Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese II: Function Words [1 ed.] 9780367548858, 9781003091059

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Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese II

Chinese grammar is characterized by its simple structure, lack of inflections, and wide use of monosyllabic morphemes. With the increasing popularity of learning Chinese as a second language, there is a demand for a guide to Chinese grammar that’s targeted at second language learners. This four-volume set is one of the earliest and most influential works on Chinese grammar, with a special focus on teaching and learning Chinese as a second language. Utilizing their rich teaching experience, the authors analyze a myriad of authentic examples to describe the Chinese grammatical phenomena and rules. This volume introduces the functional words in modern Chinese grammar, which include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, onomatopoeia, and interjections. Since the first edition came out in 1983, this set has been revised twice and has remained one of the best sellers in this topic. Practitioners and scholars of teaching Chinese as a second language, as well as students with a basic knowledge of Chinese, will find it a handy reference. Liu Yuehua (1937–2019) was a distinguished Chinese linguist, winner of the Walton Lifetime Achievement Award of the Chinese Language Teachers Association of USA, a professor at the Beijing Language and Culture University, and a leading author of the well-known Integrated Chinese textbook series. She also taught at Wellesley College, MIT, and Harvard University. Pan Wenyu graduated from Peking University and taught Chinese as a foreign language for more than 50 years. She specialized in Chinese grammar and teaching techniques. Gu Wei (Zhao Shuhua) is a retired professor of the masters of teaching Chinese as a second language, Beijing Language and Culture University. She has authored 20 papers and is the co-author of The Study on Parts of Speech (1996).

China Perspectives

The China Perspectives series focuses on translating and publishing works by leading Chinese scholars, writing about both global topics and China-related themes. It covers Humanities & Social Sciences, Education, Media and Psychology, as well as many interdisciplinary themes. This is the first time any of these books have been published in English for international readers. The series aims to put forward a Chinese perspective, give insights into cutting-edge academic thinking in China, and inspire researchers globally. Titles in linguistics currently include: Research on Functional Grammar of Chinese I Information Structure and Word Ordering Zhang Bojiang and Fang Mei Research on Functional Grammar of Chinese II Reference and Grammatical Category Zhang Bojiang and Fang Mei Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese I Overview and Notional Words Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese II Function Words Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese III Sentence Constituents Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese IV Simple Sentence, Compound Sentence, and Discourse Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/series/CPH

Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese II Function Words

Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei Translated by Yang Huiying The right of Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, and Gu Wei to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. English Version by permission of The Commercial Press. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-54885-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-09105-9 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

1

Prepositions

1

2

Conjunctions

66

3

Auxiliary words

112

4

Onomatopoetic words

191

5

Interjections

197

Bibliography Index

209 211

1

Prepositions

Prepositions belong to function words, mainly consisting of grammaticalized verbs. Due to this, their grammatical features share some similarities with those of verbs. A prepositional phrase is formed by a preposition with a noun (phrase) or a pronoun after it as its object. A prepositional phrase functions as an adverbial, introducing time, location, manner, scope, object of the related action or property. Example 1 我在家等你。[wǒ zài jiā děng nǐ.] (I’ll wait for you at home.) (location.) Example 2 弟弟比我高了。[dì dì bǐ wǒ gāo le.] (Now, my younger brother is taller than me.) (comparison.) Example 3 他们对于提高产品质量很重视。[tā men duì yú tí gāo chǎn pǐn zhì liàng hěn zhòng shì.] (They attach great importance to improving the quality of their products.) (target.) “在家 [zài jiā] (at home)” in Example 1 refers to the location where the action happens; “比我 [bǐ wǒ] (compared to me)” in Example 2 denotes the object in comparison; “对于提高产品质量 [duì yú tí gāo chǎn pǐn zhì liàng] (the quality of their products)” in Example 3 indicates the object of “重视 [zhòng shì] (attach great importance to).”

Section one: classifications of prepositions Despite their small number in Chinese, prepositions have a high frequency of use, with various usages for each one. The commonly used prepositions are introduced as follows: For “space” 1 在 [zài] (at/in) Example 1 老王在北京住了三年了。[Lǎo Wáng zài běi jīng zhù le sān nián le.] (Mr. Wang has lived in Beijing for three years.) (location)

2 Prepositions Example 2 他在钢笔上刻上了自己的名字。[tā zài gāng bǐ shàng kè shàng le zì jǐ de míng zì.] (He carved his own name on the pen.) (location) 2 于 [yú] (in) Example 3 鲁迅生于浙江绍兴。[Lǔ Xùn shēng yú zhè jiāng shào xìng.] (Lu Xun was born in Shaoxing, Zhe jiang Province.) (location) Example 4 这种草药多生长于山地。[zhè zhǒng cǎo yào duō shēng zhǎng yú shān dì.] (Such herbs mostly grow in the mountains.) (location) 3 从 [cóng] (from) Example 5 外婆从农村搬到城市里来了。[wài pó cóng nóng cūn bān dào chéng shì lǐ lái le.] (My grandmother moved from the countryside to the city.) (initial point) Example 6 汽车从大桥上开过去了。[qì chē cóng dà qiáo shàng kāi guò qù le.] (The car passed over the bridge.) (location) 4 自 [zì] (from) Example 7 我们都来自五湖四海。[wǒ men dōu lái zì wǔ hú sì hǎi.] (We come from all corners of the country.) (initial point) Example 8 他这些话都是发自内心的。[tā zhè xiē huà dōu shì fā zì nèi xīn de.] (All that he had said came from the bottom of his heart.) (initial point) 5 打 [dǎ] (from) Example 9 你打哪儿来? [nǐ dǎ nǎ er lái?] (Where are you from?) (initial point) Example 10 他刚打我门前走过去。[tā dǎ wǒ mén qián zǒu guò qù.] (He just walked past my door.) (location) 6 由 [yóu] (from) Example 11 由天津到北京只要两个小时。[yóu tiān jīn dào běi jīng zhǐ yào liǎng gè xiǎo shí.] (It takes only two hours from Tianjin to Beijing.) (initial point) 7 朝 [cháo] (toward) Example 12 李虎朝天上开了两枪。[Lǐ Hǔ cháo tiān shàng kāi le liǎng qiāng.] (Li Hu fired two shots into the sky.) (direction)

Prepositions

3

8 向 [xiàng] (toward) Example 13 向敌人阵地开炮。[xiàng dí rén zhèn dì kāi pào.] (Fire at the enemy’s position.) (direction) Example 14 这条小路通向后花园。[zhè tiáo xiǎo lù tōng xiàng hòu huā yuán.] (This path leads to the back garden.) (direction) 9 往 [wǎng] (toward) Example 15 往西走二百步就到家了。[wǎng xī zǒu èr bǎi bù jiù dào jiā le.] (Walk towards the west for 200 steps and you can get home.) (direction) Example 16 本次列车开往武汉。[běn cì liè chē kāi wǎng wǔ hàn.] (This train is bound for Wuhan.) (direction) 10 沿着 [yán zhe] (along) Example 17 咱们沿着湖边步吧。[zán men yán zhe hú biān sàn bù ba.] (Let’s take a walk along the river.) (route) Example 18 沿着科教兴国的大道奋勇前进。[yán zhe kē jiào xīng guó de dà dào fèn yǒng qián jìn.] (Forge ahead courageously along the road of rejuvenating the country through science.) (route) 11 到 [dào] (to) Example 19 明天,他到上海去办点事。[míng tiān, tā dào shàng hǎi qù bàn diǎn shì.] (He will go to Shanghai on business tomorrow.) (destination) For “time” 12 从 [cóng] (from) Example 20 他们从清早一直干到太阳落山。[tā men cóng qīng chén yī zhí gàn dào tài yáng luò shān.] (They worked from early morning till sunset.) (beginning) Example 21 我们从昨天开始放暑假了。[wǒ men cóng zuó tiān jiù kāi shǐ fàng shǔ jià le.] (Our summer vacation started yesterday.) (beginning) 13 自 [zì] (from) Example 22 图书馆每天自8点开到12点。[tú shū guǎn měi tiān zì bā diǎn kāi dào shí èr diǎn.] (The library is open from 8 to 12.) (beginning)

4 Prepositions Example 23 他自小就喜欢画画儿。[tā zì xiǎo jiù xǐ huān huà huà er.] (He has liked painting from his childhood.) (beginning) 14 自从 [zì cóng] (since) Example 24 自从参加工作到现在已经十年了。[zì cóng cān jiā gōng zuò dào xiàn zài yǐ jīng shí nián le.] (It has been ten years since I took my job.) (beginning) Example 25 自从到中国以后,她的身体好起来了。[zì cóng lái zhōng guó yǐ hòu, tā de shēn tǐ hǎo qǐ lái le.] (Her health has improved since she came to China.) (beginning) 15 由 [yóu] (from) Example 26 本店营业时间:由8点到17点。[běn diàn yíng yè shí jiān: yóu bā diǎn dào shí qī diǎn.] (The shop’s business hours are from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.) (beginning) Example 27 由今天算起,再过十天就过年了。[yóu jīn tiān suàn qǐ, zài guò shí tiān jiù guò nián le.] (From today, New Year’s is in ten days.) (beginning) 16 打 [dǎ] (from) Example 28 游泳池打哪天开的? [yóu yǒng chí dǎ suàn nǎ tiān kāi de?] (When did the swimming pool open?) (beginning) Example 29 打明天起,我每天6点起床。[dǎ míng tiān qǐ, wǒ měi tiān liù diǎn qǐ chuáng.] (From tomorrow, I plan to get up at 6 o’clock everyday.) (beginning) 17 在 [zài] (when) Example 30 人在生病的时候,常常想念亲人。[rén zài shēng bìng de shí hòu, cháng cháng xiǎng niàn qīn rén.] (People always miss their families when they are sick.) (beginning) Example 31 这个工厂是在解放初期办起来的。[zhè gè gōng chǎng shì jiě fàng chū qī bàn qǐ lái de.] (The factory was set up in the early days of liberation.) (beginning) 18 当 [dāng] (when) Example 32 当红日从地平线升起时,紧张的劳动要开始了。[dāng hóng rì cóng dì píng xiàn shēng qǐ shí, jǐn zhāng de láo dòng yào kāi shǐ le.] (When the sun rises above the horizon, the heavy labor is about to begin.) (action time) Example 33 当你遇到困难的时候,一定要鼓起勇气。[dāng nǐ yù dào kùn nán de shí hòu, yī dìng yào gǔ qǐ yǒng qì.] (When you meet with difficulties, you must have courage.) (action time)

Prepositions

5

19 于 [yú] (at) Example 34 运动会将于5月12日举行。[yùn dòng huì jiāng yú wǔ yuè shí èr rì jǔ xíng.] (The sports meeting will be held on May 12th.) (action time) Example 35 这位作家生于1818年。[zhè wèi zuò jiā shēng yú yī bā yī bā nián.] (The writer was born in 1818.) (action time) For “object” 20 对 [duì] (for) Example 36 他对工作是负责的。[tā duì gōng zuò shì fù zé de.] (He is responsible for his work.) (relation object) Example 37 老李对人很热情。[Lǎo Lǐ duì rén hěn rè qíng.] (Mr. Li is very warm to people.) (relation object) 21 对于 [duì yú] (for) Example 38 这种药对于人体是有益无害的。[zhè zhǒng yào duì yú rén tǐ shì yǒu yì wú hài de.] (This medicine is beneficial and harmless to the human body.) (relation object) Example 39 对于具体问题要进行具体分析。[duì yú jù tǐ wèn tí yào jù tǐ fēn xī.] (It is necessary to make a specific analysis for a specific problem.) (relation object) 22 关于 [guān yú] (about) Example 40 关于节约能源的问题,有各种不同的方案。[guān yú jié yuē néng yuán de wèn tí, yǒu gè zhǒng bù tóng de fāng àn.] (There are various schemes for saving energy.) (involved object) Example 41 关于期终考试, 还要研究一次。[guān yú qī zhōng kǎo shì, hái yào yán jiū yī cì.] (With regard to the final exam, we have to discuss it once more.) (involved object) 23 至于 [zhì yú] (as to) Example 42 他们是有一台记录仪,至于它的性能,我不很清楚。[tā men shì yǒu yī tái jì lù yí, zhì yú tā de xìng néng, wǒ bù hěn qīng chǔ.] (They do have a recorder, but as for its performance, I am not very clear about it.) (topic) Example 43 他已决定报考北大, 至于学什么专业, 还没定下来。[tā yǐ jué dìng bào kǎo běi dà, zhì yú xué shén me zhuān yè hái méi dìng xià lái.] (He has decided to apply for Peking University, but as for which major, he has not decided yet.) (topic)

6

Prepositions

24 和 [hé] (with) Example 44 扩建厂房的事我和老王商量过。[kuò jiàn chǎng fáng de shì wǒ hé Lǎo Wáng shāng liàng guò.] (cooperative object) (I have discussed the expansion of the factory with Xiao Wang.) Example 45 这件事和你没关系。[zhè jiàn shì hé nǐ méi guān xì.] (It’s none of your business.) (cooperative object) 25 跟 [gēn] (with) Example 46 她的业务水平跟你差不多。[tā de yè wù shuǐ píng gēn nǐ chà bù duō.] (Her level of business is almost the same as yours.) (cooperative object) Example 47 这件事老王跟我说过了。[zhè jiàn shì Lǎo Wáng gēn wǒ shuō guò le.] (Lao Wang has already told me about it.) (cooperative object) 26 同(与) [tong(yǔ)] (with) Example 48 昨天我同计算机站联系好了, 你把程序送去就行了。[zuó tiān wǒ tóng jì suàn jī zhàn lián xì hǎo le, nǐ bǎ chéng xù sòng guò qù jiù xíng le.] (I got in touch with the computer station yesterday. You just send the program there.) (cooperative object) Example 49 这次春游, 我同你们一道去。[zhè cì chūn yóu, wǒ tóng nǐ men yī dào qù.] (I will go with you on this spring outing.) (cooperative object) 27 为 [wèi] (for) Example 50 为大家出力是应该的。[wèi dà jiā chū lì shì yīng gāi de.] (It is right to exert oneself for others.) (service object) Example 51 老李为国家做出了重大贡献。[Lǎo Lǐ wèi guó jiā zuò chū le zhòng dà gòng xiàn.] (Lao Li has made great contributions to the country.) (service object) 28 给 [gěi] (for) Example 52 请给我开开门。[qǐng gěi wǒ kāi kāi mén.] (Please open the door for me.) (service object) Example 53 我曾给他回过一封信。[wǒ céng gěi tā huí guò yī fēng xìn.] (I once wrote back to him.) (recipient) 29 替 [tì] (for) Example 54 一切手续他都替你办好了。[yī qiè shǒu xù tā dōu tì nǐ bàn hǎo le.] (He has done all the formalities for you.) (service object)

Prepositions

7

Example 55 你见到他时, 替我向他问好。[nǐ jiàn dào tā shí, tì wǒ xiàng tā wèn hǎo.] (Say hello to him for me when you meet him.) (service object) 30 于 [yú] (for) Example 56 科研工作要更好地服务于生产。[kē yán gōng zuò yào gèng hǎo de fú wù yú shēng chǎn.] (relation object) (Scientific research should better serve production.) Example 57 吸烟于身体无益而有害。[xī yān duì yú shēn tǐ wú yì er yǒu hài.] (Smoking is not good but harmful to your health.) (relation object) 31 把 [bǎ] (to) Example 58 把一切献给人民。[bǎ yī qiè xiàn gěi rén mín.] (To devote oneself to the people.) (recipient) Example 59 把孩子们培养成有用的人。[bǎ hái zi men péi yǎng chéng yǒu yòng de rén.] (To develop children to be capable.) (recipient) 32 将 [jiāng] (to) Example 60 将问题交待清楚。[jiāng wèn tí jiāo dài qīng chǔ.] (To explain the problem clearly.) (recipient) Example 61 将化验结果进行了反复的研究。[jiāng huà yàn jié guǒ jìn xíng le fǎn fù de yán jiū.] (The test results have been studied repeatedly.) (recipient) 33 叫(让) [jiào(ràng)] (make) Example 62 录首机叫(让)小王弄坏了。[lù yīn jī jiào (ràng) Xiǎo Wáng nòng huài le.] (The recorder was broken by Xiao Wang.) (doer) Example 63 他让人请去作报告了。[tā ràng rén qǐng qù zuò bào gào le.] (He was invited to make a report.) (doer) 34 被 [bèi] (by) Example 64 你的自行车被谁骑走了?[nǐ de zì xíng chē bèi shuí qí zǒu le?] (Who took your bike away?) (doer) Example 65 他们的秘密被发现了。[tā men de mì mì bèi fā xiàn le.] (Their secret was discovered.) (doer) 35 比 [bǐ] (compared) Example 66 姐姐比妹妹胖一点儿。[jiě jiě bǐ mèi mèi pàng yī diǎn er.] (The elder sister is a little fatter than the younger sister.) (object of comparison)

8 Prepositions Example 67 他的发音比以前好多了。[tā de fā yīn bǐ yǐ qián hǎo duō le.] (His pronunciation is much better than before.) (object of comparison) 36 朝 [cháo] (from) Example 68 我朝他借了两本小说。[wǒ cháo tā jiè le liǎng běn xiǎo shuō.] (I borrowed two novels from him.) (action object) 37 向 [xiàng] (for) Example 69 他向我表示祝贺。[tā xiàng wǒ biǎo shì zhù hè.] (He congratulated me.) (recipient) Example 70 你经常向别人借钱。[nǐ jīng cháng xiàng bié rén jiè qián.] (You often borrow money from others.) (action object) For “basis” 38 按 [àn] (according to) Example 71 按制度办事。[àn zhì dù bàn shì.] (Act according to the regulations.) (standard) Example 72 按高矮个儿排队。[àn gāo ǎi gè er pái duì.] (Line up by height.) (standard) 39 按照 [àn zhào] (according to) Example 73 按照上级的规定, 只能这样做。[àn zhào shàng jí de guī dìng, zhǐ néng zhè yàng zuò.] (In accordance with the regulations of the superiors, we can only do it in this way.) (standard) Example 74 按照客观规律, 制定方针政策。[àn zhào kè guān guī lǜ, zhì dìng fāng zhēn zhèng cè.] (To formulate principles and policies according to objective laws.) (standard) 40 依 [yī] (according to) Example 75 依当地风俗习惯, 除夕晚上都要守岁。[yī dāng dì fēng sú xí guàn, chú xī wǎn shàng dōu yào shǒu suì.] (According to the local customs, people stay up late all night on New Year’s Eve.) (standard) Example 76 依我看, 大家的水平都不低。[yī wǒ kàn, dà jiā de shuǐ píng dōu bù dī.] (In my opinion, everyone is qualified.) (standard) 41 依照 [yī zhào] (according to) Example 77 依照常规办事, 绝不会出问题。[yī zhào cháng guī bàn shì, jué bú huì chū wèn tí.] (If you act according to the rules, there won’t be any problems.) (standard)

Prepositions

9

Example 78 依照原件复制一份。[yī zhào yuán jiàn fù zhì yī fèn.] (To make a copy of the original one.) (standard) 42 照 [zhào] (according to) Example 79 照这种管理办法进行管理, 产品就能保证质量。[zhào zhè zhǒng guǎn lǐ bàn fǎ jìn xíng guǎn lǐ, chǎn pǐn jiù néng bǎo zhèng zhì liàng.] (According to management of this kind, the quality of the product can be guaranteed.) (standard) Example 80 她这件衣服是照这个样子做的。[tā zhè jiàn yī fu shì zhào zhè gè yàng zi zuò de.] (Her dress is made in this way.) (standard) 43 据 [jù] (according to) Example 81 据天气预报说, 明天有大风。[jù tiān qì yù bào shuō, míng tiān yǒu dà fēng.] (According to the weather forecast, there will be a strong wind tomorrow.) (premise) Example 82 据报道, 今年农业又获得丰收。[jù bào dào, jīn nián nóng yè yòu huò dé fēng shōu.] (According to the report, there has been another good harvest this year.) (premise) 44 根据 [gēn jù] (on the basis of) Example 83 根据统计材料可以得出这个结论。[gēn jù tǒng jì cái liào kě yǐ dé chū zhè gè jié lùn.] (This conclusion can be drawn from the statistical materials.) (premise) Example 84 根据群众要求, 工会将组织春游。[gēn jù qún zhòng yāo qiú, gōng huì jiāng zǔ zhī chūn yóu.] (According to the workers’ request, the trade union will organize a spring outing.) (premise) 45 以 [yǐ] (depending on) Example 85 以革命者的姿态克服了种种困难。[yǐ gé mìng zhě de zī tài kè fú le zhǒng zhǒng kùn nán.] (The difficulties should be overcome in the revolutionary manner.) (basis) Example 86 这里以瓷器为最有名。[zhè lǐ yǐ cí qì wéi zuì yǒu míng.] (It is famous for porcelain here.) (reason) Example 87 九大行星以太阳为中心。[jiǔ dà xíng xīng yǐ tài yáng wéi zhōng xīn.] (The nine planets are centered around the sun.) (serve as) 46 凭 [ping] (depending on) Example 88 只凭主观愿望办事往往会犯错误。[zhǐ píng zhǔ guān yuàn wàng bàn shì wǎng wǎng huì fàn cuò wù.] (Acting on one’s will simply leads to making mistakes.) (basis)

10

Prepositions Example 89 要凭证据下结论。[yào píng zhèng jù xià jié lùn.] (Conclusion should be drawn on the basis of evidence.) (basis)

47 论 [lùn] (by) Example 90 香烟都论包卖, 不零卖。[xiāng yān dōu lùn bāo mài, bù líng mài.] (Cigarettes are sold by package, not by retail.) (in terms of) Example 91 论学习, 你比他好, 论身体, 他比你强。[lùn xué xí, nǐ bǐ tā hǎo, lùn shēn tǐ, tā bǐ nǐ qiáng.] (Your grades are better than his, but he is stronger than you in health.) (in terms of) For “reason” 48 由于 [yóu yú] (because of) Example 92 由于计划的变动, 某些设计需要修改。[yóu yú jì huà de biàn dòng, mǒu xiē shè jì xū yào xiū gǎi.] (Due to the change of plans, some designs need to be modified.) (reason) Example 93 他没回答上来是由于没听懂你的问题。[tā méi huí dá shàng lái shì yóu yú méi tīng dǒng nǐ de wèn tí.] (He failed to answer your question due to his incomprehension.) (reason) 49 为 [wèi] (for) Example 94 大家都为他的精彩表演热烈鼓掌。[dà jiā dōu wèi tā de jīng cǎi biǎo yǎn rè liè gǔ zhǎng.] (Everyone applaud his wonderful performance warmly.) (reason) Example 95 为帮助后进学生, 老师经常早来晚走。[wèi bāng zhù hòu jìn xué shēng, lǎo shī jīng cháng zǎo lái wǎn zǒu.] (In order to help students who are behind, the teacher often comes early and leaves late.) (purpose) 50 为了 [wèi le] (for/to/in order to) Example 96 为了加强两国人民的友谊, 我要努力工作。[wèi le jiā qiáng liǎng guó rén mín de yǒu yì, wǒ yào nǔ lì gōng zuò.] (In order to strengthen the friendship between two nations, I must work hard.) (for purpose) Example 97 为了加速四化, 应该大力培养人才。[wèi le jiā sù sì huà, yīng gāi dà lì péi yǎng rén cái.] (In order to speed up the four modernizations, great efforts should be made to train the talent.) (for purpose) 51 为着 [wèi zhe] (for) Example 98 为着新一代的健康成长, 园丁们付出了全部精力。[wèi zhe xīn yī dài de jiàn kāng chéng zhǎng, yuán dīng men fù chū le quán bù jīng lì.]

Prepositions

11

(The teachers have devoted themselves to the healthy growth of the new generation.) (reason) For “other aspects” 52 连 [lián] (along with) Example 99 连盒子一起都拿走吧。[lián hé zi yī qǐ dōu ná zǒu ba.] (Take the box away with you.) (focus) Example 100 这次洪水连输电塔都给冲坏了。[zhè cì hóng shuǐ lián shū shuǐ tǎ dōu gěi chōng huài le.] (Even the transmission tower was damaged by the flood.) (focus) 53 除了(…以外) [chú le(…yǐ wài)] (except) Example 101 这儿除了咱们俩,没有别人。[zhè er chú le zán men liǎ, méi yǒu bié rén.] (There’s nobody but us.) (excluding) Example 102 他除了教书, 还搞研究工作。[tā chú le jiāo shū, hái gǎo yán jiū gōng zuò.] (In addition to teaching, he is also engaged in research.) (excluding) 54 趁 [chèn] (take advantage of) Example 103 趁农闲, 搞点副业。[chèn nóng xián, gǎo diǎn fù yè.] (Take advantage of the off season to do some side work.) (chance) Example 104 趁实习的机会,他们收集了许多标本。[chèn shí xí de jī huì, tā men shōu jí le xǔ duō biāo běn.] (They took advantage of the internship to collect many specimens.) (chance)

Section two: grammatical features of prepositions and prepositional phrases I. Grammatical features of prepositions Some prepositions of modern Chinese continue to follow those in ancient Chinese, such as “于 [yú] (from),” “以 [yǐ] (from),” “自 [zì] (from);” some developed from those verbs of ancient Chinese, such as “把 [bǎ],” “被 [bèi].” Besides, some, even though they mainly function like prepositions, still keep themselves as verbs in some way. Thus they belong to multiple categories of prepositions and verbs, such as “在 [zài] (at),” “朝 [cháo] (toward),” “向 [xiàng] (toward),” “往 [wǎng] (toward),” “顺 [shùn] (along with),” “随着 [suí zhe] (along with),” “对 [duì] (toward),” “为 [wèi] (for),” “跟 [gēn] (with).” Example 1 小明不在家。[Xiǎo Míng bú zài jiā.] (Xiao Ming is not at home.) (verb) 书在桌子上放着。[shū zài zhuō zi shàng fàng zhe.]

12 Prepositions (The book is on the desk.) (preposition) Example 2 我家的大门朝南。[wǒ jiā de dà mén cháo nán.] (My front door faces south.) (verb) 妈妈朝我笑着点了点头。[mā mā cháo wǒ xiào zhe diǎn le diǎn tóu.] (My mother nodded to me with a smile.) (preposition) Example 3 病人给大夫医疗费。[bìng rén gěi dài fū yī liáo fèi.] (The patient pays the doctor for medical treatment.) (verb) 大夫给病人打针。[dài fū gěi bìng rén dǎ zhēn.] (The doctor gave the patient an injection.) (preposition) Since there exists a very close relationship between a preposition and a verb, the introduction to grammatical features of prepositions is focused on their differences. 1

2

3

As a function word, a preposition cannot stand alone in a sentence. Since they belong to function words, prepositions cannot function alone as a subject or an object. The expressions, like “*他对于 [tā duì yú],” “*小明把 [xiǎo míng bǎ],” “*阿里从 [ā lǐ cóng]” are improper. However, if a question like “你在图书馆学习吗? [nǐ zài tú shū guǎn xué xí ma?] (Are you learning in the library?)” is posed, the answer to it can be “在 [zài] (Yes.).” The same is true to the question “你跟他一起走吗? [nǐ gēn tā yī qǐ zǒu ma?] (Are you going to leave with him?)” and the answer “跟 [gēn] (Yes.).” Even so, most prepositions cannot function like this. For Example, “*从 [cóng] (from)” is not an improper answer to the question “这本书从图书馆借的吗? [zhè běn shū cóng tú shū guǎn jiè de ma?] (Did you borrow this book from the library?).” Prepositions can be neither overlapped nor followed by dynamic auxiliaries, such as “了 [le],” “着 [zhe],” “过 [guò].” Some prepositions possess several forms, such as “为 [wèi] (for)” and “为着 [wèi zhe] (for)/为了 [wèi le] (for),” “沿 [yán] (along)” and “沿着 [yán zhe] (along).” “朝 [cháo] (toward)” and “朝着 [cháo zhe] (toward),” “向 [xiàng] (toward)” and “向着 [xiàng zhe] (toward),” “随 [suí] (along with)” and “随着 [suí zhe] (along with),” “除 [chú] (except for)” and “除了 [chú le] (except for).” Actually, “了 [le]” and “着 [zhe]” in them are optional without changing the meaning or using the original forms. Thus it can be seen that “了 [le]” and “着 [zhe]” are not dynamic auxiliaries but the inherent constituents. A preposition requires an additional nominal constituent as its object, to form a preposition-object phrase. This nominal constituent can usually be noun (phrase), pronoun, adjective (phrase), verb (phrase), or subject-predicate phrase. Example 4 学生对老师很尊敬。[xué shēng duì lǎo shī hěn zūn jìng.] (The students show great respect to their teachers.) (noun) Example 5 老师对我们的学习和生活很关心。[lǎo shī duì wǒ men de xué xí hé shēng huó hěn guān xīn.] (The teacher is very concerned about our studies and life.) (noun phrase)

Prepositions

13

Example 6 班主任谢老师比我更了解这个学生的情况。[bān zhǔ rèn xiè lǎo shī bǐ wǒ gèng liǎo jiě zhè gè xué shēng de qíng kuàng.] (The head teacher, Prof. Zhang, knows more about the student than I do.) (pronoun) Example 7 晚霞已由橘红渐渐变成暗红。夜幕, 已悄悄由天边撒了过来。 [wǎn xiá yǐ yóu jú hóng jiàn jiàn biàn chéng àn hóng. yè mù, yǐ qiāo qiāo yóu tiān biān sǎ le guò lái.] (The sunset glow has gradually turned from orange to dark. The night has gradually spread over the sky.) (adjective) Example 8 老人骑车, 慢一点比快一点好。[lǎo rén qí chē, màn yī diǎn bǐ kuài yī diǎn hǎo.] (It is better for old men to be a little slower than a little faster in riding a bike.) (adjective phrase) Example 9 关于怎么样学好汉语, 阿里谈了自己的经验。[guān yú zěn me yàng xué hǎo hàn yǔ, Ā Lǐ tán le zì jǐ de jīng yàn.] (About how to learn Chinese well, A Li talked about his own experience.) (verb phrase) Example 10 人们都在为工程早日完成而努力工作。[rén men dōu zài wèi gōng chéng zǎo rì wán chéng ér nǔ lì gōng zuò.] (People are working hard for the early completion of the project.) (subjectpredicate phrase) II. Grammatical functions of prepositional phrases 1

As adverbials

A prepositional phrase mainly functions as an adverbial. Example 11 我的一个老同学从上海来了。[wǒ de yī gè lǎo tóng xué cóng shàng hǎi lái le.] (An old classmate of mine came from Shanghai.) (location) Example 12 他对我们的学习很关心。[tā duì wǒ men de xué xí hěn guān xīn.] (He is very concerned about our study.) (target) Example 13 随着晚风, 隐约飘来一阵美妙的乐曲声。[suí zhe wǎn fēng, yǐn yuē piāo lái yī zhèn měi miào de yuè qǔ shēng.] (Along with the evening wind came a faint but pleasant sound of music.) (an accompanying act or thing.) Example 14 为了幸福的明天, 人们都在努力地工作。[wèi le xìng fú de míng tiān, rén men dōu zài nǔ lì de gōng zuò.] (People are working hard for a happy future.) (purpose) Example 15 将来比现在更美好。[jiāng lái bǐ xiàn zài gèng měi hǎo.] (The future will be better than the present.) (target)

14

Prepositions

2

As attributes There requires a “的 [de]” between the prepositional phrase and its keyword. Example 16 人们对月球的研究, 以后还会不停地继续下去。[rén men duì yuè qiú de yán jiū, yǐ hòu hái huì bù tíng de jì xù xià qù.] (The research on the moon will go on and on.) Example 17 古时候流传着不少关于这位诗人的故事。[gǔ shí hòu liú chuán zhe bù shǎo guān yú zhè wèi shī rén de gù shì.] (There were many stories about the poet in ancient times.) Example 18 这些沿街的小商亭都是为了方便群众而设立的。[zhè xiē yán jiē de xiǎo shāng tíng dōu shì wèi le fāng biàn qún zhòng ér shè lì de.] (These small shops along the street were set up for the convenience of people.) Example 19 在向四个现代化的进军中, 李四光是中国科技工作者学习的 榜样。[zài xiàng sì gè xiàn dài huà de jìn jūn zhōng, Lǐ Sì guāng shì zhōng guó kē jì gōng zuò zhě xué xí de bǎng yang.] (In the march to four modernizations, Li Siguang is an example for Chinese science and technology workers to follow.)

3

As complements

Only several prepositions can function as complement, such as “于 [yú] (from),” “向 [xiàng] (toward),” “自 [zì] (from),” “往 [wǎng] (to),” Example 20 鲁迅生于1881年。[Lǔ Xùn shēng yú 1881 nián.] (Lu Xun was born in 1881.) Example 21 我们从胜利走向胜利。[wǒ men cóng shèng lì zǒu xiàng shèng lì.] (We advance from victory to victory.) Example 22 约翰来自美国南部的一个城市。[Yuē Hàn lái zì měi guó nán bù de gè chéng shì.] (John comes from a city in the American south.) Example 23 这趟火车是开往上海方向的。[zhè tàng huǒ chē shì kāi wǎng shàng hǎi fāng xiàng de.] (The train is bound for Shanghai.) 4

As objects

When functioning as the object of “为了. . . [wéi le] (for),” a prepositional phrase often appears in the “是 [shì]” sentence. Example 24 他这次来不仅仅是为了工作, 也是为了你。[tā zhè cì lái bù jǐn jǐn shì wèi le gōng zuò, yě shì wèi le nǐ.] (He came here not only for work, but also for you.)

Prepositions 5

15

As subjects Example 25 从8:00到12:00是工作时间。[cóng 8: 00 dào 12: 00 shì gōng zuò shí jiān.] (Working hours are from 8:00 to 12:00.) Example 26 村子从南到北有一条河。[cūn zi cóng nán dào běi yǒu yī tiáo hé.] (There is a river in the village running from south to north.)

Section three: usage of commonly used prepositions I. 从 [cóng] (from) 1

To indicate spatial beginning

(1) “从 [cóng] (from)” indicates spatial beginning, usually followed by a word denoting location or direction. Example 1 他姐姐从英国来了。[tā jiě jiě cóng yīng guó lái le.] (His sister came from England.) Example 2 下课铃响了, 学生都从自己的座位上站起来了。[xià kè líng xiǎng le, xué shēng dōu cóng zì jǐ de zuò wèi shàng zhàn qǐ lái le.] (The bell rang and the students rose from their seats.) Example 3 明天大家先到我家集合, 从我这儿走比较近。[míng tiān dà jiā xiān dào wǒ jiā jí hé, cóng wǒ zhè er zǒu bǐ jiào jìn.] (We will gather at my house tomorrow due to its being a shorter distance away from here.) Example 4 不论做什么事, 都要从实际出发。[bú lùn zuò shén me shì, dōu yào cóng shí jì chū fā.] (Be realistic in everything you do.) (an abstract location.) Example 5 他一边说一边从口袋里掏出一个小瓶子。[tā yī biān shuō yī biān cóng kǒu dài lǐ tāo chū yī gè xiǎo píng zi.] (As he spoke, he pulled out a small bottle from his pocket.) Example 6 他从秘书那里取来了陈伊玲的报名单 . . . [tā cóng mì shū nà lǐ qǔ lái le Chén Yī líng de bào míng dān . . .] (He took Chen Yiling’s application form from the secretary . . .) There is one thing to be noticed. A locative “里 [lǐ]” is required to follow “口袋 [kǒu dài] (pocket)” in Example 5 and “秘书 [mì shū] (secretary)” in Example 6. (2) “从 [cóng] (from)” indicates temporal beginning, usually followed by a word denoting position in time. Example 7 我们从5月1日开始改用夏季作息时间。[wǒ men cóng wǔ yuè yī rì kāi shǐ gǎi yòng xià jì zuò xī shí jiān.] (We switch to a summer schedule on May 1st.)

16

Prepositions Example 8 她从昨天下午开始就有点不舒服。[tā cóng zuó tiān xià wǔ kāi shǐ jiù yǒu diǎn bù shū fu.] (She hasn’t felt well since yesterday afternoon.) Example 9 从找到大庆油田以后, 中国石油工业很快发展起来了。 [cóng zhǎo dào dà qìng yóu tián yǐ hòu, zhōng guó shí yóu gōng yè hěn kuài fā zhǎn qǐ lái le.] (Since the discovery of Daqing Oilfield, China’s oil industry has developed quickly.) Example 10 这个故事要从四年前初春的一个星期天说起。[zhè gè gù shì yào cóng sì nián qián chū chūn de yí gè xīng qī tiān shuō qǐ.] (The story began on a Sunday in the early spring four years ago.) Example 11 从30年代起他写了很多重要论文, 成了国际上有名的地质学 家。[cóng sān shí nián dài qǐ tā xiě le hěn duō zhòng yào lùn wén, chéng le guó jì shàng yǒu míng de dì zhì xúe jiā.] (Since the 1930s, he has written many important papers and become a worldrenown geologist.)

(3) “从 [cóng] (from)” indicates a beginning of occurrence or development involved. Example 12 小刚从一个不懂事的孩子成长为大学生了。[Xiǎo Gāng cóng yī gè bù dǒng shì de hái zi chéng zhǎng wéi dà xué shēng le.] (Xiao Gang has grown up into a college student from an ignorant child.) Example 13 春节过后, 大地渐渐从沉睡中苏醒过来。[chūn jié guò hòu, dà dì jiàn jiàn cóng chén shuì zhōng sū xǐng guò lái.] (After the Spring Festival, the earth gradually woke up from its deep sleep.) Example 14 我们应该深刻地注意解决群众生活的问题, 从土地、劳动问 题, 到柴米油盐问题。[wǒ men yīng gāi shēn kè de zhù yì jiě jué qún zhòng shēng huó de wèn tí, cóng tǔ dì, láo dòng wèn tí, dào chái mǐ yóu yán wèn tí.] (We should pay deep attention to solving the problems of people’s life, including those about land, labor, and daily necessities.) Example 15 这儿的伙食办得不错, 从采购到做饭全由她一个人包了, 又 便宜又好吃。[zhè er de huǒ shí bàn de bú cuò, cóng cǎi gòu dào zuò fàn quán yóu tā yī gè rén bāo le, yòu pián yi yòu hǎo chī.] (She did well in arranging the meals here. She did the purchasing and cooking by herself, thus the food was inexpensive and delicious here.) In the previous examples, “一个不懂事的孩子 [yī gè bú dǒng shì de hái zi] (an ignorant child)” is the beginning of Xiao Gang’s growing up; “沉睡 [chén shuì] (deep sleep)” is the beginning of “大地苏醒过来 [dà dì sū xǐng guò lái] (the earth gradually woke up from its deep sleep);” and “采购 [cǎi gòu] (purchasing)” is the beginning of her series of creating meals.

Prepositions 2

17

To indicate location or route Example 16 这儿有一条小路, 狼也许从小路逃走了。[zhè er yǒu yī tiáo xiǎo lù, láng yě xǔ cóng xiǎo lù táo zǒu le.] (There is a path, by which the wolf may have escaped.) Example 17 晏子对卫兵说：只有到狗国去的人, 才从狗洞进去。[yàn zi duì wèi bīng shuō: zhǐ yǒu dào gǒu guó qù de rén, cái cóng gǒu dòng jìn qù.] (Yan Zi said to the guards: only those who go to the dog country have to enter through the dog hole.) Example 18 这里树木遮天蔽日, 阳光从树缝中射进来, 像一条光彩夺目 的金棒儿。[zhè lǐ shù mù zhē tiān bì rì, yáng guāng cóng shù fèng zhōng shè jìn lái, xiàng yī tiáo guāng cǎi duó mù de jīn bàng er.] (Under the canopy of thick trees, the sunlight filters through the cracks among the trees, like glamorous golden sticks.) Example 19 我从这里路过, 看到这个少年躺在地上动不了了。[wǒ cóng zhè lǐ lù guò, kàn dào zhè gè shào nián tǎng zài dì shàng dòng bú liǎo le.] (I passed by and saw the boy lying on the ground and still.)

3

To indicate source Example 20 山洞里的二氧化碳是从哪儿来的呢？[shān dòng lǐ de èr yǎng huà tàn shì cóng nǎ er lái de ne.] (Where did the carbon dioxide in the cave come from?) Example 21 我们现在用的“推敲”这个词, 就是从这个故事来的。[wǒ mēn xiàn zài yòng de “tuī qiāo” zhè gè cí, jiù shì cóng zhè gè gù shì lái de.] (The word “推敲” we use now comes from this story.) Example 22 从生活中找语言, 语言就有了根。[cóng shēng huó zhōng zhǎo yǔ yán, yǔ yán jiù yǒu le gēn.] (The language comes from the life where the language itself roots.) Example 23 汉语的各种方言都是从古代汉语演变分化出来的。[hàn yǔ de gè zhǒng fāng yán dōu shì cóng gǔ dài hàn yǔ yǎn biàn fēn huà chū lái de.] (The various dialects of Chinese have evolved and differentiated from ancient Chinese.)

4

To indicate evidence

“从 [cóng] (from)” indicates evidence, mainly followed by the word denoting an abstracting meaning as its object. The verbs that often carry a cognitive sense function as predicate, such as “看 [kàn] (look),” “认识 [rèn shí] (know),” “体会 [tǐ huì] (experience),” “知道 [zhī dào] (know),” “明白 [míng bái] (understand),” “懂得 [dǒng dé] (understand),” “感到 [gǎn dào] (feel),” “感觉 [gǎn jué] (feel).”

18 Prepositions Example 24 从这件小事, 我们深深体会到他对青年人的关怀和爱护。 [cóng zhè jiàn xiǎo shì, wǒ men shēn shēn tǐ huì dào tā duì qīng nián rén de guān huái hé ài hù.] (From this unimportant matter, we are deeply aware of his care and love for young people.) Example 25 从他的脸色分明看得出来他病了。[cóng tā de liǎn sè fēn míng kàn de chū lái tā bìng le.] (It can be seen clearly from his face that he was ill.) Example 26 从孩子嘴里知道, 他姐姐是个转业军人, 从文工团回来的。 [cóng hái zi zuǐ lǐ zhī dào, tā jiě jiě shì gè zhuǎn yè jūn rén, cóng wén gōng tuán huí lái de.] (It is said by that child that his sister is a demobilized soldier of the art troupe.) Example 27 他虽然年轻, 但从他那沉着冷静的眼神中可以看出他是一 个头脑清醒、心理素质良好的小伙子, 只要精心培养将来必成大器。 [tā suī rán nián qīng, dàn cóng tā nà chén zhuó lěng jìng de yǎn shén zhōng kě yǐ kàn chū tā shì yí gè tóu nǎo qīng xǐng, xīn lǐ sù zhì liáng hǎo de xiǎo huǒ zi, zhǐ yào jīng xīn péi yǎng, jiāng lái bì chéng dà qì.] (Although he is young, it can be seen from his calm eyes that he is a boy with a clear mind and good psychological quality. As long as he is carefully trained, he will become a great person in the future.) Example 28 从阅读文学名著中, 我明白了一些运用语言的规则。[cóng yuè dú wén xúe míng zhù zhōng, wǒ míng bái le yì xiē yùn yòng yǔ yán de guī zé.] (From reading literary masterpieces, I understand some rules of using language.) 5

To form frequently used structures

Combined with other words, “从 [cóng] (from)” can form some frequently used structures, such as “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào] (from . . . to),” “从 . . . 起 [cóng . . . qǐ] (to start off with . . .),” “从 . . . 以来 [cóng . . . yǐ lái] (since),” “从 . . . 往 . . . [cóng . . . wǎng] (from . . . to),” “从 . . . 来说 [cóng . . . lái shuō] (for),” “从 . . . 来看[cóng . . . lái kàn] (for).” (1) 从 . . . 到. . . . [cóng . . . dào] (from . . . to) “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .]” not only means from the beginning to the end in time or location, but also indicates the person or the quantity involved. “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .]” can function as an adverbial. Example 29 春天像刚落地的娃娃, 从头到脚都是新的, 它生长着。 [chūn tiān xiàng gāng luò dì de wá wa, cóng tóu dào jiǎo dōu shì xīn de, tā shēng zhǎng zhe.] (Spring is like a newly born baby, fresh and totally energetic.) Example 30 我国的建筑, 从古代的宫殿到近代的一般住房, 绝大部分是 对称的, 左边怎么样, 右边也怎么样。[wǒ guó de jiàn zhù, cóng gǔ dài de gōng diàn dào xiàn dài de yì bān zhù fáng, jué dà bù fèn shì duì chèn de, zuǒ biān zěn me yàng, yòu biān yě zěn me yàng.]

Prepositions

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(Most of the buildings in China, from ancient palaces to modern houses, are symmetrical.) Example 31 这些瓷雕, 从构思到情态, 都是在他厚实的生活根基上创造 出来的好作品。[zhè xiē cí diāo, cóng gòu sī dào qíng tài, dōu shì zài tā hòu shí de shēng huó gēn jī shàng chuàng zào chū lái de hǎo zuò pǐn.] (The porcelain carvings, including their conceptions and spirits, are created based on his rich experience of life.) Example 32 第二天, 有人问起, 他又把这档事从头到尾学说了一遍, 有声 有色。[dì èr tiān, yǒu rén wèn qǐ, tā yòu bǎ zhè dàng shì cóng tóu dào wěi xué shuō le yī biàn, yǒu shēng yǒu sè.] (The next day, he repeated this matter vividly from the beginning to the end when someone asked.) Example 33 那天, 从天亮到清晨, 全城的爆竹声不绝于耳。[nà tiān, cóng tiān liàng dào qīng chén, quán chéng de bào zhú shēng bù jué yú ěr.] (That day, the sound of firecrackers was heard all over the city from the daybreak to the early morning.) “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .] (from . . . to . . .)” can function as a predicate. Example 34 海风, 从八级到九级, 又从九级到十级。[hǎi fēng, cóng bā jí dào jiǔ jí, yòu cóng jiǔ jí dào shí jí.] (The sea breeze gets stronger and stronger, from level eight to level nine, and then from level nine to level ten.) Example 35 北京的工业从无到有, 从小到大。[běi jīng de gōng yè cóng wú dào yǒu, cóng xiǎo dào dà.] (The industries in Beijing have developed from small to big since they first appeared there.) Example 36 沙丘的高度一般从几米到几十米, 也有高达一百米以上的。 [shā qiū de gāo dù yī bān cóng jǐ mǐ dào jǐ shí mǐ, yě yǒu gāo dá yī bǎi mǐ yǐ shàng de.] (The height of sand dunes usually ranges from several meters to tens of meters, and some are as high as 100 meters.) “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .] (from . . . to . . .)” can function as subject. Example 37 从开花到果子成熟, 大约得3个月 . . . [cóng kāi huā dào guǒ zi chéng shú, dà yuē děi sān gè yuè . . .] (It takes about three months from flowering to ripening.) Example 38 从居庸关到呼和浩特大约有一千多公里的路程。[cóng jū yōng guān dào hū hé hào tè dà yuē yǒu yī qiān duō gōng lǐ de lù chéng.] (It is about a thousand kilometers from Juyong Guan to Hohhot.) Usually, “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .] (from . . . to . . .)” can function as object in the “是 [shì]” sentence.

20 Prepositions Example 39 搞经济, 搞文化, 哪一件不是从不会到会, 从一无所知, 到知 之不多, 这是一个不断转化的过程。[gǎo jīng jì, gǎo wén huà, nǎ yī jiàn bú shì cóng bú huì dào huì, cóng yī wú suǒ zhī, dào zhī zhī bù duō, zhè shì yī gè bú duàn zhuǎn huà de guò chéng.] (Economic and cultural development is a developing process of transformation, from unknowing to knowing.) Example 40 这条高速公路是从三元桥到首都国际机场, 全长15公里。 [zhè tiáo gāo sù gōng lù shì cóng sān yuán qiáo dào shǒu dōu guó jì jī chǎng, quán cháng shí wǔ gōng lǐ.] (The highway is from San Yuan Bridge to Beijing Capital International Airport, with a total length of 15 kilometers.) “从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .] (from . . . to . . .)” can function as attribute. Example 41 从省委到各地、市、县委, 到各部门的负责同志都有计划地 下去蹲点。[cóng shěng wěi dào gè dì, shì, xiàn weǐ, dào gè bù mén de fù zé tóng zhì dōu yǒu jì huà de xià qù dūn diǎn.] (From the provincial Party committee to those of different region, city, county, and department levels, all the comrades in charge have been well structured for the countryside investigation.) Example 42 过去, 它年年都牵动着从市领导到老百姓的心。[guò qù, tā nián nián dōu qiān dòng zhe cóng shì lǐng dǎo dào lǎo bǎi xìng de xīn.] (In the past, it attracted the concern of people from city leaders to ordinary people every year.) Example 43 中国茶叶的发展经历了从药用到饮用, 从野生到种植的漫长 过程。[zhōng guó chá yè de fā zhǎn jīng lì le cóng yào yòng dào yǐn yòng, cóng yě shēng dào zhòng zhí de màn cháng guò chéng.] (The development of Chinese tea has gone through a long history, from medicinal to drinking, from wild to planting.) Example 44 从北京到张家口的铁路长二百公里, 是连接华北和西北的交 通要道。[cóng běi jīng dào zhāng jiā kǒu de tiě lù cháng èr bǎi gōng lǐ, shì lián jiē huá běi hé xī běi de jiāo tōng yào dào.] (The railway of two hundred kilometers from Beijing to Zhangjiakou is the key line connecting North China and Northwest China.) (2) 从 . . . 起 . . . [cóng . . . qǐ] (since) Standing at the beginning of the sentence, “从 . . . 起 . . . [cóng . . . qǐ] (since)” often functions as an adverbial to indicate time, similar to “从 . . . 开始 [cóng . . . kāi shǐ] (to start off with . . .).” Example 45 每个人从学迈第一步起, 便一直小心翼翼。[měi gè rén cóng xué mài dì yī bù qǐ, biàn yī zhí xiǎo xīn yì yì.] (Everyone has to be careful for their whole lives since their first steps are taken.)

Prepositions

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Example 46 从今天起, 我就要在中国学习、生活了。[cóng jīn tiān qǐ, wǒ jiù yào zài zhōng guó xué xí, shēng huó le.] (From now on, I’m going to study and live in China.) Example 47 但是从那时候起, 每逢春节, 我就想起那盏小橘灯。[dàn shì cóng nà shí hou qǐ, měi féng chūn jié, wǒ jiù xiǎng qǐ nà zhǎn xiǎo jú dēng.] (But from then on, I would think of that little orange lamp every Spring Festival.) Example 48 从三十年代起, 他写了很多重要论文, 成了国际上有名的地 质学家。[cóng sān shí nián dài qǐ tā xiě le hěn duō zhòng yào lùn wén, chéng le guó jì shàng yǒu míng de dì zhì xúe jiā.] (Since the 1930s, he has written many important papers and become a famous geologist in the world.) Example 49 从大年初一起, 珍珠灯塔就挂在铺中最显眼的地方, 用以招 揽顾客。[cóng dà nián chū yī qǐ, zhēn zhū dēng tǎ jiù guà zài pù zhōng zuì xiǎn yǎn de dì fang, yòng yǐ zhāo lǎn gù kè.] (Since the beginning of the new year, the pearl beacon has been hung at the most prominent place in the shop to attract customers.) Sometimes, there could be a verb-object phrase or subject-predicate phrase in the middle of “从 . . . 起 . . . [cóng . . . qǐ] (since),” denoting the beginning of time or action. The predicate verbs of the phrase can be “说[shuō] (say),” “找 [zhǎo] (seek),” “学 [xué] (learn),” “算 [suàn] (calculate)” and often stand just before “起 [qǐ] (from).” Example 50 从我上小学算起, 我已经学习十几年了。[cóng wǒ shàng xiǎo xué suàn qǐ, wǒ yǐ jīng xué xí shí jǐ nián le.] (I have been learning for more than ten years since I went to primary school.) Example 51 事情还得从他们结婚时说起。[shì qíng hái děi cóng tā men jié hūn shí shuō qǐ.] (It all started since they got married.) Example 52 学习外语, 一般都是从发音学起。[xué xí wài yǔ, yī bān dōu shì cóng fā yīn xué qǐ.] (Learning a foreign language usually starts from learning how to pronounce first.) Example 53 苏林教授手持纸条, 不知从何找起。[Sū Lín jiào shòu shǒu chí zhǐ tiáo, bù zhī cóng hé zhǎo qǐ.] (Holding a note, Professor Su Lin is unaware of where to find it.) Example 54 我问姐姐：找对象从何找起呢? [wǒ wèn jiě jie: zhǎo duì xiàng cóng hé zhǎo qǐ ne?] (I asked my sister: how could I start looking for a partner?) (3) 从 . . . 以来 [cóng . . . yǐ lái] (since) “从 . . . 以来 [cóng . . . yǐ lái] (since)” refers to a period of time that started from the past and continues to the time of speaking. In the middle of “从 . . . 以来 [cóng . . . yǐ lái] (since),” some words or phrases can be added, such as a time

22 Prepositions word, a verb phrase or a subject-predicate phrase. Sometimes, “从 [cóng] (from)” can be omitted. Example 55 从开学以来, 我还没有请过假。[cóng kāi xué yǐ lái, wǒ hái méi yǒu qǐng guò jià.] (I haven’t asked for leave since the school started.) Example 56 从到中国以来, 我还没有生过病。[cóng dào zhōng guó yǐ lái, wǒ hái méi yǒu shēng guò bìng.] (I have not been ill since I came to China.) Example 57 从结婚以来, 他们小两口还没有红过脸。[cóng jié hūn yǐ lái, tā men xiǎo liǎng kǒu hái méi yǒu hóng guò liǎn.] (They have never quarreled since they got married.) Example 58 从他自己开这个公司以来, 天天夜里十点多钟才到家。[cóng tā zì jǐ kāi zhè gè gōng sī yǐ lái, tiān tiān yè lǐ shí diǎn duō zhōng cái dào jiā.] (Since he started his own company, he doesn’t get home until over ten o’clock every night.) (4) 从 . . . 以后 [cóng . . . yǐ hòu] (from . . . on) “从 [cóng] (from)” in “从 . . . 以后 [cóng . . . yǐ hòu] (from . . . on)” can be absent. Example 59 从今以后, 我决定不再工作。[cóng jīn yǐ hòu, wǒ jué dìng bù zài gōng zuò.] (From now on, I decide not to work any more.) Example 60 从那以后, 他一直生活在上海。[cóng nà yǐ hòu, tā yī zhí shēng huó zài shàng hǎi.] (From then on, he has been living in Shanghai.) Example 61 说真话, 五岁以后, 四十五年来, 我还真没有买过帽子。[shuō zhēn huà, wǔ suì yǐ hòu, sì shí wǔ nián lái, wǒ hái zhēn méi yǒu mǎi guò mào zi.] (To tell you the truth, I have never bought a hat since I was five. It has been forty-five years.) (5) 从 . . . 来说/说来 [cóng . . . lái shuō/shuō lái] (from . . .) “从 . . . 来说 [cóng . . . lái shuō] (from . . .)” means “in the aspect of,” similar to “从 . . . 来看 [cóng . . . lái kàn] (from . . .)” Example 62 从这本小说的内容来说, 中学生看不太合适。[cóng zhè běn xiǎo shuō de nèi róng lái shuō, zhōng xué shēng kàn bù tài hé shì.] (As for the content of this novel, it is not for the eyes of middle-school students.) Example 63 从工程质量来说, 这点小错误也是不能容忍的。[cóng gōng chéng zhì liàng lái shuō, zhè diǎn xiǎo cuò wù yě shì bù néng róng rěn de.] (As far as the quality of the project is concerned, this small mistake is also intolerable.)

Prepositions

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Example 64 从另一个角度来看, 信息产业的发展, 为社会提供了大量就 业机会。[cóng lìng yī gè jiǎo dù lái kàn, xìn xī chǎn yè de fā zhǎn, wèi shè huì tí gòng le dà liàng jiù yè jī huì.] (From another point of view, the development of the information industry has provided a large number of employment opportunities for society.) Example 65 从我们的具体情况来看, 这围墙的作用主要有两个：一是为 了安静, 一是为了美观。[cóng wǒ men de jù tǐ qíng kuàng lái kàn, zhè wéi qiáng de zuò yòng zhǔ yào yǒu liǎng gè: yī shì wèi le ān jìng, yī shì wèi le měi guān.] (From a realistic standpoint, this fence has two main functions: one is for isolation, the other is for decoration.) Example 66 从这一点来看, 虽不能说她就是学生中的佼佼者, 但可以说 她是一个幸运儿。[cóng zhè yì diǎn lái kàn, suī bù néng shuō tā jiù shì xué shēng zhōng de jiǎo jiǎo zhě, dàn kě yǐ shuō tā shì yí gè xìng yùn er.] (From this point of view, although she is not qualified as the best of the students, she is definitely a lucky one.) II. 由 [yóu] (from), 自 [zì] (from), 打 [dǎ] (from), 自从 [zì cóng] (from) “自 [zì] (from),” “自从 [zì cóng] (from),” “自 [zì] (from),” and “打 [dǎ] (from)” share similarities with “从 [cóng] (from)” in use. 1

由 [yóu] (from) “由 [yóu] (from)” can indicate many meanings.

(1) “由 [yóu] (from)” indicates the beginning of location or time, similar to “从 [cóng] (from).” Thus, they can substituted for each other but “从 [cóng] (from)” sounds more oral than “由 [yóu] (from).” “由 [yóu] (from)” indicates the beginning of location. Example 67 碑身南面有三幅浮雕, 由东向西的第一幅, 是1911年的武昌 起义。[bēi shēn nán miàn yǒu sān fú fú diāo, yóu dōng xiàng xī de dì yī fú, shì 1911 nián de wǔ chāng qǐ yì.] (There are three carvings in relief on the south side of the stone tablet; Wuchang Uprising in 1911 is the first one displayed from east to west.) Example 68 明天大家先到方先生家集合, 由方先生那儿走比较近。[míng tiān dà jiā xiān dào Fāng xiān shēng jiā jí hé, yóu Fāng xiān shēng nà er zǒu bǐ jiào jìn.] (Tomorrow we will gather at Mr. Fang’s house due its being to a shorter distance away from there.) Example 69 这趟列车, 由北京开出, 经济南、南京就到了终点站上 海。[zhè tàng liè chē, yóu běi jīng kāi chū, jīng jì nán, nán jīng jiù dào le zhōng diǎn zhàn shàng hǎi.] (This train leaves from Beijing, passes by Jinan and Nanjing, and then to the terminal Shanghai.)

24

Prepositions Example 70 这条小路走的人很少, 狼也许由这条小路逃走了。[zhè tiáo xiǎo lù zǒu de rén hěn shǎo, láng yě xǔ yóu zhè tiáo xiǎo lù táo zǒu le.] (There are few people on this path, and the wolf may have escaped from here.) “由 [yóu] (from)” indicates the beginning of time. Example 71 那部电影是由陈建华第二次去机场迎接妹妹开始的。[nà bù diàn yǐng shì yóu Chén jiàn huá dì èr cì qù jī chǎng yíng jiē mèi mèi kāi shǐ de.] (The film starts with the sequence in which Chen Jianhua met his younger sister for the second time at the airport.) Example 72 由1979年开始, 他就从事业余写作, 已经坚持十八年了。[yóu 1979 nián kāi shǐ, tā jiù cóng shì yè yú xiě zuò, yǐ jīng jiān chí shí bā nián le.] (Since 1979, he has been engaged in amateur writing for 18 years.) Example 73 由上午9:00到下午3:00, 是他们对外办公的时间。[yóu shàng wǔ 9:00 dào xià wǔ 3:00, shì tā men duì wài bàn gōng de shí jiān.] (Their office time is from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.) “由 [yóu] (from)” indicates the beginning of a development or occurrence. Example 74 中国实现现代化, 必然要有一个由初级到高级的过程。[zhōng guó shí xiàn xiàn dài huà, bì rán yào yǒu yī gè yóu chū jí dào gāo jí de guò chéng.] (To realize modernization, China must undergo a path from the primary level to the senior level.) Example 75 凡事都有由量变到质变的过程。[fán shì dōu yǒu yóu liàng biàn dào zhì biàn de guò chéng.] (There exists a process of changing from quantity to quality.) Example 76 刚才他的发言, 由犹豫不决, 转为语气坚定。[gāng cái tā de fā yán, yóu yóu yù bù jué, zhuǎn wéi yǔ qì jiān dìng.] (The tone of the speech he just made changed from hesitancy at first and then to stability.) Example 77 八十年代, 我和高力在同一单位工作, 由认识到相爱。[bā shí nián dài, wǒ hé Gāo Lì zài tóng yī dān wèi gōng zuò, yóu rèn shí dào xiāng ài.] (In the 1980s, Gao Li and I worked in the same unit, and our relation developed from recognizing each other to loving each other.) Example 78 那次会议之后, 他由助教越级晋升为副教授。[nà cì huì yì zhī hòu, tā yóu zhù jiào yuè jí jìn shēng wéi fù jiào shòu.] (After that meeting, he was directly promoted from assistant to associate professor.) “由 [yóu] (from)” indicates a source. Example 79 我们由沥青铀矿中提出的物质, 它的分解特性与铋相近。[wǒ men yóu lì qīng yóu kuàng zhōng tí chū de wù zhì, tā de fēn jiě tè xìng yǔ bì xiàng jìn.]

Prepositions

25

(The decomposition characteristics of the material we extracted from pitchblende are similar to those of bismuth.) Example 80 那个地区的许多不同品种的马, 都是由同一种野生的马进化 而来的。[nà gè dì qū de xǔ duō bù tóng pǐn zhǒng de mǎ, dōu shì yóu tóng yī zhǒng yě shēng de mǎ jìn huà ér lái de.] (Many different breeds of horses in that area have evolved from the same wild horses.) Example 81 豆腐是由黄豆做的。[dòu fǔ shì yóu huáng dòu zuò de.] (Bean curd is made from soybean.) Example 82 人才是由学校培养出来的。[rén cái shì yóu xué xiào péi yǎng chū lái de.] (Talents are cultivated by school.) (2) “由 [yóu] (from)” introduces the doer of an action who is supposed to finish this behavior. Example 83 说到底, 这种悲哀也许主要应该由我自己负责。[shuō dào dǐ, zhè zhǒng bēi āi yě xǔ zhǔ yào yīng gāi yóu wǒ zì jǐ fù zé.] (To be honest, perhaps I am primarily responsible for this sadness.) Example 84 给家里买些日常吃的菜, 向来是由我父母操办和操劳的。 [gěi jiā lǐ mǎi xiē rì cháng chī de cài, xiàng lái shì yóu wǒ fù mǔ cāo bàn hé cāo láo de.] (My parents have always taken care of the daily food for the family.) Example 85 只要爷爷同意, 爹的说服工作由我来做。[zhǐ yào yé yé tóng yì, diē de shuō fú gōng zuò yóu wǒ lái zuò.] (As long as my grandfather agrees, I will take care of persuading my father.) Example 86 这是可以由你自己作主的事。[zhè shì kě yǐ yóu nǐ zì jǐ zuò zhǔ de shì.] (It’s up to you.) Example 87 这是一条完全由我国的工程技术人员设计施工的铁路干 线。[zhè shì yì tiáo wán quán yóu wǒ guó de gōng chéng jì shù rén yuán shè jì shī gōng de tiě lù gàn xiàn.] (This is a trunk railway independently designed and constructed by Chinese engineers and technicians.) (3) “由 [yóu] (from)” means “by . . .” or “with . . .” and often appears in the structures of “由 . . . 组成 [yóu . . . zǔ chéng] (be made up of),” “由 . . . 构成 [yóu . . . gòu chéng] (be made up of).” Example 88 谈到石油的化学成分, 我们可以说, 它是由多种物质组成的 混合物。[tán dào shí yóu de huà xué chéng fèn, wǒ men kě yǐ shuō, tā shì yóu duō zhǒng wù zhì zǔ chéng de hún hé wù.] (As for the chemical composition of oil, we can say that it is formed by a mixture of various substances.)

26 Prepositions Example 89 这些星星是由非常稀薄的气体状态的物质组成的。[zhè xiē xīng xīng shì yóu fēi cháng xī báo de qì tǐ zhuàng tài de wù zhì zǔ chéng de.] (These stars are made up of very thin substances in a gaseous state.) Example 90 这个句子的宾语结构比较复杂, 它是由几个定语一层一层地 递加在中心语上构成的。[zhè gè jù zi de bīn yǔ jié gòu bǐ jiào fù zá, tā shì yóu jǐ gè dìng yǔ yì céng yì céng dì jiā zài zhōng xīn yǔ shàng gòu chéng de.] (The object structure of this sentence is quite complex. It is made up of several attributes which are added to the center word one by one.) There are some frequently used phrases consisting of “由 [yóu] (from),” such as “由此可知 [yóu cǐ kě zhī] (it can be seen from this),” “由此可见 [yóu cǐ kě jiàn] (it can be seen from this),” “由此往前 [yóu cǐ wǎng qián] (go forward from here).” Example 91 由此可见, 我们原先的分析是对的。[yóu cǐ kě jiàn, wǒ men yuán xiān de fēn xī shì duì de.] (Thus it can be seen that our original analysis is correct.) Example 92 由此可知, 他根本没有来学校, 而是去医院看病去了。 [yóu cǐ kě zhī, tā gēn běn méi yǒu lái xué xiào, ér shì qù yī yuàn kàn bìng qù le.] (It can be seen from this that he did not come to school at all but went to the hospital to see a doctor.) Example 93 由此往前, 走四百米就是汽车站。[yóu cǐ wǎng qián, zǒu sì bǎi mǐ jiù shì qì chē zhàn.] (The bus station is in walking distance of 400 meters away from here.) 2

自 [zì] (from), 打 [dǎ] (from)

Both of them can refer to the beginning of location or time. “打 [dǎ] (from)” is more popular in the oral expressions in the north of China; “自 [zì] (from)” often appears in the written language. (1) “自 [zì] (from)” and “打 [dǎ] (from)” can be connected with words denoting location or time to form prepositional phrases. The formed phrases can function as adverbials and indicate the beginning of location or time. Example 94 他出生在海南, 自幼失去了父母。[tā chū shēng zài hǎi nán, zì yòu shī qù le fù mǔ.] (He was born in Hainan and lost his parents when he was very young.) Example 95 黄河渡口, 自古以来, 夜不行船, 要过河, 等着天亮吧。 [huáng hé dù kǒu, zì gǔ yǐ lái, yè bù háng chuán, yào guò hé, děng zhe tiān liàng ba.] (There is no boat travelling at night from Yellow River ferry; thus, if you want to cross the river, you have to wait until the next morning.) Example 96 他自幼娇生惯养。[tā zì yòu jiāo shēng guàn yǎng.] (He has been spoiled from childhood.)

Prepositions

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Example 97 花瓶里的花是打哪儿掐来的？[huā píng lǐ de huā shì dǎ nǎ er qiā lái de?] (Where did the flowers in the vase come from?) Example 98 打八点钟起, 他便趴在桌子上写啊, 写啊 . . . [dǎ bā diǎn zhōng qǐ, tā biàn pā zài zhuō zi shàng xiě ā, xiě ā . . .] (From eight o’clock, he kept on writing at the table . . .) (2) The prepositional phrase consisting of “自 [zì] (from)” can function as a complement and is mainly used in the written language. However, “从 [cóng] (from),” “自从 [zì cóng] (from),” “和打 [dǎ] (from)” are exceptional. Example 99 一封封来自祖国各地的祝贺信激励着他不断前进。[yī fēng fēng lái zì zǔ guó gè dì de zhù hè xìn jī lì zhe tā bù duàn qián jìn.] (Letters of congratulations from all over the country have spurred him on.) Example 100 信里他流露出发自内心的喜悦。[xìn lǐ tā liú lù chū fā zì nèi xīn de xǐ yuè.] (He revealed his deep joy in the letter.) Example 101 他对事业的一往情深出自一个简单的信念。[tā duì shì yè de yī wǎng qíng shēn chū zì yī gè jiǎn dān de xìn niàn.] (His deep love for his career results from a simple belief.) Example 102 目前这项试验受到了来自各方面的欢迎。[mù qián zhè xiàng shì yàn shòu dào le lái zì gè fāng miàn de huān yíng.] (At present, the experiment has been welcomed by all sides.) Example 103 这发自肺腑、掷地有声的话语, 使他感到十分意外, 当然也 很感动。[zhè fā zì fèi fǔ, zhì dì yǒu shēng de huà yǔ, shǐ tā gǎn dào shí fēn yì wài, dāng rán yě hěn gǎn dòng.] (He was fully surprised and moved by these sincere and powerful words.) 3

自从 [zì cóng] (since) “自从 [zì cóng] (since)” simply indicates the beginning of time in the past. Example 104 自从搬进小阁楼, 玛丽的学习效率大大提高了。[zì cóng bān jìn xiǎo gé lóu, Mǎ lì de xué xí xiào lǜ dà dà tí gāo le.] (Mary’s learning efficiency has greatly been improved since she moved into the attic.) Example 105 自从他当了班长以后, 课堂秩序有了明显好转。[zì cóng tā dāng le bān zhǎng yǐ hòu, kè táng zhì xù yǒu le míng xiǎn hǎo zhuǎn.] (Since he became the monitor, classroom order has been obviously improved.) Example 106 阿里自从来中国以后, 汉语水平提高得很快。[Ā Lǐ zì cóng lái zhōng guó yǐ hòu, hàn yǔ shuǐ píng tí gāo dé hěn kuài.] (A Li’s level of Chinese has improved very quickly since he came to China.)

