires concerted efforts to address the career development and upskilling needs of the country. 6 Cultivating and nurturing flexibility and lifelong learning capacity. People need adaptive skills; the goals of HRD in the workplace therefore go beyond increasing motivation, productivity and job satisfaction to focus on lifelong adaptability, employability and performance capability. As discussed in Chapter 1, South Africa has a high rate of unemployment, which is a cause of social issues such as poverty and the high crime rate. 8. Promoting and accelerating employment equity. As discussed in Chapter 1, to address the inequalities in terms of the educational and equity profile of the workforce, the skills development legislation makes provision for levy/grants initiatives for employers who promote and accelerate the development of black people, women and the disabled. 9. Developing human and social capital. The term ‘capital’ comes from the Latin word caput, meaning head. In business, capital refers to the most important assets of an organisation (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005). The competencies of people in an organisation are regarded as valuable assets that enhance the organisation’s ability to sustain its competitive advantage (Robinson, 2006). People are therefore increasingly recognised as critical assets and L&D professionals are often regarded as human capital developers. As human and social capital developers, L&D professionals focus on the future, often one employee at a time. They assess skills gaps, develop competency profiles and development plans that offer each employee opportunities to develop, and match development needs to opportunities. In this role, L&D professionals also help employees to unlearn old skills and master new ones to enhance their employability and performance capability (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005). HRD efforts focus on those areas in which human and social capital makes the biggest difference to strategic success. The competencies of people in an organisation are regarded as valuable assets that enhance the organisation’s ability to sustain its competitive advantage.

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As human and social capital developers, L&D professionals focus on the future, often one employee at a time. 10. Adopting a stakeholder perspective of HRD. The stakeholder perspective of HRD requires HRD professionals to ensure organisational and environmental sustainability in the long run. Guaranteeing that HRD contributes to the triple bottom line involves taking responsibility for an organisation’s employees, the broader community and the environment affected by the actions of the organisation in its learning and development initiatives. The triple bottom line constitutes environmental integrity, economic prosperity and social equity for all – employees, the community and the environment alike. For HRD, the stakeholder perspective means developing the capacity to learn new things in new ways, to adopt changed approaches to organisational learning and to play a leading role in organisational social responsibility A focus on sustainable development in an organisation requires the dispersion of new knowledge and possibly a considerable change in the organisational culture (Valentin, 2015). 11. Ethically managing a business based on ethics principles. Business ethics is the discipline that deals with what is moral as opposed to immoral, ethical responsibility, sense of duty, accepted values and principles as they relate to the management of a business organisation (Ardichvili, 2013). Business ethics incorporates the obligations towards its shareholders, employees, business partners, its immediate society and the environment. Consequently, business ethics is interlinked with corporate social responsibilities (Ardichvili, 2013).

4. THE NEW LEARNING ORGANISATION Learning is not perceived as an isolated learning experience, but a vital driver of the organisational culture. The learning organisation is a hallmark of the 21st century. The new learning organisation constantly renews itself because of a responsive and flexible culture that creates an enabling and nurturing climate for continued employee learning and improved performance in VUCA contexts. Learning is not perceived as an isolated learning experience, but a vital driver of the organisational culture (Overton, 2017). The new learning organisation has the following characteristics (Overton, 2017): •• Clarity of purpose. The organisation has a shared vision. Employees are valued and nurtured to adapt in order to achieve organisational goals. •• A flourishing organisational ecology. Common goals and agile processes allow employees to thrive and learn, and consequently the organisation flourishes and is enabled to deliver excellent value to its customers. Learning systems are inculcated in the organisation, ensuring that employees have the knowledge and proficiency to grow and succeed. Knowledge management is key to a flourishing organisational ecology. Knowledge management is key to a flourishing organisational ecology. 457

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•• Holistic employee experience. Organisational leaders guide employees to learn actively, to innovate and be creative. Innovative learning experiences are delivered when and where employees need it in order to add value to the organisational product. •• Persistent employee engagement. A dynamic organisational culture establishes relationships that nurture energetic, resilient and growth-oriented employees. A dynamic organisational culture establishes relationships that nurture energetic, resilient and growth-oriented employees. •• Informed decision-making. Collective insight and performance analytics inform organisational decision-making. Employees are actively involved in change initiatives, and learning and development professionals ensure that the learning opportunities they offer nurture employee competence improvement at the right time. •• Flexible, digitally supported learning infrastructure. Learning opportunities include a digital base that facilitate knowledge interchange and competence enhancement.

4.1 Knowledge management Learning at an individual level has strong implications for learning in (and by) the whole organisation. Knowledge management allows organisations to translate the advantages of being a learning organisation into a competitive advantage (Noh et al., 2016). Knowledge management is a process of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge to enhance learning and performance in organisations (Noh et al., 2016). It is also the management of all knowledge available to the organisation, for the benefit of the organisation and the individuals within it (Noh et al., 2016). There is a growing realisation that management objectives can be more easily achieved if managers seek to ensure that employees are trained to absorb management’s values and norms, in addition to technical and job skills (Noh et al.,2016). This often finds expression through HRD being driven by business objectives rather than just technical needs, and delivered through managementcontrolled provision. Knowledge management is a process of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge to enhance learning and performance in organisations. There are different forms of knowledge within an organisation. Nonaka (cited in Rollinson, 2005) draws a distinction between two types of knowledge: explicit and tacit. 1. Explicit knowledge is knowledge that is easily communicated, codified and expressed. It is available to anyone within a particular context. This is the type of knowledge and understanding that most people in organisations have about what to do or how to function in certain circumstances. 2. Tacit knowledge is much more personal and individualised. It is difficult to articulate and communicate to others because it is part of a person’s experience and skill.

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Tacit knowledge is difficult to articulate and communicate to others because it is personal and part of a person’s experience and skill. Explicit and tacit knowledge complement each other. They are both needed in an organisation if it is to be creative and innovative. Taken together, explicit and tacit knowledge constitute the intellectual capital of the organisation (Noh et al., 2016). In addition, knowledge enablers within the knowledge management system allow the organisation to create and maintain a competitive advantage (Noh et al., 2016). Knowledge enablers are the business arrangements (ICTs, policies, procedures and culture) that ensure the success of the knowledge management system. Knowledge enablers encourage knowledge creation, sharing and safekeeping (Noh et al., 2016). In essence, knowledge management is a theoretically interconnected framework that consists of organisational culture and knowledge and uses knowledge enablers to nurture the fundamental required employee behaviours that lead to informed performance (Noh et al., 2016). Explicit and tacit knowledge complement each other. They are both needed in an organisation if it is to be creative and innovative.

4.2 Improving organisational flexibility and capability Organisations see flexibility as a strategic goal to increase competitiveness (Kramar & Holland, 2015). Organisational flexibility exists in the flexibility of resources and coordination of organisational practices. Resource flexibility is the extent to which a resource can be applied to a wide range of alternative uses, while co-ordination flexibility is the extent to which the organisation can quickly rethink and redeploy resources. Organisational flexibility requires specific employee competencies that should be developed through a variety of HRM practices, of which HRD is a critical component (Kramar & Holland, 2015). A main focus of HRD practices in the workplace is to help employees understand how their personal competencies help to build organisational capability. HRD investments produce deliverables and add value when they develop both capability and ability (Kramar & Holland, 2015). Capability represents the identity and reputation of the organisation and includes factors such as individual and organisational capacity and the employer/ leadership brand (see Table 9.2). Ability represents the capacity of an organisation to use resources, get things done, and behave in ways that accomplish goals. Abilities characterise how people think and behave in the context of the organisation and form the organisation’s personality (Ulrich, 2014). According to Ulrich (2014), a successful organisation consists of organisational culture, employee talent and organisational leadership. For HRD, the three dimensions of a successful organisation transfer into the competencies or capabilities that should be present in the organisation to execute the organisational strategy, the kind of organisational culture that would support the execution of the strategy and the kind of leadership capacities that are necessary to execute the strategy successfully? It is clear that HRD will be playing an increasingly strategic role in ensuring organisational learning capability for organisational 459

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sustainability. L&D management helps to facilitate organisational learning, a key ingredient for business survival in the VUCA business environment.

Case study The learning organisation Old Mutual was ranked as the top employer to work for in South Africa for the period 2017/18. The top employer to work for is rated using criteria such as working conditions, talent development and quality of employment practices. The main elements of the organisation that were used in the assessment were the organisation’s talent strategy, workforce planning practices, on-boarding strategy, learning and development opportunities, performance management practices, leadership development, career management, succession planning, employee compensation and organisational culture (source: https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/204882/here-are-the-bestcompanies-to-work-for-in-south-africa-in-2018/). According to Old Mutual’s website, they place emphasis on the importance of teamwork. Furthermore, Old Mutual is dedicated to honesty, transparency and performance excellence. The work ambiance is inspiring, focusing on development, innovation and gratitude. The organisational structure is based on roles. Talent development of current and future employees is a strategic imperative. The culture focuses on rewarding employee excellence, career development and advancement, knowledge sharing and informal learning. Employee development Old Mutual has a corporate university (the Old Mutual Business School [OMBUS]). The OMBUS emphasises the proactive development of management capacity and employee competence to facilitate the implementation of the organisation’s business strategy. In addition, Old Mutual provides its employees with mentoring, coaching, various talent development initiatives and skills transfer programmes. Reflect on the following: How does the employee development initiatives practised by Old Mutual make it a learning organisation? Table 9.2  Organisation capabilities and HRD roles (adapted from Ulrich, 2014)

Capacities

Elements

Descriptions

HRD roles

Individual capacity

Competence

Employees possess knowledge, skills and values required for current and future jobs.

Manage competence, commitment and contribution together.

Employees who give value receive value from the organisation.

Competence is about matching employee competence with organisational requirements.

Employees’ participation in the organisation is personally meaningful.

Create personal meaning in the work through social responsibility.

(Cognition) Commitment (Affect) Contribution (Action)

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Capacities

Elements

Descriptions

HRD roles

Organisational capacity

Intangibles

Organisational capacity signifies what the organisation is famous for, which revolves around what it is good at and how it structures itself to deliver stakeholder value.

Create learning opportunities that make the most of the organisation’s capacities to enhance the value contributed to the company’s business performance.

Leadership brand

Leaders

People who possess exceptional capacities to guide others’ behaviour towards a common goal.

Providing leadership coaching.

Meaning creators

Leaders who indicate to employees how the work they do contribute to the organisation.

Facilitate the creation, implementation and realisation of individual development plans.

Collective leadership

The capacity of an organisation to cultivate and nurture future leaders.

Ensure relevant, timely 360 degree feedback.

HRD practices make a significant contribution to the organisation when L&D professionals shift from a focus on people only, to a focus on organisations in which people work. By helping to create and build organisational capabilities, HRD practices, processes, products, services and technology are integral to the success of the organisation. These capabilities enhance (or reduce) investor confidence in future earnings and increase (or decrease) market capitalisation. L&D professionals who link their practices to capabilities, and who then find ways to communicate those capabilities to investors and stakeholders, deliver long-term sustainable value (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). The concept of organisation capability is closely related to the emerging focus on organisational sustainability. Human resource professionals and business leaders increasingly include sustainability as a factor when assessing organisational effectiveness or success. Sustainability is the ability to meet the needs of the present and achieve success today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Sustainability includes values, governance, transparency and ethics, and goals such as diversity, social responsibility, supporting human and employee rights, protecting the environment and contributing to the community. Sustainability also considers the bottom line because financial viability is necessary for organisational survival, but it defines success as something more than financial results (Losey et al., 2005). Human resource professionals and business leaders increasingly include sustainability as a factor when assessing organisational effectiveness or success.

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Sustainability is the ability to meet current needs and achieve success today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The emphasis on flexibility, capability and sustainability has various implications for managing L&D. HRD efforts should focus on those areas in which human capital makes the biggest difference to strategic success. Human resource and HRD practices should also be aligned to ensure compliance with legal regulations or to provide incentives that reflect community, environmental or social goals. This requires an evaluation of the effects of human resource policies (including HRD policies and practices) on human capacity (people’s capabilities, opportunities and motivation). Capability includes people’s knowledge about the organisation’s social responsibility and ethics codes; opportunity includes time off from work to do volunteer tasks in the local community; and motivation includes employee perceptions that activities related to sustainability are noticed and rewarded (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Sustainability is also about the bottom line, because financial viability is necessary for organisational survival, but it defines success as more than just financial results. These workplace issues have a profound impact on the role and function of HRD. L&D professionals are expected to function increasingly as business partners and to align their HRD activities with business strategies. L&D programmes need to add value for stakeholders and help to deliver business results. This requires a non-traditional approach to L&D management.

5. THE L&D VALUE PROPOSITION The L&D value proposition means that HRD practices (along with other supportive HRM practices), departments and L&D professionals produce positive outcomes for main stakeholders: employees, line managers, customers, investors and government. As discussed in Chapter 8, when stakeholders see the value of L&D interventions, the HRD department will be seen as credible, respected and influential. Value, in this sense, is defined by the receiver. In a world of increasingly scarce resources, activities that fail to add value are not worth pursuing (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Effective L&D management is, therefore, crucial to ensure that all HRD activities deliver results that add value for main stakeholders. To sustain the value proposition, Ulrich and Dulebohn (2015) propose that the HR function, and consequently HRD, adopt an outside/inside approach, as opposed to an inside/ outside HRM approach. In an outside/inside approach, the external context and stakeholders (outside) also affect the HRD activities within the organisation (inside). HRD offerings are aligned with the expectations of stakeholders both inside and outside the organisation. In this way, value is created for the organisation’s customers, and not only for the customers of the HRD department. Consequently, HRD does not react to organisational strategy but plays a role in shaping strategy, thus becoming a strategic partner in the organisation. This means 462

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that the HR value proposition and thus the HRD value proposition are created from the point of view of the outside stakeholders (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). HRD does not react to organisational strategy but plays a role in shaping strategy, thus becoming a strategic partner in the organisation. The following box provides an example of a typical L&D value proposition. Example of an L&D value proposition To enhance its service delivery role and strategic human capital development role, the HRD department developed a consolidated HRD strategy, products and service offerings guided by the following value proposition: We shall provide HRD products and services that will assist our clients to become capable and competent and provide leadership and stature to the company in their respective fields, areas of expertise and endeavours. We, as an HRD function, will provide or obtain the necessary expertise in HRD services, product development and technology so that we can provide a full capability that supports the effective implementation of the company HRD strategy. We shall form partnerships with our clients in the company and the various departments we assist, by being responsive and adaptive, and developing and providing solutions, products and services that add value for key company stakeholders. We will do all this by acting as a seamless function, devoid of functional and geographic separations. We shall become a service provider that is responsive, highly valued, recognised for its professionalism, expertise and effectiveness.

Managing L&D within the context of a value proposition has five important implications for L&D professionals. These are described in the following section.

5.1. Value is defined by the stakeholders Since value is defined by the stakeholders, not the provider, the L&D value proposition begins with a focus on the needs, goals and beliefs of the main stakeholders. Customers (e.g. employees and management) and investors are important stakeholders who are the ultimate receivers of the value added by L&D interventions. Therefore, L&D professionals must balance the multiple and frequently conflicting demands of stakeholders, who range from internal clients, such as managers and employees, to external stakeholders, such as customers and investors (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Consequently, the definition of value as defined by the stakeholders should be considered at the training needs analysis phase, when the organisational success indicators are clarified with the various stakeholders. Since value is defined by the stakeholders, not the provider, the L&D value proposition begins with a focus on the needs, goals and beliefs of the main stakeholders. 463

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5.2 Create sustainable competitive advantage If the HRD department is to create sustained and sustainable competitive advantage, it must generate substantial value with measurable and concrete results. The value proposition needs to position the HRD department, practitioners, products, services and technology as a source of competitive advantage. Ulrich and Brockbank (2005) describe the creation of competitive advantage as the ‘wallet test’. An internal operation passes the wallet test if it inspires customers or shareholders to take money out of their wallets and put it into the organisation’s wallet, instead of into the wallets of competitors. If the HRD department is to create sustained and sustainable competitive advantage, it must generate substantial value with measurable and concrete results. Sustainable value with measurable and concrete results is created when training and development opportunities are aligned with organisational goals, and when stakeholder and organisational success indicators are clarified before the development of learning interventions. For example, HRD products and services must contribute measurably to the creation of human abilities and organisational capabilities that are substantially better than those of competitors. An organisation’s capabilities make investors confident about future earnings and increase market capitalisation. L&D professionals who link their activities, products and services to capabilities, and who then find ways to communicate those capabilities to investors, deliver shareholder value. L&D professionals who link their products and services to capabilities, and find ways to communicate those capabilities to investors, deliver shareholder value.

5.3 Alignment with stakeholder requirements L&D professionals must align their HRD, and especially their L&D practices, products and services, with the requirements of internal and external stakeholders. To employees worried about retrenchment, the L&D professionals should demonstrate that participating in a training event will enhance their employability and help them to stay employed. To a line manager worried about reaching strategic goals, L&D professionals need to show how investment in training and development will help to deliver business results. L&D professionals need to remember that their interest in customers must create value in the products or services customers receive. For shareholders who are worried about returns and growth, L&D professionals must implement and manage training strategies that deliver results, enhance employee employability and productivity, and deliver intangibles that make owners confident that results will be sustained in the future. Intangibles represent the hidden value of the training and development function; this is shareholder value not shown by financial results (Ulrich, 2014).

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5.4 Continued professional development The L&D value proposition directs L&D professionals to acquire the personal competencies necessary to link training activities to stakeholder value (see Chapter 10).

5.5 Value the link between investors and stakeholders The L&D value proposition leads L&D professionals to understand the powerful connection between managers’ and employees’ jobs inside the organisation and what happens with customers and investors on the outside. Focusing on the implications of the L&D value proposition (listed in Table 9.3) helps the HRD function to: •• Emerge as full strategic contributors; •• Add greater value for main stakeholders (customers, investors, line managers, employees and government); •• Enhance business productivity; •• Achieve measurable and valuable results; •• Create sustainable competitive advantage; and •• Have more job and career satisfaction (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005). Table 9.3  Implications of the L&D value proposition (based on Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005)

Implication

Description

Know external business realities

•• What capabilities does the organisation need to create products and services that result in customers investing their capital in the organisation?

Serve external and internal stakeholders

•• What abilities and competencies do our people need to understand and respond to short-term and long-term market demands? •• How do we invest in HRD practices, products and services that deliver business results and add value for the main stakeholders? Align HRD and L&D practices, products and services with internal and external stakeholders’ requirements

•• Who are the main stakeholders of the HRD and L&D activities? •• What are the goals and values of the receiving stakeholders? •• What is important to them? •• What do they want? •• What are their requirements?

Build HRD resources

•• How do we organise HRD and L&D activities to deliver maximum value? •• How do we create an HRD strategy that will help our organisation to achieve its business goals?

Ensure L&D professionalism

•• How do we ensure that L&D professionals will know what to do and have the skills to do it?

Table 9.4 provides an overview of the criteria for an effective HRD function and shows how these link with the five implications of the L&D value proposition.

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Table 9.4   Criteria of an effective HRD function (based on Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005)

Criteria for an effective HRD function

Elements of the L&D value proposition

•• Recognises external business realities, adapts its practices and allocates resources accordingly.

Knowing external business realities

•• Creates market value for investors by increasing intangibles;

Serving external and internal stakeholders

•• Increases customer share by connecting with target customers; •• Helps line managers to deliver strategy by building organisation capabilities; •• Clarifies and establishes an employee value proposition and ensures that employees have the competencies to do their work and sustain their employability. •• Adds value by managing training and development practices and processes.

Creating training and development practices, products and services

•• Has a clear strategic planning process for aligning training and development investments with business goals;

Building training and development resources

•• Aligns the training function to the strategy of the business. •• Has staff who play clear and appropriate roles;

Ensuring HRD and L&D professionalism

•• Builds staff ability to demonstrate training function and L&D professionals competencies and professionalism; and •• Invests in L&D professionals by means of training and development experiences.

6. THE L&D MANAGEMENT PROCESS To ensure the effective implementation of the HRD strategy, HRD managers typically follow a systematic process. An effective L&D management process is an integral part of the HRD strategy and needs to comply with the following 10 criteria:

6.1 Developing a holistic HRD strategy All L&D interventions should form part of the overall HRD strategy of the business. These interventions should add value for stakeholders and contribute to the organisation’s performance capability and long-term sustainability. The strategic HRD plan has a longterm focus (usually three to five years), while the annual L&D plan has a short-term focus (one year) (Noe, 2014). The L&D plan describes the strategies for implementing the workplace skills plan and the relevant HRD objectives for a particular year. The strategic HRD plan has a long-term focus (usually three to five years), while the annual L&D plan has a short-term focus (one year).

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6.2 Considering external and internal forces External and internal forces create the need for specific HRD strategies. An awareness of these forces can help HRD managers and practitioners to prioritise L&D interventions and methods. External forces for change originate outside the organisation and have global effects. These may cause an organisation to question the essence of its business and the ways that products and services are produced. External forces typically include technological advancements, market changes and social and political pressures. Internal forces for change come from inside the organisation. These forces can be subtle, such as low job satisfaction, or can manifest in outward signs, such as low productivity or high staff turnover and conflict (Robin & Kramar, 2015). External forces for change originate outside the organisation and typically include technological advancements, market changes and social and political pressures. Internal forces for change come from inside the organisation.

6.3 Defining the L&D value proposition The HRD function needs to define the L&D value proposition by determining the requirements of main stakeholders and documenting these requirements in the strategic HRD and annual L&D plans (including the workplace skills plan and annual training report).

6.4 Conducting an L&D strategic skills gap analysis A proper diagnosis must be conducted of the biggest performance problems and industryrelated skills gaps that impact on the effectiveness of the business. L&D solutions to these problems need to be identified. Assessing the industry-related skills gaps helps managers to forecast the supply and demand of critical skills that could affect the business’s current and future performance capability. A proper L&D needs analysis (see Chapter 3) helps managers to compile a skills inventory of critical and scarce skills, and identify the skills development needs of talent pools in the organisation. An L&D needs analysis also assists managers to develop and implement an effective HRD strategy. Assessing the industry-related skills gaps helps managers to forecast the supply and demand of critical skills that could affect the business’s performance capability.

6.5 Conducting an organisational L&D needs analysis Once the biggest problem areas and skills gaps have been identified, a thorough skills audit must be conducted to determine the L&D needs of the groups targeted for L&D interventions. These groups usually include scarce and critical skills groups, employment equity groups and talent pools. An L&D analysis is based on occupational and job competency profiles; it describes the competencies required to perform an occupation/job. 467

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On the other hand, a skills audit determines the skills development needs of the current employees. Once the biggest problem areas and skills gaps have been identified, a thorough skills audit must be conducted to determine the L&D needs of the groups targeted for L&D interventions.

6.6 Compiling the L&D plan The next step is to compile an L&D plan (three to five years usually) which includes the annual workplace skills plan that reflects the skills development needs of targeted groups and the planned L&D interventions for a particular financial year. To implement the workplace skills plan effectively, an L&D operational plan needs to be developed. This means setting specific, realistic and measurable targets, determining implementation strategies, setting progress review dates, allocating resources and appointing people who will be responsible for executing and managing the L&D operational plan. The L&D plan should also consider constraints that might hinder the achievement of the identified goals. To implement the workplace skills plan effectively, an L&D operational plan needs to be developed.

6.7 Specifying the execution strategy The L&D plan should also indicate the delivery methods of the planned L&D interventions. Delivery methods include on-the-job training, formal university education programmes, in-house workshops or external learning programmes. Another important aspect is to determine whether the L&D intervention will be outsourced to an external L&D provider. The L&D plan should indicate the delivery methods of the planned L&D interventions and also whether the intervention will be outsourced to an external L&D provider.

6.8 Implementing the L&D plan Once the L&D plan (including the workplace skills plan and L&D operational plan) has been finalised and approved, it needs to be implemented. Depending on the methods used, this can be a lengthy process. It is important to actively monitor the success of the implementation stage. Frequent evaluation of the effectiveness of the L&D interventions and measurement of results are essential. Actions at this stage include evaluating learners’ assessment results, attendance records, feedback on the L&D provider’s effectiveness and L&D targets achieved. Frequent evaluation of the effectiveness of the L&D interventions and measurement of results are essential. 468

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ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

External stakeholders • Customers • Suppliers • Investors • Communities • Government

Environment • Realities • Trends • Competition • Forces for change

Internal stakeholders • Owners • Management • Partners • Union • Employees

Mission • What business are we in? (might include vision, values, guiding principles as overarching principles of what the function stands for)

Evaluation: Are those results meeting our stakeholders’ needs?