28 Prepositions III. 在 [zài] (at/exist) “在 [zài] (at/exist)” is a verb as well as a preposition. It means “存在 [cún zài] (exist)” as verb and functions as predicate. It is followed by the word denoting location as its object, such as “我母亲在家, 我父亲不在家。[wǒ mǔ qīn zài jiā, wǒ fù qīn bú zài jiā.] (My mother is at home, but my father is not.)” In a certain context, its object can be absent, such as “他不在。[tā bú zài.] (He isn’t.)” as an answer to the question “张老师在吗？[zhāng lǎo shī zài ma?] (Is Prof. Zhang at home?).” As a preposition, “在 [zài] (at)” requires an additional object to form a prepositional phrase to indicate location. The formed phrase can function as an adverbial before the verb, indicating time, location, or scope of the action involved. 1

“在 [zài] (at)” indicates time when the action happens Example 107 这趟火车每天在七点钟通过这座桥。[zhè tàng huǒ chē měi tiān zài qī diǎn zhōng tōng guò zhè zuò qiáo.] (The train passes over the bridge at 7:00 every day.) Example 108 在出发之前, 排长就到各班进行了纪律检查。[zài chū fā zhī qián, pái zhǎng jiù dào gè bān jìn xíng le jì lǜ jiǎn chá.] (Before departure, the platoon leader went to each team for disciplinary inspection.) Example 109 在那些困难的岁月里, 大伯父给了我们家很大的帮助。 [zài nà xiē kùn nán de suì yuè lǐ, dà bó fù gěi le wǒ men jiā hěn dà de bāng zhù.] (In those difficult years, my father’s elder brother gave our family a lot of help.) Example 110 他（鲁迅）在逝世的前三天, 还给别人翻译的苏联小说写 了一篇序言, 在逝世的前一天还记了日记。[tā (Lǔ Xùn) zài shì shì de qián sān tiān, hái gěi bié rén fān yì de sū lián xiǎo shuō xiě le yī piān xù yán, zài shì shì de qián yī tiān hái jì le rì jì.] (Three days before his death, he (Lu Xun) wrote a preface to a translated Soviet novel as well as finished a diary.) Example 111 就在这个时候, 一架飞机朝这儿飞来, 在上空盘旋着。 [jiù zài zhè gè shí hou, yī jià fēi jī cháo zhè er fēi lái, zài shàng kōng pán xuán zhe.] (At this time, a plane flew toward here and circled overhead.)

Some adverbs are allowed to appear before “在 [zài] (at),” such as “就 [jiù],” “正 [zhèng],” “恰好 [qià hǎo] (exactly),” “正好 [zhèng hǎo] (just in time),” “恰巧 [qià qiǎo] (exactly),” “大概 [dà gài] (probably),” “大约 [dà yuē] (approximately).” When functioning as an adverbial, the prepositional phrase “在 . . . [zài . . .] (at . . .)” can either stand before the predicate verb in the sentence, just like Example 105 and Example 108, or it may be moved to the head of sentence (before subject), like Example 106, Example 107, and Example 109.

Prepositions

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The common phrases consisting of “在 [zài] (at)” to indicate time are “在 . . . 时候 [zài . . . shí hòu] (when . . .),” “在 . . . 时期 [zài . . . shí qī] (in the period of . . .),” “在 . . . 时刻 [zài . . . shí kè] (at the moment . . .),” “在 . . . 年代 [zài . . . nián dài] (in the times of . . .),” “在 . . . 同时 [zài . . . tóng shí] (at the same time . . .),” “在 . . . 前/以前/之前 [zài . . . qián/yǐ qián/zhī qián] (before . . .),” “在 . . . 后/以 后/之后[zài . . . hòu/yǐ hòu/zhī hòu] (after . . .). 2

“在 [zài] (at)” indicates location Example 112 你在前面走, 我们在后面跟。[nǐ zài qián miàn zǒu, wǒ men zài hòu miàn gēn.] (You go in front, and we’ll follow you.) Example 113 彼得在海员俱乐部工作。[Bǐ dé zài hǎi yuán jù lè bù gōng zuò.] (Peter works at the seafarers’ club.) Example 114 我走进他的房间, 他正用那只受过伤的手在一块红布上 绣“友谊”两个字。[wǒ zǒu jìn tā de fáng jiān, tā zhèng yòng nà zhī shòu guò shāng de shǒu zài yī kuài hóng bù shàng xiù “yǒu yì” liǎng gè zì.] (When I went into his room, he was embroidering the word “friendship” on a red piece of cloth with his wounded hand.) Example 115 星期日我们全家在张老师那儿玩了一天。[xīng qī rì wǒ men quán jiā zài Zhāng lǎo shī nà er wán le yì tiān.] (Our family spent a whole day at Miss Zhang’s on Sunday.) Example 116 阿里, 你不舒服, 先在我这儿休息会儿吧！[Ā Lǐ, nǐ bù shū fú, xiān zài wǒ zhè er xiū xī huì er ba!] (A Li, if you are not feeling well, just have a rest here!)

The prepositional phrase consisting of “在 [zài] (at)” can be used before a verb to indicate location. There are two situations for such usage. One is that the doer of the action happens to be there, such as “彼得 [Bǐ dé] (Peter)” in “海员俱乐部 [hǎi yuán jù lè bù] (the seafarers’ club);” the other is that the doer of the action is not there. To take Example 114 for instance, it is “他绣字 [tā xiù zì] (he was embroidering)” but not “他 [tā] (he)” that is on the “红布上 [hóng bù shàng] (on a red piece of cloth).” 3

“在 [zài] (at)” indicates scope or limit

(1) “在 [zài] (at)” indicates scope in the form of “在 [zài] . . . +locative” Example 117 在她这个年纪的女人里边, 她是个顶有福气的。[zài tā zhè gè nián jì de nǚ rén lǐ biān, tā shì gè dǐng yǒu fú qì de.] (She is a blessed woman of her age.) Example 118 在我们这个集体里, 同学之间, 像亲兄弟一样, 亲如手足。 [zài wǒ men zhè gè jí tǐ lǐ, tóng xué zhī jiān, xiàng qīn xiōng dì yī yàng, qīn rú shǒu zú.] (In our collective, students are as close as blood brothers.)

30

Prepositions Example 119 在许许多多的同学之中, 阿彤是我最要好的朋友。[zài xǔ xǔ duō duō de tóng xué zhī zhōng, Ā Tóng shì wǒ zuì yào hǎo de péng yǒu.] (Among many classmates, A Tong is my best friend.) Example 120 在这几天之内, 又传来了令人振奋的消息。[zài zhè jǐ tiān zhī nèi, yòu chuán lái le lìng rén zhèn fèn de xiāo xī.] (More exciting news came in a few days.) Example 121 当然, 理想和现实之间还有一段遥远的路程。[dāng rán, lǐ xiǎng hé xiàn shí zhī jiān hái yǒu yí duàn yáo yuǎn de lù chéng] (Of course, there is still a long way between the ideal and reality.)

The formed structures consisting of “在 [zài] (at)” include “在 . . . 里/里边 [zài . . . lǐ/lǐ biān] (inside . . .),” “在 . . . 中/之中 [zài . . . zhōng/zhī zhōng] (at . . .),” “在 . . . 内/之内 [zài . . . nèi/zhī nèi] (inside . . .),” “在 . . . 之间 [zài . . . zhī jiān] (between . . .),” “在 . . . 以上 [zài . . . yǐ shàng] (above . . .).” (2) “在 [zài] (at)” indicates limit Example 122 在一万一千米以上的高空, 温度是不随着高度而改变的。 [zài yī wàn yī qiān mǐ yǐ shàng de gāo kōng, wēn dù shì bù suí zhe gāo dù ér gǎi biàn de.] (At an altitude of more than 11,000 meters, the temperature doesn’t change with the height any more.) Example 123 这座小楼盖得很有气魄, 楼上三间, 楼下四间, 水磨石地板, 每间面积都在二十平方米以上。[zhè zuò xiǎo lóu gài dé hěn yǒu qì pò, lóu shàng sān jiān, lóu xià sì jiān, shuǐ mó shí dì bǎn, měi jiān miàn jī dōu zài èr shí píng fāng mǐ yǐ shàng.] (The small building is built in an imposing scale, decorated with a terrazzo floor and equipped with three rooms upstairs and four rooms downstairs, each of which has an area of more than 20 square meters.) Example 124 这种飞机在海拔两万米以内可以飞行。[zhè zhǒng fēi jī zài hǎi bá liǎng wàn mǐ yǐ nèi kě yǐ fēi xíng.] (This kind of plane can fly at an altitude of 20,000 meters.) Example 125 这种雷达不能发现在五百米以外的目标。[zhè zhǒng léi dá bù néng fā xiàn zài wǔ bǎi mǐ yǐ wài de mù biāo.] (This kind of radar cannot find targets 500 meters away.) Example 126 这种胶在摄氏二百度以下是不会熔化的。[zhè zhǒng jiāo zài shè shì èr bǎi dù yǐ xià shì bú huì róng huà de.] (This kind of glue will not melt below 200℃.) The formed structures consisting of “在 [zài] (at)” to indicate limit include “在 . . . 以上 [zài . . . yǐ shàng] (above . . .),” “在 . . . 之内 [zài . . . zhī nèi] (inside . . .),” “在 . . . 之外 [zài . . . zhī wài] (outside . . .),” “在 . . . 以下 [zài . . . yǐ xià] (below . . .).”

Prepositions 4

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With “上 [shàng] (above),” “中 [zhōng] (middle),” “下 [xià] (under)” “在 [zài] (at)” can be combined with 上 [shàng],” “中 [zhōng],” “下 [xià] to form the structures: “在 . . . 上 [zài . . . shàng] (above . . .),” “在 . . . 中 [zài . . . zhōng] (at/in . . .),” “在 . . . 下 [zài . . . xià] (under . . .)” for time, space, scope, aspect, condition, etc.

(1) 在 . . . 上 [zài . . . shàng] (above . . .) “在 . . . 上 [zài . . . shàng] (above . . .)” refers to scope, aspect, or condition. In the middle some words or phrases can be added, such as nouns, noun phrases, verbs, or verb phrases. Example 127 小华在玩上可有办法了。[Xiǎo Huá zài wán shàng kě yǒu bàn fǎ le.] (Xiao Hua is really good at playing.) Example 128 文学革命在创作上是从白话诗开始的。[wén xué gé mìng zài chuàng zuò shàng shì cóng bái huà shī kāi shǐ de.] (The literary revolution began with free verse written in the vernacular.) Example 129 在题材的选择上, 我一向喜欢寻找独特点。[zài tí cái de xuǎn zé shàng, wǒ yí xiàng xǐ huān xún zhǎo dú tè diǎn.] (In the choice of theme, I always like to find a unique point.) Example 130 一年来, 他在学习上的进步是很显著的。[yì nián lái, tā zài xué xí shàng de jìn bù shì hěn xiǎn zhù de.] (Over the past year, he has made remarkable progress in his studies.) Example 131 科学技术是一种在历史上起推动作用的革命力量。[kē xué jì shù shì yì zhǒng zài lì shǐ shàng qǐ tuī dòng zuò yòng de gé mìng lì liàng.] (Science and technology is a kind of revolutionary force that plays a driving role in history.) (2) 在 . . . 中 [zài . . . zhōng] (at/in . . .) “在 . . . 中 [zài . . . zhōng] (at/in . . .)” indicates environment, scope, time, or condition of the action or the state involved. In the middle some words or phrases can be added, such as nouns, noun phrases, verbs, verb phrases, or adjectives. Example 132 青年人就是要在艰苦中奋斗, 在奋斗中创业, 在创业中成 长。[qīng nián rén jiù shì yào zài jiān kǔ zhōng fèn dòu, zài fèn dòu zhōng chuàng yè, zài chuàng yè zhōng chéng zhǎng.] (Youth should struggle in hardship, pioneer in the struggle, and grow up to be pioneering in their work.) Example 133 他在忙乱中, 把这么重要的信件忘在桌子上了。[tā zài máng luàn zhōng, bǎ zhè me zhòng yào de xìn jiàn wàng zài zhuō zi shàng le.] (He left such an important letter on the table in a hurry.)

32 Prepositions Example 134 孩子们是在不知不觉模仿自己的父母的。[hái zi men shì zài bù zhī bù jué mó fǎng zì jǐ de fù mǔ de.] (Children are imitating their parents unconsciously.) Example 135 我们预祝你不断进步, 在中美文化交流中取得成绩。[wǒ men yù zhù nǐ bú duàn jìn bù, zài zhōng měi wén huà jiāo liú zhōng qǔ dé chéng jì.] (We wish your continuous progress and achievements in Sino-US cultural exchanges.) Example 136 他在教学工作中的成绩是有目共睹的。[tā zài jiào xué gōng zuò zhōng de chéng jì shì yǒu mù gòng dǔ de.] (His achievements in teaching are obvious to all.) Also, “在 . . . 中 [zài . . . zhōng] (at/in . . .)” can function as the predicate, denoting the ongoing action. In this case, the adverb “正 [zhèng]” can be put before it as a modifier. Example 137 你的要求正在考虑中, 有了结果, 我马上告诉你。[nǐ de yāo qiú zhèng zài kǎo lǜ zhōng, yǒu le jié guǒ, wǒ mǎ shàng gào sù nǐ.] (Your request is under consideration. As soon as we get the result, I’ll let you know right away.) Example 138 他的病正在积极治疗中。[tā de bìng zhèng zài jī jí zhì liáo zhōng.] (His illness is under active treatment.) Example 139 他写的教材, 上册已经由出版社出版了, 下册正在编写 中。[tā xiě de jiào cái, shàng cè yǐ jīng yóu chū bǎn shè chū bǎn le, xià cè zhèng zài biān xiě zhōng.] (The first volume of the teaching materials he wrote has been published by the press and the next volume is being prepared.) Example 140 随着现代化科学技术的发展, 机器人的研制正在迅速发展 中。[suí zhe xiàn dài huà kē xué jì shù de fā zhǎn, jī qì rén de yán zhì zhèng zài xùn sù fā zhǎn zhōng.] (With the development of modern science and technology, the research on robots is developing rapidly.) (3) 在 . . . 下 [zài . . . xià] (under . . .) “在 . . . 下 [zài . . . xià] (under . . .)” shows condition, and many noun phrases or disyllabic verbs with their objects can be added in the middle. Example 141 在舅舅的劝说下, 母亲卖了部分房子和土地, 供我们读中 学。[zài jiù jiù de quàn shuō xià, mǔ qīn mài le bù fèn fáng zi hé tǔ dì, gòng wǒ men dú zhōng xué.] (Under my uncle’s persuasion, my mother sold part of the house and land to support our learning in middle school.) Example 142 在他的带领下, 全乡农民已经脱贫致富, 提前实现了小康。 [zài tā de dài lǐng xià, quán xiāng nóng mín yǐ jīng tuō pín zhì fù, tí qián shí xiàn le xiǎo kāng.]

Prepositions

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(Under his leadership, the township farmers have been lifted out of poverty and become well-off ahead of schedule.) Example 143 我们认为在社会主义制度下, 积累和消费的关系, 根本上是 一致的。[wǒ men rèn wéi zài shè huì zhǔ yì zhì dù xià, jī lěi hé xiāo fèi de guān xì, gēn běn shàng shì yī zhì de.] (We believe that under the socialist system, the relationship between accumulation and consumption is fundamentally consistent.) Example 144 这些花灯、鱼灯是在老艺人的指点下, 群众业余创作出来 的。[zhè xiē huā dēng, yú dēng shì zài lǎo yì rén de zhǐ diǎn xià, qún zhòng yè yú chuàng zuò chū lái de.] (These flower lamps and fish lamps are created by the masses in their spare time under the guidance of the old artists.) Example 145 在老师和同学们的帮助下, 小明进步了。[zài lǎo shī hé tóng xué men de bāng zhù xià, Xiǎo Míng jìn bù le.] (With the help of his teachers and classmates, Xiao Ming has made great progress.) 5

Sometimes, “在 [zài] (at)” refers to the target judged or commented on, similar to “对于 . . . 来说 [duì yú . . . lái shuō] (as for . . .)” Example 146 做这种特技飞行动作, 在他是不成问题的。[zuò zhè zhǒng tè jì fēi xíng dòng zuò, zài tā shì bù chéng wèn tí de.] (There is no problem for him to do stunt flying.) In the previous example, “他 [tā] (he)” is judged to be qualified for stunt flying. Example 147 在她一切都来得自然简单, 率直爽朗。[zài tā yī qiè dōu lái dé zì rán jiǎn dān, shuài zhí shuǎng lǎng.] (For her, everything is following a principle: natural and simple, frank and direct.) Example 148 这点儿力气活, 在他算不了什么。[zhè diǎn er lì qì huó, zài tā suàn bù le shén me.] (It’s not a big deal for him to do such little labor.) Example 149 能用中文写出这样的文章, 在他们已是很不容易了。[néng yòng zhōng wén xiě chū zhè yàng de wén zhāng, zài tā men yǐ shì hěn bù róng yì le.] (It is not easy for them to write such articles in Chinese.)

6

“在 . . . 看来 [zài . . . kàn lái] (in the view of . . .)” is commonly used to introduce a person with a certain view. In the middle there could be the noun or pronoun to indicate people. It often appears in the written language. Example 150 那时, 在很多人看来, 人类遨游太空仅仅是一种美好的愿 望。[nà shí, zài hěn duō rén kàn lái, rén lèi áo yóu tài kōng jǐn jǐn shì yī zhǒng měi hǎo de yuàn wàng.] (At that time, for many people, traveling in space was just a pleasant wish.)

34

Prepositions This last example shows “many people think so.” Example 151 这件事情的发生, 在我们看来不是偶然的。[zhè jiàn shì qíng de fā shēng, zài wǒ men kàn lái bú shì ǒu rán de.] (For us, the occurrence of this matter is not an accident.) Example 152 在专家们看来, 这种做法是得不偿失的。[zài zhuān jiā men kàn lái, zhè zhǒng zuò fǎ shì dé bù cháng shī de.] (In the view of the experts, this approach is not worth the cost.)

IV. 对于 [duì yú] (for), 对 [duì] (for), 关于 [guān yú] (for) As prepositions, “对于 [duì yú] (for),” “对 [duì] (for),” “关于 [guān yú] (for)” share similarities and differences simultaneously in meaning and usage. 1

对于 [duì yú] (for)

The function of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” is to introduce the related object or the object involved. It mainly takes a noun (phrase), verb (phrase), or subject-predicate phrase as its object. The prepositional phrase consisting of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” principally modifies the predicate verb (phrase) or adjective (phrase). If “对于 [duì yú] (for)” is moved to the head of sentence, it would modify the entire predicate. Generally speaking, when “对于 [duì yú] (for)” functions as an adverbial in a sentence, the predicate is comparatively complex. (1) The object of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” is also the object of the action in the sentence, whose semantic meaning is decided by the predicate verb. Example 153 鲁迅到了晚年, 对于时间抓得更紧。[Lǔ Xùn dào le wǎn nián, duì yú shí jiān zhuā dé gèng jǐn.] (In his later years, Lu Xun dared not slack off writing.) (to make the best use of one’s time) Example 154 对于在教学工作中作出突出贡献的教师, 应当表扬和奖 励。[duì yú zài jiào xué gōng zuò zhōng zuò chū tū chū gòng xiàn de jiào shī, yīng dāng biǎo yáng hé jiǎng lì.] (Teachers who have made outstanding contributions to teaching should be praised and rewarded.) (to praise and reward teacher) Example 155 如果我们不具备相当的科学文化水平, 不学习新的生产技 能, 对于现代化的工业生产就很难掌握。[rú guǒ wǒ men bù jù bèi xiāng dāng de kē xué wén huà shuǐ píng, bù xué xí xīn de shēng chǎn jì néng, duì yú xiàn dài huà de gōng yè shēng chǎn jiù hěn nán zhǎng wò.] (It’s hard to for us to carry out modern industrial production if we are not well qualified in the aspects of scientific culture or new production skills.) (to carry out the modern industrial production) Example 156 我公安人员对于案件的每一细节都调查得很详细。[wǒ gōng ān rén yuán duì yú àn jiàn de měi yī xì jié dōu diào chá dé hěn xiáng xì.]

Prepositions

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(Our public security officers have carefully investigated every detail of the case.) (to investigate every detail) Example 157 你问错人了, 对于这个地方, 我并不熟悉。[nǐ wèn cuò rén le, duì yú zhè gè dì fang, wǒ bìng bù shú xī.] (You are asking the wrong person. I’m not familiar with this place.) (to be not familiar with this place) On one side, the usage of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” in this way moves the object of the action before the verb and enables it to outshine other constituents; on the other side, this usage shortens the length of the object or complement after the verb so as to keep the sentence structure in balance. Especially when the complement denoted by “得 [dé]” appears after the verb whose object happens to be complex, “对于 [duì yú] (for)” is very helpful in such situation, such as “每一细 节 [měi yī xì jiē] (every detail)” as the complex object of “调查 [diào chá] (investigate)” in Example 156. (2) “对于 [duì yú] (for)” introduces the object that is related to the action. In this case, the object of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” doesn’t semantically depend on the verb. Example 158 对于这个问题, 我的看法与你不同。[duì yú zhè gè wèn tí, wǒ de kàn fǎ yǔ nǐ bù tóng.] (My opinion is different from yours for this question.) Example 159 教学法对于提高教学质量有很大作用。[jiào xué fǎ duì yú tí gāo jiào xué zhì liàng yǒu hěn dà zuò yòng.] (The teaching method plays an important role in improving the quality of teaching.) Example 160 对于犯错误的干部, 一般地应采取说服的方法, 帮助他们改 正错误。[duì yú fàn cuò wù de gàn bù, yī bān de yīng cǎi qǔ shuō fú de fāng fǎ, bāng zhù tā men gǎi zhèng cuò wù.] (In general, for cadres who make mistakes, we should take the method of persuasion to help them to correct their mistakes.) Example 161 我们对于农业、轻工业都有一套切实可行的政策。[wǒ men duì yú nóng yè, qīng gōng yè dōu yǒu yī tào qiè shí kě xíng de zhèng cè.] (We have a set of practical policies for the agriculture and light industries.) Sometimes, a preposition-object phrase consisting of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” can function as an attribute; this usage requires a structural auxiliary “的 [de]” between the attribute and what it modifies. Example 162 这件事充分表现了这位作家对于未来的信心。[zhè jiàn shì chōng fèn biǎo xiàn le zhè wèi zuò jiā duì yú wèi lái de xìn xīn.] (This thing fully shows the writer’s confidence in the future.) Example 163 对于太阳能的利用已经被越来越多的人所注意。[duì yú tài yáng néng de lì yòng yǐ jīng bèi yuè lái yuè duō de rén suǒ zhù yì.]

36 Prepositions (The use of solar energy has been known by more and more people.) Example 164 随着现代医学的发展, 我们对于笑的认识更加深刻了。 [suí zhe xiàn dài yī xué de fā zhǎn, wǒ men duì yú xiào de rèn shí gèng jiā shēn kè le.] (With the development of modern medicine, we know more and more about laughter.) (3) The phrase “对 . . . 来说 [duì . . . lái shuō] (for . . .)” introduces the person or the thing that is judged or appraised. The sentence with this phrase expresses the judgment or the view of the speaker. Example 165 本来像这样的劳动活, 对于他这样一个老矿工来说不是什 么新课。[běn lái xiàng zhè yàng de láo dòng huó, duì yú tā zhè yàng yī gè lǎo kuàng gōng lái shuō bú shì shén me xīn kè.] (The labor of such kind is not a new attempt for an old miner like him.) Example 166 对于搞这样的活动来说, 总是多一点人好。[duì yú gǎo zhè yàng de huó dòng lái shuō, zǒng shì duō yī diǎn rén hǎo.] (The more people, the better for such activities.) The previous two sentences express the views of the speakers. However, they may not be the views of the persons involved. Example 167 她失业很久了, 所以对于她来说, 现在不是工作好坏的问 题, 而是有无的问题。所以她大概会接受这个工作。[tā shī yè hěn jiǔ le, suǒ yǐ duì yú tā lái shuō, xiàn zài bú shì gōng zuò hǎo huài de wèn tí, ér shì yǒu wú de wèn tí. suǒ yǐ tā dà gài huì jiē shòu zhè gè gōng zuò.] (She has been out of work for a long time. So it is not a question of whether the job is good or bad, but a matter of whether she can have one. Therefore, she would probably take it.) Example 168 父亲：你现在还是学生, 对于你来说, 现在最重要的是学习, 打工会影响 学习, 所以我不同意你出去打工。[fù qīn: nǐ xiàn zài hái shì xué shēng, duì yú nǐ lái shuō, xiàn zài zuì zhòng yào de shì xué xí, dǎ gōng huì yǐng xiǎng xué xí, suǒ yǐ wǒ bù tóng yì nǐ chū qù dǎ gōng.] (Father: You are still a student. For you, the most important thing is to study instead of having a part-time job; otherwise, it will affect your study. I won’t allow you to do so.) 儿子：可是只会学习, 将来也未必能找到好工作。[ér zi: kě shì zhǐ huì xué xí, jiāng lái yě wèi bì néng zhǎo dào hǎo gōng zuò.] (Son: But only learning doesn’t mean I can find a good job in the future.) In these two sentences, the sentences after “对于 . . . 来说 [duì yú . . . lái shuō] (for . . .)” indicate the opinion of the father but not the son’s.

Prepositions 2

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对 [duì] (for)

“对 [duì] (for)” is a verb as well as a preposition. As a verb, it means “对待 [duì dài] (treat),” “对付 [duì fù] (deal with),” “朝 [cháo] (face),” “向 [xiàng] (face).” Example 169 A: 这场球赛谁对谁？[zhè chǎng qiú sài shuí duì shuí.] (Who plays against who in this game?) B: 北京队对上海队。[běi jīng duì duì shàng hǎi duì.] (Beijing versus Shanghai.) Example 170 我家的门口对着一棵老槐树。[wǒ jiā de mén kǒu duì zhe yī kē lǎo huái shù.] (My house faces an old locust tree.) As a preposition, it possesses the following grammatical meanings. (1) “对 [duì] (for)” still keeps its verbal meanings because it is derived from “对 [duì]” as a verb, but “对于 [duì yú] (for)” doesn’t have a verb. Example 171 你把试验的注意事项, 对学生说说。[nǐ bǎ shì yàn de zhù yì shì xiàng, duì xué shēng shuō shuō.] (You should tell the students some do’s and don’ts in this experiment.) Example 172 他对小张点了点头, 没说什么。[tā duì Xiǎo Zhāng diǎn le diǎn tóu, méi shuō shén me.] (He nodded and said nothing to Xiao Zhang.) Example 173 我们对工作应该认真负责, 一丝不苟。[wǒ men duì gōng zuò yīng gāi rèn zhēn fù zé, yī sī bù gǒu.] (We should be conscientious and meticulous in our work.) Example 174 他对人很热情。[tā duì rén hěn rè qíng.] (He is very warm to people.) “对 [duì] (for)” in the previous examples cannot be replaced by “对于 [duì yú] (for).” (2) “对 [duì] (for)” shares the same meaning of “对于 [duì yú] (for)” when it is used to introduce the object of the action or its object happens to be the object of the action. Example 175 对这次考试成绩我不太满意。[duì zhè cì kǎo shì chéng jì wǒ bú tài mǎn yì.] (I’m not very satisfied with the exam result.) Example 176 对在科学研究中做出较大贡献的科学家, 我们应该奖励。 [duì zài kē xué yán jiū zhōng zuò chū jiào dà gòng xiàn de kē xué jiā, wǒ men yīng gāi jiǎng lì.] (We should reward scientists who have made great contributions to scientific research.)

38 Prepositions Example 177 对严格要求自己的人, 我一向很尊重。[duì yán gé yāo qiú zì jǐ de rén, wǒ yī xiàng hěn zūn zhòng.] (I always respect people who are strict with themselves.) Example 178 这次试验, 对我们的研究非常重要。[zhè cì shì yàn, duì wǒ men de yán jiū fēi cháng zhòng yào.] (This experiment is very important to our research.) In these examples, “对 [duì] (for . . .)” and “对于 [duì yú] (for)” can be replaced with each other. “对于 . . . 来说/说来 [duì yú . . . lái shuō/shuō lái] (for . . .)” is equal to “对 . . . 来说/说来 [duì . . . lái shuō/shuō lái] (for . . .).” Example 179 北方的气候, 对养花来说, 不算很好, 冬天冷, 春天多风, 夏天不是干旱就是倾盆大雨, 秋天最好, 可是会闹霜冻。[běi fāng de qì hòu, duì yǎng huā lái shuō, bú suàn hěn hǎo, dōng tiān lěng, chūn tiān duō fēng, xià tiān bú shì gān hàn jiù shì qīng pén dà yǔ, qiū tiān zuì hǎo, kě shì huì nào shuāng dòng.] (The climate in the north is not very good for flower growing. It is cold in winter and windy in spring. Summer is either dry or has downpours. Autumn is the best, but sometimes there will be frost.) Example 180 起名儿, 对农家人来说, 不是重要的事。[qǐ míng er, duì nóng jiā rén lái shuō, bú shì zhòng yào de shì.] (The name doesn’t matter too much to the peasants.) 3

关于 [guān yú] (about)

(1) The object of “关于 [guān yú] (about)” indicates the thing or the scope of the action. When the preposition-object phrase consisting of “关于 [guān yú] (about)” functions as an adverbial, it is often moved to the beginning of the sentence. Example 181 关于这座白塔, 相传有这样一个故事。[guān yú zhè zuò bái tǎ, xiāng chuán yǒu zhè yàng yī gè gù shì.] (It is said that the white tower has such a story.) Example 182 关于怎样合理使用人力, 提高工作效率的问题, 领导上已经 作出了安排。[guān yú zěn yàng hé lǐ shǐ yòng rén lì, tí gāo gōng zuò xiào lǜ de wèn tí, lǐng dǎo shàng yǐ jīng zuò chū le ān pái.] (Leaders have made arrangements about how to make good use of manpower and how to improve work efficiency.) Example 183 关于校园的绿化问题, 今天先谈这些, 大家再考虑考虑。 [guān yú xiào yuán de lǜ huà wèn tí, jīn tiān xiān tán zhè xiē, dà jiā zài kǎo lǜ kǎo lǜ.] (With regard to the greening of the campus, we just discussed so much for today and we will consider it later.)

Prepositions

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When “关于 [guān yú] (about)” functions as an attribute, it requires “的 [de]” added after it. Example 184 我也还想打听些关于祥林嫂的消息。[wǒ yě hái xiǎng dǎ tīng xiē guān yú Xiáng lín sǎo de xiāo xī.] (I also want to hear some news about Sister Xianglin.) Example 185 这本书里收集了许多关于海底动物的原始资料。[zhè běn shū lǐ shōu jí le xǔ duō guān yú hǎi dǐ dòng wù de yuán shǐ zī liào.] (This book has collected a lot of source information about sea animals.) Example 186 当时流传着不少关于他刻苦作诗的故事。[dāng shí liú chuán zhe bù shǎo guān yú tā kè kǔ zuò shī de gù shì.] (There were many stories about his hard work in poetry at that time.) (2) The differences in use between “关于 [guān yú] (about)” and “对于 [duì yú] (for)” are as follows. First, they differ in meaning. “对于 [duì yú] (for)” introduces the object of the action; the object of “关于 [guān yú] (about)” shows the scope of the action. Example 187 关于织女星, 民间有个美丽的传说。[guān yú zhī nǚ xīng, mín jiān yǒu gè měi lì de chuán shuō.] (There is a beautiful legend about Vega.) Example 188 对于文化遗产, 我们必须进行研究分析。[duì yú wén huà yí chǎn, wǒ men bì xū jìn xíng yán jiū fēn xī.] (We must study and analyze the cultural heritage.) Sometimes, “对于 [duì yú] (for)” doesn’t introduce the object of the action; instead, its object is closely related to the predicate verb or another verb in the sentence. Example 189 教学法对于提高教学质量有很大作用。[jiào xué fǎ duì yú tí gāo jiào xué zhì liàng yǒu hěn dà zuò yòng.] (The teaching method plays an important role in improving the teaching quality.) Example 190 对于犯错误的干部, 一般地应采取说服的方法, 帮助他们改 正错误。[duì yú fàn cuò wù de gàn bù, yī bān de yīng cǎi qǔ shuō fú de fāng fǎ, bāng zhù tā men gǎi zhèng cuò wù.] (In general, for cadres who make mistakes, we should take the method of persuasion and help them to correct their mistakes.) If the object of preposition refers to both the object and the scope of the action, “对于 [duì yú] (for)” and “关于 [guān yú] (about)” can be replaced with each other. Example 191 对于农业、轻工业, 我们都有一套切实可行的政策。[duì yú nóng yè, qīng gōng yè, wǒ men dōu yǒu yī tào qiè shí kě xíng de zhèng cè.]

40

Prepositions (We have a set of practical policies for the agriculture and light industries.) 关于农业、轻工业, 我们都有一套切实可行的政策。[guān yú nóng yè, qīng gōng yè, wǒ men dōu yǒu yī tào qiè shí kě xíng de zhèng cè.] (We have a set of practical policies for the agriculture and light industries.) Example 192 关于举行汉语表演的问题, 同学们的看法不一致。[guān yú jǔ xíng hàn yǔ biǎo yǎn de wèn tí, tóng xué men de kàn fǎ bù yī zhì.] (The students have different opinions on holding a Chinese performance.) 对于举行汉语表演的问题, 同学们的看法不一致。[duì yú jǔ xíng hàn yǔ biǎo yǎn de wèn tí, tóng xué men de kàn fǎ bù yī zhì.] (The students have different opinions on holding a Chinese performance.)

If the object only refers to the scope of the action, “关于 [guān yú] (about)” is the only choice. Example 193 关于他, 能够回到我记忆里来的就是这么一点。[guān yú tā, néng gòu huí dào wǒ jì yì lǐ lái de jiù shì zhè me yī diǎn.] (I only have a little memory of him.) Second, “关于 [guān yú] (about)” often stands before the subject at the beginning of the sentence; “对于 [duì yú] (for)” can appear before or after the subject. Third, the prepositional phrase consisting of “关于 [guān yú] (about)” can be used as a title alone but with “对于 [duì yú] (for),” it cannot. V. 跟 [gēn] (with), 和 [hé] (with), 同 [tóng] (with) “跟 [gēn] (with)” can be a verb, preposition, or conjunction. 1

“跟 [gēn] (with)” as a preposition introduces the participants of the action from two sides, such as A and B. A, a dominant one, functions as subject and B as an accompanied one after “跟 [gēn],” functions as the object of the preposition “跟 [gēn],” referring to the person involved in the action. A and B cannot be substituted with each other. Example 194 我们要跟中国同学开一个联欢会。[wǒ men yào gēn zhōng guó tóng xué kāi yī gè lián huān huì.] (We are going to have a party with our Chinese classmates.) Example 195 这些事情跟你有什么关系, 你那么操心？[zhè xiē shì qíng gēn nǐ yǒu shén me guān xì, nǐ nà me cāo xīn?] (What do these things have to do with you? Why are you so worried about them?) Example 196 那个小棋友, 棋艺非常好, 很多人都喜欢跟他下棋。[nà gè xiǎo qí yǒu, qí yì fēi cháng hǎo, hěn duō rén dōu xǐ huān gēn tā xià qí.] (That little chess player is really good at playing; thus many people like to play chess with him.)

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Example 197 王朋躺在床上, 李友跟他握手以后, 就坐在床前边的椅子上 了。[Wáng Péng tǎng zài chuáng shàng, Lǐ Yǒu gēn tā wò shǒu yǐ hòu, jiù zuò zài chuáng qián biān de yǐ zi shàng le.] (After shaking hands with Wang Peng who was lying in the bed, Li You sat in the chair in front of the bed.) The following verbs or verb phrases can be used in the sentence with “跟 [gēn] (with) . . .” as its adverbial. They are: 握手 [wò shǒu] (shake hands), 见面 [jiàn miàn] (meet), 结婚 [jié hūn] (marry), 配合 [pèi hé] (cooperate), 共事 [gòng shì] (work together), 打交 道 [dǎ jiāo dào] (make contact with), 打仗 [dǎ zhàng] (make war), 打架 [dǎ jià] (fight), 吵嘴 [chǎo zuǐ] (quarrel), 闹矛盾 [nào máo dùn] (dispute), 谈得 来 [tán de lái] (get along well with), 合得来 [hé de lái] (get along well with, 比赛 [bǐ sài] (compete), 讨论 [tǎo lùn] (discuss), 争论 [zhēng lùn] (argue), 辩论 [biàn lùn] (debate), 商量 [shāng liàng] (discuss), 有关系 [yǒu guān xì] (be relevant), 有联系 [yǒu lián xì] (relate to), 有矛盾 [yǒu máo dùn] (in conflict), 平行 [píng xíng] (parallel), 垂直 [chuí zhí] (to make perpendicular), 相 交 [xiàng jiāo] (intersect), 互补 [hù bǔ] (complement). All these verbs denote that more than one participant is involved in the action. Among them, “见面 [jiàn miàn] (meet),” “结婚 [jié hūn] (marry),” and “比赛 [bǐ sài] (compete)” are grammatically regarded as verb-object phrases, so they cannot be directly followed by another object. For example, it is proper to say “甲跟乙见面。[jiǎ gēn yǐ jiàn miàn.] (A meets B.),” but it is improper to say like “*甲见面乙。[jiǎ jiàn miàn yǐ.].” The same is true for “甲跟乙结婚。[jiǎ gēn yǐ jié hūn.] (A marries B.)” and “甲跟乙比赛。[jiǎ gēn yǐ bǐ sài.] (A competes with B.)” Without “跟 [gēn],” these verbs require the plural noun (phrase) or pronoun as the subject of the sentence. Example 198 两个人握手后, 就各奔东西了。[liǎng gè rén wò shǒu hòu, jiù gè bēn dōng xī le.] (After shaking hands, they went their separate ways.) Example 199 我们两个经常打交道。[wǒ men liǎng gè jīng cháng dǎ jiāo dào.] (We two have contact with each other frequently.) Also, the proposition phrase consisting of “跟 [gēn] (with)” can function as an attribute, mainly modifying the words, such as “关系 [guān xì] (relation),” “联系 [lián xì] (contact),” “交情 [jiāo qíng] (friendly relation),” “友谊 [yǒu yì] (friendship).” Here, “的 [de]” is required to be added after the phrase. Example 200 中国人民要加强跟世界各国人民的友谊。[zhōng guó rén mín yào jiā qiáng gēn shì jiè gè guó rén mín de yǒu yì.]

42 Prepositions (The Chinese people should strengthen their friendship with the people of all countries in the world.) Example 201 毕业以后, 我跟他的联系就中断了。[bì yè yǐ hòu, wǒ gēn tā de lián xì jiù zhōng duàn le.] (After graduation, I lost contact with him.) 2

Sometimes, “跟 [gēn] (with)” may be used to express the action that is simply finished by the dominant side. Example 202 看完体操表演, 校长和其他几位体育老师从主席台下走上 来跟孩子们一起照了相。[kàn wán tǐ cāo biǎo yǎn, xiào zhǎng hé qí tā jǐ wèi tǐ yù lǎo shī cóng zhǔ xí tái xià zǒu shàng lái gēn hái zi men yī qǐ zhào le xiàng.] (After watching the gymnastics performance, the headmaster and several PE teachers came up from the rostrum and took pictures with the children.) Example 203 我跟你们一块儿上山打猎去吧！[wǒ gēn nǐ men yī kuài er shàng shān dǎ liè qù ba!] (I’ll go hunting in the mountains with you!) Example 204 小孙子坐在我床边, 跟我讲了许多夏令营的事。[xiǎo sūn zi zuò zài wǒ chuáng biān, gēn wǒ jiǎng le xǔ duō xià lìng yíng de shì.] (My little grandson sat by my bed and told me a lot about the summer camp.) Example 205 近几年来有几个青年工人一直跟我学技术。[jìn jǐ nián lái yǒu jǐ gè qīng nián gōng rén yī zhí gēn wǒ xué jì shù.] (Several young workers have been learning skills from me in recent years.) Example 206 一路上, 我跟你讲了那么些道理, 都白说了。[yī lù shàng, wǒ gēn nǐ jiǎng le nà me xiē dào lǐ, dōu bái shuō le.] (Along the way, I told you so much, but all in vain.) Example 207 我跟他说过盖大楼的事。[wǒ gēn tā shuō guò gài dà lóu de shì.] (I told him something about the building.)

“跟 [gēn] (with)” is often combined with “一起 [yī qǐ] (together),” “一块 [yī kuài] (together)” to form the structures, such as “跟 . . . 一起 [gēn . . . yī qǐ] (together with),” “跟 . . . 一块 [gēn . . . yī kuài] (together with).” In the examples from 204 to 206, “跟 [gēn] (with)” sometimes can be replaced by “向 [xiàng] (to),” “对 [duì] (to),” “朝 [cháo] (to)” when it introduces the object of the action. 3

“跟 [gēn] (with)” can be used in the sentence indicating a certain comparison.

“跟 [gēn] (with)” introduces what is to be compared with. It is put after the subject and is followed by adjectives or verbs to express the result of the comparison, such as “相同 [xiāng tóng] (same),” “不同 [bù tóng] (different),” “一样 [yī yàng] (same),” “不一样 [bù yī yàng] (different),” “相似 [xiāng sì] (similar),”

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“相反 [xiāng fǎn] (opposite),” “相等 [xiāng děng] (equal),” and “差不多 [chà bù duō] (almost).” Example 208 这个字跟那个字的发音一样。[zhè gè zì gēn nà gè zì de fā yīn yī yàng.] (This word is pronounced the same as that word.) Example 209 三角形A跟三角形B相似。[sān jiǎo xíng A gēn sān jiǎo xíng B xiāng sì.] (The triangle A is similar to the triangle B.) Example 210 这篇文章跟那篇文章的观点恰好相反。[zhè piān wén zhāng gēn nà piān wén zhāng de guān diǎn qià hǎo xiāng fǎn.] (What this article says is contrary to what is said in that article.) Example 211 这里的气候跟我们国家的气候差不多。[zhè lǐ de qì hòu gēn wǒ men guó jiā de qì hòu chà bù duō.] (The climate here is very similar to that of our country.) Example 212 老人六十多岁了, 可他走起路来跟年轻人一样快。[lǎo rén liù shí duō suì le, kě tā zǒu qǐ lù lái gēn nián qīng rén yī yàng kuài.] (Although the old man is in his sixties, he walks as fast as a young man does.) Also, “跟 [gēn] (with)” can be followed by “比 [bǐ] (compare)” or “比较 [bǐ jiào] (compare).” And sometimes, “跟 . . . 相比/比较 [gēn . . . xiàng bǐ/bǐ jiào] (to compare with)” can be moved to the beginning of the sentence. Example 213 我们拿水跟铁比较一下儿, 一块铁, 不管放在什么地方, 它 的形状都不会改变, 水却不是这样, 水能流动。[wǒ men ná shuǐ gēn tiě bǐ jiào yī xià er, yī kuài tiě, bù guǎn fàng zài shén me dì fang, tā de xíng zhuàng dōu bú huì gǎi biàn, shuǐ què bú shì zhè yang, shuǐ néng liú dòng.] (Let’s compare water with iron. Iron, no matter where it is put, will not change shape, but water is not like this because water can flow.) Example 214 跟过去相比, 现在的生活好多了。[gēn guò qù xiāng bǐ, xiàn zài de shēng huó hǎo duō le.] (Compared with the past, life is much better now.) “和 [hé] (with),” “与 [yǔ] (with),” “同 [tóng] (with)” are also prepositions, similar to “跟 [gēn] (with)” both semantically and grammatically. Example 215 如果这一次落选了, 也许她终生就和音乐分手了。[rú guǒ zhè yī cì luò xuǎn le, yě xǔ tā zhōng shēng jiù hé yīn yuè fēn shǒu le.] (If she fails this time, maybe she’ll give up music all her life.) Example 216 他的经历和村上大多数人一样。[tā de jīng lì hé cūn shàng dà duō shù rén yī yàng.] (His experience is the same as that of most people in the village.) Example 217 我们这儿, 元旦的光景与除夕截然不同。[wǒ men zhè er, yuán dàn de guāng jǐng yǔ chú xī jié rán bù tóng.]

44 Prepositions (Here, the atmosphere of New Year’s Day is very different from that of New Year’s Eve.) Example 218 有的智能机器人能够学文化, 同人进行简单的对话。[yǒu de zhì néng jī qì rén néng gòu xué wén huà, tóng rén jìn xíng jiǎn dān de duì huà.] (Some intelligent robots can learn culture and have a simple conversation with humans.) Example 219 外国人学汉语, 同汉族人学汉语有许多不同的地方。[wài guó rén xué hàn yǔ, tóng hàn zú rén xué hàn yǔ yǒu xǔ duō bù tóng de dì fang.] (There are many differences between foreigners and Chinese in learning Chinese.) Comparatively speaking, “跟 [gēn] (with)” and “和 [hé] (with)” are more popular in the spoken language; “同 [tóng] (with)” and “与 [yǔ] (with)” are common in the written language. VI. 给 [gěi] (for), 为 [wèi] (for), 替 [tì] (for) 1

给 [gěi] (for)

“给 [gěi] (for)” is a derived preposition. In modern Chinese, “给 [gěi] (for)” is a verb as well as a preposition, due to which it possesses many meanings. (1) “给 [gěi] (for)” introduces the recipient of the action or the recipient of the object involved in the action. “给 [gěi] (for)” introduces the recipient of the object involved in the action. Example 220 老场长正在给林子里的树浇水。[lǎo chǎng zhǎng zhèng zài gěi lín zi lǐ de shù jiāo shuǐ.] (The head of the old yard is watering the trees in the woods.) (tree as the recipient of water) Example 221 我也给妹妹带来了几样礼物。[wǒ yě gěi mèi mèi dài lái le jǐ yàng lǐ wù.] (I also brought some gifts to my sister.) (young sister as the recipient of gift) Sometimes, the object of “给 [gěi] (for)” can be put after the verb as its complement. Example 222 那个制糖厂已经包给另外一个公司了。[nà gè zhì táng chǎng yǐ jīng bāo gěi lìng wài yī gè gōng sī le.] (The sugar factory has been contracted out to another company.) Example 223 劳驾, 请把我们的假条带给老师。[láo jià, qǐng bǎ wǒ men de jià tiáo dài gěi lǎo shī.] (Take our leave note to the teacher, please.)

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Example 224 农民们每年都交给国家一定数量的公粮, 也就是农业税。 [nóng mín men měi nián dōu jiāo gěi guó jiā yī dìng shù liàng de gōng liáng, yě jiù shì nóng yè shuì.] (Farmers should hand over a certain amount of public grain, that is, agricultural tax, to the state every year.) Example 225 请你把这封信转给有关的领导同志。[qǐng nǐ bǎ zhè fēng xìn zhuǎn gěi yǒu guān de lǐng dǎo tóng zhì.] (Please take this letter to the relevant leaders.) Example 226 这两本书我卖给你, 只收一块钱。[zhè liǎng běn shū wǒ mài gěi nǐ, zhǐ shōu yī kuài qián.] (I’ll sell you these two books for only one dollar.) “给 [gěi] (for)” can introduce the recipient of the action. When it is used in this way, it can be replaced with “向 [xiàng] (for).” Example 227 工厂的领导同志给你介绍了技术革新的情况。[gōng chǎng de lǐng dǎo tóng zhì gěi nǐ jiè shào le jì shù gé xīn de qíng kuàng.] (The factory leaders have introduced you to the technological innovation.) Example 228 老科学家给我们讲了许多科学幻想的小故事。[lǎo kē xué jiā gěi wǒ men jiǎng le xǔ duō kē xué huàn xiǎng de xiǎo gù shì.] (The old scientist told us many short science fiction stories.) Example 229 丈夫给我使了个眼色, 我马上给婆婆鞠了一个躬。[zhàng fū gěi wǒ shǐ le gè yǎn sè, wǒ mǎ shàng gěi pó pó jū le yī gè gōng.] (My husband gave me a hint with his eyes and I immediately bowed to my mother-in-law.) Example 230 没关系, 不要给我道歉了, 这点儿小事算什么？[méi guān xì, bú yào gěi wǒ dào qiàn le, zhè diǎn er xiǎo shì suàn shí me?] (Don’t apologize to me. It doesn’t matter at all for such a minor thing!) The verbs indicating a sense of transmitting information can be used in the sentence with the preposition “给 [gěi] (for).” They include: “说 [shuō] (say),” “讲 [jiǎng] (talk),” “解释 [jiě shì] (explain),” “讲解 [jiǎng jiě] (explain),” “介绍 [jiè shào] (introduce),” “反映 [fǎn yìng] (reflect),” “道歉 [dào qiàn] (apologize),” “敬礼 [jìng lǐ] (salute),” “拜年 [bài nián] (pay a new year call),” “鞠躬 [jū gōng] (bow),” “磕头 [kē tóu] (kowtow),” “下跪 [xià guì] (get down on one’s knees), “说 [shuō] (say),” “讲 [jiǎng] (talk),” “谈 [tán] (talk),” “推荐 [tuī jiàn] (recommend),” “介绍 [jiè shào] (introduce).” Among them, some verbs cannot take two objects, such as “说 [shuō] (say),” “讲 [jiǎng] (talk),” “谈 [tán] (talk),” “推荐 [tuī jiàn] (recommend),” “介绍 [jiè shào] (introduce).” Therefore, “给 [gěi] (for)” helps introduce the recipient of the action. Example 231 我给他介绍一个女朋友。[wǒ gěi tā jiè shào yī gè nǚ péng yǒu.] (I set him up with a girlfriend.) *我介绍他一个女朋友。[wǒ jiè shào tā yī gè nǚ péng yǒu.]

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Prepositions Example 232 我给你们讲一个故事。[wǒ gěi nǐ men jiǎng yī gè gù shì.] (Let me tell you a story.) *我讲你们一个故事。[wǒ jiǎng nǐ men yī gè gù shì.]

Grammatically, “道歉 [dào qiàn] (apologize),” “敬礼 [jìng lǐ] (salute),” “拜年 [bài nián] (pay a New Year call),” are regarded as verb-object phrases and cannot take another object besides their own. Therefore, “给 [gěi] (for)” is required here to introduce the recipient of the action. Example 233 我给老师鞠个躬。[wǒ gěi lǎo shī jū gè gōng.] (I bowed to my teacher.) *我鞠躬老师。[wǒ jū gōng lǎo shī.] (2) “给 [gěi] (for)” introduces the object to be served by the action. Example 234 我跟你谈谈心, 你给我解解心烦吧。[wǒ gēn nǐ tán tán xīn, nǐ gěi wǒ jiě jiě xīn fán ba.] (I want to have a heart-to-heart talk with you to help me out of my annoyance.) In the previous example, “我 [wǒ] (I)” is to be comforted by “你 [nǐ] (you)” through talking, and “我 [wǒ] (I)” is the object of this action. Example 235 那个少年抱起孩子, 给他抹去嘴上的血。[nà gè shào nián bào qǐ hái zi, gěi tā mǒ qù zuǐ shàng de xuè.] (The boy picked up the child and wiped the blood from his mouth.) (“he” as the object of the action) Example 236 请等一会儿, 我给你们拿酒去。[qǐng děng yī huì er, wǒ gěi nǐ men ná jiǔ qù.] (Just a moment, please. I’ll get you a drink.) (“you” as the object of the action) Sometimes, the object of “给 [gěi] (for)” is absent or even cannot be concretely confirmed. Example 237 黄大姐每天给接电话, 给找人, 从早忙到晚。[Huáng dà jiě měi tiān gěi jiē diàn huà, gěi zhǎo rén, cóng zǎo máng dào wǎn.] (Ms. Huang has always been busy, from morning to night, with answering the phone and contacting other people.) Example 238 劳驾, 给拿块肥皂。[láo jià, gěi ná kuài féi zào.] (Get me a bar of soap, please.) Example 239 对了, 劳驾您, 四爷, 你给倒杯水。[duì le, láo jià nín, Sì Yé, nǐ gěi dào bēi shuǐ.] (By the way, Fourth Master, give me a glass of water, please.) In the imperative sentence, “给我 [gěi wǒ] (for me)” means “必须为我服务 [bì xū wéi wǒ fú wù] (have to do something for me),” carrying a sense of being compelled or ordered.

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Example 240 都别急着走, 先给我到这边来, 还有里边的, 都给我出 来。[dōu bié jí zhe zǒu, xiān gěi wǒ dào zhè biān lái, hái yǒu lǐ biān de, dōu gěi wǒ chū lái.] (Don’t rush to leave now. All come here first, including those inside.) Example 241 为什么把我的东西都扔在地上？你给我捡起来。[wèi shén me bǎ wǒ de dōng xī dōu rēng zài dì shàng? nǐ gěi wǒ jiǎn qǐ lái.] (Why did you leave all my stuff on the ground? Pick it up for me.) Example 242 这时, 父亲气得脸色发青, 并大声对我说：“给我老实讲, 你还干了些什么” [zhè shí, fù qīn qì de liǎn sè fā qīng, bìng dà shēng duì wǒ shuō: “gěi wǒ lǎo shí jiǎng, nǐ hái gàn le xiē shén me?”] (At this moment, my father turned blue with anger and said loudly to me, “tell me the truth, what else have you done?”) (3) “给 [gěi] (for)” introduces the doer of the action, similar to “被 [bèi] (by)” in meaning. Therefore, it can be replaced with “被 [bèi] (by).” Such usage is common in oral expressions in the South of China. Example 243 这本字典都给他翻破了。[zhè běn zì diǎn dōu gěi tā fān pò le.] (The dictionary was well-worn by him.) Example 244 粮食给土匪抢走了, 房子也都给他们占去了。[liáng shi gěi tǔ fěi qiǎng zǒu le, fáng zi yě dōu gěi tā men zhàn qù le.] (Not only the food but also the house was taken by the bandits.) Example 245 好听的话都给他说尽了, 就是不见行动。[hǎo tīng de huà dōu gěi tā shuō jìn le, jiù shì bú jiàn xíng dòng.] (I’ve tried my best to persuade him with all the advantages, but he turned a deaf ear to my words.) Example 246 到了家里, 我就给父母姐弟等包围起来, 欣喜地问这问那。 [dào le jiā lǐ, wǒ jiù gěi fù mǔ jiě dì děng bāo wéi qǐ lái, xīn xǐ de wèn zhè wèn nà.] (When I got home, I was surrounded by various concerns from my eager parents, brothers, and sisters.) Sometimes, the object of “给 [gěi] (for)” is empty and cannot be easily complemented. Example 247 这些纸都给放黄了。[zhè xiē zhǐ dōu gěi fàng huáng le.] (These papers have been yellowed.) Example 248 大白菜给冻了。[dà bái cài gěi dòng le.] (The cabbage is frozen.) Example 249 圆珠笔给搁干了。[yuán zhū bǐ gěi gē gān le.] (The core of the ball-point pen dried up.) In this case, the doer of the action is probably a certain natural phenomenon, such as “天气 [tiān qì] (weather).”

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(4) “给 [gěi] (for)” introduces the recipient of the action conveyed by the predicate verb, similar to “把 [bǎ]” in meaning. Such usage is very oral and rarely happens. Example 250 听了这个消息, 给我急坏了。[tīng le zhè gè xiāo xī, gěi wǒ jí huài le.] (After hearing the news, I was so worried.) Example 251 这些谣言给他吓呆了, 太意外了。[zhè xiē yáo yán gěi tā xià dāi le, tài yì wài le.] (He was stunned by these unexpected rumors.) Example 252 劳驾, 你给这两个暖水瓶灌上水。[láo jià, nǐ gěi zhè liǎng gè nuǎn shuǐ píng guàn shàng shuǐ.] (Fill these two thermoses with water, please.) Example 253 爸爸, 你快给小狗叫回来, 它会给鹌鹑咬死的。[bà bà, nǐ kuài gěi xiǎo gǒu jiào huí lái, tā huì gěi ān chún yǎo sǐ de.] (Dad, call the puppy back; otherwise it will bite the quail to death.) “给 [gěi] (for)” may function as auxiliary word. Example 254 一个月的薪水让（被）他给输光了。[yī gè yuè de xīn shuǐ ràng (bèi) tā gěi shū guāng le.] (He lost out on a month’s salary.) Example 255 他把我刚写的论文给弄丢了。[tā bǎ wǒ gāng xiě de lùn wén gěi nòng diū le.] (He lost the paper I had just written.) 2

为 [wèi] (for), 为了 [wèi le] (for), 为着 [wèi zhe] (for)

(1) “为 [wèi] (for)” introduces the object to be served. Example 256 我们要绿化我们家园, 为子孙后代造福。[wǒ men yào lǜ huà wǒ men jiā yuán, wèi zǐ sūn hòu dài zào fú.] (We should green our homes for the sake of our future generations.) Example 257 你们为灾区的人民做了些什么？[nǐ men wèi zāi qū de rén mín zuò le xiē shén me?] (What have you done for the people in the disaster area?) Example 258 他生前为村里做了很多事, 死后大家自然很怀念他。[tā shēng qián wèi cūn lǐ zuò le hěn duō shì, sǐ hòu dà jiā zì rán hěn huái niàn tā.] (He had done a lot of things for the village during his life, and he would be certainly remembered after his death.) “为 [wèi] (for)” can be replaced with “替 [tì] (for).” Example 259 你的考试成绩这么好, 我真为你高兴。[nǐ de kǎo shì chéng jì zhè me hǎo, wǒ zhēn wèi nǐ gāo xìng.] (I’m so happy for how well you did on the exam.)

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Example 260 您不要为我担心, 一切都会好的。[nín bú yào wèi wǒ dān xīn, yī qiè dōu huì hǎo de.] (Don’t worry about me, and everything will be all right.) Example 261 你事业这么成功, 我真为你高兴。[nǐ shì yè zhè me chéng gōng, wǒ zhēn wèi nǐ gāo xìng.] (I’m so happy for your successful career.) (2) “为 [wèi] (for)” introduces the reason. Example 262 大家都为他比赛失利而感到惋惜。[dà jiā dōu wèi tā bǐ sài shī lì ér gǎn dào wǎn xī.] (Everyone felt sorry for his failure in the game.) Example 263 他从来没有为钱发过愁。[tā cóng lái méi yǒu wèi qián fā guò chóu.] (He has had no worries about money.) Example 264 看球的观众在为北京队队员高尚的风格鼓掌呢。[kàn qiú de guān zhòng zài wèi běi jīng duì duì yuán gāo shàng de fēng gé gǔ zhǎng ne.] (The spectators were applauding the Beijing team for their noble style.) Example 265 她曾为不公平的议论苦恼过, 但不去理它, 也就心安理得 了。[tā céng wèi bù gōng píng de yì lùn kǔ nǎo guò, dàn bú qù lǐ tā, yě jiù xīn ān lǐ dé le.] (She had been troubled by unfair remarks, but as long as she did not think about them, she was at ease.) (3) “为 [wèi] (for)” introduces the purpose or the target. Example 266 朋友们, 为我们的友谊干杯。[péng yǒu men, wèi wǒ men de yǒu yì gān bēi.] (My friends, let’s toast to our friendship.) Example 267 为朋友们的健康干杯。[wèi péng yǒu men de jiàn kāng gān bēi.] (Toast to the health of our friends.) Example 268 为此事, 我一直充满着歉意, 我是最反对伤害别人的自尊心 的。[wèi cǐ shì, wǒ yī zhí chōng mǎn zhe qiàn yì, wǒ shì zuì fǎn duì shāng hài bié rén de zì zūn xīn de.] (I’ve been full of apologies for this because I always hate to hurt people’s self-esteem.) Example 269 他为这些衣料花了一千多元。[tā wèi zhè xiē yī liào huā le yī qiān duō yuán.] (He spent more than a thousand yuan on the clothes.) (4) When introducing the purpose or the target, “为 [wèi] (for)” can be replaced with “为了 [wèi le] (for)” or “为着 [wèi zhe] (for).” Neither “了 [le]” nor “着

50 Prepositions [zhe]” after them is dynamic auxiliary word. The examples about “为了 [wèi le] (for)” are as follows. Example 270 为了她, 我可以牺牲一切。但是为了我, 她却什么都不愿意 做。[wèi le tā, wǒ kě yǐ xī shēng yī qiè. dàn shì wèi le wǒ, tā què shén me dōu bú yuàn yì zuò.] (I would like to sacrifice everything for her. But for me, she’s not willing to do anything.) Example 271 为了他的事业, 这位电影艺术家都四十多岁了, 还没有结 婚。[wèi le tā de shì yè, zhè wèi diàn yǐng yì shù jiā dōu sì shí duō suì le, hái méi yǒu jié hūn.] (Devoted to his career, this film artist still hasn’t gotten married in his forties.) Example 272 他为了达到自己的目的, 对她百般奉承。[tā wèi le dá dào zì jǐ de mù dí, duì tā bǎi bān fèng chéng.] (He flattered her in order to achieve his purpose.) Example 273 为了当一名话剧演员, 他每天背诵台词, 练习发音。[wèi le dāng yī míng huà jù yǎn yuán, tā měi tiān bèi sòng tái cí, liàn xí fā yīn.] (In order to be a drama actor, he recites his lines and practices pronunciation every day.) Example 274 为了实现这一目标, 他和他的助手们付出了常人意想不到 的一切。[wèi le shí xiàn zhè yī mù biāo, tā hé tā de zhù shǒu men fù chū le cháng rén yì xiǎng bú dào de yí qiè.] (In order to achieve this goal, he and his assistants did more than everyone could imagine.) Also, “为了 . . . [wèi le . . .] (for . . .)” can be repeated twice in a sentence. Example 275 为了方便, 也为了不再过多地打扰房东, 我自己立伙, 但所 用的锅灶却是他家的。[wèi le fāng biàn, yě wèi le bú zài guò duō de dǎ rǎo fáng dōng, wǒ zì jǐ lì huǒ, dàn suǒ yòng de guō zào què shì tā jiā de.] (For convenience and not to disturb the landlord too much, I set up a agreement with him to only use his pots and stove.) Example 276 为了自己的身体, 也为了不影响别人的健康, 你一定要戒 烟。[wèi le zì jǐ de shēn tǐ, yě wèi le bù yǐng xiǎng bié rén de jiàn kāng, nǐ yī dìng yào jiè yān.] (For your own health and others,’ you must quit smoking.) The examples about “为着 [wèi zhe] (for)” are as follows. Example 277 为着她自己的孩子, 后来她又嫁了两次。[wèi zhe tā zì jǐ de hái zi, hòu lái tā yòu jià le liǎng cì.] (She got married twice for the sake of her own child.) Example 278 为着我们美好的明天, 朋友们努力吧。[wèi zhe wǒ men měi hǎo de míng tiān, péng yǒu men nǔ lì ba.] (My friends, we should work hard for our bright future.)

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Example 279 他为着实现自己的理想, 忍受了许许多多难言之苦。[tā wèi zhe zì jǐ de lǐ xiǎng, rěn shòu le xǔ xǔ duō duō nán yán zhī kǔ.] (He endured unspeakable suffering in order to make his ideals come true.) “为 . . . [wèi . . .] (for . . .)” and “为了 . . . [wèi le . . .] (for . . .)” can function as an attribute and predicate. Example 280 这是为国为民的好事, 我能拦着他去做吗？[zhè shì wèi guó wèi mín de hǎo shì, wǒ néng lán zhe tā qù zuò ma.] (It benefits the country as well as the people. How can I stop him from doing it?) Example 281 母亲为了自己再婚的事, 好长时间心神不安, 睡不好 觉。[mǔ qīn wèi le zì jǐ zài hūn de shì, hǎo cháng shí jiān xīn shén bù ān, shuì bù hǎo jiào.] (Considering her remarriage, the mother was uneasy and couldn’t sleep well for a long time.) Example 282 现在我们搞绿化, 就是为了子孙后代的幸福。[xiàn zài wǒ men gǎo lǜ huà, jiù shì wèi le zǐ sūn hòu dài de xìng fú.] (Now we do afforestation for the happiness of our future generations.) 3

替 [tì] (for)

“替 [tì] (for)” is a verb as well as a preposition. When it is used as a verb, it means “替代 [tì dài] (replace)” and usually takes an object. Example 283 自己做的事自己负责, 谁也不能替谁。[zì jǐ zuò de shì zì jǐ fù zé, shuí yě bù néng tì shuí.] (One should be responsible for what has been done, and no one can take the place of others.) Example 284 三号球员受伤了, 四号上场替他。[sān hào qiú yuán shòu shāng le, sì hào shàng chǎng tì tā.] (No. 3 player is injured and No. 4 will play in his place.) When “替 [tì] (for)” is used as a preposition, it can have an additional noun or pronoun indicating people after itself, and then functions as an adverbial or as an attribute sometimes. (1) “替 [tì] (for)” introduces the object to be substituted. Example 285 今天张老师病了, 我替他上课。[jīn tiān Zhāng lǎo shī bìng le, wǒ tì tā shàng kè.] (Prof. Zhang was ill today. So I took his place in class.) Example 286 他是开明书店的经理, 替我租定了三间平房, 又替我买了些 家具。[tā shì kāi míng shū diàn de jīng lǐ, tì wǒ zū dìng le sān jiān píng fáng, yòu tì wǒ mǎi le xiē jiā jù.] (He was the manager of Kaiming Bookstore. He booked three bungalows for me and bought me some furniture.)

52 Prepositions Example 287 爷爷, 我会替你搓烟叶, 为你祷告上帝。[yé yé, wǒ huì tì nǐ cuō yān yè, wèi nǐ dǎo gào shàng dì.] (Grandpa, I’ll rub the tobacco for you and pray to God for you as well.) Example 288 说着, 他就划着一根火柴, 替道静点上了灯。[shuō zhe, tā jiù huá zhe yī gēn huǒ chái, tì dào jìng diǎn shàng le dēng.] (As he spoke, he struck a match and lit the lamp for Dao Jing.) Example 289 他们太欺负小王了, 我要替他说几句公道话。[tā men tài qī fù Xiǎo Wáng le, wǒ yào tì tā shuō jǐ jù gōng dào huà.] (They bullied Xiao Wang too much. So I would stand up for him.) (2) “替 [tì] (for)” introduces the object to be served, indicating “helping someone do something.” Example 290 当时船主常到大连去做生意, 我在船上替人家做饭。[dāng shí chuán zhǔ cháng dào dà lián qù zuò shēng yì, wǒ zài chuán shàng tì rén jiā zuò fàn.] (At that time, the shipowner used to go to Dalian for business, and I cooked for him on board.) Example 291 刚才你不在, 我替你接了一个电话, 王主任请你去一下 儿。[gāng cái nǐ bú zài, wǒ tì nǐ jiē le yī gè diàn huà, Wáng zhǔ rèn qǐng nǐ qù yī xià er.] (You missed a call just now. I answered it for you. It said that Director Wang wanted to see you.) Example 292 劳驾, 请顺便替我把这封信投到邮筒里。[láo jià, qǐng shùn biàn tì wǒ bǎ zhè fēng xìn tóu dào yóu tǒng lǐ.] (Drop this letter in the mailbox for me, please.) (3) “替 [tì] (for)” introduces the object involved. Example 293 你总是那么粗心大意, 我真替你担心将来会出大事的。 [nǐ zǒng shì nà me cū xīn dà yì, wǒ zhēn tì nǐ dān xīn jiāng lái huì chū dà shì de.] (You are always so careless that I am really worried that you will possibly make big mistakes.) Example 294 小明又得了全校数学比赛的冠军, 班上的同学都替他高 兴。[Xiǎo Míng yòu dé le quán xiào shù xué bǐ sài de guàn jun, bān shàng de tóng xué dōu tì tā gāo xìng.] (Xiao Ming won the first prize in the school math competition again. All the students in the class are happy for his success.) Example 295 小王要骑摩托车跨越黄河了, 乡亲们都替他捏一把汗。 [Xiǎo Wáng yào qí mó tuō chē kuà yuè huáng hé le, xiāng qīn men dōu tì tā niē yī bǎ hàn.] (Xiao Wang was going to cross the Yellow River by motorcycle, and the villagers are all worried about him.) In these examples, “替 [tì] (for)” can be replaced with “为 [wèi] (for).”

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(4) “给 [gěi] (for),” “为 [wèi] (for),” “替 [tì] (for)” differ obviously in meaning, although all of them can introduce the object. Example 296 小明给我发了一份传真。[Xiǎo Míng gěi wǒ fā le yī fèn chuán zhēn.] (Xiao Ming sent me a fax.) 小明为我发了一份传真。[Xiǎo Míng wèi wǒ fā le yī fèn chuán zhēn.] (Xiao Ming sent a fax for me.) 小明替我发了一份传真。[Xiǎo Míng tì wǒ fā le yī fèn chuán zhēn.] (Xiao Ming helped me in sending a fax.) However, these three prepositions can share the same meaning, if the noun after them introduces neither the recipient of the object involved in the action nor the reason. Example 297 孩子, 一定要给妈争口气。[hái zi, yī dìng yào gěi mā zhēng kǒu qì.] (Son, be sure to honor your mother.) 孩子, 一定要为妈争口气。[hái zi, yī dìng yào wèi mā zhēng kǒu qì.] (Son, be sure to honor your mother.) 孩子, 一定要替妈争口气。[hái zi, yī dìng yào tì mā zhēng kǒu qì.] (Son, be sure to honor your mother.) VII. 朝 [cháo] (face/toward), 向 [xiàng] (face/toward), 往 [wǎng] (go/toward) 1

朝 [cháo] (face/toward)

“朝 [cháo] (face/toward)” is a verb as well as a preposition. When it is used as a verb, it means “面对 [miàn duì] (face)” and takes an object indicating position. Example 298 我家住两间房, 一间朝南, 一间朝北[wǒ jiā zhù liǎng jiān fáng, yī jiān cháo nán, yī jiān cháo běi.] (My house has two rooms, one facing south and the other facing north.) Example 299 请大家脸朝前, 不要东张西望。[qǐng dà jiā liǎn cháo qián, bú yào dōng zhāng xī wàng.] (Please face forward. Don’t gaze around.) Example 300 谈话的时候, 你要脸朝着听话的人, 不要低着头不看人。 [tán huà de shí hòu, nǐ yào liǎn cháo zhe tīng huà de rén, bú yào dī zhe tóu bú kàn rén.] (You have to face the listeners when speaking, and don’t look down.) The prepositional phrase consisting of “朝 [cháo] (toward)” usually functions as an adverbial or attribute sometimes. (1) “朝 [cháo] (toward)” introduces the position that the action directs. Example 301 天开始亮了, 天边最亮处是行进的正前方, 这说明我们是朝 东走呢。[tiān kāi shǐ liàng le, tiān biān zuì liàng chù shì xíng jìn de zhèng qián fāng, zhè shuō míng wǒ men shì cháo dōng zǒu ne.]

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Prepositions (It began to get light and the brightest part of the sky was just straight head of our marching, which meant that we were heading east.) Example 302 小阿宝朝窗户看了几眼, 好像发现了什么。[Xiǎo Ā Bǎo cháo chuāng hù kàn le jǐ yǎn, hǎo xiàng fā xiàn le shén me.] (Little Bao glanced at the window as if he had found something.) Example 303 他朝远处一指, 我就朝他指的方向望过去。[tā cháo yuǎn chù yī zhǐ, wǒ jiù cháo tā zhǐ de fāng xiàng wàng guò qù.] (As soon as he pointed at the distance, I looked in that direction.) Example 304 我喊了一声“有车吗？”马上好几辆人力车都朝我们冲了过 来。[wǒ hǎn le yī shēng “yǒu chē ma?” mǎ shàng hǎo jǐ liàng rén lì chē dōu cháo wǒ men chōng le guò lái.] (I shouted, “rickshaw!” Immediately, several ones rushed toward me.)

(2) “朝 [cháo] (toward)” introduces the object of the action. The object introduced by “朝 [cháo] (toward)” mainly includes a noun or pronoun indicating people. Usually, the verbs after the object express human actions or behaviors, such as “笑 [xiào] (smile),” “招手 [zhāo shǒu] (wave one’s hand),” “挥手 [huī shǒu] (wave one’s hand),” “摆手 [bǎi shǒu] (wave one’s hand),” “点 头 [diǎn tóu] (nod),” “摇头 [yáo tóu] (shake one’s head),” “打招呼 [dǎ zhāo hū] (say hello to someone),” “说 [shuō] (say),” “喊 [hǎn] (shout),” “叫 [jiào] (shout),” “嚷 [rǎng] (shout),” “骂 [mà] (abuse).” Example 305 我朝弟弟大喊道：“快走, 要下雨了。” [wǒ cháo dì dì dà hǎn dào: “kuài zǒu, yào xià yǔ le.”] (I shouted to my brother, “Hurry up, it’s going to rain.”) Example 306 瘦小的车夫朝我说：“准保送您平安到家, 请上来吧。” [shòu xiǎo de chē fū cháo wǒ shuō: “zhǔn bǎo sòng nín píng ān dào jiā, qǐng shàng lái ba.”] (The thin driver of the rickshaw said to me, “I promise to send you home safely. Please get on it.”) Example 307 那天, 我偷着看你, 你朝我笑了笑。[nà tiān, wǒ tōu zhe kàn nǐ, nǐ cháo wǒ xiào le xiào.] (That day, I peeked at you, and you smiled at me.) Example 308 接过奖状, 我朝我的教练深深地鞠了一躬。[jiē guò jiǎng zhuàng, wǒ cháo wǒ de jiào liàn shēn shēn de jū le yī gōng.] (After taking the prize, I bowed deeply to my coach.) Example 309 您有话朝我说, 我是摊主, 人家都是顾客。[nín yǒu huà cháo wǒ shuō, wǒ shì tān zhǔ, rén jiā dōu shì gù kè.] (Just speak out your dissatisfaction to me because I am the owner of the stall and others are only customers.) 2

向 [xiàng] (face/toward)

Prepositions

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“向 [xiàng] (face/toward)” is a verb as well as a preposition. When it is used as a verb, it means “对着 [duì zhe] (face),” indicating a direction that a person or an entity faces. Example 310 他家的房子向东, 我家的房子向西。[tā jiā de fáng zi xiàng dōng, wǒ jiā de fáng zi xiàng xī.] (His house faces east, and my house faces west.) Example 311 这间房子向阳, 屋里特别亮。[zhè jiān fáng zi xiàng yáng, wū lǐ tè bié liàng.] (This house faces east and is very bright inside.) When “向 [xiàng] (toward)” is used as a preposition, it can connect a noun phrase or pronoun to form the prepositional phrase, indicating the direction or the object of the action. (1) “向 [xiàng] (toward)” introduces the direction or the target. Example 312 我抱着灯笼, 上身向前弯着, 怕让雨打湿了。[wǒ bào zhe dēng lóng, shàng shēn xiàng qián wān zhe, pà ràng yǔ dǎ shī le.] (Holding the lantern, I bent my upper body forward, shielding it from getting wet.) Example 313 船向着左右两边摇晃, 走得很慢。[chuán xiàng zhe zuǒ yòu liǎng biān yáo huǎng, zǒu de hěn màn.] (The boat swayed to the left and right, moving very slowly.) Example 314 她的嘴角微微向上挑起, 好像在微笑。[tā de zuǐ jiǎo wēi wēi xiàng shàng tiāo qǐ, hǎo xiàng zài wēi xiào.] (The corners of her mouth rose slightly upward, as if she was smiling.) Example 315 跑道上的运动员们正向终点冲去。[pǎo dào shàng de yùn dòng yuán men zhèng xiàng zhōng diǎn chōng qù.] (The athletes on the track are heading for the finish line.) Example 316 探照灯的光柱直向天空射去。[tàn zhào dēng de guāng zhù zhí xiàng tiān kōng shè qù.] (The beam of the searchlight pierced the sky.) (2) “向 [xiàng] (toward)” introduces the object of the action. Example 317 早晨, 那位小朋友碰到我时, 总要用英语向我问好。[zǎo chén, nà wèi xiǎo péng yǒu pèng dào wǒ shí, zǒng yào yòng yīng yǔ xiàng wǒ wèn hǎo.] (Every morning when the child meets me, he always says hello to me in English.) Example 318 借此机会, 我向朋友们拜年。[jiè cǐ jī huì, wǒ xiàng péng yǒu men bài nián.] (I take this opportunity to pay a New Year’s call on my friends.) Example 319 我们不能等待大自然的恩赐, 我们的任务是向大自然索取。 [wǒ men bù néng děng dài dà zì rán de ēn cì, wǒ men de rèn wù shì xiàng dà zì rán suǒ qǔ.] (We can’t wait for the gift of nature. Our task is to take it from nature.)

56 Prepositions Example 320 你不要向别人借钱。[nǐ bú yào xiàng bié rén jiè qián.] (Don’t borrow money from others.) Example 321 请你把事情的经过向大家说一下。[qǐng nǐ bǎ shì qíng de jīng guò xiàng dà jiā shuō yī xià.] (Please tell us what happened.) In this case, the verbs after “向 [xiàng] (toward)” usually are involved in the action of speaking. They include: “说 [shuō] (say),” “问 [wèn] (ask),” “道歉 [dào qiàn] (apologize),” “赔礼 [péi lǐ] (make an apology),” “提出 [tí chū] (put forward),” “打听 [dǎ tīng] (inquire about),” “诉说 [sù shuō] (tell),” “了解 [liǎo jiě] (understand),” “介绍 [jiè shào] (introduce),” “指出 [zhǐ chū] (point out),” “要求 [yāo qiú] (require),” “请求 [qǐng qiú] (request),” “表示 [biǎo shì] (show),” “报告 [bào gào] (report),” “要 [yào] (ask for),” “讨还 [tǎo huán] (get something back),” “借 [jiè] (borrow),” “学习 [xué xí] (learn),” “负责 [fù zé] (be responsible for).” (3) The prepositional phrase consisting of “向 [xiàng] (toward)” can be put after the verb to function as an adverbial. Example 322 我赶紧走向前, 拉住了他, 没撞上车, 好危险啊。[wǒ gǎn jǐn zǒu xiàng qián, lā zhù le tā, méi zhuàng shàng chē, hǎo wēi xiǎn ā.] (I hurried forward and pulled him back. He fortunately escaped from being hit by the car. How dangerous it was!) Example 323 现在有些科学家又把目光投向无穷无尽的宇宙。[xiàn zài yǒu xiē kē xué jiā yòu bǎ mù guāng tóu xiàng wú qióng wú jìn de yǔ zhòu.] (Now some scientists are interested in researching the endless universe.) 3

往 [wǎng] (go/toward)

“往 [wǎng] (go/toward)” is a verb as well as a preposition. When it is used as preposition, it introduces the direction of the action. Example 324 你往前走, 前边儿有卖花的。[nǐ wǎng qián zǒu, qián biān er yǒu mài huā de.] (Go straight and the flower peddler is not far from here.) Example 325 股票的行市直往下落, 股民们纷纷往外抛手里的股票。 [gǔ piào de háng shì zhí wǎng xià luò, gǔ mín men fēn fēn wǎng wài pāo shǒu lǐ de gǔ piào.] (The stock market went down and down, and the shareholders threw out the shares in their hands.) Example 326 我们也是往北京大学方向去的, 咱们搭伴走吧。[wǒ men yě shì wǎng běi jīng dà xué fāng xiàng qù de, zán men dā bàn zǒu ba.] (We are also heading for Peking University. Let’s go together.) Example 327 您不要总往坏里想, 吓唬自己。[nín bú yào zǒng wǎng huài lǐ xiǎng, xià hǔ zì jǐ.] (Don’t get scared by always thinking of the disadvantages.)

Prepositions

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Example 328 关于他的表现, 我们尽量替他往好里说。[guān yú tā de biǎo xiàn, wǒ men jǐn liàng tì tā wǎng hǎo lǐ shuō.] (With respect to his performance, we try to speak about the good side.) 4

Differences among “朝 [cháo] (toward),” “向 [xiàng] (toward),” “往 [wǎng] (toward)”

(1) Although all of them can take the direction of the action as their object, they still differ in use. Both “朝 [cháo] (toward)” and “向 [xiàng] (toward)” take objects that include locational words or nouns indicating person or thing, such as “朝 我点头 [cháo wǒ diǎn tóu] (nod at me),” “向图书馆走 [xiàng tú shū guǎn zǒu] (go toward the libarary).” “往 [wǎng] (toward)” takes the locative as its object, such as “上 [shàng] (above),” “下 [xià] (below),” “里 [lǐ] (inside),” 外 [wài] (outside).” If the object of “往 [wǎng] (toward)” is a noun, “方向 [fāng xiàng] (direction)” or “那边 [nà biān] (over there)” should be added, such as “往图书 馆的方向走 [wǎng tú shū guǎn de fāng xiàng zǒu] (walk toward the library),” “你往火车站那边找。[nǐ wǎng huǒ chē zhàn nà biān zhǎo.] (You look for it toward the train station.),” “往他那个方向跑去。[wǎng tā nà gè fāng xiàng pǎo qù.] (He ran in that direction.).” Sometimes, the object of “往 [wǎng] (toward)” is the location where the action conveyed by verb happens, such as “往自己脸上贴金 [wǎng zì jǐ liǎn shàng tiē jīn] (blow one’s own trumpet),” “往头上浇冷水 [wǎng tóu shàng jiāo lěng shuǐ] (pour cold water on one’s head),” “把缺点错误往自己身上揽 [bǎ quē diǎn cuò wù wǎng zì jǐ shēn shàng lǎn] (put shortcomings or mistakes on oneself),” “把 成绩功劳往他人身上推 [bǎ chéng jì gōng láo wǎng tā rén shēn shàng tuī] (give credit for your achievements to others),” “往怀里搂 [wǎng huái lǐ lǒu] (hug in one’s arms).” Neither “朝 [cháo] (toward)” nor “向 [xiàng] (toward)” can be used in this way. More similar examples are as follows. Example 329 老房里还挂着我们亲家的家谱, 供着祖宗的灵位, 这些东 西, 拆了老屋, 往哪里摆呢？[lǎo fáng lǐ hái guà zhe wǒ men qìng jiā de jiā pǔ, gòng zhe zǔ zōng de líng wèi, zhè xiē dōng xī, chāi le lǎo wū, wǎng nǎ lǐ bǎi ne.] (In the old room still hung the genealogy of our own family and the room enshrined the memorial tablets of our ancestors. Where should these things be placed, if we pulled down the old house?) Example 330 桌子上放着很多钱, 他大把大把地往兜里揣。[zhuō zi shàng fàng zhe hěn duō qián, tā dà bǎ dà bǎ de wǎng dōu lǐ chuāi.] (Seeing a lot of money on the table, he pocketed it by handfuls.) (2) “朝 [cháo] (toward)” and “向 [xiàng] (toward)” can introduce the object of the action but “往 [wǎng] (toward)” cannot, such as “朝我点点头 [cháo wǒ diǎn diǎn tóu] (nodding at me),” “朝我笑笑 [cháo wǒ xiào xiào] (smiling at me),” “向我们招手 [xiàng wǒ men zhāo shǒu] (waving at me),” “向您致敬 [xiàng nín zhì jìng] (saluting to you),” “向我们青年人召唤 [xiàng wǒ men

58 Prepositions qīng nián rén zhào huàn] (calling on the youth).” Here, “朝 [cháo] (toward)” or “向 [xiàng] (toward)” cannot be replaced with “往 [wǎng] (toward).” VIII. 除 [chú] (except) “除 [chú] (except)” is a preposition, referring to “excluding.” Semantically, it is similar to “除了 [chú le] (except),” “除开 [chú kāi] (except)” and “除去 [chú qù] (except).” And among them, “除了 [chú le] (except)” is the commonest. “除 了 [chú le] (except)” takes objects that include noun (phrase), pronoun, verb (phrase), adjective (phrase), and subject-predicate phrase. “除了 [chú le] (except)” often connects a locative, such as “外 [wài],” “之外 [zhī wài]” or “以外 [yǐ wài],” to produce “除了 . . . 以外/之外/外 [chú le . . . yǐ wài/zhī wài/wài] (except).” This form can be used to imply two different meanings. 1

“除了 . . . 以外/之外/外 [chú le . . . yǐ wài/zhī wài/wài] (except)” implies “except for” or “excluding.”

In this case, “. . . 都/全 [. . . dōu/quán]” is required to appear in the following affirmative clause, in order to match with “除了 [chú le] (except)” in the preceding clause. Example 331 这里是佛国, 除了七八家店铺, 全是寺院。[zhè lǐ shì fó guó, chú le qī bā jiā diàn pù, quán shì sì yuàn.] (This is the country of Buddhism; except for seven or eight shops, there are monasteries everywhere.) Example 332 除了面积稍小点儿外, 这套房子一切都很好。[chú le miàn jī shāo xiǎo diǎn er wài, zhè tào fáng zi yī qiè dōu hěn hǎo.] (Except for a smaller room, everything about the house is fine.) Example 333 学员注册名单上有29人, 除了约翰以外, 其余的全都登录在 上边了。[xué yuán zhù cè míng dān shàng yǒu 29 rén, chú le Yuē hàn yǐ wài, qí yú de quán dōu dēng lù zài shàng biān le.] (There should be 29 names on the student registration list. Except for John’s, the rest of the names are checked in here.) Example 334 这座古老的城市, 除了西边那部分之外, 都是三百年以上的 古建筑。[zhè zuò gǔ lǎo de chéng shì, chú le xī biān nà bù fèn zhī wài, dōu shì sān bǎi nián yǐ shàng de gǔ jiàn zhù.] (Except for its western part, this old city has preserved the ancient buildings of more than three hundred years.) In these examples, the entire sentences keep the consistency of the things involved by the predicate verbs, excluding those mentioned by “除了 [chú le] (except).” For example, “七八家店铺 [qī bā jiā diàn pù] (seven or eight shops)” after “除了 [chú le] (except)” is excluded and “这里全是寺院 [zhè lǐ quán shì sì

Prepositions

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yuàn] (there are monasteries everywhere)” is affirmed. The same is true to the rest of the previous examples. Besides, the following clause where “. . . 都/全 [. . . dōu/quán]” appear can be negative also. Example 335 除了几句安慰的话外, 她什么也不能够带给淑贞。[chú le jǐ jù ān wèi de huà wài, tā shén me yě bù néng gòu dài gěi Shū Zhēn.] (She could bring nothing to Shu Zhen except for a few words of comfort.) Example 336 除了他以外, 班里同学谁也没买这本书。[chú le tā yǐ wài, bān lǐ tóng xué shuí yě méi mǎi zhè běn shū.] (Except for him, no students in the class bought the book.) Example 337 我周末除了休息以外, 不做什么事。[wǒ zhōu mò chú le xiū xī yǐ wài, bú zuò shén me shì.] (I do nothing but rest on weekends.) Example 338 除了丈夫和她的两个小心肝, 她的心里几乎什么都没有。 [chú le zhàng fū hé tā de liǎng gè xiǎo xīn gān, tā de xīn lǐ jī hū shén me dōu méi yǒu.] (Except for her husband and her two children, there was nothing in her mind.) 2

“除了 . . . 以外/之外/外 [chú le . . . yǐ wài/zhī wài/wài] (except)” implies “besides.” In this case, the object of “除了 [chú le] (except)” is also included in what is declared by the predicate. “还 [hái] (also),” “也 [yě] (also),” “又 [yòu] (also)” can match with “除了 [chú le] (except)” to express the same meaning. Example 339 这个村里有本事的人, 除了王大姐还有你。[zhè gè cūn lǐ yǒu běn shì de rén, chú le Wáng dà jiě hái yǒu nǐ.] (Besides you, Ms. Wang is another one of the talented people in this village.) This example implies “both Ms. Wang and you are qualified.” Example 340 这些家具, 除了我自己买的, 也有我母亲留给我的。[zhè xiē jiā jù, chú le wǒ zì jǐ mǎi de, yě yǒu wǒ mǔ qīn liú gěi wǒ de.] (Besides the furniture I bought myself, my mother also left some to me.) Example 341 他除了学习规定的课程外, 还参加了两项科研活动。[tā chú le xué xí guī dìng de kè chéng wài, hái cān jiā le liǎng xiàng kē yán huó dòng.] (Besides the compulsory courses, he also took part in two scientific research activities.) Example 342 乡下人除了吃饭穿衣外, 他们在生活里, 也需要说说唱唱, 鸟语花香。[xiāng xià rén chú le chī fàn chuān yī wài, tā men zài shēng huó lǐ, yě xū yào shuō shuō chàng chàng, niǎo yǔ huā xiāng.] (Besides eating and dressing, rural people also need leisure and a colorful life.)

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Prepositions Example 343 法院处理叫他赔偿人家的损失外, 又判了他两年徒刑。[fǎ yuàn chŭ lǐ jiào tā péi cháng rén jiā de sŭn shī wài, yòu pàn le liǎng nián tú xíng.] (Besides being asked to pay damages, he has been sentenced to a two-year imprisonment by the court.)

It can be seen that “还 [hái] (also),” “也 [yě] (also),” “又 [yòu] (also)” further complement what is mentioned by “除了 [chú le] (except).” “除此以外 [chú cǐ yǐ wài] (except)” can also further complement a narrative paragraph. Example 344 他是一个球迷, 几乎天天参加各种业余排球赛, 除此以外, 他还有不少兴趣和爱好, 他喜欢周末时弹钢琴, 拉二胡。[tā shì yī gè qiú mí, jǐ hū tiān tiān cān jiā gè zhǒng yè yú pái qiú sài, chú cǐ yǐ wài, tā hái yǒu bù shǎo xìng qù hé ài hǎo, tā xǐ huān zhōu mò shí tán gāng qín, lā èr hú.] (He is a volleyball fan and keeps himself busy with all kinds of amateur volleyball matches all day. In addition, he has many other interests and hobbies, such as playing the piano or playing the erhu on weekends.) IX. 连 [lián] (and/even) “连 [lián] (and/even)” is a verb as well as a preposition. When it is used as a preposition, it is very similar to “甚至 [shèn zhì] (even)” in meaning. It can not only connect with a noun (phrase), pronoun, or verb (phrase) to form prepositionobject phrase but also match with “也 [yě] (also)” or “都 [dōu] (even)” to form “. . . 也/都 [. . . yě/dōu] (. . . also/even).” “连 [lián] (even)” introduces the contrastive focus of a certain topic. In other words, the object of “连 [lián] (even)” is the focus, indicating a particular example, and then a general situation or conclusion is drawn after it. Example 345 你的意思连我这个大老粗都听懂了, 那些文化水平高的人 肯定更听懂了。[nǐ de yì sī lián wǒ zhè gè dà lǎo cū dōu tīng dǒng le, nà xiē wén huà shuǐ píng gāo de rén kěn dìng gèng tīng dǒng le.] (Even I, so-called uneducated, knew what you meant, let alone those welleducated ones.) In this example, “我这个大老粗 [wǒ zhè gè dà lǎo cū] (even I, so-called uneducated)” is the contrastive focus and the entire sentence implies “since it can be understood by me, such an uneducated person, there is no problem for those welleducated ones to understand it.” 1

The object of “连 [lián] (even)” in “连 . . . 也/都 . . . [lián . . . yě/dōu] (even . . . also . . .)”

(1) The object of “连 [lián] (even)” can be the doer of the action and “连 [lián] (even)” stands before the subject.

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Example 346 连我母亲也支持我, 让我离开家去创业。[lián wǒ mǔ qīn yě zhī chí wǒ, ràng wǒ lí kāi jiā qù chuàng yè.] (Even my mother supported me to leave home to start a business.) Example 347 这女孩唱完第二首歌, 连声乐专家王教授都点头称赞。 [zhè nǚ hái chàng wán dì èr shǒu gē, lián shēng yuè zhuān jiā Wáng jiào shòu dōu diǎn tóu chēng zàn.] (After her second song, the girl’s performance was even praised by Prof. Wang, a vocalist.) Example 348 比赛那天连六七十岁的老人都来了。[bǐ sài nà tiān lián liù qī shí suì de lǎo rén dōu lái le.] (The old men of around sixty or seventy years even came here on the day of the game.) Example 349 这个简单的道理, 连小孩子都懂。[zhè gè jiǎn dān de dào lǐ, lián xiǎo hái zi dōu dǒng.] (Even children know this simple truth.) (2) The object of “连 [lián] (even)” can be the recipient of the action and “连 [lián] (even)” stands between the subject and predicate. Example 350 妈妈连一件像样的过冬的衣服都没有。[mā mā lián yi jiàn xiàng yàng de guò dōng de yī fú dōu méi yǒu.] (My mother doesn’t even have a decent winter dress.) Example 351 他连一张便条都不肯写。[tā lián yī zhāng biàn tiáo dōu bù kěn xiě.] (He refused to write anything, even a note.) Example 352 他救了我, 可是我连他叫什么名字也没有问。[tā jiù le wǒ, kě shì wǒ lián tā jiào shén me míng zì yě méi yǒu wèn.] (He saved my life, but I didn’t even have a chance to ask his name.) Example 353 你连这样的好姑娘也不要, 你要谁呀。[nǐ lián zhè yàng de hǎo gū niáng yě bú yào, nǐ yào shuí ya.] (You even refused such a good girl! Who else do you want?) 2

“连 [lián] (even)” before the overlapped verb

When “连 [lián] (even)” is followed by the overlapped verb, this combination can stand between the subject and predicate, indicating that “the minimum requirement is not satisfied yet.” Example 354 我这里的情况, 他连问都没有问, 还谈什么关心呢？[wǒ zhè lǐ de qíng kuàng, tā lián wèn dōu meí yǒu wèn, hái tán shén me guān xīn ne?] (He didn’t even ask me about my situation here, what else could he care about me?) This example implies that minimum concern about my situation is not satisfied yet.

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Prepositions Example 355 她接到信后, 连看也没看, 就跑去上课了。[tā jiē dào xìn hòu, lián kàn yě méi kàn, jiù pǎo qù shàng kè le.] (After receiving the letter, she ran to class even without reading it.)

This implies that she is too busy to read the letter. More similar examples are as follows. Example 356 老先生看见那幅山水画, 连考虑也没有考虑, 就喊了一声 好。[lǎo xiān shēng kàn jiàn nà fú shān shuǐ huà, lián kǎo lǜ yě méi yǒu kǎo lǜ, jiù hǎn le yī shēng hǎo.] (The old gentleman couldn’t help cheering when seeing that landscape painting, even without a second thought.) Example 357 这种菜只生在南方, 北方人连见都没有见过。[zhè zhǒng cài zhǐ shēng zài nán fāng, běi fāng rén lián jiàn dōu méi yǒu jiàn guò.] (This vegetable only grows in the south so the northerners have never seen it.) 3

“连 . . . 也/都 . . . [lián . . . yě/dōu] (even . . . also . . .)” can function as an attribute Example 358 这儿是一片连野草也不生长的荒野。[zhè er shì yī piàn lián yě cǎo yě bù shēng zhǎng de huāng yě.] (It is a wilderness where no weeds grow.) Example 359 这本书是一位连中学都没念完的工人写的。[zhè běn shū shì yī wèi lián zhōng xué dōu méi niàn wán de gōng rén xiě de.] (The book was written by a worker who had not even finished his middle school learning.) Example 360 连汉字都没见过的人, 怎么会写汉字呢？[lián hàn zì dōu méi jiàn guò de rén, zěn me huì xiě hàn zì ne.] (How is it possible for a person to write Chinese characters, if he or she hasn’t seen a Chinese character before?) Example 361 你想, 一个连味道好坏都尝不出来的人, 怎么算得上美食家 呢？[nǐ xiǎng, yī gè lián wèi dào hǎo huài dōu cháng bù chū lái de rén, zěn me suàn de shàng měi shí jiā ne?] (How is it possible for a person to be a gourmet, if he or she doesn’t taste the food?)

In this case, the structural auxiliary word “的 [de]” is necessarily required after “连 . . . 也/都 . . . [lián . . . yě/dōu] (even . . . also . . .).” X. 按照 [àn zhào] (according to), 按 [àn] (according to), 照 [zhào] (according to) “按照 [àn zhào] (according to)” is a preposition and it introduces a regulation, condition, or standard. The prepositional phrase consisting of “按照 [àn zhào] (according to)” can function as an adverbial. “按照 [àn zhào] (according to)” can

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be simplified into “按 [àn] (according to)” or “照 [zhào] (according to)” without changing anything. Comparatively speaking, “照 [zhào] (according to)” is more oral than “按照 [àn zhào] (according to)” and “按 [àn] (according to).” 1

按照 [àn zhào] (according to) Example 362 我们的教学进度要按照教学计划进行。[wǒ men de jiào xué jìn dù yào àn zhào jiào xué jì huà jìn xíng.] (Our teaching progress is to be carried out according to the teaching plan.) Example 363 您提的方案符合实际, 我们的图纸就是按照您的方案设计 的。[nín tí de fāng àn fú hé shí jì, wǒ men de tú zhǐ jiù shì àn zhào nín de fāng àn shè jì de.] (The scheme you put forward is in line with the reality, and our drawings have been designed according to your scheme.) Example 364 按照规定, 应试者还要唱一支外国歌。[àn zhào guī dìng, yìng shì zhě hái yào chàng yī zhī wài guó gē.] (According to the rules, the candidate has to sing a foreign song.) Example 365 我想按照这条蓝裙子的样子, 再做一条花的。[wǒ xiǎng àn zhào zhè tiáo lán qún zi de yàng zi, zài zuò yī tiáo huā de.] (I’d like to make a floral skirt, according to the pattern of this blue one.)

2

按 [àn] (according to) Example 366 每辆公共汽车都要按规定的数量运载乘客, 不得超载。 [měi liàng gōng gòng qì chē dōu yào àn guī dìng de shù liàng yùn zǎi chéng kè, bù dé chāo zǎi.] (Each bus is required to carry a specified number of passengers and shall not be overloaded.) Example 367 按我的判断, 昨天的地震不超过五级。[àn wǒ de pàn duàn, zuó tiān de dì zhèn bù chāo guò wǔ jí.] (In my judgment, the magnitude of the earthquake yesterday was no more than five.) Example 368 我们一定要按原定计划办事, 除非发生意外情况。[wǒ men yī dìng yào àn yuán dìng jì huà bàn shì, chú fēi fā shēng yì wài qíng kuàng.] (We must stick to the original plan unless something unexpected happens.) Example 369 下棋, 按现在的话来说, 是为了交流棋艺, 增进友谊。[xià qí, àn xiàn zài de huà lái shuō, shì wèi le jiāo liú qí yì, zēng jìn yǒu yì.] (For today’s session, playing chess is for the purpose of exchanging the art of chess and improving relationships among the people.) Example 370 按眼下的行情, 这张画至少值五千多元。[àn yǎn xià de háng qíng, zhè zhāng huà zhì shǎo zhí wǔ qiān duō yuán.] (At present market prices, this picture is worth at least more than five thousand yuan.)

64 Prepositions 3

照 [zhào] (according to) Example 371 有一天, 妻子对丈夫说：“咱们应该照大多数的家庭那样生 活, 不要天天吵了。[yǒu yī tiān, qī zi duì zhàng fū shuō: “zán men yīng gāi zhào dà duō shù de jiā tíng nà yàng shēng huó, bú yào tiān tiān chǎo le.”] (One day, the wife said to her husband, “we should stop quarreling and live a peaceful life like most normal families.”) Example 372 照你这种说法, 中国人把家里最小的孩子叫老小, 是吗？ [zhào nǐ zhè zhǒng shuō fǎ, zhōng guó rén bǎ jiā lǐ zuì xiǎo de hái zi jiào Lǎo Xiǎo, shì ma?] (In your opinion, the youngest child at home is called “Lao Xiao” in China, right?) Example 373 我们照着您的办法去做了, 试验还真成功了。[wǒ men zhào zhe nín de bàn fǎ qù zuò le, shì yàn hái zhēn chéng gōng le.] (We did it in the way you told us, and the experiment really succeeded.) Example 374 他照着他师傅的模型, 自己又做了一个。[tā zhào zhe tā shī fu de mó xíng, zì jǐ yòu zuò le yī gè.] (He followed the model of his master worker and made another one by himself.) Example 375 我想照你的衣服的样子做一件。[wǒ xiǎng zhào nǐ de yī fu de yàng zi zuò yī jiàn.] (I’d like to make a dress, according to the pattern of your clothes.)

4

“按照 . . . 来说 [àn zhào . . . lái shuō] (according to),” “按照 . . . 说来 [àn zhào . . . shuō lái] (according to)” or “照 . . . 说 [zhào . . . shuō] (according to)” Example 376 这些事情, 按理说, 应该由主任处理。[zhè xiē shì qíng, àn lǐ shuō, yīng gāi yóu zhǔ rèn chŭ lǐ.] (Ordinarily speaking, these things should be dealt with by the director.) Examples 377 按理来说, 这些事情应该由他负责处理。[àn lǐ lái shuō, zhè xiē shì qíng yīng gāi yóu tā fù zé chŭ lǐ.] (Ordinarily speaking, he should be in charge of these matters.) Example 378 照道理说, 父母不应该不管孩子, 可是这个孩子的情况有些 特殊。[zhào dào lǐ shuō, fù mǔ bù yīng gāi bù guǎn hái zi, kě shì zhè gè hái zi de qíng kuàng yǒu xiē tè shū.] (According to the facts, parents are supposed to take care of their children, but this child is an exception.) Example 379 小王和小李两个人, 按能力说, 小王占优势, 按人品来说, 小 王不如小李。[Xiǎo Wáng hé Xiǎo Lǐ liǎng gè rén, àn néng lì shuō, Xiǎo Wáng zhàn yōu shì, àn rén pǐn lái shuō, Xiǎo Wáng bù rú Xiǎo Lǐ.] (Compared to Xiao Li, Xiao Wang has more advantage in his abilities; as far as moral quality is concerned, Xiao Wang is not as good as Xiao Li.)

Both “按 . . . 说 [àn . . . shuō] (according to)” and “照 . . . 说 [zhào . . . shuō] (according to)” in Example 377 and Example 378 mean “按/照道理说 [à/zhào dào lǐ shuō] (according to the fact).

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Bibliography Chen Jiong and Xu Haoliang. 1984. Study on “对” Sentence and “对.” Chinese Language Learning, 3rd Issue. Cui Xiliang. 1993. Pragmatic Analysis of Chinese “连” Sentence. Studies of the Chinese Language, 3rd Issue. Cui Yonghua. 1984. An Analysis of Sentence Pattern “连 . . . . . . 也/都 . . . . . .” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 4th Issue. Fan Ganliang. 1990. A Study on “向,” “往,” “朝” and Other Related Prepositions. Journal of Yantai University, 4th Issue. Fan Xiao. 1987. Grammatical Meanings of Prepositional Phrase “给+Noun.” Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue. Li Linding. 1985. A Brief Introduction to Use of Prepositional Phrases. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 3rd Issue. Liu Danqing and Xu Liejiong. 1998. Focus and Background, Topic and “连” Sentence in Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 4th Issue. Liu Ningsheng. 1984. Semantic Orientations of Preposition Structure “在 . . .” at the Beginning of a Sentence. Chinese Language Learning, 2nd Issue. Shen Kaimu. 1998. Exploration of “除” Sentence. Chinese Language Learning, 2nd Issue. Sheng Jiliang. 1986. Discussion on “关于 . . .” After Subject. Chinese Language Learning, 6th Issue.

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Conjunctions

Conjunctions belong to function words. A conjunction can connect two words, phrases, or even clauses, expressing different relations, such as coordinating relation (A and B), alternative relation (A or B), cause and effect. A conjunction cannot independently perform as a sentence constituent but it can function alone, such as “和 [hé] (and)” and “或者 [huò zhě] (or).” Besides, it can be used in a pair, such as “因为 . . . 所以 . . . [yīn wéi . . . suǒ yǐ] (because),” “不但 . . . 而且 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě] (not only . . . but also).” Some conjunctions can connect paragraphs and discourses.

Section one: enumeration of conjunctions The number of conjunctions is big in Chinese, some of which connect words or phrases and some of which connect clauses. The relations denoted by conjunction can be generally divided into two: coordinative relation and modifier-core relation. Conjunctions indicating the former relation are coordinating conjunctions (coordinators) and those indicating the latter relation are modifier-core conjunctions. The commonly used conjunctions are shown in Appendix Four.

Section two: grammatical features of conjunctions I. Possessing the general features of function words Conjunctions belong to function words and possess their general features. 1 2

Conjunctions don’t have actual lexical meanings but express certain grammatical meanings. Conjunctions cannot perform as sentence constituents.

Although they belong to the same category, conjunctions are different from adverbs and prepositions. Some adverbs can perform as sentence constituents to function alone as adverbials; some prepositional phrases consisting of prepositions and nouns or pronouns can serve as sentence constituents to function as an adverbial as well as an attribute. However, conjunctions simply

Conjunctions 67 connect words, phrases, and clauses, indicating various relations of what are connected. 3

Conjunctions cannot be used alone to respond to questions.

II. Differences from adverbs and prepositions 1

Differences between conjunctions and adverbs

Some conjunctions can match with some adverbs to indicate certain relations. These adverbs also play the role of connection in the sentence. Example 1 如果你去, 我就去。[rú guǒ nǐ qù, wǒ jiù qù.] (If you go, I’ll go.) In the this compound sentence, “就 [jiù] (also)” is an adverb and plays a role of connection. Even if the conjunction “如果 [rú guǒ] (if)” is omitted, the original meaning of the sentence won’t be influenced. However, if “就 [jiù] (also)” or both “如果 [rú guǒ] (if)” and “就 [jiù] (also)” are absent at the same time, the sentence can have different meanings, as follows. Example 2 如果你去, 我就去。[rú guǒ nǐ qù, wǒ jiù qù.] (If you go, I’ll go.) 你去, 我就去。[nǐ qù, wǒ jiù qù.] (If you go, I’ll go.) 你去, 我也去。[nǐ qù, wǒ yě qù.] (If you go, I’ll go, too.) 你去, 还是我去？[nǐ qù, hái shì wǒ qù?] (Will you go or shall I?) Thus it can be seen that “就 [jiù]” plays a key role of connection. Example 3 无论谁听到这个消息都会很高兴。[wú lùn shuí tīng dào zhè gè xiāo xī dōu huì hěn gāo xìng.] (Whoever heard this news would be happy.) In the previous example, the meaning of the sentence will not be changed if the conjunction “无论 [wú lùn] (no matter)” is absent. However, if both “无论 [wú lùn] (no matter)” and the adverb “都 [dōu] (all)” are absent, the original sentence will be changed into a question: “谁听到这个消息会很高兴? [shuí tīng dào zhè gè xiāo xī huì hěn gāo xìng?] (Who would be happy after hearing this news?).” Then, can these adverbs that play the role of connection be categorized as conjunctions? The answer is no. The reason is that conjunction can stand either before the subject or after the subject, but adverbs of this type are only allowed to appear after the subject or just before the predicate verb or adjective. Such

68 Conjunctions adverbs include “就 [jiù] (also),” “都 [dōu] (all),” “也 [yě] (also)” and “又 [yòu] (again),” “再 [zài] (again),” “还 [hái] (as well),” “却 [què] (yet),” “便 [biàn] (then).” Based on their stable positions in the sentence, they are still categorized as adverbs. 2

Differences between conjunctions and prepositions

“跟 [gēn] (with/and),” “和 [hé] (with/and),” “同 [tóng] (with/and),” “与 [yǔ] (with/and)” are multi-category words of preposition and conjunction. Then, how to distinguish their different properties or semantic meanings? (1) The constituents connected by a conjunction are in parallel. That is to say, their positions can be changed. Example 4 我跟方强都会英语。[wǒ gēn Fāng Qiáng dōu huì yīng yǔ.] (Both Fang Qiang and I can speak English.) Example 5 长久以来, 海员和渔民们多么希望能在礁顶上设一座航标灯 呀！[cháng jiǔ yǐ lái, hǎi yuán hé yú mín men duō me xī wàng néng zài jiāo dǐng shàng shè yī zuò háng biāo deng ya!] (The seafarers and fishermen have desperately wished for a beacon light on the top of the reef!) In these examples, two constituents connected by “跟 [gēn] (and)” or “和 [hé] (and)” can change their positions without changing the sentence meaning. Therefore, “跟 [gēn] (and)” and “和 [hé] (and)” are conjunctions here, connecting two constituents of equal syntactic importance in the sentence. “我 [wǒ] (I)”and “方 强 [Fāng Qiáng] (Fang Qiang)” are subjects; “海员 [hǎi yuán] (seafarers)” and “渔民们[yú mín men] (fishmen)” are subjects, too. Therefore, “跟 [gēn] (and)” and “和 [hé] (and)” can be replaced with a slight-pause mark “、” in the written language. Example 6 小燕昨天只跟小青说了这件事。[Xiǎo Yàn zuó tiān zhǐ gēn Xiǎo Qīng shuō le zhè jiàn shì.] (Xiao Yan only told this thing to Xiao Qing yesterday.) Example 7 看, 胖胖跑的速度和走差不多。[kàn, pàng pàng pǎo de sù dù hé zǒu chà bù duō.] (Look, Pang Pang runs as fast as he walks.) In these examples, the positions of 小燕 [Xiǎo Yàn] (Xiao Yan)” and “小青 [Xiǎo Qīng] (Xiao Qing)” cannot be changed; otherwise, the speaker would be changed into the listener. Similarly, if “跑 [pǎo] (run)” and “走 [zǒu] (walk)” change their positions, the meaning of the original sentence will be totally changed. Thus it can be seen that the two constituents before and after the preposition are of different syntactic importance rather than in parallel. The prepositions “跟 [gēn] (with)” and “和 [hé] (with)” are not directly related to the words in front but to the nouns following, with which prepositional phrases are formed. These

Conjunctions 69 formed phrases function as adverbials to modify verbs or adjectives in the rear. Here, “、” cannot substitute “跟 [gēn] (with)” or “和 [hé] (with).” (2) Other modifying constituents cannot be added before conjunctions. Conjunctions, “跟 [gēn] (with),” “和 [hé] (with),” “同 [tóng] (with)” and “与 [yǔ] (with)” don’t accept other modifying constituents before them. For instance, “从前 [cáng qián] (in the past)” cannot be added before “跟 [gēn] (with)” in Example 4; but the preposition, “跟 [gēn] (with),” similar to “只 [zhǐ] (only)” in Example 6, “和[hé] (with)” in Example 7, may accept “确实 [què shí] (indeed)” or “简直 [jiǎn zhí] (virtually)” before it without changing the sentence meaning. This acceptance is due to the fact that the prepositional phrase can be modified by other words. (3) As conjunctions, “跟 [gēn] (and)” and “和 [hé] (and)” allow “都 [dōu] (all)” to follow two constituents they connect, so as to generalize what are connected; but as prepositions, they cannot. In Example 5 “都 [dōu] (all)” can be added to generalize two subjects of “海 员 [hǎi yuán] (seafarers)” and “渔民们 [yú mín men] (fishmen)”; but “都 [dōu] (all)” cannot appear after “小青 [Xiǎo Qīng] (Xiao Qing)” in Example 6 or after “走 [zǒu] (walk)” in Example 7.

Section three: usage of commonly used conjunctions I. 和 [hé] (and) “和 [hé] (and)” is a coordinating conjunction, which connects words and phrases, but not clauses. Therefore, it is improper to say in Chinese like this “*我父亲是工程师, 和我母亲是医生。[wǒ fù qīn shì gōng chéng shī, hé wǒ mǔ qīn shì yī shēng.]” or “*下午我复习了语法, 和做了练习。[xià wǔ wǒ fù xí le yǔ fǎ, hé zuò le liàn xí.].” 1

“和 [hé] (and)” often connects nouns, nominal phrases, and pronouns Example 1 长江和黄河是中国最大的两条河。[cháng jiāng hé huáng hé shì zhōng guó zuì dà de liǎng tiáo hé.] (The Yangtze River and the Yellow River are the two largest rivers in China.) Example 2 去年的十月和今年的三月他都出差去上海了。[qù nián de shí yuè hé jīn nián de sān yuè tā dōu chū chāi qù shàng hǎi le.] (He went to Shanghai on a business trip last October and this March.) Example 3 他和我都是华侨。[tā hé wǒ dōu shì huá qiáo.] (Both he and I are overseas Chinese.) Example 4 这个花瓶和那个花瓶都很好看。[zhè gè huā píng hé nà gè huā píng dōu hěn hǎo kàn.] (Both two vases are beautiful.)

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If the coordinating constituents are more than two, “和 [hé] (and)” is usually moved to the middle of the last two. Example 5 铁、石头的性质都是固体。[tiě, shí tóu de xìng zhì dōu shì gù tǐ.] (Both iron and stone are solid in nature.) Example 6 这个班有美国、日本、荷兰和尼泊尔等几个国家的学生。[zhè gè bān yǒu měi guó, rì běn, hé lán hé ní bó ěr děng jǐ gè guó jiā de xué shēng.] (The students in this class are from several countries, such as the United States, Japan, the Netherlands, and Nepal.) 2

“和 [hé] (and)” connects adjectives (phrases) or verbs functioning as subjects, objects, or attributes

(1) The coordinating adjectives or verbs can function as subjects or objects, including the objects of preposition. Example 7 他的聪明和勤奋都足以使他的理想成为现实。[tā de cōng míng hé qín fèn dōu zú yǐ shǐ tā de lǐ xiǎng chéng wéi xiàn shí.] (His cleverness and diligence are enough to make his dreams come true.) (as the subject) Example 8 我为故乡的人民感到幸福和骄傲。[wǒ wèi gù xiāng de rén mín gǎn dào xìng fú hé jiāo ào.] (I feel happy about and proud of the people in my hometown.) (as the object) Example 9 她作画是为了表达对正义和幸福的向往。[tā zuò huà shì wèi le biǎo dá duì zhèng yì hé xìng fú de xiàng wǎng.] (She painted to express her yearning for justice and happiness.) (as the prepositional object) Example 10 李勇对游泳、滑冰和射击都很感兴趣, 很有研究。[Lǐ Yǒng duì yóu yǒng, huá bīng hé shè jī dōu hěn gǎn xìng qù, hěn yǒu yán jiū.] (Li Yong is very interested in swimming, skating, and shooting, and knows a lot about them.) (as the prepositional object) Example 11 那些在旧路上走惯了的年轻人, 在走上新的生活道路的时候, 总会摇摆和反复。[nà xiē zài jiù lù shàng zǒu guàn le de nián qīng rén, zài zǒu shàng xīn de shēng huó dào lù de shí hòu, zǒng huì yáo bǎi hé fǎn fù.] (Those young people who used to follow the beaten track will always show irresolution when heading for a new life.) (as the object of volitive verb) (2) The coordinating verbs (phrases) or adjectives (phrases) can function as attributes. Example 12 这在母亲心里是多么惨痛悲哀和无可奈何的事啊！[zhè zài mǔ qīn xīn lǐ shì duō me cǎn tòng bēi āi hé wú kě nài hé de shì ā!] (How sad and helpless it was in my mother’s mind!) Example 13 教师应该大力培养学生的阅读和写作能力。[jiào shī yīng gāi dà lì péi yǎng xué shēng de yuè dú hé xiě zuò néng lì.]

Conjunctions 71 (The teacher should make great efforts to develop students’ reading and writing skills.) Example 14 语文是学好各门知识和从事各种工作的基本工具。[yǔ wén shì xué hǎo gè mén zhī shí hé cóng shì gè zhǒng gōng zuò de jī běn gōng jù.] (Chinese is the basic tool to help people learning and doing in different fields.) Example 15 现在会说和能听懂普通话的人越来越多。[xiàn zài huì shuō hé néng tīng dǒng pǔ tōng huà de rén yuè lái yuè duō.] (Now more and more people can speak and understand Mandarin.) (3) “和 [hé] (and)” can connect two coordinating predicate verbs and then as a whole constituent, they take the same object or complement after them, or share the same modifier in front. In this case, the verbs or adjectives (modifiers) are usually disyllabic. Example 16 政府大力提倡和推行环境保护。[zhèng fǔ dà lì tí chàng hé tuī xíng huán jìng bǎo hù.] (The government vigorously advocates and promotes environmental protection.) (the same object) Example 17 这篇小说酝酿和创作于1950年。[zhè piān xiǎo shuō yùn niàng hé chuàng zuò yú 1950 nián.] (This novel was conceived and written in 1950.) (the same complement) Example 18 他也不像他见到的许多义军首领那样肤浅和粗以。[tā yě bú xiàng tā jiàn dào de xǔ duō yì jun shǒu lǐng nà yàng fū qiǎn hé cū yǐ.] (He was not as shallow or crude as those insurrectionary leaders he had seen.) (the same adverbial) Example 19 近年来, 民用机场越来越庞大、复杂和现代化了。[jìn nián lái, mín yòng jī chǎng yuè lái yuè páng dà, fù zá hé xiàn dài huà le.] (In recent years, civil airports have become more and more large, integrated, and modern.) (the same adverbial sharing “了 [le]” together) Example 20 他很激动, 因为过去自己的劳动从没被人重视和关心过。 [tā hěn jī dòng, yīn wéi guò qù zì ji de láo dòng cóng méi bèi rén zhòng shì hé guān xīn guò.] (He was very excited because his work in the past has never been valued and cared for.) (sharing the same “过 [guò]”) “与 [yǔ] (and),” “跟 [gēn] (and)” and “同 [tóng] (and)” are similar to “和 [hé] (and)” in use. “与 [yǔ] (and)” is more popular in the written language. “跟 [gēn] (and)” commonly appears in the north of China and “同 [tóng] (and)” in Central China. Comparatively speaking, “和 [hé] (and)” is more common in both the written and spoken language. II. 及 [jí] (and), 以及 [yǐ jí] (and) “及 [jí] (and)” and “以及 [yǐ jí] (and)” are coordinating conjunctions.

72 Conjunctions 1

及 [jí] (and) “及 [jí] (and)” connects nouns (phrases), without pause or a comma in the middle. Example 21 这个时候的上海滩, 画家及收藏家们正掀起一股晚明、清初 名画家石涛热。[zhè gè shí hòu de shàng hǎi tān, huà jiā jí shōu cáng jiā men zhèng xiān qǐ yī gǔ wǎn míng, qīng chū míng huà jiā Shí Tāo rè.] (At this time in Shanghai Beach, painters and collectors had a fervor for Shi Tao, a famous painter in the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty.) Example 22 茶经分三卷, 卷上讲茶的起源、性状、名称, 采茶、制茶的 用具及茶叶的种类和制茶方法, 卷中列举煮茶、饮茶的器具, 卷下讲烹 茶的方法, 各地水质的优劣及饮茶的习俗等。[chá jīng fēn sān juàn, juàn shàng jiǎng chá de qǐ yuán, xìng zhuàng, míng chēng, cǎi chá, zhì chá de yòng jù jí chá yè de zhǒng lèi hé zhì chá fāng fǎ, juàn zhōng liè jǔ zhǔ chá, yǐn chá de qì jù, juàn xià jiǎng pēng chá de fāng fǎ, gè dì shuǐ zhì de yōu liè jí yǐn chá de xí sú děng.] (“The Classics on Tea” are divided into three volumes: the first volume introduces many aspects of tea, including its origin, characters and names, tea-leaf picking, tea-making utensils, types of tea, and methods of making tea; the middle volume lists the utensils for boiling and drinking tea; the last volume talks about the methods of brewing tea, water quality in various places, and the customs of drinking tea, etc.)

2

以及 [yǐ jí] (and)

“以及 [yǐ jí] (and)” mainly connects noun phrases, verb phrases or may link nouns and clauses. A pause or a comma is allowed to appear before “以及 [yǐ jí] (and).” Example 23 这个电影反映了一个职员做好事却经常不被人理解, 以及由 此引起的一系列故事。[zhè gè diàn yǐng fǎn yìng le yī gè zhí yuán zuò hǎo shì què jīng cháng bú bèi rén lǐ jiě, yǐ jí yóu cǐ yǐn qǐ de yí xì liè gù shì.] (The film tells a series of stories about a clerk who does good but is often misunderstood by others.) Example 24 我们开会、做报告、写文章, 以及做任何工作都是为了解决 问题。[wǒ men kāi huì, zuò bào gào, xiě wén zhāng, yǐ jí zuò rèn hé gōng zuò dōu shì wèi le jiě jué wèn tí.] (We hold meetings, make reports, write articles; everything we do is to solve problems.) Example 25 统筹法的实用范围极为广泛, 在企业管理和基本建设中, 以及 关系复杂的科研项目的组织与管理中, 都可以应用。[tǒng chóu fǎ de shí yòng fàn wéi jí wéi guǎng fàn, zài qǐ yè guǎn lǐ hé jī běn jiàn shè zhōng, yǐ jí guān xì fù zá de kē yán xiàng mù de zǔ zhī yǔ guǎn lǐ zhōng, dōu kě yǐ yìng yòng.] (Overall planning methods can be applied in a large practical range from enterprise management and capital construction to organization and management of complex scientific research projects.)

Conjunctions 73 Example 26 他在实践中学会了春种、秋收、养猪、喂牛以及开拖拉机 等劳动技能。[tā zài shí jiàn zhōng xué huì le chūn zhòng, qiū shōu, yǎng zhū, wèi niú yǐ jí kāi tuō lā jī děng láo dòng jì néng.] (In practice, he learned various labor skills, such as spring sowing, autumn harvesting, raising pigs, feeding cattle, and driving a tractor.) Example 27 更令我吃惊的是, 讲课时所涉及的引语, 他竟能说出它们出 自某书, 某版本以及出版年月, 甚至页数。[gèng lìng wǒ chī jīng de shì, jiǎng kè shí suǒ shè jí de yǐn yǔ, tā jìng néng shuō chū tā men chū zì mǒu shū, mǒu bǎn běn yǐ jí chū bǎn nián yuè, shèn zhì yè shù.] (To my surprise, he was able to tell exactly from where the quotation was taken, like from which book, in which edition, the year of publication, and even the pages.) “及 [jí] (and)” and “以及 [yǐ jí] (and)” can appear in a sentence simultaneously. And they are usually used in the middle of the last two words or phrases. Example 28 世纪及20世纪前半期的作家的作品, 以及当代的作品可以多 读, 对学习英语和写作有好处。[19 shì jì jí 20 shì jì qián bàn qī de zuò jiā de zuò pǐn, yǐ jí dāng dài de zuò pǐn kě yǐ duō dú, duì xué xí yīng yǔ hé xiě zuò yǒu hǎo chù.] (The works from the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, as well as those contemporary ones, can be read extensively, which is beneficial to English learning and writing.) “及 [jí] (and)” and “以及 [yǐ jí] (and)” can differentiate the constituents they connect. Example 29 参加今天大会的有国家领导人、政府各部门负责人、工人、 农民、学生和解放军的代表, 以及各国驻华使节、外资企业代表和外国 友好人士。[cān jiā jīn tiān dà huì de yǒu guó jiā lǐng dǎo rén, zhèng fǔ gè bù mén fù zé rén, gōng rén, nóng mín, xué shēng hé jiě fàng jūn de dài biǎo, yǐ jí gè guó zhù huá shǐ jié, wài zī qǐ yè dài biǎo hé wài guó yǒu hǎo rén shì.] (People attending today’s meeting include state leaders, heads of government departments, workers, farmers, students, and representatives of the People’s Liberation Army, as well as envoys from various countries in China, representatives of foreign-funded enterprises and foreign friends.) In the previous example, “以及 [yǐ jí] (and)” differentiates Chinese from foreigners at the conference. Example 30 关于工业、农业及科技、教育方面存在的问题今年下半年 都要解决。[guān yú gōng yè, nóng yè jí kē jì, jiāo yù fāng miàn cún zài de wèn tí jīn nián xià bàn nián dōu yào jiě jué.] (The problems about industry, agriculture, technology, and education should be solved in the second half of this year.)

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In this example, “及 [jí] (and)” divides “industry” and “agriculture” into one issue, and “science and technology” and “education” into the other one. III. 或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or) “或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” is an alternative conjunction, connecting different constituents, words, phrases, or even clauses or sentences. 1

“或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” connects words Example 31 在一定条件下, 液体的东西也可以变成固体或气体。[zài yí dìng tiáo jiàn xià, yè tǐ de dōng xī yě kě yǐ biàn chéng gù tǐ huò qì tǐ.] (Under certain conditions, liquid can also be changed into a solid or gas state.) Example 32 关于这个题目, 你最好看看前人是不是已经有过类似的或相 反的结论。[guān yú zhè gè tí mù, nǐ zuì hǎo kàn kàn qián rén shì bú shì yǐ jīng yǒu guò lèi sì de huò xiāng fǎn de jié lùn.] (With regard to this topic, you’d better investigate whether the relevant conclusions, similar or opposite, have been drawn previously.) Example 33 如果你能每天或者经常翻阅一下这方面的资料, 那将很有好 处。[rú guǒ nǐ néng měi tiān huò zhě jīng cháng fān yuè yí xià zhè fāng miàn de zī liào, nà jiāng hěn yǒu hǎo chù.] (It will be very beneficial to you if you can review this information very often or every day.) Example 34 这一屋子书, 老王一上午能整理出一半或者三分之一就不错 了。[zhè yī wū zi shū, Lǎo Wáng yī shàng wǔ néng zhěng lǐ chū yī bàn huò zhě sān fēn zhī yī jiù bú cuò le.] (Considering all the books in this room, it would be a tough job for Lao Wang to sort out half or a third of them in one morning.)

2

“或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” connects phrases (words and phrases) Example 35 勤劳的小虎子放学回家总要先做些挑水或捡柴火之类的家 务劳动, 然后才开始做功课。[qín láo de Xiǎo Hǔ zi fàng xué huí jiā zǒng yào xiān zuò xiē tiāo shuǐ huò jiǎn chái huǒ zhī lèi de jiā wù láo dòng, rán hòu cái kāi shǐ zuò gōng kè.] (Xiao Huzi is very industrious. He always does some housework, like carrying water or collecting firewood before doing his homework when he comes home from school.) Example 36 这个门向里推或者向外拉都可以。[zhè gè mén xiàng lǐ tuī huò zhě xiàng wài lā dōu kě yǐ.] (The door can be pushed inward or outward.) Example 37 王医生说这种病痊愈至少要半年或者更长的时间。[Wáng yī shēng shuō zhè zhǒng bìng quán yù zhì shǎo yào bàn nián huò zhě gèng cháng de shí jiān.] (Dr. Wang said it would take at least half a year or more to recover from the disease.)

Conjunctions 75 Example 38 星期日或者下班以后, 人们都喜欢到这个公园来玩儿。 [xīng qī rì huò zhě xià bān yǐ hòu, rén men dōu xǐ huān dào zhè gè gōng yuán lái wán er.] (People like to go to the park for fun on Sunday or after work.) Example 39 至于修辞格, 只好比作在领子或袖口上滚了道花边, 或者在 胸前别个纪念章之类的, 是锦上添花的性质。[zhì yú xiū cí gé, zhǐ hǎo bǐ zuò zài lǐng zi huò xiù kǒu shàng gǔn le dào huā biān, huò zhě zài xiōng qián bié gè jì niàn zhāng zhī lèi de, shì jǐn shàng tiān huā de xìng zhì.] (Figures of speech just function as decoration, like the icing on the cake, like the lace on the collar or the cuff, or a badge on the chest.) 3

“或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” connects clauses or sentences Example 40 这样, 为什么人的问题他们就还是没有解决, 或者没有明确 地解决。[zhè yàng, wèi shén me rén de wèn tí tā men jiù hái shì méi yǒu jiě jué, huò zhě méi yǒu míng què de jiě jué.] (In this way, the issue about people hasn’t been solved yet or at least explicitly.) Example 41 知道某个字的发音, 忘了怎么写, 或者会读某个词, 不知道它的 意思, 可以用音序检字法。[zhī dào mǒu gè zì de fā yīn, wàng le zěn me xiě, huò zhě huì dú mǒu gè cí, bù zhī dào tā de yì sī, kě yǐ yòng yīn xù jiǎn zì fǎ.] (The indexing system for Chinese characters by phonetic sequence helps when someone only knows how to pronounce a character but not its spelling, or how to read a term but not its meaning.) Example 42 工作之余, 我们常常全家到公园畅叙, 或者到戏院看戏, 那时 的戏院也是聊天的场所。[gōng zuò zhī yú, wǒ men cháng cháng quán jiā dào gōng yuán chàng xù, huò zhě dào xì yuàn kàn xì, nà shí de xì yuàn yě shì liáo tiān de chǎng suǒ.] (In our spare time, our family often goes to the park for a cheerful chat, or goes to the theatre which is also a place to chat.) Example 43 要解决问题, 一定要自己下去, 或者是请下面的人上来。 [yào jiě jué wèn tí, yī dìng yào zì jǐ xià qù, huò zhě shì qǐng xià miàn de rén shàng lái.] (To solve the problem, you must investigate it by yourself, or listen to the masses’ opinions about it.)

Sometimes, two or more “或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” can appear simultaneously in a sentence. Example 44 明天或者你来, 或者我去, 怎么都行。[míng tiān huò zhě nǐ lái, huò zhě wǒ qù, zěn me dōu xíng.] (It’s O.K. whether you’ll come or I’ll go tomorrow.) Example 45 杠杆的主要作用或者省力, 或者省距离, 或者改变用力方 向。[gàng gǎn de zhǔ yào zuò yòng huò zhě shěng lì, huò zhě shěng jù lí, huò zhě gǎi biàn yòng lì fāng xiàng.]

76

Conjunctions (The main function of the lever is to save effort, or to shorten distance, or to change the direction of force.)

Although “还是 [hái shì] (still)” is another alternative conjunction, it is different from “或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or).” “还是 [hái shì] (or)” is used to pose an alternative question; “或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or)” is used in the declarative sentence. Example 46 老何, 我心里有点儿疑惑, 这茶叶到底是真的还是假的？ [Lǎo Hé, wǒ xīn lǐ yǒu diǎn er yí huò, zhè chá yè dào dǐ shì zhēn de hái shì jiǎ de?] (Lao He, I am a little confused whether the tea is real or not?) Example 47 您要长袜还是短袜？[nín yào cháng wà hái shì duǎn wà?] (Do you want stockings or socks?) Example 48 你想吃中餐还是西餐？[nǐ xiǎng chī zhōng cān hái shì xī cān?] (Would you like Chinese food or Western food?) Sometimes, “还是 [hái shì] (or)” makes the clause sound like a question, even though the entire sentence is declarative. Example 49 从他说话的语气来看, 他是同意还是不同意, 这不是很明显 吗！[cóng tā shuō huà de yǔ qì lái kàn, tā shì tóng yì hái shì bù tóng yì, zhè bú shì hěn míng xiǎn ma!] (Does he agree or disagree? Isn’t it obvious from the tone of his speech?) Example 50 你是中国人还是日本人, 我真看不出来。[nǐ shì zhōng guó rén hái shì rì běn rén, wǒ zhēn kàn bù chū lái.] (I cannot really see whether you are Chinese or Japanese.) IV. 与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than), 宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather) Both of them are alternative conjunctions and they often match with each other to express two choices. The choice after “与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than)” is the negative one; the choice after “宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather)” is the affirmative one. In fact, neither of two choices is ideal. Besides, “与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than)” and “宁 可 [nìng kě] (would rather)” can match with “不如 [bù rú] (not as good as)” and “也不 [yě bù] (nor)” respectively, to show two choices. “宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather)” can be used alone to indicate the affirmative choice. 1

“与其 [yǔ qí] A, 宁可 [nìng kě] B (would rather A . . . than B)”

“与其 [yǔ qí] A, 宁可 [nìng kě] B (would rather A . . . than B)” is one of the commonly used forms to indicate two choices. A stands for the negative choice and B for the affirmative choice, although neither of them is the best one. “宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather)” carries a sense of willingness. Example 51 我决心已定：与其屈膝投降, 宁可粉身碎骨。[wǒ jué xīn yǐ dìng: yǔ qí qū xī tóu jiàng, nìng kě fěn shēn suì gǔ.]

Conjunctions 77 (I am determined that I would rather be smashed to pieces than bend my knees and surrender.) Example 52 与其生产一大堆残品, 宁可少生产一些, 但质量高一些。 [yǔ qí shēng chǎn yī dà duī cán pǐn, nìng kě shǎo shēng chǎn yī xiē, dàn zhì liàng gāo yī xiē.] (It is better to produce a few goods of higher quality rather than produce a lot of defective goods.) Example 53 与其低声下气求人家来帮忙, 我宁可自己加班加点。[yǔ qí dī shēng xià qì qiú rén jiā lái bāng máng, wǒ nìng kě zì jǐ jiā bān jiā diǎn.] (Instead of begging for help in a servile voice, I’d rather work overtime by myself.) Example 54 导演想, 这一伟大形象与其叫一个不合适的演员来演, 宁可 采取暗场处理。[dǎo yǎn xiǎng, zhè yī wěi dà xíng xiàng yǔ qí jiào yī gè bù hé shì de yǎn yuán lái yǎn, nìng kě cǎi qǔ àn chǎng chŭ lǐ.] (The director thought that instead of choosing an inappropriate actor for this great figure, he would rather it not be acted out but revealed in narration.) 2

“与其 [yǔ qí] A, 不如 [bù rú] B (would rather A . . . than B)

It is another form to indicate two choices, similar to the previous one. Differently, “与其 [yǔ qí] A, 不如 [bù rú] B (would rather A . . . than B)” expresses a certain view rather than a wish. Here, A stands for the negative choice; B stands for the affirmative choice, although neither of them is satisfactory. Example 55 与其给敌人干事, 不如让敌人杀死。[yǔ qí gěi dí rén gàn shì, bù rú ràng dí rén shā sǐ.] (Instead of working for the enemy, it is better to be killed by them.) Example 56 喜儿说；“与其在黄世仁家挨打受骂, 不如逃到山里去。” [Xǐ ér shuō: “yǔ qí zài Huáng Shì rén jiā āi dǎ shòu mà, bù rú táo dào shān lǐ qù.”] (Xier said, “instead of being beaten and scolded at Huang Shiren’s, it is better to flee to the mountains.”) Example 57 涓生认为与其一同毁灭, 不如分道扬镳, 各自去谋求生路。 [Juān Shēng rèn wéi yǔ qí yī tóng huǐ miè, bù rú fēn dào yáng biāo, gè zì qù móu qiú shēng lù.] (Juan Sheng thought that instead of being destroyed together, it was better to go their separate ways and seek their own ways to live.) Some adverbs, such as “倒 [dào],” “还 [hái],” “真 [zhēn],” can be put before “不如 [bù rú] (not as good as)” in this form. Example 58 天气这么好, 与其待在家里休息, 倒不如出去走走。[tiān qì zhè me hǎo, yǔ qí dāi zài jiā lǐ xiū xī, dào bù rú chū qù zǒu zǒu.] (It is better to go out for a walk on such a nice day rather than staying idly at home.) Example 59 这辆旧自行车与其这么一次一次地修理, 真不如换辆新的。 [zhè liàng jiù zì xíng chē yǔ qí zhè me yī cì yī cì de xiū lǐ, zhēn bù rú huàn liàng xīn de.]

78 Conjunctions (Instead of repairing this old bicycle again and again, it is better to replace it with a new one.) Example 60 这本 “日俄词典” 与其放在我这儿用不上, 还不如送给你用 吧。[zhè běn rì é cí diǎn yǔ qí fàng zài wǒ zhè er yòng bú shàng, hái bù rú sòng gěi nǐ yòng ba.] (This Japanese-Russian dictionary is not necessary for me, it is better to give it to you.) “说 [shuō]” is often added after “与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than)” and “不如 [bù rú] (not as good as),” to further assert a certain view of the speaker. Example 61 我本想留他多住几天, 与其说使他老人家得到一点享受, 还 不如说使我自己得到一点安慰。[wǒ běn xiǎng liú tā duō zhù jǐ tiān, yǔ qí shuō shǐ tā lǎo rén jiā dé dào yī diǎn xiǎng shòu, hái bù rú shuō shǐ wǒ zì jǐ dé dào yī diǎn ān wèi.] (I wanted to keep him for a few more days, not for further comforting him but for myself actually.) Example 62 他的病房并不宽大, 写字台上堆满了信件、书报。与其说是 病房, 倒不如说是一间书房。[tā de bìng fáng bìng bù kuān dà, xiě zì tái shàng duī mǎn le xìn jiàn, shū bào. yǔ qí shuō shì bìng fáng, dào bù rú shuō shì yī jiān shū fáng.] (His ward was not large, with the desk covered with letters and newspapers. This was not so much a ward as a study.) Example 63 与其说小捷天资聪敏, 倒不如说他刻苦勤奋。[yǔ qí shuō Xiǎo Jié tiān zī cōng mǐn, dào bù rú shuō tā kè kǔ qín fèn.] (Xiao Jie is diligent rather than smart.) Besides “宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather)” or “不如 [bù rú] (not as good as),” “与 其 [yǔ qí] (rather than)” can match with “宁愿 [nìng yuàn] (would rather)” or “宁 肯 [nìng kěn] (would rather)” to strengthen a wish or will. Example 64 与其让同志替自己承担任务, 他宁愿带病坚持工作。[yǔ qí ràng tóng zhì tì zì jǐ chéng dān rèn wù, tā nìng yuàn dài bìng jiān chí gōng zuò.] (Rather than let other comrades take on the task for himself, he would rather persist in working while ill.) Example 65 与其向国家伸手求援, 给国家增加困难, 他们宁肯自己艰苦 奋斗、自力更生。[yǔ qí xiàng guó jiā shēn shǒu qiú yuán, gěi guó jiā zēng jiā kùn nán, tā men nìng kěn zì jǐ jiān kǔ fèn dòu, zì lì gèng shēng.] (Instead of asking the government for help and increasing extra burdens on it, they would rather work hard and become self-reliant.) 3

“宁可 [nìng kě]/宁愿 [nìng yuàn]/宁肯 [nìng kěn] B, 决不 [jué bù]/也不 [yě bù]/也别 [yě bié] A (would rather B . . . than A)”

In this form, A should be the negative choice. In other words, it is necessary to sacrifice B in order to avoid A.