L&D value proposition and strategic goals • Critical thrusts • Stakeholder requirements • Focus • Direction (usually 3–5 year time frame)

Strategic objectives • Achievable results • Measurable (usually 3–5 year frame)

Evaluation: Did our actions achieve expected results?

Evaluation: Did we do what we said we would do?

L&D Plan (one year focus) • What, Who, When, How • Constraints • Resources

HRD strategy

• Annual workplace

skills plan

• Annual L&D

implementation plan

Implementation • Do it

Figure 9.3  The strategic L&D management process (based on Rothwell et al., 1995)

6.9 Evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D plan The L&D plan and the L&D interventions are never perfect. An evaluation of outcomes achieved and the feedback received on the effectiveness of interventions is crucial to identify problem areas. A number of follow-up L&D interventions may be conducted to ensure that the workplace skills plan targets and L&D goals are achieved.

6.10 Evaluating value added by L&D interventions A challenging aspect of managing the implementation of the L&D plan is to evaluate whether employees’ on-the-job behaviour and performance have changed for the better as a result of the L&D intervention (see Chapter 8). The L&D professional needs to assist line managers to measure behavioural changes in employees. The outcomes-based assessment 469

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and evaluation process and the performance management system of the organisation are useful mechanisms for determining behavioural changes related to employees’ on-the-job performance. The L&D professional needs to assist line managers to measure behavioural changes in employees after L&D interventions

Case study Go the extra mile Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd has been managing the Bakwena N1/N4 toll road for the past 15 years. The vision of Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd is to ‘remain the preferred provider of the operational and maintenance services on the Bakwena Platinum Toll Road by providing facilities and services that will enhance safe and userfriendly motoring’. Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd’s mission is two-fold. First, they wish to ensure the safety of the motorists who use the toll road by implementing the required road safety standards. In addition, they wish to stimulate a robust corporate identity by providing exceptional customer relations to ensure long-term organisational growth. In support of the vision and mission, in March 2017, Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd implemented the Phambili Campaign, in partnership with the Mindspa Institute. The Mindspa Institute created motivational workshops that were offered to all the operational staff. The purpose of the campaign was to improve employee job satisfaction, productivity and customer satisfaction. The theme of the campaign was: ‘Go the extra mile … there is no traffic there’. The campaign was aimed at encouraging and motivating participants to go the extra mile for customers, fellow employees and themselves. The participants were provided with training on time management, behavioural change and stress-control learning interventions, all aimed at facilitating the competence to maintain a positive attitude towards life and work. Pt Operational Services indicated that the Phambili Campaign was the starting point of continued investment in employee development. Questions 1. Reflect on the vision and mission of Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd and how the Phambili Campaign is aimed at implementing and sustaining the organisation’s vision and mission. 2. What advice would you offer the HRD manager regarding the importance of following a strategic HRD management approach to planning and managing L&D efforts? 3. When considering the strategic human resource development process, what should Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd’s next step be? 4. Formulate an HRD strategy that will facilitate the implementation of Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd’s vision and mission. (Source: https://www.skillsportal.co.za/skills-portal-categories/training/articles?)

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7. THE HRD MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS The HRD management process requires managers to be competent in performing the six functions described in the following section.

7.1 Defining the L&D value proposition The L&D value proposition shows the HRD department’s intent to achieve excellence. As discussed earlier, the L&D value proposition means that HRD practices, departments and L&D professionals produce positive outcomes for main stakeholders. The L&D value proposition ensures that all HRD activities, products and services are aligned to the strategic business goals of the organisation to support the effective and efficient implementation of the HRD strategy.

7.2 Strategising HRD managers need to decide what needs to be done and how and when things need to be done. They identify the scope, resources and constraints of the L&D activities, as required by the HRD strategy, strategic HRD and L&D plan, which includes the annual workplace skills plan. Scope deals both with quantity (how many people, departments, situations, groups, and L&D programmes) and consequences (who and what may be affected and the importance of the identified L&D interventions). The scope of the L&D plan will determine what resources are required to implement the plan. Questions to ask about available resources are shown in Table 9.5. The scope of the L&D plan is weighed against available resources to make decisions about how to manage the implementation of the plan. HRD managers and L&D professionals also need to consider constraints that may affect the implementation of the L&D plan, including: •• Limitations or requirements regarding when and how resources can be used (for example, times when people will be unavailable or under heavy pressure, or deadlines that must be met to co-ordinate with other activities); •• Actions required or prohibited to conform to laws, contracts or government regulations (for example, union agreements that restrict access to people, requirements for appropriate representation of historically disadvantaged or designated groups, or safety or environmental regulations that limit certain activities); •• Organisational policies or cultural expectations that direct or influence the conduct of some activities (for example, protocols and policies to be observed when contacting people, conducting training or requesting information); and •• Decision-making limits and sensitivities that might influence how people respond to the L&D interventions (for example, requirements for decision-making processes, concerns about loss of jobs or status, or sensitivities about similar L&D interventions in the past).

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Table 9.5  L&D resource questions (based on Jackson & Addison, 1992)

Resources

Important questions

People

•• How many people are involved in the L&D activities? •• What skills, backgrounds and experience do they have? •• What limitations are placed on the amount or nature of their participation? •• Do we make use of outsourced L&D providers? •• What kind of performance problems do the L&D activities address? •• How many L&D professionals do we need? •• Do we need assessors and moderators? •• Are L&D professionals competent to deliver the L&D programmes?

Time

•• How much time is required? •• What are the deadlines? •• What are the consequences of changing deadlines?

Money

•• How much money is available? •• How are funds allocated?

Information

•• Do we know the L&D needs and expectations of the targeted groups? •• What information do we need to implement the L&D plan? •• What are the requirements of the main stakeholders? •• What are the workplace skills plan targets? •• What L&D programmes are available? •• Who is the target group and the sponsor?

Locations

•• How many different locations or settings are involved? •• How varied are they? •• How far apart are they?

Materials, equipment and systems

•• What materials, equipment and systems are available for use? •• How much materials, equipment and systems can be used? •• How can they be accessed?

7.3 Organising HRD managers decide how to arrange, deploy and use the organisation’s resources, processes and core activities. For example, an L&D professional has to arrange the training facilities for an upcoming training course. Organising makes it possible to achieve the goals set out in the strategy process. From an L&D management perspective, organising includes the following: •• Management has to allocate human, physical and financial resources to the planned L&D interventions. •• Duties and roles need to be defined. •• Performance agreements, competence profiles and personal development plans need to be compiled and negotiated.

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•• Policies and procedures need to be in place to enable the HRD function to attain its goals and objectives. These need to be achieved by specific deadlines and according to set standard requirements.

7.4 Leading Leading, or directing, has to do with mobilising the resources of the organisation to achieve goals. For example, leading the L&D professionals to conduct the training courses entails the following: •• Giving directions and guidelines; •• Motivating the staff to direct their actions in accordance with the goals of the L&D plan and quality requirements; •• Influencing and motivating L&D professionals, line managers and employees through effective communication; •• Conducting performance appraisals and development planning discussions at regular intervals; •• Making available feedback on performance and mentoring for development purposes to motivate and encourage staff; and •• Involving L&D professionals in decision-making and problem-solving. Leading, or directing, has to do with mobilising the resources of the organisation to achieve goals.

7.5 Assuring quality As discussed in Chapter 1, quality assurance (QA) is the implementation of the HRD function’s (or the L&D provider’s) quality management system. A quality management system includes the following: •• Quality management policies that define what the HRD function wishes to achieve; •• Quality management procedures that enable the HRD function to practise its quality management policies; and •• Review mechanisms, which ensure that the quality management policies and procedures are applied and that they remain effective.

7.6 Evaluating Evaluation refers to the HRD manager’s task of continuously monitoring whether the HRD staff and L&D professionals are achieving goals and standards. As discussed in Chapter 8, evaluation refers to the HRD manager’s task of continuously monitoring and checking whether the HRD staff and L&D professionals are achieving goals and standards. Examples include checking the required standard of training on a particular learning programme and measuring the extent to which the workplace skills plan targets have been achieved. HRD managers evaluate the HRD department’s progress 473

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in terms of achieving the goals of the HRD and the L&D plan (which includes the workplace skills plan), and the extent to which L&D interventions added value to the organisation’s bottom line. Through systematic evaluation, HRD managers also detect any deviations from these plans and make corrections. For example, they have to monitor, check and control the expenditure on planned L&D interventions. Furthermore, they need to do quality audits to ensure that all L&D activities comply with the QCTO and relevant standards or professional body’s quality requirements. An evaluation of the costeffectiveness and impact of L&D interventions should cover the following aspects: •• The impact that L&D interventions had on improving workplace performance and the employability of learners (as discussed in Chapter 8); •• The appropriateness of the design and delivery of the L&D interventions (as discussed in Chapter 4); •• The curriculum, learning programme delivery and assessment strategy described in the facilitator/trainer guide (as discussed in Chapter 4); •• The learning facilitation (delivery) and assessment process (as discussed in chapters 6 and 7); •• The HRD strategic and operational plans, the workplace skills plan and the management and administration of these plans; and •• The difficulties that managers, L&D providers, L&D professionals and learners experienced (for this purpose, HRD managers and L&D professionals need to analyse the data and reports generated during implementation to identify trends, problem areas and successes). Learners’ progress needs to be monitored during the course of any L&D intervention. This makes it possible to address problems as they arise. Learners’ progress needs to be monitored during the course of any L&D intervention. This makes it possible to address problems as they arise. The overall success of the HRD and L&D plan must be evaluated. The implementation of an HRD and L&D plan, which includes the annual workplace skills plan and annual training report, is successful if: •• Targets set out in the plans are achieved; •• L&D practices comply with the standards for quality and best practices; •• Learners achieve competence within the stipulated time frames; •• The L&D interventions lead to an increase in productivity levels; •• Learners’ employability and educational levels increase and they are able to progress in their careers.

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Reasons why L&D efforts fail •• Only the HRD manager is interested in the end result.

•• The HRD and L&D plans stray from the original goals.

•• No one is in charge.

•• There is no HR support for managers.

•• The IT infrastructure is neither effective nor efficient.

•• A quality management system has not been established.

•• The HRD and L&D plans lack structure. •• The HRD and L&D plans lack detail.

•• The human resource information system is poorly managed or does not exist.

•• The HRD and L&D plans are under-budgeted.

•• L&D interventions are not followed up.

•• Insufficient resources are allocated.

•• There is no improvement planning.

•• The actual L&D interventions are not tracked against the workplace skills plan targets.

•• A communication framework to communicate and review progress has not been established.

•• The manager, L&D professionals and learners are not communicating.

Table 9.6  Key functions of strategic L&D management

Function

Description

Defining the L&D value proposition

•• Identify the main stakeholders of the L&D activities.

Management determines the requirements of the key stakeholders.

•• Determine the goals and values of the receiving stakeholders. •• Clarify what is important to them. •• Specify their requirements.

Strategising

•• Determine the L&D needs of the enterprise.

Management decides what needs to be done.

•• Analyse the tasks and the learning outcomes of a programme. •• Draw up a strategic plan for HRD. •• Draw up an annual L&D plan and schedule of courses. •• Plan every learning intervention. •• Plan the HRD budget for the following year.

Organising Management decides how it should be done.

•• Organise the HRD department (for example, allocate responsibilities to various staff members in the HRD department). •• Organise a course for supervisory training or in communication skills. •• Identify and co-ordinate the resources, including HRD staff and L&D professionals required to implement the plan (for example, identify the training facilities and catering requirements). •• Select suitable training methods, training aids and facilities, and the trainers themselves. •• Arrange accommodation and make administrative arrangements for the learning programme and learners.

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Function

Description

Leading

•• Motivate HRD support staff and L&D professionals.

Management says how and when it should be done.

•• Provide direction and guidelines to HRD support staff and L&D professionals. •• Provide support for the achievement of the objectives. •• Conduct performance appraisals and provide coaching and mentoring support.

Assuring quality Management ensures that all L&D practices comply with the national quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D requirements.

•• Establish a quality management system that governs all HRD and L&D practices, including learning provision, design and development, assessment and moderation practice, record keeping and competence of HRD staff and L&D professionals. •• Draft policies and procedures to ensure compliance with the QCTO and relevant standards or professional body quality requirements. •• Train and educate HRD and L&D staff in quality requirements. •• Ensure that HRD and L&D staff are trained and competent in outcomes-based/work-based L&D, learning design, delivery, assessment and moderation.

Evaluating Management determines whether HRD and L&D practices comply with standards and whether L&D interventions added value for stakeholders.

•• Determine the extent to which the required results have been achieved. •• Determine whether the learning programmes were implemented as planned. •• Determine whether the objectives and targets were achieved. •• Assess whether learners have achieved outcomes and are able to transfer learning to the workplace. •• Decide what changes need to be made for future programmes. •• Measure the value added to the organisation’s bottom line. •• Measure compliance to quality and best practice standards.

L&D professionals often apply project management principles when managing the implementation of their L&D plans (including the workplace skills plan and operational L&D plan). Gilbert-Jamison (2010) suggests the following six principles when launching a new L&D programme, and especially when integrating new HR, quality or operational improvement processes. Principle 1: Vision and mission

Creating a vision and mission for the project helps clarify the expected outcome or desired state, and how it will be accomplished. Such a vision and mission must also consider the L&D value proposition. Principle 2: Business objectives

Establish two to three goals or objectives for the project, including specific improvement goals relevant to the L&D intervention. For example, is the L&D intervention being implemented to increase sales and profit, customer loyalty, employee productivity and morale, performance or product/service quality? 476

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Principle 3: Standards of engagement

This principle refers to practical arrangements regarding the project, such as establishing and clarifying: •• Who will be part of the project team? •• What will be the frequency of meetings? •• What are the meeting ground rules? •• Who is the project owner? •• Who is designated to take notes and distribute project meeting minutes and action steps? Principle 4: Intervention and execution strategy

This may involve using a SWOT/C (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats/challenges) analysis to identify stumbling blocks and enablers of the project (for example, L&D plan, workplace skills plan or L&D intervention implementation). Potential problems regarding the implementation of the project (L&D intervention or plan, or workplace skills plan) may be assessed by means of a gap analysis or root-cause analysis, and identifying solutions and strategies to address potential problematic issues that may hinder the implementation of the project. An execution strategy for implementing the intervention (solution) is then mapped out. This includes identifying who will do what, when, how and why. Principle 5: Organisational alignment

This ensures the success and sustainability of the new initiative or process brought on by the project. Buy-in must be obtained from all stakeholders. Alignment or buy-in is usually obtained when stakeholders have clarity on, ‘What is in it for me?’ (that is, how they will benefit from the project). Principle 6: Measurement and accountability

A scorecard is usually used to hold employees, teams and leaders accountable for the implementation, refinement and sustainability of the new initiative or project. Measurement of achievements and accountability ensure successful implementation of the project and imply that top performers will be rewarded and recognised; while those needing improvement will be coached with specific expectations and the consequences clearly outlined. Activity Approach the HRD manager of your organisation (or any organisation with which you are familiar). Ask them the following questions and make notes about their responses: • What is the value proposition of the HRD department? • What strategising activities are conducted in respect of HRD and L&D in the organisation? • What organising activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation? • What leading activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation? • What quality assurance activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation? • What evaluation activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation?

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After your discussion with the HRD manager, draw up a list of all the activities and classify them under the headings: value proposition, strategising, organising, leading, assuring quality and evaluating. Do you think the list is complete? What would you add to the list?

Activity Reflect on the six HRD management functions. 1. Defining the value proposition The learning design, delivery and outcomes must add value for stakeholders and contribute measurably to business results. 2. Strategising The learning programme must be planned, including the schedule for training, the training location and resources, facilities to be allocated and support required. 3. Organising All the aspects of the learning programme have to be organised, for example, the co-ordination of L&D professionals, the lecture room, the learning support material and equipment required. 4. Directing/leading The relevant L&D professionals have to be appointed, briefed and motivated and given guidance in the presentation of the learning programme. 5. Assuring quality L&D professionals have to ensure that policies and procedures (external and internal) are adhered to in the management and support of the learning programme. For example, there may be certain organisational policies and procedures for the design, delivery and evaluation of learning programmes, and the assessment and moderation of learner achievements. There may also be external policies and procedures, for example, those imposed on L&D providers by the QCTO or standards/ professional body. 6. Evaluating L&D professionals ensure that impact assessment is done for all L&D interventions (see Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation for example, as discussed in Chapter 8). • How do these functions apply to the activities that L&D professionals perform in designing, delivering and evaluating a learning programme? • Which elements would you like to add? • How can project management principles be applied to L&D management?

Review and discussion questions 1. Why does the 21st-century workplace require a dynamic and flexible approach to L&D management? 2. How would you describe the role of HRD in L&D management? 3. L&D management is a strategic activity that not only contributes to the overall HRD strategy and business results, but also adds value for stakeholders. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.

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4. Why is the management of knowledge critical to organisational learning? How does the concept of knowledge management relate to HRD and L&D interventions? 5. Why is it important for HRD managers and practitioners to define the L&D value proposition? 6. What is the link between the HRD strategy and L&D management? 7. How do the L&D management process and the functions support the effective and efficient implementation of the strategic HRD plan, L&D plan and workplace skills plan? 8. Why do L&D efforts fail in organisations? What can HRD managers do to ensure the success of L&D efforts? 9. How can the principles of project management be applied to managing the implementation of the L&D plan?

Summary In this chapter, the changing focus of managing L&D in the 21st-century workplace was explored. L&D management is an integral part of the overall HRD strategy of an organisation. The focus of the strategic L&D management process and functions are defined by the L&D value proposition and the quality requirements specified by national legislation. The profession and practice of L&D, with specific reference to the roles and functions of the L&D professional, is explored in Chapter 10.

‘In a world-class organisation both the L&D professional and the learners should feel encouraged to excel in their ability to create a very special learning experience. Aspiring to be world class should identify real development opportunities, provide experiences that are dynamic, positive and challenging. L&D professionals should be curious, have a thirst for knowledge, and seek to be inspiring, innovative and want to lead in the field of HRD. The organisation should be supportive, and want to be the one that others benchmark against.’ (Kramar & Holland, 2015)

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CHAPTER

10

PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Melinde Coetzee

Key points of the profession and practice of learning and development •• Learning and development (L&D) professionals add value to the organisation by fulfilling their key roles ethically, competently and with expertise. •• The rapid transformation of societies within a turbulent and uncertain world of work will continue to challenge the L&D professional to be creative in improving human and organisational performance capability and proving the value added for stakeholders. •• L&D professionals are required to integrate ethical principles into all L&D activities, as well as conceptualise and articulate strategies to help practitioners deal with ethical problems and dilemmas. •• L&D professionals must constantly update their professional knowledge throughout their working lives by means of systematic, ongoing and self-directed learning. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: •• Evaluate the value that the key roles of the learning and development (L&D) professional add to the performance capabilities of employees and the organisation. •• Explain the importance for L&D professionals to be professionally educated and trained. •• Describe the core competencies that L&D professionals need to demonstrate in the South African workplace. •• Explain how L&D professionals benefit from continued professional development and how they can ensure that they stay abreast of new technology and developments in the L&D field. •• Explain why ethical behaviour is an important characteristic of effective L&D professionals. •• Discuss the challenges for the L&D profession in the coming decade.

1. INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the role, personal characteristics and competency profile of the L&D professional are discussed. Training and credentialing issues, professional ethics and continuing development are reviewed as they apply to L&D professionals in the South African workplace. Within the context of the NQF and OQF (see Chapter 1), learning and development (L&D) is a highly valued profession rooted in human values, quality outcomes-based L&D principles and relevant theory. Its purpose is to improve human and organisational performance capability for the benefit of society. Furthermore, the unique and challenging socio-economic circumstances in South Africa increasingly demand professionally qualified and experienced L&D professionals, especially in their role as occupational instructors/trainers, assessors and moderators, and skills development facilitators (ETDP SETA, 2017). The national scarce skills guide (DHET, 2015) also lists L&D practice

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(occupational instructors/trainers) as a scarce skill. L&D needs to make creative and proactive contributions to organisational effectiveness and capability, as well as to the employability and performance capability of employees. L&D professionals therefore need to extend their professional skills beyond the L&D tools and methods to address the concerns and requirements of internal and external stakeholders. L&D professionals are becoming more accountable for gaining the skills they need to perform their jobs. It is important that they share responsibility for their own learning and development with their employers. The National Skills Development Plan and skills development and employment equity legislation (see Chapter 1) create an environment in which continuous lifelong learning is valued by organisations and employees. L&D professionals must constantly update their professional knowledge throughout their working lives by means of systematic, ongoing, self-directed learning. Embracing the concepts of continuous professional development and lifelong learning to ensure that their repertoire of knowledge and skills are current and relevant, L&D professionals act as role models for their organisations and learners (Rees & French, 2016). L&D professionals are becoming more accountable for gaining the skills they need to perform their jobs.

2. ROLES OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL The L&D professional has a very important role in an organisation. Organisations draw on many sources to develop their talent and enhance the employability and performance capability of their employees. These sources include school systems, national and local workforce development programmes, professional associations, and private and higher education organisations. With rapidly changing skills needs, the efficiency of technologyenabled learning and an increasing shortage of qualified and skilled workers across many industries, business leaders understand that they, too, must educate, train and develop their employees. They rely on the expertise of their human resource and L&D professionals to manage HRD, measure its impact on performance and demonstrate business results based on the changes in performance (ASTD, 2006). Traditionally, L&D professionals were responsible for designing learning programmes and delivering training to employees in classroom settings. But in the 21st-century workplace, they are responsible for much more. L&D professionals are managing and leading integrated systems of talent management, which provide learning and skills development. They use a variety of learning technologies at every step of employees’ careers (ASTD, 2006). In the VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) world of the 21st century, L&D professionals function as strategic positioners and capability builders. They are innovative in helping organisations create an occupationally competent and engaged workforce, which builds organisational capability through fit-for-purpose L&D interventions that provide employees with the competencies (knowledge, skills and values) they need to grow in their careers and contribute to business performance. L&D practices are used as a catalyst to create an organisational learning culture that fosters continuous improvement, change and innovation (Ludike, 2014; SABPP, 2013). 481

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Traditionally, L&D professionals were responsible for designing learning programmes and delivering training to employees in classroom settings. But in the 21st-century workplace, they are responsible for much more. The organising framework for occupations (OFO code 2017-2423) emphasises the following core occupational tasks of L&D professionals: •• Plan, develop, implement and evaluate training (learning) and development programmes to ensure that management and staff acquire the skills and develop the competencies required by an organisation to meet organisational objectives; •• Design, coordinate, schedule and conduct training (learning) and development programmes that can be delivered in the form of individual and group instruction, and facilitating workshops, meetings, demonstrations and conferences; •• Gather, investigate and research background materials to gain an understanding of various subject matters and systems; •• Liaise with external training providers to arrange delivery of specific training and development programmes; •• Monitor and perform ongoing evaluation and assessment of internal and external training quality and effectiveness, and review and modify training objectives, methods and course deliverables; •• Prepare and develop instructional training material and aids such as handbooks, visual aids, online tutorials, demonstration models and supporting training reference documentation; •• Promote internal and external training and development, and evaluate these promotional activities; •• Set human resource development objectives and evaluate learning outcomes; •• Identify training needs and requirements of individuals and organisations. To fulfil their role as strategic business partners and capability builders, L&D professionals work with human resource professionals, assessors and moderators, occupational instructors/trainers and skills development facilitators to: •• Assess individual and organisational skills needs; •• Develop job and competence profiles and analyse occupational/job roles and tasks for workplace learning design, delivery and evaluation purposes; •• Provide information and advice regarding skills development and related issues in the workplace; •• Map performance goals and development plans to the business strategies of the organisation to ensure return on investment (ROI) and expectations (ROE); •• Manage opportunities for coaching, mentoring and leadership development; •• Assess and moderate employees’ learning achievements; •• Collect evidence of employees’ performance capability in the workplace; and •• Manage and implement other activities that may be part of the organisation’s talent development and succession plans.