Conjunctions 79 Example 66 他宁愿受穷挨饿, 也不和仇人微笑干杯。[tā nìng yuàn shòu qióng āi è, yě bù hé chóu rén wēi xiào gān bēi.] (He would rather suffer from poverty and hunger rather than surrender to his enemies.) Example 67 当时, 全城的老百姓宁可淹死, 决不投降。[dāng shí, quán chéng de lǎo bǎi xìng nìng kě yān sǐ, jué bù tóu xiáng.] (At that time, the people of the whole city would rather drown than surrender.) Example 68 宁可早到半个小时, 也别迟到半分钟。[nìng kě zǎo dào bàn gè xiǎo shí, yě bié chí dào bàn fēn zhōng.] (It is better to arrive half an hour early than half a minute late.) Example 69 我宁愿自己几天不吃东西, 也不能让孩子挨饿。[wǒ nìng yuàn zì jǐ jǐ tiān bù chī dōng xī, yě bù néng ràng hái zi āi è.] (I would rather not eat for a few days than allow children to go hungry.) “也不 [yě bù] (nor)” and “决不 [jué bù] (never)” can be compressed into “也 决不 [yě jué bù] (never)” to reinforce the tone of speaking. Example 70 他宁肯自己做点自我牺牲, 也决不学那些市侩, 做损人利己 的事。[tā nìng kěn zì jǐ zuò diǎn zì wǒ xī shēng, yě jué bù xué nà xiē shì kuài, zuò sǔn rén lì jǐ de shì.] (He would rather choose self-sacrifice than do harmful things, like those sordid merchants, to others.) 4

“宁可 [nìng kě]/宁愿 [nìng yuàn]/宁肯 [nìng kěn] A, 也要 [yě yào] . . . (would rather A . . . than)”

In this form, A stands for the affirmative choice and that is to say, “也要 [yě yào]” indicates the purpose of choosing A. Example 71 他想：“有我在就有大桥在！宁可牺牲自己, 也要保住大 桥。” [tā xiǎng yǒu wǒ zài jiù yǒu dà qiáo zài! nìng kě xī shēng zì jǐ, yě yào bǎo zhù dà qiáo.] (He thought, “as long as I am alive, I must hold fast to the bridge! I’d rather sacrifice myself to keep the bridge safe.”) Example 72 宁可掉脑袋, 也要坚持真理, 对得起自己的良心！[nìng kě diào nǎo dài, yě yào jiān chí zhēn lǐ, duì dé qǐ zì jǐ de liáng xīn!] (I would rather lose my life to stick to the truth and live up to my conscience!) Example 73 我宁可倾家荡产, 也要帮助你渡过这个难关。[wǒ nìng kě qīng jiā dàng chǎn, yě yào bāng zhù nǐ dù guò zhè gè nán guān.] (I would rather lose my fortune to help you through this difficulty.) Sometimes, in order to highlight the purpose of A, the preposition “为了 [wèi le] (for)” is often used to introduce the purpose in advance. Then the form is changed into “为了 [wèi le] (in order to) . . . , 宁可 [nìng kě]/宁愿 [nìng yuàn]/宁 肯 [nìng kěn] A (would rather A . . . than).”

80 Conjunctions Example 74 为了给王强补课, 张老师宁愿放弃星期天的电影。[wèi le gěi Wáng Qiáng bǔ kè, Zhāng lǎo shī nìng yuàn fàng qì xīng qī tiān de diàn yǐng.] (In order to make up a missed lesson for Wang Qiang, Miss Zhang would rather give up Sunday’s film.) Example 75 为了寻求救国的真理, 他宁愿远离家乡到异国去求学。[wèi le xún qiú jiù guó de zhēn lǐ, tā níng yuàn yuǎn lí jiā xiāng dào yì guó qù qiú xué.] (In order to seek the truth of saving his country, he would rather study abroad far away from his hometown.) Example 76 为了保卫祖国, 我宁愿赴汤蹈火。[wèi le bǎo wèi zǔ guó, wǒ nìng yuàn fù tāng dǎo huǒ.] (In order to defend my country, I would rather defy all difficulties and dangers.) Example 77 为了给战友们开辟前进的道路, 黄继光宁愿牺牲自己, 用胸 口堵住敌人的枪口。[wèi le gěi zhàn yǒu men kāi pì qián jìn de dào lù, Huáng Jì guāng nìng yuàn xī shēng zì jǐ, yòng xiōng kǒu dǔ zhù dí rén de qiāng kǒu.] (In order to open up the way for his army comrades, Huang Jiguang would rather sacrifice himself and block the enemy’s muzzle with his chest.) This form can be shortened into “宁愿 [nìng yuàn] (would rather) A,” if the purpose is very clear in the context, or the speaker thinks it is not necessary to speak it out. Example 78 不过, 我宁愿听 “蓝色的多瑙河”。[bú guò, wǒ nìng yuàn tīng lán sè de duō nǎo hé.] (But, I’d rather like to listen to the Blue Danube.) Example 79 我宁愿自己吃点亏。[wǒ nìng yuàn zì jǐ chī diǎn kuī.] (I’d rather suffer losses for myself.) 5

宁 [nìng] (would rather) or 宁勿 [nìng wù]/毋 [wù]/不 [bù] (rather than)

In some idioms (成语 [chéng yŭ]), “宁可 [nìng kě]/宁愿 [nìng yuàn]/宁肯 [nìng kěn] (would rather)” is represented with “宁 [nìng] (would rather).” The word after “宁 [nìng] (would rather)” stands for the affirmative choice. “宁勿 [nìng wù]/毋 [wù]/不 [bù] (rather than)” is followed by the negative choice. For instance: 宁缺毋滥 [nìng quē wù làn] (to put quality before quantity), 宁死不屈 [nìng sǐ bù qū] (rather die than surrender), 宁停三分, 不抢一秒。 [nìng tíng sān fēn, bù qiǎng yī miǎo.] (It’s better to wait for three minutes than to lead up a second in advance.) V. 而 [ér] (as well as) “而 [ér] (as well as)” is mainly used to connect adjectives (phrases), verbs (phrases), or even clauses or sentences. Two constituents connected by “而 [ér] (as well as)”

Conjunctions 81 carries several relations, including coordination, adversative relation, progression. “而 [ér] (as well as)” cannot connect nouns or noun phrases. 1

“而 [ér] (as well as)” connects two constituents of the same semantic meaning based on coordinative relation, implying a progressive development Example 80 船上生活, 是如何的清新而活泼。[chuán shàng shēng huó, shì rú hé de qīng xīn ér huó pō.] (How fresh and lively the life is on board!) Example 81 戏里的主人公, 高大而丰满, 真实而感人, 亲切而可信。[xì lǐ de zhǔ rén gōng, gāo dà ér fēng mǎn, zhēn shí ér gǎn rén, qīn qiè ér kě xìn.] (The leading character in the play is tall and plump, real and touching, cordial and credible.) Example 82 他确乎有点像一棵树, 坚壮、沉默而又有生气。[tā què hū yǒu diǎn xiàng yī kē shù, jiān zhuàng, chén mò ér yòu yǒu shēng qì.] (He was indeed something like a tree, strong, silent and alive.)

Sometimes, the two constituents connected by “而 [ér] (as well as)” are contrary in form but as a whole, they express the same meaning. Example 83 会上, 同志之间展开了正确的而不是歪曲的, 认真的而不是 敷衍的批评和自我批评。[huì shàng, tóng zhì zhī jiān zhǎn kāi le zhèng què de ér bú shì wāi qǔ de, rèn zhēn de ér bú shì fū yǎn de pī píng hé zì wǒ pī píng.] (At the meeting, comrades carried out the criticism and self-criticism, corrected rather than distorted, were serious rather than perfunctory.) Example 84 就是太阳也不是什么宇宙中心, 而只是满天星斗中的一颗而 已。[jiù shì tài yáng yě bú shì shén me yǔ zhòu zhōng xīn, ér zhǐ shì mǎn tiān xīng dǒu zhōng de yī kē ér yǐ.] (Even the sun is not the center of the universe, but just one of the stars all over the sky.) 2

“而 [ér] (as well as)” expresses adversative relation

The constituents connected by “而 [ér] (as well as)” are of the opposite semantic meanings, similar to “可是 [kě shì] (but),” “但是 [dàn shì] (but),” “然而 [rán ér] (but)” in meaning. They are as milder or weaker as “而 [ér] (as well as)” in tone. Sometimes, “而 [ér] (as well as)” and “却 [què] (but)” can appear simultaneously in a sentence. Example 85 这张画的色彩艳而不俗。[zhè zhāng huà de sè cǎi yàn ér bù sú.] (The color of this picture is bright and unusual.) Example 86 张老师讲课向来是少而精, 简而明。[Zhāng lǎo shī jiǎng kè xiàng lái shì shǎo ér jīng, jiǎn ér míng.] (Prof. Zhang’s class is always characterized by conciseness not verboseness, clearness not tediousness.)

82

Conjunctions Example 87 能读懂文章而写不通文章的人是大有人在的。[néng dú dǒng wén zhāng ér xiě bù tōng wén zhāng de rén shì dà yǒu rén zài de.] (There are a lot of people who are good at reading but poor at writing.) Example 88 大家敢怒而不敢言地在那里立着, 心中并没有给刘四爷念着 吉祥话儿。[dà jiā gǎn nù ér bù gǎn yán de zài nà lǐ lì zhe, xīn zhōng bìng méi yǒu gěi Liú Sì yé niàn zhe jí xiáng huà ér.] (Angrily standing there, no one dared say anything nor prayed for Liu Siye in their hearts.) Example 89 两姐妹的爱好不同, 姐姐喜欢唱歌, 而妹妹喜欢画画儿。[liǎng jiě mèi de ài hào bù tóng, jiě jiě xǐ huān chàng gē, ér mèi mèi xǐ huān huà huà er.] (The hobbies of the two sisters are different. The elder sister likes singing; the younger sister likes drawing pictures.)

3

“而 [ér] (as well as)” shows progression, implying a further development Example 90 青出于蓝而胜于蓝。[qīng chū yú lán ér shèng yú lán.] (Successors excel their predecessors.) Example 91 他的脸慢慢由红而白, 把以前所受过的一切委屈都一下子想 起来, 全堵在心上。[tā de liǎn màn màn yóu hóng ér bái, bǎ yǐ qián suǒ shòu guò de yī qiè wěi qū dōu yī xià zi xiǎng qǐ lái, quán dǔ zài xīn shàng.] (His face gradually gets pale after blushing at the memory of all the grievances suffered before, and now they are all blocked in his heart.) Example 92 四个现代化的关键是科学技术现代化, 而数学在科学技术现 代化中有着重要的地位和作用。[sì gè xiàn dài huà de guān jiàn shì kē xué jì shù xiàn dài huà, ér shù xué zài kē xué jì shù xiàn dài huà zhōng yǒu zhe zhòng yào de dì wèi hé zuò yòng.] (The key of the four modernizations is the modernization of science and technology, in which mathematics plays an important role.) Example 93 他们也许拉一辈子车, 而一辈子连拉车也没出过风头。[tā men yě xǔ lā yī bèi zi chē, ér yī bèi zi lián lā chē yě méi chū guò fēng tóu.] (They have driven rickshaws for their whole lives, but they have never pushed themselves forward.) Example 94 这些颜色与草木的绿色配合, 引起了人们安静闲适的感觉, 而到各种花开时节, 更显得各种花明艳照眼。[zhè xiē yán sè yǔ cǎo mù de lǜ sè pèi hé, yǐn qǐ le rén men ān jìng xián shì de gǎn jué, ér dào gè zhǒng huā kāi shí jié, gèng xiǎn dé gè zhǒng huā míng yàn zhào yǎn.] (The grass and trees prettily match with these flowers, which not only make people feel quiet and comfortable, but also make the flowers even brighter when they are blooming.)

4

“而 [ér] (as well as)” combines the adverbials indicating manner, purpose, cause with the verb phrase after it

(1) Manner adverbial. Example 95 唯物辩证法认为外因是变化的条件, 内因是变化的根据, 外 因通过内因而起作用。[wéi wù biàn zhèng fǎ rèn wéi wài yīn shì biàn huà

Conjunctions 83 de tiáo jiàn, nèi yīn shì biàn huà de gēn jù, wài yīn tōng guò nèi yīn ér qǐ zuò yòng.] (The materialist dialectics holds that the external cause is the condition of the change, the internal cause is the basis of the change, and external causes become operative through internal causes.) Example 96 小郭接过雨衣, 热泪滚滚而下。[Xiǎo Guō jiē guò yǔ yī, rè lèi gǔn gǔn ér xià.] (Xiao Guo was moved to tears after taking over the raincoat.) Example 97 这颗种子终于破土而出, 并开始萌发出嫩绿的幼芽。[zhè kē zhǒng zi zhōng yú pò tǔ ér chū, bìng kāi shǐ méng fā chū nèn lǜ de yòu yá.] (The seed finally broke through the earth and began to germinate green buds.) Example 98 这些青翠的竹子, 沿着细长的滑道, 穿云钻雾, 呼啸而来。 [zhè xiē qīng cuì de zhú zi, yán zhe xì cháng de huá dào, chuān yún zuàn wù, hū xiào ér lái.] (These green bamboos are transported down the slender slide under clouds and fog.) Example 99 人, 不管吃荤也好, 吃素也好, 反正都是靠植物而生活。 [rén, bù guǎn chī hūn yě hǎo, chī sù yě hǎo, fǎn zhèng dōu shì kào zhí wù ér shēng huó.] (People, no matter if they eat meat or only vegetables, virtually rely on plants to live.) The commonly used idioms (成语 [chéng yŭ]) consisting of “而 [ér] (as well as)” are as follows. 不欢而散 [bù huān ér sàn] (part in discord), 挺身而出 [tǐng shēn ér chū] (step forward bravely), 日出而作 [rì chū ér zuò] (get up at sunrise), 日落 而息 [rì luò ér xī] (go to sleep at sunset), 不期而遇 [bù qī ér yù] (meet by chance), 一饮而尽 [yī yǐn ér jìn] (toss off the cup), 一扫而光 [yī sǎo ér guāng] (make a clean sweep of), 一跃而起 [yī yuè ér qǐ] (rise up suddenly). (2) The adverbials indicating purpose, cause, or source. “而 [ér] (as well as)” is often matched with “为 [wèi] (in order to),” “为了 [wèi le] (in order to),” “由于 [yóu yú] (because of),” “因为 [yīn wéi] (because),” to form “为/为了/因为 . . . 而 . . . [wèi/wèi le/yīn wéi . . . ér . . .] (in order to/because . . .),” indicating purpose or cause. Example 100 会上代表们表示一定要为了祖国国防的现代化而努力！ [huì shàng dài biǎo men biǎo shì yī dìng yào wèi le zǔ guó guó fáng de xiàn dài huà ér nǔ lì!] (The delegates at the meeting expressed their determination to work hard for the modernization of national defense!) Example 101 谁个曾因为太阳本身有黑子而否认了它的灿烂的光辉呢？ [shuí gè céng yīn wéi tài yáng běn shēn yǒu hēi zǐ ér fǒu rèn le tā de càn làn de guāng huī ne?]

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Conjunctions (Who has ever denied the brilliance of the sun because of its sunspots?) Example 102 田野里的禾苗因一场夏雨刚过而变得生机盎然。[tián yě lǐ de hé miáo yīn yī chǎng xià yǔ gāng guò ér biàn de shēng jī àng rán.] (The grass in the field became vibrant because of a summer rain.) The constituent before “而 [ér] (as well as)” may refer to a certain source. Example 103 一切种类的文学艺术的源泉究竟是从何而来呢？[yī qiè zhǒng lèi de wén xúe yì shù de yuán quán jiū jìng shì cóng hé ér lái nē?] (What is the source of all kinds of literature and art?) Example 104 她是因为怯场心慌, 还是由于身体不适而影响声音？[tā shì yīn wéi qiè chǎng xīn huāng, hái shì yóu yú shēn tǐ bú shì ér yǐng xiǎng shēng yīn ?] (Was her voice influenced by stage fright or by physical discomfort?)

VI. 并 [bìng] (and), 并且 [bìng qiě] (and) Both of them are progressive conjunctions, connecting two verbs (phrases) or clauses. “并且 [bìng qiě] (and)” can link sentences. Usually, “并 [bìng] (and)” and “并且 [bìng qiě] (and)” are just put before the last word or phrase they connect. 1

“并 [bìng] (and), 并且 [bìng qiě] (and)” connect two verbs, implying that the second action goes further than the first one Example 105 在昨天的会上, 代表们讨论并通过了两项决议。[zài zuó tiān de huì shàng, dài biǎo men tǎo lùn bìng tōng guò le liǎng xiàng jué yì.] (At yesterday’s meeting, representatives passed two resolutions through discussion.)

In this example, “通过 [tōng guò] (pass)” goes after “讨论 [tǎo lùn] (discuss).” In other words, “通过 [tōng guò] (pass)” goes further compared to “讨论 [tǎo lùn] (discuss).” Example 106 现在语言文字学家真正关心并参与这项工作的不多。[xiàn zài yǔ yán wén zì xué jiā zhēn zhèng guān xīn bìng cān yǔ zhè xiàng gōng zuò de bù duō.] (Nowadays, there are not many linguists who really care about and are devoted to this work.) Example 107 中国是世界上最早发现并利用茶树的国家。[zhōng guó shì shì jiè shàng zuì zǎo fā xiàn bìng lì yòng chá shù de guó jiā.] (China was the first country to discover and utilize tea trees in the world.) Example 108 国家确立并推行的简化字, 大部分是历代流行已久的。 [guó jiā què lì bìng tuī xíng de jiǎn huà zì, dà bù fèn shì lì dài liú xíng yǐ jiǔ de.] (The country has established and implemented the simplified characters, most of which have been popular for generations.) 2

并 [bìng] (and), 并且 [bìng qiě] (and) connect two verb phrases

Conjunctions 85 Example 109 真理是跟谬误相比较, 并且同它作斗争发展起来的。[zhēn lǐ shì gēn miù wù xiāng bǐ jiào, bìng qiě tóng tā zuò dòu zhēng fā zhǎn qǐ lái de.] (Truth develops from being compared with fallacy and fighting against it.) Example 110 我希望所有的人都去干并且都干好自己爱干的工作, 为国家 现代化建设做出贡献。[wǒ xī wàng suǒ yǒu de rén dōu qù gàn bìng qiě dōu gàn hǎo zì jǐ ài gàn de gōng zuò, wèi guó jiā xiàn dài huà jiàn shè zuò chū gòng xiàn.] (I do hope that all people should be willing to do their jobs well, to make contributions to the modernization of the motherland.) Example 111 今天是老母亲七十整寿, 大儿子上礼拜就来了并给了五千 块钱。[jīn tiān shì lǎo mǔ qīn qī shí zhěng shòu, dà ér zi shàng lǐ bài jiù lái le bìng gěi le wǔ qiān kuài qián.] (Though today is the old mother’s 70th birthday, the eldest son came to see her last week and gave her five thousand yuan.) 3

并 [bìng] (and), 并且 [bìng qiě] (and) connect two clauses Example 112 这位老大夫十分重视基础医学理论的探讨, 并在新的手术 设计和改进方面有许多贡献。[zhè wèi lǎo dài fū shí fēn zhòng shì jī chǔ yī xué lǐ lùn de tàn tǎo, bìng zài xīn de shǒu shù shè jì hé gǎi jìn fāng miàn yǒu xǔ duō gòng xiàn.] (The old doctor attaches great importance to the discussion of basic medical theory and has made many contributions to new surgical planning and improvement.) Example 113 这种构件有良好的硬度、强度和耐高温性, 并且很轻。[zhè zhǒng gòu jiàn yǒu liáng hǎo de yìng dù, qiáng dù hé nài gāo wēn xìng, bìng qiě hěn qīng.] (This component is of good hardness, strength, high temperature resistance and is light weight.) Example 114 为什么语言要学, 并且要用很大的力气去学呢？[wèi shén me yǔ yán yào xué, bìng qiě yào yòng hěn dà de lì qì qù xué ne?] (Why do we need to learn a language and do it with a great effort?) Example 115 老师用右手拍了拍阿宝的肩膀, 并向他作了个鼓励的手势。 [lǎo shī yòng yòu shǒu pāi le pāi Ā Bǎo de jiān bǎng, bìng xiàng tā zuò le gè gǔ lì de shǒu shì.] (The teacher patted A Bao’s shoulder with his right hand and gave him an encouraging gesture.) Example 116 要是他还活着, 他一定会对四化建设表示衷心拥护, 而且全 力以赴。[yào shì tā hái huó zhe, tā yī dìng huì duì sì huà jiàn shè biǎo shì zhōng xīn yōng hù, ér qiě quán lì yǐ fù.] (If he were still alive, he would certainly support and try his best to work for the four modernizations.)

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“并且 [bìng qiě] (and)” connects sentences Example 117 既然决定不再工作, 何妨离开工作的地方呢？并且那些糊 里糊涂只知道吃的同伴, 也实在叫人看着生气。[jì rán jué dìng bú zài

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Conjunctions gōng zuò, hé fáng lí kāi gōng zuò de dì fāng ne? bìng qiě nà xiē hú lǐ hú tú zhǐ zhī dào chī de tóng bàn, yě shí zài jiào rén kàn zhe shēng qì.] (Now that I have decided to quit my job, it wouldn’t be a big deal to leave the place where I work. What’s more, those I work with make me feel sick because they know nothing but eating.) Example 118 要是你以后能出去的话, 千万想法把那个东西交给咱们的 人。并且告诉他们, 我对得起大家, 对得起死去的爹。[yào shì nǐ yǐ hòu néng chū qù de huà, qiān wàn xiǎng fǎ bǎ nà gè dōng xī jiāo gěi zán men de rén. bìng qiě gào sù tā men, wǒ duì de qǐ dà jiā, duì de qǐ sǐ qù de diē.] (If you could flee from here later, you must give it to our Party organization. And tell them, I didn’t let them down, including my father.)

VII. 不但 [bú dàn] (not only) “不但 [bú dàn] (not only)” is a progressive conjunction and it is usually used in the preceding clause of a compound sentence. “而且 [ér qiě] (but also)” and “并 且 [bìng qiě] (but also)” often appear in the following clause to match with it to form “不但 . . . 而且/并且 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě/bìng qiě] (not only . . . but also),” indicating a progression in a certain degree or scope. 1

“不但 . . . 而且 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě] (not only . . . but also)” indicates a progression in a certain degree. Or it means that the degree expressed by the following clause develops further than that conveyed by the preceding clause. Example 119 雨后的春笋, 不但长得多, 而且长得快。[yǔ hòu de chūn sǔn, bú dàn zhǎng dé duō, ér qiě zhǎng dé kuài.] (Bamboo shoots in spring not only grow fast but also spread in large numbers after the rain.) Example 120 石拱桥不但形式优美, 而且结构坚固。[shí gǒng qiáo bú dàn xíng shì yōu měi, ér qiě jié gòu jiān gù.] (The stone arch bridge is not only beautiful in form, but also strong in structure.) Example 121 诗的语言不但要求准确, 而且还要精炼。[shī de yǔ yán bú dàn yāo qiú zhǔn què, ér qiě hái yào jīng liàn.] (The language of poetry requires not only accuracy but also refinement.) Example 122 我们向沙漠进军, 不但保护了农田, 开辟了绿洲, 而且对交通 线路也起了防护的作用。[wǒ men xiàng shā mò jìn jūn, bú dàn bǎo hù le nóng tián, kāi pì le lǜ zhōu, ér qiě duì jiāo tōng xiàn lù yě qǐ le fáng hù de zuò yòng.] (Desert control can not only protect farmland and create oases, but also offer the protection to traffic lines.) Example 123 平时, 我不但爱读诗, 并且还先后编写出版了几部诗集。 [píng shí, wǒ bú dàn ài dú shī, bìng qiě hái xiān hòu biān xiě chū bǎn le jǐ bù shī jí.] (Usually, I like to read poetry. Besides, I have written and published several collections of poems.)

Conjunctions 87 Example 124 半年以后, 他不但还清了欠人家的债, 改善了家庭条件, 还 在银行存了一笔款。[bàn nián yǐ hòu, tā bú dàn huán qīng le qiàn rén jiā de zhài, gǎi shàn le jiā tíng tiáo jiàn, hái zài yín háng cún le yī bǐ kuǎn.] (Half a year later, he not only paid off the debt, improved the family condition, but also deposited a sum in the bank.) Example 125 理发也是技术, 不但是技术, 也是艺术。[lǐ fà yě shì jì shù, bú dàn shì jì shù, yě shì yì shù.] (Haircut is not only a technology but also an art.) Thus it can be seen from these examples some adverbs of correlation, such as “还 [hái] (also),” “也 [yě] (also),” “更 [gèng] (even),” and “甚至 [shèn zhì] (even)” can match with “不但 [bú dàn] (not only)” to shape some commonly used forms, including “不但 . . . 还 . . . [bú dàn . . . hái] (not only . . . but also),” “不但 . . . 而 且 . . . 也 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě . . . yě] (not only . . . but also . . . and . . .),” “不但 . . . 更 . . . [bú dàn . . . gèng] (not only . . . even . . .),” 不但 . . . 甚至 . . . [bú dàn . . . shèn zhì] (not only . . . even . . .).” In Example 124, “并且 [bìng qiě] (but also)” can be replaced with “而且 [ér qiě] (but also).” 2

“不但 . . . 而且 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě] (not only . . . but also)” indicates a progression in a certain scope Example 127 汉语水平测试不但三年级学生参加了, 而且二年级的学生 也参加了。[hàn yǔ shuǐ píng cè shì bú dàn sān nián jí xué shēng cān jiā le, ér qiě èr nián jí de xué shēng yě cān jiā le.] (The students from the third grade as well as the second grade took part in the Chinese Language Proficiency Test.) Example 128 弟弟参加地质探险队的愿望, 不但父亲支持, 而且母亲也赞 成。[dì dì cān jiā dì zhì tàn xiǎn duì de yuàn wàng, bú dàn fù qīn zhī chí, ér qiě mǔ qīn yě zàn chéng.] (My brother’s wish to join the geological expedition was supported not only by our father, but also approved by our mother.) Example 129 不但学习成绩优秀的同学受到了表扬, 而且学习成绩提高 得快的同学也受到了表扬。[bú dàn xué xí chéng jì yōu xiù de tóng xué shòu dào le biǎo yáng, ér qiě xué xí chéng jì tí gāo de kuài de tóng xué yě shòu dào le biǎo yáng.] (Not only the excellent students but also the students who have improved a lot have been praised.) Example 130 人才市场优胜劣汰, 不但人才之间存在着竞争, 而且用人单 位也同样面临一场竞争。[rén cái shì chǎng yōu shèng liè tài, bú dàn rén cái zhī jiān cún zài zhe jìng zhēng, ér qiě yòng rén dān wèi yě tóng yàng miàn lín yī chǎng jìng zhēng.] (Survival of the fittest is the truth in the talent market. It is a competition not only among employees but also among the employers.)

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Conjunctions Example 131 在联欢会上, 不但专业演员表演了节目, 而且业余的文艺爱 好者也纷纷上台给大家演出了精彩的节目。[zài lián huān huì shàng, bú dàn zhuān yè yǎn yuán biǎo yǎn le jié mù, ér qiě yè yú de wén yì ài hào zhě yě fēn fēn shàng tái gěi dà jiā yǎn chū le jīng cǎi de jié mù.] (At the party, not only professional actors but also amateur ones and art enthusiasts performed wonderful programs on the stage for the audience.)

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“不但 . . . 而且 . . . [bú dàn . . . ér qiě] (not only . . . but also)” expresses a reverse progression

In the preceding clause, “不但 [bú dàn] (not only)” connects the negative adverb “不 [bú] (not)” or “没有 [méi yǒu] (no)” to introduce an expectation or an unexpected situation; in the following clause, “而且 [ér qiě] (but also)” is replaced by “反而 [fǎn ér] (on the contrary)” to indicate a reverse result or effect. The entire form is “不但/不/没有 . . . , 反而 . . . [bú dàn/bú/méi yǒu . . . , fǎn ér] (not only/not/no . . . but . . .).” Example 132 半年的减肥锻炼, 他的体重不但没有减下来, 反也又增加 了。[bàn nián de jiǎn féi duàn liàn, tā de tǐ zhòng bú dàn méi yǒu jiǎn xià lái, fǎn yě yòu zēng jiā le.] (Six months of weight loss exercise didn’t decrease his weight but increased it.) Example 133 不恰当的过多的描写, 不但不会使文章增色, 反而会变成累 赘, 使人感到厌烦。[bú qià dāng de guò duō de miáo xiě, bú dàn bú huì shǐ wén zhāng zēng sè, fǎn ér huì biàn chéng léi zhuì, shǐ rén gǎn dào yàn fán.] (Inappropriate and too much description cannot enrich the article, but on the contrary, it will become a burden and make readers feel bored.) Example 134 五十多岁的人了, 可是我对钓鱼的兴趣不但没有减退, 反而 越来越浓了。[wǔ shí duō suì de rén le, kě shì wǒ duì diào yú de xìng qù bú dàn méi yǒu jiǎn tuì, fǎn ér yuè lái yuè nóng le.] (Although I am over fifty years old, my interest in fishing has not waned, but grown stronger and stronger.) Example 135 在这里多等了半小时, 雨不但没有停, 反而越下越大。[zài zhè lǐ duō děng le bàn xiǎo shí, yǔ bú dàn méi yǒu tíng, fǎn ér yuè xià yuè dà.] (Waiting for another 30 minutes, the rain didn’t stop, but was getting harder.) Example 136 这位科长的做法, 不但没有得到表扬和奖励, 反而被扣罚了 半年的奖金。[zhè wèi kē zhǎng de zuò fǎ, bú dàn méi yǒu dé dào biǎo yáng hé jiǎng lì, fǎn ér bèi kòu fá le bàn nián de jiǎng jīn.] (Instead of being praised and rewarded, the section chief was fined for half a year’s bonus.) VIII. 况且 [kuàng qiě] (furthermore), 何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone), 再说 [zài shuō] (what’s more) They are all progressive conjunctions and are often used at the beginning of the following clause of a compound sentence, in order to further explain what is

Conjunctions 89 expressed in the preceding clause. “况且 [kuàng qiě] (furthermore)” and “何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone)” are commonly used in the written language; “再说 [zài shuō] (what’s more)” is more oral. Example 137 小船是逆水而上, 况且又顶风冒雨, 行走得很慢。[xiǎo chuán shì nì shuǐ ér shàng, kuàng qiě yòu dǐng fēng mào yǔ, xíng zǒu de hěn màn.] (The boat went upstream against wind and rain, so it moved slowly.) Example 138 小明天赋聪敏, 况且又刻苦勤奋, 学习一定很好。[Xiǎo Míng tiān fù cōng mǐn, kuàng qiě yòu kè kǔ qín fèn, xué xí yí dìng hěn hǎo.] (Xiao Ming is talented and diligent, so he must study very well.) Example 139 你刚来, 哪儿都不认识, 再说语言又不通, 不要一个人到处 乱跑。[nǐ gāng lái, nǎ er dōu bú rèn shi, zài shuō yǔ yán yòu bù tōng, bú yào yī gè rén dào chù luàn pǎo.] (You are a newcomer with no ideas about this. In addition, you don’t speak the local language so you’d better not walk around alone.) All of them can connect sentences. Example 140 爸爸胳膊上的伤还没好, 怎能去比赛呢？况且对手又是个 大力士！[bà bà gē bó shàng de shāng hái méi hǎo, zěn néng qù bǐ sài ne? kuàng qiě duì shǒu yòu shì gè dà lì shì!] (Dad’s arm is still injured. How can he participate in the game, let alone against a strong opponent?) Example 141 他很高兴, 因为他第一次有了一个社会职业。何况这个工 作又那么合乎他的理想。[tā hěn gāo xìng, yīn wéi tā dì yī cì yǒu le yī gè shè huì zhí yè. hé kuàng zhè gè gōng zuò yòu nà me hé hū tā de lǐ xiǎng.] (He was happy for having the first social job. Moreover, the job conformed to his ideals.) Example 142 这种茶叶是难得的珍品, 哪有这样包装的？况且市面上也 根本买不来。[zhè zhǒng chá yè shì nán dé de zhēn pǐn, nǎ yǒu zhè yàng bāo zhuāng de? kuàng qiě shì miàn shàng yě gēn běn mǎi bù lái.] (This kind of tea is rare. How can it be packed like this? Moreover, there is no way to buy it on the market.) Also, “何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone)” can be used as a rhetorical question to strengthen the tone of speaking. “尚且 [shàng qiě] (even)” or “连 [lián] (even)” in the preceding clause echoes “何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone)” in the following clause to show a stronger affirmation. Usually, “noun (phrase)+呢 [ne]?” is used as the end of the following clause. Example 143 总之, 行行出状元。古代尚且如此, 何况我们这个时代呢？ [zǒng zhī, háng háng chū zhuàng yuán. gǔ dài shàng qiě rú cǐ, hé kuàng wǒ men zhè gè shí dài ne?] (All in all, every trade has its master. It was true in ancient times, let alone in modern times.)

90

Conjunctions Example 144 我站在岸上穿着棉衣还冷得打战, 何况站在水里穿着单衣 的人们呢？[wǒ zhàn zài àn shàng chuān zhe mián yī hái lěng dé dǎ zhàn, hé kuàng zhàn zài shuǐ lǐ chuān dān yī de rén men ne?] (Even standing on the shore in the cotton-padded clothes, I still shivered all over, let alone in the clothes of a single layer, and standing in the water.) Example 145 连王奶奶每天都读读书, 看看报, 何况咱们这些中学生 呢？[lián Wáng nǎi nǎi měi tiān dōu dú dú shū, kàn kàn bào, hé kuàng zán men zhè xiē zhōng xué shēng ne?] (Even Grandma Wang read books and newspapers everyday, let alone us as the middle school students.) Example 146 那些比你年纪大得多, 而且已经有了工作的人还想继续学 习, 更何况你大学刚刚毕业？[nà xiē bǐ nǐ nián jì dà de duō, ér qiě yǐ jīng yǒu le gōng zuò de rén hái xiǎng jì xù xué xí, gèng hé kuàng nǐ dà xué gāng gāng bì yè?] (Those who are much older and already have a job still want to continue their studies, not to mention that you have just graduated from college.)

In these examples, “何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone)” cannot be replaced by “况且 [kuàng qiě] (furthermore).” IX. 因为 [yīn wéi] (because), 由于 [yóu yú] (because of) Both of them are conjunctions of cause and effect, introducing the reason for a certain situation in the preceding clause of a compound sentence of cause and effect. 1

因为 [yīn wéi] (because)

(1) “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” introduce the cause in the preceding clause and “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so),” “就 [jiù],” “只好 [zhǐ hǎo] (have no choice but to),” is matched in the following clause to show the effect or the result. Example 147 因为你不是中国人, 所以中国人叫你“老外”。[yīn wéi nǐ bú shì zhōng guó rén, suǒ yǐ zhōng guó rén jiào nǐ “lǎo wài.”] (You are not Chinese, so Chinese people call you “Lao Wai.”) Example 148 我因为一直很忙, 所以没有时间来看望你。[wǒ yīn wéi yī zhí hěn máng, suǒ yǐ méi yǒu shí jiān lái kàn wàng nǐ.] (I’ve been very busy, so I have no time to visit you.) Example 149 他因为想当老师, 所以报考了师范院校。[tā yīn wéi xiǎng dāng lǎo shī, suǒ yǐ bào kǎo le shī fàn yuàn xiào.] (He applied for a normal school because he wanted to be a teacher.) Example 150 简化字因为好认好写, 所以受到广大群众的欢迎。[jiǎn huà zì yīn wéi hǎo rèn hǎo xiě, suǒ yǐ shòu dào guǎng dà qún zhòng de huān yíng.] (The simplified characters are well recognized and welcomed by the masses.) Example 151 范进因为一心想当官发财, 就整天地念书。[Fàn Jìn yīn wéi yī xīn xiǎng dāng guān fā cái, jiù zhěng tiān de niàn shū.] (Fan Jin studied all day because he wanted to be an official and get rich.)

Conjunctions 91 (2) The order of cause and effect can be reversed in a sentence. Example 152 我可没有成为养花专家, 因为没有功夫去研究和试验。 [wǒ kě méi yǒu chéng wéi yǎng huā zhuān jiā, yīn wéi méi yǒu gōng fū qù yán jiū hé shì yàn.] (I’m not an expert in growing flowers because I have no time to do research or experiment on it.) Example 153 我的儿子踢球需要营养, 因为体力消耗太大。[wǒ de ér zi tī qiú xū yào yíng yǎng, yīn wéi tǐ lì xiāo hào tài dà.] (My son needs nutrition to support himself because of the physical exertion in playing football.) Example 154 他没有来上课, 因为他病了。[tā méi yǒu lái shàng kè, yīn wéi tā bìng le.] (He didn’t come to class because he was ill.) (3) “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” can connect sentences. Example 155 “也许, 兰兰能回来吧！”老奶奶心想。因为毕竟八十岁 生日是具有特殊意义的日子。[“yě xǔ, Lán Lán néng huí lái ba!” lǎo nǎi nǎi xīn xiǎng. yīn wéi bì jìng bā shí suì shēng rì shì jù yǒu tè shū yì yì de rì zi.] (“Maybe Lan Lan will come back,” the old lady thought. After all, her 80th birthday is a special day.) Example 156 心里想到内山书店去吧, 在那儿躲一会儿雨, 顺便歇歇也 好。因为接连一个礼拜的夜班, 每天都在车上摇晃十一个钟头, 我已经 困得像一团棉花了。[xīn lǐ xiǎng dào nèi shān shū diàn qù ba, zài nà er duǒ yī huì er yǔ, shùn biàn xiē xiē yě hǎo. yīn wéi jiē lián yī gè lǐ bài de yè bān, měi tiān dōu zài chē shàng yáo huàng shí yī gè zhōng tóu, wǒ yǐ jīng kùn dé xiàng yī tuán mián huā le.] (I thought of Nei Shan Bookstore, where I could get out of the rain and have a rest. Due to a week’s night shifts and an eleven-hour ride each day, I’m pretty exhausted and sleepy.) Example 157 他确实高兴得快要疯了。因为做梦都想着的父亲的那笔 遗产今天终于汇来了。[tā què shí gāo xìng dé kuài yào fēng le. yīn wéi zuò mèng dōu xiǎng zhe de fù qīn de nà bǐ yí chǎn jīn tiān zhōng yú huì lái le.] (He was really beside himself with joy because his father’s legacy he had always dreamed of was finally remitted to him today.) (4) What is introduced by “因为 [yīn wéi]” can function as the object of “是 [shì]” in “是 [shì]” sentence, expressing a certain cause. Example 158 这几天, 妈妈的精神有些不正常, 是因为弟弟刚发生了车 祸。[zhè jǐ tiān, mā mā de jīng shén yǒu xiē bú zhèng cháng, shì yīn wéi dì dì gāng fā shēng le chē huò.] (These days, my mother was a bit out of her mind because my brother just had a car accident.)

92 Conjunctions Example 159 那辆车受到这么严重的损坏, 就是因为长期放在楼下, 没有 人维护。[nà liàng chē shòu dào zhè me yán zhòng de sǔn huài, jiù shì yīn wéi cháng qī fàng zài lóu xià, méi yǒu rén wéi hù.] (The car was so badly damaged because it had been left unused for a long time without any maintenance.) Example 160 这次他没有考上大学, 就是因为平日学习不努力。[zhè cì tā méi yǒu kǎo shàng dà xué, jiù shì yīn wéi píng rì xué xí bù nǔ lì.] (He failed to enter the university this time because he didn’t study very hard on weekdays.) Example 161 今天发生的一切就是因为检查时忽略了一个小数点。[jīn tiān fā shēng de yī qiè jiù shì yīn wéi jiǎn chá shí hū luè le yī gè xiǎo shù diǎn.] (What happened today resulted from a decimal point that had been ignored during the inspection.) (5) “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” can be regarded as a preposition when it is followed by a nominal word as the object of “因为 [yīn wéi] (because).” Example 162 是不是因为陈亮的车祸, 你的精神不正常。[shì bú shì yīn wéi Chén Liàng de chē huò, nǐ de jīng shén bú zhèng cháng.] (Is it because of Chen Liang’s car accident that you were a bit out of your mind?) Example 163 大概因为过度的寒冷, 他的声音有些发抖。[dà gài yīn wéi guò dù de hán lěng, tā de shēng yīn yǒu xiē fā dǒu.] (His voice trembled a little, probably from the excessive cold.) Example 164 有的医院因为同名同姓发错了药, 差点儿没闹出人命。 [yǒu de yī yuàn yīn wéi tóng míng tóng xìng fā cuò le yào, chà diǎn er méi nào chū rén mìng.] (Some hospitals mistakenly gave the medicines to those with the same names, which almost killed someone.) Example 165 妻子是因为钱, 才离开他的。[qī zi shì yīn wéi qián, cái lí kāi tā de.] (The wife left him because of the money.) (6) “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” often matches with “而 [ér]” to form a phrase and then “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” is compressed into “因 [yīn] (because).” Example 166 兰兰因对母亲十分孝顺而获得了市政府的奖励。[Lán Lán yīn duì mǔ qīn shí fēn xiào shùn ér huò dé le shì zhèng fǔ de jiǎng lì.] (Lan Lan was rewarded by the municipal government for her filial deeds to her mother.) Example 167 小叶杨树, 因叶小而得名。[xiǎo yè yáng shù, yīn yè xiǎo ér dé míng.] (Simonii is named for its small leaves.) Example 168 他因考试作弊而被勒令退学。[tā yīn kǎo shì zuò bì ér bèi lè lìng tuì xué.] (He was expelled from school because of cheating in the exam.)

Conjunctions 93 2

由于 [yóu yú] (because of)

“由于 [yóu yú] (because of)” is used in the preceding clause to indicate a certain cause and then the following clause shows the result or the effect. Example 169 由于他聪明能干, 很快就被提升为副经理了。[yóu yú tā cōng míng néng gàn, hěn kuài jiù bèi tí shēng wéi fù jīng lǐ le.] (Because of his cleverness and capability, he was soon promoted to deputy manager.) Example 170 由于父亲常去跳舞, 所以家里常闹矛盾, 很不和睦。[yóu yú fù qīn cháng qù tiào wǔ, suǒ yǐ jiā lǐ cháng nào máo dùn, hěn bù hé mù.] (My father often goes out for dancing, so there are always conflicts and quarrels in my family.) Example 171 由于去晚了, 第一排已经没空位子, 我坐在后几排。[yóu yú qù wǎn le, dì yī pái yǐ jīng méi kōng wèi zi, wǒ zuò zài hòu jǐ pái.] (Because of my lateness, I had to sit in the rear row for there was no seat available in the first row.) Example 172 由于家庭困难, 我没有毛衣, 天气变冷的时候, 只好穿上妈 妈的旧毛衣。[yóu yú jiā tíng kùn nán, wǒ méi yǒu máo yī, tiān qì biàn lěng de shí hòu, zhǐ hǎo chuān shàng mā mā de jiù máo yī.] (I don’t have a sweater because of my poor family. Therefore, when the weather gets cold, I have to put on my mother’s old sweater.) Example 173 由于作者抓住了人物的个性特征, 因此刻画得生动逼真。 [yóu yú zuò zhě zhuā zhù le rén wù de gè xìng tè zhēng, yīn cǐ kè huà de shēng dòng bī zhēn.] (The author grasped the personality characteristics of the characters, so he portrayed them vividly.) “由于 [yóu yú] (because of)” can be regarded as a preposition when it is followed by a nominal word as the object of “由于 [yóu yú].” 3

The differences of “由于 [yóu yú] (because of)” and “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” in use

(1) Although both of them can be replaced with each other when indicating a certain cause, there exist some differences. “由于 [yóu yú] (because of)” is more popular in the written language; “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” is more oral. “由 于 [yóu yú] (because of)” can match with “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so),” “因而 [yīn ér] (thus),” or “因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore),” but “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” cannot, except for “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so).” Example 174 李大伯由于老伴早已去世, 所以他和儿子、儿媳、孙子一 起生活。[Lǐ dà bó yóu yú lǎo bàn zǎo yǐ qù shì, suǒ yǐ tā hé ér zi, ér xí, sūn zi yī qǐ shēng huó.] (Uncle Li lived with his son, daughter-in-law, and grandson because his wife had already passed away.)

94

Conjunctions 李大伯因为老伴早已去世, 所以他和儿子、儿媳、孙子一起生活。[Lǐ dà bó yīn wéi lǎo bàn zǎo yǐ qù shì, suǒ yǐ tā hé ér zi, ér xí, sūn zi yī qǐ shēng huó.] (Uncle Li lived with his son, daughter-in-law, and grandson because his wife had already passed away.) 李大伯由于老伴早已去世, 因而他和儿子、儿媳、孙子一起生活。[Lǐ dà bó yóu yú lǎo bàn zǎo yǐ qù shì, yīn ér tā hé ér zi, ér xí, sūn zi yī qǐ shēng huó.] (Uncle Li lived with his son, daughter-in-law, and grandson because his wife had already passed away.) 李大伯因为老伴早已去世, 因而他和儿子、儿媳、孙子一起生活。[Lǐ dà bó yīn wéi lǎo bàn zǎo yǐ qù shì, yīn ér tā hé ér zi, ér xí, sūn zi yī qǐ shēng huó.] (Uncle Li lived with his son, daughter-in-law, and grandson because his wife had already passed away.)

(2) The order of cause and effect cannot be reversed in a sentence if “由于 [yóu yú] (because of)” is used to introduce a cause. However “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” can be used in this way. X. 所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so), 因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore), 因而 [yīn ér] (thus) They are conjunctions indicating cause and effect and often appear in the following clause to show the result or the effect. 1

All of them can not only stand alone in a sentence but also appear in the compound sentence of cause and effect Example 175 阿里感冒了, 所以没有来上课。[Ā Lǐ gǎn mào le, suǒ yǐ méi yǒu lái shàng kè.] (A Li caught a cold, so he didn’t come to class.) Example 176 会前已做了充分准备, 因此会议开得很好。[huì qián yǐ zuò le chōng fèn zhǔn bèi, yīn cǐ huì yì kāi de hěn hǎo.] (Full preparation has been made before the meeting, so the meeting went well.) Example 177 小明病了, 因而不能来参加今天的全校运动会。[Xiǎo Míng bìng le, yīn ér bù néng lái cān jiā jīn tiān de quán xiào yùn dòng huì.] (Xiao Ming is ill, so he cannot join in the school sports meeting today.) Example 178 他考前做了充分的准备, 所以考得很好。[tā kǎo qián zuò le chōng fèn de zhǔn bèi, suǒ yǐ kǎo de hěn hǎo.] (He made good preparations before the exam, so he did well in the exam.) Example 179 那天我病了, 所以没参加那个会。[nà tiān wǒ bìng le, suǒ yǐ méi cān jiā nà gè huì.] (I was ill that day, so I didn’t attend the meeting.)

Generally, “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so),” “因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore),” “因而 [yīn ér] (thus)” can be substituted with one another without changing any meaning. To

Conjunctions 95 be more exact, “因为 . . . 所以 . . . [yīn wéi . . . suǒ yǐ]” is almost equal to any of them in function. “之所以 [zhī suǒ yǐ] (so)” is very similar to “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so)” in meaning but it only appears in the first clause, requiring “是因为 [shì yīn wéi] (because)” to introduce the next clause. Such usage is very common in the written language. Example 180 我们之所以拒绝参加此次会议, 是因为该会议的目的有悖 于我们的宗旨。[wǒ men zhī suǒ yǐ jù jué cān jiā cǐ cì huì yì, shì yīn wéi gāi huì yì de mù dí yǒu bèi yú wǒ men de zōng zhǐ.] (We refused to attend the meeting because the aim of the meeting was contrary to our purpose.) 2

“所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so), 因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore), 因而 [yīn ér] (thus)” can connect sentences Example 181 平时, 无论谁到市府去找他, 他都接见。所以当地市民尊敬 地称他是“平民市长”。[píng shí, wú lùn shuí dào shì fǔ qù zhǎo tā, tā dōu jiē jiàn. suǒ yǐ dāng dì shì mín zūn jìng de chēng tā shì “píng mín shì zhǎng.”] (Usually, he meets anyone who wants to visit him in the municipal government, due to which he is respectfully called “civilian mayor” by the local citizens.) Example 182 我们的工资每月起码几千元。因此, 我们不缺钱, 但需要对 我们理解。[wǒ men de gōng zī měi yuè qǐ mǎ jǐ qiān yuán. yīn cǐ, wǒ men bù quē qián, dàn xū yào duì wǒ men lǐ jiě.] (Our salary is at least thousands of yuan a month. Therefore, we are not short of money, but the understanding from others.) Example 183 从生活中找语言, 语言就有了根。因而, 学习语言是和体验 生活分不开的。[cóng shēng huó zhōng zhǎo yǔ yán, yǔ yán jiù yǒu le gēn. yīn ér, xué xí yǔ yán shì hé tǐ yàn shēng huó fēn bù kāi de.] (Language comes from the life where it is rooted. Therefore, learning language is inseparable from experiencing life.) To sum up, “所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so)” can be used in the following sentence patterns. Example 184 因为我和他在一起工作过, 所以对他比较熟悉。[yīn wéi wǒ hé tā zài yī qǐ gōng zuò guò, suǒ yǐ duì tā bǐ jiào shú xī.] (I am more familiar with him because I once worked with him.) 我和他在一起工作过, 所以我对他比较熟悉。[wǒ hé tā zài yī qǐ gōng zuò guò, suǒ yǐ wǒ duì tā bǐ jiào shú xī.] (I once worked with him, so I’m more familiar with him.) 我所以对他比较熟悉, 是因为我和他在一起工作过。[wǒ suǒ yǐ duì tā bǐ jiào shú xī, shì yīn wéi wǒ hé tā zài yī qǐ gōng zuò guò.] (Why I am more familiar with him is because I once worked with him.) 我和他在一起工作过, 这就是我所以对他比较熟悉的原因。[wǒ hé tā zài yī qǐ gōng zuò guò, zhè jiù shì wǒ suǒ yǐ duì tā bǐ jiào shú xī de yuán yīn.] (I once worked with him. That’s why I am more familiar with him.)

96

Conjunctions

XI. 既然 [jì rán] (since), 既 [jì] (since) Both of them are conjunctions to deduce cause and effect. They appear in the preceding clause of a compound sentence to introduce the known reason or condition of a certain conclusion. And then, the conclusion is drawn in the following clause. 1

Some correlative adverbs, such as “就 [jiù],” “便 [biàn],” “也 [yě]” often appear before the subject in the following clause and sometimes, the conjunction “那么 [nà me] (then)” is also qualified in this position Example 185 A: 队长, 我适应不了这儿的气候, 老生病。[duì zhǎng, wǒ shì yìng bù liǎo zhè er de qì hòu, lǎo shēng bìng.] (Captain, I can’t adapt myself to the climate here, and I often get sick.) B: 你既然适应不了这里的气候, 就离开这里, 换个地方。[nǐ jì rán shì yìng bù liǎo zhè lǐ de qì hòu, jiù lí kāi zhè lǐ, huàn gè dì fāng.] (Since you can’t get used to the climate here, leave here for another place.) Example 186 A: 老师, 我病了, 在发烧。[lǎo shī, wǒ bìng le, zài fā shāo.] (Professor, I’m running a fever.) B: 既然你病了, 就在家里休息吧。[jì rán nǐ bìng le, jiù zài jiā lǐ xiū xī ba.] (Since you are ill, take a rest at home.) Example 187 我们既然对搞经济不内行, 就要老老实实, 从头学起。 [wǒ men jì rán duì gǎo jīng jì bú nèi háng, jiù yào lǎo lǎo shi shi, cóng tóu xué qǐ.] (Since we are not good at economics, we should honestly learn from the very beginning.) Example 188 A: 这幅画我真想买, 就是太贵了。[zhè fú huà wǒ zhēn xiǎng mǎi, jiù shì tài guì le.] (I really want to buy this painting, but it’s too expensive.) B: 既然你真想买, 我愿意赔本儿卖给你, 拿去吧。[jì rán nǐ zhēn xiǎng mǎi, wǒ yuàn yì péi běn er mài gěi nǐ, ná qù ba.] (Since you really want it, I would like to sell it to you at the price less than its cost. Take it.) Example 189 A: 听说你们盖的那座楼地基有问题, 盖了多久了？[tīng shuō nǐ men gài de nà zuò lóu dì jī yǒu wèn tí, gài le duō jiǔ le?] (I heard there was something wrong with the foundation of the building. When did you begin the construction?) B: 刚盖。[gāng gài.] (It just began.)

Conjunctions 97 A: 既然刚盖, 立刻停工！[jì rán gāng gài, lì kè tíng gōng!] (Now that it just began, stop it at once!) In these examples, the causes conveyed by “既然 [jì rán] (since)” in the clauses are obviously known to both the speaker and the listener. 2

The following clause is a question or a rhetorical question Example 190 您既然认为他扮演这个角色不太合适, 为什么还让他参加 试演呢？[nín jì rán rèn wéi tā bàn yǎn zhè gè jiǎo sè bú tài hé shì, wèi shén me hái ràng tā cān jiā shì yǎn ne?] (Since you don’t think he is the right person for this role, why did you let him have a try in the audition?) Example 191 你既然不愿参与此事, 还问什么？[nǐ jì rán bú yuàn cān yǔ cǐ shì, hái wèn shén me?] (Since you are not willing to get involved in this, why do you ask?) Example 192 既然许多人都是这么过来的, 为什么我就不能照这样过下 去呢？[jì rán xǔ duō rén dōu shì zhè me guò lái de, wèi shén me wǒ jiù bù néng zhào zhè yàng guò xià qù ne?] (Since a lot of people have had such a life, why can’t I live this way?) Example 193 她既然希望你将来替她出口气, 为什么又不让你多读几年 书呢？[tā jì rán xī wàng nǐ jiāng lái tì tā chū kǒu qì, wèi shén me yòu bú ràng nǐ duō dú jǐ nián shū ne?] (Since she wants you to outshine others for her in the future, why doesn’t she let you learn for a few more years?)

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The pronouns, such as “这样 [zhè yàng] (in this way),” “那样 [nà yàng] (like that),” “如此 [rú cǐ] (such),” can appear after “既然 [jì rán] (since)” to refer to what is previously mentioned Example 194 对于这个问题, 她的态度既然这样/那样/如此, 我们就不再 跟他商量了。[duì yú zhè gè wèn tí, tā de tài dù jì rán zhè yàng/nà yàng/rú cǐ, wǒ men jiù bú zài gēn tā shāng liàng le.] (With regard to this matter, we will not discuss it with him because of his attitude.)

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“既然 [jì rán] (since)” is different from “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” or “如 果[rú guǒ] (if).”

First, “因为 [yīn wéi] (because)” introduces the cause unknown to the listener, which differs from “既然 [jì rán] (since).” Example 195 A: 你为什么不走了？[nǐ wèi shén me bù zǒu le?] (Why don’t you go?) B: 因为外边下雨了。[yīn wéi wài biān xià yǔ le.] (It’s raining outside.)

98 Conjunctions A: 什么？下雨了？[shén me? xià yǔ le?] (What? It’s raining?) Second, “如果 [rú guǒ] (if)” introduces the hypothetical condition rather than the known fact. Example 196 A: 我走了。[wǒ zǒu le.] (I’m leaving now.) B: 外边好像有雨声。如果下雨了, 你就不要走了。[wài biān hǎo xiàng yǒu yǔ shēng. rú guǒ xià yǔ le, nǐ jiù bú yào zǒu le.] (It seems to be raining outside. If it is, just stay here.) Third, “既然 [jì rán] (since)” introduces the actual situation known to both the speaker and the listener. Example 197 A: 我该走了。哎, 下雨了。[wǒ gāi zǒu le. āi, xià yǔ le.] (I have to go now. Oh, it’s raining.) B: 既然下雨了, 你就不要走了。我们正好可以多聊一会儿。[jì rán xià yǔ le, nǐ jiù bú yào zǒu le. wǒ men zhèng hǎo kě yǐ duō liáo yī huì er.] (Since it’s raining, you just stay and we can continue our talk for a while.) 5

“既 [jì] (since)” and “既然 [jì rán] (since)” share many things in common and often appear in the written language. Besides, “既 [jì] (since)” can match with the adverb “又 [yòu] (again)” or “也 [yě] (also)” to form “既 . . . 又 . . . [jì . . . yòu . . .]” or “既 . . . 也 . . . [jì . . . yě . . .],” highlighting the coordinative relation of two entities. Example 198 他觉得自己还在成长, 他似乎既是成人, 又是孩子, 非常有 趣。[tā júe de zì jǐ hái zài chéng zhǎng, tā sì hū jì shì chéng rén, yòu shì hái zi, fēi cháng yǒu qù.] (He really felt that he hadn’t grown up. It was very interesting to feel being an adult as well as a child at the same time.) Example 199 我和他既不是亲戚, 也不是朋友。[wǒ hé tā jì bú shì qīn qī, yě bú shì péng yǒu.] (He and I are neither relatives nor friends.) Example 200 新修的这座办公楼, 既有民族风格, 也不盲目复古。[xīn xiū de zhè zuò bàn gōng lóu, jì yǒu mín zú fēng gé, yě bù máng mù fù gǔ.] (The newly built office building has a national style without blindly imitating the ancient one.) Example 201 大家听了他的话以后都哈哈大笑起来, 笑得既开心, 又潇洒。 [dà jiā tīng le tā de huà yǐ hòu dōu hā hā dà xiào qǐ lái, xiào dé jì kāi xīn, yòu xiāo sǎ.] (They all laughed at his words, happily and satisfactorily.)

Conjunctions 99 Sometimes, “既 [jì] (since)” can match with “还 [hái] (also).” Example 202 在我小时候, 一听“烤白薯喽”, 就非买上一块不可。一路 上既可以把那烫手的白薯揣在袖筒里取暖, 到学校还可以拿出来大嚼一 通。[zài wǒ xiǎo shí hòu, yī tīng “kǎo bái shǔ lou”, jiù fēi mǎi shàng yī kuài bù kě. yī lù shàng jì kě yǐ bǎ nà tàng shǒu de bái shǔ chuāi zài xiù tǒng lǐ qǔ nuǎn, dào xué xiào hái kě yǐ ná chū lái dà jiáo yī tōng.] (When I was a child, I always bought a piece of it when hearing the vendor’s hawking “baked sweet potato!” Along the way to the school, I put it in my sleeve to keep me warm, and when arriving at the school, I took it out and enjoyed it happily.) “既 . . . 又 . . . [jì . . . yòu . . .] (and . . . and . . .)” is different from “又 . . . 又 . . . [yòu . . . yòu . . .] (and . . . and)” in some way, although both of them indicate the coordinative relation. When “又 . . . 又 . . . [yòu . . . yòu . . .] (and . . . and . . .)” connects the adjectives, they should be commendatory or derogatory at the same time, such as “又高又大 [yòu gāo yòu dà] (tall and big),” “又 聪明又漂亮 [yòu cōng míng yòu piào liàng] (clever and beautiful),” “天又黑 又冷。[tiān yòu hēi yòu lěng.] (It is dark and cold.),” “这个人又奸又滑。[zhè gè rén yòu jiān yòu huá.] (This man is treacherous and cunning.);” when verb phrases are connected by “又 . . . 又 . . . [yòu . . . yòu . . .] (and . . . and . . .),” they should refer to the actions that often happen together, such as “又蹦又 跳 [yòu bèng yòu tiào] (scamper),” “又打又闹[yòu dǎ yòu nào] (quarrel and fight noisily),” “又气又恨 [yòu qì yòu hèn] (anger and hate).” Usually, the words or phrases connected by “又 [yòu] (and)” are short both in length and in pronunciation. The adjectives connected by “既 . . . 又 . . . [jì . . . yòu . . .] (and . . . and . . .)” should have the similar implications; the verbs or verb phrases connected by it are more flexible. Example 203 我们既要藐视敌人, 又要为消灭敌人做好充分的准备。 [wǒ men jì yào miǎo shì dí rén, yòu yào wèi xiāo miè dí rén zuò hǎo chōng fèn de zhǔn bèi.] (We should not only despise the enemy, but also be fully prepared to destroy it.) XII. 虽然 [suī rán] (although), 尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although) 1

“虽然 [suī rán] (although)” and “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” are the concessive conjunctions. In the preceding clause of a compound sentence, they express a sense of concession by means of admitting or accepting a judgment. Then the adversative conjunctions, such as “可是 [kě shì] (but),” “但是 [dàn shì] (but)” or “然而 [rán ér] (but),” follow in the following clause. Therefore, the commonly used forms are “虽然 . . . 但是/可是/然而 . . . [suī rán . . . dàn shì/kě shì/rán ér] (although . . .)” and “尽管 . . . 但是/可是/然而 . . . [jǐn guǎn . . . dàn shì/kě shì/rán ér] (although . . .).”

100 Conjunctions Example 204 他虽然没有经验, 但是工作做得很好。[tā suī rán méi yǒu jīng yàn, dàn shì gōng zuò zuò de hěn hǎo.] (Although he has no experience, he does his work very well.) Example 205 她说话时虽然脸带笑容, 可是听得出话中有责备的味道。 [tā shuō huà shí suī rán liǎn dài xiào róng, kě shì tīng de chū huà zhōng yǒu zé bèi de wèi dào.] (Although she spoke with a smile on her face, I could hear her reproachful tone.) Example 206 创作计划虽然按期完成了, 然而并不很理想。[chuàng zuò jì huà suī rán àn qī wán chéng le, rán ér bìng bù hěn lǐ xiǎng.] (Although the creative plan was completed on time, it was not very satisfying.) Sometimes, the clause introduced by “虽然 [suī rán] (although)” or “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” can be moved backward. Example 207 没想到后来交际舞风也传到了农村, 虽然带点儿偷偷摸摸 的性质。[méi xiǎng dào hòu lái jiāo jì wǔ fēng yě chuán dào le nóng cūn, suī rán dài diǎn er tōu tōu mō mō de xìng zhì.] (I didn’t expect that ballroom dance was also spread over the countryside later, but not publicly.) Example 208 看来自己也没有上当受骗, 尽管这袋茶叶正是从一个妇女 摆的小摊上买的。[kàn lái zì jǐ yě méi yǒu shàng dāng shòu piàn, jǐn guǎn zhè dài chá yè zhèng shì cóng yī gè fù nǚ bǎi de xiǎo tān shàng mǎi de.] (It seemed that I had not been cheated at least, although this bag of tea was really bought from a woman’s small stall.) 2

“虽然 [suī rán] (although)” and “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” often match with some adverbs, such as “却 [què] (but),” “还(是) [hái (shì)] (still),” “总(是) [zǒng (shì)] (always),” “仍然 [réng rán] (still).” Among them, “却 [què] (but)” or “还是 [hái shì] (still)” should be put after the subject of a sentence. Example 209 虽然时间比较紧一些, 他们还是按时完成了。[suī rán shí jiān bǐ jiào jǐn yī xiē, tā men hái shì àn shí wán chéng le.] (Although the time was relatively limited, they finished it on time.) Example 210 人虽然受点累, 该办的事总算都办完了。[rén suī rán shòu diǎn lèi, gāi bàn de shì zǒng suàn dōu bàn wán le.] (Although it was really labor-consuming, it was finally finished.) Example 211 尽管太阳是人类生存不可缺少的, 但总还是有人批评太阳 的某些过失。[jǐn guǎn tài yáng shì rén lèi shēng cún bù kě quē shǎo de, dàn zǒng hái shì yǒu rén pī píng tài yáng de mǒu xiē guò shī.] (Although the sun is indispensable for human survival, there are always some criticisms of its shortcomings.) Example 212 尽管人们对她有误解, 有种种看法, 她那双眼睛仍是那么善 良、清澈。[jǐn guǎn rén men duì tā yǒu wù jiě, yǒu zhǒng zhǒng kàn fǎ, tā nà shuāng yǎn jīng réng shì nà me shàn liáng, qīng chè.]

Conjunctions 101 (In spite of being misunderstood, she still kept her kindness in her eyes.) Example 213 尽管我们在同一单位工作, 然而却很少见面说话。[jǐn guǎn wǒ men zài tóng yī dān wèi gōng zuò, rán ér què hěn shǎo jiàn miàn shuō huà.] (Although we work in the same unit, we seldom meet and talk.) “但(是) [dàn (shì)] (but),” “可(是) [kě (shì)] (but),” or “然而 [rán ér] (but)” can match with “却 [què] (but),” “还(是) [hái(shì)] (still),” or “仍(然) [réng (rán)] (still)” and then appear simultaneously in a clause. Example 214 他的名气虽然不如别人那么响, 可他的作品却一炮一响。 [tā de míng qì suī rán bù rú bié rén nà me xiǎng, kě tā de zuò pǐn què yī pào yī xiǎng.] (Although he is not as famous as others, his works are really a hit.) Example 215 家庭虽然发生了悲剧, 但生活得照样进行, 画还得照样画。[jiā tíng suī rán fā shēng le bēi jù, dàn shēng huó de zhào yàng jìn xíng, huà hái děi zhào yàng huà.] (Although the family had suffered a tragedy, their lives had to go on, and he had to keep on painting as usual.) Example 216 尽管他整天忙碌地工作, 然而工资收入却十分少。[jǐn guǎn tā zhěng tiān máng lù de gōng zuò, rán ér gōng zī shōu rù què shí fēn shǎo.] (Although he works very hard everyday, his salary is very low.) Example 217 傍晚来了一位客人, 虽然穿着西装革履, 但说起话来仍是土 得掉渣。[bàng wǎn lái le yī wèi kè rén, suī rán chuān zhe xī zhuāng gé lǚ, dàn shuō qǐ huà lái réng shì tǔ dé diào zhā.] (In the evening, a guest came, well-dressed but talking coarsely.) 3

If “虽然 [suī rán] (although)” or “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” doesn’t appear in the preceding clause, the adversative conjunctions in the following clause, such as “但是 [dàn shì] (but)” or “然而 [rán ér] (but),” can still decide the concessive-adversative relation of the entire sentence. Example 218 除夕是热闹的, 可是他家却冷冷清清。[chú xī shì rè nào de, kě shì tā jiā què lěng lěng qīng qīng.] (Although New Year’s Eve is boisterous and bustling, his family was relatively cold and lonely.) Example 219 这个姑娘每有集市都来卖花, 经常赶集的人都认识她, 但不 知道她叫什么名字。[zhè gè gū niang měi yǒu jí shì dōu lái mài huā, jīng cháng gǎn jí de rén dōu rèn shi tā, dàn bù zhī dào tā jiào shén me míng zì.] (This girl sold flowers whenever there was a market. Although the marketgoers knew her, they had no idea about her name.)

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“虽然 [suī rán] (although)” and “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” can connect sentences, and they are often followed by demonstrative pronouns, such as “这样 [zhè yàng] (in this way),” “那样 [nà yàng] (like that),” “如此 [rú cǐ] (such)” to refer to what has been previously mentioned.

102

Conjunctions Example 220 十年的成就远远超过了过去几十年、几百年的成就。尽 管如此, 但它并不意味着我们十年来的工作丝毫没有缺点和错误。[shí nián de chéng jiù yuǎn yuǎn chāo guò le guò qù jǐ shí nián, jǐ bǎi nián de chéng jiù. jǐn guǎn rú cǐ, dàn tā bìng bú yì wèi zhe wǒ men shí nián lái de gōng zuò sī háo méi yǒu quē diǎn hé cuò wù.] (The achievements achieved in the recent ten years have far exceeded those in the past few decades or hundreds of years ago. Even so, it doesn’t mean that there is no shortcoming or mistake made in our work in the past decade.)

Comparatively speaking, “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” sounds a little bit stronger than “虽然 [suī rán] (although)” in expressing a sense of concession. “尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although)” is a conjunction as well as an adverb. When it is used as an adverb, it indicates “be free to do something.” Example 221 你有什么困难, 尽管说, 我能帮助你的, 一定尽力。[nǐ yǒu shén me kùn nán, jǐn guǎn shuō, wǒ néng bāng zhù nǐ de, yí dìng jìn lì.] (If you have any difficulties, just tell me without any hesitation. I will try my best to help.) Example 222 您尽管说吧, 只要我办得到, 一定帮忙。[nín jǐn guǎn shuō ba, zhǐ yào wǒ bàn de dào, yí dìng bāng máng.] (Go ahead! As long as I can help, I do help.) Example 223 A: 我们想买灯。[wǒ men xiǎng mǎi dēng.] (We want to buy a lamp.) B: 您尽管挑, 什么款式都有。[nín jǐn guǎn tiāo, shén me kuǎn shì dōu yǒu.] (Choose the style you want. We have them all.) Example 224 你有话尽管说, 这几位都不是外人。[nǐ yǒu huà jǐn guǎn shuō, zhè jǐ wèi dōu bú shì wài rén.] (Just speak out what you want, and they are not outsiders.) XIII. 即使 [jí shǐ] (even if) “即使 [jí shǐ] (even if)” is a concessive conjunction and appears in the first clause of a concessive compound sentence. Some adverbs often appear in the next clause, such as “也 [yě] (also),” “还 [hái] (still),” “总 [zǒng] (always),” “又 [yòu] (and),” “仍然 [réng rán] (still).” The commonly used form is “即使 . . . 也 . . . [jí shǐ . . . yě] (even if . . .)” and it indicates that no matter whether the concessive condition introduced by “即使 [jí shǐ] (even if)” is a fact or not, what has been mentioned in the clause introduced by “也 [yě] (also)” has already become a fact. Generally speaking, language context and common sense can help decide whether the concessive condition is a fact or not. 1

If the concessive condition is not a fact or just a hypothesis, there are two possibilities. One is that the condition will probably become true, although

Conjunctions 103 it doesn’t exist now; the other is that the condition is an absolute hypothesis which cannot be realized. Example 225 他说即使不幸遇到了麻烦, 也有办法对付, 他是不会吃大亏 的。[tā shuō jí shǐ bú xìng yù dào le má fán, yě yǒu bàn fǎ duì fù, tā shì bú huì chī dà kuī de.] (He said that even if he unfortunately ran into troubles, there would be a way to deal with them, and he would not suffer a lot.) Example 226 即使永远等不到理想中的人, 也不要糊里糊涂地结婚。[jí shǐ yǒng yuǎn děng bú dào lǐ xiǎng zhōng de rén, yě bú yào hú lǐ hú tú de jié hūn.] (Even if you can never meet the ideal person, don’t get married without thinking.) Example 227 即使上刀山下火海, 他也要把这个科研任务拿下来。[jí shǐ shàng dāo shān xià huǒ hǎi, tā yě yào bǎ zhè gè kē yán rèn wù ná xià lái.] (Even if he has to undergo the most severe trials, he is determined to finish this scientific research.) Example 228 即使天塌下来, 他也不怕, 他坚信自己是对的。[jí shǐ tiān tā xià lái, tā yě bú pà, tā jiān xìn zì jǐ shì duì de.] (Even if anything unexpected happens, he is not afraid because he firmly believes that he is right.) 2

If the concessive condition has been a fact rather than a hypothesis, the entire sentence implies that the result conveyed by “也 [yě] (also)” can still be achieved under such a disadvantageous condition. Example 229 这里用草皮覆盖了地面, 即使有风, 刮起来的沙子也不多 了。[zhè lǐ yòng cǎo pí fù gài le dì miàn, jí shǐ yǒu fēng, guā qǐ lái de shā zi yě bù duō le.] (The ground is covered with turf, so there is not much sand even if the wind blows.) Example 230 即使在寒冷的日子里, 你也能感受太阳在烧烤你的皮肤。 [jí shǐ zài hán lěng de rì zi lǐ, nǐ yě néng gǎn shòu tài yáng zài shāo kǎo nǐ de pí fū.] (Even on cold days, your skin can still feel the scorching hot from the sun.) Example 231 他整天衣冠楚楚, 即使是到郊区植树, 他也不穿球鞋, 不穿 布鞋。[tā zhěng tiān yī guān chǔ chǔ, jí shǐ shì dào jiāo qū zhí shù, tā yě bù chuān qiú xié, bù chuān bù xié.] (He always keeps well-dressed all day. Even if he goes to the suburbs to plant trees, he doesn’t wear sneakers or cloth shoes.) Example 232 即使花那么大的痛苦的代价, 她也要尽可能多留一点儿东 西给中国人民。[jí shǐ huā nà me dà de tòng kǔ de dài jià, tā yě yào jǐn kě néng duō liú yī diǎn er dōng xī gěi zhōng guó rén mín.] (Even at that painful cost, she still wanted to do as much as she could for the Chinese people.)

104

Conjunctions

In the spoken language, “就是 [jiù shì] (even)” and “就算 [jiù suàn] (even)” are commonly used in the forms of “就是 . . . 也 . . . [jiù shì . . . yě . . .] (even . . .)” and “就算 . . . 也 . . . [jiù suàn . . . yě . . .] (even . . .).” Example 233 就是徐霞客也没有亲眼看见蝴蝶会的盛况。[jiù shì Xú Xiá kè yě méi yǒu qīn yǎn kàn jiàn hú dié huì de shèng kuàng.] (Even Xu Xiake, (a famous traveler and geographer in the Ming Dynasty), had no chance to see the spectacular event of the butterflies with his own eyes.) “即便 [jí biàn] (even if),” “即若 [jí ruò] (even if),” and “纵然 [zòng rán] (even if)” can be used to express concession in the written language. XIV. 只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if), 只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as) Both of them are conjunctions to indicate condition and are mainly used in the conditional compound sentence. 1

只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if)

“只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if)” often matches with the adverb “才[cái]” to form “只 有 [zhǐ yǒu] A, 才[cái] B (only if . . .).” Here, A stands for the condition and B indicates the result. This form implies that A decides the existence of B. Example 234 只有奋斗, 才能成功。[zhǐ yǒu fèn dòu, cái néng chéng gōng.] (Only by struggle can we succeed.) Example 235 只有承认落后, 才能改变落后的面貌。[zhǐ yǒu chéng rèn luò hòu, cái néng gǎi biàn luò hòu de miàn mào.] (Only by acknowledging backwardness can we change the backward situation.) In Example 234, “struggle” decides “success.” In other words, without “struggle,” there is no “success.” The same is true for Example 235. Thus it can be seen that “只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if)” introduces the only condition. “只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if)” can be used in a simple sentence before the subject or adverbial (prepositional phrase), and the predicate follows “才 [cái].” Example 236 只有不畏艰难的人, 才能攀登科学的高峰。[zhǐ yǒu bú wèi jiān nán de rén, cái néng pān dēng kē xué de gāo fēng.] (Only those who are not afraid of difficulties can climb the peak of science.) Example 237 你只有靠自己的艰苦奋斗和全面发展, 才能迎接生活的挑 战。[nǐ zhǐ yǒu kào zì jǐ de jiān kǔ fèn dòu hé quán miàn fā zhǎn, cái néng yíng jiē shēng huó de tiǎo zhàn.] (Only by working hard and developing comprehensively can you meet the challenges of life.) Example 238 这类数学问题, 只有用电子计算机才能解出结果。[zhè lèi shù xué wèn tí, zhǐ yǒu yòng diàn zǐ jì suàn jī cái néng jiě chū jié guǒ.] (Only the electric computer can solve the mathematical problem of such kind.)

Conjunctions 105 2

只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as)

“只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as)” often matches with the adverb “就 [jiù]” to form “只要 [zhǐ yào] A, 就 [jiù] B (as long as . . .),” which implies that B depends on the existence of A. Example 239 只要奋斗, 就能成功。[zhǐ yào fèn dòu, jiù néng chéng gōng.] (As long as you fight for it, you can succeed.) Example 240 只要承认落后, 就能改变落后的面貌。[zhǐ yào chéng rèn luò hòu, jiù néng gǎi biàn luò hòu de miàn mào.] (As long as you acknowledge backwardness, you can change the backward situation.) In Example 239, “success” depends on “fight.” In other words, there might be other conditions that B can depend on. The same is true in Example 240. Thus it can be seen that “只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as)” introduces the sufficient condition. XV. 无论 [wú lùn] (whether), 不论 [bú lùn] (no matter), 不管 [bù guǎn] (no matter) They are the conjunctions to indicate the unconditional relation, mainly appearing in the compound sentence as well as the simple sentence. They match with the adverb, such as “都 [dōu] (all)” or “也 [yě] (also),” to form “无论/不论/不管A, 都/也B [wú lùn/bú lùn/bù guǎn A, dōu/yě B] (no matter . . .).” “无论 [wú lùn] (whether)” can be followed by several forms to imply that not only one condition exists. These forms include affirmative-negative questions, alternative questions, indefinite references of interrogative pronouns, and even a few coordinating words. The entire sentence implies that under all circumstances, the result is the same. 1

“无论 [wú lùn] (whether)” is followed by the form of affirmative-negative question Example 241 不管你信不信, 事实总是事实。[bù guǎn nǐ xìn bú xìn, shì shí zǒng shì shì shí.] (Believe it or not, the truth is the truth.) This example implies that the truth is the truth, which is not decided by your will. Example 242 明天无论你来不来, 都要给我打个电话告诉我一声。[míng tiān wú lùn nǐ lái bù lái, dōu yào gěi wǒ dǎ gè diàn huà gào sù wǒ yī shēng.] (Whether you come or not tomorrow, please give me a call.) Example 243 不论你同意不同意, 我都会签字。[bú lùn nǐ tóng yì bú tóng yì, wǒ dōu huì qiān zì] (Whether you agree or disagree, I will sign it.)

From this example, it can be seen that the final result would not be changed no matter if it is under either of two conditions.

106 2

Conjunctions “无论 [bú lùn] (no matter)” is followed by the form of the alternative question Example 244 明天你无论来还是不来, 都要告诉我一下儿。[míng tiān nǐ wú lùn lái hái shì bù lái, dōu yào gào sù wǒ yī xià er.] (Whether you come or not tomorrow, you must let me know.) Example 245 明天你无论上午来还是下午来, 我都在家。[míng tiān nǐ wú lùn shàng wǔ lái hái shì xià wǔ lái, wǒ dōu zài jiā.] (Whether you come tomorrow morning or tomorrow afternoon, I will be at home.) Example 246 我们不论在顺利的条件下还是在困难的条件下, 都要坚持 工作。[wǒ men bú lùn zài shùn lì de tiáo jiàn xià hái shì zài kùn nán de tiáo jiàn xià, dōu yào jiān chí gōng zuò.] (We must persevere in our work, under favorable or tough conditions.) Example 247 这些孩子不论集体行动还是单独行动, 都非常守纪律。[zhè xiē hái zi bú lùn jí tǐ xíng dòng hái shì dān dú xíng dòng, dōu fēi cháng shǒu jì lǜ.] (These children are very disciplined, whether they act collectively or individually.)

From these examples, it can be seen that the final result would not be changed, no matter which condition is chosen. Sometimes, “还是 [hái shì] (still)” can be absent. Example 248 不管是你, 是我, 是他, 是男是女, 是老是少, 人人都应该为 四化出力。[bú guǎn shì nǐ, shì wǒ, shì tā, shì nán shì nǚ, shì lǎo shì shào, rén rén dōu yīng gāi wèi sì huà chū lì.] (Whoever you might be, everyone should contribute to the four modernizations.) 3

“无论 [wú lùn] (no matter)” is followed by the general reference of interrogative pronouns Example 249 无论谁有困难, 他都热情帮助。[wú lùn shuí yǒu kùn nán, tā dōu rè qíng bāng zhù.] (Whoever is in trouble, he is eager to help.) Example 250 不论你有什么困难, 都不要失去信心。[bú lùn nǐ yǒu shén me kùn nán, dōu bú yào shī qù xìn xīn.] (No matter what difficulties you meet, don’t lose confidence.) Example 251 不管你怎么麻烦他, 他也不嫌烦。[bù guǎn nǐ zěn me má fán tā, tā yě bù xián fá.] (No matter how much you trouble him, he will never complain.) Example 252 小明不管在哪儿都表现得不错, 守规矩, 有礼貌。[Xiǎo Míng bù guǎn zài nǎ er dōu biǎo xiàn dé bú cuò, shǒu guī jǔ, yǒu lǐ mào.] (Xiao Ming behaved well and politely wherever he was.) Example 253 不管你学习哪一门功课, 都要多动脑筋, 多思考, 不要死记 硬背。[bù guǎn nǐ xué xí nǎ yī mén gōng kè, dōu yào duō dòng nǎo jīn, duō sī kǎo, bú yào sǐ jì yìng bèi.] (No matter which subject you learn, you should use your brains to think more, instead of learning by rote.)

Conjunctions 107 If the predicate of the clause introduced by “无论 [bú lùn] (no matter)” is served by an adjective, a verb indicating a psychological state, or the words such as “有 [yǒu] (have)” and “善于 [shàn yú] (be good at),” the adverb “多(么) [duō (me)] (much)” is usually required to appear before the predicate. Example 254 无论条件多么艰苦, 他们也从来没叫过苦。[wú lùn tiáo jiàn duō me jiān kǔ, tā men yě cóng lái méi jiào guò kǔ.] (No matter how tough the conditions are, they have never complained.) Example 255 不管夏天多热, 冬天多冷, 他总是趴在书桌上写着, 算着。 [bù guǎn xià tiān duō rè, dōng tiān duō lěng, tā zǒng shì pā zài shū zhuō shàng xiě zhe, suàn zhe.] (No matter how hot it is in summer or how cold it is in winter, he always sits at his desk and keeps on writing.) Example 256 不管你多么想去, 如果不让你去, 你也不能去。[bù guǎn nǐ duō me xiǎng qù, rú guǒ bú ràng nǐ qù, nǐ yě bù néng qù.] (No matter how much you want to go, you can’t go without their permission.) Example 257 不管有多大的困难, 我也要参加这次冬季游泳比赛。[bù guǎn yǒu duō dà de kùn nán, wǒ yě yào cān jiā zhè cì dōng jì yóu yǒng bǐ sài.] (No matter how difficult it is, I have to take part in this winter’s swimming competition.) Example 258 不论你是多么大的官儿, 也应该遵守国家的法令。[bú lùn nǐ shì duō me dà de guān er, yě yīng gāi zūn shǒu guó jiā de fǎ lìng.] (No matter what position you are at, you must abide by law.) 4

“无论 [wú lùn] (no matter),” “不论 [bú lùn] (whether),” “与不管 [bù guǎn] (no matter)” can be repeatedly used in a sentence Example 259 朋友, 天山的美丽景物何止这些, 天山绵延几千公里, 不 论高山、深谷, 不论草原、森林, 不论溪流、湖泊, 处处有富饶的物产, 处处有绮丽的美景, 你要说可真说不完。[péng yǒu, tiān shān de měi lì jǐng wù hé zhǐ zhè xiē, tiān shān mián yán jǐ qiān gōng lǐ, bú lùn gāo shān, shēn gǔ, bú lùn cǎo yuán, sēn lín, bú lùn xī liú, hú bó, chù chù yǒu fù ráo de wù chǎn, chù chù yǒu qǐ lì de měi jǐng, nǐ yào shuō kě zhēn shuō bù wán.] (My friends, the beautiful scenery of Mt. Tianshan is more than what you have seen. It stretches thousands of kilometers, supplying rich natural products and displaying various beautiful views, such as peaks, deep valleys, grasslands, forests, streams, lakes, etc. All of them can be seen everywhere, and they are really beyond my description.) Example 260 无论什么人, 不管他怎么忙, 都应该抽点工夫想想这个问 题。[wú lùn shén me rén, bù guǎn tā zěn me máng, dōu yīng gāi chōu diǎn gōng fū xiǎng xiǎng zhè gè wèn tí.] (No matter whom he is or how busy he is, he should take some time to think about this issue.)

108

Conjunctions Example 261 杨树, 不论在河滩、平原, 不论在丘陵、山脉或高山, 都能 生长。[yáng shù, bú lùn zài hé tān, píng yuán, bú lùn zài qiū líng, shān mò huò gāo shān, dōu néng shēng zhǎng.] (Poplar can grow sturdily wherever it is, like rivers, plains, hills, or mountains.)

To sum up, “无论 [bú lùn] (no matter)” requires a certain question form or general reference of an interrogative pronoun to follow it in order to show “under all circumstances.” XVI. 除非 [chú fēi] (unless) 1

“除非 [chú fēi] (unless)” is the conjunction to indicate the conditional relation, similar to “只有 . . . 才 . . . [zhī yǒu . . . cái . . .] (unless . . .).” It often matches with “才[cái],” “否则 [fǒu zé] (otherwise),” “不然 [bù rán] (otherwise)” to stress the only condition. Example 262 除非是公休日, 他才回家来看看, 平时在实验室里一待就是 一个星期。[chú fēi shì gōng xiū rì, tā cái huí jiā lái kàn kàn, píng shí zài shí yàn shì lǐ yī dāi jiù shì yī gè xīng qī.] (Usually he stays at the lab for a whole week without going home, except for public holidays.) Example 263 语文和数学是两门主科, 除非你这次补考及格, 否则是不能 升级的。[yǔ wén hé shù xué shì liǎng mén zhǔ kē, chú fēi nǐ zhè cì bǔ kǎo jí gé, fǒu zé shì bù néng shēng jí de.] (Since Chinese and mathematics are the main subjects, you have to pass them in the make-up exams. Otherwise you cannot be upgraded.) Example 264 除非天气不好, 下雨或刮风, 否则, 他上班从来不坐车。[chú fēi tiān qì bù hǎo, xià yǔ huò guā fēng, fǒu zé, tā shàng bān cóng lái bú zuò chē.] (He never goes to work by bus unless in the bad weather, such as on raining or windy days.)

In these examples, “除非 [chú fēi] . . . 才 [cái] (unless . . .)” can be changed into “只有 . . . 才 . . . [zhǐ yǒu . . . cái . . .]” to show a fact that “public holidays” is the only condition of “go home.” “Pass the exam” is the only condition of “be upgraded” and “bad weather” is the only condition of “go to work by bus.” 2

“除非 [chú fēi] (unless)” can be moved backward Example 265 他是不会主动来的, 除非你去请他。[tā shì bú huì zhǔ dòng lái de, chú fēi nǐ qù qǐng tā.] (He won’t come unless you invite him.) Example 266 要想得到好成绩, 除非自己努力学习。[yào xiǎng de dào hǎo chéng jì, chú fēi zì jǐ nǔ lì xué xí.] (In order to get a good score, you must study hard.) Example 267 他们不会在这张纸上签字的, 除非我们能满足他们的要 求。[tā men bú huì zài zhè zhāng zhǐ shàng qiān zì de, chú fēi wǒ men néng mǎn zú tā men de yāo qiú.]

Conjunctions 109 (They won’t sign this piece of paper unless we agree to their demands.) 3

“除非 [chú fēi] (unless)” also means “except for.” Example 268 这道题, 除非他, 没有人能答出来。[zhè dào tí, chú fēi tā, méi yǒu rén néng dá chū lái.] (No one can answer the question except him.)

This example means that except for him, no one else can solve this problem. The similar examples are as follows. Example 269 这种事, 除非他, 没人干得出来, 手段毒辣。[zhè zhǒng shì, chú fēi tā, méi rén gàn dé chū lái, shǒu duàn dú là.] (No one can do such a cruel thing except him.) Example 270 这段河流, 除非老李, 谁也游不过去。[zhè duàn hé liú, chú fēi lLo Lǐ, shuí yě yóu bú guò qù.] (No one can swim across this section of the river except Lao Li.) XVII. 以便 [yǐ biàn] (so that), 以免 [yǐ miǎn] (lest), 免得 [miǎn dé] (lest), 省得 [shěng dé] (lest) They are the conjunctions to indicate purpose, appearing at the beginning of the following clause of a compound sentence. 1

以便 [yǐ biàn] (so that)

It means that if what has been mentioned in the preceding clause is done, the purpose conveyed by “以便 [yǐ biàn] (so that)” in the following clause can be realized. Example 271 请您留下宝贵意见, 以便我们改进工作, 提高服务质量。 [qǐng nín liú xià bǎo guì yì jiàn, yǐ biàn wǒ men gǎi jìn gōng zuò, tí gāo fú wù zhì liàng.] (Please give us your constructive suggestions so that we can improve our work and service.) Example 272 我们要学会分析句子的结构关系, 以便能够准确地理解句 子所表达的意思。[wǒ men yào xué huì fēn xī jù zi de jié gòu guān xì, yǐ biàn néng gòu zhǔn què dì lǐ jiě jù zi suǒ biǎo dá de yì sī.] (We should learn to analyze sentence structures so as to accurately understand their meanings.) Example 273 从事这项工作的教师们要自觉地认识和研究它的特点和规 律, 以便指导教学实践。[cóng shì zhè xiàng gōng zuò de jiào shī men yào zì jué de rèn shi hé yán jiū tā de tè diǎn hé guī lǜ, yǐ biàn zhǐ dǎo jiào xué shí jiàn.] (Teachers engaged in this work should consciously understand and study its features and rules in order to guide teaching practice.) In these previous examples, “以便 [yǐ biàn] (so that)” can be substituted with “为了 [wèi le] (in order to),” only if the clauses introduced by “为了 [wèi le] (in order to)” are moved forward.

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Conjunctions Example 274 为了我们改进工作, 提高服务质量, 请您留下宝贵意见。[wèi le wǒ men gǎi jìn gōng zuò, tí gāo fú wù zhì liàng, qǐng nín liú xià bǎo guì yì jiàn.] (In order to improve our work and service, please give us your constructive suggestions.)

2

以免 [yǐ miǎn], 免得 [miǎn dé], 省得 [shěng dé]

They show that if what has been mentioned in the preceding clause is done, what has been said in the following clause can be avoided. (1) 以免 [yǐ miǎn] (lest). With what has been reminded in the preceding clause, “以免 [yǐ miǎn] (lest)” introduces something to be avoided in the following clause. It is often followed with a verb phrase. Example 275 这儿有高压电线, 请不要靠近, 以免发生危险。[zhè er yǒu gāo yā diàn xiàn, qǐng bú yào kào jìn, yǐ miǎn fā shēng wēi xiǎn.] (Please stay away from the high-tension wires here. Danger!) Example 276 行人和车辆必须严格遵守交通法规, 礼让三分, 以免发生交 通事故。[xíng rén hé chē liàng bì xū yán gé zūn shǒu jiāo tōng fǎ guī, lǐ ràng sān fēn, yǐ miǎn fā shēng jiāo tōng shì gù.] (Pedestrians and vehicles must strictly comply with the traffic laws and yield right of way for safety’s sake.) Example 277 穿脱塑料雨衣时, 不要用力过猛, 以免损伤两腋的焊缝。 [chuān tuō sù liào yǔ yī shí, bú yào yòng lì guò měng, yǐ miǎn sǔn shāng liǎng yè de hàn féng.] (Overexertion should be avoided to protect the welds under the two armpits in the plastic raincoat.) (2) 免得 [miǎn dé] (lest). The preceding clause says what should be done, so that what has been mentioned by “免得 [miǎn dé]” can be avoided. “免得 [miǎn dé]” is often followed with a subject-predicate phrase or verb phrase. Example 278 这件事先别告诉他, 等过几天再说, 免得他过这个年不痛 快。[zhè jiàn shì xiān bié gào sù tā, děng guò jǐ tiān zài shuō, miǎn dé tā guò zhè gè nián bú tòng kuài.] (Don’t tell him it until a few days later, otherwise he won’t have a good time in the Spring Festival.) Example 279 他已经醉了, 赶快去扶住他, 免得他跌跤。[tā yǐ jīng zuì le, gǎn kuài qù fú zhù tā, miǎn de tā diē jiāo.] (He is already drunk. Go and support him before he falls.) What has been said in the preceding clause can be a fact. Example 280 王工程师, 你来了好, 免得工地上临时有事找不到人。 [wáng gōng chéng shī, nǐ lái le hǎo, miǎn de gōng dì shàng lín shí yǒu shì zhǎo bú dào rén.]

Conjunctions 111 (Engineer Wang, you came just in time. Otherwise, no one can take care of the construction site.) 3

省得 [shěng dé] (lest)

It means to avoid something bad to happen. That is to say, if what has been said is adopted in the preceding clause, what has been mentioned in the following clause can be avoided. “省得 [shěng dé] (lest)” is often followed by a verb phrase, adjective phrase, or subject-predicate phrase. Example 281 你说话要小心点, 省得又惹是非。[nǐ shuō huà yào xiǎo xīn diǎn, shěng de yòu rě shì fēi.] (You should be careful of your words so as not to get yourself in trouble again.) Example 282 画儿韩哈哈笑道：把它烧了吧, 省得留在世上害人。[Huà ér Hán hā hā xiào dào: bǎ tā shāo le ba, shěng de liú zài shì shàng hài rén.] (Huaer Han said with laughter: burn it so as not to harm others in the world.) Example 283 你来了好, 省得我去了。[nǐ lái le hǎo, shěng de wǒ qù le.] (It’s good that you’re here, lest I have to go.) Example 284 李石清：我跟你说过多少遍, 这样的话你要说, 在家里说, 不要在这儿讲, 省得人家听见笑话你。[Lǐ Shí qīng: wǒ gēn nǐ shuō guò duō shǎo biàn, zhè yàng de huà nǐ yào shuō, zài jiā lǐ shuō, bú yào zài zhè er jiǎng, shěng dé rén jiā tīng jiàn xiào huà nǐ.] (Li Shiqing: I’ve told you many times that these words could only be said at home lest someone hear and laugh at you.) “省得 [shěng dé] (lest)” is similar to “免得 [miǎn dé] (lest)” in use but “省得 [shěng dé] (lest)” is more oral.

References Feng Zhichun. 1990. A Study on Hypothetical Complex Sentence of Adversative Relations and Differences between “尽管” and “即使/不管.” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 2nd Issue. Li Xiaorong. 1992. On “省得.” Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue. Wang Huan. 1989. Study on “只有 . . . 才 . . .” and “只要 . . . 就 . . .” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 3rd Issue. Wu Renyi. 1995. A Brief Discussion on Internal Structure of “如果 . . . 那么 . . .”. Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue. Xing Fuyi. 1985. “即使” Sentence in Modern Chinese. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 4th Issue. Xing Fuyi. 1986. On Inverted Progressive Sentence. Studies of the Chinese Language, 1st Issue. Xing Fuyi. 1996. Discussion on “却” Sentence and “既然” Sentence. Chinese Language Learning, 6th Issue. Zhou Huanqin. 1995. Pragmatic Analysis of “不但 . . . 而且 . . .” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1st Issue.

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Auxiliary words

Auxiliary words in Chinese consist of function words of various functions and they share some common characteristics. 1 2 3 4

Most auxiliary words are adhered to notional words, phrases, or sentences so they cannot stand alone in the sentence. They possess grammatical meanings but actually they don’t have lexical meanings. According to their syntactic positions, they are usually pronounced slightly. According to different functions, they can be divided into three types.

Structural auxiliary words: 的 [de], 地 [de], 得 [de], 所 [suǒ], 等 [děng], 给 [gěi], 似的/地 [shì de] . . . Dynamic auxiliary words: 了 [le], 着 [zhe], 过 [guo], 来着 [lái zhe] . . . Mood auxiliary words: 啊 [a], 吗 [ma], 呢 [ne], 吧 [ba], 了 [le], 的 [de], 嘛 [ma], 么 [me], 罢了 [bà le] . . .

Section one: structural auxiliary word Structural auxiliary words help connect words to form phrases of certain syntactic structural relations. For example, “的 [de]” connects the attribute and what it modifies; “地 [de]” connects the adverbial and what it modifies; “得 [de]” connects the complement and what it modifies. I. 的 [de] As a grammatical mark of attribute, “的 [de]” connects the attribute and what it modifies. Next is about how to use “的 [de].” 1

The “的 [de]” phrase can be formed by means of adding “的 [de]” to a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or subject-predicate phrase. It functions similarly to what a noun does and possesses the distinguishing or referential function. For example, “红的 [hóng de] (red)” differs from “蓝的 [lán de] (blue)” or “白

Auxiliary words 113 的 [bái de] (white);” “卖书的 [mài shū de]” refers to a person selling books rather than selling cloth. The “的 [de]” phrase can function as a subject and object. Example 1 这本书是中文的, 那本书是英文的。[zhè běn shū shì zhōng wén de, nà běn shū shì yīng wén de.] (This book is in Chinese and that book is in English.) Example 2 穿红衣服的是我妹妹。[chuān hóng yī fu de shì wǒ mèi mèi.] (The girl in the red dress is my sister.) (1) The “的 [de]” phrase is used to refer to a known person or thing. Example 3 昨天我们去买毛巾, 我买了一条白的, 小张买了一条花的。 [zuó tiān wǒ men qù mǎi máo jīn, wǒ mǎi le yī tiáo bái de, Xiǎo Zhāng mǎi le yī tiáo huā de.] (Yesterday we went out to buy towels. I bought a white one and Xiao Zhang bought a patterned towel.) Since “毛巾 [máo jīn] (towel)” has been previously mentioned, the listener understands what “白的 [bái de] (white)” or “花的 [huā de] (patterned)” refers to. Example 4 他们家生活不错, 吃的、穿的、用的, 样样不缺。[tā men jiā shēng huó bú cuò, chī de, chuān de, yòng de, yàng yàng bù quē.] (Their family life is good, and nothing is in shortage.) “吃的 [chī de] (food),” “穿的 [chuān de] (clothes),” “用的 [yòng de] (furniture)” are all involved in daily life so the listener would understand well even if “生活” [shēng huó] (life)” was not previously mentioned. (2) “的 [de]” phrase is used to refer to a definite person or thing rather than an abstract one. Example 5 这个孩子的精神很好, 那个孩子的不好。[zhè gè hái zi de jīng shén hěn hǎo, nà gè hái zi de bù hǎo.] (This child looks very well but that child is not.) Example 6 小明是他们的榜样, 不是我们的。[Xiǎo Míng shì tā men de bǎng yàng, bú shì wǒ men de.] (Xiao Ming is their model but not ours.) Some abstract nouns, such as “意见 [yì jiàn] (opinion),” “想法 [xiǎng fǎ] (idea),” “办法 [bàn fǎ] (method),” “事情 [shì qíng] (thing)” can be referred to with “的 [de]” in a certain context. Example 7 他说的办法可以, 你说的不行。[tā shuō de bàn fǎ kě yǐ, nǐ shuō de bù xíng.] (What he said is practical, but what you said is not.)

114 Auxiliary words Some phrases consisting of “adjective+的 [de]” are of distinguishing function. For example, “红的(花) [hóng de (huā)] (red flower)” and “高的(树) [gāo de] (tall tree)” differ from “黄的 [huáng de] (yellow)” and “矮的 [ǎi de] (short),” respectively. However, some are just descriptive, such as “庄严的(会场) [zhuāng yán de (huì chǎng)] (solemn assembly room),” “巍峨的(山脉) [wēi é de (shān mài)] (lofty mountains),” 辽阔的(大海) [liáo kuò de (dà hǎi)] (vast sea),” 2

The “noun/pronoun+的 [de]” can be inserted into some stable verb-object phrases. For example, “他的 [tā de] (his)” can be inserted into “开玩笑 [kāi wán xiào] (make fun of).” Here, “noun/pronoun+的 [de]” seems to function as an attribute of “玩笑 [wán xiào] (joke)” but actually “他 [tā] (he)” refers to the object of the action. Such usage is very common in the spoken language. Example 8 别开他的玩笑了。[bié kāi tā de wán xiào le.] (Don’t make fun of him.) Example 9 他不会挑我的错。[tā bú huì tiao wǒ de cùo.] (He won’t pick on me.) Example 10 不要拆老王的台。[bú yào chāi Lǎo Wáng de tái.] (Don’t let Lao Wang down.)

3

“的 [de]” can be put before pronouns for people or nouns for position, status, or role that a person has. Example 11 这次开会, 你的主席, 我的记录。[zhè cì kāi huì, nǐ de fēng xí, wǒ de jì lù.] (You take the chair and I take the record at this meeting.) Example 12 今天晚上的京剧, 马连良的诸葛亮, 率盛戎的 . . . [jīn tiān wǎn shàng de jīng jù, Mǎ Lián liáng de Zhū gě Liàng, lǜ shèng róng de . . .] (In tonight’s Beijing Opera, Ma Lianliang plays the role of Zhuge Liang, and Qiu Shengrong plays . . .)

4

“的[de]” connects two identical verbs to describe a fact that has happened, which means “有的 . . . , 有的 . . . [yǒu de . . . , yǒu de . . .] (some . . . , some . . .).” Example 13 敌人死的死, 伤的伤。[dí rén sǐ de sǐ, shāng de shāng.] (Some enemies died and some are wounded.) Example 14 他家的东西, 当的当了, 卖的卖了, 所剩无几。[tā jiā de dōng xī, dàng de dàng le, mài de mài le, suǒ shèng wú jǐ.] (The items in his house has been pawned or sold, and there is not much left.) Example 15 早上, 我来到了学校的大操场。只见操场上人很多, 跑 步的跑步, 打球的打球, 练气功的练气功, 我也不由自主地锻炼起 来。[zǎo shàng, wǒ lái dào le xué xiào de dà cao chǎng.zhǐ jiàn cao chǎng shàng rén hěn duō, pǎo bù de pǎo bù, dǎ qiú de dǎ qiú, liàn qì gōng de liàn qì gōng, wǒ yě bù yóu zì zhǔ de duàn liàn qǐ lái.]

Auxiliary words 115 (In the morning, I came to the school playground and saw a lot of people doing various exercises, such as running, playing a ball game, practicing Qi Gong. On seeing them, I also couldn’t help exercising.) 5

“的 [de]” can be used after the coordinating words to express “等等 [děng děng] (and so on),” “之类 [zhī lèi] (and so on).” Example 16 我想开个小店, 卖点针头线脑的, 也可以赚几个钱。[wǒ xiǎng kāi gè xiǎo diàn, mài diǎn zhēn tóu xiàn nǎo de, yě kě yǐ zhuàn jǐ gè qián.] (I want to open a small shop to sell daily commodities to make a living.) Example 17 你别听那些闲言碎语的, 为他们生气伤身子, 不值得。[nǐ bié tīng nà xiē xián yán suì yǔ de, wèi tā men shēng qì shāng shēn zi, bù zhí dé.] (Don’t be bothered and hurt by those gossips. They are not worthy of your attention.) Example 18 明天就开学了, 书啊本的你都准备好了吗？[míng tiān jiù kāi xué le, shū a běn de nǐ dōu zhǔn bèi hǎo le ma?] (School starts tomorrow. Did you get everything for your learning ready?) “什么 [shén me]+的 [de]” is more common in expressing “and so on.” Example 19 A: 你上街要买什么呀？[nǐ shàng jiē yào mǎi shén me ya?] (What do you want to buy in shopping?) B: 天冷了, 我想买一些衣服、被子什么的。[tiān lěng le, wǒ xiǎng mǎi yī xiē yī fu, bèi zi shén me de.] (It gets cold. I’d like to buy some clothes, quilts, or something else.) Example 20 你一会儿见了表姐、表弟什么的, 别不好意思。[nǐ yī huì er jiàn le biǎo jiě, biǎo dì shén me de, bié bù hǎo yì sī.] (Don’t be shy when you meet your sister, cousin, and other relatives later.) Example 21 护照、飞机票什么的你要放好, 别丢了。[hù zhào, fēi jī piào shén me de nǐ yào fàng hǎo, bié diū le.] (Take care of everything, such as the passport and the plane ticket; don’t lose them.)

6

“Noun/verb+的 [de]” often stands at the beginning of a sentence, indicating reason or condition. Example 22 大过年的, 还去上班啊！[dà guò nián de, hái qù shàng bān a!] (I can’t believe you still have to go to work in the Spring Festival.) Example 23 大晌午的, 也不休息一会儿！[dà shǎng wǔ de, yě bù xiū xī yī huì er!] (Don’t you take a break at noon?) Example 24 姑娘们唱啊唱的, 就把心里的愁事忘了。[gū niáng men chàng a chàng de, jiù bǎ xīn lǐ de chóu shì wàng le.] (The girls sang on and on, and then they gradually got out of their sorrows.)

116 Auxiliary words 7

“Noun phrase/adjective phrase+的 [de]” is often used to describe a certain state or situation. Example 25 小路坑坑洼洼的, 很难走。[xiǎo lù kēng kēng wa wa de, hěn nán zǒu.] (It is a potholed path and not suitable for walking.) Example 26 孩子们有说有笑的, 很高兴。[hái zi men yǒu shuō yǒu xiào de, hěn gāo xìng.] (The children were talking and laughing happily.) Example 27 地里的麦苗绿油油的, 很惹人爱。[dì lǐ de mài miáo lǜ yóu yóu de, hěn rě rén ài.] (The wheat-shoots in the field are lovably glossy and green.)

II. 地 [de] The detailed discussion on “地 [de]” is in Chapter 4, Section two, Part I, Part II, vol. 3. III. 得 [de] The detailed discussion on “得 [de]” is in Chapter 5, Section four, Part I, Part II, Part III, vol. 3. IV. 所 [suǒ] 1

“所 [suǒ]” can be put before a transitive verb to form the phrase “(noun+) 所 [suǒ]+verb” which functions as attribute. “所 [suǒ]” is usually followed by “的 [de].” Example 28 最近 “北京晚报” 所讨论的问题, 大家都很有兴趣。[zuì jìn “běi jīng wǎn bào” suǒ tǎo lùn de wèn tí, dà jiā dōu hěn yǒu xìng qù.] (The issues being discussed in the Beijing Evening News have attracted the public interest recently.) Example 29 赵丹是广大观众所喜爱的电影演员。[Zhào Dān shì guǎng dà guān zhòng suǒ xǐ ài de diàn yǐng yǎn yuán.] (Zhāo Dān is a popular movie star.) Example 30 今天我读了一篇文章, 所谈的问题还是关于环境污染 的。[jīn tiān wǒ dú le yī piān wén zhāng, suǒ tán de wèn tí hái shì guān yú huán jìng wū rǎn de.] (Today I read an article and it is still about environmental pollution.)

“(所 [suǒ]+verb)+的 [de]” can function as subject or object. Example 31 老师所讲的, 正是我们的问题所在。[lǎo shī suǒ jiǎng de, zhèng shì wǒ men de wèn tí suǒ zài.] (What the teacher said is exactly what our problem is.)

Auxiliary words 117 Example 32 这正是我所感兴趣的。[zhè zhèng shì wǒ suǒ gǎn xìng qù de.] (This is exactly what I am interested in.) Such usage is common in the written language. Here, “所 [suǒ]” doesn’t have any sense, so without it the meaning of the entire phrase will not be changed, except that it sounds more oral. 2

Without “的 [de],” “所 [suǒ]+verb” also can function as subject or object, but the verb inside is usually monosyllabic and the number of such verbs is limited. Example 33 据我所知, 这个目的是不可能达到的。[jù wǒ suǒ zhī, zhè gè mù dí shì bù kě néng dá dào de.] (As far as I know, it is impossible to achieve this goal.) Example 34 这次外出, 一路上所见所闻颇多。[zhè cì wài chū, yí lù shàng suǒ jiàn suǒ wén pō duō.] (I have seen and heard a lot on the trip.) Example 35 各尽所能, 按劳分配。[gè jìn suǒ néng, àn láo fēn pèi.] (Let everybody do his or her best and distribute to each according to his or her work.) These examples are very common in the written language.

3

“所 [suǒ]” can be put after the verb “有 [yǒu] (have)” to indicate a certain but not very high degree in which the verb is usually disyllabic. Example 36 一年来小李的工作能力有所提高。[yì nián lái Xiǎo Lǐ de gōng zuò néng lì yǒu tí.] (Xiao Li’s work ability has been improved in the past year.) Example 37 A: 听说改革开放以来, 中国人民的生活有所改善。[tīng shuō gǎi gé kāi fàng yǐ lái, zhōng guó rén mín de shēng huó yǒu suǒ gǎi shàn.] (It is said that living conditions of the Chinese people have improved to some extent since the reform and opening up.) B: 不是有所改善, 而是大大改善了。[bù shì yǒu suǒ gǎi shàn, ér shì dà dà gǎi shàn le.] (It’s not to some extent but a lot.) Example 38 对于妻子的感情变化, 他最近有所觉察, 可是因为太忙, 没有给予足够的重视。[duì yú qī zi de gǎn qíng biàn huà, tā zuì jìn yǒu suǒ jué!, kě shì yīn wéi tài máng, méi yǒu gěi yǔ zú gòu de zhòng shì.] (He has been aware of his wife’s emotional changes recently, but he is too busy to pay enough attention to them.)

In these examples, each degree indicated by “所 [suǒ]” is not very high but implies a positive sense. More similar phrases are “有所发明 [yǒu suǒ fā míng] (to invent to some extent),” “有所前进 [yǒu suǒ qián jìn] (be promoted to some

118 Auxiliary words extent),” “有所改进 [yǒu suǒ gǎi jìn] (be improved somewhat),” “有所准备 [yǒu suǒ zhǔn bèi] (be prepared to some extent),” “有所克服 [yǒu suǒ kè fú] (be overcome to some extent),” “有所贡献 [yǒu suǒ gòng xiàn] (to contribute to some extent).” Also, “所 [suǒ]” can be put after “无 [wú] (not have)” and then be followed by verbs (disyllabic) to form some fixed idioms (成语 [chéng yŭ]), such as “无所用 心 [wú suǒ yòng xīn] (be indifferent to anything), “无所事事 [wú suǒ shì shì] (sit around), “无所作为 [wú suǒ zuò wéi] (attempt and accomplish nothing),” “无所 不用其极 [wú suǒ bú yòng qí jí] (stop at nothing).” Usually, these phrases imply a passive sense. 4

“所 [suǒ]” can match with “为 [wéi]” to form “为 . . . 所 . . . [wéi . . . suǒ . . .].”

V. 给 [gěi] The detailed discussion on “给 [gěi]” is in Chapter 7, Section seven, Part V, vol. 4.

Section two: dynamic auxiliary word Any language possesses its own expressive functions. For example, people use language to discuss an issue, to explain a situation, to express emotions, or to narrate how an action happens. According to various expressive functions, sentence structures vary accordingly. Unlike those Indo-European languages, Chinese doesn’t have morphological changes in the aspect of tense. Therefore, dynamic auxiliary words, such as “了 [le],” “着 [zhe],” “过 [guò],” are mainly adopted to express different tenses. In some grammar books, overlapped verbs “起来 [qǐ lái]” and “下去 [xià qù]” are categorized into dynamic auxiliary words but they are not included in this section. The detailed discussions on their structures functions are in Chapter 5, Section four, Part VI, vol. 1 and Chapter 5, Section two, Part II, vol. 3. As for “在 [zài]” and “呢 [ne]” indicating the ongoing action, they have been discussed as adverbs and mood auxiliaries respectively in Chapter 7, Section three, Part IX, vol. 1. Therefore, only “了 [le],” “着 [zhe],” “过 [guò]” are to be introduced in this section. “了 [le]” can be used after the verb and at the end of the sentence as well. These two positions don’t change its grammatical meaning but decide their different functions. When it is used after the verb, it is regarded as a dynamic auxiliary word; when at the end of the sentence, it is called a mood auxiliary word. Although “了 [le]” expresses a certain mood, it mainly describes the state of the action. Just because of this, it is to be discussed here. I. “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word 1

Grammatical meanings of “了 [le]”

“了 [le]” is used after a verb or adjective to indicate an ongoing action or appearance of a state.

Auxiliary words 119 Generally speaking, no matter for an action or a state, both of them involve a process from the beginning to the end. Therefore, “了 [le]” is qualified in this sense. “verb+了 [le]” may express an ongoing action or an action that has been finished, which depends on what the verb indicates. Due to this, verbs are divided into action verbs, state verbs, and momentary verbs. (1) Action verb and “了 [le]” An action verb denotes an action from the beginning to the end, such as “跑 [pǎo] (run),” “跳 [tiào] (jump),” “搬 [bān] (move),” “走(走路) [zǒu(zǒu lù)] (walk).” “看 [kàn] (look),” “听 [tīng] (listen),” “说 [shuō] (speak),” “洗 [xǐ] (wash),” “写 [xiě] (write),” “算 [suàn] (calculate),” “吃 [chī] (eat).” Action verbs make up a large proportion of verbs. With the help of “了 [le]” after it, the action verb can indicate an ongoing action. Example 1 A: 春节联欢会的录像你妈妈看了吗？[chūn jiē lián huān huì de lù xiàng nǐ ma ma kàn le ma?] (Did your mother watch the video of the Spring Festival Party?) B: 那不正在看呢。看了一个多小时了。[nà bú zhèng zài kàn ne. kàn le yī gè duō xiǎo shí le.] (Look, she is watching it right now and she has been watching it for more than an hour.) In this example, “看了一个多小时 [kàn le yī gè duō xiǎo shí] (watching it for more than an hour)” indicates that the action is going on. “一个多小时 [yī gè duō xiǎo shí] (more than an hour)” shows how long this action lasts and also implies that it is still going on in the speaking. Example 2 A: 我昨天给你的文章你看了吗？[wǒ zuó tiān gěi nǐ de wén zhāng nǐ kàn le ma?] (Did you read the article I gave to you yesterday?) B: 看了, 写得不错。[kàn le, xiě de bú cuò.] (Yes, I did and it is well written indeed.) In this example, “看了 [kàn le] (yes)” means that the action has been finished. Example 3 A: 你上个月告诉我这个月中要开关于环境治理的会, 开了吗？[nǐ shàng gè yuè gào sù wǒ zhè gè yuè zhōng yào kāi guān yú huán jìng zhì lǐ de huì, kāi le ma?] (You told me last month that there would be a meeting on environmental governance in the middle of this month. Has it been held?) B1: 开了, 刚开了一天, 还要开五天。[kāi le, gāng kāi le yì tiān, hái yào kāi wǔ tiān.] (Yes, it started yesterday and will last for another five days.)

120 Auxiliary words In this example, “the meeting” still lasts now. B2: 会已经开始了, 已经开了五天了, 再有一天就结束了。[huì yǐ jīng kāi shǐ le, yǐ jīng kāi le wǔ tiān le, zài yǒu yì tiān jiù jié shù le.] (Yes, it has already lasted five days and will end in one day.) “The meeting” has not finished. B3: 你还不知道？上个星期已经开了。[nǐ hái bù zhī dào? shàng gè xīng qī yǐ jīng kāi le.] (Don’t you know that it was held last week?) “The meeting” has finished. Thus it can be seen that after “了 [le],” the action verb can refer to any moment of the process from the beginning to the end. In fact, “了 [le]” simply denotes what is going on and it is the action verb and the context that decide how long it will last or whether it has been finished. Here, the context refers to the complement of the time quantifier, the time adverbial, or the successive sentence after the action verb. (2) State verb and “了 [le]” A state verb expresses a certain state that begins at some time and continues without the definite ending. Such verbs include “饿 [è] (hungry),” “生气 [shēng qì] (angry),” “累 [lèi] (tired),” “困 [kùn] (sleepy),” “病 [bìng] (ill),” “醉 [zuì] (drunk).” With the help of “了 [le],” a state verb can refer to the appearance of a certain state. Example 4 为了帮你打毕业论文, 他已经累了三天了。[wèi le bāng nǐ dǎ bì yè lùn wén, tā yǐ jīng lèi le sān tiān le.] (He has been busy with typing your graduation thesis for three days.) Example 5 老师病了三天了。[lǎo shī bìng le sān tiān le.] (The teacher has been ill for three days.) In these examples, “累 [lèi] (busy)” and “病 [bìng] (ill),” the states have already existed and are still going on. Some adjectives share the similar functions, such as “高兴 [gāo xìng] (happy),” “贵 [guì] (expensive),” “红 [hóng] (red),” “亮 [liàng] (bright).” Example 6 在会上, 他的脸红了一阵子, 又白了, 白了一阵子, 又红起 来, 真是如坐针毡。[zài huì shàng, tā de liǎn hóng le yí zhèn zi, yòu bái le, bái le yí zhèn zi, yòu hóng qǐ lái, zhēn shì rú zuò zhēn zhān.] (At the meeting, he was kept on the hot seat, with his face blushing and pale now and then.) In the example, “了 [le]” shows the end of the state.

Auxiliary words 121 If there is no complement of the time quantifier after “state verb+了 [le],” “了 [le]” should be considered as a mood auxiliary word. Example 7 我看他们两个人都醉了。[wǒ kàn tā men liǎng gè rén dōu zuì le.] (I think both of them are drunk.) Example 8 我看见他房间里的灯刚才亮了, 怎么现在黑了？[wǒ kàn jiàn tā fáng jiān lǐ de dēng gāng cái liàng le, zěn me xiàn zài hēi le?] (I saw the light in his room was on just now. Why is it off now?) Example 9 他上午生气了, 现在已经好了。[tā shàng wǔ shēng qì le, xiàn zài yǐ jīng hǎo le.] (He got angry this morning but he is all right now.) In the examples, “了 [le]” is a mood auxiliary word that simply indicates the appearance of a certain state, and it is the state verb or the adjective before it that decides how long the state lasts and when it ends. (3) Momentary verb and “了 [le]” A momentary verb shows an action that happens and is done at once without any delay. That is to say, the beginning and the ending are almost at the same time. These verbs include “毕业 [bì yè] (graduate),” “结婚 [jié hūn] (marry),” “死 [sǐ] (die),” “拋弃 [pāo qì] (abandon),” “破 [pò] (break),” “碎 [suì] (smash),” “丢(失) [diū(shī)] (lose),” “扔 [rēng] (throw),” “掉 [diào] (drop),” “塌 [tā] (collapse).” Therefore, “momentary verb+了 [le]” indicates the beginning as well as the ending of an action. Example 10 邻居家的老狗死了两天了。[lín jū jiā de lǎo gǒu sǐ le liǎng tiān le.] (The old dog of the neighbor has been dead for two days.) Example 11 他跟妻子结婚不久, 妻子就抛弃了他。[tā gēn qī zi jié hūn bù jiǔ, qī zi jiù pāo qì le tā.] (Not long after he got married, his wife abandoned him.) Example 12 你汽车的玻璃怎么碎了一块？[nǐ qì chē de bō lí zěn me suì le yī kuài?] (Why is the glass of your car broken?) Example 13 你怎么把这么新的衣服扔了？[nǐ zěn me bǎ zhè me xīn de yī fu rēng le?] (Why did you throw away such a new dress?) Example 14 刚才我敲了好几下门, 里面没有人答应。[gāng cái wǒ qiāo le hǎo jǐ xià mén, lǐ miàn méi yǒu rén dā yīng.] (I knocked at the door several times, but no one answered.) If there is a complement of the time quantifier after the “momentary verb+了 [le],” it indicates the duration from the end of the action to the time of speaking, just like Example 10.

122 Auxiliary words If there is a result complement or directional complement after “momentary verb+了 [le],” it indicates the result of the action or the appearance of the result. If the complement is an adjective, it means the appearance of a certain state. Example 15 他在收拾房间的时候捡到了一个钱包。[tā zài shōu shí fáng jiān de shí hòu jiǎn dào le yí gè qián bāo.] (He found a wallet when cleaning up the room.) Example 16 清晨, 阳光染红了大地。[qīng chén, yáng guāng rǎn hóng le dà dì.] (Early in the morning, the earth was reddened by the sunlight.) Example 17 那几件衣服都洗干净了。[nà jǐ jiàn yī fu dōu xǐ gān jìng le.] (Those clothes have been washed.) Differently, “好[hǎo],” as the result complement indicates a well-done state, similar to the verb of the same function. Example 18 信写好了以后, 他马上寄走了。[xìn xiě hǎo le yǐ hòu, tā mǎ shàng jì zǒu le.] (As soon as the letter was finished, he sent it away.) Due to verbs of different types, “verb+了 [le]” varies in meaning. Example 19 他离婚三年了。[tā lí hūn sān nián le.] (He has been divorced for three years.) 他离婚离了三年, 还没离成。[tā lí hūn lí le sān nián, hái méi lí chéng.] (He tried to divorce his wife for three years, but he failed.) Example 20 这个研究所改良棉花品种改良了三年才成功。[zhè gè yán jiū suǒ gǎi liáng mián huā pǐn zhǒng gǎi liáng le sān nián cái chéng gōng.] (The research institute kept on improving cotton varieties for three years until they succeeded.) 我们的棉花品种已经改良了三年了, 产量一直很高。[wǒ men de mián huā pǐn zhǒng yǐ jīng gǎi liáng le sān nián le, chǎn liàng yì zhí hěn gāo.] (Our cotton varieties have been improved for three years and the yield is always very high.) “了 [le]” after some verbs can indicate the result of the action, similar to or more general than what that result complements or directional complements indicate. Example 21 小妹刚才不小心打了一个杯子。[xiǎo mèi gāng cái bù xiǎo xīn dǎ le yí gè bēi zi.] (The little sister accidentally broke a cup just now.) Example 22 他买这本书花了两块钱。[tā mǎi zhè běn shū huā le liǎng kuài qián.] (He spent two dollars on this book.)

Auxiliary words 123 The same is true for the following verbs. 吃 [chī] (eat), 忘 [wàng] (forget), 丢 [diū] (lose), 失 [shī] (miss), 拉 (闸) [la(zhá)] (pull),喝 [hē] (drink), 咽 [yàn] (swallow), 吞 [tūn] (swallow), 洒 [sǎ] (sprink), 泼 [pō] (spill), 扔 [rēng] (throw), 放 [fàng] (put), 涂 [tú] (spread on), 擦 [cā] (wipe), 抹 [mǒ] (wipe), 碰 [pèng] (touch), 摔 [shuāi] (throw), 磕 [kē] (knock), 撞 [zhuàng] (collide), 伤 [shāng] (hurt), 打 [dǎ] (hit), 杀 [shā] (kill), 宰 [zǎi] (kill), 切 [qiē] (cut), 煮 [zhǔ] (boil), 冲 [chōng] (rush), 卖 [mài] (sell), 还 [huán] (return), 毁 [huǐ] (destroy), 烧 [shāo] (burn), 烫 [tàng] (burn), 花 [huā] (spent), 撕 [sī] (tear), 扯 [chě] (tear), 倒 [dào] (pour), 炸 [zhà] (explode).” Usually, they belong to momentary verbs.1 “了 [le]” after these verbs is similar to a result complement in syntactic structures. For example, “没 [méi] (no)” can be used to express negation when “了 [le]” is still kept in the sentence. “不 [bú/bù] (not)” can be used to express negation in hypothetical sentence and “了 [le]” can be used alone in a “把 [bǎ]” sentence without any complement. Example 23 这张纸还有用啊, 刚才我差点儿没撕了它！[zhè zhāng zhǐ hái yǒu yòng a, gāng cái wǒ chà diǎn er méi sī le tā!] (I never thought this piece of paper was still useful. I almost tore it up just now!) Example 24 你不喝了这杯药病就好不了。[nǐ bù hē le zhè bēi yào bìng jiù hǎo bù liǎo.] (If you don’t drink this decoction, you won’t get better.) Example 25 当心点, 别砸了脚！[dāng xīn diǎn, bié zá le jiǎo!] (Watch out! Don’t get your feet hit!) 2

Relation between “了 [le]” and time

“了 [le],” as a dynamic auxiliary word, describes an action or a state but it doesn’t indicate the time of occurrence. Usually, there will be a time word for action or state in the sentence in which “了 [le]” is used. If there is no time word, the time of speaking (now) is just regarded as the time of occurrence. Example 26 他昨天看了一个电影。[tā zuó tiān kàn le yí gè diàn yǐng.] (He watched a movie yesterday.) Example 27 去年我去了一趟日本。[qù nián wǒ qù le yí tàng rì běn.] (I went to Japan last year.) Example 28 你看, 孩子点着了一根火柴, 多危险！[nǐ kàn, hái zi diǎn zháo le yì gēn huǒ chái, duō wēi xiǎn!] (Look, the child lit a match and how dangerous it was!) Generally speaking, the time words for occurrence indicate the past, like Example 26 and Example 27. There is no time word in Example 28, so the time of speaking (now) is just the time for the occurrence. When two predicate phrases appear simultaneously in a sentence and “了 [le]” is used in the first phrase, the time word can indicate the future.

124 Auxiliary words Example 29 明天我看了电影就来找你。[míng tiān wǒ kàn le diàn yǐng jiù lái zhǎo nǐ.] (I will see you tomorrow after the movie.) In this case, the first phrase actually stands for the time of action conveyed by the second phrase. In the last example, “明天我看了电影 [míng tiān wǒ kàn le diàn yǐng] (tomorrow after the movie)” is the time of “来找你 [lái zhǎo nǐ] (I will see you).” This situation may happen in some hypothetical sentences. Example 30 我要是当了部长, 一定提拔你。[wǒ yào shì dāng le bù zhǎng, yí dìng tí bá nǐ.] (I will promote you if I become minister.) Example 31 你当了总经理可别忘了我们。[nǐ dāng le zǒng jīng lǐ kě bié wàng le wǒ men.] (Don’t forget us when you become general manager.) There is one thing to be pointed out: these hypothetical sentences are not declarative but conversational. 3

Structural features of sentence with “了 [le]”

(1) According to the expressive functions of “了 [le]” as a dynamic auxiliary word, the declarative sentence with “了 [le]” requires a definite time word for the occurrence of an action or a state. Sometimes, the time word appears in the context, or sometimes it just refers to the time of speaking. Example 32 我从小便接受了此种“反好吃”的教育, 因此对饕餮之徒总 有点瞧不起。[wǒ cóng xiǎo biàn jiē shòu le cǐ zhǒng “fǎn hǎo chī” de jiào yù, yīn cǐ duì tāo tiè zhī tú zǒng yǒu diǎn qiáo bù qǐ.] (I was taught to struggle against fancy eating and drinking since I was a child. Therefore, I always look down on those spendthrifts.) Example 33 我向阿二爸爸的酒杯乜了一眼 . . . . . . [wǒ xiàng Ā èr bà bà de jǐu bēi miē le yì yǎn . . .] (I glanced at Aer Dad’s glass . . .) Example 34 他当晚把李希霍芬 “中国” 导言的译稿又读了一遍, 然后整 整齐齐地订好, 放在墙角。[tā dāng wǎn bǎ lǐ xī huò fēn “zhōng guó” dǎo yán de yì gǎo yòu dú le yí biàn, rán hòu zhěng zhěng qí qí de dìng hǎo, fàng zài qiáng jiǎo.] (That night he read the translated manuscripts of introduction to Richthofen’s China again. After that, he bound them together and put them at the corner of the wall.) Example 35 我没有办法触动朱自冶, 可我现在有了公开宣传共产主义 的权利, 便决定首先去鼓动拉黄包车的阿二。[wǒ méi yǒu bàn fǎ chù dòng Zhū Zì yě, kě wǒ xiàn zài yǒu le gōng kāi xuān chuán gòng chǎn zhǔ yì de quán lì, biàn jué dìng shǒu xiān qù gǔ dòng lā huáng bāo chē de Ā èr.]

Auxiliary words 125 (I don’t know how to persuade Zhu Ziye, but now I have the right to publicize communism. So I decide to encourage A Er, a driver of a rickshaw first.) (2) An independent simple sentence with “了 [le]” generally requires a numeralquantifier phrase as an attribute before the object. Example 36 下午他们还请我们看了各种精彩的表演。[xià wǔ tā men hái qǐng wǒ men kàn le gè zhǒng jīng cǎi de biǎo yǎn.] (They also invited us to watch all kinds of wonderful performances in the afternoon.) Example 37 昨天我们参观了一个工厂。[zuó tiān wǒ men cān guān le yí gè gōng chǎng.] (We visited a factory yesterday.) Example 38 政府最近公布的科学发展规划, 极大地鼓舞了全国的科学 工作者。[zhèng fǔ zuì jìn gōng bù de kē xué fā zhǎn guī huà, jí dà de gǔ wǔ le quán guó de kē xué gōng zuò zhě.] (The scientific development plan announced recently by the government has greatly encouraged the scientists all over the country.) In the following situations, the attribute before an object can be absent. a

In a successive sentence with “了 [le],” the attribute can be absent if the object appears between two or among more than two verb phrases, clauses, or parallel constructions which are closely connected. Example 39 马大炮交了铁锹, 一纵身跳出猪圈。[Mǎ Dà pào jiāo le tiě qiāo, yí zòng shēn tiào chū zhū juān.] (Ma Dapao handed in his spade and jumped out of the pigsty.) Example 40 衣服缩了水, 紧紧地箍在身上。[yī fu suō le shuǐ, jǐn jǐn de gū zài shēn shàng.] (The clothes shrank and clung tightly to my body.) Example 41 一天, 他拜了爹妈, 骑上马, 向西方走去。[yì tiān, tā bài le diē mā, qí shàng mǎ, xiàng xī fāng zǒu qù.] (One day, he kowtowed to his parents in homage, mounted his horse, and set off for the west.) Example 42 肖长春下了河坡 . . . 扒了鞋, 脱了袜子, 卷上裤脚, 下了 河。[Xiāo Cháng chūn xià le hé pō . . . bā le xié, tuō le wà zi, juǎn shàng kù jiǎo, xià le hé.] (Xiao Changchun went down the slope along the river, then he took off his shoes, his socks and rolled up his trousers. After that, he stepped into the river.)

If the second action closely follows “了 [le]” that is just after the first action, the attribute is not required.

126 Auxiliary words Example 43 晚上我看了电影就去找你。[wǎn shàng wǒ kàn le diàn yǐng jiù qù zhǎo nǐ.] (I will go to see you after the movie tonight.) b

The attribute can be absent if a stable verb-object phrase functions as the object of the sentence. Here, the phrase requires an indefinite thing as its own object as well as an adverbial before its verb. Example 44 在大量事实面前, 最后他只好承认自己犯了罪。[zài dà liàng shì shí miàn qián, zuì hòu tā zhǐ hǎo chéng rèn zì jǐ fàn le zuì.] (Facing a great deal of facts, he finally confessed his crime.) Example 45 在总结大会上, 我无比激动地带头发了言。[zài zǒng jié dà huì shàng, wǒ wú bǐ jī dòng de dài tóu fā le yán.] (At the summarization conference, I took the lead in speaking with great excitement.) Example 46 由于他多次犯错误, 结果被撤了职。[yóu yú tā duō cì fàn cuò wù, jié guǒ bèi chè le zhí.] (As a result of many mistakes he had made, he was dismissed from his office.) Example 47 经过大家的解劝, 他才住了手。[jīng guò dà jiā de jiě quàn, tā cái zhù le shǒu.] (After all the persuasion, he stopped.)

c

If there is “了 [le]” as a mood auxiliary word, or other modal particles, the attribute can be absent. Example 48 这时我明白了: 出了问题了。[zhè shí wǒ míng bái le: chū le wèn tí le.] (At that time, I understood that something was wrong.) Example 49 昨天我已经买了钢笔了, 不去商店了。[zuó tiān wǒ yǐ jīng mǎi le gāng bǐ le, bú qù shāng diàn le.] (I bought a pen yesterday, so I don’t need to go to the shop again.) Example 50 他犯了错误吧？[tā fàn le cuò wù ba?] (Did he make mistakes?)

d

If the object is a proper word or refers to the only thing in a certain scope, the attribute can be absent. Example 51 一九七九年八月, 马文加入了中国共产党。[yī jiǔ qī jiǔ nián ba yuè, Mǎ Wén jiā rù le zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng.] (In August 1979, Ma Wen joined in the Communist Party of China.) Example 52 去图书馆的路上, 我遇见了老李。[qù tú shū guǎn de lù shàng, wǒ yù jiàn le Lǎo Lǐ.] (On my way to the library, I met Lao Li.) Example 53 会后大家选出了组长。[huì hòu dà jiā xuǎn chū le zǔ zhǎng.] (The team leader was elected after the meeting.)

Auxiliary words 127 Example 54 . . . 于是在人们的脑子里发生了认识过程的突变（即飞跃）, 产生了概念。[. . . yú shì zài rén men de nǎo zi lǐ fā shēng le rèn shí guò chéng de tū biàn (jí fēi yuè), chǎn shēng le gài niàn.] (Then in people’s minds a cognition leap occurs, and then a concept is created.) (3) Positions of “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word Next are the positions of “了 [le]” with other constituents in the sentence. a

predicate verb+了 [le]+object (direct+indirect) Example 55 昨天上午我们看了一个电影。[zuó tiān shàng wǔ wǒ men kàn le yí gè diàn yǐng.] (We watched a movie yesterday morning.) Example 56 这件事给了我们很大的鼓舞。[zhè jiàn shì gěi le wǒ men hěn dà de gǔ wǔ.] (This event gave us a great encouragement.)

b

predicate verb+result complement+了 [le]+object Example 57 他这个队上有名的小老虎变成了小老鼠。[tā zhè gè duì shàng yǒu míng de xiǎo lǎo hǔ biàn chéng le xiǎo lǎo shǔ.] (That famous “little tiger” of his team has changed into “a little mouse.”) Example 58 进了房门以后, 小明轻轻地关上了门。[jìn le fáng mén yǐ hòu, Xiǎo Míng qīng qīng de guān shàng le mén.] (After entering the door, Xiao Ming closed the door gently.)

c

predicate verb+directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù])+了 [le]+object (abstract noun or existential object) Example 59 十月革命一声炮响, 给中国送来了马列主义。[shí yuè gé mìng yì shēng pào xiǎng, gěi zhōng guó sòng lái le mǎ liè zhǔ yì.] (With gunfire from the October Revolution, Marxism-Leninism was spread in China.) Example 60 忽然从海上传来了一阵歌声。[hū rán cóng hǎi shàng chuán lái le yí zhèn gē shēng.] (Suddenly a song came from the sea.) Example 61 去卧虎岭的大道上, 走来了一老一小。[qù wò hǔ lǐng de dà dào shàng, zǒu lái le yì lǎo yì xiǎo.] (On the road to Wohu Ridge came an old man and a young man.)

If the object refers to something in general, “了 [le]” has two positions in this situation. c1 predicate verb+directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù])+了 [le]+object (noun for general things)

128 Auxiliary words c2 predicate verb+了 [le]+object (noun for general things)+directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù]). Example 62 学校给他们拍来了一份电报。[xué xiào gěi tā men pāi lái le yí fèn diàn bào.] (The school sent them a telegram.) 学校给他们拍了一份电报来。[xué xiào gěi tā men pāi le yí fèn diàn bào lái.] (The school sent them a telegram.) Example 63 我给他送去了一些水果。[wǒ gěi tā sòng qù le yì xiē shuǐ guǒ.] (I sent him some fruits.) 我给他送了一些水果去。[wǒ gěi tā sòng le yì xiē shuǐ guǒ qù.] (I sent him some fruits.) d1 predicate verb+上 [shàng]2 +了 [le]+object+directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù]) d2 predicate verb+compound directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù])+了 [le]+object d3 predicate verb+了 [le]+object+compound directional complement (来 [lái]/去 [qù]) (seldom used) Example 64 他从书包里拿出了一本书来。[tā cóng shū bāo lǐ ná chū le yì běn shū lái.] (He took out a book from his bag.) 他从书包里拿出来了一本书。[tā cóng shū bāo lǐ ná chū lái le yì běn shū.] (He took a book out of his bag.) 他从书包里拿了一本书出来。[tā cóng shū bāo lǐ ná le yì běn shū chū lái.] (He took a book out of his bag.) If the object is existential one, “了 [le]” is qualified for d1 and d2. Example 65 这时从车上匆匆地走下了一个人来。[zhè shí cóng chē shàng cōng cōng de zǒu xià le yí gè rén lái.] (Then a man got off the car hurriedly.) 这时从车上匆匆地走下来了一个人。[zhè shí cóng chē shàng cōng cōng de zǒu xià lái le yí gè rén.] (Then a man got off the car hurriedly.) (4) Negative form of “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word When the negative action appears or is done, a predicate verb requires the adverb “没 [méi] (no)” before it and “了 [le]” cannot be used here again. Example 66 昨天我们没参观工厂。[zuó tiān wǒ men méi can guān gōng chǎng.] (We didn’t visit the factory yesterday.)