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Table 10.1 provides an overview of the roles that L&D professionals fulfil in the workplace. Table 10.1  Roles of the L&D professional (based on Erasmus et al., 2015; Killen, 2000; Ludike, 2014; SABPP, 2013)

Role

Description

Mediator of learning

•• Mediating learning in a manner that is sensitive to the diverse needs of learners; •• Constructing learning environments that are appropriately contextualised and inspirational; and •• Demonstrating sound knowledge of subject content and various principles, strategies and resources that are appropriate to L&D in a South African/ African context.

Mediator and designer of workplace learning, learning programmes and materials

•• Understanding and interpreting provided work-based learning programmes; •• Designing original work-based learning programmes; •• Identifying the requirements for a specific context of learning; •• Selecting and preparing suitable textual and visual resources and technology for workplace learning design; and •• Selecting, sequencing and pacing the learning in a manner sensitive to the differing needs of the business, learning context and learners.

Developer of capability

•• Developing skills and L&D plans that address individual learning needs and are aligned with organisational strategic objectives and the organisation’s HRD strategy (see Chapter 9); •• Providing information and advice regarding skills development and related issues; •• Conducting skills audits and L&D needs analyses to determine outcomes of learning for skills development and other purposes; •• Developing plans for implementing occupational-based learning programmes and work-based learning programmes within a learning organisation context; •• Acting as guardian of the organisation’s stature within the greater community; and •• Ensuring processes and practices are in place to acquire, develop, communicate, encourage, measure and improve the relevant workforce capabilities needed for the organisation to sustain a differentiated competitive advantage in the marketplace.

Leader, administrator and manager

•• Making decisions appropriate to the level; •• Managing learning; •• Carrying out administrative duties efficiently; •• Participating in workplace learning and development decision-making structures; •• Supporting learners and colleagues; and •• Demonstrating responsiveness to changing circumstances, needs and stakeholder expectations.

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Role

Description

Strategist/Strategic positioner

•• Formulating the L&D value proposition and plans, organisational policies and practices to contribute to the effective implementation of the organisation’s HRD strategy, L&D and workplace skills plans, including talent management and development and succession plans; •• Ensuring that training/learning design and delivery address stakeholder and learners’ expectations to ensure return on investment (ROI) and return on expectations (ROE); •• Assisting with developing efficiency measures of the L&D function; •• Ensuring that L&D plans focus on improving the workforce’s ability to perform to achieve organisational objectives, and providing the means for measuring the impact of L&D interventions; •• Recognising the organisation’s differentiators and competitive challenges, especially regarding scarce and critical skills needed; •• Gathering knowledge and feedback from many sources to understand the context in which the business operates, including pivotal stakeholders; and •• Ensuring that L&D plan, strategy and practices support and accelerate skills development and achieve employment equity and organisational transformation, and limit the impact of skills shortages.

Scholar, researcher and lifelong learner

•• Achieving ongoing personal, academic, occupational and professional growth by pursuing reflective study and research in the learning area, in broader L&D matters, and in other related fields.

Collector of evidence, assessor and quality assurer

•• Understanding that the collection of evidence of learners’ achievements and learning application in the workplace, assessment, evaluation and quality assurance are essential features of the L&D process; •• Understanding the purposes, methods and effects of assessment; •• Designing and managing both formative and summative assessment in ways that are appropriate to the level and purpose of the learning, and meeting the requirements of the QCTO and other accrediting bodies; •• Keeping detailed and diagnostic records of assessment and quality assurance; and •• Understanding how to interpret and use assessment results to improve learning and learning programmes.

Learning area/subject/ discipline specialist

•• Being well grounded in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, methods and procedures relevant to the learning area; •• Knowing different approaches to learning facilitation, research and management, and how these may be used in ways that are appropriate to the learner and the workplace context; and •• Understanding the content knowledge of the learning area.

Evaluator

•• Measuring results and economic returns (ROI) and return on stakeholder expectations (ROE), evaluating and communicating the impact of L&D to business stakeholders: performance capability and employability of employees and the organisation’s business results; and •• Developing improvement plans to address performance or outcome gaps.

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Role

Description

Needs analyst

•• Identifying stakeholder requirements and expectations; •• Assessing gaps between required competencies and the organisation’s HRD strategies; •• Identifying learning and/or development needs of employees, groups and the organisation; and •• Identifying goals, L&D solutions, priorities and strategies to fill skills gaps.

Community, citizenship, coach and mentor role

•• Practising and promoting a critical, committed and ethical attitude towards developing a sense of respect and responsibility towards others, one that upholds the ethical standards of the L&D profession; •• Promoting democratic values and practices in the workplace and society; •• Demonstrating the ability to develop a supportive and empowering environment for the learner; •• Responding to the L&D and other needs of learners and fellow workers; and •• Developing supportive relationships with line managers, employees, customers and other stakeholders, based on a critical understanding of strategic HRD issues.

L&D professionals can grow throughout their professional lives. Their work is purposeful. When L&D professionals effectively contribute to the interests of the organisation and the people within it, they can make an enormous impact. The reward is personal satisfaction. Fulfilling their roles as innovative strategic positioners and capability builders, L&D professionals will have more visibility and responsibility. To fulfil these roles successfully, they will require more complex competencies, such as technological astuteness; understanding and managing people; rethinking organisations as capabilities, not structures; creating collaboration throughout the organisation; responding to social expectations and policy; and learning to play new roles (Ludike, 2014). When L&D professionals effectively contribute to the interests of the organisation and the people within it, they can make an enormous impact. The reward is personal satisfaction.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL Some general characteristics apply to all professions in the human resource development field. However, the following eight characteristics are especially important for L&D professionals. In the organisational context, L&D professionals are: 1. Driven by results; 2. Investigative; 3. Able to set and comply with quality standards; 4. Co-operative and collaborative; 5. Willing and able to add value for stakeholders; 6. Flexible, while maintaining important principles; 7. Responsible for their own continuous professional development; and 8. Ethical and responsible in their service to the profession and clients (Coetzee, 2004a,b; Rothwell et al., 2016; Sink, 1992). 485

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3.1 Results driven Outstanding L&D professionals are results orientated. They document stakeholder requirements and expectations and implement well-planned and cost-effective strategies to achieve their L&D goals. They manage these strategies and evaluate the outcomes of each L&D intervention in terms of the value they add for stakeholders. Outstanding L&D professionals are results orientated.

3.2 Investigative Successful L&D professionals are investigators. They make sure that they fully understand stakeholder requirements and expectations and the particular performance problem or opportunity. Only then do they identify the most appropriate and cost-effective L&D solution. They document all the important requirements and expectations of stakeholders and the characteristics of the particular target groups. They make few assumptions and remain open to expert opinions. Successful L&D professionals are investigators: they make few assumptions and remain open to expert opinions.

3.3 Able to set and comply with quality standards One of the main ingredients of successful L&D practice is setting and complying with outcomes-based and work-based L&D quality standards. L&D professionals set and model standards, but they also plan how to sustain these standards. They do quality checks at key points in an L&D intervention. L&D professionals always review and evaluate products, services, practices and processes to make sure that all expectations and requirements are met.

3.4 Co-operative and collaborative Successful L&D professionals are flexible and co-operative. They analyse performance problems in collaboration with human resource practitioners, line managers and employees. Collaboration ensures that the best possible decisions are made, which in turn creates L&D solutions that achieve the desired results. Successful L&D professionals are flexible and co-operative: collaboration ensures that the best possible decisions are made.

3.5 Willing and able to add value for stakeholders The L&D professional’s ability to focus on identified priorities and work co-operatively with clients and stakeholders enable them to achieve value-adding results. Clients are not asking for what they can do themselves. They expect the L&D professional to add value to the performance of the business. Their anticipation is that L&D solutions will be better because of their interaction with the L&D professional. 486

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3.6 Flexible while maintaining important principles L&D professionals are flexible, but they adhere to key principles. For example, they pay more attention to the substance than the form of a training solution. Their concern is with providing the learner with appropriate practice and feedback and using the correct language level, rather than with the physical characteristics of particular delivery systems or media. They know that if a learning programme does not suit the needs of the learners, the delivery method will not solve the performance problem or meet the development need. In the South African skills development context, L&D professionals are also required to comply with the principles and regulations for quality L&D provision, as stipulated by SAQA and the QCTO.

3.7 Responsible for continuous professional development Successful L&D professionals acknowledge their personal development and lifelong learning needs and desires. They deal with them in a responsible way as they fulfil their professional roles. L&D professionals strive for self-knowledge and personal growth, but they also want to achieve and maintain a high level of current and relevant competence. They achieve this by developing the full range of their competence and by establishing networks with other L&D professionals. They practise within the limits of their competence, culture and experience.

3.8 Ethical and responsible L&D professionals serve the long-term wellbeing, interests and development of their clients and their clients’ stakeholders, even if the L&D intervention has a short-term focus. They also ensure that they are well aware of the profession’s core values and guiding ethical principles (see Table 10.2), which guide and aspire L&D professionals to follow the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. L&D professionals define and protect the confidentiality of their relationships with clients. Public statements (including promotions and advertisements) are accurate, and services are provided as advertised. L&D professionals are aware of how their cultures affect their view of the world. They respect cultures that are different from their own, and they are sensitive to cross-cultural and multicultural differences. L&D professionals are aware of how culture affects one’s worldview so are they are sensitive to cross-cultural and multicultural differences. L&D professionals want to contribute to the lifelong learning and continuous professional development of themselves, other practitioners and the profession. They share L&D knowledge and skills. They advocate ethical L&D practices and they use appropriate channels for dealing with ethical dilemmas and unethical practices. L&D professionals bring credit to the L&D profession and respect colleagues in other professions.

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Table 10.2  Core values and principles of an L&D professional (based on Coetzee et al., 2016; Curry et al., 2004)

Core value/principle

Description

Beneficence and non-maleficence

L&D professionals do good (beneficence) and avoid harm (nonmaleficence). They promote the wellbeing of others and avoid activities/ interventions that may harm others. Simulated L&D activities may present a risk to learners. The potential risk of harm or discomfort to a learner must be considered relative to the potential learning and development opportunity. Every effort should be made to ensure the physical and emotional safety and security of all participants.

Learning, development, self-awareness and self-actualisation

Being committed to promoting the development of others, L&D professionals facilitate knowledge acquisition, skill demonstration and practice, and the transfer of the newly acquired competencies to the workplace. They explore values and attitudes, increase self-awareness and meta-cognitive abilities. They also set the example by adopting an attitude of continuous lifelong learning by engaging in continuous professional development activities. They also value and model the importance of self-awareness and self-actualisation.

Leadership

L&D professionals recognise the importance of taking and modelling leadership in L&D initiatives and activities. They recognise their potential influence on the profession and lives of others, and take responsibility for their behaviour, attitude and activities in needs and expectations analyses, learning design, delivery, assessment and evaluation.

Individual uniqueness, cultural diversity and competence

They value and respect themselves and their clients as unique human beings. They value diversity in our society, and promote employee competence in understanding and respecting the uniqueness of others in their environments.

Autonomy and self-determination

L&D professionals support their clients’ ability to think and act freely for themselves (autonomy). They respect the right of the learner to determine what, when and how it is best for the individual to learn (self-determination). They therefore consider a variety of instructional and training delivery strategies to encourage participation from learners with different learning styles (see Chapter 2). They provide learners with options of how to participate within the organisational and legislative boundaries. They also advocate through their practice, the importance of self-determination.

Integrity

L&D professionals promote a climate of trust and mutual respect. They aspire to modelling the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. Working relationships are clarified with others regarding the area of competence of the L&D professional, stakeholder and learner needs and expectations, programme goals, training methods, learning content/ curricula, confidentiality, fees, and assessment and evaluation strategies. The L&D professional adheres to agreed-upon commitments.

Fidelity and social justice

L&D professionals behave in a faithful, honest, trustworthy manner (fidelity), and promote fairness in the community, workplace and learning/ training settings (social justice).

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4. A COMPETENCY PROFILE OF EFFECTIVE L&D PROFESSIONALS Competent L&D professionals have the same basic skills as other professionals in the human resource development field. Being a competent L&D professional means having the ability and capability to perform the tasks and roles required to the expected standards. L&D professionals understand L&D theory (see Chapter 2) and keep up to date with the latest theoretical information. The competent L&D professional must be prepared to meet the challenges of multicultural workplace settings and the unique skills development needs of clients. Based on comprehensive studies of L&D skills, all L&D professionals should have the following basic skills and knowledge: 1. Intrapersonal skills. L&D is a human craft. The intrapersonal skills listed in Table 10.3 can help L&D professionals to be effective. L&D professionals must often process complex, ambiguous information and make informed judgements about its relevance to clients’ skills development needs and stakeholders’ requirements and expectations. This requires considerable conceptual and analytical ability. L&D professionals must also know their own values, feelings and purposes; they should have the integrity to behave responsibly in a supporting relationship with others. The practice of L&D requires constant adjustment and creativity; therefore, L&D professionals need active learning skills and a reasonable balance between their rational and emotional sides. Finally, the practice of L&D can be highly stressful; L&D professionals need to know how to deal with stress in an emotionally intelligent way. L&D is a human craft. It can be stressful and L&D professionals need to know how to deal with stress in an emotionally intelligent way. 2. Interpersonal skills. L&D professionals must create and maintain effective relationships with their clients. The interpersonal skills listed in Table 10.3 promote effective supporting and collaborative relationships with clients. Such working relationships start with an understanding of the organisational skills development culture. L&D professionals need to listen to clients’ perceptions and feelings to understand how they see their own performance and growth needs within their organisation and industry. This understanding provides a starting point for diagnosing problems and creating L&D solutions. 3. General L&D consulting skills. All L&D professionals should have diagnosis, assessment and L&D intervention development planning skills. An L&D intervention starts with a diagnosis of the client’s performance problems and skills development needs. The L&D professional tries to understand the causes of problems and the client’s uniqueness. Thereafter, L&D professionals develop L&D solutions to equip clients with competencies that will contribute to their job satisfaction and work performance. 4. L&D theory. L&D professionals should understand L&D theories (see Chapter 2) and how they apply to diverse clients from multicultural backgrounds. They should be creative in designing and applying a range of outcomes-based and workplace learning L&D tools and techniques to enhance clients’ employability and performance capability in a particular occupational context. Most importantly, L&D professionals 489

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should understand their role in the field of skills development in the 21st-century workplace (particularly with regard to the National Skills Development Plan and the Occupational Learning System – see Chapter 1). Table 10.3  Core and advanced skills for L&D professionals

General L&D skills

Workplace learning, development and training knowledge

•• Individual and group training and counselling; •• Facilitation of learning and development;

•• Outcomes-based/occupational or work-based L&D theory;

•• Personal development planning;

•• Individual and cultural differences;

•• Multicultural L&D contexts;

•• Personality theories;

•• Learner-centred training;

•• Organisational behaviour/industrial and organisational psychology/organisational capability theory;

•• Outcomes-based and work-based L&D learning design and assessment, and assessment and moderation technology;

•• Learning organisation; •• Knowledge economy;

•• Group dynamics;

•• Human resource management and development;

•• Outcomes-based/work-based learning design and development;

•• Performance management and improvement;

•• L&D interventions;

•• Theories of adult learning;

•• Outcomes-based work-based L&D tools and techniques;

•• Modern online learning theory and technology;

•• L&D diagnostics and interpretation; •• Skills audits/skills profiling/occupation/job and competence profiling; •• Modern mobile technology, computer-based and e-learning L&D practices and technology;

•• Motivation and leadership;

•• Social learning theory; •• Human capital development/employability/talent development; •• Outcomes-based/work-based learning assessment and moderation;

•• L&D practice evaluation and value-adding measurement;

•• Job design and competence profiling/occupational profiling and analyses;

•• Collecting evidence for assessment purposes;

•• Cross-cultural theory;

•• L&D quality assurance skills.

•• Generational theory;

Intrapersonal skills

•• Ethical and legal practices;

•• Conceptual and analytical ability; •• Integrity (educated moral judgement); •• Personal focus (staying in touch with one’s own purpose and values); •• Active learning skills; •• Innovative thinking; •• Adaptability; •• Leadership skills; •• Business skills; •• Rational–emotional balance;

•• National Skills Development Strategy; •• Skills development governing structures and principles; •• Employment equity; •• Skills development legislation; •• Occupational Learning System/Occupational Qualifications Framework; •• HRD and L&D management; •• Workplace skills plan compilation and management; •• Skills development facilitation; •• Skills development provider accreditation requirements.

•• Emotional intelligence;

Research and evaluation knowledge and skills

•• Personal stress management skills;

•• Action research;

•• Personal responsibility for learning.

•• Diagnostic research;

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General L&D skills

Workplace learning, development and training knowledge

Interpersonal skills

•• Evaluation research;

•• Establishing trust and rapport; •• Giving and receiving feedback; •• Interviewing skills; •• Aptitude in speaking client’s language; •• Ability to model credible behaviours; •• Development counselling and coaching; •• Cross-cultural skills; •• Telephone intervention skills; •• Suggestion skills (metaphors).

•• Theory-building research; •• Case method research and writing methods; •• Use and design of outcomes-based/work-based assessment, and assessment and programme evaluation tools and techniques. Data analysis •• Behavioural science statistics; •• Computer literacy/ICT skills/technological literacy; •• Writing reports/communication skills; •• Graphic and audio-visual skills. Management knowledge and skills •• HRD and L&D management; •• Negotiation skills; •• Conflict-resolution skills; •• Training skills; •• Presentation skills; •• Networking; •• Defining value proposition for L&D; •• HRD management policy and strategy; •• Information systems; •• Legal and socio-political environment; •• Finance/economics/accounting; •• Marketing/international business.

5. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF L&D PROFESSIONALS A rich history of L&D theories informs L&D professional education and training. L&D professionals work to bridge the theory–practice gap by supplementing theoretical descriptions with practical techniques. L&D professionals are involved in the day-to-day activities of L&D in the workplace. They continually acquire knowledge and experience about L&D methods, techniques and processes. They aim to produce consistent, measurable and high-quality results that add value for stakeholders. To achieve this goal, L&D professionals implement what they learn through education and experience. L&D professionals should have a solid theoretical foundation. They use theories (such as those discussed in this book) to understand what they see in practice. The theories also provide guidelines to solve each new and unique performance problem and opportunity. L&D professionals should also be aware of current research that can give them new perspectives on L&D theory, principles, practices, technology and methodology.

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Professional associations, such as the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), have a rich history (more than 71 years) of playing a leading role in advancing L&D practice. In May 2016, the ASTD rebranded its name to the Association for Talent Development (ATD) to reflect and support the global nature, diversity and impact of the L&D profession. The ATD is the world’s largest association dedicated to workplace learning and performance professionals (including L&D professionals and HR practitioners). South African L&D professionals can also apply for membership. Membership offers access to various development opportunities for the L&D professional, social networking with other professionals in the field and, inter alia, sources for L&D design and delivery technology. The ATD has members in more than 100 countries and they connect locally through 26 global networks. The ATD has widened the profession’s focus by linking learning and performance to individual and organisational results. The ATD is also a renowned source of insightful and practical information on workplace learning and performance topics, including training basics, evaluation and return on investment (ROI) and return on expectations (ROE), instructional systems development, e-learning, leadership and career development (ATD, 2018). Activity Visit the website of the Association for Talent Development (ATD) at http://www.td.org. Study the various resources and opportunities they offer their members, and how membership may help improve your personal capability as an L&D professional. Consider joining them.

In South Africa, L&D professionals working in organisations can also apply for professional status to the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP). The SABPP’s mission is to establish, direct and sustain a high level of professionalism and ethical conduct in personnel practice (which includes L&D practice). The SABPP strives to establish a career path in HR with no glass ceilings. It acknowledges and honours every step up the career ladder and it challenges all professionals to new heights in knowledge acquisition, bottom-line contribution, professional conduct and responsible work ethics (http://www.sabpp.co.za). Table 10.4 provides an overview of the SABPP’s professional levels of registration. Table 10.4  SABPP professional levels of registration

Category of registration

Requirement

Master HR practitioner

NQF Level 8: postgraduate 3 and 4/Master’s or Doctorate degree

Chartered HR practitioner

NQF Level 8: postgraduate 1 and 2/Honours, BTech or Master’s degree

HR practitioner

NQF Level 7: three-years post-matriculation study/National diploma

HR associate

NQF Level 6: two-years post-matriculation study/SGB diploma

HR technician

NQF Level 5: one-year post-matriculation study/Certificate

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L&D professionals can apply to the SABPP for registration as a generalist or an L&D specialist in one of the categories outlined in Table 10.4. To apply for registration as an L&D specialist, the practitioner must provide evidence of relevant qualifications, experience and competence in outcomes-based L&D assessment, moderation and verification practice, coaching and mentoring, education and lecturing, induction, career planning, job training, management development, skills facilitation and L&D quality management (www.sabpp.co.za). Activity Visit the website of the South African Board for People Practice at: http://www.sabpp.co.za. Study the various resources and opportunities they offer their members and how membership may help improve your personal capability as an L&D professional. Consider joining them.

The National Skills Development Plan (see Chapter 1) also emphasises the professional education, training and development of L&D professionals. The education and training of L&D professionals in South Africa must, therefore, be aligned to the unit standards for L&D. Only those qualifications that have been accredited by the ETDP SETA and SABPP are recognised. As discussed in the previous chapters, competencies based on knowledge, skills and work experience standards are now driving L&D practice worldwide. Activity Self-assessment of my competency as a L&D professional This self-assessment questionnaire contains the specific outcomes and assessment criteria for the Bachelor’s Degree: Occupation-directed Education, Training and Development Practices (SAQA ID: 50330; NQF Level 6; 360 credits). For each of the following items, indicate the strength of your knowledge/skill in the area. If a particular competence is not listed here, or if your knowledge/skill is weak, mark that specific item as a development priority.

Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

Learning design and development •• Conduct an organisational skills audit. •• Define training needs in terms of outcomes and link these to performance requirements on the job. •• Develop and design outcomes-based learning programmes. •• Align learning outcomes with given standards, including unit standards, assessment standards, qualifications or job requirements.

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Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

Learning facilitation •• Ensure that the design meets target audience needs, and is appropriate to the subject matter. •• Ensure that the design caters for learners with special needs. •• Identify and use approaches that comply with adult learning principles and are suitable for achieving the defined outcomes. •• Identify and employ designs that include evaluation strategies capable of revealing the value of programmes or interventions. •• Ensure that learning and assessment design are compatible and promote integration. Learning facilitation •• Demonstrate understanding of the outcomesbased education and training approach within the context of the NQF. •• Facilitate learning and development that: –– is professional and ensures the physical and psychological safety of the learners; –– is self-monitored and allows behaviour to be modified to address weaknesses or difficulties; and –– has an approach that creates opportunities for assessment. •• Give direct, relevant, honest and valuable feedback on performance in a constructive manner. •• Provide recommendations to facilitate the personal and professional growth of learners. •• Facilitate transfer and application of learning in the workplace. Learning support •• Proactively and sensitively identity learners requiring support. •• Give support in a manner that enables learners to define objectives, clarify issues, help manage expectations and identify learning paths and opportunities. •• Give support that assists learners to identify and understand assessment opportunities, processes and benefits, including the nature and benefit of RPL.

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Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

•• Give support that ensures that learners experience the maximum benefit from learning and assessment, and helps them to prepare for and cope with learning and assessment. •• Diagnose barriers to learning and solve problems co-operatively within given frameworks. •• Make referrals, as required, to appropriate professionals. •• Give support that helps to create a safe learning environment and promotes objectives of learning and the principle of lifelong learning. •• Give advice that is helpful, realistic, relevant, valid, impartial and based on learner needs. Assessment •• Support assessors adequately. •• Prepare and assist assessors in assessment and/or RPL processes, without compromising the assessment process or results. •• Design and use assessment instruments that are fit for the purpose and facilitate the integration of assessment in learning and work environments. •• Engage in assessment practices that are in line with the principles of outcomes-based assessment. •• Make assessment decisions that are reliable and relevant to predetermined outcomes. •• Give constructive, relevant feedback. •• Conduct moderation of outcomes-based assessments. Strategic management •• Demonstrate an understanding of the transformative elements of the HRD legislation. •• Develop an organisational (strategic) L&D plan. •• Allocate resources and use these effectively and within budgets. •• Provide leadership that gives focus and direction in line with individual needs and organisational strategy. •• Manage learning and assessment to meet learners’ and the organisation’s needs, according to relevant L&D plans.