Auxiliary words 129 Example 67 上星期六我们没看电影。[shàng xīng qī liù wǒ men méi kàn diàn yǐng.] (We didn’t watch the movie last Saturday.) 4

Usage of “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word

(1) When to use “了 [le]” a

When an action or a state conveyed by verb or adjective happens, “了 [le]” is required to appear after this verb or adjective. Example 68 十月的一天上午, 我们参观了一个幼儿园。[shí yuè de yì tiān shàng wǔ, wǒ men cān guān le yí gè yòu ér yuán.] (One morning in October, we visited a kindergarten.) Example 69 传说一年冬天, 某村附近来了一只大老虎。[chuán shuō yì nián dōng tiān, mǒu cūn fù jìn lái le yì zhī dà lǎo hǔ.] (It was said that one winter, near a village came a big tiger.) Example 70 他们在争取民族解放和国家独立的斗争中, 显示了无比巨 大的威力, 取得了辉煌的胜利。[tā men zài zhēng qǔ mín zú jiě fàng hé guó jiā dú lì de dòu zhēng zhōng, xiǎn shì le wú bǐ jù dà de wēi lì, qǔ dé le huī huáng de shèng lì.] (In the struggle for national liberation and national independence, they showed great power and finally won a brilliant victory.) Example 71 昨天开了一个会, 会上经过讨论, 大家才明确了自己的任 务。[zuó tiān kāi le yī gè huì, huì shàng jīng guò tǎo lùn, dà jiā cái míng què le zì jǐ de rèn wù.] (A meeting was held yesterday; after it, everyone made their own tasks clear.) Example 72 我们走进航标灯时, 看见航标灯突然暗了一下, 很快又亮 了。[wǒ men zǒu jìn háng biāo dēng shí, kàn jiàn háng biāo dēng tū rán àn le yī xià, hěn kuài yòu liàng le.] (When we got close to the beacon, we found it suddenly darkened and soon brightened again.)

In other words, if a time word indicates an action or a state that happens, “了 [le]” is required. b

When the first action that happens or is done is regarded as the time for the second action or becomes the condition for the second action, “了 [le]” is required to appear after the first verb. Example 73 听了老人的话, 蔡立坚心情非常激动。[tīng le lǎo rén de huà, cài lì jiān xīn qíng fēi cháng jī dòng.] (After hearing the old man’s words, Cai Lijian became very excited.) Example 74 麻醉医生在她的耳朵上、手上和颈部扎了八根针, 然后通 上电流。[má zuì yī shēng zài tā de ěr duǒ shàng, shǒu shàng hé jǐng bù zhā le ba gēn zhēn, rán hòu tōng shàng diàn liú.]

130 Auxiliary words (The anesthesiologist put eight needles in her ears, hands, and neck, and then turned on an electric current.) Example 75 明天你吃了早饭就来找我。[míng tiān nǐ chī le zǎo fàn jiù lái zhǎo wǒ.] (You come to see me tomorrow after breakfast.) (2) When to omit “了 [le]” without influencing the meaning nor the structure of the entire sentence a

“了 [le]” can be omitted when it appears in a successive sentence as a dynamic auxiliary word, or it is at the end of sentence as a mood auxiliary word.

Generally speaking, “了 [le],” “吗 [ma],” “吧 [ba]” can indicate what has been previously mentioned, no matter if it functions as a dynamic auxiliary word or mood auxiliary word.3 In a declarative sentence consisting of successive actions, “了 [le]” in the preceding clause is very flexible. It can exist with another “了 [le]” in the following clause simultaneously, or it can be absent only if another “了 [le]” in the following clause remains. The existence of “了 [le]” in the preceding clause decides the tone of the entire sentence. With “了 [le],” the sentence sounds more comfortable; without “了 [le],” it sounds tenser. Example 76 他站起来开门迎了出去。[tā zhàn qǐ lái kāi mén yíng le chū qù.] (He stood up, opened the door, and went out to welcome him.) Example 77 傍晚, 我照样去替朱经理买小吃, 照样买一块腐乳酱方送 到了奶奶的床前。[bàng wǎn, wǒ zhào yàng qù tì Zhū jīng lǐ mǎi xiǎo chī, zhào yàng mǎi yí kuài fǔ rǔ jiàng fāng sòng dào le nǎi nǎi de chuáng qián.] (In the evening as usual, I bought a snack for Manager Zhu and the fermented bean curd for grandma. Just now I sent it to my grandmother’s.) Example 78 最后, 他退后一步, 闪电般地联想了一下柳先生和母亲。 [zuì hòu, tā tuì hòu yí bù, shǎn diàn bān de lián xiǎng le yí xià Liǔ xiān shēng hé mǔ qīn.] (Finally, he stepped back and thought of Mr. Liu and his mother in a flash.) Example 79 会上, 他主动承担责任, 取得了群众的谅解。[huì shàng, tā zhǔ dòng chéng dān zé rèn, qǔ dé le qún zhòng de liàng jiě.] (At the meeting, he initiatively took the responsibility and won the understanding of the masses.) When coordinating verbs function as the predicate, the sentence generally requires “了 [le]” to appear after the second verb. If another “了 [le]” is added after the first verb, an obvious pause would be added, too. Example 80 大会讨论了, 并通过了今年的生产计划。[dà huì tǎo lùn le, bìng tōng guò le jīn nián de shēng chǎn jì huà.] (The conference discussed and approved the production plan of this year.)

Auxiliary words 131 Example 81 通过这次互相访问, 巩固了, 并加强了两国人民的友谊。 [tōng guò zhè cì hù xiāng fǎng wèn, gǒng gù le, bìng jiā qiáng le liǎng guó rén mín de yǒu yì.] (Through this exchange visit, the friendship between the two nations was consolidated and strengthened.) If the mood auxiliary word “了 [le]” appears at the end of sentence, the dynamic auxiliary word “了 [le]” is not required to appear after the verb, except that there is a special requirement. It is because in this situation, both of them share the same grammatical meanings. Example 82 A: 你在我们这儿吃点儿吧。[nǐ zài wǒ men zhè er chī diǎn er ba.] (You can eat something with us here.) B: 不客气, 我吃饭了。[bú kè qì, wǒ chī fàn le.] (No, thanks. I’ve had dinner already.) Example 83 A: 你怎么不敲门？里边有人。[nǐ zěn me bù qiāo mén? lǐ biān yǒu rén.] (Why don’t you knock at the door? There is someone inside.) B: 刚才我敲门了, 可是没有人答应。[gāng cái wǒ qiāo mén le, kě shì méi rén dā yìng.] (B: I did just now, but no one answered.) b

“了 [le]”can be omitted when there is a result or directional complement after the verb as well as a constituent indicating occurrence of an action or a state in the sentence. Example 84 有一天, 仿佛黑夜里亮起一道闪电, 他突然想起了鲁迅先 生。[yǒu yì tiān, fǎng fú hēi yè lǐ liàng qǐ yí dào shǎn diàn, tā tū rán xiǎng qǐ le lǔ xùn xiān shēng.] (One day, he suddenly remembered Mr. Lu Xun, as if a streak of lighting appeared in the dark.) Example 85 放下电话, 我的思想飞驰起来。仿佛又回到了南南出生时 那战火纷飞的革命岁月。[fàng xià diàn huà, wǒ de sī xiǎng fēi chí qǐ lái. fǎng fú yòu huí dào le Nán Nán chū shēng shí nà zhàn huǒ fēn fēi de gé mìng suì yuè.] (After putting down the phone, I felt that my memor recalled the revolutionary years engulfed in the flames of war when Nan Nan was born.) Example 86 最后他亲自把礼物送过去, 又遭到那个女孩子的拒绝。[zuì hòu tā qīn zì bǎ lǐ wù sòng guò qù, yòu zāo dào nà gè nǚ hái zi de jù jué.] (In the end, he personally took the present to the girl but was rejected by her again.)

In the last examples, “one day” or “putting down the phone” has already implied the result of the action. Therefore, “了 [le]” can be omitted. Sometimes, in order to emphasize several actions that have been finished, “了 [le]” can be repeated after each verb or verb-complement phrase.

132 Auxiliary words Example 87 八十年代, 由于实行改革开放政策, 我们搞活了经济, 打 开了国门, 扩大了外贸出口, 提高了综合国力, 也大大提高了人民的 生活水平。[bā shí nián dài, yóu yú shí xíng gǎi gé kāi fàng zhèng cè, wǒ men gǎo huó le jīng jì, dǎ kāi le guó mén, kuò dà le wài mào chū kǒu, tí gāo le zōng hé guó lì, yě dà dà tí gāo le rén mín de shēng huó shuǐ píng.] (In the 1980s, as a result of reform and opening policy, we invigorated the economy, opened the door to the world, expanded foreign trade exports, improved comprehensive national strength, and greatly improved the living standards of the people.) Example 88 喜讯传到了北京, 传到了祖国的每一个地方。[xǐ xùn chuán dào le běi jīng, chuán dào le zǔ guó de měi yí gè dì fāng.] (The good news spread to Beijing, to every place of the motherland.) The discussion on “了 [le]” after the complement is in Chapter 5, Section two, Part IV, vol. 3. c

“了 [le]” can be omitted when the third personal pronoun functions as subject. Example 89 昨天他给我一本书, 那本书很有用。[zuó tiān tā gěi wǒ yì běn shū, nà běn shū hěn yǒu yòng.] (He gave me a book yesterday and it was very useful.) Example 90 今天上课的时候张老师问我一个问题, 我回答不上来, 很 丢人。[jīn tiān shàng kè de shí hòu Zhāng lǎo shī wèn wǒ yí gè wèn tí, wǒ huí dá bú shàng lái, hěn diū rén.] (In today’s class, Prof. Zhang asked me a question, but I failed to answer it. I felt very embarrassed.) Example 91 老师, 他骂我。[lǎo shī, tā mà wǒ.] (Professor, he scolded me.)

The first two sentences require double objects as well as a successive sentence; the third one describes a scene that a student told the teacher that he/she was scolded by someone, thus the first and second personal pronouns are excluded in this case. (3) When to refuse “了 [le]” Besides what has been discussed in Chapter 5, Section two, Part II, vol. 1, more possible situations are to be discussed here. a

“了 [le]” cannot be used after the verb standing before or after the direct speech. Example 92 狼在口袋里喊: “先生, 可以放我出去了。”[láng zài kǒu dài lǐ hǎn: “xiān shēng, kě yǐ fàng wǒ chū qù le.”] (The wolf shouted in the pocket: “Sir, you may let me go out now.”) Example 93 刘胡兰坚决地回答: “我死也不投降！” [Liú Hú lán jiān jué de huí dá: “wǒ sǐ yě bù tóu xiáng!”] (Liu Hulan replied firmly, “I will die before I surrender!”)

Auxiliary words 133 Example 94 “怎么？” 我不解地问。[“zěn me?” wǒ bù jiě de wèn.] (“What?” I asked in bewilderment.) “了 [le]” is generally refused before indirect speech. Example 95 好几个老师傅挤拢来, 嘈杂地议论着肖师傅的办法, 都说 行得通。[hǎo jǐ gè lǎo shī fù jǐ lǒng lái, cāo zá de yì lùn zhe Xiāo shī fù de bàn fǎ, dōu shuō xíng de tōng.] (Several old master craftsmen gathered together and talked noisily about the method proposed by master craftsman Xiao. They all admitted that it would work.) There is one exception. If a verb-quantifier complement is used after the verb and then followed by direct speech, “了 [le]” is necessary after the verb. Example 964 他喊了一声: “抓小偷！” 就追了上去。[tā hǎn le yì shēng: “zhuā xiǎo tōu!” jiù zhuī le shàng qù.] (He shouted, “stop the thief!” and then ran after him.) b

“了 [le]” is generally refused by the first verb in the bi-constituent sentence or the sentence with serial verbs. Example 97 北京大学和中国人民大学法律系还派人到外地开办了一些 法律培训班。[běi jīng dà xué hé zhōng guó rén mín dà xué fǎ lǜ xì hái pài rén dào wài dì kāi bàn le yì xiē fǎ lǜ péi xùn bān.] (The law departments of Peking University and Renmin University have also sent people to start law training courses in other places.) Example 98 我们坐火车来到了北京。[wǒ men zuò huǒ chē lái dào le běi jīng.] (We went to Beijing by train.) Example 99 我的房东特意去镇上买了一块布。[wǒ de fáng dōng tè yì qù zhèn shàng mǎi le yí kuài bù.] (For a special purpose, my landlord went to town to buy a piece of cloth.) Example 100 今天的座谈和参观, 帮助我们了解了很多情况。[jīn tiān de zuò tán hé cān guān, bāng zhù wǒ men liǎo jiě le hěn duō qíng kuàng.] (Today’s discussions and visits have helped us understand a lot.) Example 101 我们全班同学上个月去昆明参加了世博会的开幕式。[wǒ men quán bān tóng xué shàng gè yuè qù kūn míng cān jiā le shì bó huì de kāi mù shì.] (Our class went to Kunming last month to attend the opening ceremony of the Expo.)

In each of these examples, “了 [le]” is put after the second verb due to the postpositional focus of sentence; otherwise, “了 [le]” needs moving forward. Example 102 A: 北京大学和中国人民大学法律系为什么不派人到外地开办法律培训 班？[běi jīng dà xué hé zhōng guó rén mín dà xué fǎ lǜ xì wèi shén me bú pài rén dào wài dì kāi bàn fǎ lǜ péi xùn bān?]

134 Auxiliary words (Why don’t the law departments of Peking University and Renmin University send people to start law training courses in some other places?) B: 北京大学和中国人民大学法律系已经派了人到外开办法律培训班了。 [běi jīng dà xué hé zhōng guó rén mín dà xué fǎ lǜ xì yǐ jīng pài le rén dào wài dì kāi bàn fǎ lǜ péi xùn bān le.] (The law departments of Peking University and Renmin University have already sent people to start law training courses in other places.) Example 103 A: 你的房东今天为什么不去镇上买布？[nǐ de fáng dōng jīn tiān wèi shén me bú qù zhèn shàng mǎi bù?] (Why didn’t your landlord go to town to buy cloth?) B: 我的房东今天去了镇上买布了, 可是没买到你要的那种。[wǒ de fáng dōng jīn tiān qù le zhèn shàng mǎi bù le, kě shì méi mǎi dào nǐ yào de nà zhǒng.] (My landlord did, but he didn’t find the right kind you asked for.) There is one exception. When the second action doesn’t begin until the first one is done, “了 [le]” after the first verb can be used. Here the first verb excludes “来 [lái]/去 [qù].” Example 104 小安听完了非常生气。[Xiǎo Ān tīng wán le fēi cháng shēng qì.] (Xiao An was very angry after hearing it.) Example 105 什么, 脱了衣服泼水, 一个大姑娘家。[shén me, tuō le yī fù pō shuǐ, yí gè dà gū niáng jiā.] (What! Let her take off her clothes to sprinkle water? She is a big girl!) c

“了 [le]” should be refused after the predicate verb when the object is served by predicate words, including the verb, verb phrase or subject-predicate phrase. Example 106 无论家里人怎么劝说, 他还是拒绝去见她。[wú lùn jiā lǐ rén zěn me quàn shuō, tā hái shì jù jué qù jiàn tā.] (No matter how his family persuaded him, he refused to see her.) Example 107 一会儿, 他们看见一只大白鸡慢慢地走进草堆。[yī huì er, tā men kàn jiàn yì zhī dà bái jī màn màn de zǒu jìn cǎo duī.] (After a while, they saw a big white rooster walking slowly into the haystack.) Example 108 从昨天起, 我们开始学习第三十八课。[cóng zuó tiān qǐ, wǒ men kāi shǐ xué xí dì sān shí bā kè.] (We have been learning Lesson 38 since yesterday.)

If “进行 [jìn xíng] (proceed)” or “作 [zuò] (proceed)” functions as predicate, “了 [le]” can be used even if the object is served by the predicate word. Example 109 代表们对这个问题进行了热烈的讨论。[dài biǎo men duì zhè gè wèn tí jìn xíng le rè liè de tǎo lùn.] (The delegates had a heated discussion on the issue.)

Auxiliary words 135 Example 110 主席对下一阶段的工作进行了具体安排。[zhǔ xí duì xià yì jiē duàn de gōng zuò jìn!le jù tǐ an pái.] (The chairman made specific arrangements for the next stage of work.) Example 111 大会对很多事项作了规定。[dà huì duì hěn duō shì xiàng zuò le guī dìng.] (Many things have been prescribed in the meeting.) From the last examples, it can be seen that the objects are of properties of nominals, which can be judged from “的 [de]” after the modifier of the object. The usage of “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word involves many factors, which decide its flexibility in use. Therefore, it takes time and patience in learning this complex grammatical phenomenon. The next examples are about incorrect usage of “了 [le].” Example 112 我吃罢中饭, 休息了一会, 便到休息室去, 透过窗户欣 赏了西陵峡的景色: 阳光透过浮在半山上的薄雾投进三峡之中, 使我感 到难以形容的美。[wǒ chī bà zhōng fàn, xiū xī le yì huì, biàn dào xiū xī shì qù, tòu guò chuāng hù xīn shǎng le xī líng xiá de jǐng sè: yáng guāng tòu guò fú zài bàn shān shàng de báo wù tóu jìn sān xiá zhī zhōng, shǐ wǒ gǎn dào nán yǐ xíng róng de měi.] (After lunch and a short break, I went to the lounge to enjoy Xiling Gorge’s view through the window: The sun poured into the three gorges through the mist floating in the middle of mountain, which was beyond my description.) The first “了 [le]” is correctly used, indicating that second action of “到休息室 去 [dào xiū xī shì qù] (go to the lounge)” begins after the first action of “休息 [xiū xī] (a short rest)” is finished. The second “了 [le]” is not correctly used because it indicates the action of “欣赏了西陵峡的景色 [xīn shǎng le xī líng xiá de jǐng sè] (enjoy Xiling Gorge’s view)” has been done. In fact, the successive sentence introduced by a colon is the direct speech, which continues to describe the beauty of Xiling Gorge. Example 113 在苏州玩了两天以后我游览了优美的城市杭州。我乘下午 五点二十分的车前往杭州。[zài sū zhōu wán le liǎng tiān yǐ hòu wǒ yóu lǎn le yōu měi de chéng shì háng zhōu.wǒ chéng xià wǔ wǔ diǎn èr shí fēn de chē qián wǎng háng zhōu.] (After a two-day trip in Suzhou, I went to visit the beautiful city of Hangzhou by taking the bus at twenty minutes after five in the afternoon.) Similarly, the first “了 [le]” is correctly used but the second one is not. The sentence should be corrected into “在苏州玩了两天以后我去游览优美的城市 杭州 . . . [zài sū zhōu wán le liǎng tiān yǐ hòu wǒ qù yóu lǎn yōu měi de chéng shì háng zhōu . . .] (After a two-day trip in Suzhou, I went to visit the beautiful city of Hangzhou . . .).”

136 Auxiliary words II. “了 [le]” as mood auxiliary word “了 [le]” as mood auxiliary word stands at the end of sentence and is complex in the aspects of usage and meaning. 1

Grammatical meanings and functions of “了 [le]” The grammatical meanings of “了 [le]” include the following aspects.

(1) “了 [le]” shares the same grammatical meaning with “了 [le]” as a dynamic auxiliary word, indicating the occurrence of an action or a state. Here, the occurrence means something happening, similar to “situation” used in some general Chinese teaching textbooks. “了 [le]” doesn’t express time directly, but the sentence in which it is used usually indicates an action or a state that happened in the past. Example 114 昨天我头疼了。[zuó tiān wǒ tóu téng le.] (I had a headache yesterday.) Or the sentence indicates that an action or a state may happen at the time of speaking. Example 115 你们看, 这朵花开了, 开了！[nǐ men kàn, zhè duǒ huā kāi le, kāi le!] (Look, this flower is blooming!) If there is no time word, the sentence means that an action or a state just happens at the time of speaking. Example 116 下雨了！[xià yǔ le!] (It’s raining!) Example 117 新年快要到了。[xīn nián kuài yào dào le.] (The New Year is coming.) Or, the sentence expresses that an action or a state will happen in the future. Example 118 等你的病好了, 我们就离开这个城市。[děng nǐ de bìng hǎo le, wǒ men jiù lí kāi zhè gè chéng shì.] (When you recover, we’ll leave this city.) Example 119 饭开锅了, 把火拧小一点。[fàn kāi guō le, bǎ huǒ nǐng xiǎo yì diǎn.] (The rice is boiling, turn down the fire.) Example 120 明年三月, 你就二十岁了。[míng nián sān yuè, nǐ jiù èr shí suì le.] (You will be twenty years old in March next year.) Similar to “了 [le]” as a dynamic auxiliary word, “了 [le]” in “等你的病好了 [děng nǐ de bìng hǎo le] (when you recover)” indicates the time of “我们就离开 这个城市 [wǒ men jiù lí kāi zhè gè chéng shì] (we’ll leave this city);” Example 115 is a hypothetical sentence, in which “饭开锅了 [fàn kāi guō le] (the rice is

Auxiliary words 137 boiling)” is considered as the time of “把火拧小一点 [bǎ huǒ nǐng xiǎo yī diǎn] (turn down the fire).” More situations about how to use “了 [le]” are as follows. a

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate an action from not occurring to occurring. In this case, the predicate verb is mainly an action verb. Example 121 上课了, 快进教室！[shàng kè le, kuài jìn jiào shì.] (It’s time for class, and get in the classroom!) Example 122 下雨了, 把晾的衣服收回来吧。[xià yǔ le, bǎ liàng de yī fu shōu huí lái ba.] (It’s raining. Take back the clothes you hung out.) Example 123 快走, 队伍出发了。[kuài zǒu, duì wù chū fā le.] (Hurry up, the procession has set out.)

If there is the adverb indicating the future, the entire sentence shows an upcoming occurrence. Example 124 快上课了。[kuài shàng kè le.] (Class is about to begin.) Example 125 快下雨了。别出去了。[kuài xià yǔ le. bié chū qù le.] (It’s going to rain. Don’t go out.) b

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate an action from unfinished to finished. In this case, a result or directional complement is required to appear after the predicate verb. Example 126 今天的作业写完了。[jīn tiān de zuò yè xiě wán le.] (Today’s homework has been finished.) Example 127 在工人的努力下, 大楼终于建成了。[zài gōng rén de nǔ lì xià, dà lóu zhōng yú jiàn chéng le.] (The building has finally been finished with the efforts of the workers.)

Thus it can be seen from these examples that sometimes it is difficult to judge whether “了 [le]” at the end of sentence is a mood auxiliary word or a dynamic one, when it stands after the verb and then nothing follows as the object. Here is another example. Example 128 我昨天看了一个电影。[wǒ zuó tiān kàn le yī gè diàn yǐng.] (I watched a movie yesterday.) The possible question to the example should be: 你昨天做什么了？[nǐ zuó tiān zuò shén me le?] (What did you do yesterday?), instead of “你昨天做了什 么？[nǐ zuó tiān zuò le shén me?] (What did you do yesterday?).” The explanation is as follows: The question takes “了 [le]” as a mood auxiliary word and the answer takes “了 [le]” as a dynamic auxiliary word. In fact, meanings of “了 [le]” in both

138 Auxiliary words of sentences are identical due to the fact that they share the same grammatical meanings. “了 [le]” symbolizes the end of the question and makes it as an independent sentence. If “了 [le]” was moved before “什么 [shén me] (what),” the sentence wouldn’t be of the complete semantic meaning as a question. Although it is not easy to judge the property of “了 [le],” the more important, we think, is to learn how to use it effectively in reality instead of making efforts to distinguish them. c

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate an action from the beginning to the end. Example 129 他一看见我, 就站住了。[tā yí kàn jiàn wǒ, jiù zhàn zhù le.] (As soon as he saw me, he stopped.) Example 130 火车停了, 旅客们走出了车厢。[huǒ chē tíng le, lǚ kè men zǒu chū le chē xiāng.] (The train stopped and the passengers walked out of the carriages.) Example 131 他一来, 大家都不说话了。[tā yì lái, dà jiā dōu bù shuō huà le.] (As soon as he came, everyone stopped talking.)

Actually, the accomplishment of an action is not decided by “了 [le]” in the sentence but by what the verb or complement expresses. d

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate a state or a property that is changing. Here, the predicate verb is mainly an adjective, state verb, or relation verb. Example 132 苹果熟了。[píng guǒ shú le.] (The apple is ripe.) Example 133 小李病了。[Xiǎo Lǐ bìng le.] (Xiao Li is ill.) Example 134 张滨觉悟过来了。[zhāng bīn jué wù guò lái le.] (Zhang Bin realized something.) Example 135 小红是中学生了。[xiǎo hóng shì zhōng xué shēng le.] (Xiao Hong is a middle school student.) Example 136 我现在有电影票了。[wǒ xiàn zài yǒu diàn yǐng piào le.] (I have a movie ticket now.)

e

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate a wish or a will that has changed. Here, the predicate verb is mainly a volitive verb. Example 137 他又想去了。[tā yòu xiǎng qù le.] (He wants to go now.) Example 138 我明天不去颐和园了。[wǒ míng tiān bú qù yí hé yuán le.] (I’m not going to the Summer Palace tomorrow.) Example 139 玛丽能用中文写信了。[Mǎ lì néng yòng zhōng wén xiě xìn le.] (Mary can write letters in Chinese now.)

Auxiliary words 139 Example 140 谢利能看懂中文电影了。[Xiè lì néng kàn dǒng zhōng wén diàn yǐng le.] (Now Shelly can understand Chinese movies.) f

The sentence with “了 [le]” may indicate time, season, age, or quantity that regularly alternates. Example 141 转眼都星期五了, 时间过得真快。[zhuǎn yǎn dōu xīng qī wǔ le, shí jiān guò dé zhēn kuài.] (Today is Friday again. How time flies!) Example 142 春天了, 花儿开了, 草绿了, 天气暖和了。[chūn tiān le, huā er kāi le, cǎo lǜ le, tiān qì nuǎn huo le.] (It’s spring now. Flowers are blooming, the grass is green, and the weather gets warm.) Example 143 十七八了, 大姑娘了, 该懂事了。[shí qī bā le, dà gū niáng le, gāi dǒng shì le.] (You were already a big girl of seventeen or eighteen years old. It’s time to know better.) Example 144 中学生了, 还哭！[zhōng xué shēng le, hái kū!] (You are a middle school student. Stop crying!) Example 145 黑天了, 别出去了。[hēi tiān le, bié chū qù le.] (It’s getting dark. Don’t go out.)

With or without “了 [le]” in these examples results in different meanings. Here come two pairs of examples in comparison. Example 146 A1: 今天都星期五了, 时间过得真快。[jīn tiān dōu xīng qī wǔ le, shí jiān guò dé zhēn kuài.] (It’s Friday today again. Time really flies.) A2: 今天是星期几？[jīn tiān shì xīng qī jǐ?] (What day is it today?) B: 今天（是）星期五。[jīn tiān (shì) xīng qī wǔ.] (Today is Friday.) Example 147 A1: 你多大了, 就想当兵？[nǐ duō dà le, jiù xiǎng dāng bīng?] (How old are you? Are you old enough to be a soldier?) B1: 十八了, 还小吗？[shí bā le, hái xiǎo ma?] (Eighteen years old already, and aren’t I old enough?) A2: 请你说一下你的年龄、籍贯 . . . [qǐng nǐ shuō yí xià nǐ de nián líng, jí guàn . . .] (Please tell me your age, native place . . .) B2: 我今年十八, 山东人。[wǒ jīn nián shí bā, shān dōng rén.] (I am eighteen, and I am from Shandong province.)

140 Auxiliary words “了 [le]” as a mood auxiliary word can match with a variety of words, including verb (copula), adjective, noun, numeral-quantifier phrase, or other phrases. Therefore, comparatively speaking, it rarely has grammatical limitations. “了 [le]” is commonly used in conversation in which the speaker tells the listener the new information through a complete sentence with “了 [le];” without “了 [le],” the new information is routinely arranged at the end of the sentence. Besides, the speaker uses “了 [le]” to introduce a new situation or change to the listener for some special purposes, such as causing attention, sending a warning, giving advice or a suggestion, asking a question, or having a discussion. Example 148 下雨了, 把晾的衣服收回来吧。[xià yǔ le, bǎ liàng de yī fu shōu huí lái ba.] (It’s raining. Take back the clothes you hung out.) Example 149 黑天了, 别出去了。[hēi tiān le, bié chū qù le.] (It’s dark now, don’t go out.) Example 150 你明年就毕业了, 有什么打算？[nǐ míng nián jiù bì yè le, yǒu shén me dǎ suàn?] (What is your plan after graduation?) Example 151 妈妈, 我写完作业了, 可以出去玩了吧？[mā mɑ, wǒ xiě wán zuò yè le, kě yǐ chū qù wán le ba?] (Mom, I’ve finished the homework, can I go out?) Example 152 小张病了, 我们去看看他吧。[Xiǎo Zhāng bìng le, wǒ men qù kàn kàn tā ba.] (Xiao Zhang is ill. Shall we go and see him?) (2) “了 [le]” sends an affirmative tone and symbolizes the end of a sentence or paragraph. “了 [le]” symbolizes the end of a sentence or paragraph. In other words, if the subject or the topic is not changed, “了 [le]” is not supposed to appear at the end of this sentence or clause. Example 153 绕过一片树林子以后, 他顺着河湾走进一块新的地方。他 看见河谷骤然开阔了。三家店下游的平原一望无际, 高电告河堤远远 伸向天尽头。[rào guò yì piàn shù lín zi yǐ hòu, tā shùn zhe hé wān zǒu jìn yí kuài xīn de dì fāng. tā kàn jiàn hé gǔ zhòu rán kāi kuò le.sān jiā diàn xià yóu de píng yuán yí wàng wú jì, gāo diàn gào hé dī yuǎn yuǎn shēn xiàng tiān jìn tóu.] (After bypassing the woods, he stepped into a new place along the river bay. From here, the valley unexpectedly widened to present a boundless plain along the downstream of San Jia Dian river, and Gao Dian Gao river wall was stretching to the horizon.) In the last example, the first two sentences describe the actions that are carried out by the same person “他 [tā] (he).” Therefore, “了 [le]” cannot be used at the

Auxiliary words 141 end of the first sentence. Otherwise the whole description about “新的地方 [yí kuài xīn de dì fāng] (a new place)” would be interrupted. The third sentence takes “三家店 [sān jiā diàn] (San Jia Dian)” as its narrative object so “了 [le]” is used to symbolize the end of the second sentence. Example 154 他眯起眼睛, 用手搭着凉篷, 眺望着那戈壁的彼岸。真宽 哪, 他暗暗吃惊了, 简直宽得看不到边。[tā mī qǐ yǎn jīng, yòng shǒu dā zhe liáng péng, tiào wàng zhe nà gē bì de bǐ àn.zhēn kuān na, tā àn àn chī jīng le, jiǎn zhí kuān de kàn bú dào biān.] (Putting his hand on the awning, he squinted his eyes to overlook the other side of the Gobi. It was too wide to see the edge, which surprised him a lot.) Here, two sentences are related in describing what “他 [tā] (he)” saw and what “他 [tā] (he)” commented, thus “了 [le]” doesn’t appear at the end of the first sentence. However, inside the second sentence, the narrative object is changed from “戈壁 [gē bì] (Gobi)” into “他 [tā] (he),” thus “了 [le]” is used, although it appears in the middle of the sentence. Briefly speaking, if the topic is not changed, “了 [le]” cannot be used. Next is an example about the incorrect usage of “了 [le].” Example 155 *昨天早上我起床以后吃早饭了。然后去图书馆。走进 图书馆就去找书了。找到要借的书, 就去到柜台借了。我问柜台的 小姐书可以借几天, 她说可以借一个星期。办完手续以后我就回宿舍 了。[zuó tiān zǎo shàng wǒ qǐ chuáng yǐ hòu chī zǎo fàn le.rán hòu qù tú shū guǎn. Zǒu jìn tú shū guǎn jiù qù zhǎo shū le. zhǎo dào yào jiè de shū, jiù qù dào guì tái jiè le. wǒ wèn guì tái de xiǎo jiě shū kě yǐ jiè jǐ tiān, tā shuō kě yǐ jiè yí gè xīng qī. bàn wán shǒu xù yǐ hòu wǒ jiù huí sù shè le.] This example describes several successive actions of “我 [wǒ] (I),” thus “了 [le]” cannot be used. Otherwise, coherence of the sentence group will be broken up. So it should be corrected into: 昨天早上我起床以后先吃早饭, 然后去图书馆借书。走进图书馆我先 找书。找到要借的书以后, 来到柜台。我问柜台的小姐书可以借几天, 她说可以借一个星期。办完手续以后我就回宿舍了。[zuó tiān zǎo shàng wǒ qǐ chuáng yǐ hòu xiān chī zǎo fàn, rán hòu qù tú shū guǎn jiè shū. zǒu jìn tú shū guǎn wǒ xiān zhǎo le. zhǎo dào yào jiè de shū yǐ hòu, lái dào guì qī. bàn wèn guì tái de xiǎo jiě shū kě yǐ jiè jǐ tiān, tā shuō kě yǐ jiè yí gè xīng qī.bàn wán shǒu xù yǐ hòu wǒ jiù huí sù shè le.] (After getting up and having the breakfast, I went to the library to borrow books. I first found the book I wanted to borrow and then came to the counter to ask the lady at the counter how many days I could keep it. She told me that I could keep it for a week. After I finished the formalities, I went back to the dorm.)

142 Auxiliary words In the following types of sentences, “了 [le]” is necessary. It is because without “了 [le],” the sentence cannot stand alone, although no extra meaning is added by it. a

“了 [le]” is necessarily required when an adverb of degree functions as a complement in the sentence with an adjective as predicate. Example 156 第三回出得山口, 高增福情绪高极了。[dì sān huí chū de shān kǒu, Gāo Zēng fú qíng xù gāo jí le.] (It was the third time he came out of the pass, and Gao Zengfu was very excited!) Example 157 今天热死了！[jīn tiān rè sǐ le!] (It’s too hot today!) Example 158 这个人坏透了！[zhè gè rén huài tòu le!] (This man is terribly bad!)

b

“了 [le]” is necessarily required when “太 [tài] (much too)” is used as an adverbial in the exclamatory sentence. Example 159 老赵这个人太好了！[Lǎo Zhào zhè gè rén tài hǎo le!] (Lao Zhao is such a nice man!) Example 160 这个消息太鼓舞人了！[zhè gè xiāo xī tài gǔ wǔ rén le!] (The news is very encouraging!)

In the last examples, the stress should be put on the adverbs of degree. Despite having no actual meaning, “了 [le]” is necessarily required in structure. c

“了 [le]” is necessarily required when some adjectives function as predicates or result complements, to indicate a substandard situation. These adjectives are mainly involved in properties, including “大 [dà] (big), 小 [xiǎo] (small), 高 [gāo] (tall), 低 [dī] (short), 肥 [féi] (fat), 瘦 [shòu] (thin), 长 [cháng] (long), 短 [duǎn] (short), 轻 [qīng] (light), 重 [zhòng] (heavy), 粗 [cū] (thick), 细 [xì] (thin), 咸 [xián] (salty), 淡 [dàn] (light), 厚 [hòu] (thick), 薄 [báo] (thin), 宽 [kuān] (wide), 窄 [zhǎi] (narrow), 早 [zǎo] (early), 晚(迟) [wǎn (chí)] (late).”

Sometimes, “(一)点儿 [(yī) diǎn er]” or “(一)些 [(yī) xiē] (a bit/a little)” can be added after “了 [le]” to complement the degree. Example 161 钱你给多了。[qián nǐ gěi duō le.] (You give me too much money.) Example 162 这双鞋大了一点儿。[zhè shuāng xié dà le yì diǎn er.] (The shoes are a little bit bigger.) Example 163 这张纸太薄了, 换一张吧。[zhè zhāng zhǐ tài báo le, huàn yì zhāng ba.] (The paper is too thin! Change it with another piece, please.) Example 164 他的裤子做瘦了, 上衣做肥了, 穿着都不合适。[tā de kù zi zuò shòu le, shàng yī zuò féi le, chuān zhe dōu bù hé shì.] (His trousers are small and his coat is big. Neither of them fits him.)

Auxiliary words 143 For the sentences of such a type, the degree of the adverb like “太 [tài] (much too)” or “稍 [shāo] (a little bit),” will be decreased if the stress is on the adjective. If the stress is on the adverb, the degree will be increased. In this case, the entire sentence doesn’t probably indicate a substandard situation but just becomes an exclamatory sentence. Example 165 这件衣服太’红了。[zhè jiàn yī fu tài hóng le.] (This dress is too red.) (substandard) 这件衣服’太红了。[zhè jiàn yī fu tài hóng le.] (This dress is too red.) (beyond the standard) Example 166 这件衣服太’好了。[zhè jiàn yī fu tài hǎo le.] (This dress is well done.) (beyond the standards.) 这件衣服’太好了！[zhè jiàn yī fu tài hǎo le!] (This dress is great!) (exclamatory sentence) In the previous examples, “了 [le]” in the non-exclamatory sentences can be absent without changing any meanings. But with “了 [le],” the sentences will sound more comfortable. 2

Structural features of the sentence with “了 [le]” as a mood auxiliary word

Generally, “了 [le]” stands at the end of sentence as a mood auxiliary word, so it cannot show up before the object. However, sometimes it can appear before some other constituents in the sentence. (1) “了 [le]” can appear before some other mood auxiliary words or before “没有 [méi yǒu] (no)” or “是不是 [shì bú shì]” in the positive-negative question. Example 167 你看见张老师了吗？[nǐ kàn jiàn Zhāng lǎo shī le ma?] (Did you see Prof. Zhang?) Example 168 上课了没有？[shàng kè le méi yǒu?] (Did the class start?) Example 169 这个孩子长高了是不是？[zhè gè hái zi zhǎng gāo le shì bú shì?] (The child has grown taller, hasn’t he?) “了 [le]” is only used to pose a question for subjects, predicates, objects, attributes, or complements, but not for adverbials. Example 170 今天几号了？[jīn tiān jǐ hào le?] (What date is it today?) (predicate) Example 171 刚才你说你买什么了？[gāng cái nǐ shuō nǐ mǎi shén me le?] (What did you say about what you had bought?) (object) Example 172 谁来了？[shuí lái le?] (Who’s coming?) (subject)

144 Auxiliary words Example 173 小李看了几本书了？[Xiǎo Lǐ kàn le jǐ běn shū le?] (How many books did Xiao Li read?) (attribute) Example 174 老王来了几天了？[Lǎo Wáng lái le jǐ tiān le?] (How many days has Lao Wang been here?) (complement) The next sentences are rhetorical questions rather than the questions for adverbials. Example 175 他什么时候来了？[tā shén me shí hòu lái le?] (When on earth did he come?) (He didn’t even come.) Example 176 我跟谁一起去了？[wǒ gēn shuí yì qǐ qù le?] (Whom on earth did I go with?) (I didn’t go at all.) “是 . . . 的 . . . [shì . . . de . . .]” is frequently used to pose a question for an adverbial. Example 177 他是什么时候来的？[tā shì shén me shí hòu lái de?] (When did he come?) Example 178 他是跟谁一起去的？[tā shì gēn shuí yì qǐ qù de?] (Whom did he go with?) If “了 [le]” appears in the question as an adverbial, the entire sentence confirms but does not doubt the mood that the speaker has for a certain situation, such as surprise or indifference, with the stress on the subject or object. Example 179 他什么时候来了！[tā shén me shí hòu lái le!] (And when did he come!) (surprise) Example 180 你怎么坐在这儿了！[nǐ zěn me zuò zài zhè er le!] (Why are you sitting here!) (surprise) (2) “了 [le]” can appear after the subject or object which is served by the predicate constituent. Example 181 老栓听见儿子不再说话了, 料他安心睡了。[Lǎo Shuān tīng jiàn ér zi bú zài shūo huà le, liào tā ān xīn shuì le.] (Not hearing any sound from his son, Lao Shuan thought his son went to sleep at ease.) (object) Example 182 病好了就好, 不然叫人多着急呀！[bìng hǎo le jiù hǎo, bù rán jiào rén duō zhāo jí ya!] (Glad to see that you have recovered. Otherwise, it would worry me very much!) (subject) (3) “了 [le]” can appear in the sentence consisting of two coordinating clauses or phrases, but it can only appear at the end of the sentence for once because it can semantically include two clauses (phrases) before it.

Auxiliary words 145 Example 183 我不头疼也不咳嗽了。[wǒ bù tóu téng yě bù ké sou le.] (I don’t have a headache or cough anymore.) Example 184 他上个月去上海, 后来又去广州了。[tā shàng gè yuè qù shàng hǎi, hòu lái yòu qù guǎng zhōu le.] (He went to Shanghai last month and then to Guangzhou.) If another “了 [le]” is added at the end of the first clause (phrase), the original sentence will be changed into two independent sentences. 3

Usage of two “了 [le]” in succession

If two “了 [le]” (a mood auxiliary word and a dynamic auxiliary word) appear in a sentence simultaneously, the mood auxiliary word “了 [le]” can semantically include the entire predicate, including the dynamic auxiliary word “了 [le].” Example 185 我做了功课了。[wǒ zuò le gōng kè le.] (I have finished my homework.) Example 186 他吃了三片药了。[tā chī le sān piàn yào le.] (He took three pills.) This type of sentence emphasizes the fact that the first action has been finished, purposely implying a certain view of the listener. Example 185 maybe implies Mom asked him to finish his homework before his playing; example 186 maybe implies that he is asked to take the medicine by someone else. More similar examples are as follows. Example 187 A: 听说小张没有女朋友, 我给他介绍一个吧。[tīng shuō Xiǎo Zhāng méi yǒu nǚ péng yǒu, wǒ gěi tā jiè shào yí gè ba.] (I overhear that Xiao Zhang doesn’t have a girlfriend. Let me set up someone with him.) B: 你别瞎操心了, 他有了女朋友！[nǐ bié xiā cāo xīn le, tā yǒu le nǚ péng yǒu!] (Don’t worry about it. He’s already got one!) Example 188 A: 明天下雨, 我劝你别去香山玩了。[míng tiān xià yǔ, wǒ quàn nǐ bié qù xiāng shān wán le.] (It will rain tomorrow. I advise you not to have a trip to Xiangshan.) B: 我听了天气预报了, 明天是好天儿, 你别骗我了。[wǒ tīng le tiān qì yù bào le, míng tiān shì hǎo tiān er, nǐ bié piàn wǒ le.] (I know that tomorrow is a good day from the weather forecast, so don’t try to fool me.) The following is a discussion on how to use one “了 [le]” or both “了 [le]” with a time-quantifier complement or numeral-quantifier complement.

146 Auxiliary words (1) “了 [le]’” (dynamic auxiliary word) with numeral-quantifier complement If only the dynamic auxiliary word “了 [le]” exists in the sentence, the numeralquantifier complement indicates the occurrence of an action. Example 189 我买了二十本书。[wǒ mǎi le èr shí běn shū.] (I bought twenty books.) Example 190 教室里来了十五个学生。[jiào shì lǐ lái le shí wǔ gè xué shēng.] (Fifteen students came to the classroom.) (2) When a time-quantifier complement follows “了 [le]” with a verb action as predicate, what it indicates depends on whether there is a successive sentence or not. Without the successive sentence, it indicates the duration of the action, and the entire sentence expresses that the action has been finished and won’t continue any more. Example 191 这本书我看了三天。[zhè běn shū wǒ kàn le sān tiān.] (I read the book for three days.) Example 192 今天我听了一下午报告。[jīn tiān wǒ tīng le yí xià wǔ bào gào.] (I spent a whole afternoon listening to a report.) Example 193 我在上海住了五年。[wǒ zài shàng hǎi zhù le wǔ nián.] (I have lived in Shanghai for five years.) With the successive sentence, the time-quantifier complement maybe indicates that the action will either continue or stop after the duration. Example 194 本书我看了三天才看完。[zhè běn shū wǒ kàn le sān tiān cái kàn wán.] (It took me three days to finish reading this book.) Example 195 这本书我看了三天, 才看了一半, 还得看三天来看完。 [zhè běn shū wǒ kàn le sān tiān, cái kàn le yí bàn, hái děi kàn sān tiān lái kàn wán.] (I read half of this book for three days, and it would take me another three days to finish it.) Example 196 今天我们听了一下午报告, 晚上没事了。[jīn tiān wǒ men tīng le yí xià wǔ bào gào, wǎn shàng méi shì le.] (Today we spent the whole afternoon in listening to this report, and we will be free at night.) Example 197 今天我们听了一下午报告, 明天还要接着听。[jīn tiān wǒ men tīng le yí xià wǔ bào gào, míng tiān hái yào jiē zhe tīng.] (Today we spent the whole afternoon in listening to this report, and we still have to continue it tomorrow.) If the predicate is served by the verb about “eating” or indicating an end, the time-quantifier complement shows how long the action has been finished.

Auxiliary words 147 Example 198 他吃了药不到一个小时就吐了。[tā chī le yào bú dào yí gè xiǎo shí jiù tù le.] (He vomited the medicine within an hour after taking it.) Example 199 他来了才三天。[tā lái le cái sān tiān.] (He came here three days ago.) (3) If two “了 [le]” appear with a time-quantifier complement or a numeralquantifier complement in the middle, the complement indicates quantity or duration that has been done; if there is no successive sentence, the entire sentence implies that the action will continue. Example 200 图书馆买了三十本字典了。[tú shū guǎn mǎi le sān shí běn zì diǎn le.] (The library bought thirty dictionaries.) Example 201 我们听了三天报告了。[wǒ men tīng le sān tiān bào gào le.] (We’ve been listening to the report for three days.) Example 202 阿里学了两年汉语了。[Ā Lǐ xué le liǎng nián hàn yǔ le.] (A Li has learned Chinese for two years.) In a certain context or the successive sentence, the complement may indicate the action that won’t go on anymore. Example 203 甲: 你等了多长时间了。[nǐ děng le duō cháng shí jiān le.] (How long have you been waiting?） 乙: 我等了你两个小时了。[wǒ děng le nǐ liǎng gè xiǎo shí le.] (I have been waiting for you for two hours.) Example 204 你到哪儿去了？我找了你半天了。[nǐ dào nǎ er qù le? wǒ zhǎo le nǐ bàn tiān le.] (Where have you been? I’ve been looking for you for a long time.) Example 205 这种书我买了一本了, 不再买了。[zhè zhǒng shū wǒ mǎi le yì běn le, bú zài mǎi le.] (I bought one book of this kind and don’t want more.) If the predicate verb implies an end, the entire sentence indicates quantity and duration that has been done till the time of speaking, but it doesn’t involve whether the action will continue or not. Example 206 我吃了药已经一个小时了。[wǒ chī le yào yǐ jīng yí gè xiǎo shí le.] (It’s been an hour since I took my medicine.) Example 207 今天他吃了三次药了。[jīn tiān tā chī le sān cì yào le.] (He took his medicine three times today.) Example 208 这个孩子打了五个杯子了。[zhè gè hái zi dǎ le wǔ gè bēi zi le.] (The child broke five cups.)

148 Auxiliary words When the mood auxiliary word “了 [le]” appears at the end of the sentence with the predicate verb followed by a numeral-quantifier complement or by an object modified by a numeral-quantifier phrase as attribute, the dynamic auxiliary word “了 [le]” is often required to appear after the verb. Example 209 他吃了两片药了。[tā chī le liǎng piàn yào le.] (He took two pills.) Example 210 他敲了三下门了。[tā qiāo le sān xià mén le.] (He knocked at the door three times.) Example 211 我来了一年了。[wǒ lái le yì nián le.] (I’ve been here for one year.) 4

Distinguishing meanings of sentences containing “了 [le]”

The sentence meaning may be ambiguous when “了 [le]” stands at the end of the sentence. Actually, it is not “了 [le]” but the verb that decides the meaning of the sentence. Generally, the sentence with an action verb indicates two meanings. (1) The action is going on and speaker tries to stop it. The verbs involved in this meaning are often action verbs. The stress is usually on “别 [bié].” Example 212 你已经喝得不少了, 别喝了！[nǐ yǐ jīng hē le bù shǎo le, bié hē le!] (You’ve been drinking a lot. Don’t drink anymore!) Example 213 别跑了, 停一停！[bié pǎo le, tíng yī ting!] (Stop running. Stop!) (2) The speaker tries to stop the action that happened once or will happen. The verbs involved in this meaning include not only action verbs but also those indicating the end of an action. The stress is usually on “别 [bié].” Example 214 你身体不好, 以后别喝酒了！[nǐ shēn tǐ bù hǎo, yǐ hòu bié hē jiǔ le!] (You’re not in good health. You’d better stop drinking!) Example 215 你今天不舒服, 别跑（步）了！[nǐ jīn tiān bù shū fu, bié pǎo (bù) le!] (Since you are not feeling well today, stop running!) (3) The speaker expresses a warning or a suggestion. The verbs involved in this meaning are those about “eating.” The stress is usually on predicate verb. Example 216 那酒有毒, 小心别叫人喝了！[nà jiǔ yǒu dú, xiǎo xīn bié jiào rén hē le!] (That wine is poisonous. Keep it away from people!) Example 217 那是个小偷, 别让他跑了！[nà shì gè xiǎo tōu, bié ràng tā pǎo le!] (That is a thief. Don’t let him get away!)

Auxiliary words 149 III. “着 [zhe]” as dynamic auxiliary word “着 [zhe]” indicates an action or a state that continues, which can be shown in the following situations. 1

“着 [zhe]” indicates a continuous action Example 218 东郭先生赶着驴, 在路上慢慢地走着。[Dōng guō xiān shēng gǎn zhe lǘ, zài lù shàng màn màn de zǒu zhe.] (Mr. Dongguo drove the donkey and walked slowly on the road.) Example 219 姐妹俩坐在山坡上愉快地唱着歌。[jiě mèi liǎ zuò zài shān pō shàng yú kuài de chàng zhe gē.] (Two sisters sat on the hillside and sang happily.) Example 220 一个白发苍苍的老头儿正在床上睡觉, 像雷一般地打着呼 噜。[yī gè bái fà cāng cāng de lǎo tóu er zhèng zài chuáng shàng shuì jiào, xiàng léi yì bān de dǎ zhe hū lū.] (A white-haired old man was sleeping in bed, snoring loudly.) Example 221 这些工厂都在谱写着“自力更生、艰苦奋斗”的颂歌。[zhè xiē gōng chǎng dōu zài pǔ xiě zhe “zì lì gēng shēng, jiān kǔ fèn dòu”de sòng gē.] (These factories are the struggle for “self-reliance and hard work.”)

2

“着 [zhe]” indicates a continuous action that can also be considered as a state Example 222 火车到了抚顺, 雷锋背着老大娘的包袱, 扶她下了车。[huǒ chē dào le fǔ shùn, Léi Fēng bèi zhe lǎo dà niáng de bāo fu, fú tā xià le chē.] (When the train arrived in Fushun, Lei Feng carried the baggage for the old lady and helped her get out of the train.) Example 223 天安门广场上, 耸立着一座人民英雄纪念碑。[tiān ān mén guǎng chǎng shàng, sǒng lì zhe yí zuò rén mín yīng xióng jì niàn bēi.] (On Tiananmen Square stands the Monument to the People’s Heroes.) Example 224 陈奶奶耳微聋, 脸上常浮泛着欢愉的笑容。[Xhén nǎi nǎi ěr wēi lóng, liǎn shàng cháng fú fàn zhe huān yú de xiào róng.] (Grandma Chen was slightly deaf and often had a happy smile on her face.) Example 225 西门豹弯着腰, 装作很恭敬的样子。[Xī Mén Bào wān zhe yāo, zhuāng zuò hěn gōng jìng de yàng zi.] (Xi Men Bao bent down and pretended to be very respectful.) Example 226 他突然发现山脚下有一间小房, 门口坐着个老奶奶。[tā tū rán fā xiàn shān jiǎo xià yǒu yī jiān xiǎo fáng, mén kǒu zuò zhe gè lǎo nǎi nǎi.] (Suddenly he found a small house at the foot of the mountain, with an old grandmother at the door.)

3

“着 [zhe]” shows that the recipient of an action is at a certain state Example 227 桌子上放着收音机。[zhuō zi shàng fàng zhe shōu yīn jī.] (There is a radio on the table.)

150 Auxiliary words Example 228 教室开着窗户, 里边坐着很多学生。[jiāo shì kāi zhe chuāng hù, lǐ biān zuò zhe hěn duō xué shēng.] (There are many students sitting in the classroom with windows open.) Example 229 他们都穿着新衣服。[tā men dōu chuān zhe xīn yī fu.] (They all wear new clothes.) Example 230 屋右一门通大奶奶的卧室, 门上挂着一条精细的绿纱帘。 [wū yòu yī mén tōng dà nǎi nǎi de wò shì, mén shàng guà zhe yī tiáo jīng xì de lǜ shā lián.] (A door on the right leads to the first wife’s bedroom, with a fine green curtain hanging from the door.) Example 231 碑座的上下四周, 雕刻着由牡丹花组成的八个大花圈。 [bēi zuò de shàng xià sì zhōu, diāo kè zhe yóu mǔ dān huā zǔ chéng de bā gè dà huā quān.] (Around the pedestal are eight large wreaths composed of peony flowers.) 4

Some non-action verbs connected with “着 [zhe]” can indicate a continuous state Example 232 第二天早饭后, 小吴和小张就在草堆附近等着。[dì èr tiān zǎo fàn hòu, Xiǎo Wú hé Xiǎo Zhāng jiù zài cǎo duī fù jìn děng zhe.] (The next day after the breakfast, Xiao Wu and Xiao Zhang waited near the haystack.) Example 233 鲁迅先生把密信和文稿珍藏着。[Lǔ Xùn xiān shēng bǎ mì xìn hé wén gǎo zhēn cáng zhe.] (Mr. Lu Xun treasured the secret letters and the manuscripts.) Example 234 为了教育子孙后代, 今天,那个地方还保留着一间旧席棚。 [wèi le jiào yù zǐ sūn hòu dài, jīn tiān, nà gè dì fang hái bǎo liú dòng yì jiān jiù xí péng.] (In order to educate future generations, an old bamboo shed has been still preserved in that place now.) Example 235 在你们身上寄托着中国与人类的希望。[zài nǐ men shēn shàng jì tuō zhe zhōng guó yǔ rén lèi de xī wàng.] (You are the hope of China and the people.) Example 236 姐姐突然发现妹妹光着一只脚。[jiě jie tū rán fā xiàn mèi mei guāng zhe yī zhī jiǎo.] (The sister suddenly found that the younger sister had a bare foot.)

5

Some adjectives connected with “着 [zhe]” can indicate a continuous state Example 237 屋里的灯还亮着 . . . [wū lǐ de dēng hái liàng zhe . . .] (The light in the room is still on.)

“Adjective+着 [zhe]” is not frequently used as an independent predicate, therefore the previous example doesn’t sound like a complete sentence. However, it is often used in the contrastive sentence and the compound sentence.

Auxiliary words 151 Example 238 东屋的灯亮着, 西屋的灯关了。[dōng wū de dēng liàng zhe, xī wū de dēng guān le.] (The light in the east room is on and the light in the west room is off.) Example 239 屋子里亮着灯, 孩子们正在灯下学习。[wū zi lǐ liàng zhe dēng, hái zi men zhèng zài dēng xià xué xí.] (The light in the room is still on and the children are learning under it.) 6

Usage of “着 [zhe]”

When “着 [zhe]” indicates a continuous state, its function is descriptive and it is mainly used in the following situations. (1) In the sentence with serial verbs, when “着 [zhe]” is used after the first verb, it indicates a certain state or manner that accompanies the action (the main one) conveyed by the second verb. Example 240 忽然, 天空暗了下来, 北风卷着大雪, 向草原扑来。[hū rán, tiān kōng àn le xià lái, běi fēng juǎn zhe dà xuě, xiàng cǎo yuán pū lái.] (Suddenly, the sky darkened and the north wind swept the snow towards the prairie.) Example 241 忽然, 海员们扶着一个老工人走过来。[hū rán, hǎi yuán men fú zhe yí gè lǎo gōng rén zǒu guò lái.] (Then, the seafarers supported an old worker with their hands and came towards here.) Example 242 欧阳海带着七班的战士走在最后边。[Ou yáng Hǎi dài zhe qī bān de zhàn shì zǒu zài zuì hòu biān.] (Ouyang Hai led the soldiers of the seventh team to walk in the back.) Example 243 我微笑着淡淡地说。[wǒ wēi xiào zhe dàn dàn de shuō.] (I said quietly with a smile.) Example 244 他拿着一张图片给我们仔细讲解, 非常清楚明白。[tā ná zhe yī zhāng tú piàn gěi wǒ men zǐ xì jiǎng jiě, fēi cháng qīng chǔ míng bai.] (He took out a picture and made a very clear explanation for us.) Usually, “the first verb+着 [zhe]” is regarded as an adverbial in some grammar books, due to its descriptive function. (2) When the second verb or verb phrase expresses reason or purpose, “着 [zhe]” after the first verb (adjective) also indicates a certain manner or state. “Verb (adjective)+着 [zhe]” is descriptive as well. Example 245 他闹着让我带他出去玩儿。[tā nào zhe ràng wǒ dài tā chū qù wán er.] (He badgered me into taking them out to play.) Example 246 老王急着赶火车, 饭也没吃就走了。[Lǎo Wáng jí zhe gǎn huǒ chē, fàn yě méi chī jiù zǒu le.]

152 Auxiliary words (Without eating anything, Lao Wang left in a hurry to catch the train.) Example 247 他们忙着布置房间。[tā men máng zhe bù zhì fáng jiān.] (They have been busy decorating the room.) (3) “着 [zhe]” is also descriptive in the existential sentence. It is the commonest usage of “着 [zhe].” Example 248 我的房间里墙上挂着一幅山水画, 桌子上摆着一瓶花, 书架上有很多书, 桌子旁边放着一张床, 床上铺着一条毛毯。[wǒ de fáng jiān lǐ qiáng shàng guà zhe yì fú shān shuǐ huà, zhuō zi shàng bǎi zhe yì píng huā, shū jià shàng yǒu hěn duō shū, zhuō zi páng biān fàng zhe yì zhāng chuáng, chuáng shàng pū zhe yì tiáo máo tǎn.] (In my room, there is a landscape painting on the wall, a bottle of flowers on the table, a lot of books on the bookcase, and a bed beside the table with a blanket on it.) Example 249 我住在一个小山村里。村东有一棵大槐树, 树下常常坐 着很多人。村后边有一座山, 山不高, 栽满了松树。村前有一条小河, 河上架着一座木桥, 桥头蹲着两个小石狮子。[wǒ zhù zài yí gè xiǎo shān cūn lǐ.cūn dōng yǒu yì kē dà huái shù, shù xià cháng cháng zuò zhe hěn duō rén. cūn hòu biān yǒu yí zuò shān, shān bù gāo, zāi mǎn le sōng shù. cūn qián yǒu yì tiáo xiǎo hé, hé shàng jià zhe yí zuò mù qiáo, qiáo tóu dūn zhe liǎng gè xiǎo shí shī zi.] (I live in a small mountain village with a big locust tree in the east. Under it many people often sit for a chat. Behind the village is a hill, not high but full of pine trees. A small river moves in front of the village, on which there is a wooden bridge with two little stone lions squatting at each end of the bridge.) Example 250 我们正在开会的时候, 从外边走进来一个女孩。她上身穿 着一件T恤衫, 下边穿着一条牛仔裤, 脚上穿着一双白色的旅游鞋, 头 上还戴着一顶草帽, 风尘仆仆的样子, 好像刚从远处来到这儿。[wǒ men zhèng zài kāi huì de shí hòu, cóng wài biān zǒu jìn lái yī gè nǚ hái. tā shàng shēn chuān zhe yī jiàn T xù shān, xià biān chuān zhe yī tiáo niú zǎi kù, jiǎo shàng chuān zhe yī shuāng bái sè de lǚ yóu xié, tóu shàng hái dài zhe yī dǐng cǎo mào, fēng chén pú pú de yàng zi, hǎo xiàng gāng cóng yuǎn chù lái dào zhè er.] (When we were having a meeting, a girl came in from the outside. She was wearing a T-shirt, a pair of jeans, a pair of white sneakers on her feet, and a straw hat on her head, as if she had just arrived from a distance.) Example 251 今天妹妹很早就起床了。吃过早饭, 她就打扮起来。我 走进她的房间时, 只见她头上戴着一朵红花, 胸前别一个耀眼的胸针, 手腕上戴着一串花花绿绿的手镯, 真是要多难看有多难看。[jīn tiān mèi mei hěn zǎo jiù qǐ chuáng le. chī guò zǎo fàn, tā jiù dǎ bàn qǐ lái. wǒ zǒu jìn tā de fáng jiān shí, zhǐ jiàn tā tóu shàng dài zhe yī duǒ hóng huā, xiōng qián bié yī gè yào yǎn de xiōng zhēn, shǒu wàn shàng dài zhe yī chuàn huā huā lǜ lǜ de shǒu zhuó, zhēn shì yào duō nán kàn yǒu duō nán kàn.] (My sister got up early today. After breakfast, she began to dress up. When I came into her room, I saw a red flower on her head, a dazzling brooch

Auxiliary words 153 on her chest, and a string of colorful bracelets on her wrist. What an ugly appearance!) (4) “着 [zhe]” means to keep a certain state in the imperative sentence. In this case, the word before “着 [zhe]” can be a verb as well as an adjective. Example 252 你先歇着, 我出去看看。[nǐ xiān xiē zhe, wǒ chū qù kàn kàn.] (You just take a break here and I’ll go out for a look.) Example 253 你叫他们在门房里等着去吧。[nǐ jiào tā men zài mén fáng lǐ děng zhe qù ba.] (You tell them to wait in the gate house.) Example 254 稳着点儿, 别慌！[wěn zhe diǎn er, bié huāng!] (Take it easy and don’t panic!) Example 255 伙计们 . . . 叫玉宝躲在门后看着。[huǒ jì men . . . jiào Yù bǎo duǒ zài mén hòu kàn zhe.] (Guys . . . tell Yubao to hide and watch behind the door.) Example 256 队长, 到城里想着看看老白。[duì zhǎng, dào chéng lǐ xiǎng zhe kàn kàn Lǎo Bái.] (Team leader, we’d like to visit Lao Bai when we are in the town.) (5) “着 [zhe]” describes a continuous action in the declarative sentence. Example 257 赵永进静静地听着, 一声也不响。[Zhào Yǒng jìn jìng jìng de tīng zhe, yì shēng yě bù xiǎng.] (Zhao Yongjin did not say a word and kept listening quietly.) Example 258 她的眼睛里闪动着泪花。[tā de yǎn jīng lǐ shǎn dòng zhe lèi huā.] (Her eyes sparkled with tears.) Example 259 他翻着地图, 望着河谷和高原, 觉得自己同时在看两份比 例悬殊的地图。[tā fān zhe dì tú, wàng zhe hé gǔ hé gāo yuán, jué de zì jǐ tóng shí zài kàn liǎng fèn bǐ lì xuán shū de dì tú.] (from “Northern Rivers” by Zhāng Chengzhi) (He examined the map, and then looked over the valley and plateau. He had a feeling that he was comparing two maps at the same time but out of proportion.) Especially in literary works, “着 [zhe]” is mainly used after a series of verbs to describe the background of the story. Due to this, “着 [zhe]” is seldom used in the spoken language or non-literary works. “着 [zhe]” is different from “在 [zài],” the former of which is descriptive and the latter of which is narrative. Example 260 一班在上课, 二班在进行课堂讨论。[yī bān zài shàng kè, èr bān zài jìn xíng kè táng tǎo lùn.] (Class One is having a class and Class Two is having a class discussion.) Example 261

154 Auxiliary words A: 小明做什么呢？[Xiǎo Míng zuò shén me ne?] (What is Xiao Ming doing now ?) B: 小明在打篮球。[Xiǎo Míng zài dǎ lán qiú.] (Xiao Ming is playing basketball.) (6) “着 [zhe]” used after the first one of two successive verbs indicates that the second action happens when the first action continues. Thus, “verb+着 [zhe]” can describe the background of an action but the verb in this usage is only confined to “说 [shuō] (say).” Example 262 玉荣着急地说: “放下我, 你快去追羊！”说着就从龙梅的 背上挣脱下来。[yù róng zhāo jí de shuō: “fàng xià wǒ, nǐ kuài qù zhuī yáng!” shuō zhe jiù cóng lóng méi de bèi shàng zhēng tuō xià lái.] (Yu Rong said anxiously, “Put me down and go after the sheep!” As he spoke, he got off Longmei’s back.) Example 263 (狼)说着, 就向东郭先生扑去。[(láng) shuō zhe, jiù xiàng Dōng guō xiān shēng pū qù.] (As the wolf spoke, it suddenly rushed at Mr. Dongguo.) (7) When “verb+着 [zhe]” is successively repeated twice, it indicates an ongoing action, and then the action stops because another action conveyed by a different verb in the following happens. Such usage carries a sense of unconsciousness. Example 264他说着说着哭了起来。[tā shuō zhe shuō zhe kū le qǐ lái.] (As he spoke, he began to cry.) Example 265 孩子哭着哭着睡着了。[hái zi kū zhe kū zhe shuì zháo le.] (The child fell asleep as he cried.) Example 266 老汉走着走着摔了一跤。[lǎo hàn zǒu zhe zǒu zhe shuāi le yì jiāo.] (The old man fell down as he was walking.) Example 267 有时想着想着, 我真恨不得 . . . 把你这两只巧手斫下来给 我接上。[yǒu shí xiǎng zhe xiǎng zhe, wǒ zhēn hèn bù dé . . . bǎ nǐ zhè liǎng zhī qiǎo shǒu zhuó xià lái gěi wǒ jiē shàng.] (Sometimes, I really can’t help wishing that I could do as well as you did.) Such usage also appears in a conversational situation. Example 268 你怎么说着说着就没正经起来了？[nǐ zěn me shuō zhe shuō zhe jiù méi zhèng jīng qǐ lái le?] (Why do you get more and more facetious as you speak?) Besides, some verbs, no matter if they are connected with “着 [zhe]” or not, will not change the sentence’s meaning. But, with “着 [zhe],” the entire sentence sounds more comfortable. Example 269 人民这个概念在不同的国家和各个国家的不同的历史时期, 有着不同的内容。[rén mín zhè gè gài niàn zài bù tóng de guó jiā hé gè gè guó jiā de bù tóng de lì shǐ shí qī, yǒu zhe bù tóng de nèi róng.]

Auxiliary words 155 (“People” as a concept means differently in different countries as well as different periods of each country.) Example 270 我们的会议包括六百多位代表, 代表着全中国所有的民 主党派、人民团体 . . . [wǒ men de huì yì bāo kuò liù bǎi duō wèi dài biǎo, dài biǎo zhe quán zhōng guó suǒ yǒu de mín zhǔ dǎng pài, rén mín tuán tǐ . . .] (More than 600 delegates attended the meeting, representing all the democratic parties and mass organizations of our country . . .) Example 271 他写了一篇充满着爱国主义热情的文章。[tā xiě le yì piān chōng mǎn zhe ài guó zhǔ yì rè qíng de wén zhāng.] (He wrote an article full of passionate patriotism.) 7

Structural features of the sentence containing “着 [zhe]”

(1) The verb connected with “着 [zhe]” only takes an object but not other dynamic auxiliary words nor complements. (2) “没 [méi] (no)” can be adopted to negate an action or a state and “着 [zhe]” still remains. Example 272 A: 怎么这么冷？窗户开着了吗？[zěn me zhè me lěng? chuāng hù kāi zhe le ma?] (Why is it so cold? Is the window open?) 窗户关上了, 没开着。[chuāng hù guān shàng le, méi kāi zhe.] (The window is closed. It’s not open.) Example 273 A: 你是在躺着吗？[nǐ shì zài tǎng zhe ma?] (Are you lying down?) B: 我没躺着, 坐着呢。[wǒ méi tǎng zhe, zuò zhe ne.] (I’m not lying down. Instead, I’m sitting.) Since the main function of “着 [zhe]” is descriptive in the positive sense, its negative form is rarely seen, except for inquiring an action conveyed by “着 [zhe]” in the conversational situation, just like two of the previous examples. 8

Others about “着 [zhe]” in use

(1) “着 [zhe]” can be suffixed after some words, such as “趁着 [chèn zhe] (while),” “沿着 [yán zhe] (along),” “顺着 [shùn zhe] (along),” “随着 [suí zhe] (with),” “朝着 [cháo zhe] (towards),” “向着 [xiàng zhe] (to),” “冒着 [mào zhe] (at risk of),” “为着 [wèi zhe] (for),” “怎么着 [zěn me zhe] (how),” “接着 [jiē zhe] (then).” (2) “着呢 [zhe ne]” is used after adjectives to indicate a high or even exaggerative degree, implying the speaker’s emotion or affection for the purpose of convincing the listener. It usually appears in the spoken language.

156 Auxiliary words Example 274 我们学校的校园大着呢。[wǒ men xué xiào de xiào yuán dà zhe ne.] (Our campus is very large.) Example 275 他的朋友多着呢。[tā de péng yǒu duō zhe ne.] (He has a lot of friends.) Example 276 今天的作业难着呢。[jīn tiān de zuò yè nán zhe ne.] (Today’s homework is very difficult.) Example 277 这个人坏着呢。[zhè gè rén huài zhe ne.] (This man is pretty bad.) IV. “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word 1

Grammatical meanings of “过 [guò]” “过 [guò]” indicates an action or a state that happened in the past and stops now. In other words, “过 [guò]” indicates “once.” Besides, the action or the state conveyed by “过 [guò]” relates to or influences what is going on or what is being discussed. In some grammar books, “过 [guò]” indicates experience. Example 278 A: 小李怎么没来？[Xiǎo Lǐ zěn me méi lái?] (Why didn’t Xiao Li come?) B: 我刚才找过他两次, 他都不在, 可能他不知道今天开会。[wǒ gāng cái zhǎo guò tā liǎng cì, tā dōu bú zài, kě néng tā bù zhī dào jīn tiān kāi huì.] (I’ve tried twice to find him but he’s not here. Maybe he had no idea about today’s meeting.) Example 279 A: 你们都去过上海和天津吗？[nǐ men dōu qù guò shàng hǎi hé tiān jīn ma?] (Have both of you been to Shanghai and Tianjin?) B: 天津我去过, 上海他去过。[tiān jīn wǒ qù guò, shàng hǎi tā qù guò.] (I have been to Tianjin and he has been to Shanghai.) Example 280 请你把这本书放在爸爸用过的书包里。[qǐng nǐ bǎ zhè běn shū fàng zài bà bà yòng guò de shū bāo lǐ.] (Please put this book into your father’s bag that he used.) “过 [guò]” can be used after adjectives. Example 281 两年来, 这个队的出工人数从来没像今天这么齐全过。 [liǎng nián lái, zhè gè duì de chū gōng rén shù cóng lái méi xiàng jīn tiān zhè me qí quán guò.] (In two years, the workers’ attendance has never been so perfect as it is today.) Example 282 这个孩子小时候胖过, 后来瘦下来了。[zhè gè hái zi xiǎo shí hòu pàng guò, hòu lái shòu xià lái le.] (He gained weight when he was a child, but later his weight decreased.)

Auxiliary words 157 2

Expressive function of “过 [guò]” Here comes a conversation between Xiao Li and Xiao Zhang. Example 283 A: 小李, 你去过香港吗？[Xiǎo Lǐ, nǐ qù guò xiāng gǎng ma?] (Xiao Li, have you ever been to Hong Kong?) B: 去过。什么事？[qù guò. shén me shì?] (Yes. Why?) A: 我星期日去香港, 需要带毛衣吗？[wǒ xīng qī rì qù xiāng gǎng, xū yào dài máo yī ma?] (I’m going to Hong Kong on Sunday. Do I need to take a sweater with me?) B: 不需要, 那儿已经热了。[bù xū yào, nà er yǐ jīng rè le.] (Not necessary. It’s already hot there.)

In this conversation, the real purpose of Xiao Zhang’s first question is to inquire about the weather of Hong Kong, which is introduced by “什么事 [shén me shì] (why)” from Xiao Li. If Xiao Zhang didn’t continue to ask Xiao Li the second question, Xiao Li would feel strange. Thus it can be seen that the clause with “过[guò]” cannot convey the final purpose alone. That is to say, there requires another sentence to realize it. Sometimes, such a sentence may not exist but the context helps in understanding. Example 284 A: 晚上一起去看“木兰”好吗？[wǎn shàng yì qǐ qù kàn “mù lán” hǎo ma?] (Would you like to see the movie “Mu Lan” with me at night?) B: 那个电影我看过。[nà gè diàn yǐng wǒ kàn guò.] (I’ve seen that before.) A: 哦, 那算了。[ò, nà suàn le.] (Oh, then forget it.) “我看过 [wǒ kàn guò] (I’ve seen that before.)” implies “我不看了 [wǒ bù kàn le] (I don’t want to watch it again.)” in this example. Thus it can be seen that “过 [guò]” is explanatory or the sentence with “过[guò]” often explains a reason. For example, “去过 [qù guò] (been)” is the reason for inquiring the weather of Hong Kong; “看过 [kàn guò] (have seen)” is the reason for not going to see the film again. Another similar conversation between the doctor and the patient is follows. Example 285 A: 哪儿不好？[nǎ er bù hǎo?] (What’s wrong with you?) B: 肚子坏了。[dù zi huài le.] (I have a stomach ache.)

158 Auxiliary words A: 你吃过什么不干净的东西吗？[nǐ chī guò shén me bù gān jìng de dōng xī ma?] (Did you eat anything unhygienic?) B: 早晨喝了一杯剩牛奶, 也没煮。[zǎo chén hē le yì bēi shèng niú nǎi, yě méi zhǔ.] (I had a glass of milk left but didn’t boil it in the morning.) A: 难怪。吃点儿药吧。[nán guài.chī diǎn er yào ba.] (That explains it. Take some medicine.) Sometimes, the explanatory function of “过 [guò]” is not as obvious as what is shown in the previous examples, which, however, doesn’t influence its existence. Example 286 他去过很多国家, 见多识广。[tā qù guò hěn duō guó jiā, jiàn duō shí guǎng.] (He has been to many countries so he has great experience.) Example 287 你可不要小看这所大学, 出过好几任总统呢。[nǐ kě bú yào xiǎo kàn zhè suǒ dà xué, chū guò hǎo jǐ rèn zǒng tǒng ne.] (Don’t look down upon this university from which several presidents graduated.) Example 288 多少年没有这么热过了, 今年的气候真反常。[duō shǎo nián méi yǒu zhè me rè guò le, jīn nián de qì hòu zhēn fǎn cháng.] (It hasn’t been so hot in years. The climate this year is really abnormal.) From these examples, a relation of cause and effect between two clauses exists indeed in a broad sense. 3

Structural features of the sentence containing “过 [guò]”

(1) “过 [guò]” can be connected with verbs of different types. “过 [guò]” can be connected with verbs of different types, including action verbs, state verbs, or some relation verbs, such as “是 [shì] (is),” “姓 [xìng] (surname),” 会 [huì] (be able to).” Example 289 你打高尔夫球吗？[nǐ dǎ gāo ěr fū qiú ma?] (Do you play golf?) Example 290 这儿摆过一瓶花, 不知谁拿走了。[zhè er bǎi guò yì píng huā, bù zhī shuí ná zǒu le.] (There was a bottle of flowers here. But I don’t know who took it away.) Example 291 他从来没有这么虚弱, 这么力不从心。[tā cóng lái méi yǒu zhè me xū ruò, zhè me lì bù cóng xīn.] (He has never been so weak and powerless.) Also “过 [guò]” can be connected with verb phrases. Example 292 昨天晚上姐姐回来过, 吃了点东西又走了。[zuó tiān wǎn shàng jiě jie huí lái guò, chī le diǎn dōng xī yòu zǒu le.] (My sister came back last night, and then left after eating something.)

Auxiliary words 159 Example 293 我从来没有这么打扮儿, 所以很不自在。[wǒ cóng lái méi yǒu zhè me dǎ bàn er, suǒ yǐ hěn bú zì zài.] (I’ve never dressed like this before, so I feel very uncomfortable.) Usually, adjectives, relation verbs or verb phrases used before “过 [guò]” are often in negative form. There are two types of verbs that cannot be connected with “过 [guò].” a

b

They are the verbs of single use. They indicate the action that happens just for once and then stops and won’t happen again. These verbs include “出生 [chū shēng] (born),” “死 [sǐ] (die),” “开幕 [kāi mù] (open),” “闭幕 [bì mù] (close),” “出发 [chū fā] (set out),” “到达 [dào dá] (arrive), etc. They are cognitive verbs. They actually indicate an unchangeable state, such as “认识 [rèn shí] (know),” “知道 [zhī dào] (know),” “了解 [liáo jiě] (understand),” “晓得 [xiǎo de] (know),” or “懂 [dǒng] (understand),” “明白 [míng bai] (understand).”

However, in the negative sentence, both of types can be connected with “过 [guò],” such as “他从来没毕业过。[tā cóng lái méi bì yè guò.] (He never graduated.)” or “我听这个老师讲课从来没懂过。[wǒ tīng zhè gè lǎo shī jiǎng kè cóng lái méi dǒng guò.] (I have never understood this teacher’s class.).” In daily life, “*他吃过饭 [tā chī guò fàn]” or “*我睡过觉 [wǒ shuì guò jiào]” doesn’t make any sense because eating or sleeping is repeated everyday. But “我 吃过龙虾。[wǒ chī guò lóng xia.] (I’ve tasted lobster.)” or “他一连睡过三天三 夜。[tā yì lián shuì guò sān tiān sān yè.] (He slept three days and three nights in a row.)” is acceptable. (2) “过 [guò]” can be connected with some time words. Indefinite time words often appear before “过 [guò],” such as “以前 [yǐ qián] (before),” “过去 [guò qù] (in the past),” “从前 [cóng qián] (formerly).” Example 294 这本书我以前看过, 不过都忘了。[zhè běn shū wǒ yǐ qián kàn guò, bú guò dōu wàng le.] (I’ve read this book before but forgot it all.) Example 295 过去他喜欢过你, 可是现在他喜欢别人了。[guò qù tā xǐ huān guò nǐ, kě shì xiàn zài tā xǐ huān bié rén le.] (He used to like you, but now he likes the other one.) If there is no time word, the time for the action is regarded as a certain indefinite time before the time of speaking. Example 296 他说过他得过博士一类的东西。[tā shuō guò tā dé guò bó shì yí lèi de dōng xī.] (He said he had a doctor’s degree or something.)

160 Auxiliary words Example 297 我还救过人命呢。[wǒ hái jiù guò rén mìng ne.] (I’ve saved people.) Example 298 你在这儿的时候, 我没陪过你, 以后你再来, 我一定找时 间陪你玩。[nǐ zài zhè er de shí hòu, wǒ méi péi guò nǐ, yǐ hòu nǐ zài lái, wǒ yí dìng zhǎo shí jiān péi nǐ wán.] (I couldn’t find time to accompany you when you were here. I promise next time I will be with you when you are here.) Sometimes, definite time words appear before “过 [guò].” Example 299 A: 我好久没见小李了, 他去哪儿了？[wǒ hǎo jiǔ méi jiàn xiǎo lǐ le, tā qù nǎ er le?] (I haven’t seen Xiao Li for a long time. Where has he been?) B: 他哪儿也没去, 刚才我在办公室还见过他。[tā nǎ er yě méi qù, gāng cái wǒ zài bàn gōng shì hái jiàn guò tā.] (He has been nowhere. I saw him in the office just now.) Example 300 A: 这儿是不是很久没有下雨了？[zhè er shì bú shì hěn jiǔ méi yǒu xià yǔ le?] (Has it not rained here for a long time?) B: 哪里, 前天还下过一场大雨。[nǎ lǐ, qián tiān hái xià guò yì chǎng dà yǔ.] (Yes, it did rain heavily the day before yesterday.) Example 301 A: 你怎么好像不爱理我？[nǐ zěn me hǎo xiàng bú ài lǐ wǒ?] (Why don’t you like to speak to me?) B: 我怎么不爱理你了？昨天我还给你打过电话, 你忘了？[wǒ zěn me bú ài lǐ nǐ le? zuó tiān wǒ hái gěi nǐ dǎ guò diàn huà, nǐ wàng le?] (What made you think so? I called you yesterday. Did you forget?) In these examples, the verbs before “过 [guò], ” such as “下(雨) [xià (yǔ)] (rain),” “打(电话) [dǎ (diàn huà)] (make a call)” indicate the known information. “verb+过 [guò]” is used to make the known information more convincing. 4

Comparison among “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word, “过[guò]” as result complement, and “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word

“了 [le]” indicates occurrence or appearance; “过 [guò]” indicates occurrence in the past. They are similar to some extent in meaning. “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word and “过 [guò]” as result complement are similar in meaning and form so it is necessary to distinguish them from each other.

Auxiliary words 161 (1) In the aspect of meaning “过 [guò]” as result complement indicates an action that finished or will be finished. Example 302 你昨天让我看的那本书, 我看过了, 很有意思。[nǐ zuó tiān ràng wǒ kàn de nà běn shū, wǒ kàn guò le, hěn yǒu yì si.] (I read the book you asked me to read yesterday. It’s very interesting.) Example 303 明天你吃过饭到我这儿来一趟。[míng tiān nǐ chī guò fàn dào wǒ zhè er lái yí tàng.] (Come and see me tomorrow after dinner.) In these examples, “过 [guò]” has a similar meaning to “了 [le]” as a dynamic auxiliary word. Besides, “了 [le]” indicates an action or a state that didn’t probably exist or still exists. Example 304 这个会已经开了三天了, 再有一天就结束了。[zhè gè huì yǐ jīng kāi le sān tiān le, zài yǒu yì tiān jiù jié shù le.] (The meeting has lasted for three days and will be over in another day.) Example 305 我学习中文学了两年了。[wǒ xué xí zhōng wén xué le liǎng nián le.] (I have learned Chinese for two years.) “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word indicates an action or a state that once happened or appeared, and won’t continue any more. Thus, it differs from “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word and “过 [guò]” as result complement. (2) In the aspect of pronunciation “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word should be slightly pronounced; “过 [guò]” as result complement can be pronounced either slightly or with stress. (3) In the aspect of structure a

“过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word cannot be followed by other auxiliary words; “过 [guò]” as result complement can be followed by “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word. Example 306 他昨天吃过了晚饭就来了, 可是你不在, 他只好走了。[tā zuó tiān chī guò le wǎn fàn jiù lái le, kě shì nǐ bú zài, tā zhǐ hǎo zǒu le.] (He came after dinner yesterday, but you weren’t here, so he left.)

However, the sentence containing “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word allows “了 [le]” as modal auxiliary to appear at the end of sentence.

162 Auxiliary words Example 307 A: 你看过“泰坦尼克号”吗？[nǐ kàn guò tài tǎn ní kè hào ma?] (Have you seen “Titanic?”) B: 看过三遍了。[kàn guò sān biàn le.] (I’ve seen it three times.) b

Comparatively speaking, “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word can be connected with a large number of verbs and “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word can be connected with a smaller number. “过 [guò]” as result complement can only be connected with action verbs. Next are the verbs that cannot be connected with “过 [guò]” as result complement.

b1 Non-action verbs. They include relation verbs, such as “是 [shì] (is),” “像 [xiàng] (like),” “成为 [chéng wéi] (become);” verbs indicating psychological state, such as “害怕 [hài pà] (fear),” “担心 [dān xīn] (worry),” “感动 [gǎn dòng] (touch);” verbs indicating attitude, such as “赞成 [zàn chéng] (support),” “同意 [tóng yì] (agree),” “尊 重 [zūn zhòng] (respect),” “怀疑 [huái yí] (suspect);” verbs indicating cognitive meaning, such as “认识 [rèn shi] (cognize),” “明白 [míng bai] (understand),” “懂 [dǒng] (know); and volitive auxiliaries. b2 Verbs indicating more than one concrete action They include “培养 [péi yǎng] (cultivate),” “依靠 [yī kào] (rely on),” “前进 [qián jìn] (forward),” “进行 [jìn xíng] (proceed),” “压迫 [ya pò] (oppress),” “侵 略 [qīn lüè] (aggress),” “教学 [jiào xué] (teach),” “变化 [biàn huà] (change),” “毕 业 [bì yè] (graduate),” “发生 [fā shēng] (happen),” “驾驶 [jià shǐ] (drive).” b3 Non-volitive auxiliaries They include “吐 [tǔ] (vomit),” “咳嗽 [ké sou] (cough),” “丢失 [diū shī] (lose),” “发现 [fā xiàn] (find),” “打雷 [dǎ léi] (thunder),” “上冻 [shàng dòng] (froze),” “塌 [tā] (collapse),” “出现 [chū xiàn] (appear),” “失火 [shī huǒ] (be on fire),” “漏 [lòu] (leak).” b4 Verbs in the written language They include “踏 [tà] (step),” “埋葬 [mái zàng] (bury),” “责备 [zé bèi] (blame).” (4) In the aspect of expression As what has been mentioned before, “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word is explanatory and “了 [le]” as dynamic auxiliary word is mainly narrative. Example 308 他默默注视了她一会儿, 退出了女宿舍。[tā mò mò zhù shì le tā yì huì er, tuì chū le nǚ sù shè.] (He watched her silently for a moment and stepped out of the girl’s dormitory.)

Auxiliary words 163 Example 309 晚饭后他去学校附近的商店买了一些日用品, 然后就去母 亲那里了。[wǎn fàn hòu tā qù xué xiào fù jìn de shāng diàn mǎi le yì xiē rì yòng pǐn, rán hòu jiù qù mǔ qīn nà lǐ le.] (After dinner, he went to the shop near the school and bought some daily necessities. After that, he went to his mother’s.) In these examples, “了 [le]” cannot be replaced with “过 [guò].” (5) In the aspect of usage a b

“过 [guò]” as result complement has special requirements of the context. “过 [guò]” as result complement can be followed by “了 [le];” “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word cannot be followed by “了 [le].” Example 310 这本书我看过了, 你拿走吧。[zhè běn shū wǒ kàn guò le, nǐ ná zǒu ba.] (I’ve finished this book. You can take it away.) Example 311 行李检查过了, 没问题。[xíng lǐ jiǎn chá guò le, méi wèn tí.] (The luggage has been checked. No problem with it.)

In these examples, “过 [guò]” can be pronounced either slightly or with stress. c

As a dynamic auxiliary word, “过 [guò]” often stands before an object, and in the middle of “过 [guò]” the verb before it can appear as a result complement or directional complement. Example 312 我吃过这种鱼。[wǒ chī guò zhè zhǒng yú.] (I have tasted this kind of fish.) *我吃这种鱼过。[wǒ chī zhè zhǒng yú guò.] Example 313 他说话从来没有这么清楚过。[tā shuō huà cóng lái méi yǒu zhè me qīng chǔ guò.] (He has never spoken so clearly like this.) Example 314 那本书我看见过, 好像在书架上。[nà běn shū wǒ kàn jiàn guò, hǎo xiàng zài shū jià shàng.] (I saw this book and it seemed to be on the shelf.)

“过 [guò]” as result complement doesn’t accept any other complement before or after it. d

“没(有) [méi (yǒu)] (no)” can be used to negate the verb before “过 [guò]” as dynamic auxiliary word and “过 [guò]” still remains. Example 315 解放后, 他找了二十多年, 没找到妹妹, 也没回过故乡。 [jiě fàng hòu, tā zhǎo le èr shí duō nián, méi zhǎo dào mèi mei, yě méi huí guò gù xiāng.]

164 Auxiliary words (After liberation, he looked for his younger sister for more than 20 years, but he neither found her nor came back to his hometown.) Example 316 我学过英语, 没学过法语。[wǒ xué guò yīng yǔ, méi xué guò fǎ yǔ.] (I have learned English, but not French.) However, when “过 [guò]” as result complement is negated, it should be omitted. Example 317 A: 老师前天叫我们看的电影我已经看过了, 你呢？[lǎo shī qián tiān jiào wǒ men kàn de diàn yǐng wǒ yǐ jīng kàn!le, nǐ ne?] (I’ve already seen the movie that the teacher told us to watch the day before yesterday. How about you?） B: 我还没看呢。[wǒ hái méi kàn ne.] (I haven’t seen it yet.) V. “来着 [lái zhe]” as dynamic auxiliary word “来着 [lái zhe]” indicates an action or a situation that happened not long ago. It only appears in the spoken language. 1

“来着 [lái zhe]” can be used at the end of the declarative sentence, indicating a certain thing that happened not long ago and is finished at the time of speaking. “来着 [lái zhe]” is just the subjective judgment of the speaker but actually it may differ from what it literally means. Example 318 我刚才去打电话来着, 没在宿舍。[wǒ gāng cái qù dǎ diàn huà lái zhe, méi zài sù shè.] (I went out for a call, so I was not in the dorm just now.) Example 319 上午小王找你来着, 你去哪儿了？[shàng wǔ Xiǎo Wáng zhǎo nǐ lái; nǐ qù nǎ er le?] (Xiao Wang came to see you this morning, and where did you go?) Example 320 昨天我上他家去来着, 没见着他。[zuó tiān wǒ shàng tā jiā qù lái zhe, méi jiàn zhe tā.] (I went to see him yesterday but he was not at home.) Example 321 他屋里的灯刚刚还亮来着, 怎么会没人？[tā wū lǐ de dēng gāng gāng hái liàng lái zhe, zěn me huì méi rén?] (The lights in his room were just on. How could there have been no one inside?)

In these examples, “来着 [lái zhe]” cannot be moved before the object, nor are numeral-quantifier phrases or verbs of overlapped form allowed to appear in the sentence. 2

“来着 [lái zhe]” can be used in the interrogative sentence, usually inquiring the action that happened not long ago.

Auxiliary words 165 Example 322 喂, 老师说什么来着？[wèi, lǎo shī shuō shén me lái zhe?] (Hey, what did the teacher say?) Example 323 你刚才说要上哪儿去来着？[nǐ gāng cái shuō yào shàng nǎ er qù lái zhe?] (Where did you say you were going to?) “来着 [lái zhe]” inquires the thing that the speaker once knew but cannot think of now; therefore, many things can be inquired with “来着 [lái zhe].” Example 324 这个人我见过, 他姓什么来着？[zhè gè rén wǒ jiàn guò, tā xìng shén me lái zhe?] (I met this man. What’s his last name?) Example 325 你昨天穿什么衣服来着, 我怎么想不起来了？[nǐ zuó tiān chuān shén me yī fu lái zhe, wǒ zěn me xiǎng bù qǐ lái le?] (What clothes did you wear yesterday? I can’t remember.) Example 326 小刘住哪儿来着, 是果子巷吗？[xiǎo liú zhù nǎ er lái zhe, shì guǒ zi xiàng ma?] (Where does Xiao Liu live? Guozi Lane?)

Section three: modal particles Modal particles can stand alone in the sentence or connect with intonation and other words of different properties to indicate various tones. Compared to other languages, such as Indo-European languages, modal particles belong to a special category in Chinese with the following features. 1 2

Modal particles usually stand at the end of sentence (clause). Two connected modal particles can form a syllable, such as “啦 [la] (了 [le]+啊 [a]),” “哪 [na] (呢 [ne]+啊 [a],” “喽 [lou] (了 [le]+哦 [ou]).” Modal particles are often pronounced slightly. The intonation of the sentence varies by the syllable before the modal particle and sometimes influences the modal particle itself more or less. Example 1 你去吗？[nǐ qù ma?] (Are you going?) (a rising tone) 你去吧！[nǐ qù ba!] (You go!) (a falling tone)

3

Tone is a very abstract and complex grammar phenomenon and a modal particle is just one means of expressing it. Generally speaking, a modal particle expresses the same tone in sentences of the same type and also keeps its inherent consistency among the sentences of different types. Therefore, tone functions of other constituents differ from what a modal particle expresses.

166 Auxiliary words “啊 [a],” “吗 [ma],” “吧 [ba],” “呢 [ne]” are main modal particles in Chinese and they mainly soothe the sentence tone. A slightly pronounced modal particle at the end of sentence makes the sentence itself longer in the aspects of rhythm and tone, and then the entire sentence naturally sounds comfortable. With minor differences in tone, modal particles can be used in sentences of different types, including the interrogative sentence, the imperative sentence, the exclamatory sentence, the declarative sentence, and their subtypes. Due to this, modal particles are characterized by their complex usage, which takes time and patience for foreign learners. At the preliminary stage, they are required to learn some modal particles unavoidable in daily expressions, such as “啊 [a],” “吗 [ma],” “吧 [ba],” and then leave others to the advanced stage. Next is the discussion on the main modal particles in Chinese. I. 啊 [a] “啊 [a]” can be used in sentences of various types and mainly soothes the tone of sentence. 1

In the interrogative question

(1) “啊 [a]” can be used in the yes-no question, which indicates the speaker’s doubt or surprise to a certain fact with the purpose of requesting the listener’s confirmation. The sentence of such type can be affirmative or negative as well. The logic stress of what is to confirm in the sentence is obvious; and “啊 [a]” can help soothe its tone. Example 2 明天你在大会上发言哪？[míng tiān nǐ zài dà huì shàng fā yán na?] (Do you speak at the conference tomorrow?) (surprised) Example 3 小刘不去上海呀？[Xiǎo Liú bú qù shàng hǎi ya?] (Xiao Liu doesn’t go/isn’t going to Shanghai?) (unexpected) Example 4 你说的是这本书哇？[nǐ shuō de shì zhè běn shū wa?] (Is this the book you’re talking about?) (unexpected) (2) “啊 [a]” can be used in the interrogative sentence of a particular reference with a rising tone at the end of sentence; and “啊 [a]” helps soothe its tone. Example 5 谁呀？[shuí ya?] (Who is it?) Example 6 咱们什么时候走哇？[zán men shén me shí hòu zǒu wa?] (When are we leaving?) Example 7 你怎么不高兴啦？[nǐ zěn me bù gāo xìng la?] (Why are you upset?) “啊 [a]” is also qualified for the rhetorical question as a clause. Example 8 车都开了, 还怎么去呀？[chē dōu kāi le, hái zěn me qù ya?] (How could we get there when the train left?)

Auxiliary words 167 Example 9 干嘛不说呀, 要是我就说。[gàn má bù shuō ya, yào shì wǒ jiù shuō.] (Why didn’t you speak out? If I were you, I would.) (3) “啊 [a]” can be used in the alternative question with a rising tone at the end of sentence; and “啊 [a]” helps soothe its tone. Example 10 咱们是看电影还是看话剧呀？[zán men shì kàn diàn yǐng hái shì kàn huà jù ya?] (Shall we watch a movie or a play?) Example 11 你到底来不来呀？[nǐ dào dǐ lái bù lái ya?] (Are you coming or not?) Example 12 快说, 你同意不同意呀？[kuài shuō, nǐ tóng yì bù tóng yì ya?] (Come on. Do you agree or disagree?) 2

In the imperative sentence

“啊 [a]” can be used in the imperative sentence, soothing the tone from mandatory to remindful. And then the intonation of sentence will fall. Example 13 细心点儿啊, 别看错了！[xì xīn diǎn er a, bié kàn cuò le!] (Be careful, don’t get it wrong!) Example 14 注意啊, 比赛马上开始了！[zhù yì a, bǐ sài mǎ shàng kāi shǐ le!] (Attention. The game is about to start!) Example 15 我不过开个玩笑, 别急呀！[wǒ bú guò kāi gè wán xiào, bié jí ya!] (I’m just kidding. Take it easy!) Example 16 明天你可早点来啊！[míng tiān nǐ kě zǎo diǎn lái a!] (You come early tomorrow!) Sometimes, a sense of urgency can make the intonation rise. Example 17 你怎么不吱声, 说呀！[nǐ zěn me bù zhī shēng, shuō ya!] (Why don’t you say anything? Speak!) 3

In the exclamatory sentence

“啊 [a]” can be used in the exclamatory sentence to indicate compliment, exclamation, or regret of the speaker with a rising tone at the end of sentence; and “啊 [a]” helps soothe the tone. Example 18 这是一个多么安静美好的夜晚啊！[zhè shì yí gè duō me ān jìng měi hǎo de yè wǎn a!] (What a quiet and wonderful night it is!) Example 19 时间多快呀, 转眼三年过去了！[shí jiān duō kuài ya, zhuǎn yǎn sān nián guò qù le!] (How time flies. Three years have gone!) Example 20 李先生, 我没有疯, 我没有疯啊！[Lǐ xiān shēng, wǒ méi yǒu fēng, wǒ méi yǒu fēng a!] (Mr. Li, I’m not crazy. I’m not crazy!)

168 Auxiliary words 4

In the declarative sentence

“啊 [a]” soothes the tone in the declarative sentence which indicates an explanation or reminder. The predicate before “啊 [a]” is usually stressed with a falling tone at the end of sentence. Example 21 这件事可马虎不得, 关系重大呀！[zhè jiàn shì kě mǎ hū bù dé, guān xì zhòng dà ya!] (You can’t be careless about it. It matters a lot!) Example 22 小明, 你可得努力呀, 不然要掉队了。[Xiǎo Míng, nǐ kě děi nǔ lì ya, bù rán yào diào duì le.] (Xiao Ming, you must work hard, or you’ll fall behind.) Example 23 他不是不负责任, 是能力差呀！[tā bú shì bú fù zé rèn, shì néng lì chà mò!] (He is not irresponsible, but incapable!) Also, “啊 [a]” can follow two identical or different successive verbs respectively, indicating the ongoing action(s) with a long duration. Example 24 走啊, 走啊, 走了大半夜, 才走了一半。[zǒu a, zǒu a, zǒu le dà bàn yè, cái zǒu le yí bàn.] (Walk on and on, but only half of the distance has been covered in one night.) Example 25 姑娘们聚在一起, 说呀, 笑呀, 闹个不停。[gū niáng men jù zài yì qǐ, shuō ya, xiào ya, nào gè bù tíng.] (These girls got together, talking and laughing) 5

Used as a pause in the middle of sentence “啊 [a]” soothes the tone as a pause in the middle of the sentence.

(1) “啊 [a]” is used to remind the listener or when the speaker is hesitant. Example 26 这件事啊, 你可不能马马虎虎。[zhè jiàn shì a, nǐ kě bù néng mǎ mǎ hū hū.] (You can’t be careless about this.) Example 27 今天你要是不来呀, 我可不答应。[jīn tiān nǐ yào shì bù lái ya, wǒ kě bù dā yìng.] (I won’t allow your absence today.) Example 28 我呀, 还没有考虑好呢。[wǒ ya, hái méi yǒu kǎo lǜ hǎo ne.] (I haven’t made the decision yet.) (2) “啊 [a]” is used in greeting with a falling tone and a soothing or friendly mood. Example 29 老张啊, 你来一下。[Lǎo Zhāng a, nǐ lái yí xià.] (Lao Zhang, come here, please.)

Auxiliary words 169 Example 30 同志啊, 邮局在哪儿？[tóng zhì a, yóu jú zài nǎ er?] (Excuse me, where is the post office?) Example 31 明明啊, 以后可要努力学习呀！[Míng Míng a, yǐ hòu kě yào nǔ lì xué xí ya!] (Ming Ming, you must have to study hard!) (3) “啊 [a]” can be used in the hypothetical sentence and the conditional sentence. Example 32 要是我呀, 就给他提意见。[yào shì wǒ ya, jiù gěi tā tí yì jiàn.] (If I were you, I would give him a piece of my advice.) Example 33 如果他不来呀, 你就去请他。[rú guǒ tā bù lái ya, nǐ jiù qù qǐng tā.] (If he doesn’t come, you go and invite him.) (4) “啊 [a]” is used in enumeration. Example 34 今年生产情况不错, 粮食啊, 棉花啊, 水果啊, 都获得了丰 收。[jīn nián shēng chǎn qíng kuàng bú cuò, liáng shi, mián huā a, shuǐ guǒ a, dōu huò dé le fēng shōu.] (The production is good this year. We have a good harvest of grain, cotton, and fruit.) Influenced by the last sound of previous syllable, “啊 [a]” varies in phonetic form. For instance: /i/, /u/, /a/, /e/, or /o/ can change “啊 [a]” into “呀 [ya].” /e/, /o/ can change “啊 [a]” into “呀 [ja].” /u/, /ao/, or /au/ can change “啊 [a]” into “哇 [wa].” /n/ can change “啊 [a]” into “哪 [na].” /ng/ can change “啊 [a]” into “啊 [ŋa].” /ʃ/ can change “啊 [a]” into “[za].” Sometimes, pronunciation of “啊 [a]” won’t vary by the phonetic environment. Particularly, “啊 [a]” should be pronounced “[a]” in the formal situation, such as delivering a recitation; in daily life, it is usually replaced with “呀 [ya].” II. 吗 [ma] 1

“吗 [ma]” indicates a doubt.

“吗 [ma]” stands at the end of a declarative sentence to form a yes-no question with a rising tone. Such a yes-no question can be affirmative. Example 35 你看见张老师了吗？[nǐ kàn jiàn Zhāng lǎo shī le ma?] (Did you see Prof. Zhang?) Example 36 明天你们去颐和园吗？[míng tiān nǐ men qù yí hé yuán ma?] (Are you going to the Summer Palace tomorrow?)

170 Auxiliary words Example 37 你们参观了车间, 就回学校了吗？[nǐ men can guān le chē jiān, jiù huí xué xiào le ma?] (Did you go back to school after visiting the workshop?) Such a yes-no question can also be negative with the implication of an affirmative answer. Example 38 你不认识老李吗？[nǐ bú rèn shi Lǎo Lǐ ma?] (Don’t you know Lao Li?) Example 39 他不会说汉语吗？[nǐ bú huì shūo hàn yǔ ma?] (Doesn’t he speak Chinese?) Also, “吗 [ma]” can be used in the rhetorical question, implying a question, blame, or expressing distinction when the negative adverb appears before the predicate verb. “难道 [nán dào] (could it be said that . . .)” or “岂 [qǐ] (how)” strengthens the tone of sentence further. For the rhetorical question with “吗 [ma],” its affirmative form means the negation; its negative form implies affirmation. Example 40 你这是帮助人的态度吗？[nǐ zhè shì bāng zhù rén de tài dù?] (Is this your right attitude to help others?) (blame) Example 41 这不是欺负人吗？[zhè bú shì qī fu rén ma?] (Aren’t you bullying people?) (question) Example 42 我这不是回来了吗, 还唠叨什么! [wǒ zhè bú shì huí lái le ma, hái lāo dāo shén me!] (I’m back now. What are you nagging about?) (defend) Example 43 你看, 这还像个学生吗？[nǐ kàn, zhè hái xiàng gè xué shēng ma?] (Look, is this what a student should do?) Example 44 我不是去过了吗！[wǒ bú shì qù guò le ma!] (I have been there, haven’t I!) Here comes the comparison between the yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” and the positive-negative question. Although both of them indicate a doubt, they differ in the aspects of semantic tendency, tone, and structure. Here, semantic tendency refers to preconception of the answer to a question. (1) They differ in semantic tendency. The speaker usually has a preconceived answer in the sentence with “吗 [ma];” such a preconception doesn’t often exist in the positive-negative question. The yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” indicates an affirmative or negative answer in preconception.

Auxiliary words 171 Example 45 有人吗？[yǒu rén ma?] (Is anyone inside?) Example 46 昨天我告诉你们的事还记得吗？[zuó tiān wǒ gào sù nǐ men de shì hái jì de ma?] (Do you still remember what I told you last night?) In these examples, the speakers definitely have the affirmative preconception. Example 47 这么晚了, 他还会来吗？[zhè me wǎn le, tā hái huì lái ma?] (Will he come at this late hour?] Example 48 你真的送我回家？[nǐ zhēn de sòng wǒ huí jiā?] (Is it really true that you will send me home?) Obviously, the speakers in the previous examples have the negative preconception. “吗 [ma]” in the yes-no question of negative form only implies an affirmative preconception. Example 49 走了这么久, 你不累吗？[zǒu le zhè me jiǔ, nǐ bú lèi ma?] (Aren’t you tired after such a long walk?) Example 50 明天的晚会你不参加吗？[míng tiān de wǎn huì nǐ bù cān jiā ma?] (Aren’t you going to the party tomorrow?) The yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” also implies a further confirmation from the known answer. Example 51 呃, 爸爸有一点觉得自己老了, 你知道么？[e, bà bà yǒu yī diǎn jué de zì jǐ lǎo le, nǐ zhī dào me.] (Em, you know? Dad feels he is a little old.) Example 52 张先生吗？[Zhāng xiān shēng ma?] (Is that Mr. Zhang speaking?) In greeting or social intercourse, semantic tendency is usually affirmative. Example 53 最近好吗？[zuì jìn hǎo ma?] (How are you doing?) Example 54 喝茶吗？[hē chá ma?] (Would you like drinking tea?) Besides, the yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” may imply the answer of no preconception. Example 55 你看, 我参加晚会穿这身衣服行吗？[nǐ kàn, wǒ cān jiā wǎn huì chuān zhè shēn yī fu xíng ma?] (Have a look at me. Does this dress look good on me for the party?)

172 Auxiliary words Example 56 你有钱吗？[nǐ yǒu qián ma?] (Do you have money?) In the positive-negative question, the speaker has no preconceived answer and hopes to get it from the listener. Example 57 有没有好消息？[yǒu méi yǒu hǎo xiāo xi?] (Is there any good news?) Example 58你到底还不还我钱？[nǐ dào dǐ huán bù huán wǒ qián?] (Do you pay me back or not?) Example 59 你同意不同意我的意见？[nǐ tóng yì bù tóng yì wǒ de yì jiàn?] (Do you agree or disagree with me?) Example 60 明天的考试你准备好了没有？[míng tiān de kǎo shì nǐ zhǔn bèi hǎo le méi yǒu?] (Are you ready for tomorrow’s exam?) Thus it can be seen that the answer with or without preconception helps make the distinction between the yes-no question and the positive-negative question. (2) The yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” and the positive-negative question differ in tone. Generally speaking, the former sounds more soothing than the latter. Example 61 你认识我吗？[nǐ rèn shi wǒ ma?] (Do you know me?) 你认识不认识我？[nǐ rèn shi bú rèn shi wǒ?] (Do you know me or not?) Example 62 你别这样对我好吗？[nǐ bié zhè yàng duì wǒ hǎo ma?] (Please don’t treat me like this, okay?) 你别这样对我好不好？[nǐ bié zhè yàng duì wǒ hǎo bù hǎo?] (Please don’t treat me like this. Is that okay?) Due to their different tones, “吗 [ma]” is usually used to pose a question, and a further confirmation is posed with a positive-negative question. Example 63 你听懂了吗？听懂了没有？[nǐ tīng dǒng le ma? tīng dǒng le méi yǒu?] (Do you understand? Do you?) Also, a positive-negative question can be used in an interrogative situation. Example 64 你说不说？不说我枪毙了你！[nǐ shuō bù shuō? bù shuō wǒ qiāng bì le nǐ!] (Will you tell me or not, if you don’t, I will shoot you!)

Auxiliary words 173 (3) The yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” and the positive-negative question differ in structure. Comparatively speaking, the yes-no question with “吗 [ma]” is less limited in structure; the positive-negative question conveyed by “verb+不/没 [bù/méi]” is very limited, especially for “verb+没有 [méi yǒu].” The predicate verb after an adverb, pronoun, or descriptive adverbial usually occurs in a yes-no question. Example 65 把这些东西都送给他吗？[bǎ zhè xiē dōng xi dōu sòng gěi tā ma?] (Give him all these things?) * 把这些东西都送给他不送？[bǎ zhè xiē dōng xi dōu sòng gěi tā bú sòng?] Example 66 他昨天又喝酒了吗？[tā zuó tiān yòu hē jiǔ le ma?] (Did he drink again yesterday?) *他昨天又喝酒没喝酒？ [tā zuó tiān yòu hē jiǔ méi hē jiǔ?] *他昨天又喝酒了没有？[tā zuó tiān yòu hē jiǔ le méi yǒu?] Example 67 他仔细检查了吗？[tā zǐ xì jiǎn chá le ma?] (Did he check it carefully?) 他仔细检查了没有？[tā zǐ xì jiǎn chá le méi yǒu?] (Did he check it carefully?) *他仔细检查没检查？[tā zǐ xì jiǎn chá méi jiǎn chá?] 2

“吗 [ma]” can be used after a pause in the sentence.

In order to cause the listener’s attention or further considering how to say something, the speaker purposely uses “吗 [ma]” to soothe the intonation. Such usage often appears in the hypothetical clause. Example 68 这个学期的工作吗, 主要有以下四个方面。[zhè gè xué qī de gōng zuò ma, zhǔ yào yǒu yǐ xià sì gè fāng miàn.] (The work in this semester mainly includes the following four aspects.) Example 69 你要问我的意见, 我不同意。[nǐ yào wèn wǒ de yì jiàn, wǒ bù tóng yì.] (If you ask me, I will say no.) Example 70 你要是不愿意去吗, 就让小李去吧。[nǐ yào shì bú yuàn yì qù ma, jiù ràng Xiǎo Lǐ qù ba.] (If you don’t want to go, let Xiao Li take your place.) Example 71 今天因为作业太多, 所以吗, 就没有复习课文。[jīn tiān yīn wèi zuò yè tài duō, suǒ yǐ ma, jiù méi yǒu fù xí kè wén.] (Since there is too much homework today, I don’t have time for the text review.) Example 72 这次活动参加吗, 不感兴趣, 不参加吗, 又怕大家对自己 有看法。[zhè cì huó dòng cān jiā ma, bù gǎn xìng qù, bù cān jiā ma, yòu pà dà jiā duì zì jǐ yǒu kàn fǎ.]

174 Auxiliary words (I’m not interested in the activity, so I don’t want to participate in it, but I don’t want to be misunderstood because of my absence.) III. 呢 [ne] 1

The main function of “呢 [ne]” is to soothe the tone.

(1) In the interrogative sentence a

“呢 [ne]” is used in the interrogative sentence with a particular reference, containing interrogative pronouns, such as “谁 [shuí] (who),” “什么 [shén me] (what),” “怎么样 [zěn me yàng] (how about),” “哪儿 [nǎ er] (where).” The sentence of such a type implies a sense of strangeness or puzzle, and “呢 [ne]” helps soothe the tone, mainly with a rising tone or sometimes a falling one at the end of sentence. The interrogative function of the entire sentence depends on those interrogative pronouns rather than the intonation. Example 73 这是怎么回事呢？[zhè shì zěn me huí shì ne?] (What’s going on here?) Example 74 小英啊, 部队明天就要走了, 咱们送给同志们些什么呢？ [Xiǎo Yīng a, bú duì míng tiān jiù yào zǒu le, zán men sòng gěi tóng zhì men xiē shén me ne?] (Xiao Ying, the troops are leaving tomorrow. What should we give to them?) Example 75 咦, 这就怪了！算得对呀, 怎么会错了呢？[yí, zhè jiù guài le! suàn de duì ya, zěn me huì cuò le ne?] (Emm, that doesn’t explain it! It should be right—how could it be wrong?) Example 76 十几年过去了, 五个孤儿成长得怎么样了呢？[shí jǐ nián guò qù le, wū gè gū ér zhǎng de zěn me yàng le ne?] (More than ten years passed and how are those five orphans now?)

The interrogative pronouns can be replaced by nouns (pronouns) in a certain context. Usually, “noun (pronoun)+呢 [ne]” poses a question for where a person or thing is. Example 77 还没走出洞口, 他就把我叫住了！[hái méi zǒu chū dòng kǒu, tā jiù bǎ wǒ jiào zhù le!] (He stopped me before I stepped out of the cave!) Example 78 办公的地方呢？[bàn gōng de dì fang ne?] (Where is the place for official affairs?) Example 79 妹妹, 你的靴子呢？[mèi mei, nǐ de xuē zi ne?] (Where are your boots, sister?) Example 80 小李呢？[Xiǎo Lǐ ne?] (Where’s Xiao Li?)

Auxiliary words 175 In this case, “呢 [ne]” possesses the interrogative function and requires the context that the speaker thinks the listener knows the answer to the question posed. “呢 [ne]” also soothes the tone of the rhetorical question. Example 81 他没到过北京, 怎么会去过天安门呢？[tā méi dào guò běi jīng, zěn me huì qù guò tiān an mén ne?] (He has never been to Beijing, let alone Tiananmen Square.) Example 82 为什么这个地方可以这样做, 别的地方就不可以这样做呢？ [wèi shén me zhè gè dì fang kě yǐ zhè yàng zuò, bié de dì fang jiù bù kě yǐ zhè yàng zuò ne?] (Why is it allowed here but not in other places?) Example 83 事已至此, 说这些又有什么用呢？[shì yǐ zhì cǐ, shuō zhè xiē yòu yǒu shén me yòng ne?] (What’s done is done. What’s the point of your words?) Example 84 你对人民犯了那么大的罪, 这样处理有什么不公道的呢？ [nǐ duì rén mín fàn le nà me dà de zuì, zhè yàng chŭ lǐ yǒu shén me bù gōng dào de ne?] (How couldn’t it be unfair to punish you in this way, considering the crime you had done to the people?) b

“呢 [ne]” is used at the end of the alternative sentence to make the intonation slower or lower, indicating discussion or consultation. Example 85 咱们是去颐和园呢, 还是去北海呢？[zán men shì qù yí hé yuán ne, hái shì qù běi hǎi ne?] (Shall we go to the Summer Palace or to the Beihai Park?) Example 86 今天晚上你去不去呢？[jīn tiān wǎn shàng nǐ qù bú qù ne?] (Would you like to go tonight, or wouldn’t you?) Example 87 我们可不可以在房间里头两个人或几个人谈谈心呢？[wǒ men kě bù kě yǐ zài fáng jiān lǐ tóu liǎng gè rén huò jǐ gè rén tán tán xīn ne?] (Can we, the two of us or more, have a heart-to-heart talk in the room?) Example 88 “怎么办, 我谈不谈呢?” 他自言自语地说。[“zěn me bàn, wǒ tán bù tán ne?” tā zì yán zì yǔ de shuō.] (“What should I do? Should I speak or not?” he asked himself.)

Sometimes, such a sentence can omit the predicate and only keeps the noun (pronoun) or noun phrase with “呢 [ne]” following. Also, “呢 [ne]” possesses the interrogative function in this situation. Example 89 明天一班去参观工艺展览, 二班呢？[míng tiān yī bān qù cān guān gōng yì zhǎn lǎn, èr bān ne?] (Class One will go to the art exhibition tomorrow, and how about Class Two?) Example 90 他开始不同意你的意见, 后来呢？[tā kāi shǐ bù tóng yì nǐ de yì jiàn, hòu lái ne?] (He disagreed with you at first, and how about it later?)

176 Auxiliary words No matter which type the interrogative sentence is, “呢 [ne]” definitely requires a certain context. Example 91 小李, 你去不去打球？[Xiǎo Lǐ, nǐ qù bú qù dǎ qiú?] (Xiao Li, would you like to go to play ball?) (a general question) 小李, 我想去打球, 你去不去呢？[Xiǎo Lǐ, wǒ xiǎng qù dǎ qiú, nǐ qù bú qù ne?] (Xiao Li, I want to play ball, do you want to go with me?) (“playing ball” as the context) Example 92 妹妹, 你的靴子哪儿去了？[mèi mei, nǐ de xuē zi nǎ er qù le?] (Where’s your boots, sister?) (a general question) 妹妹, 你的靴子呢？[mèi mei, nǐ de xuē zi ne?] (Where’s your boots, sister?) (“bare feet” as the context) There is one thing to be noticed. “呢 [ne]” indicating a continuous action in the interrogative sentence is different from “呢 [ne]” as a modal particle. Example 93 小刘, 你吃什么呢？[Xiǎo Liú, nǐ chī shén me ne?] (Xiao Liu, what are you eating?) (implying an action) 小刘, 他想吃面包, 你吃什么呢？[Xiǎo Liú, tā xiǎng chī miàn bāo, nǐ chī shén me ne?] (Xiao Liu, he wants bread. What would you like to eat?) (a modal particle) 小刘, 你不吃面包, 吃什么呢？[Xiǎo Liú, nǐ bù chī miàn bāo, chī shén me ne?] (Xiao Liu, if you don’t want bread, what else would you like to eat?) (a modal particle) “呢 [ne]” for a continuous action doesn’t need any context but “呢 [ne]” for a certain tone does. Besides, they decide where the sentence stress is. When the stress is only on the interrogative pronoun, “呢 [ne]” will indicate a continuous action; when “呢 [ne]” expresses a certain tone, the stress is sometimes on the interrogative pronoun or sometimes on the subject of sentence. (2) In the declarative sentence “呢 [ne]” can stand after the predicate performed by an adjective or verb, before which “可 [kě]” often appears. “可 [kě]+adjective/verb+呢 [ne]” means that the speaker wants to tell the listener a new situation or to remind the listener of something. The entire sentence carries an exaggerative sense with a rising tone. Example 94 天安门广场可大呢！[tiān ān mén guǎng chǎng kě dà ne!] (Tiananmen Square is so big!)

Auxiliary words 177 Example 95 孩子们听了这个消息, 可高兴呢！[hái zi men tīng le zhè gè xiāo xi, kě gāo xìng ne!] (The children were very glad to hear the news!) Example 96 这条街有五里长呢。[zhè tiáo jiē yǒu wǔ lǐ cháng ne.] (The avenue is five miles long.) Example 97 这个人可能睡呢。[zhè gè rén kě néng shuì ne.] (This person does really like sleeping.) Besides, “才 [cái]” or “还 [hái]” can be used before the head word of the predicate in the contrastive sentence with “呢 [ne],” emphasizing the aspect to be contrasted by stress. Example 98 我唱得不好, 你唱得才好呢。[wǒ chàng de bù hǎo, nǐ chàng de cái hǎo ne.] (I don’t sing well, and you do indeed.) Example 99 电影八点才开始呢, 现在去太早了。[diàn yǐng bā diǎn cái kāi shǐ ne, xiàn zài qù tài zǎo le.] (The movie starts at 8:00. It’s too early to go there now.) Example 100 我的手艺还没学好, 还要再学三年呢。[wǒ de shǒu yì hái méi xué hǎo, hái yào zài xué sān nián ne.] (My handcraft has not been well-trained yet and I’ll have to practice it for another three years.) Example 101 别怕, 有我呢。[bié pà, yǒu wǒ ne.] (Don’t be afraid. I will stay with you.) Example 102 这么好的房子, 我还从来没见过呢。[zhè me hǎo de fáng zi, wǒ hái cóng lái méi jiàn guò ne.] (What a nice room! I have never seen one like it before.) (3) After a pause a

“呢 [ne]” is used after subject to indicate “speaking of or as for” in enumeration with a rising tone at the end of sentence. “呢 [ne]” helps soothe the tone. Example 103 你走好了, 我呢, 你就不用管了。[nǐ zǒu hǎo le, wǒ ne, nǐ jiù bú yòng guǎn le.] (You just go and don’t worry about me.) Example 104 这几个孩子兴趣爱好各不相同, 姐姐爱好体育, 妹妹呢, 爱画画, 哥哥喜欢音乐, 小弟呢, 就知道玩。[zhè jǐ gè hái zi xìng qù ài hào gè bù xiāng tóng, jiě jie ài hào tǐ yù, mèi mei ne, ài huà huà, gē ge xǐ huān yīn yuè, xiǎo dì ne, jiù zhī dào wán.] (These children have various interests: the elder sister likes sports; the younger sister likes painting; the elder brother likes music and the little brother only likes playing.)

178 Auxiliary words b

“呢 [ne]” is used in the hypothetical sentence to indicate a second thought with a rising tone at the end of sentence. Example 105 我要是不同意呢,你怎么办? [wǒ yào shì bù tóng yì ne, nǐ zěn me bàn?] (How should you do, if I disagree?) Example 106 学一门外语,要学,就得坚持下去,如果没有时间呢,就干脆别 学。[xué yī mén wài yǔ, yào xué, jiù děi jiān chí xià qù, rú guǒ méi yǒu shí jiān ne, jiù gān cuì bié xué.] (You have to keep persistence in learning a foreign language; otherwise you can quit if you think you have no time for it.) Example 107 老李,都到时间了,小张要是不来呢,我们还等不等他? [Lǎo Lǐ, dōu dào shí jiān le, Xiǎo Zhāng yào shì bù lái ne, wǒ men hái děng bù děng tā?] (Lao Li, it is the time now. Should we wait for Xiao Zhang or not, if he won’t show up?)

c

“呢 [ne]” also soothes the tone of the sentence that indicates the speaker’s view or explanation. “呢 [ne]” helps soothe the tone. Example 108 他说他昨天晚上没来上课是因为头疼, 其实呢, 他是看电 影去了。[tā shuō tā zuó tiān wǎn shàng méi lái shàng kè shì yīn wèi tóu téng, qí shí ne, tā shì kàn diàn yǐng qù le.] (He said he didn’t come to class last night because of a headache. In fact, he went to the movies.) Example 109 这个人总爱说漂亮话, 实际上呢, 不做一点扎扎实实的工 作。[zhè gè rén zǒng ài shuō piào liàng huà, shí jì shàng ne, bú zuò yì diǎn zhā zhā shí shí de gōng zuò.] (He is really an empty talker. In fact, he doesn’t do any work in a down-toearth manner.) Example 110 这个人很谦逊, 总说自己工作做得少, 实际上呢, 他对我 们工厂的贡献可大了。[zhè gè rén hěn qiān xùn, zǒng shuō zì jǐ gōng zuò zuò de shǎo, shí jì shàng ne, tā duì wǒ men gōng chǎng de gòng xiàn kě dà le.] (This man is so humble that he always says he does nothing in work. In fact, he has made a great contribution to our factory.) Example 111 今天晚上我实在不能去, 一来呢, 我有点头疼, 二来呢, 还可能有人来找我。[jīn tiān wǎn shàng wǒ shí zài bù néng qù, yī lái ne, wǒ yǒu diǎn tóu téng, èr lái ne, hái kě néng yǒu rén lái zhǎo wǒ.] (I am really occupied tonight. On the one side, I have a headache; on the other side, someone may come to see me.)

To sum up, “呢 [ne]” soothes the tone of sentence and implies the speaker’s puzzle or attempt to make a further explanation for the listener. 2

“呢 [ne]” indicates an ongoing action.

Auxiliary words 179 Example: 112 A: 王小朋在吗？[Wáng Xiǎo péng zài ma?] (Can Wang Xiaopeng speak now?) B: 他上厕所呢。过一会儿再打吧。[tā shàng cè suǒ ne. guò yì huì er zài dǎ ba.] (He went to the bathroom. Call him later.) Example 113 A: 你出来一下可以吗？[nǐ chū lái yí xià kě yǐ ma?] (Is it convenient for you come out for a second?) B: 我正炒菜呢。什么事？[wǒ zhèng chǎo cài ne. shén me shì?] (I’m cooking. What’s up?) Example 114 你干什么呢？怎么屋子里黑着灯？[nǐ gàn shén me ne? zěn me wū zi lǐ hēi zhe dēng?] (What are you doing now? Why don’t you turn on the light?) “呢 [ne]” can be used with “在 [zài]” and the adverb “正 [zhèng]” together to indicate what is going on. Example 115 他进来的时候, 我正在听录音呢。[tā jìn lái de shí hòu, wǒ zhèng zài tīng lù yīn ne.] (I was listening to the tape when he came in.) Example 116 早上我正睡觉呢, 突然电话铃响了, 把我吓了一跳。[zǎo shàng wǒ zhèng shuì jiào ne, tū rán diàn huà líng xiǎng le, bǎ wǒ xià le yí tiào.] (I was startled by a sudden call when I was sleeping in the morning.) Generally speaking, “呢 [ne]” only appears after action verb when it indicates an ongoing action. IV. 吧 [ba] The main function of “吧 [ba]” is to soothe the tone of sentence. 1

In the interrogative sentence

(1) “吧 [ba]” is used at the end of the yes-no question with a rising tone which mainly reflects the interrogative function. “吧 [ba]” helps soothe the degree of interrogation. Compared to “吗 [ma],” “吧 [ba]” doesn’t simply indicate a question but obviously implies a tone of guessing or even a tendency of a relatively decided answer. Thus, some adverbs, such as “可能 [kě néng] (maybe),” “也许 [yě xǔ] (perhaps),” “大概 [dà gài] (probably),” “一定 [yī dìng] (certain), and so on often appear in the sentence. However, it cannot be used with “吗 [ma].” Example 117 参加招待会的人一定很多吧？[cān jiā zhāo dài huì de rén yí dìng hěn duō ba?]

180 Auxiliary words (There must be a lot of people at the reception, right?) 参加招待会的人很多吗？[cān jiā zhāo dài huì de rén hěn duō ma?] (Are there a lot of people at the reception?) Comparatively speaking, the first of these examples conveys a more affirmative answer. Example 118 小陈, 现在你该明白, 这红色的灯标是用什么点燃的了 吧？[Xiǎo Chén, xiàn zài nǐ gāi míng bai, zhè hóng sè de dēng biāo shì yòng shén me diǎn rán de le ba?] (Xiao Chen, now can you understand how this red light beacon was lit?) Example 119 这座楼可能是你们的宿舍吧？[zhè zuò lóu kě néng shì nǐ men de sù shè ba?] (This building must be your dorm building, isn’t it?) Sometimes, “吧 [ba]” seems to reflect an interrogative tone but an actual affirmative statement, which is, more or less, soothed by “吧 [ba].” Example 120 “善有善报, 恶有恶报”, 这句话我过去跟你说过吧, 但你 就是不相信。[“shàn yǒu shàn bào, è yǒu è bào,”zhè jù huà wǒ guò qù gēn nǐ shuō guò ba, dàn nǐ jiù shì bù xiāng xìn.] (“Good and evil at least have their own rewards.” That is what I used to tell you, but you don’t believe it.) Example 121 这点道理, 你不会不懂吧？[zhè diǎn dào lǐ, nǐ bú huì bù dǒng ba?] (Can’t you know such a thing better?) (2) “吧 [ba]” can be used at the end of the alternative sentence or the interrogative sentence of a particular reference. Without “吧 [ba],” the entire sentence implies a tone of discussion between the speaker and the listener; with “吧 [ba],” it leaves the final decision to the listener. Example 122 你说咱们该怎么办吧？[nǐ shuō zán men gāi zěn me bàn ba?] (What do you think we should do?) 你说咱们该怎么办？ [nǐ shuō zán men gāi zěn me bàn?] (Tell me, what should we do?) (Discuss) Example 123 你快说, 到底买什么吧？[nǐ kuài shuō, dào dǐ mǎi shén me ba?] (You’re gonna say, what exactly should we buy?) 你快说, 到底买什么？[nǐ kuài shuō, dào dǐ mǎi shén me?] (Tell me, come on. What should I buy?) Sometimes, “吧 [ba]” makes the sentence carry a sense of dissatisfaction towards the behaviors of the other side. Example 124 大家快发表意见, 看这个方案行不行吧？不要再磨时间 了。[dà jiā kuài fā biǎo yì jiàn, kàn zhè gè fāng àn xíng bù xíng ba? bú yào zài mó shí jiān le.]

Auxiliary words 181 (Come on, let’s discuss whether this plan is practical or not. Don’t waste time anymore.) Example 125 你这个人, 今天到底走不走吧？[nǐ zhè gè rén, jīn tiān dào dǐ zǒu bù zǒu ba?] (Are you leaving or not today?) The sentence of such type takes the subject preformed by the second personal pronoun with a rising tone. 2

In the imperative sentence

The imperative sentence indicates request, order, urge, persuasion and “吧 [ba]” helps soothe the tone. (1) When the sentence contains “吧 [ba]” to indicate request, it takes a falling tone and some typical words, such as “请 [qǐng] (please),” “让 [ràng] (make)” or “叫 [jiào] (make).” Example 126 小李, 给我一张票吧！[Xiǎo Lǐ, gěi wǒ yì zhāng piào ba!] (Xiao Li, give me a ticket!) Example 127 老师, 让我去吧！[lǎo shī, ràng wǒ qù ba!] (Teacher, please let me go!) Example 128 请大家帮帮忙吧！[qǐng dà jiā bāng bāng máng ba!] (Help me, everyone, please!) Example 129 爸爸, 您就答应了吧！[bà ba, nín jiù dā yìng le ba!] (Dad, please promise me!) (2) With the same word order of the declarative sentence, the typical imperative sentence takes no modal particle nor dynamic auxiliary word or complement after the predicate verb, with a falling and brief tone. Example 130 走！[zǒu!] (Let’s go!) Example 131 坐下！[zuò xià!] (Sit down!) Example 132 你们都出去！[nǐ men dōu chū qù!] (You all get out!) If “吧 [ba]” is added to these examples, the sentences will sound more soothing with a falling tone, carrying a sense of persuasion. Similar examples are as follows. Example 133 你走吧！[nǐ zǒu ba!] (You go, please!) Example 134 把东西拿出来让大家看看吧！[bǎ dōng xi ná chū lái ràng dà jiā kàn kàn ba!]

182 Auxiliary words (Take it out and show it to everyone here, please!) Example 135 快说吧！[kuài shuō ba!] (Come on, speak up, please!) Example 136 你好好听听大家的意见吧！[nǐ hǎo hǎo tīng tīng dà jiā de yì jiàn ba!] (You’d better listen to others’ opinions!) 3

In a declarative sentence

The declarative sentence containing “吧 [ba]” often indicates a certain opinion or request with a falling tone. Example 137 行, 就这样吧。[xíng, jiù zhè yàng ba.] (O.K., that’s it.) Example 138 好, 明天出发吧。[hǎo, míng tiān chū fā ba.] (O.K., let’s go tomorrow.) Sometimes, the declarative sentence containing “吧 [ba] implies a sense of unwillingness or helplessness. Example 139 既然你说非我去不可, 那我就去吧。[jì rán nǐ shuō fēi wǒ qù bù kě, nà wǒ jiù qù ba.] (Since you say I have to go, I’ll go.) Example 140 算了, 丢就丢了吧。[suàn le, diū jiù diū le ba.] (Forget it. Let it be.) Also, “吧 [ba]” can appear after some words, such as “好 [hǎo] (O.K.),” “可以 [kě yǐ] (O.K.),” “行 [xíng] (O.K.),” functioning as a reply to indicate agreement. Example 141 好吧, 咱们现在就去。[hǎo ba, zán men xiàn zài jiù qù.] (All right, let’s go now.) Example 142 行吧, 明天我来。[xíng ba, míng tiān wǒ lái.] (All right, I’ll come tomorrow.) Example 143 可以吧, 支援你们一个班！[kě yǐ ba, zhī yuán nǐ men yí gè bān!] (You see how supportive we are, only of your class!) 4

After a pause

(1) “吧 [ba]” is used to indicate enumeration. Example 144 就拿英语来说吧, 不下苦功夫是学不好的。[jiù ná yīng yǔ lái shuō ba, bú xià kǔ gōng fu shì xué bù hǎo de.] (Take English for example, only by working hard can we learn it well.)

Auxiliary words 183 Example 145 譬如喝茶吧, 我们这位内兄最懂得喝茶, 最讲究喝茶。[pì rú hē chá ba, wǒ men zhè wèi nèi xiōng zuì dǒng dé hē chá, zuì jiǎng jiū hē chá.] (Speaking of drinking tea, our brother-in-law makes good tea and is very particular about tea-making.) (2) “吧 [ba]” is used in the hypothetical sentence of alternation with a rising tone, implying a sense of dilemma. Example 146 去吧, 得花很多时间。不去吧, 又不太礼貌。[qù ba, děi huā hěn duō shí jiān bú qù ba, yòu bú tài lǐ mào.] (It takes time if we go. But it would be impolite if we don’t go.) Example 147 今天晚上看书吧, 头疼。不看吧, 明天又要考试。[jīn tiān wǎn shàng kàn shū ba, tóu téng bú kàn ba, míng tiān yòu yào kǎo shì.] (I would get a headache with a lesson review at night, but how could I deal with tomorrow’s exam if I don’t do it?) Example 148 这本书你说不好吧, 它有很多读者；你说好吧, 读后又没 有什么收获。[zhè běn shū nǐ shuō bù hǎo, tā yǒu hěn duō dú zhě；nǐ shuō hǎo!, dú hòu yòu méi yǒu shén me shōu huò.] (It does have a lot of readers if you say this book is not good; but it does not benefit you much after reading, if you say it is good.) (3) “吧 [ba]” is used at the end of a clause and the entire sentence indicates a sense of indifference with a falling tone. Example 149 去就去吧, 反正我也不发言。[qù jiù qù ba, fǎn zhèng wǒ yě bù fā yán.] (I don’t care about going, anyway, I won’t speak.) Example 150 他不愿意去就不去吧, 不必勉强他了。[tā bú yuàn yì qù jiù bú qù ba, bú bì miǎn qiáng tā le.] (If he doesn’t want to go, let him be.) Example 151 你说行就行吧, 我没有什么意见。[nǐ shuō xíng jiù xíng ba, wǒ méi yǒu shén me yì jiàn.] (If you say it is O.K., I’ll say O.K., too.) Example 152 丢了就丢了吧, 再买一个就是了。[diū le jiù diū le ba, zài mǎi yī gè jiù shì le.] (Let it be. Buy another one.) V. 的 [de] “的 [de]” is used at the end of the declarative sentence to reinforce the tone. Usually, “是 [shì]” also appears before predicate in the sentence. Example 153 放心吧, 你的病会好的。[fàng xīn ba, nǐ de bìng huì hǎo de.] (Don’t worry, you’ll recover.)

184 Auxiliary words Example 154 他一定会回来的。[tā yí dìng huì huí lái de.] (He’ll be back for sure.) Example 155 我是同意你的意见的。[wǒ shì tóng yì nǐ de yì jiàn de.] (I do agree with your suggestion.) VI. 了 [le] Although “了 [le]” doesn’t mainly express a tone, it remains, more or less, its own expressive function. “了 [le]” can be put after a pause and used in the sentence to indicate random enumeration. Without “了 [le],” the sentence will lose most of its original meaning. Example 156 约翰来中国以后看了不少电影, 什么 “好事多磨” 了, “不 见不散” 了, “没事偷着乐” 了, 他都看了。[Yuē hàn lái zhōng guó yǐ hòu kàn le bù shǎo diàn yǐng, shén me “hǎo shì duō mó”le, “bú jiàn bú sàn” le, “méi shì tōu zhe lè” le, tā dōu kàn le.] (After John came to China, he saw a lot of movies, such as Date Night, Be There and Be Square and Be Happy for Nothing.) Example 157 小赵很喜欢体育, 打球了, 游泳了, 他都擅长。[xiǎo zhào hěn xǐ huān tǐ yù, dǎ qiú le, yóu yǒng le, tā dōu shàn cháng.] (Xiao Zhao is very fond of sports, and he is good at playing basketball and swimming.) Such a sentence mainly takes coordinating words. VII. 罢了 [bà le] (that’s all), 而已 [ér yǐ] (that’s all) “罢了 [bà le] (that’s all)” or “而已 [ér yǐ] (that’s all)” at the end of the declarative sentence often decreases the degree of what is mentioned, in order to show modesty, contempt, or consolation. Thus, the sentence often takes “不过 [bú guò] (just),” “只是 [zhǐ shì] (only),” “无非 [wú fēi] (only)” with a falling tone. Example 158 这个孩子没有什么大病, 不过着点凉罢了。[zhè gè hái zi méi yǒu shén me dà bìng, bú guò zháo diǎn liáng bà le.] (The child was not seriously ill, but only got a little cold.) Example 159 我不过说说罢了, 你何必当真！[wǒ bú guò shuō shuō bà le, nǐ hé bì dāng zhēn!] (I’m just complaining, that’s all. Why do you take it seriously?) Example 160 他无非会写几句诗罢了, 算不上什么作家。[tā wú fēi huì xiě jǐ jù shī bà le, suàn bú shàng shén me zuò jiā.] (He has only written a few poems, which cannot prove him as a writer.) Example 161 吃一顿饭（不过）三千块而已, 小意思！[chī yī dùn fàn bú guò sān qiān kuài ér yǐ, xiǎo yì si!] (It only costs three thousand yuan for a meal. It’s not a big deal!)

Auxiliary words 185 Example 162 （无非）跳跳舞而已, 别那么紧张！[(wú fēi) tiào tiào wǔ ér yǐ, bié nà me jǐn zhāng!] (Just a dance, and don’t be so nervous!) Comparatively speaking, “罢了 [bà le] (that’s all)” is more popular than “而已 [ér yǐ] (that’s all)” in the spoken language. And “而已 [ér yǐ] (that’s all)” is commonly used by Taiwanese. VIII. 嘛 [ma] “嘛 [ma]” is sometimes written into “吗 [ma].” It is used at the end of the declarative sentence to indicate “it should be” or “it is obvious” for the speaker with a falling tone. Example 163 A: 小英, 你为什么还不走？[Xiǎo Yīng, nǐ wèi shén me hái bù zǒu?] (Xiao Ying, why aren’t you leaving yet?) B: 我不愿意走嘛！[wǒ bú yuàn yì zǒu ma!] (I don’t want to go!) Example 164 这是老张的错, 事情很清楚嘛。[zhè shì lLǎo Zhāng de cuò, shì qing hěn qīng chǔ ma.] (Obviously, this is the fault of Lao Li.) Example 165 行行出状元嘛。[háng háng chū zhuàng yuán ma.] (Every trade has its master.) Example 166 还愣着干什么？走嘛！[hái lèng zhe gàn shén me? zǒu ma!] (What are you waiting for? Let’s go!) IX. 呗 [bei] “呗 [bei]” is used at the end of the declarative sentence to indicate “needless to say” or “the reason is simple” with a rising tone. Comparatively speaking, “嘛 [ma]” sounds more formal; “呗 [bei]” implies the speaker’s scorn or dissatisfaction. Besides, “呗 [bei]” sounds not polite enough. Example 167 这回考得不好没关系, 以后努力呗！[zhè huí kǎo de bù hǎo méi guān xi, yǐ hòu nǔ lì bei!] (Take it easy for your failure in the exam this time. Work hard in the future!) Example 168 你怎么来的？[nǐ zěn me lái de?] (How did you get here?) 走来的呗, 这儿又没车。[zǒu lái de bei, zhè er yòu méi chē.] (On foot, since there’s no car.) Example 169 你要去就去呗, 跟我有什么关系！[nǐ yào qù jiù qù bēi, gēn wǒ yǒu shén me guān xi!] (Whether you go or not has nothing to do with me!)