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Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

•• Cost projects and activities according to sound budgeting principles. •• Ensure that management activities make the best use of diversity within the workplace, while promoting productivity. •• Facilitate team-building activities to ensure the achievement of set goals and objectives. •• Empower team members by building on strengths and providing scope for development. •• Deal with conflicts in a manner that supports established conflict management principles and that is in line with organisational policies and procedures. •• Ensure that records are accurate and up to date. •• Design and develop instruments to evaluate L&D. •• Evaluate and promote L&D providers, services and products for organisational use. •• Define the L&D value proposition for an organisation. Quality assurance •• Develop L&D policies and procedures for an organisation. •• Ensure that contributions to policies and procedures provide a quality framework for the organisation and practitioners to deliver quality L&D practices. •• Promote a learning culture in the organisation. •• Use evaluation instruments that provide reliable feedback on the L&D cycle. •• Administer evaluation instruments as designed. •• Measure and assess the factors that influence labour productivity and establish the relative impact of each factor. •• Report findings from the evaluation fairly and accurately and make recommendations that facilitate improvements and changes that add value to the learning environment and process. •• Promote a productivity improvement strategy. •• Advise management on the establishment and implementation of a quality management system for L&D practices in an organisation.

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Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

•• Manage learner information using an information management system. •• Manage the capture, storage and retrieval of HR information using an information system. •• Manage the design, development and review of an HR information system. Standards setting and qualifications design •• Use consultative processes that meet stakeholder needs in determining required standards. •• Ensure that standards are based on a thorough analysis of needs. •• Define stakeholder requirements in clear, measurable terms. •• Present standards in a format required by the registering body. •• Evaluate standards in a manner that identifies the extent to which they are fit for purpose, with resulting recommendations meeting stakeholder needs. Skills development facilitation •• Develop L&D and workplace skills plans that address individual learning needs and that are aligned with organisational objectives. •• Promote learning in line with individual and organisational needs, using appropriate and effective communication techniques. •• Keep records that are clear, accessible, accurate and up to date. •• Co-ordinate L&D interventions in line with the L&D and workplace skills plans. Self-management and responsible citizenship •• Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking. •• Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation or community. •• Organise and manage myself and my activities responsibly and effectively. •• Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information. •• Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the modes of oral and written communication.

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Competence

Knowledge/skill Weak/strong

Development priority Low/high

•• Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others. •• Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problems do not exist in isolation. •• Reflect on and explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively and continue professional development. •• Participate as a responsible citizen in local, national and global communities. •• Be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts. •• Explore education and career opportunities and develop entrepreneurial opportunities.

Now complete the following: Action plan I would still like to improve: ��������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� My ultimate goal is to:�������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� These are my long-term learning and development outcomes:��������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� These are my short-term learning and development outcomes: �������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� I will start by:���������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� Thereafter:������������������������������������������������������������������ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Time limits for achieving the outcomes are the following:������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� In the short term:������������������������������������������������������������ ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� In the long term:������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������

L&D is an important area in the South African context; it is supported by legislation, national policies and strategies. To meet the skills development expectations and requirements of the workplace, it is important to identify competent L&D professionals at various levels and, in particular, to have access to the services of L&D professionals with high-level specialist skills (SAQA, 2007). Having an occupationally directed qualification enhances the credibility and stature of L&D professionals. With this recognition, practitioners can increase their employment prospects, and organisations can appoint experienced practitioners with proven competencies.

6. C  ONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT As the HRD profession evolves, so L&D professionals must adapt. It is crucial to invest in your own continuous professional development as part of your lifelong learning journey to stay employable as an L&D professional. Continuous professional and personal development (CPD) promotes the ongoing attainment of effective job performance by targeting current and emerging development needs (Rees & French, 2016). CPD is aimed at improving the L&D professionals’ employability and performance capability, as well as the effectiveness and performance capability of the organisation as a whole (Elmore, 2001, cited in ETDP SETA, 2006). CPD is an integral part of being professional, as it supports the principle of lifelong learning. For example, the SABPP requires that registered professionals provide proof of CPD to retain their registration. CPD is an integral part of being professional as it supports the principle of lifelong learning and promotes the ongoing attainment of effective job performance.

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CPD does not normally lead to a higher qualification. Rather, it ensures that the professional returns to or retains the level of expertise required in the profession (or required by a professional body). CPD also helps professionals to stay up to date with developments in the profession. CPD usually involves the following (Steyn & Van Niekerk, 2002): •• Personal development advances L&D professionals’ competencies and achievements for personal and professional use. •• Career development supports the professional advancement of L&D professionals to higher-level or broadened positions by providing them with the necessary qualifications and developing their skills to prepare for anticipated vacancies. •• Organisational development improves employability and performance capability to benefit the organisation as a whole. CPD does not normally lead to a higher qualification but it ensures that the professional returns to or retains the level of expertise required in the profession. HRD as a profession will remain viable only as long as practitioners continue to develop and enhance their competencies. In today’s knowledge-based economy, continuous professional development has become an essential part of professional life, not an option. It has become an integral feature of contemporary working life (Coetzee et al., 2016; Rees & French, 2010). The benefits to L&D professionals of engaging in CPD activities are outlined below (Coleman, 1992; Rees & French, 2016): •• CPD increases practitioners’ breadth and depth of understanding and their ability to apply the principles of quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D. •• Provides a way to keep up to date with developments in the field. When L&D professionals use the most current technology and techniques, they are able to produce the most value-adding solutions. •• Expands professional networks. Such networks are useful when looking for employment opportunities or when seeking help with a problem. •• Makes L&D professionals more valuable to employees and employers. Better skills, up-to-date knowledge, and broad professional networks increase practitioners’ ability to handle each new assignment. •• Helps to update, increase the L&D professional’s competence and enhance their career mobility. CPD also expands L&D professionals’ options and helps to develop transferable skills. •• Serves as an auditable record of development activities and agreed development planning. In the organisational context, CPD cultivates talent and L&D professionals can capitalise on exponential learning and become a valuable resource for management. •• Provides an alternative to a linear career path. Updated, current and relevant knowledge and skills currency offer possibilities for a self-managed career. As such, CPD serves as an investment for employment continuity or sustained employability. The L&D professional works on CPD as a personal venture for investment.

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Activity Self-reflection on your CPD Reflect on your personal CPD activities. Discuss your examples of CPD activities with a trusted colleague. Review the benefits listed above. Which of those benefits have you experienced? What has the learning through your CPD activities enabled you to do differently?

Apart from formal further education at a university, there are many ways to acquire or enhance the knowledge and skills required by the L&D professional (these are listed in Table  10.3 and in the self-assessment activity). A regular, systematic and integrated personal development plan helps L&D professionals to get the most out of their CPD. There is always more to do than time available to do it, so L&D professionals have to invest their time, money and effort in the most effective way. L&D professionals need to examine the range of continuous professional development activities available, especially in the following five areas (Coleman, 1992): 1. Joining refers to becoming a member of professional societies in the HRD field. Membership of one or more professional societies (e.g. ATD, SABPP) provides opportunities to explore, participate in and influence the profession. Practitioners from a variety of settings become members, attend meetings, make presentations, write for society publications, network and serve as volunteers. 2. Reading involves interpreting written materials to explain, report on and expand L&D information. The information ranges from personal opinion to factual accounts, from promotional expositions to scholarly inquiries. Typical reading materials include books, periodicals, journals, newsletters, trade publications, vendor literature, professional society publications, training materials, research reports, monographs, conference proceedings and reports of L&D interventions. Reading materials are often the cheapest source of information, the easiest to share, and the most convenient to use. The information can be read and reread, as necessary. 3. Attending refers to participating in a wide variety of events designed to bring practitioners together to share information and ideas. Interactions include face-toface interactions, mobile technology (e.g. Twitter, Facebook), Skype, Linkedln, social networks, YouTube, online discussions, and videos or DVDs of presentations. Events include workshops, conferences, lectures, courses, seminars, video screenings, vendor promotions and exhibitions. While attending is often the most expensive and timeconsuming activity of professional development, it is also often the source of the most current information. 4. Networking refers to making contact with other professionals to seek their help or to offer support. Many experienced practitioners believe that networking is the single most valuable source of continuous professional development. Networking activities include face-to-face discussions, telephone discussions and electronic bulletin boards. 5. Sharing refers to contributing time or expertise to individuals or groups to explore ideas, give help, provide services or act as an adviser. Specific activities include serving as a member of a committee, serving as an appointed officer, publishing, teaching, making 501

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presentations at conferences or workshops, and mentoring. Professional and personal growth comes from imparting knowledge, interacting, serving, counselling, mentoring, and helping others to grow. By engaging in these activities, L&D professionals learn while they teach. These five types of activity – joining, reading, attending, networking and sharing – are the ways in which continuous professional development takes place. Every effective learning programme involves a combination of these five types of activity. However, L&D professionals must always remember that, as members of a knowledge society, they need to ensure that furthering their higher educational qualifications form the basis for any CPD activities. Activity Action plan for CPD Reflect on the development areas (and the action plan) you identified in the previous selfassessment activity. Study the five activities for continuous professional development. Also, keep your current formal higher education qualification level in mind. Now complete the action plan below. Indicate activities that you could engage in to ensure your continued professional growth as an L&D professional. Review the plan every three months and at the beginning of any new L&D project or assignment. Modify the plan as necessary to adapt to changes in interests, job demands, available financial resources and other relevant factors. Creating, using and revising this action plan are systematic approaches to developing and enhancing your employability and performance capability as a professional L&D professional. Activity for continued professional growth

This is what I plan to do

Joining

I belong to (or will join) the following organisations and/or societies:

Reading

I plan to read _____ hours per week from the sources listed below:

Attending

I plan to attend the following events in the next _____ months:

Networking

I currently estimate my professional network to contain _____ sources. Within the next _____ months, I plan to have _____ sources in my network.

Sharing

I now engage in the following activities:

This is how I will do it

During the next months I plan to do the following: Furthering my higher education qualifications

My current higher education qualifications are the following: During the next years, I plan to obtain the following higher education qualifications:

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7. ETHICAL ISSUES IN L&D HRD – and therefore L&D which is part of HRD – is in and of itself an ethical endeavour. HRD – and therefore L&D which is part of HRD – is in and of itself an ethical endeavour (Stewart, 2007). Approaches to needs and expectations analyses, learning design and training delivery, assessment and evaluation, represent ethical choices and, therefore, need L&D professionals to make decisions with full ethical consideration. That is, they should be aware of and consider the ethical implications of their decisions and their advice to other decision-makers involved in the L&D endeavour (Lin & Kolb, 2006; Stewart & Rigg, 2011). For example, consider the tendency to subjectivity in assessment. Despite the use of criterion-based assessment through the use of instruments, such as person and job specifications, performance standards and assessment criteria in unit standards, subjective judgements are always required since the judgements are made by human beings. It is inevitable that ethics is at play in L&D since subjectivity is influenced by individual and personal beliefs and values, that is, by a personal ethical code (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). It is inevitable that ethics is at play in L&D since subjectivity is influenced by individual beliefs and values, that is, by a personal ethical code. Ethics is concerned with establishing what is right or moral and with translating what is established as right or moral into a system of codes or rules which govern behaviour (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). In other words, ethics involves the application of standards of conduct to specific situations or decisions. A code of ethics defines good standards of conduct for the profession. A code of conduct provides a system of ethics to govern behaviour which, in turn, is based on a set of ethical values and principles (see Table 10.2), which themselves are derived from a study of what is right or wrong (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). Codes of ethics do not result in ethical behaviour, but rather give L&D professionals a basis for exercising judgement about ethical matters in L&D practice. In the context of L&D as a recognised profession, professionalism characterises behaviour that observes a set of moral or ethical values and principles (see Table 10.2) that promote collective rather than individual good. Professionalism relies on individual selfdiscipline and control in meeting personal, as well as collective, ethical standards, rather than on only the external or imposed codes of practice associated with the profession (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). General ethical issues that L&D professionals need to consider are the following (Coetzee 2004a,b; Rothwell et al., 1995; Westgaard, 1992): •• Maintaining appropriate confidentiality and integrity; •• Saying no to inappropriate requests; •• Showing respect for copyright, sources and intellectual property, and complying with laws and regulations governing the L&D profession and position; •• Ensuring truth in claims, data and recommendations; 503

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•• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Balancing organisational, stakeholder and individual needs, expectations and interests; Ensuring client and user involvement, participation and ownership; Avoiding conflicts of interest; Managing personal biases; Showing respect for, interest in, and representation of individual and population differences; Making the L&D intervention appropriate to the client’s needs; Ensuring transparency, fairness, integrity, reliability, consistency and validity in the application of L&D processes, tools and techniques (see also Chapter 7); Being sensitive to the direct and indirect effects of L&D interventions and acting to address negative consequences; Pricing or costing products or services fairly; Using power appropriately; Recognising the rights and dignities of each individual; Developing human potential; Providing the employer, clients and learners with the highest quality education, training and development; Striving to keep informed of pertinent knowledge and competence in the HRD field; Supporting peers and avoiding conduct that hinders them in practising their profession; Conducting oneself in an ethical and honest manner; Improving the public understanding of human resource development and management; Fairly and accurately representing one’s L&D credentials, qualifications, experience and ability; and Contributing to the continuing growth of the L&D profession.

A survey among L&D professionals on the most frequent ethical issues they need to deal with include: •• Digital copyright (getting permission, fair use versus plagiarism); •• Violation of learner privacy and disclosing online confidential information; •• The impact of mobile learning and online materials on people from diverse backgrounds (that is, stereotyping people, meaningfulness of materials, access to technology and online facilities) and learning capabilities (that is, issues of disability); •• Conflict of interest; and •• Possessing sufficient credentials to perform confidently and professionally in design and training/learning intervention situations (Lin & Kolb, 2006). Example of ethical principles stated by SABPP (www.sabpp.co.za) We value what we can offer as a profession and recognise the stewardship role of the profession and its members. The role is embodied in the norms and principles we stand for. The purpose of our code of conduct is to entrench the obligation we have as professional HR practitioners to uphold the profession’s norms and principles and to conduct our activities in a professional and ethical manner. To ensure the trust of all our stakeholders, we strive to build the reputation of the profession and its members through the values of responsibility, integrity, respect and competence.

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Our ethical identity As members of the profession of human resource management in South Africa, we actively pursue the ideals of professionalism and are, therefore, ethically obliged to: • Bring meaning and quality of work life to the people we serve in our professional capacities; • Ensure the sustainability of the organisations that we serve; • Make a difference to the communities we touch.

L&D professionals can occupy an important position in any organisation by being committed to ethical standards and making valuable contributions to the organisation’s capability goals. Table 10.5 contains a checklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D professional. Table 10.6 provides guidelines for dealing with ethical issues. Table 10.5  Checklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D professional (based on Kaufman & Watters, 1992)

Checklist •• Can I justify, both financially and ethically, my intended actions and interventions on the basis of benefits to society, benefits to the organisation and its stakeholders, and contributions to internal clients? •• For each intended action and intervention, did I ask, ‘Why?’ and ‘What will happen if I accomplish this?’ Did the answers meet ethical and financial standards? •• Did I relate means and ends for each action and intervention? •• Did I define quality in terms of results and added value, not just compliance with accepted procedures? •• On the basis of research and development, can I substantiate what I intend to do and deliver? •• Am I willing to forego the job if ethical standards will not be met? •• Do I define quality in terms of delivering the right results to the right place at the right time, the first time? •• Would I be comfortable reading in tomorrow’s newspaper about what I am planning to do and deliver?

Activity Ethics: Reporting plagiarism You are a mentor for an employee who attended one of your learning programmes. The employee is also attending a learning programme with an external L&D provider, which requires her to submit a written essay on the theoretical components of the learning programme. She asks you to read her essay before she submits it for assessment. You routinely Google her work and submit it to a plagiarism software program. You discovered that large parts have been copied verbatim from the web with no quotations marks or citations. Questions • What should you do? • Is there a way to monitor the employee’s future behaviour without irreparably damaging her career?

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Discussion This case highlights the importance of formal ethics instruction for learners (employees who attend learning programmes). Many employees (learners) do not understand that material from the web is not free but must be acknowledged with the same citation structure and protocols that are used for printed material. While ignorance of the law on plagiarism does not excuse breaking it, in many cases there is no intent to do wrong. It is also possible that this employee (learner) knows that she is cheating but is claiming ignorance, hoping to escape the consequences. One of the options is to ignore the problem. Alternatively, you could contact the L&D professional (trainer) and discuss the problem with them. You could alert the employee’s supervisor that there is a cheating learner on the programme. You could also tell no one else and treat the incident as a teaching opportunity, working with the employee to help her understand the seriousness of her action and how to correct it. An outside observer might ask whether L&D professionals and supervisors discuss plagiarism in their L&D orientation programmes. Another question might be whether there is a way to monitor the employee’s (learner’s) future behaviour without irreparably damaging her future (adapted from Doss & Popkin, 2011). Table 10.6  Guidelines for dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D (based on Curry et al., 2004; Mattison, 2000)

Dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D 1. Do you have sufficient background information on the case? What additional information do you need? Do you know enough about the context of the situation? 2. Which facets of the case pertain to practice issues and which are ethical? What research pertains to the situation? Do any ‘generally accepted practice’ standards apply? What is considered best practice? 3. What are your personal values on this issue and which ones are in conflict? How have you responded in the past to a similar value conflict? Is there a pattern? 4. Are there multiple responsibilities associated with this situation? What are the competing interests? Who are the stakeholders (individuals or groups affected by the decision)? What are the key variables that could influence your decision-making? 5. What are the relevant ethical standards that apply to the case? Do the ethical standards conflict? 6. What are the possible choices of action? What are the consequences of those choices? Which choices benefit the learner/training participant or client? Which benefit you? Which benefit the organisation? Which benefit the larger society? 7. Which priority/obligations should you honour foremost? Are you prepared to justify your decision? Can you explain your decision-making approach regarding the particular case situation? 8. What have you learned from this particular case about your ethical decision-making style?

Case study Ethical dilemma: Diversity training – fad or here to stay? (based on Cascio, 2003) Diversity training is a flourishing business in South Africa. Most South African companies are engaged in one form or another of diversity training. All are built on the assumption that ‘understanding breeds better relationships’. Fair enough. However, some diversity consultants promise corporations that they will increase their profits by ‘empowering their whole workforce’. How could one support that claim? To some, the preferred

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solution to the problem of measurement and description is to declare them irrelevant and proceed on faith alone. Question Is diversity training ethically justifiable in light of the principles of sound L&D practice – value‑added learning programme design and delivery, needs assessment, careful specification of programme objectives and learning outcomes, and then evaluation of training in terms of the original objectives and stated outcomes? Give reasons for your answer. Table 10.7  Ethical standards in L&D (based on Curry et al., 2004)

Standards and responsibilities to clients The L&D professional must clarify roles and responsibilities to all relevant parties and discuss potential possibilities of conflicting loyalties. Product/service recipient focused L&D professionals: •• Advocate for the wellbeing of the product/service recipient; •• Preserve and promote the dignity of clients discussed in L&D activities (needs analyses, learning design and delivery, assessment and evaluation); •• Maintain the confidentiality of clients during L&D activities; and •• Provide L&D activities that help practitioners understand and promote the wellbeing of the product/service recipients. Learner/training participant focused •• The dignity and worth of all programme learners/participants are recognised, protected and, where possible, enhanced. •• Expectations should be clarified regarding: –– The learning programme’s goals and learning outcomes, learning and development process, assessment criteria and performance standards, and assessment and evaluation methods and processes; –– The roles of those involved in the learning/L&D activities (trainer/learning facilitator, learner, supervisor, programme sponsor); –– The rules/policies affecting the learner (e.g. attendance policy, expectations for application of learning onthe-job, and policies regarding confidentiality of information shared during training); and –– Interpersonal behaviour, such as how to respectfully disagree with others. •• All reasonable efforts are taken to promote learner/participant physical and emotional safety. When L&D activities present a risk to the physical and/or emotional safety to the learners/participants, the L&D professional should consider the potential gain of the learning/training with the potential for discomfort or harm to the participant. Alternative learning and assessment activities should be considered. •• When there is a potential risk of learner/participant harm or discomfort, the learner/participant should be made aware of the risk and potential for learning and assessment, and given the opportunity to participate or not participate. •• When training content areas that have a likelihood of causing emotional reactions, the L&D professional should have a plan on how to handle reactions that will support the learner/participant experiencing the reaction without distracting the other learners/participants from their learning process. •• L&D professionals should attempt to promote a climate of trust and mutual respect in L&D activities (learning and assessment) so that learners/participants feel supported enough to take risks to promote their learning and development.

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Standards and responsibilities to clients •• L&D professionals should promote learner/participant acquisition of knowledge and skills, as well as learner/ participant self-awareness and self-development. •• L&D professionals should encourage and provide support to learners/participants for the transfer of knowledge and skills to the workplace and the application of learning to the job in accordance with stakeholder expectations and needs. •• Learners/participants should be given the opportunity to provide feedback regarding the L&D activities (learning and assessment) they receive. L&D professionals should provide clear guidelines on procedures for assessing achievement of learning outcomes and providing feedback. •• Assessment should comply with the national unit standard for best outcomes-based assessment practice or QCTO standards for assessment. •• When using ‘deception’ (withholding information from learners/participants or providing misleading information to learners/participants) for strategic training/learning purposes (e.g. the surprise effect), the L&D professional must ‘undo’ the deception by providing correct information at the conclusion of the activity. The benefits of the deceptive activity should be assessed relative to the potential loss of trust and/or discomfort of the learners/participants. •• Expectations regarding the confidentiality, as well as limits of confidentiality, of information shared during L&D activities (e.g. learning and assessment) should be clarified prior to and/or at the beginning of those activities. If information will be shared with others (e.g. learner/participant knowledge test scores shared with the supervisor/employer), the learner/participant should be informed. Employer/sponsor focused •• Prior to the initiation of L&D activities (learning and assessment), expectations should be clarified with the employer/sponsor regarding: –– The learning programme’s goals and objective (e.g. the type of training need addressed, the expected learning outcomes, the targeted learner audience). –– The roles of those involved in the learning and assessment activities (e.g. trainer, supervisor, learner, programme sponsor). –– The rules/policies affecting the learner and others involved in the learning and assessment, and the transfer to the workplace (work experience) process (e.g. attendance policy, expectations for application of learning on-the-job, conditions required for work experience activities/learning and assessment, performance standards and indicators, and policies regarding confidentiality of information shared during training and assessment). –– Interpersonal behaviour, such as how to respectfully disagree with others. •• L&D professionals should strive to adhere to commitments made to employers or sponsoring organisations. However, L&D professionals should not permit employers or sponsoring organisation to interfere with ethical obligations. •• L&D professionals should develop and maintain competence (CPD) in two major areas: 1. The product/service competency area in which one is providing L&D activities (e.g. workplace learning/ occupational-based learning programme design); 2. The L&D competencies pertaining to one’s L&D role/occupational/job tasks and responsibilities (see Table 10.1 and Table 10.3). •• L&D professionals do not practise outside their areas of interest. If one is not proficient in a required competency area, one should either improve one’s competence or discontinue practice in that area. Temporary improvement in competence may occur by teaming up with another professional competent in that area (e.g. workplace learning design; occupationally specific work-based learning design; assessment; or subject matter expert).

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Standards and responsibilities to clients •• L&D activities should only be used to address legitimate L&D needs and expectations. L&D activities (learning, assessment and evaluation) are not used when other non-training and development interventions are more appropriate. •• L&D activities should not be used to solicit contributions or support for political, religious or other causes. L&D activities should be based on identified needs and expectations that will add value to the business or broader community/society. •• L&D activities should not be used to sell products or services or provide opportunities that can be used to benefit the financial interest of the L&D professional. Although L&D professionals may receive payment for conducting L&D activities and/or providing a product/service that address identified needs and expectations, training/learning/assessment/evaluation time should not be used for promotional purposes. •• L&D professionals should include transfer of learning activities or interventions (workplace learning experience and assessment) in all L&D initiatives. •• L&D professionals should incorporate strategies and/or content to facilitate cultural competence/diversity awareness in all training, learning and assessment. •• L&D professionals should promote the use of training evaluation and research to improve L&D activities. L&D professionals should adhere to principles of best practice in evaluation and research (see Chapter 8). •• When an instrument is used in L&D activities (e.g. learning style inventories), L&D professionals should follow recommended guidelines regarding the instrument’s intended audience and procedures for application and consider the employment equity legislation regarding the use of psychometric and other measuring instruments. Results should be appropriately interpreted in terms of the L&D users, based on known information regarding the instrument’s validity for the application. Potential misapplication and/or misinterpretation of its results should be avoided. •• L&D and learner records should be maintained by the L&D professional. At a minimum, the following data should be maintained: learner group particulars; attendance records; description of curriculum content areas addressed; programme learning outcomes; unit standards (knowledge, skills, work experience) for learning; assessment and evaluation; facilitator process guide; learner/participant materials; assessment records (learner achievements); and programme evaluation outcomes. •• L&D professionals should accurately represent their credentials (experience, education, training, etc.) and areas of competence to others. •• L&D professionals should establish appropriate boundaries between themselves and others so that working relationships are not confused with personal relationships. •• L&D professionals must adhere to and model the ethical values and principles of the profession (see Table 10.2). •• L&D professionals have the responsibility to share information with colleagues to promote best practice, as well as add to the knowledge and skills base of L&D. •• L&D contributions of others are appropriately recognised in L&D activities, such as training, scholarly writing and conference presentations. •• L&D professionals should obey copyright laws. Even when materials do not contain a copyright symbol, the original source of the materials should be acknowledge in writing. •• L&D professionals should articulate and advocate for the appropriate use of L&D activities •• L&D professionals should use resources efficiently to effectively meet L&D needs and expectations. •• L&D professionals should provide leadership in their individual areas of expertise. By engaging in CPD activities and staying current on legislation, policies and best practices in occupationally specific work-based skills development and learning and assessment design, delivery and evaluation, L&D professionals can advocate in workplaces and communities for the changes necessary to improve the skills profile and wellbeing of people.

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Activity Ethics in L&D Read through the following case examples (adapted from Curry et al., 2004). Study Table 10.2 and Table 10.7 when reading through the case examples. Use the guidelines provided in Table 10.6. Discuss in each case whether the L&D professional complied with the ethical standards outlined in Table 10.7. Identify in each case those that are compliant or noncompliant. Give reasons for your answers. Case example 1: A learning designer integrated examples of diversity into every section of a newly created curriculum on discipline and poor performance management. The learning designer also included suggestions for the learning facilitator/trainer in the facilitator process guide regarding how to explore and help learners better appreciate diversity among the learner/training group. Case example 2: Under the constraints of a tight production timeline and small budget, an instructional media specialist produced a computer-displayed presentation, which included a DVD and still pictures, comprised primarily of her relatively homogeneous family members, friends and neighbours. The computer-displayed presentation was incorporated into a standardised training package and presented to all employees in a large multicultural work environment. Case example 3: In a simulation/experientially-based training session on how to conduct performance discussions with emotionally disturbed employees in the workplace, the learners/ participants are permitted to choose the role they will experience. The roles are clearly defined so that learners can avoid roles that might be difficult or uncomfortable. Learners who choose not to experience any role are given another learning assignment that supports the same learning objective as the simulation. Learning facilitators are available to ‘step into’ the roles that learners do not fill. Case example 4: Management of a large multicultural company makes sexual harassment training mandatory for all staff. A supervisor sends a graduate intern to the training, but fails to prepare the graduate for the intense nature of the subject matter. The graduate intern, who recently experienced a sexual assault, grows more and more emotionally upset during the training. However, not wanting to challenge the supervisor or company policy, the graduate intern remains in the training. Case example 5: A skills development provider develops written guidelines regarding the process of ongoing CPD by the learners of a learning programme after each training session. The assessment, evaluation and CPD guidelines are provided to all L&D professionals and learners attending the learning programme.

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Case example 6: Since a standardised training curriculum is mandated for all new graduates-in-training in a private engineering company, the HRD manager decides that learner feedback will not affect training delivery and does not administer training evaluation/feedback questionnaires to the training participants. Case example 7: A trainer is expected to administer a post-training knowledge test to the learners of a learning programme. However, the trainer believes that the testing process will lower her ratings on the evaluation questionnaire completed by the participants at the end of training. To potentially increase her evaluation scores (and her chances of being recontracted to train), the trainer provides the exact questions and answers to the test in a ‘review session’ immediately before the test administration. Case example 8: A trainer of new trainers requests permission (in writing) from the appropriate source to include copyrighted materials in orientation handout materials to new trainers.

8. CHALLENGES FOR THE L&D PROFESSION Future trends in HRD closely follow trends in business and society. Most organisations are already trying to find ways to automate L&D practices. The use of information and technology, computers and other sophisticated technologies to help practitioners perform their work will continue to grow. Clients (learners) will become more sophisticated. The most successful practitioners will depend not only on their L&D expertise, but also on highly developed technological/digital literacy, professional L&D expertise and consulting skills. Multicultural and multigenerational skills development issues will require innovation and creativity. Furthermore, as more sophisticated delivery systems and technologies are implemented, sharing expertise will become more critical to the success of L&D interventions. As more sophisticated delivery systems and technologies are implemented, sharing expertise will become more critical to the success of L&D interventions. The future is bright for L&D professionals. As more and more organisations recognise the value-adding benefits of occupationally directed work-based skills development, the demand for the services and products of L&D professionals will grow. In South Africa, more professionally educated, trained and competent L&D professionals are needed to address the country’s skills development needs. However, the future is not without challenges. As the L&D profession matures, the practice of quality outcomes-based and work-based L&D broadens. Organisations will also have a greater choice of L&D professionals. Quality, reliability and value-adding services and products will become determining factors in gaining and retaining clients as a skills development provider. 511

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A survey by Hemsley Fraser (Turner, 2014) identified the following seven key challenges for the L&D profession: 1. Dealing with change. The VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous), information and technological-driven world of work will give rise to more frequent and rapid organisational changes (for example, mergers and acquisitions, and new hardware/software installations). L&D professionals, as well as their clients (managers and learners), will need to build their capability to adapt to changes, take on new roles and become innovative and agile in order to bring new L&D solutions to create a learning, resilient workforce. 2. Serving global, virtual or geographically-dispersed diverse populations. L&D professionals will face the challenge of having to deliver learning virtually or in multiple languages. Some of the indirect challenges include developing a communal sense of unity, whether this is across different locations in the same city or even across different countries. 3. Doing more with less. L&D professionals will need to be innovative in dealing with internal constraints such as budget cuts, lower staff numbers and external constraints, such as a demand from customers for increasingly low-cost L&D options and solutions. 4. Getting the buy-in for learning from leaders. L&D often suffers at the expense of organisational mission-critical priorities. L&D professionals need to ensure that learning remains a top priority and that the organisation continues to invest in its learning infrastructure. One way of getting buy-in is by tracking and measuring the impact and value-add of L&D interventions and programmes. 5. Delivering ‘bite-sized’ learning. Today’s workforce does not want lengthy training sessions. L&D professionals need to utilise the tools offered by new mobile and online technology to address the needs of modern adult learners in their learning design and delivery. Adult learners are more engaged in learning when they experience the learning as personally meaningful. L&D professionals must provide learners with the opportunity to apply the new learning on the job and in their personal lives. 6. Engaging employees. Modern-day learners who have access to social learning and mobile technology place new demands on learning design and delivery. L&D professionals need to be innovative in harnessing mobile and online technology to keep learners engaged and motivated in the learning experience. 7. Supporting business development. L&D professionals must become astute in their role as strategic positioners and capability builders to help the organisation survive and grow in a competitive market place. L&D interventions should, therefore, also focus on developing leaders within the organisation. Progressive L&D professionals understand the importance of focusing on relevant performance capability issues, and generating cost-effective and proactive L&D solutions that add value for stakeholders. Reliability and service are dependent on the commitment and philosophy of the L&D professional. Clients and stakeholders are increasingly concerned with cost-effective, reliable and value-adding services and products. L&D professionals should do their jobs with uncompromising integrity and timeliness, aim to satisfy the needs of stakeholders and be accountable to their clients. The quality of L&D products and services must always meet or surpass the client’s expectations. 512

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Chapter 10 | Profession and practice of learning and development

L&D professionals should do their jobs with uncompromising integrity and timeliness, aim to satisfy the needs of stakeholders and be accountable to their clients. The L&D profession will have many opportunities during the coming decade. Opportunities include expanding the tools to facilitate interesting and engaging learning programmes in outcomes-based/work-based L&D; conducting research in aspects of the L&D process, technology and methodology; and expanding the skills for the practice and measurement of quality outcomes-based and value-adding L&D. Within the context of the National Skills Development Plan, the pressure to produce value-adding services and products in a technology-driven and knowledge-driven economy and society is very high. L&D professionals require more advanced tools and techniques to deal with the demands. These demands include issues such as rapid change in organisations, the use of advanced delivery systems for L&D, multicultural needs in the workplace, stakeholder expectations and requirements for value and quality compliance and measurement of their own productivity and value-added contribution to business goals.

Review and discussion questions 1. What value do the key roles of the L&D professional add to the performance capability of employees and the organisation? 2. Why is it important for L&D professionals to be professionally educated and trained? 3. What are the core competencies that L&D professionals need to demonstrate in the South African workplace? 4. How do L&D professionals benefit from continued professional development? How can they ensure that they stay abreast of new technology and developments in the HRD field? 5. Why is ethical behaviour an important characteristic of effective L&D professionals? 6. What are the challenges for the L&D profession in the coming decade?

Summary In this chapter, we reviewed L&D as a profession and practice. L&D professionals need to engage in continued professional development to ensure that they capitalise on the exciting opportunities for networking and for the design of innovative L&D techniques. The rapid transformation of societies within a VUCA world of work will continue to challenge the L&D professionals to be creative. L&D professionals who engage in ethical behaviour and continued professional development activities will benefit from the highly valued results they deliver through their continued expertise and professionalism. A L&D professional must, therefore, embrace the concept of lifelong learning to ensure their own repertoire of knowledge and skills is relevant and current.

L&D professionals can grow throughout their professional lives. Their work is purposeful. When L&D professionals effectively contribute to the interests of the organisation and the people within it, they can make an enormous impact. The reward is personal satisfaction. 513

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CONCLUSION HRD is an important part of an organisation’s strategy to sustain its learning and performance capability. HRD and, in particular, L&D activities have an impact on all aspects of the employment of people, from the onboarding of new employees to the development of future generations of directors. Unless employees are exposed to learning and development opportunities in the workplace, they cannot be expected to fulfil their roles, even if they know what their roles are. The challenge facing managers, L&D professionals and organisations is how to make cost-effective use of L&D interventions within the organisation. L&D professionals who apply the principles, theories and practices in this book will be recognised for their contributions to the organisation’s and its employees’ performance capability and productivity. Learning and development, along with knowledge management, are gaining increasing significance from the inclusion of a strategic perspective to the education, training and development of the human resources within the organisation. The stakeholder approach to strategic HRD management ensures that L&D efforts add value for stakeholders. L&D professionals who take pride in their professionalism and realise that learning continues throughout the lives of individuals will assist organisations and individuals to sustain their competitive edge in a changing business environment. ‘If people have talent and cannot use it, they have failed. If they have talent and use only half of it, they have partly failed. If they have a talent and learn somehow to use the whole of it, they have gloriously succeeded and won a satisfaction and a triumph few people ever know.’ (Thomas Wolfe cited in Palmer, 2002)

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NQF LEVEL DESCRIPTORS AND QCTO LARF GUIDE

APPENDIX

A

The tables show the applied competencies required at each level in order for learners to be declared competent (SAQA, 2011a,b).

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A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding that knowledge in a particular field develops over a period of time through the efforts of a number of people and often through the synthesis of information from a variety of related sources and fields.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use key common tools and instruments, and a capacity to apply him- or herself to a well-defined task under direct supervision.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to recognise and solve problems within a familiar, welldefined context.

Method and procedure

Problem-solving

NQF Level 1

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use own knowledge to select and apply known solutions to well-defined routine problems.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use a variety of common tools and instruments, and a capacity to work in a disciplined manner in a well-structured and supervised environment.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding that one’s own knowledge of a particular field or system develops through active participation in relevant activities.

NQF Level 2

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use own knowledge to select appropriate procedures to solve problems within given parameters.

A learner is able to demonstrate operational literacy, a capacity to operate within clearly defined contexts, and an ability to work within a managed environment.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding that knowledge in a field can only be applied if the knowledge, as well as its relationship to other relevant information in related fields, is understood.

NQF Level 3

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use own knowledge to solve common problems within a familiar context, and an ability to adjust an application of a common solution within relevant parameters to meet the needs of small changes in the problem or operating context, with an understanding of the consequences of related actions.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to apply essential methods, procedures and techniques of the field or discipline to a given familiar context, and an ability to motivate a change using relevant evidence.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding that knowledge in one field can be applied to related fields.

NQF Level 4

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Knowledge literacy

Competence area

Table 1  Level descriptors for NQF Levels 1–4 (SAQA, 2011)

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify and develop own personal values as well as ethics, and an ability to identify ethics applicable in a specific environment.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to recall, collect and organise given information clearly and accurately, sound listening and speaking (receptive and productive language use), reading and writing skills, and basic numeracy skills, including an understanding of symbolic systems.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to report information clearly and accurately in spoken/signed and written form.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the context within which he or she operates.

Accessing, processing and managing information

Producing and communicating information

Context and systems

NQF Level 1

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A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the environment within which he or she operates in a wider context.

A learner is able to demonstrate a basic ability to collect, organise and report information clearly and accurately, and express an opinion on given information clearly in spoken/signed and written form.

A learner is able to demonstrate the ability to apply literacy and numeracy skills to a range of different, but familiar, contexts.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to apply personal values and ethics in a specific environment.

NQF Level 2

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the organisation or operating environment as a system, and apply skills in measuring the environment using key instruments and equipment.

A learner is able to produce a coherent presentation and report, providing explanations for positions taken.

A learner is able to demonstrate a basic ability to summarise and interpret information relevant to the context from a range of sources, demonstrate an ability to take a position on available information, discuss the issues and reach a resolution.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to comply with organisational ethics.

NQF Level 3

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the organisation or operating environment as a system within a wider context.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to communicate and present information reliably and accurately in written and in oral or signed form.

A learner is able to demonstrate a basic ability to gather relevant information, analysis and evaluation skills, and an ability to apply and carry out actions by interpreting information from text and operational symbols or representations.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to adhere to organisational ethics and a code of conduct, and an ability to understand societal values and ethics.

NQF Level 4

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Ethics and professional practice

Competence area

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to work as part of a group.

Accountability A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to manage own time effectively, develop sound working relationships, and work effectively as part of a group.

A learner is able to demonstrate a capacity to learn in a disciplined manner in a well-structured and supervised environment.

NQF Level 2

A learner is able to demonstrate capacity to actively contribute to team effectiveness.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to learn within a managed environment.

NQF Level 3

Co-operate with fellow workers.

Identify and remove waste;

To comply with rules.

To provide support;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

Perform repetitive, manual tasks with little discretion;

NQF level 1

NQF level 1

(Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014)

QCTO LARF guide in terms of the NQF level descriptors (applied competence relevant to the workplace)

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to sequence and schedule learning tasks, and access and use a range of learning resources.

NQF Level 1

Standard forms.

Basic tools, materials, waste;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 1

A learner is able to demonstrate a capacity to take decisions about and responsibility for actions, and take the initiative to address any shortcomings found.

A learner is able to demonstrate a capacity to take responsibility for own learning within a supervised environment, and evaluate own performance against given criteria.

NQF Level 4

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Management of learning

Competence area

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Product or service; Operating procedures and standards.

To respond to deviations;

Contribute to team efforts and objectives.

Use equipment and instruments;

Monitor progress at work;

Allocate tasks;

To ensure team works effectively and efficiently.

To ensure availability of equipment and instruments;

To ensure work standards are met;

To ensure procedures are applied consistently;

To complete tasks within required time;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

Plan work process;

NQF level 3

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

Safety.

Wastage;

Delivery targets;

Quality;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 3

Own and other teams;

To support operations and processes; To maintain operations through adjustments;

Internal and external customers;

To confirm compliance with standards;

Equipment, machinery (semi automatic, single purpose), instruments, materials;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 2

NQF Level 4

To apply operating procedures;

To contribute to team outputs;

To maintain operations through minor adjustments;

To respond to deviations;

NQF level 3

Record, organise and report readily available information.

Monitor quality of materials, information, process and outputs;

Perform repetitive work where some discretion is required;

Interpret work instructions;

Perform reception duties;

Make simple settings and adjustments;

Operate equipment and machinery;

To work as a productive and active member of a team;

Record, organise and report readily available information;

Monitor quality of materials, information, process and outputs;

Perform repetitive work where some discretion is required;

To support operations and processes;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

NQF Level 3

NQF level 2

NQF Level 2

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

NQF Level 1

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

NQF level 2

Competence area

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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To comply with legal requirements; To ensure efficient use of resources; To ensure availability and reliability; To lead and direct operations; To identify and anticipate problems; To apply technical judgement.

Schedule;

Organise resources;

Allocate work and resources;

Perform technical tasks;

Install, assemble, repair;

Provide services;

Ensure progress and completion.

Attend to client needs;

To ensure smooth workflow, according to schedule, quality standards, safely;

Interpret work instructions;

Initiate activities;

To troubleshoot;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

NQF Level 3

NQF level 4

NQF Level 2

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

NQF Level 1

Environmental conditions.

Team;

Work or service related data, cost;

Client satisfaction;

Workflow;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 4

NQF Level 4

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

NQF level 4

Competence area

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A learner is able to demonstrate an awareness of how knowledge or a knowledge system develops and evolves within the area of study or operation.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to select and apply standard methods, procedures or techniques within the field, discipline or practice, and to plan and manage an implementation process within a well-defined, familiar and supported environment.

Method and procedure

NQF Level 5

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate, select and apply appropriate methods, procedures or techniques in processes of investigation or application within a defined context.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of different forms of knowledge, schools of thought and forms of explanation within an area of study, operation or practice, and possesses an awareness of knowledge production processes.

NQF Level 6

A learner is able to demonstrate: an understanding of a range of methods of enquiry in a field, discipline or practice, and their suitability to specific investigations; and has an ability to select and apply a range of methods to resolve problems or introduce change within a practice.

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of knowledge as contested and has an ability to evaluate types of knowledge and explanations typical within the area of study or practice.

NQF Level 7

A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the complexities and uncertainties of selecting, applying or transferring appropriate standard procedures, processes or techniques to unfamiliar problems in a specialised field, discipline or practice.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to interrogate multiple sources of knowledge in an area of specialisation and to evaluate knowledge and processes of knowledge production.

NQF Level 8

A learner is able to demonstrate a command of and ability to design, select and apply appropriate and creative methods, techniques, processes or technologies to complex practical and theoretical problems.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate current processes of knowledge production and to choose an appropriate processes of enquiry for the area of study or practice.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to develop new methods, techniques, processes, systems or technologies in original, creative and innovative ways appropriate to specialised and complex contexts.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to contribute to scholarly debates around theories of knowledge and processes of knowledge production in an area of study or practice.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Knowledge literacy

Competence area

Table 2  Level descriptors for NQF Levels 5 to 10 (SAQA, 2011)

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify, evaluate and solve defined, routine and new problems within a familiar context, and to apply solutions based on relevant evidence and procedures or other forms of explanation appropriate to the field, discipline or practice, demonstrating an understanding of the consequences.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to take account of, and act in accordance with prescribed organisational and professional ethical codes of conduct, values and practices and to seek guidance

Ethics and professional practice

NQF Level 5

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A learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the ethical implications of decisions and actions within an organisational or professional context, based on an awareness of the

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify, analyse and solve problems in unfamiliar contexts, gathering evidence and applying solutions based on evidence and procedures appropriate to the field, discipline or practice.

NQF Level 6

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to take decisions and act ethically and professionally, and has the ability to justify those decisions and actions drawing on appropriate ethical values

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify, analyse, evaluate, critically reflect on and address complex problems, applying evidencebased solutions and theory-driven arguments.

NQF Level 7

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify and address ethical issues based on critical reflection on the suitability of different ethical value systems to specific contexts.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use a range of specialised skills to identify, analyse and address complex or abstract problems drawing systematically on the body of knowledge and methods appropriate to a field, discipline or practice.

NQF Level 8

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to make autonomous ethical decisions that affect knowledge production, or complex organisational or professional issues, and has an ability to

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use a wide range of specialised skills in identifying, conceptualising, designing and implementing methods of enquiry to address complex and challenging problems within a field, discipline or practice; and has an understanding of the consequences of any solutions or insights generated within a specialised context.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify, address and manage emerging ethical issues, and to advance processes of ethical decision making, including monitoring and evaluating the

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to apply specialist knowledge and theory in critically reflexive, creative and novel ways to address complex practical and theoretical problems.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Problem-solving

Competence area

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Accessing, processing and managing information

Competence area

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate different sources of information, to select information appropriate to the task, and to apply well-developed processes of analysis, synthesis and evaluation to that information.

complexity of ethical dilemmas.

on ethical and professional issues where necessary.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to gather information from a range of sources, including oral, written or symbolic texts, to select information appropriate to the task, and to apply basic processes of analysis, synthesis and evaluation on that information.

NQF Level 6

NQF Level 5

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to develop appropriate processes of information gathering for a given context or use; and has an ability to independently validate the sources of information and evaluate and manage the information.

and approaches, within a supported environment.

NQF Level 7

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to critically review information gathering, synthesis of data, evaluation and management processes in specialised contexts in order to develop creative responses to problems and issues.

NQF Level 8

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to design and implement a strategy for the processing and management of information, in order to conduct a comprehensive review of leading and current research in an area of specialisation to produce significant insights.

critically contribute to the development of ethical standards in a specific context.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to make independent judgements about managing incomplete or inconsistent information or data in an iterative process of analysis and synthesis, for the development of significant original insights into new, complex and abstract ideas, information or issues.

consequences of these decisions, where appropriate.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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Producing and communicating information

Competence area

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to communicate information reliably, accurately and coherently, using conventions appropriate to the context, in written and oral or signed form or in practical demonstration, including an understanding of and respect for conventions around intellectual property, copyright and plagiarism, including the associated legal implications.

NQF Level 5 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to present and communicate complex information reliably and coherently using appropriate academic and professional or occupational conventions, formats and technologies for a given context.

NQF Level 6 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to develop and communicate his or her ideas and opinions in well-formed arguments, using appropriate academic, professional, or occupational discourse.

NQF Level 7 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to present and communicate academic, professional or occupational ideas and texts effectively to a range of audiences, offering creative insights, rigorous interpretations and solutions to problems and issues appropriate to the context.

NQF Level 8 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to use the resources of academic and professional or occupational discourses to communicate and defend substantial ideas that are the products of research or development in an area of specialisation; and use a range of advanced and specialised skills and discourses appropriate to a field, discipline or practice, to communicate to a range of audiences with different levels of knowledge or expertise.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to produce substantial, independent, in-depth and publishable work which meets international standards, is considered to be new or innovative by peers, and makes a significant contribution to the discipline, field, or practice; and has an ability to develop a communication strategy to disseminate and defend research, strategic and policy initiatives and their implementation to specialist and non-specialist audiences using the full resources of an academic and professional or occupational discourse.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to operate in a range of familiar and new contexts, demonstrating an understanding of different kinds of systems, their constituent parts and the relationships between these parts, and has the ability to understand how actions in one area impact on other areas within the same system.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate his or her performance or the performance of others and to take appropriate action where necessary; and take responsibility for his or her learning within a structured learning process and to promote the learning of others.