186 Auxiliary words

Notes 1 Some of them also belong to action verbs at the same time and “了 [le]” after these verbs doesn’t indicate the result. For example, in the sentence “你把药吃了再睡 [nǐ bǎ yào chī le zài shuì.] (go to bed after taking your medicine.),” “吃 [chī] (take)” is a momentary verb; in the sentence “这顿饭整整吃了两个小时。[zhè dùn fàn zhěng zhěng chī le liǎng gè xiǎo shí.] (It has taken two hours to finish this meal.),” “吃 [chī] (take)” is an action verb. 2 “上 [shàng], 下 [xià], 进 [jìn], 出 [chū], 回 [huí], 过 [guò], 起 [qǐ]” are included here. (See Chapter 5, Section two, Part II, vol. 3). 3 你昨天吃药、打针了吗？[nǐ zuó tiān chī yào, dǎ zhēn le ma?] (Did you take your medicine and get an injection yesterday?) Here, “吗 [ma]” is used to include“吃药了 [chī yào le] (taking medicine)” and “打针了 [dǎ zhēn le] (getting an injection)”. 昨天晚 上在舞会上你没看见我的女朋友和她妹妹吧？[zuó tiān wǎn shàng zài wǔ huì shàng nǐ méi kàn jiàn wǒ de nǚ péng yǒu hé tā mèi mèi ba?] (You didn’t see my girlfriend and her sister at the dance last night, did you?) Here “吧 [ba]” is used to include “没看见我 的女朋友 [méi kàn jiàn wǒ de nǚ péng yǒu] (didn’t my girlfriend)” and “没看见她妹妹 [méi kàn jiàn tā mèi mèi] (didn’t see her sister).” 4 If an adverbial appears before the verb, such as “他大喊一声: “站住！“[tā dà hǎn yī shēng: “zhàn zhù !”] (He shouted loudly: “Stop!”), “了 [le]” can be omitted here.

References Chen Ping. 1988. On Ternary Structure of Temporal System in Modern Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 6th Issue. Chu Chengzhi. 1994. On Modal Meanings of Modal Particles—Taking “啊” as an Example. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 4th Issue. Dai Yaojing. 1991. The Semantic Analysis of Dynamic Particle “者” in Modern Chinese. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 2nd Issue. Deng Shouxin. 1985. Temporal Structure of Chinese Verbs. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 4th Issue. Guo Rui. 1997. Process and Non-process: Two External Time Types of Predicative Constituents in Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 3rd Issue. Jin Lixin. 1998. Discussion on Tense and Aspect Characteristics of “了.” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1st Issue. Kong Lingda. 1986. On Dynamic Auxiliary Words “过1”and “过2.” Studies of the Chinese Language, 4th Issue. Li Tiegen. 1990. On “了” in the Phrase: “Verb+了” Modifying Noun. Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue. Li Xingya. 1989. On Free Occurrence of Dynamic Auxiliary Word “了.” Studies of the Chinese Language, 5th Issue. Liu Jiqing. 1998. On Tense System and Aspect Structure of Modern Chinese (I)&(II). Linguistic Research, 3rd & 4th Issue. Liu Ningshen. 1985. On “着” and Its Two Related Dynamic Categories. Studies in Language and Linguistics, 2nd Issue. Liu Xunning. 1988. Grammatical Meanings of “了” in Modern Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 5th Issue. Liu Yuehua. 1988. Comparison of Usage of Dynamic Auxiliary Words “过1,” “过2” and “了1.” Linguistic Research, 1st Issue. Lu Jianming. 1984. A Study on Interrogative Modal Particles in Modern Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 5th Issue.

Auxiliary words 187 Lu Wenhua. 1992. A Preliminary Study of Pragmatic Function of “了2.” Grammar Research and Exploration (6), Language and Literature Press. 木村英树. 1983. On “着[zhe]” and “了[le]” as Complement Ending. Linguistic Research, 2nd Issue. Shao Jingmin. 1989. Functions of Modal Particle “呢” in Interrogative Sentence. Studies of the Chinese Language, 3rd Issue. Xu Dan. 1992. “在” and “着” in Chinese. Studies of the Chinese Language, 6th Issue. Zhang Xiaoling. 1986. On Relationship between “过” and “了.” Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1st Issue. Zhao Shuhua. 1990. Position of Dynamic Auxiliary “了” in the Sentence with Serial Verbs. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1st Issue.

和 [hé] 跟 [gēn] 与 [yǔ] 及 [jí] 既 [jì] 以及 [yǐ jí] 并 [bìng] 并且 [bìng qiě] 而 [ér ] 而且 [ér qiě] 或 [huò] 或者 [huò zhě] 还是 [hái shì] 要么 [yào me] 不但 [bú dàn] 何况 [hé kuàng] 况且 [kuàng qiě] 尚且 [shàng qiě] 宁可 [níng kě] 与其 [yǔ qí] 而况 [ér kuàng] 以致 [yǐ zhì] 从而 [cóng ér] 于是 [yú shì]

Conjunctions

尚且 . . .何况... [shàng qiě ...hé kuàng ...] 宁可 . . .也不... [níng kě ...yě bù], 宁可...也要...[níng kě ...yě yào] 与其 . . .宁可 [yǔ qí ...níng kě], 与其...不如...[yǔ qí ...bù rú]

还是 . . .还是... [hái shì ...hái shì] 要么 . . .要么... [yào me ...yào me] 不但 . . .而且/还/也/又...[bú dàn ...ér qiě/hái/yě/yòu] 尚且 . . .何况...[shàng qiě ...hé kuàng]

不但 . . .并且/又/还... [bú dàn ... bìng qiě/yòu/hái...] 为了 . . .而... [wèi le ...ér ...], 因为... 而... [yīn wéi ...ér ...] 不但 . . .而且/还/又/更... [bú dàn ...ér qiě/hái/yòu/gèng]

既. . . 又/也 [jì ...yòu/yě]

Collocation

Commonly-used conjunctions

Appendix four

Progression

+

+ + + + + +

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+ + + +

+ + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P

W

Continuity

Coordination

Choice

Matched

Association

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

C

尽管

虽然

要是 倘若 假如 如果 但是 可是 不过 然而

不管 只有 只要 除非

不论

无论

因为 因此 因而 所以 既然

Collocation

[yīn wéi] 因为 . . .所以 [yīn wéi ...suǒ yǐ] [yīn cǐ] [yīn ér] [suǒ yǐ] 因为 . . .所以 [yīn wéi ...suǒ yǐ] [jì rán] 既然 . . . 那么...[jì rán ...nà me] 既然...就...[jì rán ...jiù] [wú lùn] 无论 . . .还是...都/也...[wú lùn ....hái shì ...dōu/yě] 无论...或者....都/也....[wú lùn ...huò zhě ....dōu/yě] [bú lùn] 不论. . .还是...都/也...[bú lùn ...hái shì ...dōu/yě] [bú guǎn] 不管 . ..都/也...[bù guǎn ...dōu /yě] [zhī yǒu] 只有. . .才...[zhī yǒu...cái] [zhī yào] 只要. . .就...[zhī yào ...jiù] [chú fēi] 除非. . .才...不/否则...[chú fēi ...cái ...bú /fǒu zé] [yào shì] 要是. . .就/也... [yào shì ...jiù/yě] [tǎng ruò] 倘若. . .就/也... [tǎng ruò ...jiù /yě] [jiǎ rú] 假如. . .就/也... [jiǎ rú ...jiù/yě] [rú guǒ] 如果. . .就/也... [rú guǒ ...jiù/yě] [dàn shì] 虽然. . .但是... [suī rán ...dàn shì] [kě shì] 虽然. . .可是... [suī rán ...kě shì] [bú guò] 虽然. . .不过... [suī rán ...bú guò] [rán ér ] 虽然/尽管...然而... [suī rán/jìn guǎn... rán ér] [suī rán] 虽然. . .但是/可是/不过...[suī rán ...dàn shì/kě shì/bú guò] [jìn guǎn] 尽管. . .可是/但是...[jìn guǎn...kě shì / dàn shì]

Conjunctions

+ + + + +

Causation

matched

+ + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + +

+ + + +

+

+

(Continued)

+

+

+ + + + + + + +

+ +

+ + +

+ +

+

+ + + + +

Hypothesis Condition Concession Transition Choice Purpose W P C

Relation of modifying and being modified

Auxiliary words 189

即使. . .也...[jí shǐ ...yě] 就是. . .也...[jiù shì ...yě] 哪怕. . .也...[nǎ pà ...yě] 固然. . .可是...[gù rán ...kě shì]

即使 [jí shǐ] 就是 [jiù shì] 哪怕 [nǎ pà] 固然 [gù rán] 省得 [shěng dé] 免得[miǎn dé]

Note: W for “words”; P for “phrases”; C for “clauses”

Collocation

Conjunctions

(Continued)

Causation

matched

+ + + + +

+

+ + + + +

Hypothesis Condition Concession Transition Choice Purpose W P C

Relation of modifying and being modified

190 Auxiliary words

4

Onomatopoetic words

Section one: functions of onomatopoetic words Onomatopoetic words refer to the words that imitate sounds from the natural world and that vividly describe states of things, such as “砰 [pēng] (gunfire),” “轰 隆 [hōng lōng] (boom from cannon),” “叮咚 [dīng dōng] (ding-dong from dripping water),” “哗哗 [huā huā] (hua-hua from gurgling water),” “嘀嘀嗒嗒 [dī dī dā dā] (di-di-da-da of trumpet hush),” “哗啦哗啦 [huā lā huā lā] (hua-la-hua-la of rain).” Onomatopoetic words can make the sounds they imitate more real and the sentences in which they are used more vivid. Example 1 咚, 咚, 咚, 他听见有人敲门。[dōng, dōng, dōng, tā tīng jiàn yǒu rén qiāo mén] (Rat-a-tat, he heard someone knocking at the door.) Example 2 一下、两下、五下、十下 . . . 打得山崖上的土哗哗往下落。[yī xià, liǎng xià, wǔ xià, shí xià . . . dǎ de shān yá shàng de tǔ huá la huá la wǎng xià luò.] (One, two . . . , ten . . . , the earth is quickly crashing down from the cliff by being heavily stricken. Example 3 春雨唰唰地下着。[chūn yǔ shuā shuā de xià zhe.] (The spring rain was heavily falling.) Example 4 这时老李一个手榴弹扔了过去, “轰”一声, 机枪顿时哑 了。[zhè shí lǎo lǐ yī gè shǒu liú dàn rēng le guò qù, “hōng” yī shēng, jī qiāng dùn shí yǎ le.] (Then, Lao Li threw a hand grenade forward, and with a “boom,” the machine gun suddenly went silent.) Example 5 风卷起砂粒打得车篷噼啪作响。[fēng juǎn qǐ shā lì dǎ de chē péng pī pā zuò xiǎng.] (The sand whipped around in the wind and heavily beat the canvas top with the loud cracking.)

192

Onomatopoetic words

Besides imitating sounds of the natural world or things, onomatopoetic words describe states of things by imitating sounds. Example 6 他的脸唰地红了。[tā de liǎn shuā de hóng le.] (He blushed immediately.) The action of “脸变红” [liǎn biàn hóng] (blushed)” in this example doesn’t make any sound but “唰 [shuā]” modifies “红 [hóng] (blushed)” in a vivid way that implies how fast or suddenly this action goes on. Therefore, the rhetorical effect of onomatopoetic words is more effective than that of the words of other parts of speech.

Section two: classifications of onomatopoetic words According to how they are used, onomatopoetic words can be divided into two types. One is the type of fixed structure, such as “潺潺 [chán chán] (murmur),” “琅 琅 [láng láng] (the sound of tinkling/reading),” “萧萧 [xiāo xiāo] (the wind blowing and the horse neighing),” “霍霍 [huò huò] (scrape),” “淙淙 [cóng cóng] (gurgling).” The other is the type of non-fixed structure, such as “轰 [hōng] (boom),” “哗哗 [huā huā] (sound of gurgling water),” “砰 [pēng] (bang from gunfire),” “啪嗒 [pā dā] (clattering),” “唰 [shuā],” “嘎吧 [gā ba],” “刺溜 [cī liū].” Most onomatopoetic words of fixed structure are disyllabic in the overlapped form, originating from ancient times. Their written forms and the sounds they imitate are comparatively stable and don’t depend on any context. For example, “潺潺 [chán chán] (murmur)” imitates the sound of a river or spring; “琅琅 [láng láng]” describes the sound of reading or tinkling. And “萧萧 [xiāo xiāo]” is for the wind blowing and the horse neighing; “霍 霍 [huò huò] (scrape)” is for sharpening a knife. These words are commonly used in the written language. Most onomatopoetic words of non-fixed structure are created temporarily so they are not stable in the written form or phonetic form. They can be used widely, thus what they stand for depends on the context very much. Example 1 “砰啷’’一声, 又碎了些陶瓷。[“pēng lāng” yī shēng, yòu suì le xiē táo cí.] (With a “bang,” more pottery was broken.) Example 2 “豁啷”一声, 茶碗落地, 泼了一身一地的茶。[huō lāng yī shēng, chá wǎn luò dì, pō le yī shēn yī dì de chá.] (With a “clatter,” the tea bowl fell to the ground and spilled the tea all over.) Example 3 他刚到院子里, “啪嚓”一声, 盆子片、猪食渣闹了一身, 洒了 一地。[tā gāng dào yuàn zi lǐ, “pā chā” yī shēng, pén zi piàn, zhū shí zhā nào le yī shēn, sǎ le yī dì.] (He just arrived in the yard, and with a “crackle,” the pot for pig food was shattered and spilled the food all over him.) Example 4 忽听得“咚咚咚”有人敲门。[hū tīng de “dōng dōng dōng” yǒu rén qiāo mén.] (Suddenly there came a knock at the door.)

Onomatopoetic words

193

Example 5 听, 号声嗒嗒, 鼓声咚咚。[tīng, hào shēng dā dā, gǔ shēng dōng dōng.] (Listen, the trumpets are playing and the drums are beating.) The sounds that the onomatopoetic words of non-fixed structure imitate are generally accepted. For example, “咚咚 [dōng dōng]” for drumming or knocking at a door; “砰砰 [pēng pēng]” for the sound of firecrackers, “哗哗 [huā huā]” for the sound of falling water. Therefore, it is necessary to use those commonly used onomatopoetic words instead of those created at will.

Section three: grammatical functions of onomatopoetic words I. As adverbials Onomatopoetic words mainly function as adverbials to modify predicate verbs. “地 [de]” can be added or not. Example 1 许多战士冷得嘴唇发白, 牙齿嗒嗒地响。[xǔ duō zhàn shì lěng de zuǐ chún fā bái, yá chǐ dā dā de xiǎng.] (Many soldiers were so cold that their lips turned white and their teeth chattered.) Example 2 桌上的闹钟嘀嗒嘀嗒地在静夜里清脆地响着。[zhuō shàng de nào zhōng dā dī dā de zài jìng yè lǐ qīng cuì de xiǎng zhe.] (The clock on the table ticked clear in the still night.) Example 3 石玉亭举起枪就打, 匪副司令的手枪“当啷啷’’地滚了下去。 [Shí Yù tíng jǔ qǐ qiāng jiù dǎ, fěi fù sī lìng de shǒu qiāng “dāng lāng lāng” de gǔn le xià qù.] (Shi Yuting raised her gun and shot, and then the pistol of the deputy commander fell off with a “clatter.”) Example 4 你听, 啦啦地响了, 猹在咬瓜了。[nǐ tīng, lā lā de xiǎng le, chá zài yǎo guā le.] (Listen, “la-la,” a badger is eating the watermelon.) Example 5 他半眯着眼, 把钱哗啦哗啦地放进装小费的盒子里。[tā bàn mī zhe yǎn, bǎ qián huā lā huā lā de fàng jìn zhuāng xiǎo fèi de hé zi lǐ.] (Half-squinting, he rattled the money into the tip box.) II. As attributes Onomatopoetic words can be added with the structural auxiliary word “的 [de]” to function as an attribute. Example 6 我躺着, 从船底潺潺的水声, 知道船还在走着。[wǒ tǎng zhe, cóng chuán dǐ chán chán de shuǐ shēng, zhī dào chuán hái zài zǒu zhe.] (I reclined on the boat. From the murmur of the water under the boat, I was aware that it was still moving.)

194

Onomatopoetic words Example 7 正在这时, 石洞里传来“咕咚咕咚”的脚步响。[zhèng zài zhè shí, shí dòng lǐ chuán lái “gū dōng gū dōng” de jiǎo bù xiǎng.] (At that moment, with “dong, dong,” the footsteps came out of the stone cavern.) Example 8 东方刚刚发白, 那呜呜的小火轮的汽笛声就从村外的小河上 传到村里来了。[dōng fāng gāng gāng fā bái, nà wū wū de xiǎo huǒ lún de qì dí shēng jiù cóng cūn wài de xiǎo hé shàng chuán dào cūn lǐ lái le.] (Just as the east was turning white, the whistle of the small steamer was heard in the village from the small river outside.) Example 9 再看看那嘀嗒嘀嗒的小闹钟—已经三点半啦。[zài kàn kàn nà dī dā dī dā de xiǎo nào zhōng -yǐ jīng sān diǎn bàn la.] (Take a look at that little alarm clock—it is already 3:30.)

III. As predicates Example 10 王阿大鼻孔呼噜了两声, 忍住了眼泪, 抖着手指 . . . [Wáng Ā dà bí kǒng hū lu le liǎng shēng, rěn zhù le yǎn lèi, dǒu zhe shǒu zhǐ . . .] (Wang Ada made two deep sniffs. He refrained from tears but his fingers trembled . . .) Example 11 她们轻轻划着船, 船两边的水, 哗, 哗, 哗。[tā men qīng qīng huá zhe chuán, chuán liǎng biān de shuǐ, huā, huā, huā.] (They paddled the boat gently, the water on both sides of the boat gurgling continuously.) Example 12 小高岭上硝烟弥漫, 炮声隆隆。[xiǎo gāo lǐng shàng xiāo yān mí màn, pào shēng lóng lóng.] (Clouds of smoke covered over the small ridge, accompanied by rumbles of cannon.) Example 13 忽然, 她们听见大街上车轮子轰隆隆的, 还有过队伍的声 音。[hū rán, tā men tīng jiàn dà jiē shàng chē lún zi hōng lóng lóng de, hái yǒu guò duì wǔ de shēng yīn.] (Suddenly, they heard the rumbling of wheels and the sound of a procession passing in the street.) IV. As complements Onomatopoetic words function as complements with “的 [de]” following. Example 14 火车从这里经过的时候, 窗户都被震得哗啦哗啦的。[huǒ chē cóng zhè lǐ jīng guò de shí hòu, chuāng hù dōu bèi zhèn de huā lā huā lā de.] (The windows rattled as the train passed by.) Example 15 小胖见奶奶锁上门走了, 急得的。[Xiǎo Pàng jiàn nǎi nǎi suǒ shàng mén zǒu le, jí de de.] (Xiao Pang saw his grandma lock the door and leave anxiously.)

Onomatopoetic words

195

Example 16 她躺在床上, 听见邻舍家的门砸得咚咚的, 又是吼, 又是 骂。[tā tǎng zài chuáng shàng, tīng jiàn lín shè jiā de mén zá de dōng dōng de, yòu shì hǒu, yòu shì mà.] (As she lay in bed, she heard her neighbor’s door being knocked on heavily, along with sounds of yelling and cursing. Example 17 大厅里打了个稀里哗啦, 花瓶粉碎, 碟儿碗儿稀烂, 桌椅 板凳 东倒西歪, 军棋、扑克牌撒了一地 . . . [dà tīng lǐ dǎ le gè xī lǐ huā lā, huā píng fěn suì, dié er wǎn er xī làn, zhuō yǐ bǎn dèng dōng dào xī wāi, jūn qí, pū kè pái sǎ le yī dì . . .] (There was a mess in the hall: vases and dishes were broken, tables and chairs were lying on all sides, and pieces of military chess and playing cards were scattered all over the floor . . .) V. As subjects Onomatopoetic words can function as subjects but they are rarely used in this way. Example 18 自然喽, 我的叽里呱啦是出了名的, 厂里谁不知道？[zì rán lou, wǒ de jī lǐ guā lā shì chū le míng de, chǎng lǐ shuí bú zhī dào?] (Of course, I am a well-known talkative. Who does not know it in the factory?) VI. As double references Example 19 他正要说下去, “丁零零”一阵急促的警铃声打断了他的声 音。[tā zhèng yào shuō xià qù, “dīng líng líng” yī zhèn jí cù de jǐng líng shēng dǎ duàn le tā de shēng yīn.] (He was about to go on when he was interrupted by a rapid alarm.) Example 20 “笃！笃！笃！” 声音那么沉闷, 就同我的心情一样。 [“dǔ！dǔ！dǔ！” shēng yīn nà me chén mèn, jiù tóng wǒ de xīn qíng yī yàng.] (The dull sound of “du” was depressing, just like my mood.) Example 21 “哗, 哗, 哗”, 划船的声音越来越远了。[“huā, huā, huā,” huá chuán de shēng yīn yuè lái yuè yuǎn le.] (“Hua-hua,” the sound of rowing was getting further and further away.) VII. To be used alone Onomatopoetic words can be used alone as a sentence. Example 22 “砰！” 子弹向别处飞去。[“pēng!” zǐ dàn xiàng bié chù fēi qù.] (“Bang!” The bullet flew away.)

196

Onomatopoetic words Example 23 突然, “突突突 . . . , 一辆摩托车给妈妈送来了电报。[tū rán, “tū tū tū . . . , yī liàng mó tuō chē gěi mā mā sòng lái le diàn bào.] (Suddenly, with the motorcycle chug, a telegram was sent to my mother.) Example 24 “噗噗。” 郭太身子一歪, 倒在地上。[“pū pū.” Guō tài shēn zi yī wāi, dào zài dì shàng.] (With the sound of “puff,” Mrs. Guo tilted and fell to the ground.)

References Fu Li. 1983. A Brief Analysis on Onomatopoeia as Predicate. Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue. Shao Jingmin. 1981. A Preliminary Study on Onomatopoeia. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 4th Issue. Zhan Jing. 1982. Discussion on Onomatopoeia. Chinese Language Learning, 4th Issue.

5

Interjections

Interjections are the words used to express strong emotions or as a response. For example, “哼 [hēng] (humph)” is for anger. “哈哈 [hā hā] (ha-ha)” is for joy. “哎 哟 [āi yō] (ouch)” is for pain. “喂 [wèi] (hello)” is for calling and “嗯 [èn] (hum)” is for responding.

Section one: features of interjections I. As a special category Interjections belong to a special category. They have no lexical meanings or grammatical meanings; they are neither notional words nor function words. Although they are independent from other constituents in structure, each of them indicates a certain meaning. Thus they are semantically related to the sentences in which they are used. Example 1 啊哟哟！不要踩了我的鱼啊！[ā yō yō! bú yào cǎi le wǒ de yú ā!] (Hey! Hey! Don’t step on my fish!) (worried) Example 2 唉！施粥厂门外也没有这般挤呀！[āi! shī zhōu chǎng mén wài yě méi yǒu zhè bān jǐ ya!] (Alas! Even outside the soup kitchen cannot be crowded like this!) (sigh) Example 3 小王借着火光一看, 啊, 是一只熊。[Xiǎo Wáng jiè zhe huǒ guāng yī kàn, ā, shì yī zhī xióng.] (Xiao Wang looks at it by the light. Oh, it’s a bear.) II. Standing at the beginning of a sentence Interjections usually stand at the beginning of the sentence, followed by a comma or an exclamation mark. Example 4 “啊呀！这样的婆婆！ . . .” 四婶惊奇地说。[“ā ya！zhè yàng de pó pó！ . . .” sì shěn jīng qí de shuō.]

198 Interjections (Oh my! “Such a mother-in-law! . . .,” said the fourth aunt in surprise.) (surprise) Example 5 嗳, 喔唷！喔唷！好疼呀！[ài, wō yō！wō yō！hǎo téng ya!] (Ouch! Ouch! It really hurts!) (groan) Sometimes, interjections can stand in the middle or at the end of the sentence. Example 6 荒年荒时, 哎！几时开门呢？[huāng nián huāng shí, āi！jǐ shí kāi mén ne?] (Alas! In famine years, when will the door be opened?) Example 7 这些小家伙, 哎呀！真有个意思。[zhè xiē xiǎo jiā huǒ, āi ya! zhēn yǒu gè yì sī.] (Ah! These kids! How funny they are!) Example 8 你甭看着我办事, 你眼儿热！看见？我早就全看见了, 哼！ [nǐ béng kàn zhe wǒ bàn shì, nǐ yǎn er rè! kàn jiàn? wǒ zǎo jiù quán kàn jiàn le, hēng!] (Don’t be jealous of what I am doing! You see, I knew it all, humph!) Example 9 老爷子痛心疾首地喊起来：“你们说, 到底为什么要离婚 呢？为什么？啊？” [lǎo yé zi tòng xīn jí shǒu dì hǎn qǐ lái, “nǐ men shuō, dào dǐ wèi shén me yào lí hūn ne? wèi shén me? á?”] (The old man cried bitterly: “Why on earth do you divorce? Why? Ah?”) III. To express complex emotions There are a large number of interjections in Chinese. They can elaborately express various emotions. Even the same interjection can express various emotions by intonation or context. Example 10 啊, 是你呀。[ā, shì nǐ ya.] (Oh, it’s you.) (“oh” in a falling tone to show surprise) Example 11 啊, 他死了 [ā, tā sǐ le?] (Oh, he’s dead?) (“oh” in a rising and short tone to show panic) Example 12 啊, , 明天考试？[á, míng tiān kǎo shì?] (Oh, there is an exam tomorrow?) (to show surprise with a falling-rising tone.) Example 13 啊！你说什么？[a! nǐ shuō shén me?] (Ah! What did you say?) (to further ask with a high and soothing tone.) Example 14 啊, 是这么回事。[ā, shì zhè me huí shì.] (Oh, that’s it.) (“oh” in a prolonged and slow falling tone to show sudden comprehension) Example 15 好好睡觉, 啊, 小妹！[hǎo hǎo shuì jiào, ā, xiǎo mèi!] (Have a good sleep, huh, little girl!) (“huh” in a flat tone to show a command)

Interjections 199 IV. Unstable written form Interjections have no stable written forms. For example, “哎哟 [āi yō] (ouch)” or “哎唷 [āi yō] (ouch)” is for pain; “哎 [āi]” or “欸 [āi]” is for response. “哦 [ò],” “噢 [ō],” “喔 [ō]” are pronounced “[ō]” and “欸 [āi]” can be pronounced as “[ai]” or “[ei].”

Section two: enumeration of interjections I. To express pride, joy, and pleasure “哈哈 [ha ha] (ha-ha),” “嗬嗬 [ho ho] (he-he)” and “嘿嘿 [hei hei] (hey-hey)” are used to describe laughter with the low and brief intonation. They mainly appear in direct speech, with the first syllable stressed and the second one pronounced slightly. Example 1 “哈哈哈, 你这个坏小子。”人们笑得更响了。[“hā hā hā, nǐ zhè gè huài xiǎo zi.” rén men xiào dé gèng xiǎng le.] (“Ha-ha-ha, you bad boy!” People laughed louder.) Example 2 哈哈, 这次抓阄儿, 我可抓着了。[hā hā, zhè cì zhuā jiū er, wǒ kě zhuā zhe le.] (Ha-ha, I won by a lot this time.) Example 3 嗬嗬, 儿子, 过个生日, 得了这么多好玩艺, 谢谢爷爷、奶奶了 吗？[hē hē, ér zi, guò gè shēng rì, dé le zhè me duō hǎo wán yì, xiè xiè yé yé, nǎi nǎi le ma?] (Ho-ho, son, you got so many gifts on your birthday. Did you say thanks to your grandpa and grandma?) Example 4 “嘿嘿, 好吃吧, 还吃么？”大叔对我笑着说。[“hēi hēi, hǎo chī ba, hái chī me?” dà shū duì wǒ xiào zhe shuō.] (“Haha, is it delicious? Do you want more?” said the uncle, smiling at me.) Example 5 嘿, 这次来, 咱们可把北京城全逛遍了。[hēi, zhè cì lái, zán men kě bǎ běi jīng chéng quán guàng biàn le.] (Wow, we have visited the whole Beijing city this time.) II. To express annoyance, sighing, and grief “唉 [ai] (alas)” indicates a sigh of grief with a low and soothing intonation. Example 6 唉, 这真是一个不可弥补的损失啊。[āi, zhè zhēn shì yī gè bú kě mí bǔ de sǔn shī ā.] (Alas, it was an irreparable loss!) Example 7 “唉, 我觉得我简直对不起慧儿 . . . ” 她的声音有点嘶哑, 仿佛 悲愤堵塞了她的咽喉。[“āi, wǒ jué de wǒ jiǎn zhí duì bú qǐ Huì ér . . .” tā de shēng yīn yǒu diǎn sī yǎ, fǎng fó bēi fèn dǔ sāi le tā de yān hóu.]

200 Interjections (“Oh, I feel so sorry for Huier . . .” her voice sounds a little hoarse, as if grief and anger blocked her throat.) “咳 [hai] (hey)” and “嗨 [hai] (hey)” indicate sighing, dissatisfaction, or annoyance. Example 8 “咳！别提了”。我平常每天从家里出来, 都是左手拿皮包, 右 手拿垃圾袋, 今天早上一忙, 给弄拧了, 结果, 到了垃圾箱前, 就把皮包扔 进去了。[“hai！bié tí le.” wǒ píng cháng měi tiān cóng jiā lǐ chū lái, dōu shì zuǒ shǒu ná pí bāo, yòu shǒu ná lā jī dài, jīn tiān zǎo shàng yī máng, gěi nòng nǐng le, jié guǒ, dào le lā jī xiāng qián, jiù bǎ pí bāo rēng jìn qù le.] (“Oh! Don’t mention it.” I usually take the leather bag in my left hand and the rubbish bag in my right hand when I leave from my house everyday. But this morning I took them with the wrong hands in a hurry. As a result, I threw my leather bag into the dustbin.) Example 9 咳！别提了, 您看我的衣服给做成什么样子, 挺好的一块料 子！[hai！bié tí le, nín kàn wǒ de yī fú gěi zuò chéng shén me yàng zi, tǐng hǎo de yī kuài liào zi!] (Hey! Don’t mention it. Look at my clothes that have been made. What a pity for such a good piece of material!) Example 10 嗨, 虽说都干秘书, 可我这秘书就差远了。[hēi, suī shuō dōu gàn mì shū, kě wǒ zhè mì shū jiù chà yuǎn le.] (Hey, although we are all secretaries, I am far away from what it should be.) III. To express compliment and admiration “喝 [hē],” “嗬 [hē],” “呵 [hē]” are used to indicate compliments face to face with a high intonation. Example 11 “嗬, 变化真大！我大概有三四年没来这儿了。”男人也动了 感情。[“hē, biàn huà zhēn dà! wǒ dà gài yǒu sān sì nián méi lái zhè er le.” nán rén yě dòng le gǎn qíng.] (“Oh, what a change! I haven’t been here for three or four years,” said the man emotionally.) Example 12 嗬！好香啊, 你小伙子自己改善生活啦, 也不告诉哥们一 声。[hē! hǎo xiāng ā, nǐ xiǎo huǒ zi zì jǐ gǎi shàn shēng huó lā, yě bú gào sù gē men yī shēng.] (Wow! It smells good. You, young man have improved your meal but why not tell me?) “啊 [ā] (ah)” indicates a sigh with emotion with a falling intonation. Example 13 啊, 健康真好啊！ . . . 眼泪不由得流了下来。[ā, jiàn kāng zhēn hǎo ā! . . . yǎn lèi bù yóu dé liú le xià lái.] (“Ah, it is good to be healthy! . . .” Tears ran down from the face.)

Interjections 201 “嗯 [ng] (hum)” generally indicates praise in a low voice so it takes a low intonation. Example 14 嗯, 你这次考试成绩还不错, 够上优等了。[ng, nǐ zhè cì kǎo shì chéng jì hái bú cuò, gòu shàng yōu děng le.] (Hum, you did well in the exam, good enough for A level.) Example 15 嗯, 今天你做的几个菜味道挺好, 我都爱吃。[ng, jīn tiān nǐ zuò de jǐ gè cài wèi dào tǐng hǎo, wǒ dōu ài chī.] (Hum, the dishes you made today are very delicious. I like them all.) “啧 [zé] (click of tongue)” and “啧啧 [zé zé] (click of tongue)” are used to praise a third party, carrying a sense of admiration. “啧 [zé] (click of tongue)” cannot be used alone and is usually repeated twice, three times, or even four times. Example 16 啧啧, 看人家十一岁的小姑娘写的楷书多好。[zé zé, kàn rén jiā shí yī suì de xiǎo gū niáng xiě de kǎi shū duō hǎo.] (Ze-ze, you see, what beautiful regular script! It was written by a girl of eleven years old.) Example 17 啧啧啧, 在这么高的吊环上表演, 多不容易。[zé zé zé, zài zhè me gāo de diào huán shàng biǎo yǎn, duō bú róng yì.] (Ze-ze-ze, how difficult it is to perform on such a high hand ring.) But, when “啧 [zé] (click of tongue)” is used to express the speaker’s sympathy or dissatisfaction or impatience to a third party, it can be used alone. IV. To express surprise “哎呀 [āi ya] (oh, my),” “哎哟 [ai yo] (oh, my),” “喔哟 [ō yo] (oh, my)” express (pleasant) surprise, anxiety, or panic, with a falling and brief intonation. Example 18 哎呀, 老玛丽, 是你呀, 咱们有五年没见了吧。[āi ya, Lǎo Mǎ lì, shì nǐ ya, zán men yǒu wǔ nián méi jiàn le ba.] (Oh my! Old Mary, it’s you! We haven’t seen each other for five years.) Example 19 哎呀, 到处找你找不着, 原来你在呼呼大睡！[āi ya, dào chù zhǎo nǐ zhǎo bú zháo, yuán lái nǐ zài hū hū dà shuì!] (Oh, my! I can’t find you anywhere. You’re fast asleep here!) Example 20 哎呀, 我的钱包不见了！[āi ya, wǒ de qián bāo bú jiàn le!] (Oh, my! My wallet is missing!) Example 21 哎哟, 考试有一道题我忘了回答了。[āi yō, kǎo shì yǒu yī dào tí wǒ wàng le huí dá le.] (Oh, my! I missed one question on the exam.) Example 22 “哎哟, ”妈妈摸了一下孩子的额头惊叫起来：“怎么这么 烫”！[“āi yō,” mā mā mō le yī xià hái zi de é tóu jīng jiào qǐ lái, “zěn me zhè me tàng!”]

202 Interjections (“Oh, my!” cried the mother, touching the child’s forehead, “how can it be so hot!”) “哎哟 [āi ya] (ouch)” and “喔哟 [wō yō] (ouch)” can express groaning because of pain. Example 23 哎哟, 伤口疼。[āi yō, shāng kǒu téng.] (Ouch, the cut hurts!) Example 24 喔哟, 腿又抽筋了。[wō yō, tuǐ yòu chōu jīn le.] (Ouch, my leg cramps again.) In conversation or talking to oneself, “呀 [ya] (ah)” expresses an unexpected or disadvantaged situation with a falling and brief intonation. Example 25 呀, 夜里下雪了, 下了这么厚呢。[ya, yè lǐ xià xuě le, xià le zhè me hòu ne.] (Ah, it had a heavy snow at night.) Example 26 呀, 他这么好的人, 怎么会遇到这样不幸的事呢。[ya, tā zhè me hǎo de rén, zěn me huì yù dào zhè yàng bú xìng de shì ne.] (Ah, how could such a good man meet with such misfortune.) “哦 [o] (oh)” expresses the listener’s surprise with a falling-rising intonation. Example 27 哦？他儿子刚毕业工作一年, 就当上经理了。[ò? tā ér zi gāng bì yè gōng zuò yī nián, jiù dāng shàng jīng lǐ le.] (Oh? His son became a manager just a year after graduation.) Example 28 哦？是吗？小伙子真够能干的。[ò? shì ma? xiǎo huǒ zi zhēn gòu néng gàn de.] (Oh? Is that true? The young man is really capable.) “嗬 [hē] (oh)” expresses a surprise to an unexpected situation with a high and falling intonation. Example 29 嗬！新兴的科学城规模可真不小。[hē! xīn xīng de kē xué chéng guī mó kě zhēn bú xiǎo.] (Oh! What a big new science city!) Example 30 嗬, 新开通的那条马路横贯北京城的东西, 又长又宽。[hē, xīn kāi tōng de nà tiáo mǎ lù héng guàn běi jīng chéng de dōng xī, yòu cháng yòu kuān.] (Oh! The new road, long and wide, runs through the city of Beijing.) Example 31 嗬, 阿Q, 你回来了。[hē, Ā Q, nǐ huí lái le.] (Hey, Ah-Q, you are back.) “喔 [ō] (oh)” expresses a surprise with a high and rising intonation.

Interjections 203 Example 32 喔, 他没被录取吗？[ō, tā méi bèi lù qǔ ma?] (Oh, didn’t he get in?) “哟 [yō] (oh)” expresses a mild surprise, implying a sense of a joke. Example 33 哟, 挂住我的衣服了。[yō, guà zhù wǒ de yī fu le.] (Oh, my clothes are hooked.) Example 34 哟, 认错人了。[yō, rèn cuò rén le.] (Oh, I’ve got the wrong person.) Example 35 丈夫今天比每天回来得都早, 杨静故意拉长声：“哟, 你还有 回来早的时候啊”。 [zhàng fū jīn tiān bǐ měi tiān huí lái dé dōu zǎo, yáng jìng gù yì lā cháng shēng: “yō, nǐ hái yǒu huí lái zǎo de shí hòu ā.”] (Her husband came back earlier today than usually he does. “Oh, I never thought that you could come back early.” said Yang Jing deliberately with a lengthened tone.) Example 36 “哟, 蘑菇。”我惊喜地叫道, 并下意识地扔掉锄头, 打算奔过 去。[“yō, mó gū.” wǒ jīng xǐ de jiào dào, bìng xià yì shí de rēng diào chú tóu, dǎ suàn bēn guò qù.] (“Oh, mushrooms.” I exclaimed in a pleasant surprise and threw away the hoe unconsciously and ran toward it.) “嚯 [huò]” expresses a surprise or praise in admiration. Example 37 嚯, 这儿的人真多！[huò, zhè er de rén zhēn duō!] (Wow, so many people are here!) Example 38 冲在前面的那只熊, 突然腾地一下站立起来, 嚯！比我们谁 都高, 少说也有三四百斤重。[chōng zài qián miàn de nà zhī xióng, tū rán téng de yī xià zhàn lì qǐ lái, huò! bǐ wǒ men shuí dōu gāo, shǎo shuō yě yǒu sān sì bǎi jīn zhòng.] (That bear in front suddenly sprang to his feet. Wow! It was taller than any of us and it must be at least three or four hundred jin.) “咦 [yí] (gee)” expresses a surprise. Example 39 咦？你怎么来了？不是病了吗？[yí? nǐ zěn me lái le? bú shì bìng le ma?] (Gee, what are you doing here? Aren’t you sick?) Example 40 咦！你都回来了！[yí! nǐ dōu huí lái le!] (Gee! you are back!) V. To express disagreement, complaint, or appeal “嗳 [ai] (oh/come on)” expresses disagreement with a falling-rising intonation. Example 41 嗳, 在价值规律面前人是会变的嘛。[ài, zài jià zhí guī lǜ miàn qián rén shì huì biàn de ma.]

204 Interjections (Oh, people will by changed by the law of value.) “哎呀 [āi ya] (oh, my!)” expresses complaint with a falling or falling-rising intonation. Example 42 哎呀, 怎么弄的, 满墙都是墨点儿。[āi ya, zěn me nòng de, mǎn qiáng dōu shì mò diǎn er.] (Oh, my! What did you do? You got ink all over the wall.) Example 43 哎呀, 好好的一本书, 给撕了。[āi ya, hǎo hǎo de yī běn shū, gěi sī le.] (Oh, my! What a pity for such a good book. It has been torn!) “哼 [hēng] (humph)” expresses dissatisfaction or appeal with a low and brief intonation. Example 44 哼, 你还睡懒觉哇, 看几点钟了。[hēng, nǐ hái shuì lǎn jiào wa, kàn jǐ diǎn zhōng le.] (Humph, you’re still sleeping. Do you know what time is it?) Example 45 哼, 你别仗势欺人, 我不怕。[hēng, nǐ bié zhàng shì qī rén, wǒ bú pà.] (Humph, don’t throw your weight around. I’m not afraid of you.) Example 46 哼, 这简直是倒打一耙, 我还要去法院告他呢。[hēng, zhè jiǎn zhí shì dào dǎ yī pá, wǒ hái yào qù fǎ yuàn gào tā ne.] (Humph, it is really a false countercharge. Actually I’m going to court against him.) VI. To express contempt, dissatisfaction, or anger “哼 [hēng] (humph)” expresses dissatisfaction or anger with a low and brief intonation. Example 47 哼, 你还想靠他养老。[hēng, nǐ hái xiǎng kào tā yǎng lǎo.] (Humph, what makes you think that he can take care of you when you are old?) Example 48 哼, 你再要这样, 非给你点苦头吃不可。[hēng, nǐ zài yào zhè yàng, fēi gěi nǐ diǎn kǔ tóu chī bú kě.] (Humph, if you do this again, you’ll suffer for it.) Example 49 哼, 让他们去告吧, 看谁胜诉。[hēng, ràng tā men qù gào ba, kàn shuí shèng sù.] (Humph, let them sue and see who will win.) Example 50 姑娘顶了他一句, 心中洋洋自得: “哼, 让你知道咱可不好 惹。” [gū niáng dǐng le tā yī jù, xīn zhōng yáng yáng zì dé, “hēng, ràng nǐ zhī dào zán kě bù hǎo rě.”]

Interjections 205 (The girl contradicted him and heartily felt smug. “Hum, I am not a girl to be trifled with.”) “呸 [pēi] (bah)” expresses disdain or rebuke with a high-flat or high-falling intonation. Example 51 呸, 你胡说, 他可不是那样的人。[pēi, nǐ hú shuō, tā kě bú shì nà yàng de rén.] (Bah, that’s nonsense. He’s not a man like that.) Example 52 呸, 我才不干那样的事呢。[pēi, wǒ cái bú gàn nà yàng de shì ne.] (Bah, I wouldn’t do that thing.) Example 53 呸, 是你对不起我, 还是我对不起你, 你怎么能颠倒黑 白。[pēi, shì nǐ duì bù qǐ wǒ, hái shì wǒ duì bù qǐ nǐ, nǐ zěn me néng diān dào hēi bái.] (Bah, it is you who should say sorry to me, not in the reverse way. How can you call white black.) “喝 [hē] (oh)” or “呵 [hē] (oh)” expresses dissatisfaction with a high-flat or high-falling intonation; sometimes, they indicate sarcasm with a high intonation. Example 54 喝, 你运气倒不错, 想什么就有什么。[hē, nǐ yùn qì dào bú cuò, xiǎng shén me jiù yǒu shén me.] (Oh, you’re in luck and you get what you want.) Example 55 呵, 你怎么老爱占人家便宜, 这不好。[hē, nǐ zěn me lǎo ài zhàn rén jiā pián yí, zhè bú hǎo.] (Oh, why are you always taking advantage of others? It’s not good.) Example 56 呵, 你又捞了一把。[hē, nǐ yòu lāo le yī bǎ.] (Oh, you get another gain again.) VII. To express disillusion or comprehension with a low and falling intonation “噢 [ō] (well)” expresses comprehension with a low-falling intonation. Example 57 噢, 我懂了。[ō, wǒ dǒng le.] (Well, I understand now.) Example 58 噢, 我想起来了。[ō, wǒ xiǎng qǐ lái le.] (Oh, yes, I remember now.) Example 59 A: 喂, 您哪位？[wèi, nín nǎ wèi?] (Hello, who is calling?) B: 噢, 是王秘书啊。[ō, shì wáng mì shū ā.] (Oh, Secretary Wang.)

206

Interjections

“噢 [ō] (oh)” expresses final comprehension with a falling and long intonation. Example 60 噢, 是这么回事, 我一直在纳闷呢。[ō, shì zhè me huí shì, wǒ yī zhí zài nà mèn ne.] (Oh, that’s it. I wondered just now.) Example 61 噢, 您是日本人, 对不起, 没有看出来。[ō, nín shì rì běn rén, duì bù qǐ, méi yǒu kàn chū lái.] (Oh, you are Japanese. I am sorry for not seeing it just now.) Example 62 噢, 想起来了, 怪不得那么面熟呢。[ō, xiǎng qǐ lái le, guài bú dé nà me miàn shú ne.] (Oh, I remember now. No wonder you look so familiar to me.) “嗯 [èn] (hum)” and “唔 [wu] (hum)” expresses comprehension with a low and falling intonation. Example 63 嗯, 你的意思我明白了, 我尽量帮忙吧。[èn, nǐ de yì sī wǒ míng bái le, wǒ jǐn liàng bāng máng ba.] (Hum, I see what you mean. I’ll try my best to help you.) Example 64 嗯, 他的情况我听说了, 我实在是爱莫能助。[èn, tā de qíng kuàng wǒ tīng shuō le, wǒ shí zài shì ài mò néng zhù.] (Hum, I heard about his situation, but I couldn’t help him.) “啊 [à] (ah)” expresses sudden comprehension in surprise with a falling and soothing intonation which is purposely lengthened. Example 65 啊, 原来如此。[à, yuán lái rú cǐ.] (Ah, I see.) Example 66 啊, 是这么回事。[à, shì zhè me huí shì.] (Ah, that’s it.) Example 67 啊, 您也天天上班来站岗, 我说的呢, 怎么退休了也老不在 家。[à, nín yě tiān tiān shàng bān lái zhàn gǎng, wǒ shuō de ne, zěn me tuì xiū le yě lǎo bú zài jiā.] (Ah, now I see why you are not at home after retirement. You also come here to stand guard everyday.) VIII. To express calling and responding “嗳 [ài] (hi)” expresses calling or reminding the listener with a high and rising intonation. Example 68 嗳, 你们到这儿来。[ài, nǐ men dào zhè er lái.] (Hi, you come here.) Example 69 嗳, 前边儿的人慢点儿, 后边的人跟不上。[ài, qián biān er de rén màn diǎn er, hòu biān de rén gēn bú shàng.] (Hi, the people in front, please slow down. Those behind can’t keep up with you.)

Interjections 207 “嗳 [ài] (hi)” expresses response or agreement with a soothing and falling intonation in a low voice. Example 70 嗳, 我在这儿, 我马上就去。[ài, wǒ zài zhè er, wǒ mǎ shàng jiù qù.] (Oh, I’m here and I will go at once.) Example 71 嗳, 行, 就照你说的办吧。[ài, xíng, jiù zhào nǐ shuō de bàn ba.] (Oh, all right. Do as you say.) “嗯 [èn] (hum)” expresses a response with a low and falling intonation. Example 72 “嗯, 好吃, 好吃。”她说。[“èn, hǎo chī, hǎo chī.” tā shuō.] (“Hum, it tastes good,” said she.) Example 73 他只是“嗯”、“嗯”地答应, 不说话。[tā zhī shì “èn,” “èn” de dá yīng, bú shuō huà.] (He just said “hum” instead of anything else.) Example 74 A: 你自己来的？[nǐ zì jǐ lái de?] (You came here alone?) B: 嗯。[èn.] (Yes.) “哎 [āi] (hey)” expresses calling with a high-falling intonation which is purposely lengthened. Example 75 哎, 小华, 你们在哪儿呢？[āi, Xiǎo Huá, nǐ men zài nǎ er ne?] (Hey, Xiao Hua, where are you?) Example 76 哎, 小王, 这儿有卖的, 到这儿来排队。[āi, Xiǎo Wáng, zhè er yǒu mài de, dào zhè er lái pái duì.] (Hey, Xiao Wang, they sell here. Come and line up here.) “喂 [wèi/wéi] (hello/here)” expresses greeting or calling to someone with a falling or rising intonation. Example 77 喂, 把钳子找来, 我要修理一下机器。[wèi, bǎ qián zi zhǎo lái, wǒ yào xiū lǐ yī xià jī qì.] (Here, fetch the pliers. I want to repair the machine.) Example 78 喂, 您哪儿？您找谁？[wéi, nín nǎ er? nín zhǎo shuí?] (Hello, who is calling and to whom do you want to speak?) Example 79 喂, 刚才线路断了, 您接着说吧。[wéi, gāng cái xiàn lù duàn le, nín jiē zhe shuō ba.] (Hello, a dropped call just now. Go ahead, now.)

208

Interjections

“嘿/嗨 [hēi] (hey)” expresses greeting or causing attention with a low and falling intonation. Example 80 嘿, 老张, 快走吧, 你看那家新开张的电脑公司。[hēi, Lǎo Zhāng, kuài zǒu ba, nǐ kàn nà jiā xīn kāi zhāng de diàn nǎo gōng sī.] (Hey, come on, Lao Zhang. Look at that new computer company.) Example 81 嘿, 走吧, 别看热闹了, 到家太晚了。[hēi, zǒu ba, bié kàn rè nào le, dào jiā tài wǎn le.] (Hey, hurry up. Otherwise, it’s too late to get home.) Example 82 嘿, 我跟你说话呢, 没听见吗？[hēi, wǒ gēn nǐ shuō huà ne, méi tīng jiàn ma?] (Hey, I’m talking to you. Don’t you hear me?) IX. To express detailed inquiry or beyond one’s expectation “嗯 [èn] (hum)” expresses beyond one’s expectation or further inquiry with a high and rising intonation. Example 83 嗯, 说话呀, 怎么了？[èn, shuō huà ya, zěn me le?] (Hum, talk to me. What’s the matter with you?) Example 84 看了照片, 你到底中意不中意, 嗯？别不好意思。[kàn le zhào piàn, nǐ dào dǐ zhòng yì bú zhòng yì, èn? bié bú hǎo yì sī.] (You’ve seen the picture. Do you like it or not? Hum? Don’t be shy.) Example 85 嗯, 怎么小闹钟又停了？[èn, zěn me xiǎo nào zhōng yòu tíng le?] (Oh, why did the little alarm clock stop again?) Example 86 嗯, 原来他们有亲戚关系, 我说的呢, 她特别受宠。[èn, yuán lái tā men yǒu qīn qī guān xì, wǒ shuō de ne, tā tè bié shòu chǒng.] (Um, it turns out they are related. No wonder she is so favored.) “啊 [ā] (ah)” expresses detailed inquiry because of not hearing clearly, with a rising intonation. Example 87 啊, 你说什么？刚才没听清楚。[ā, nǐ shuō shén me? gāng cái méi tīng qīng chǔ.] (Ah? What did you say? I didn’t catch that.) Example 88 啊, 什么事, 再说一遍。[ā, shén me shì, zài shuō yī biàn.] (Ah? What is it? Say it again.)

References Hu Mingyang. 1981. Modal Particles and Interjections in Beijing Dialect (I)&(II). Studies of the Chinese Language, 5th & 6th Issues. Zhou Jisheng. 1989. “啧” in Spoken Chinese. Chinese Teaching in the World, 4th Issue.

Bibliography

Chinese Department of Peking University. 1982. Examples of Function Words in Modern Chinese, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Ding Shengshu et al. 1961. Modern Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Hu Fu and Wen Lian. 1956. An Exploration of Contemporary Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Hu Yushu. 1979. Modern Chinese, Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press. Li Linding. 1986. Sentence Patterns in Modern Chinese, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Liao Qiuzhong. 1992. Collected Works of Liao Qiuzhong, Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Liu Yuehua. 1989. Essays on Chinese Grammar, Beijing: China Publishing Group. Liu Yuehua. 1990. The Use of Sentences, Beijing: People’s Education Press. Liu Yuehua. 1998. The Explanation of Directional Complements, Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Lu Jianming and Ma Zhen. 1985. Studies on Function Words in Modern Chinese Language, Beijing: Peking University Press. Lu Shuxiang. 1979. Issues on Analysis of Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Lu Shuxiang. 1980. Eight Hundred Words in Modern Chinese, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Lu Shuxiang. 1982. Essentials of Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Lu Zhiwei et al. 1964. Word Formation in Chinese, Beijing: Science Press. Ma Qingzhu. 1992. Chinese Verbs and Verbal Structures, Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Meng Cong et al. 1999. Chinese Verb Usage Dictionary, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1999. Middle School Chinese Office of People’s Education Press. 1984. Summary of Grammar System in Middle School Teaching (Trial), Beijing: People’s Education Press. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffery Leech, and Jan Svartvik. 1972. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London: London Group Ltd. Rao Changyong. 1997. Hierarchy Analysis in Chinese, Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1983. Grammar Research and Exploration (I), Beijing: Peking University Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1984. Grammar Research and Exploration (II), Beijing: Peking University Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1985. Grammar Research and Exploration (III), Beijing: Peking University Press.

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Studies of the Chinese Language. 1988. Grammar Research and Exploration (IV), Beijing: Peking University Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1991. Grammar Research and Exploration (V), Beijing: Language and Literature Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1992. Grammar Research and Exploration (VI), Beijing: Language and Literature Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1995. Grammar Research and Exploration (VII), Beijing: The Commercial Press. Studies of the Chinese Language. 1997. Grammar Research and Exploration (VIII), Beijing: The Commercial Press. Wang Huan. 1992. Chinese-English Dictionary of Function Words, Beijing: Sinolingua. Wang Li. 1982. Modern Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Xing Fuyi. 1986. Discussion on Grammar Problems, Hubei: Hubei Education Press. Zhang Bojiang and Fang Mei. 1996. Studies on Grammar Function of Chinese, Jiangxi: Jiangxi Education Press. Zhao Yuanren. 1980. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese (translated by Ding Bangxin), Beijing: The Chinese University Press. Zhu Dexi. 1980. Studies on Modern Chinese Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Zhu Dexi. 1982. Lecture Notes on Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Zhu Dexi. 1985. Questions and Answers on Grammar, Beijing: The Commercial Press. Zhu Dexi. 1989. Notes of Grammar, Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press.

Index

Note: numbers in bold indicate a table. 啊 [a] 112, 166–169; see also auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 啊 [à] (ah) 206; see also interjections 啊 [ā] (ah) 200, 208; see also interjections 唉 [ai] (alas) 199–200 嗳 [ài] (hi) 206–207 嗳 [ai] (oh/come on) 203–204 哎呀 [āi ya] (oh, my) 201–202, 204 哎哟 [ai yo] (oh, my) 201–202 按照 [àn zhào] (according to) 62–64 吧 [ba] see auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 把 [bǎ] (to) 7, 11, 48, 123 罢了 [bà le] see auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 被 [bèi] (by) 7, 11, 47 比 [bǐ] (compared) 7–8 并 [bìng] (and) 84–86 并且 [bìng qiě] (and) 84–86 不但 [bú dàn] (not only) 86–88 不管 [bù guǎn] (no matter) 105–108 不论 [bú lùn] (no matter) 105–108 朝 [cháo] (face/toward) 2, 53–58; see also prepositions 朝 [cháo] (from) 8 趁 [chèn] (take advantage of) 11 除 [chú] (except) 58–60 除非 [chú fēi] (unless) 108–109 除了(...以外) [chú le (...yǐ wài)] (except) 11 从 [cóng] (from) 2, 3, 15–23 从 . . . 到. . . . [cóng . . . dào] (from . . . to) 18–19 从 . . . 起 . . . [cóng . . . qǐ] (since) 20–21 打 [dǎ] (from) 2, 4, 23–27 当 [dāng] (when) 4 到 [dào] (to) 3

的 [de] see auxiliary words, mood; auxiliary words, structural; modal particles 地 [de] see auxiliary words, structural 得 [de] see auxiliary words, structural 都 [dōu] (all) 67–69, 105 都 [dōu] (even) 60 对 [duì] (for) 5, 34–40 对于 [duì yú] (for) 5, 34–40 嗯 [èn] (hum) 197, 206–208; see also 嗯 [ng] (hum) 而 [ér] (as well as) 80–84 给 [gěi] (for) 6, 44–53 跟 [gēn] (with) 6, 40–44, 69 根据 [gēn jù] (on the basis of)  9 关于 [guān yú] (for) 5, 34–40 过 [guò] 156–164; expressive function of 157–158; grammatical meanings of 156; sentences containing 158–164; see also auxiliary words, dynamic 哈哈 [ha ha] (ha-ha) 199 还是 [hái shì] (still) 76 和 [hé] (and) 69–71 和 [hé] (with) 6, 40–44 嘿 [hē] (hey) 208 喝 [hē] (oh, wow) 200–201, 205 嘿嘿 [hei hei] (hey-hey) 199 何况 [hé kuàng] (let alone) 88–90 哼 [hēng] (humph) 204–205 嗬嗬 [ho ho] (he-he) 199 嚯 [huo] (wow) 203 或者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or) 74–76 及 [jí] (and) 71–74 既 [jì] (since) 96–99

212

Index

将 [jiāng] (to) 7 叫 (让) [jiào (ràng)] (make) 7 即便 [jí biàn] (even if) 104 尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although) 99–102 既然 [jì rán] (since) 96–99 即若 [jí ruò] (even if) 104 即使 [jí shǐ] (even if) 102–104 就 [jiù] 90 据 [jù] (according to) 9 来着 [lái zhe] 164–165; see also auxiliary words, dynamic 了 [le] 118–135, 146; and action verb 119–120; as auxiliary word, dynamic 127–135; as auxiliary word, mood 136–148; grammatical meanings of 118–119; and momentary verb 121–123; sentences with 124–127; and state verb 120–121; and time 123–124; see also auxiliary words, dynamic; auxiliary words, mood 连 [lián] (along with) 11 连 [lián] (and/even) 60–62 论 [lùn] (by) 10 吗 [ma] see auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 嘛 [ma] see auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 么[me] see auxiliary words, mood 免得 [miǎn dé] (lest) 109–111 呢 [ne] 124, 166, 174–179; see auxiliary words, mood; modal particles 嗯 [ng] (hum) 201 宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather) 77 噢 [ō] (well) 205–206 呸 [pēi] (bah) 205 凭 [ping] (depending on) 9 省得 [shěng dé] (lest) 109–111 虽然 [suī rán] (although) 99–102 所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so) 90, 94–95 替 [tì] (for) 6, 44–53 同 [tóng] (with) 6, 40–44, 69 往 [wǎng] (go/toward) 3, 53–58 为 [wèi] (for) 6, 10, 44–53 为了 [wèi le] (for/to/in order to) 10 喂 [wèi/wéi] (hello/here) 207 为着 [wèi zhe] (for) 10 向 [xiàng] (face/toward) 3, 8, 53–58

唔 [wu] (hum) 206 无论 [wú lùn] (no matter) 67 无论 [wú lùn] (whether) 105–108 沿着 [yán zhe] (along) 3 依 [yī] (according to) 8 以 [yǐ] (depending on) 9 咦 [yí] (gee) 203 以便 [yǐ biàn] (so that) 109–111 以及 [yǐ jí] (and) 71–74 以免 [yǐ miǎn] (lest) 109–111 因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore) 94–95 因而 [yīn ér] (thus) 94–95 因为 [yīn wéi] (because) 90–94 依照 [yī zhào] (according to) 8–9 哟 [yō] (oh) 203 由 [yóu] (from) 2, 4, 23–27 由于 [yóu yú] (because of) 10, 90–94 于 [yú] (at) 5 于 [yú] (in) 2 于 [yú] (for) 7 与 [yǔ] (with) 69 与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than) 76–80 再说 [zài shuō] (what’s more) 88–90 在 [zài] (at/exist) 1–2, 28–34; see also adverbials 在 . . . [zài . . .] (at . . .) 28 在 [zài] (when) 4 啧 [zé] (click of tongue) 201 啧啧 [zé zé] (click of tongue) 201 照 [zhào] (according to) 9, 62–64 着 [zhe] 149–156; see also auxiliary words, dynamic 正 [zhèng] 32 只好 [zhǐ hǎo] (have no choice but to) 90 只有只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as) 104–105 只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if) 104–105 只 有 [zhǐ yǒu] A, 才 [cái] B (only if . . .) 104–105 至于 [zhì yú] (as to) 5 自 [zì] (from) 2, 3–4, 11, 14, 23, 26–27 自从 [zì cóng] (from, since) 4, 23, 27 纵然 [zòng rán] (even if) 104 adverbials: 按照 [àn zhào] (according to) 62; 朝 [cháo] (face/toward) 53; 从 . . . 到 . . . [cóng . . . dào . . .] 18–19; 打 [dǎ] (from) 26–27; and 地 [de] 112; 从 . . . 起 . . . [cóng . . . qǐ] (since) 20; 关 于 [guān yú] (about) 38; 替 [tì] (for) 51; 向 [xiàng] (toward) 56; 在 [zài] (at) 28; 自 [zì] (from) 26–27; manner 82–83; purpose, cause, or source 83–84; prepositional phrase functioning as 1, 13

Index adverbs: before 不如 [bù rú] (not as good as) 77; 多(么) [duō (me)] (much) 107; 尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although) 102; 正 [zhèng] 32; and conjunctions 67–68; of correlation 87, 96 attributes, prepositional phrase functioning as 14 auxiliary words 112–185; dynamic 118–165; structural 112–118; see also auxiliary words, dynamic; auxiliary words, mood; auxiliary words, structural; modal particles auxiliary words, dynamic: 过 [guò] 156–164; 来着 [lái zhe] 164–165; 了 [le] 118–135, 146; 着 [zhe] 149–156 auxiliary words, mood 112; 啊 [a] 112, 166–169; 了 [le] 136–148 auxiliary words, structural: 的 [de] 35, 62, 112–116; 地 [de] 116; 得 [de] 116; 等 [děng], 给 [gěi] (for) 48, 118; 似的/地 [shì de]; 所 [suǒ] 116–118 conjunctions 66–69 conjunctions, commonly used 69–111, 188–190; 并 [bìng] (and) 84–86; 并 且 [bìng qiě] (and) 84–86; 不但 [bú dàn] (not only) 86–88; 不管 [bù guǎn] (no matter) 105–108; 不论 [bú lùn] (no matter) 105–108; 除非 [chú fēi] (unless) 108–109; 而 [ér] (as well as) 80–84; 跟 [gēn] (with) 69; 还是 [hái shì] (still) 76; 和 [hé] (and) 69–71; 何 况 [hé kuàng] (let alone) 88–90; 或 者/或 [huò zhě/huò] (or) 74–76; 及 [jí] (and) 71–74; 既 [jì] (since) 96–99; 即 便 [jí biàn] (even if) 104; 尽管 [jǐn guǎn] (although) 99–102; 既然 [jì rán] (since) 96–99; 即若 [jí ruò] (even if) 104; 即使 [jí shǐ] (even if) 102–104; 就 [jiù] 90; 况且 [kuàng qiě] (furthermore) 88–90; 免得 [miǎn dé] (lest) 109–111; 宁可 [nìng kě] (would rather) 77; 省 得 [shěng dé] (lest) 109–111; 虽然 [suī rán] (although) 99–102; 所以 [suǒ yǐ] (so) 90, 94–95; 同 [tóng] (with) 69; 无 论 [wú lùn] (whether) 105–108; 以 便 [yǐ biàn] (so that) 109–111; 以免 [yǐ miǎn] (lest) 109–111; 因此 [yīn cǐ] (therefore) 94–95; 因而 [yīn ér] (thus) 94–95; 以及 [yǐ jí] (and) 71–74; 因为 [yīn wéi] (because) 90–94; 由于 [yóu yú] (because of) 90–94; 与 [yǔ] (with) 69; 与其 [yǔ qí] (rather than) 76–80; 再 说 [zài shuō] (what’s more) 88–90; 只好

213

[zhǐ hǎo] (have no choice but to) 90; 只 有只要 [zhǐ yào] (as long as) 104–105; 只有 [zhǐ yǒu] (only if) 104–105; 纵然 [zòng rán] (even if) 104 interjections 197–208; features of 197–199 interjections, enumeration of 199–208; 啊 [ā] (ah) 201, 206, 208; 唉 [ai] (alas) 199–200; 嗳 [ai] (oh/come on) 203–204; 嗳 [ài] (hi) 206–207; 哎呀 [āi ya] (oh, my) 201–202, 204; 哎哟 [ai yo] (oh, my) 201–202; 嗯 [èn] (hum) 206, 207, 208; 哈哈 [ha ha] (ha-ha) 199; 喝 [hē] (oh, wow) 200–201, 205; 嗬 [hē] (oh, wow) 200–201; 呵 [hē] (oh, wow) 200–201, 205; 嘿 [hē] (hey) 208; 嘿 嘿 [hei hei] (hey-hey) 199; 哼 [hēng] (humph) 204–205; 嗬嗬 [ho ho] (he-he) 199; 嚯 [huo] (wow) 203; 嗯 [ng] (hum) 201; 噢 [ō] (well) 205–206; 呸 [pēi] (bah) 205; 喂 [wèi/wéi] (hello/here) 207; 唔 [wu] (hum) 206; 咦 [yí] (gee) 203; 哟 [yō] (oh) 203; 啧 [zé] (click of tongue) 201; 啧啧 [zé zé] (click of tongue) 201; admiration 200–201; anger 204–205; annoyance 199–200; calling and responding 206–207; disagreement 203–204; disillusion 205–206; further inquiry 208; joy 199; surprise 201–203 modal particles 165–185; 啊 [a] 166–169; 吧 [ba] 166, 179–183; 罢了 [bà le] 184–185; 呗 [bei] 185; 的 [de] 183–184; 而已 [ér yǐ] (that’s all) 184–185; 了 [le] 161, 165–166, 184; 吗 [ma] 166, 169–174; 嘛 [ma] 185; 呢 [ne] 166, 174–179 mood auxiliary words see auxiliary words, mood onomatopoeic words 191–196; classification of 192–193; grammatical functions of 193–196 prepositional phrases: as adverbials 13; as attributes 14; as complements 14; grammatical functions of 13–15; as objects 14; as subjects 15 prepositions 1–65; for basis 8–10; classifications of 1–11; and conjunctions, differences between 68–69; grammatical features of 11–15; for object 5–8; for other aspects 11; for reason 10–11; for space 1–3; for time 3–5; usage of 15–65

214

Index

prepositions (individual): 按 [àn] (according to) 8, 62–64; 按照 [àn zhào] (according to) 62–64; 把 [bǎ] (to) 7; 被 [bèi] (by) 7; 比 [bǐ] (compared) 7; 朝 [cháo] (face/toward) 2, 53–58; 朝 [cháo] (from) 8; 趁 [chèn] (take advantage of) 11; 除 [chú] (except) 58–60; 除了(...以外) [chú le(...yǐ wài)] (except) 11; 从 [cóng] (from) 2, 3, 15–23; 打 [dǎ] (from) 2, 4, 23–27; 当 [dāng] (when) 4; 到 [dào] (to) 3; 对 [duì] (for) 5, 34–40; 对于 [duì yú] (for) 5, 34–40; 给 [gěi] (for) 6, 44–53; 跟 [gēn] (with) 6, 40–44; 根据 [gēn jù] (on the basis of) 9; 关于 [guān yú] (for) 5, 34–40; 和 [hé] (with) 6, 40–44; 将 [jiāng] (to) 7; 叫(让) [jiào(ràng)] (make) 7; 据 [jù] (according to) 9; 连 [lián] (along with) 11; 连 [lián] (and/ even) 60–62; 论 [lùn] (by) 10; 凭

[ping] (depending on) 9; 替 [tì] (for) 6, 44–53; 同 [tóng] (with) 6, 40–44; 往 [wǎng] (go/toward) 3, 53–58; 为 [wèi] (for) 6, 10, 44–53; 为了 [wèi le] (for/to/in order to) 10; 为着 [wèi zhe] (for) 10; 向 [xiàng] (face/toward) 3, 8, 53–58; 沿着 [yán zhe] (along) 3; 依 [yī] (according to) 8; 以 [yǐ] (depending on) 9; 依照 [yī zhào] (according to) 8–9; 由 [yóu] (from) 2, 4, 23–27; 由于 [yóu yú] (because of) 10; 于 [yú] (at) 5; 于 [yú] (in) 2; 于 [yú] (for) 7; 在 [zài] (at/ exist) 1–2, 28–34; 在 [zài] (when) 4; 照 [zhào] (according to) 9, 62–64; 至 于 [zhì yú] (as to) 5; 自 [zì] (from) 2, 23–27; 自[zì] (from) 3; 自从 [zì cóng] (from, since) 4, 23–27 structural auxiliary words see auxiliary words, structural