Management of learning

NQF Level 5

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A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate performance against given criteria, and accurately identify and address his or her task-specific learning needs in a given context, and to provide support to the learning needs of others, where appropriate.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to make decisions and act appropriately in familiar and new contexts, demonstrating an understanding of the relationships between systems, and of how actions, ideas or developments in one system impact on other systems.

NQF Level 6

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to identify, evaluate and address his or her learning needs in a self-directed manner, and to facilitate collaborative learning processes.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to manage processes in unfamiliar and variable contexts, recognising that problem solving is context- and systembound, and does not occur in isolation.

NQF Level 7

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to apply, in a self-critical manner, learning strategies which effectively address his or her professional and ongoing learning needs and the professional and ongoing learning needs of others.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to operate effectively within a system, or manage a system based on an understanding of the roles and relationships between elements within the system.

NQF Level 8

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to develop his or her own learning strategies which sustain independent learning and academic or professional development, and can interact effectively within the learning or professional group as a means of enhancing learning.

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to make interventions at an appropriate level within a system, based on an understanding of hierarchical relations within the system, and has the ability to address the intended and unintended consequences of interventions.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to demonstrate intellectual independence, research leadership and management of research and research development in a discipline, field or practice.

A learner is able to demonstrate: an understanding of theoretical underpinnings in the management of complex systems to achieve systemic change; and has an ability to independently design, sustain and manage change within a system or systems.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

Context and systems

Competence area

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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Accountability

Competence area

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to account for his or her actions, to work effectively with and respect others, and, in a defined context, to take supervisory responsibility for others and for the responsible use of resources, where appropriate.

NQF Level 5 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to work effectively in a team or group, and to take responsibility for his or her decisions and actions and the decisions and actions of others within well-defined contexts, including the responsibility for the use of resources, where appropriate.

NQF Level 6 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to take full responsibility for his or her work, decisionmaking and use of resources, and has limited accountability for the decisions and actions of others in varied or ill-defined contexts.

NQF Level 7 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to take full responsibility for his or her work, decisionmaking and use of resources, and has full accountability for the decisions and actions of others, where appropriate.

NQF Level 8 A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to operate independently and take full responsibility for his or her own work, and, where appropriate, to account for leading and initiating processes and implementing systems, ensuring good resource management and governance practices.

NQF Level 9

A learner is able to demonstrate an ability to operate independently and take full responsibility for his or her work, and, where appropriate, to lead, oversee and to be held ultimately accountable for the overall governance of processes and systems.

NQF Level 10

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

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NQF Level 5

NQF Level 6

NQF Level 7

NQF Level 8

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Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task To co-ordinate supply of resources; To ensure consistency of outputs; To implement improved technology and techniques;

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

Plan and implement processes and operations;

Lead and direct teams and progress;

Control and manage performance;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task To respond to changing external and internal needs;

NQF level 6

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

Investigate and evaluate process options;

Implement projects or change processes.

Provide advice on systems, technology and methods;

To optimise systems, processes and use of resources.

To bed down revised practices and systems;

To implement improved technologies, revised systems;

NQF level 6

Implement improvements.

Collect, evaluate and build a case based on a variety of types of data or information, legal and ethical considerations;

To improve skill level, satisfaction and team ethics.

Co-ordinate operations with other functions;

NQF level 5

NQF level 5

(Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014)

NQF Level 10

Technology, discipline and associated practices.

Departments or division;

Bottlenecks, trends;

Operational performance and risks;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 6

Ethics, good practice.

Allocated budgets;

Environment;

Market requirements, client satisfaction;

Staff;

Operational systems;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 5

NQF Level 9

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

QCTO LARF guide in terms of the NQF level descriptors (applied competence relevant to the workplace)

Competence area

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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Stakeholder and environment.

Interpret metrics.

Assess impact of external conditions;

Needs analysis;

Perform environmental scans;

Research and develop new or revised systems, technology practices;

Synergy;

Corporate citizenship;

Advocacy;

To manage knowledge.

To manage roles and relationships between elements of the system;

To formulate corporate policies;

To manage specialist operations, e.g. accounting, personnel, operations, marketing;

Contributes and informs the organisational strategy;

Continuous professional development.

Value chain/proposition;

Organisational culture and values;

Stakeholder alignment;

Workforce stability;

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

Manages stakeholders’ expectations and roles;

NQF level 8

NQF level 8

NQF level 8

Contract services.

Mobilise and manage resources;

Safety;

External environment;

Quality;

Tactics;

Technology, professional practices; Innovation;

To ensure compliance with legislation.

HR;

Discipline or practice;

Finance;

To reduce risk;

Manage policy compliance;

NQF Level 10

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 7

NQF Level 9

Procurement;

To ensure continuous improvement;

Negotiate contractual terms and conditions;

NQF Level 8

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

NQF Level 7 NQF level 7

NQF Level 6

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

NQF Level 5

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

NQF level 7

Competence area

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To provide foresight;

NOTE: Level 10 will not be taught – it can only be learned and only applies to exceptional leaders.

To generate and provide wisdom.

The future social, political and economic systems.

To provide global direction and leadership;

Envision, conceptualise and advocate strategies in anticipation of changing environments;

Conceptualise and introduce new practices, knowledge.

Practices, paradigms, knowledge;

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 10

NQF level 10

Capital, financial, human, intellectual, social.

Global operating environment;

Organisational policy framework;

Governance;

Professional boundaries and future shape of professional activities;

Stakeholder wealth and wellbeing;

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

To provide overall direction and management.

NQF Level 10

Workplace focus (things or people to interact or deal with): Machines, tools

NQF level 9

NQF Level 9

NQF level 10

Drive transformation.

Promote corporate social investment;

Drive and promote triple bottom line in all marketing and sales decisions;

To grow the intellectual capital of the business;

Manage and report on the carbon footprint;

Establishes and stewards brands;

Promote and sustain corporate citizenship;

Evaluate the impact and sustainability of implemented strategies;

Formulate and implement strategy;

To act as a transformational leader;

To monitor and evaluate performance against organisational objectives and strategies;

Enhance and undertake stakeholder and investor relationships;

Plan and secure capital – financial, intellectual, social, human;

NQF Level 8

Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task

NQF Level 7 NQF level 9

NQF Level 6

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform elementary tasks

NQF Level 5

Applied competence (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)

NQF level 9

Competence area

Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

A Ability: A basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge or developing a skill. Accelerated learning: An approach to training that relates to the process of creating and maintaining a psychologically positive learning state by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence in their ability to learn and perform, thereby reducing mental barriers to learning and improving performance. Accreditation: The certification, usually for a particular period of time, of an L&D/skills development provider as having the capacity to provide the particular training. Accredited skills development provider: A provider of occupational learning who is accredited by the QCTO. Action learning: A form of organisational and individual learning that is also cyclical and experiential in nature. Adult learners: Employees who participate in L&D interventions and activities in an organisational context. Affective outcome: A type of learning outcome that includes attitudes or beliefs that predispose a person to behave in a certain way. Andragogy: An adult learning theory or ideology that focuses on intrinsic motivation and sees adults as being self-directed. Adults are seen to learn best when they choose content and method of learning. Applied competence: The combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive competence specified in outcomes-based learning programmes, learning programmes and qualifications. Assessment: A structured process for obtaining evidence about a learner’s competence in order to make a judgement of competent or not yet competent. Also, a process in which evidence is gathered and evaluated against agreed criteria to make a judgement of competence for developmental and/or recognition purposes. Assessment activities: What a candidate does or is involved in as a means of producing evidence, for example, designing, making or repairing things, reporting on something, answering questions, solving problems or demonstrating techniques. Assessment centre: A centre accredited by the QCTO for the purpose of conducting external summative assessments for specified registered occupational qualifications. Assessment criteria: Descriptions of the required type and quality of evidence against which candidates are to be assessed. Assessment criteria indicate the evidence required in order to declare the learner competent in each specific outcome. An assessor will assess the learner’s achievements against the assessment criteria and declare the learner competent or not yet competent. Assessment design: The analysis of defined outcomes and criteria to produce a detailed description of how an assessment should take place, including all instructions and information regarding the assessment activities and assessment methods. The product of assessment design could be termed an assessment guide. Assessment evidence: The evidence collected from workplace performance, supplemented by other performance. This evidence is weighed up against the assessment criteria in the unit standard. Assessment facilitator (also called evidence facilitator): A person who works within particular contexts, under supervision of registered assessors, to help candidates/learners gather, produce and organise evidence for assessment.

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Assessment guide: A complete package based on a thorough analysis of specified outcomes and criteria, assessment requirement and a particular assessment context. Assessment guides are designed primarily for use by assessors to conduct an assessment (or possibly a series of related assessments) in terms of a significant and coherent outcome of learning, for example, a unit standard or set of learning outcomes specified for a learning programme. Assessment instruments: Those items that an assessor uses or a candidate uses as part of the assessment, for example, scenarios with questions, case studies, descriptions of tasks to be performed, descriptions of role-play situations. Assessment methods: Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate evidence. Assessment methods include observing candidates, questioning candidates, interviewing supervisors/colleagues/managers of candidates, listening to candidates, reviewing written material and testing products. Assessment plan: A document compiled by an L&D professional/assessor that gives an overview of the time frames and responsibilities for assessment and moderation for the agreed delivery period. Assessment process: The process of planning the assessment, preparing the learner for assessment, conducting the actual assessment, documenting the evidence, evaluating the evidence and making assessment judgements, providing feedback to the relevant parties and reviewing/evaluating the effectiveness of the assessment process. Assessment quality partner (AQP): A body delegated by the QCTO to develop assessment instruments and manage external summative assessment of specific occupational qualifications. Assessment site: Any site selected as suitable to conduct the external summative assessment for a specified occupational qualification or qualifications where the relevant qualification assessment specifications do not require the use of an accredited assessment centre. Assessor: A qualified subject matter expert registered by an assessment quality partner for the purposes of conducting external assessment for occupational qualifications. Asynchronous online learning: Self-paced e-learning; flexible learning space in terms of time, place, pace and participation. Learners who may be situated anywhere in the world can access the material and respond to it at any time within a defined number of days. Attitude: A mental state of readiness, organised through experience, to behave in a characteristic way towards the object of the attitude. Authentic assessment: The measurement of complex performances and higher order thinking skills in real-life contexts. Authentic assessment requires learners to demonstrate complex tasks rather than individual skills practised in isolation. Automaticity: Occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention; likely to be developed when learners are given several extra learning opportunities, even after they have demonstrated mastery of a task. B BEE score card: The BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) Codes of Good Practice define how to measure the contribution of an organisation to the transformation of our country, and are used to reward BEE contributors directly through government procurement, the issuing and renewal of licences in regulated industries and indirectly through the ‘knock on’ effect. An organisation’s BEE score is based partially on the BEE scores of its suppliers. The BEE scorecard allocates points to organisations in terms of their transformation performance. BEE points are calculated in terms of the procurement spent and claimed when using a company that has BEE scores as a supplier. Companies can boost their BEE scores by buying from suppliers that have BEE scores. Companies are ranked according to nine levels in terms of BEE status on the BEE scorecard. Behaviour: Activity directed at achieving something. Behaviour modelling: Learning approach that consists of observing actual job incumbents (or DVDs/ videos of job incumbents) that demonstrate positive modelling behaviours, rehearsing the behaviour using role-playing techniques, receiving feedback on the rehearsal, and finally trying out the behaviour on the job. Behaviourist perspective: Approach developed by B.F. Skinner that placed the emphasis for behaviour and directed activity on the environment, rather than on any internal needs or instincts. Belief: A conviction that something is true.

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Bill: A proposed new law introduced within a legislature that has not yet been ratified, adopted or received assent. Once a Bill has become law, it becomes an Act. Blended online learning: Combines asynchronous and synchronous online learning. Bottom-line measure: Evaluation of a learning programme by determining if the organisation actually saved money as a result of the training. Business impact: A method of evaluating the effectiveness of training by determining whether the objectives and outcomes of the learning programme or L&D intervention were met. C Candidate: A person whose performance is being assessed by an assessor. Such people include those who may already be competent, but who seek assessment for formal recognition (candidates), as well as those who may have completed or are in the process of completing learning programmes (learners). Case study: A training technique in which employees, usually in a group, are presented with a real or hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution. Certification: On successful completion of a learning programme or learnership, the learner is awarded a qualification in the form of a certificate, issued by the QCTO. Classroom climate: The shared perception of learners about the classroom environment, that is, how they think and feel they are being treated by the L&D professional. The classroom climate can range from a warm, welcoming and nurturing atmosphere to one that is characterised by coldness and indifference, as evident in the behaviour displayed by the trainer. Classroom environment: The conditions, circumstances and influences surrounding and affecting the development and performance of learners. These include, for example, the physical conditions of the classroom, the trainer’s physical appearance, body language, language patterns, behaviour and attitudes towards learners. Classroom training: A training method in which the L&D professional/learning facilitator communicates through spoken words, audio-visual materials and group activities that which learners are supposed to learn; also commonly used to present a large amount of information efficiently to a large or small number of learners. Coaching: An approach to training in which there is a one-to-one relationship between a manager and an individual employee, aimed at developing or enhancing their on-the-job performance. Cognitive approaches/cognitivism: Cognitive theories focus on how individuals process and interpret information. Community of expert practitioners (CEPs): A group of people qualified in the relevant occupation with a minimum of five years’ current relevant experience in a particular occupation, or who are recognised by the practitioners of the occupation as experts. Competencies: Typical behaviours (which include attitudes and beliefs, knowledge and skills) that individuals demonstrate when undertaking job-relevant tasks to produce job-related outcomes within a given organisational context. Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work tasks or job outputs that have to be achieved in order to demonstrate satisfactory job performance. Compliance evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation that emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and national quality standards for outcomes-based and work-based L&D/skills development practices. It is also known as a quality audit or evaluation. Constructivism: An adult learning theory, which believes that learners create their own learning. The active involvement of learners in the learning experience through experiential learning experiences is emphasised. Continued professional development (CPD): The further and ongoing L&D activities that a professional engages in to retain the level of expertise necessary for them to remain abreast of the developments in the profession and to function at the level at which they are registered with a professional body. Credits: The credit value on a unit standard that indicates the notional hours or amount of time a learner will need to complete the learning programme. One credit equals 10 notional hours. Criteria: The standards used to measure performance. Course: The content of a short learning programme through which learners may progressively attain the applied knowledge, skills and values described in the learning outcomes of the programme and/or unit standards and/or qualifications.

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Glossary of terms

Criterion-referenced assessment: An assessment approach that focuses on assessing learners’ achievements against a set of external criteria. Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFO): A set of 12 national outcomes recognised as the basis for the design of learning programmes, curricula and qualifications. These learning outcomes are relevant throughout life, not simply in employment and further learning. Employers regard these outcomes as reflecting work-readiness skills. Curriculum: The learning programme strategy or broad plan of action for achieving the learning programme objective (or unit standard’s and qualification’s purpose and outcomes) by enabling learners to master the programme’s learning outcomes. Curriculum strategy: A written description of the prescribed content (or embedded knowledge as described in the unit standard), the formative assessment activities, required learning support material and learning programme delivery strategy. D Data: A collection of information, often in the form of numerical measures of a group of people. Data is also sometimes used to refer to other kinds of raw material used in research, such as a collection of texts or images. Data collection tools: Instruments such as survey questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and organisational records, used to collect data from the respondents (learners/stakeholders) in order to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of a programme. Development: A long-term change effort intended to broaden individuals through experience and to give them new insights about themselves and their organisation in a way that supports them in fulfilling their potential. Development quality partner (DQP): A body delegated by the QCTO to manage the process of developing specific occupational qualifications, curricula and assessment specifications. Diagnostic assessment: Testing of a learner’s pre-knowledge, pre-skills, pre-attitudes/values before attending a learning programme. Diagnostic evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the planning and design of a learning programme. Digital era: The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era – the 21st-century world of work is characterised by a rapid technological evolution, such as mobile smartphone technology, that impacts online learning design and social learning. Distributed practice: An approach to training that allows learners to have rest intervals between their practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time. E Education: An intermediate-term change effort intended to prepare individuals for promotions (vertical career progression) or for enhanced technical abilities in their current jobs (horizontal career progression). Education is broader in scope than training and aims to develop the individuals’ knowledge, social understanding and skills, and intellectual capacities. E-learning: See online learning. Embedded knowledge: The knowledge learners need to know in order to show competence and achievement in the unit standard. Also, the knowledge learners will gain from the start to the end of the learning or skills programme. Emotional intelligence: An approach to intelligence that describes it in terms of the ability to perceive, to integrate, to understand and to reflectively manage one’s own and other people’s feelings. Employability: A person’s ability to gain access to, adjust to, and be productive in the workplace. Also, the composite set of traits and competencies that permits a person to meet the demands of the 21stcentury workplace. Ethics: A person’s moral belief about what is right or wrong, or good or bad, which provides a guide to his or her behaviour. Ethical behaviour: Behaviour that is regarded as correct and good in relation to behaviour in an organisational or professional context. Ethical dilemmas: Situations that have the potential to result in a breach of acceptable behaviour.

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Evaluation: The process of determining the monetary worth of L&D interventions and making judgements about their compliance with quality standards and best practice. Also, the systematic collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and modification of various L&D activities. Evaluation criteria: An approach to L&D evaluation that classifies the purpose of evaluation into broad categories or dimensions. Each of these dimensions has a number of criteria according to different evaluation levels, which are the standards or rules by which the dimensions can be judged (for example, learning programme design, delivery, transfer of learning, impact, value added and quality standards). Evaluation dimensions: An approach to L&D evaluation that classifies the purpose of evaluation into broad categories or dimensions. Evaluation levels: Levels of sophistication in evaluating the value added by training. As the degree of sophistication goes up, the value tends to increase with it (for example, reaction, learning, job behaviour change, value-added impact and return on investment). Evaluation models: Theoretical frameworks that indicate the practical utility of evaluation levels in determining the L&D evaluation dimensions and criteria to be measured. Evaluation process: The steps involved in a formal, professionally carried-out evaluation of learning and learning programmes/L&D interventions conducted in a planned and systematic manner, using valid and reliable data collection tools and methodology. Evaluation sponsor: The person(s), group or organisation that requests or requires the evaluation and provides the resources to conduct it. Evaluative assessment: A post-assessment activity that is integrated into the overall assessment process to ensure the quality of the overall assessment process. Evaluative expertise: The ability to judge the quality of performance in relation to specified criteria consistently, reliably and with insight. Evaluative expertise implies deep subject matter understanding and knowledge about the outcomes being assessed at a theoretical and practical level, but does not necessarily include practical ability in the outcome. Evaluator: The person responsible for conducting evaluations in the organisation. In most instances, this person is not a full-time evaluator, but rather has part-time evaluation responsibilities. Evidence: Tangible proof produced by or about learners that can be perceived with the senses, bearing a direct relationship to defined learning outcomes and performance criteria, based on which judgements are made concerning the competence of learners. Evidence includes, for example, plans, reports, answers to questions, products, testimonials, certificates, descriptions of observed performances and peer-review reports. This evidence is weighed up by an assessor against the assessment criteria in the unit standard to evaluate whether a learner has achieved the learning outcomes of a learning programme. Experience: Direct participation in, or observation of, events and activities that serve as a basis for knowledge. Experiential learning: An approach to training that sees learning as a cyclical, dynamic and continuous process. It also underscores learning as an active process in which learners are not passive recipients of training but actively seek out opportunities to apply their behaviour in new situations Explicit knowledge: Knowledge that is quantifiable and hence easily transferred and reproduced. Explicit learning: Learning that requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort, such as memorising, problem-solving and understanding. F Facilitation: The skill of interacting with learners to draw out their ideas and lead them to new ideas and understandings with the aim of helping them to achieve learning goals and outcomes. See also learning facilitation. Facilitator/trainer learning and assessment guide: A complete package containing written descriptions of the learning programme strategy, the learning facilitation process and quality assurance aspects related to the programme design, delivery, assessment of learners’ achievements and evaluation of the programme’s effectiveness. Feedback: Providing employees/learners with specific information about how well they are performing a task or series of tasks. Also, evaluative or corrective information transmitted to employees/learners about their attempts to achieve learning tasks and improve their job and/or learning performance.

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Glossary of terms

Fidelity: The extent to which the task for which a person is trained is similar to the task required on the job. It is important that training tasks have fidelity so that extra time and expense of the training can directly benefit performance on the job. Flexible learning approach: A modern learning theory that believes that digital and smartphone technologies should be used to create flexible and engaging, rich, online learning experiences for learners. Formal learning: Learning experiences that occur in the context of formally organised learning programmes; can include classroom training or workplace training. Formative assessment: The ongoing assessment that takes place throughout a period of learning and teaching. It provides the learner with opportunities to practise what has been learned, with the intention of improving performance in the next assessment. These assessments are conducted to measure the rate of progress and performance toward achieving competence in an outcome or outcomes. Formative assessments help one to make decisions about the readiness of the learner to do a summative assessment. Formative evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the delivery phase of a learning programme for the purpose of guiding programme improvement. Foundational competence: A learner’s understanding of and demonstration of insight into the knowledge and thinking that underpins the actions taken. G Generational diversity: Important differences in values, aspirations, preferences and beliefs that characterise the Silent Generation, the Baby Boomers, Generation Xers and Millennials. Green Paper: A tentative government report on a proposal without any commitment to action; the first step in changing the law. Green Papers are issued much more frequently than White Papers and are more open ended. They are also known as consultation documents and may merely propose a strategy to be implemented or they may set out proposals on which the government wishes to obtain public views and opinion. They may result in the production of a White Paper. Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of the country’s annual output of goods and services. H Human capital approach: The recognition that the contribution made by human skills and knowledge to the production of goods and/or services is a vital ingredient of organisational success. Humanist perspective: An approach to adult learning that proposes that knowledge is a personal, subjective issue, not an external commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of content. A basic tenet is that individuals have a natural aptitude for learning and have control over their own learning processes and outcomes. Human resource development (HRD): Organised learning experiences provided by employers within a specified period of time to bring about the possibility of performance improvement, personal growth, as well as enhance employees’ employability orientation in order to satisfy the current and future needs of the organisation. I Implicit learning: The implicit knowledge that people use daily in most of what they do, but that they cannot describe. Informal learning: Learning experiences that occur outside of formal learning programmes; can include specific job assignments, experiences and activities outside work. Intelligence: The ability to learn and adapt to an environment; often refers to general intellectual capacity as opposed to cognitive or mental ability, which often refer to more specific abilities, such as memory or reasoning. Integrated assessment: A form of assessment that combines diagnostic, formative, summative and evaluative assessment to assess a learner’s ability to combine key foundational, practical and reflexive competencies with some critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) and apply these in a practical context for a defined purpose.

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J Job profile: A written summary of the tasks, behaviours and competency requirements for a particular job. K Knowledge: An outcome of learning, which refers to information, facts, opinions, theory, arguments, concepts, and their interrelationship relevant to the required outcome, that an individual can demonstrate in the workplace. Also, the cognitive outcome of a learning programme that relates to the way in which people process information and attach sense and meaning to it. Knowledge management: A process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing or using knowledge (wherever it resides) to enhance learning and performance in the organisation. Knowledge test: A test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge about a job-related topic or a test that measures the level of a learner’s knowledge about a topic/subject. L Leading: Directing and co-ordinating task-relevant group activities. Learner: Anyone who wants to gain a qualification or credits toward a qualification may apply for an existing learnership, qualification or learning programme; also an individual who participates in a learning programme or L&D intervention. Learner-centered approach: An approach to training that regards the learner as an active participant in the learning facilitation process. It therefore takes into consideration learners’ characteristics, levels of competence and life experiences in the design and delivery of the learning or learning programmes. Learner-centered delivery methods: An approach to training delivery in which the trainer and learners have an interdependent relationship: both share experiences and information. The trainer fulfils the role of learning facilitator and learners take ownership of their learning as active participants in the learning process. Learner profile: Written statements describing learners’ characteristics, levels of competence, demographics, L&D needs and their motivation for attending a learning programme. Learner qualifications development facilitator: A qualifications development facilitator in training. Learnership: A structured learning programme that leads to a nationally recognised qualification on the NQF. It is an integrated occupation-directed programme that combines learning (a combination of learning and/or short learning programmes that lead to a nationally recognised qualification) at a training institution, with practical on-site work experience and learning at the workplace. It includes an apprenticeship in respect of a listed trade, and trade test in respect of that trade. Learnership agreement: A legally binding document that must be signed by the employer, the accredited skills development provider and the learner. The agreement outlines the rights and duties of the various parties and also specifies the termination date of the learnership, which is formally registered with the Department of Labour. Learning: A relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour that results from the acquisition of knowledge and facts by study, being taught and through experience. It includes the acquisition of knowledge, understanding, values, skills, competence and experience, which may include work-based/occupation-directed work experience in a specific workplace context. Learning activities: The means L&D professionals use to expose learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours they will need to master the learning outcomes; also, what learners do or are involved in as a means to master new competencies. Learning assumed to be in place: The learning assumed to be in place is the pre-knowledge and skills that the learner is expected to have before starting the learning programme. Learning content: The material that is to be learned by the learners, together with the different ways in which the learning facilitator conveys it to the learners. Learning cycle: The reiterative, scientific and systematic process of determining learners’ training needs; designing learning programmes and materials; delivering training; assessing and moderating learners’ achievements; and evaluating the effectiveness of learning or learning programmes for continuous improvement initiatives.

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Glossary of terms

Learning facilitation: A learner-centered approach to training in which roadblocks to successful performance by learners are eliminated; adequate resources to enable the achievement of learning outcomes are provided and careful attention is paid to the needs and motivation of learners. See also facilitation. Learning organisation: A company in which continuous learning, knowledge-sharing and masteryorientation are emphasised. Learning outcomes: The learning results learners have to demonstrate at the end of each learning and assessment activity. Learning programme: A QCTO-accredited programme, which includes a learnership or apprenticeship, a short learning programme and any other prescribed learning programme that includes a structured work-experience component at an accredited work site. Learning programme objectives: The overall intention or purpose of the learning programme and its sub-units, modules or courses/learning programmes. Learning/learning programme strategy: A broad plan of action for curriculum design, learning and assessment activities, training methods and learning support materials per learning outcome with a view to helping learners achieve the learning outcomes and overall objective of the learning programme. Learning/learning programme delivery strategy: A written description of the learning facilitation mode (contact or distance learning for example), training methods, learning material, media, resources and equipment that will be used in the facilitation of the learning programme. Learning management system (LMS): The web-based program used to create, manage and deliver an online learning programme. Learning styles: A learner’s preferred way of learning. Learning support materials: A complete package of learning resources designed to enable the achievement of learning outcomes (for example, learner manuals, handouts, books, PowerPoint slides and posters). Lecture: An informative talk given to an audience or group of learners. Legislation: A law that has been promulgated (‘enacted’) by a legislature or other governing body. While the term may refer to a single law, or the collective body of enacted law, the term ‘statute’ is also used to refer to a single law. Legislation can have many purposes: to regulate, to authorise, to provide (funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare or to restrict. In South Africa, legislation is in draft until it has been for public comment. Once this process is finalised, the legislation becomes final after which it may only be changed through amendments. Level descriptors: Level descriptors define the level of complexity of a unit standard or learning programme and the level of achievement expected of an individual at each of the NQF levels. Levy grants: If the employer meets certain conditions, such as producing a workplace skills plan, the SETA will pay a certain percentage of the levy back to the employer in the form of a grant (see also Skills Development Levies Act). Longitudinal evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the learning programme as a whole, sometime after its completion – three months, six months to a year (including its compliance with the QCTO quality standards and long-term value added to the company’s bottom-line). L&D competency profile: A written description of the set of behaviours, knowledge, skills, values and attitudes instrumental to the delivery of desired L&D results or outcomes. L&D evaluation: A set of planned, information-gathering and analytical activities undertaken by L&D professionals to provide those responsible for the management of the strategic HRD/L&D effort with a satisfactory assessment of the effects, progress, quality and value added by L&D interventions. L&D management: The ongoing managerial process of enhancing the HRD function’s ability to ensure that its L&D practices, processes, services and products contribute to the overall HRD strategy and business results, along with adding value for stakeholders. L&D needs analysis: The systematic collection and evaluation of information to determine the gaps in the existing competency levels, skills, knowledge and attitudes of employees. L&D professional: A competent, professionally qualified person who demonstrates the ability to perform a specific or relevant role in educating, training and developing learners within the context of an outcomes-based, work-based HRD system and national occupational learning system.

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L&D provider: The place where theoretical knowledge and skills are obtained. L&D providers are organisations or individuals who provide learning or learning programmes, and include universities, universities of technology, private providers or a company’s in-house training facilities. L&D value proposition: A written description stating the proposed results and value that workplace L&D practices, products, and services intend to deliver to stakeholders. This usually includes a description of how the learning programme design, delivery and outcomes will add value for stakeholders and measurably contribute to business results. L&D professional/instructor-centred delivery methods: An approach to training delivery whereby the trainer is regarded as an instructor and presenter who is responsible and accountable for what learners should learn, how and when they should learn it and if they have learned it. L&D delivery: Training delivery is a structured process characterised by an individual acting as a learning facilitator in accelerating and structuring learning through well-designed formal delivery methods. M Massed practice: Conditions in which individuals practise a task continuously and without rest. Mastery orientation: Orientation in which individuals focus on increasing their competence for the task at hand; they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. Measurement: Assigning numbers to objects, in a rule-like manner, to represent quantities of an attribute that the object possesses. Media: Means of communication to facilitate learning (for example, paper, DVDs, video, audiotapes, CD-ROMs, computers, overhead projectors and data projectors). Mentoring: A learning facilitation approach that focuses on providing support, advice and friendship to a younger, less experienced person. Mode: The style or manner of learning facilitation or delivery (for example, learner-centred classroom training and distance education). Moderation: The process of monitoring and verifying that assessment practices comply with quality requirements and that assessment decisions are consistently accurate. It includes the process that supports and evaluates the assessment environment, process and instruments (with a view to confirming the reliability and authenticity of assessment results and improving the quality of assessments and assessors). Modern learning: A theory of learning in the digital era. Module: A self-contained unit of learning within a learning programme with its own set of learning outcomes and the learning and assessment activities that are linked to these. N National Artisan Moderating Body (NAMB): The body established as per section 26A of the Skills Development Act, 97 of 1998. National Occupational Pathway Framework (NOPF): A management tool for the QCTO to ensure that qualifications are not developed in isolation, but in a manner that facilitates progression pathways for learners between related occupational qualifications at different levels on the NQF. National Qualifications Framework (NQF): The framework or set of principles and guidelines that provide a national vision and structure for the construction of a qualifications system. National Skills Development Strategy: The national strategy for developing and uplifting the skills of the South African workforce by utilising the workplace as an active learning environment, promoting self-employment, and securing work opportunities for new entrants into the labour market through legislation and other initiatives. National Standards Bodies (NSBs): The national bodies responsible for making sure that all standards and qualifications fit into the NQF levels in the 12 learning fields and for keeping qualifications and unit standards up to date. Needs analysis: See L&D needs analysis. Notional hours: The amount of time a learner will need to complete the learning programme. See also credits.

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Norm-referenced assessment: An assessment approach that focuses on comparing a learner’s performance with the performance of other learners. O Objective: Specific, short-term statements of results that should be achieved. Occupational qualification: A qualification associated with a trade, occupation or profession, resulting from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge unit standards, practical unit standards and work experience unit standards, as defined in the Skills Development Amendment Act (2008), which has an external summative assessment. Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF): The sub-framework for trades and occupations, as contemplated in section 4 of the NQF Act (2008). Online learning: Any type of e-learning situation in which instructional content is delivered through the use of computer networked technology, such as over the intranet, or through the internet where and when required. E-learning comprises learning opportunities offered via integrated communication technologies (ICTs) such as computers and smartphones. On-the-job training: Training that involves assigning learners to jobs and encouraging them to observe and learn from more experienced employees. Organisational capability: The identity and reputation of the organisation characterised by its capacity to use resources, get things done, and behave in ways that accomplish goals in a competitive business environment. Organisational needs analysis: See skills audit. Organisational sustainability: The capability of the organisation to meet the needs of the present to achieve success today, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Organising: Planning and arranging activities, people and resources in an orderly way. Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO): A skill-based coded classification system, which aims to encompass all occupations in South Africa that are in demand by the labour market; it is used as a tool to collect, analyse and report on occupational information. The OFO is updated annually in March to reflect current labour market demands in terms of scarce and critical skills, as embedded in occupations. Outcomes: An inclusive term, referring to everything that is learned, including social and personal skills, the activities of learning how to learn, understanding concepts, acquiring knowledge, understanding methodologies, values and attitudes. Outcomes-based assessment: Also known as authentic assessment that focuses on measuring complex performances and higher-order thinking skills in real-life contexts in relation to pre-determined learning outcomes and performance criteria for various purposes, including further development and the recognition of learning achievements. Outcomes-based workplace learning design: An L&D approach that focuses on what the learners need to achieve at the end of the learning process. Overlearning: Practising a task, even after it has been mastered, in order to retain learning. P Part learning: Learning that occurs when sub-tasks are practised separately and later combined. Part qualification: An assessed unit of learning that is registered on the NQF as a part qualification. Performance: The demonstration of skills, knowledge, understanding and attitudes, and the ability to transfer these to new situations. Performance appraisal: A review of the job-relevant strengths and weaknesses of an individual or a team in an organisation. Performance orientation: Orientation in which individuals are concerned about doing well in training (achieving the learning outcomes) and being evaluated positively (being assessed as competent). Personal development plan (PDP): A written statement of the employee’s knowledge and skills that must be developed, as well as how and when these will be developed, and the person who will be responsible for ensuring that the development is implemented.

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Person analysis: The process of identifying the employees who need training and determining the areas in which each individual needs to be trained. Physical learning environment: The physical layout of the venue arranged to suit the various outcomes of the learning or learning programme. Physical fidelity: The extent to which the training task mirrors the physical features of the actual task. PIVOTAL occupational programme: Is an occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical and Academic Learning programme that is linked to a qualification that meets the critical needs for economic growth and social development. A PIVOTAL programme combines course work at universities, universities of technology and colleges with structured learning at work (professional placements, work-integrated learning, apprenticeships, learnerships and internships). Practical competence: A learner’s ability to consider a range of practical possibilities for action and make a decision about which to follow (also the ability to apply the newly acquired skills in the workplace or in real-life situations). Post-test: A measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a learning programme has been completed. Pre-test: A measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the implementation of a learning programme. Portfolio of evidence (POE): A carefully organised file or folder compiled by a learner (as a candidate for assessment) that contains samples of the learner’s work, which serve as evidence of the ability to demonstrate the competencies stipulated in the learning outcomes. Portfolios provide evidence of a learner’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and academic development, which afford the L&D professional/ assessor opportunities for formative and summative assessment. Procedural knowledge: Knowing how to perform a job or task; often developed through practise and experience. Process guide: A written outline of the learning facilitation strategy that generally describes how the learning facilitator plans to present, manage and monitor the learning process and environment so that learners can be effectively and productively engaged in learning. Programmed instruction: A training method in which learners learn information at their own pace. Psychological fidelity: The extent to which the training task helps learners to develop the competencies (attitudes, knowledge, skills and abilities) and other characteristics that are necessary to perform the job. Psychomotor abilities: The physical functions of movement, associated with co-ordination, dexterity and reaction time. Q Q ualification: A planned combination of learning outcomes with a defined purpose or purposes, and which is intended to provide learners with applied competence and a basis for further learning. National qualifications are made up of unit standards or learning outcomes. A qualification consists of a cluster of unit standards. Learners can use unit standards in various qualifications, depending on their applicability and rules of combination, as defined by the various quality councils. A qualification is made up of a minimum of 120 credits. Q ualification development facilitator (QDF): A person registered by the QCTO to facilitate the development of occupational qualifications. Q ualification Sub-framework for Trades and Occupations: The sub-framework on which occupational qualifications are registered. This sub-framework forms part of a single, integrated NQF system, as contemplated in Chapter 2 of the NQF Act. Quality assurance: The process of ensuring that the degree of excellence specified is achieved. The national unit standards and regulation requirements specify these degrees of excellence. Quality audit (QA): See compliance evaluation. Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO): Established in terms of section 26G of the Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). Quality management: All activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy, objectives, strategies, responsibilities and implementation of these by means of a combination of managerial processes.

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R Range statement: A guide to users of a unit standard that states the scope, context and level for the unit standard. It also describes the situations and circumstances in which the learner is expected to perform. Recognition of prior learning (RPL): The comparison of the previous learning and experience of a learner/candidate against specified learning outcomes for the award of credits for a specified unit standard or qualification; access to further learning; recognition in terms of meeting minimum requirements for a specific job; placement at a particular level in an organisation or institution; or advanced standing or status. Reflexive competence: A learner’s ability to integrate the acquired foundational and practical competencies with understanding and with an ability to adapt to change in unforeseen circumstances. It includes a learner’s ability to reflect on his or her learning or performance and the ability to transfer the newly acquired competencies to different social and workplace contexts. Reinforcement techniques: Training techniques that reward behaviour with the intent to motivate learners to repeat the behaviour. Reliability: The extent to which scores obtained on a measure are reproducible in repeated administrations under similar measurement conditions. Results criteria: Measures of how well training outcomes can be related to organisational outcomes, such as productivity gains, cost savings, error reductions or increased customer/stakeholder satisfaction. Return on investment (ROI): The amount of money an organisation makes after subtracting the cost of training or other L&D and organisational interventions. Return on stakeholder expectations (ROE): Providing evidence to management and other stakeholders, through continuous evaluation, that the programme’s intended objective and outcomes (performance indicators) have been met and the learners’ achievements fulfil the requirements. RPL assessment: The process of identifying a learner’s knowledge and skills or what the learner (candidate) knows and can do; matching a learner’s skills, knowledge and experience to standards and the associated assessment criteria of a qualification; assessing a learner against these standards; and crediting a learner for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal, informal and nonformal learning that occurred in the past. S Sectoral Education and Training Authority (SETA): A body established under the Skills Development Act, whose main purpose is to establish and promote learnerships/learning programmes, approve workplace skills plans, allocate grants and monitor, in collaboration with the QCTO, the quality of education and training in the sector. Sectoral needs analysis: The process of identifying key skills shortages and the assessment of the relative importance of the identified shortages to the sector as they relate to the national skills plan and strategy. Sectoral skills plan: A plan that includes a profile (description) of a specific sector, including current education and training happening within the sector, factors affecting future changes, the employment and skills needs in the sector, a future vision, strategies to address the skills needs, success measures, resources required to achieve targets and methods for monitoring, reporting and evaluating progress. Self-directed learning: A desire to set one’s own pace, establish one’s own structure, and keep open the option to revise a learning strategy Self-paced e-learning: Self-driven e-learning based on learning outcomes in an asynchronous online learning space. Short course: A type of short, non-accredited learning programme through which a learner may or may not be awarded credits, depending on the purpose of the programme. Short learning programme: (also called a short course). A series of structured learning activities or events that are intended to equip learners with the applied competence needed to fulfil a particular occupational role. Short learning programmes can be based either on national unit standards, parts of national unit standards or no unit standard. Learning programmes based on unit standards or parts of unit standards are credit bearing, implying learners’ achievements/performance are assessed against the learning outcomes and associated assessment criteria.

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Skills: Those aspects of behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level to ensure effective job performance. It includes proficiency to perform a particular task. Skills audit: The process of analysing L&D needs at the organisational level with the aim of identifying critical and scarce skills, and comparing these to the skills required by the organisation now and in the future so that the shortfall or surplus of key skills can be determined and addressed. Skills development committee: The forum or group of people, representing the various departments in the company, that is involved in discussions around the workplace skills plan (WSP) and the HRD/ L&D plan and/or strategy. Skills development facilitator (SDF): The person who advises and helps to plan skills development for a workplace. Skills Development Levies Act: The Skills Development Levies Act describes how money will be collected through levies paid by employers. Skills development provider: A QCTO-accredited L&D provider of an occupational learning programme. Skills programme: According to the NSDS phase III, a learning programme is a shorter non-PIVOTAL programme (not linked to programmes that qualify an individual to enter a particular trade or profession) with a specific application or specialisation in mind. A learning programme may include non-accredited short courses, a workplace-specific, work-based programme or a programme required for continuous professional development (CPD). In terms of the Skills Development Amendment Act (2008), some learning programmes may include occupation-directed, work-based learning programmes linked to a learnership or apprenticeship, which includes a structured work experience component. Note: the QCTO may revise this definition in the future. Skills upliftment: The enhancement of employees’ applied competence in their jobs by improving their knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes through formal education, skills training and continuous development initiatives. Social learning theory: A cognitive theory that proposes that there are many ways to learn, including observational learning, which occurs when people watch someone perform a task and then rehearse those activities mentally until they have an opportunity to try them out. South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA): The authority contemplated in Chapter 4 of the NQF Act (Act 67 of 2008). Specific outcomes: See unit standard specific outcomes. Stakeholders: Those individuals, groups or organisations that have a significant interest in how well a learning programme or L&D intervention functions and delivers on expectations. Stakeholders envisaged in the DQP SLA: Those with direct interest in the occupation concerned, which includes, but is not limited to, the following: employers of that occupation or relevant employer associations, unions with membership in that occupation, professional bodies or occupational associations, industry bodies, education and training providers that would deliver one or more of the components. Strategising: Planning, designing or mapping out activities to achieve aims, goals or objectives. Summative assessment: A form of assessment usually conducted at the end of a learning programme. It is the final measure of what was learned. Summative assessments should include formative assessment evaluations and a final overall assessment of whether learners have achieved the specified learning outcomes for the overall programme. Summative evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the learning or learning programme as a whole at its completion (including the achievement of objectives and outcomes, returns on expectations, compliance with the QCTO quality standards and valueadded to the company’s bottom line). Synchronous online learning: Real time facilitated e-learning. Learners and instructors/learning facilitators communicate/interact within the same time frame (that is, scheduled time/meeting). T Tacit knowledge: Knowledge concerned with understanding and application. Tacit knowledge is often combined with experience and interpretation and is, therefore, far less easy to harness and reproduce. Talent pool: The existing human resources in a company whose specialist skills, expertise, experience, abilities and potential have been identified as a scarce and critical resource that can help the organisation to sustain its capability and competitive edge.

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Task analysis: The process that involves examining what employees must do to perform the job properly and which helps to determine the content of a learning programme. Training: A planned short-term change (L&D intervention) effort intended to modify competencies, attitudes and beliefs, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experiences (such as formal learning or non-formal, work-based learning programmes) to sustain employees’ employability by helping them to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Training methods: The techniques, methodology or approach L&D professionals (trainers) use to facilitate learning or deliver a learning programme (for example, classroom training, on-the-job training, lectures, small groups or programmed instruction). Training needs analysis: See L&D needs analysis. Training cycle: See learning cycle. U Unit standard: A registered statement of desired education and training outcomes and their associated assessment criteria, together with administrative and other information, as specified by SAQA regulations. It describes the scope and context within which the candidate’s competence is assessed. The results, not the processes, of the learning are described in unit standards. It is also the smallest independent part of a qualification that bears credits. Unit standard field and sub-field: The criterion that indicates the learning field and sub-field within which the unit standard falls. Unit standard issue date: The date that indicates the registration date of the unit standard by SAQA. Unit standard learning assumed to be in place: The learning assumed to be in place (that is, the preknowledge and skills that the learner is expected to have before starting on the unit standard). Unit standard level: The criterion that indicates the level of complexity required to achieve the unit standard, as per the NQF levels. Unit standard purpose: The criterion that describes the general skills a learner will have acquired upon completion of a learning programme based on the unit standard; it states also for whom the unit standard is intended and the reasons for writing (or developing) the unit standard. Unit standard registration number: The number that identifies the unit standard and which is used for administration and identification purposes. Unit standard review date: The date that indicates when the unit standard will be up for review again. Unit standards have a life span of three years. Unit standard specific outcomes: Specific outcomes are competence outcomes that focus on learning and performance. They capture a specific skill, knowledge and attitude that a learner must demonstrate in the unit standard. These are outcomes that the learner works towards. Unit standard title: The title of a unit standard that is unique; that is, no other title registered on the NQF will be identical. The title includes a maximum of 100 characters, including spaces and punctuation. V Validity: The extent to which the measuring instrument reflects the concept it is intended to measure. Value-added evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation that addresses the organisation’s bottom line and is conducted to measure the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions or a particular learning programme. Value-added measurement: The measurement and evaluation of changes in the L&D processes, outcomes (results) and their resulting value (impact) on the company’s bottom line. W Whole-brain learning: See accelerated learning. Whole learning: Learning that occurs when the entire task is practised at once. White Paper: An informal name for a parliamentary paper enunciating government policy. Such papers are issued by the government and lay out policy or proposed action on a topic of current concern. Although a White Paper may, on occasion, be a consultation as to the details of new legislation, it does signify a clear intention on the part of a government to pass a new law.

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Workplace: The place of employment where workplace experience, training and development take place. Workplace learning: The acquisition of knowledge, understanding, values, skills, competence and structured work experience in a specific workplace and occupational context. Workplace skills plan (WSP): A plan that supports the sectoral skills plan and company strategic HRD and L&D plans by describing what skills are needed, by whom, in the relevant workplace in a particular year. The document outlines the planned L&D interventions for a specific organisation in the coming year. The L&D interventions are categorised according to the occupational categories described in the OFO, and according to critical and scarce skills. Submission of the WSP and the annual training report is a legal requirement of organisations wishing to claim a Mandatory Grant against the Skills Development Levy from their SETA. It is also a prerequisite to claiming points for the skills development element of the BEE scorecard.

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South African Qualifications Authority Act, No. 58 of 1995 Sperry, RW. 1974. Lateral specialisation in the surgically separated hemispheres. In The Neurosciences Third Study Program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Stephens, KK & Daley, SL. 2015. Human resource development in a technology-infused workplace. In: M. Khosrow-Pour (ed.). Encyclopedia of information science and technology. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, pp. 581–589. Sternberg RJ. 2015. Multiple intelligences in the new age of thinking. In S Goldstein, D Princiotta & J Naglieri (eds). Handbook of intelligence. New York: Springer, pp. 229–241. Stevenson, RJ & Palmer, JA. 1994. Learning: Principles, processes and practices. New York: Cassell Educational Limited. Stewart, J. 2007. The ethics of HRD. In C Rigg, J Stewart, J & K Trehan (eds). Critical human resource development: Beyond orthodoxy. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall. Stewart, J & Rigg, C. 2011. Learning and talent development. London: CIPD. Steyn, GM & Van Niekerk, EJ. 2002. Human resource management in education. Pretoria: Unisa Press. Stolovitch, HD & Keeps, EJ. 1992. Handbook of human performance technology: A comprehensive guide for analysing and solving performance problems in organisations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Strachan, L. 2014. Engaging millennials in workplace learning. Available at: https://www.mindtools.com [accessed 8 March 2018]. Straulino, P. 2010. Personnel psychology: Portfolio of evidence on occupationally-based workplace learning design. Pretoria: University of South Africa. Strong, L & Vorwerk, C. 2001. Developing learning materials and resources for workplace learning. Johannesburg: Knowres. Stuart, M. 2011. The national skills development handbook. Johannesburg: RainBowSA. Stufflebeam, DL & Shinkfield, AJ. 2007. Evaluation theory, models and applications. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sullivan, R & Wircenski, JL. 2006. Effective classroom training techniques. Alexandria: ASTD Press. Swanepoel, B, Erasmus, B, Van Wyk, H & Schenk, H. 2003. Human resource management. Cape Town: Juta. Swanson, RA. 1994. Analysis for improving performance: Tools for diagnosing organisations and documenting workplace expertise. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Swart, J, Mann, C, Brown, S & Price, A. 2005. Human resource development: Strategy and tactics. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth. T Telela, P. 2004. In S McGrapth, A Badroodien, A Kraak & L Unwin. Shifting understanding of skills in South Africa: Overcoming the historical imprint of a low skills regime. Cape Town: HSRC Press. Tortorella, GL, Marodin, GA, Fogliatto, FS & Miorando, R. 2015. Learning organisation and human resources management practices: An exploratory research in medium-sized enterprises undergoing a lean implementation. International Journal of Production Research, 53(13): 3989–4000. DOI: 10.1080/00207543.2014.980462 Tshilongamulenzhe, MC. 2012. An integrated learning programme management and evaluation model for South Africa. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria. Turner, T. 2014. Survey identifies top challenges for learning and development team. Available at: https:// www.trainingindustry.com [accessed 8 March 2018]. U Ulrich, D. 2014. The future targets or outcomes of HR work: Individuals, organizations and leadership. Human Resource Development International, 17(1): 1–9. DOI: 10.1080/13678868.2013.825144. WWW.AITD.COM.AU Ulrich, D & Brockbank, W. 2005. The HR value proposition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Ulrich, D & Dulebohn, JH. 2015. Are we there yet? What’s next for HR? Human Resource Management Review, 25: 188–204. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2015.01.004. Utting, H. 2017. A case for a personal development plan. Planning News, 43(2): 26–30.

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V Vai, M & Sosulski, K. 2011. Essentials of online course design: A standards-based guide. London: Routledge. Valentin, C. 2015. Greening HRD: Conceptualizing the triple bottom line for HRD practice, teaching, and research. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 17(4): 426–441. DOI: 10.1177/1523422315599621 Van Dellen, T & Cohen-Scali, V. 2015. The transformative potential of workplace learning: Constructing of identity in learning spaces. International Review of Education, 61: 725–734, DOI: 10.1007/s11159-015-9528-3s Van der Horst, H & McDonald, R. 1997. Outcomes-based education: A teacher’s manual. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers. Van Deventer, H. 2010. Preparing for the QCTO: AgriSETA roadshow. Pretoria: AgriSETA. Van Eeden, D. 2014. The role of the chief human resources officer: Perspectives, challenges, realities and experiences. Randburg: Knowres. Van Niekerk, S & Van Zyl, J. 2014. Occupational Qualifications Development Facilitator Manual. Pretoria: QCTO. Van Rooyen, M. 2009. New learning programmes leading to new qualifications. Johannesburg: Cutting Edge. Van Veldhoven, M, Dorenbosch, L, Breugelmans, A & Van de Voorde, K. 2017. Exploring the relationship between job quality, performance management, and career initiative: A two-level, two-actor study. SAGE Open, July–September 2017: 1–15. DOI: 10.1177/2158244017721734. Veldsman, D. 2018. Allsport case study: Talent development matrix. Personal discussion and permission granted. Vorwerk, C. 2009a. Templates for workplace learning design. A paper presented at a workshop entitled Getting ready for the new skills development system. Khulisane Academy, Johannesburg. Vorwerk, C. 2009b. The Occupational Learning System: Application in the agricultural sector. Pretoria: Department of Labour. Vorwerk, C. 2010a. Quality Council for Trades and Occupations: Draft policy. Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training. Vorwerk, C. 2010b. Occupational qualifications: Key features and development process. Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training. Vorwerk, C. 2010c. Role of private providers: Some policy perspectives. Service SETA, Private Provider Forum. Xasa Facilitating. W Walsh, A. 2014. Virtual classrooms in the workplace: An implementation study. Irish Journal of Academic Practice, 3(1): Art. 7. Ward, J & LaBranche, GA. 2003. Blended learning: The convergence of e-learning and meetings. Franchising World, May/June: 22–23. Werner, JM & DeSimone, RL. 2009. Human resource development. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Werner, JM & DeSimone, TL. 2012. Human resource development, 6th edition. Mason, OH: South Western Cengage Learning. Westgaard, O. 1992. Standards and ethics for practitioners. In HD Stolovitch & EJ Keeps (eds). Handbook of human performance technology. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 576–585. Wolmarans, S. 2004. Heart currency: Advanced Emotional Competencies Series. Johannesburg: Learning Link International. Y Yelon, SL. 1992. Classroom instruction. In HD Stolovitch & EJ Keeps (eds). Handbook of human performance technology. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 383–413. Young, M. 2005. Concluding comments. Journal of Education and Work, 18(1): 127–129.

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INDEX

A abilities of HR manager 258–259 of learners 110–111 absolute standards 435 abstract conceptualisation 120 academic relevance 44 accelerated learning 128–129, 130 access to training 5 accountability 42, 46, 477, 487 action learning 120 active experimentation 120 active practice 342–343 adaptive guidance 346 adult learners 110–113 affective domain 218–220, 219–220, 224 alienation 331 analysis 219 analytical intelligence 132, 136 andragogy 112, 212, 279, 311 application 219 applied competence 64 occupational 172–173 apprenticeships 39, 77–78 appropriate practice 342–343 artificial intelligence 9 artisan skills 5, 43 assessment 73–74 competence 358–359 context 353 criteria 62 e-learning 284 evaluating evidence 390 evidence 383–387, 384, 387–390, 388–389 feedback 390–391 implementation policy 352 instruments 368–369, 369, 371–373 knowledge and skills 355 learners’ needs 359–360 methods 368–370, 369–370, 434 moderation see moderation need for 350 planning 376–381, 377, 379–380 preparation 381–383 principles 385–387 quality partners 75 reviewing 392–393 role of 354

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 558

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Index

roles 356–358 RPL 366, 374–376, 376 scope and purpose 354–356 strategy 382–383 types 361–368, 362, 364, 365 assignments 371, 434 Association for Skills Development in South Africa (ASDSA) 55 assumed learning 341 asynchronous e-learning 270, 274 attending 501, 502 attention 219, 286 attitude deficiencies 151–152 authentic assessment 355 automatic behaviour 116 automation 10–11 autonomy 488 B baby boomers 327 barriers to learning 109, 290, 345 behaviour 345 behaviourism 277 behaviouristic learning 114–115 beneficence 488 Bill of Rights 360 bite-sized learning 512 blended learning 271–272, 297–298 delivering 304–305 Bloom’s taxonomy of learning outcomes 219–223, 219–220, 221, 223 bodily intelligence 131, 136 body language 328–330, 329–330 brain 128–131 business development 512 business objectives 476 C career guidance 7, 14, 45 case studies 241, 372 certification quality assurance 85–86 chalkboards 303 change 512 characterisation 219 clarity of purpose 457 classroom styles 338–339, 338 classroom training 299–304 advantages and disadvantages 299 delivery 316–317 elements 320–321 facilitation 318–323, 320–323 management 346–347 methods 300 post-class intervention 323 principles 340–344, 342 responsibilities 347 support materials 301–304 co-operation 486 co-operative societies 6–7 co-ordination flexibility 459 coaching 125

559

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 559

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

cognitive domain 218, 219, 223, 277 cognitive learning 115–117 cognitivism 277 collaboration 45–46, 125–126, 486 colour 288 communication 341 and intelligence 131 communities of expert practice 25, 71 community colleges 37 community training initiatives 44 competence 56, 64, 101, 152, 172–173 criteria for 416 e-learning 293 of L&D professionals 489 see also applied competence competitive advantage 484 competitiveness 455 compliance 486, 503 evaluation 408–409, 413–415 comprehension 219 conceptual knowledge 221 concrete experiences 120 confidentiality 503 conflicts of interest 504 connectivist learning theory 125–126 constructivism 277 content 198, 228–229, 341 categories 226 chunking 285, 288 e-learning 284 selection 227–228 sequencing 229–230 sources 228–229 continuous professional development (CPD) 38, 55, 487, 499–502, 502 benefits 500 cost improvement through L&D 419–420 Council on Higher Education (CHE) 24 creative intelligence 132, 136 critical cross-field outcomes 62–63, 224–225 critical incidents 182 critical skills 8, 14, 158–161 criticism 331 customer service employee development 456 D data analysis 436 decision-making 458 declaration of authenticity 384 delivery and assessment strategy 234–240, 235, 236–240 evaluation 415 methods 297–298 demonstrations 241 Department of Basic Education (DBE) 22 Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) 22 design consistency 288 design-down, deliver-up approach 203 desk-top analysis 184 development quality partners 74

560

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 560

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Index

diagnostic assessment 366 diagnostic evaluation 401, 402, 404 digital copyright 504 learning approaches 310 natives 269 skills 9 disciplinary action 152 discussions 241 distance learning 38 diversity 9, 504, 512 training 506–507 dynamic assessment 363 dynamic learning cycle 142–144, 143, 155 dysfunctional responses 331–332 E e-learning 241, 268–269, 297–298, 306 advantages and disadvantages 280–281 appropriateness 280 assessment 284, 286, 287 barriers to 109, 290 competencies 293 content 284, 285 contexts 276–277 ecologies 289 evaluation 287 forms 270–272, 270 goals 282 learners’ level of experience 282 management buy-in 290 models 275–276 needs analysis 281 organisational support 292 pilot 287 programme design 282–283, 283, 285–287 strategy 283 support 286 synchronous vs asynchronous 270 templates 285 trends 289 in the workplace 291 economies of scale 269 education and training systems 4 electronic presentation 301 emotional intelligence 133–134, 136, 331–332 emotional management 133 emotional styles 134–135, 334–335 empathy 133, 331 employability 456 employee/s 100 assistance 152 attitudes 102 competence see competence development 460 engagement 458, 512 onboarding 450–451 performance 103–104, 104 employment rate 4

561

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 561

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

see also unemployment empowerment 6–7 vs hierarchies 9 encoding 106 encouragement 332 engagement standards 477 equity 13, 45 see also inequalities ethics 457, 487, 488 checklist 505 in L&D 503–506, 505 evaluating/evaluation 219, 473–474 barriers to 439 communicating results 436–439, 438–439 criteria 421–426, 431 dimensions 431 forms 245 models 414–415, 422 plans 434–436, 435–436 process 429 reports 437–439, 438–439 substandard 439–440 evidence see assessment evidence examinations 372 execution strategy 477 experiential learning 119–120 explicit knowledge 458–459 explicit learning 105–107 external alignment 451 external assessment 40, 73–74 F facilitated e-learning 271 facilitation 310–312, 311, 312 guidelines 314-315 process 323–325, 324–325 skills 312–313 factual knowledge 221 feedback 344, 390–391, 397 giving and receiving 327–328, 328, inadequate 150 FET 4, 37 fidelity 127 flexibility 12, 446, 456, 458, 459, 487 flexible learning 279 flip charts 302–303 focus groups 184 formative assessment/evaluation 361, 362, 364, 401, 403, 404–405 foundational learning assessment 74 Fourth Industrial Revolution 8, 11, 140 further education and training see FET G Gardner’s multiple intelligences 131–132, 135–136 gender and education 4 General and Further Education and Training Quality Council see Umalusi generalisation 120 generations 327 global audience 512

562

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 562

2018/11/30 1:58 PM

Index

Global Competitiveness Index 2 Global Talent Competitiveness Index 3, 10–11 goal setting 343 Gregorc’s learning styles 122-123 group dynamics 326 Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation 427–428 H handouts 245, 302 hierarchies 9 horizontal integration 451 human capital 2 development 3–8, 456 development trends 8–11 human resources information and ethics 194–195 information systems 192–193 outcomes-based/work-based learning 255–260 plan 182–183 human resources management challenges 448–449 function 471–477, 475–476 vs HR development 447–448 human resources development (HRD) 292 function 447 vs HR management 447–448 role in the 21st-century workplace 449–451, 450 stakeholder perspective 457 and strategy 514 strategy 451–454, 452 humanism 279 humanist learning 118 I images 288 impact assessment 366–367, 441–443 impact measurement 421 implicit learning 105 in-basket exercises 241 independent learning 241 inequalities income 8 structural 13 intangibles 416, 417, 461, 464 integrated assessment 364–365, 365 integrity 488, 503, 512 intellectual property 503, 504 intelligence 131 interactive learning 241 internal alignment 451 internal assessment 73 internships 39, 82–83 interpersonal intelligence 132, 136 intervention 153–155, 153, 154, 400 advantages 402 stakeholders 405–406 strategy 477 interviews 180–181, 184, 432–433, 432–433 intrapersonal intelligence 132, 136

563

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 563

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

J job/s performance 204 purpose 207–211 task analysis 170–173 tasks of HR manager 257, 261–267 tasks unpacking 207–208 see also occupations Joining 501, 502 K kinaesthetic intelligence 131, 136 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy 421–426 knowledge 102, 210–211, 219 application 286 knowledge-based economy 6 deficiencies 151–152 evidence of 389 of HR managers 258 and job purpose 208–209 management 458–459 networks 126 skills abilities and other (KSAO) 117, 170–171, 173 tests 181 and theory 200–201 types of 221–222 vs understanding 108–109 Kolb and Fry’s learning style inventory 121–122, 122 Kolb’s learning cycle 119–121, 120, 324 L labour market information analysis 41 intelligence system 68 language 44, 331 L&D management 460 in the 21st century workplace 455–457 functions 475–476 process 466–467, 469 L&D professionals 480–481 challenges 512–513 characteristics 485–488, 488 opportunities 513 qualifications 491–499 roles 481–485, 483–485 skills 489–491, 490–491 tasks 482 leadership 488 buy-in 512 leading 473 learner/s abilities 110–111 -centric approach 212, 233, 309, 297–298 characteristics 317–318 privacy 504 profile analysis 212–213, 213 support systems 46 learnerships 39, 76–77

564

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 564

2018/11/30 1:58 PM

Index

learning 99, 104–105 activities design 231–233, 232 approaches digital 310 barriers to 109, 290, 345 capability 447 content see content context 117 design 197, 415 ecologies 289 facilitators see skills development facilitators formats 309 implicit vs explicit 105–106, 110 intervention see intervention learner-centric vs event-centric 308 lifelong see lifelong learning management systems 272–275, 272–274 methods 240–243, 242, 243 nature of 119 organisations 457–458 participative 113 and performance 103–104 performance vs mastery orientation 111 principles 126 programme objective 214–216, 215–216 role of brain 128–131 styles 121–125 support materials 243–246, 245–246, 342 whole vs part 127 learning cycle 198, 297–298 dynamic 142–144, 143, 155 facilitation 324–325 Kolb’s 119–121, 120, 324 phases 143, 198, 297, 351, 400, learning and development 100 background information 430 change 420–421 company specific 204 data collection tools 431 delivery see delivery evaluating returns 421 evaluation see evaluation facilitation see facilitation facilitator guides 246–247, 247, 249–253 implementation 152 input analysis 420 intervention see intervention management see L&D management needs analysis see LDNA organisational impact 416, 419, 421 organisational support 292 output 420–421 plan 468 plan evaluation 469–470 professionals see L&D professionals providers SAQA requirements 409–411 quality assurance 412–413 reasons for failure 475 research questions 430–431

565

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 565

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

stakeholder evaluation 430 and technology 511 trends 511 value proposition 463–466, 465, 467 LDNA 139, 141–142 data gathering 179, 183–185 as feedback focus areas 155, 156 HR information systems 192–193 individual 174–175 vs job tasks 206–207 organisational 161–170, 163–166 proactive vs reactive 145–147, 146 purpose 144–145, 145 sectoral 156–161 see also e-learning needs analysis template 169–170 timeline 187 triage approach 147 learning environment 333–335, 334–335 checklist 340 emotional 335–336, 343 physical 337–340, 338 learning outcomes 216–217, 260–261 Bloom’s taxonomy 220–222, 221, 223 taxonomy 218, 219-220 learning theories 113 classic 114–118 modern 119 lectures 241 levels, activities, role and focus (LARF) 205–206 lifelong learning 112, 456, 487, 488, 499 culture 141 limbic system 130–131 linguistic intelligence 131, 135 log books 373 logical intelligence 132, 135 longitudinal evaluation 401, 403–404, 404 M mammalian brain 130–131 management games 241 mastery orientation 111 mathematical intelligence 132, 135 McCarthy’s 4MAT model 123-124 meaningfulness 340 measurement 477 memory 106–107 mentoring 125 meta-cognitive knowledge 222 micro-sized learning 309 millennials 327 mind maps 227 modelling 341–342, 342 moderation 393–394, 396–397 functions 394 –395 system components 395 tools and methods 396 modern learning approaches 308–310

566

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 566

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Index

modular learning 309 modules 244–245 monitoring and evaluation 86 motivation 110, 133 musical intelligence 131, 135 N Nadler’s model of evaluation 427 National/national Artisan Moderating Body (NAMB) 25 Certificate (Vocational) 6, 43 Human Resource Development (HRD) Strategy 6 Institute for Humanities & Social Sciences (NIHSS) 39 Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) 71 policies 351–352 Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment 352 Qualifications Framework see NQF Skills Accords 13 Skills Authority 22–23, 39 Skills Development Plan see NSDP Skills Development Strategy 6, 7, 13–14 Skills Fund 6, 7, 23, 39 naturalist intelligence 132 need-to-know see motivation needs analysis 145–147, 281, 467 neocortex 130–131 neomammalian brain 130–131 networking 501, 502 NGO training initiatives 44 novelty 341 NQF 13, 18–19, 198 Act 27 levels 28, 205–206 objectives 27 principles 31 structure 29 –30, 33-35 sub-frameworks 31–33, 32, 39 NSDP 11, 493 goals, outcomes and outputs 42–45 levy grant funding 46–47 principles 45–46 strategic intentions 40–41, 42 numeracy 44 O observation 180, 184 overt and covert 433 observational learning 117 occupational occupational analysis 170–173 occupational competence 56 occupational learning programmes 75–83, 79–82 occupational skills levels 69–70 occupational learning system (OLS) 67–69, 69, 199 quality assurance management 83–85, 84 Occupational Qualifications 59, 71–73 Framework (OQF) 70, 198 Subframework 32

567

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 567

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

occupations see jobs on-demand learning 309 on-the-job assistance 151 on-the-job learning 297–298 online learning see e-learning optimal learning environments 128 oral tests 372, 373 organisational accountability 155 alignment 477 analysis 161–170, 163–166 capability 459–462, 460–461 ecology 457 flexibility 459 outputs 416–418 records 433–434 organising 219, 472–473 Framework for Occupations 12, 55, 68–70, 200, 256 outcomes 42–45, 198 -based assessment see assessment -based learning 57–58 -based learning & development quality control 89–97, 90–96 -based workplace learning 197, 202, 203, 255–256 e-learning 282 specific 62 outsourcing 10 overlearning 126–127 P participation 327 pattern recognition 115–116 peer assessment 373 peer pressure 151 performance appraisal 181–182 discrepancies 149–152, 150 gaps 148–150, 150 management and reward system 151 orientation 111 person analysis 174–175 personal development planning/plans 176–179, 181 personal information 192–195 personality of HR managers 259–260 Phillips’ return on investment model 426–427 physical fidelity 127 PIVOTAL (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning) grants 47-49 programmes 14 reports 416 plagiarism 505 policies design 184 portfolio assessment 371, 373–374, 434 PowerPoint 301 practical intelligence 132, 136 practical skills 200–201, 210–211 and job purpose 209 practical tests 371 practice 126, 151, 286

568

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 568

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Index

active and appropriate 342–343 massed vs distributed 127 predictive evaluation 428–429 principles 487 private training providers 37 proactive needs analysis 145–147, 145, 146 problem behaviour 332–333 problem-solving 107–108 procedural knowledge 222 process design 184 programmed instruction 305 project management principles 476–477 projects 373, 434 Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act 195 PSET 21, 36, 37 –40 psychological fidelity 127 psychomotor domain 218, 220, 224 public sector 45 and skills training 7 punishment incongruence 150, 151 Q qualifications 58–59 –job mismatch 5 scope 75 quality/ Quality 89, 486 Council of Trades and Occupations (QCTO) 24, 40, 74, 87–88 councils 352 improvement 455 quality assurance 40, 473 of certification 85–86 of curricula 85, 87 documentation 248–253 management 83–85, 84, 89 partners 65–66 partners 88 questionnaires 179–180, 431–432 questions 327, 371, 372, 373 quizzes 286 R reaction elements 424–425 reactive needs analysis 145, 146–147, 146 readiness to learn 110–111 reading 501, 502 recognition of prior learning (RPL) 40, 64–65 assessment 366, 374–376, 376 reflective observation 120 regenerative brain theory 130 reinforcement 114 relative standards 435 reptilian brain 130 resource flexibility 459 responding 219 retention 310 reward incongruence 150, 151 rich media 286 role analysis 170–173 role-play 241, 371

569

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 569

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

S SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) 100, 493 ethics 504–505 professional levels of registration 492 SA Institute for Vocational and Continuing Education and Training (SAIVET) 37 SA Qualifications Authority (SAQA) 22, 58 scarce skills 8, 43, 157–161 analysis 159 competing for 10 scholarly generations of e-learning 276–277, 277 scriptwriting 288 skills development facilitators 54–57, 56 roles 126 tasks and functions 166, 191–192 sector education and training authorities see SETAs sector skills plan 49–50 sectoral analysis 156–161 selective attention 115 self-assessment 373 self-awareness 133, 488 self-directed learning 112, 297–298 self-management 345 self-paced e-learning 270–271 self-study materials 244 sensing 115–116 sensitivity training 241 service economy 8 and skills 4 and SMMEs 12 SETAs 5, 23–24, 26–27 use of funds 47–49 grant regulations 19–20 and levy grants 38 partnerships with TVET 43 seven elements of reaction 424–425 sharing 501–502, 502 simulations 371 skills 4, 102–103 audits 162–164, 163, 164, 186 changing demand for 12 deficiencies 151–152 and economic competitiveness 100 growing supply of 41 HR managers 258 learning programmes 78–83, 79-82 middle- and higher-level 42 planning unit (SPU) 38 practical see practical skills programme checklist 254–255 tests 181 training sustainability 42 skills development committees 51–53 legislation 15–22 Levies Act 46–47 levy distribution 47–49 levy grants 189 levy rationale 47

570

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 570

2018/11/30 1:58 PM

Index

providers accreditation 66–67, 350 statutory bodies 22–25, 22, 23, 24 strategy 6, 7, 13–14 skills gap 140 analysis 162, 467 skills planning process 186–192, 186, 187, 188, role players 190–191 support structure 189 small and medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) 12, 44 social capital 456 social collaboration 278 social learning 117–118, 308 social media 297–298 social skills 133 South African […] see SA spatial intelligence 131, 135 split-brain theory 129–130 stakeholders 464, 465 standards of engagement 477 Sternberg’s three intelligences 132 stokvels see co-operative societies storyboards 285 strategic skills gap analysis 467 strategising 471 summative assessment 363, 364 summative evaluation 401, 403–404, 404, 406–407 supervisor–employee communication 150 support 331 sustainability 462 synchronous e-learning 270 synthesis 219 T tacit knowledge 458–459 talent development matrix (TDM) 185 mobility 9, 10 outsourcing 10 pipeline 42 target groups 317–318 team training 307–308 technical and vocational education and training see TVET technology advancement 8 -based learning/training 241, 242, 305–306 literacy 511 managing changes in 456 templates 288 tests 434 time span of discretion 205, 259 trade unions see unions training environment see learning environment training evaluation see intervention training methods 240–243, 242, 243 transfer of learning 344–345, 416 transformation 45 triage 147 triune brain theory 130–131

571

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 571

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Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations

TVET 4, 37, 43 and NSDS 42 U Umalusi 24 framework 32 understanding 108–109 evidence of 389 unemployment 3 unions 7 unit standards 59–62, 60–61, 64 universities 4, 37 V VACS analysis (valid, authentic, current, sufficient) 390 value 463 -added evaluation 408, 414, 418–419, 419 -added evaluation levels 422 -adding 486, 512 valuing 219 verbal intelligence 131, 135 vertical integration 451 videos 303–304 virtual HR development 292 virtual reality training 242 vision 457 and mission 476 visual intelligence 131, 135 vocational guidance 7, 14, 45 VUCA economy (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) 140, 457 W wage stagnation 8 White Paper on Post-school Education and Training see PSET whiteboards 303 work design 184 work experience 201, 210–211 and job purpose 209–210 work-based learning 200–201 work-integrated learning (WIL) 38 workbooks 245 worker-initiated education and training 7 workplace learning 82–83 e-learning 291 see also outcomes-based workplace learning workplace skills development 44 workplace skills plan 39, 50–51, 162–163, and HR 182–183 information required 164–166 workplace training 5, 38 methods 306–307, 307

572

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