Planets, Potions, and Parchments: Scientifica Hebraica from the Dead Sea Scrolls to the Eighteenth Century [1 ed.] 0773507914, 9780773507913

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planets, potions and parchments

St. Olaf College "WAY 0 1 1991 Science Library

plAnets, potions and pARChments Scientifica Hebraica from the Dead Sea Scrolls to the Eighteenth Century

B. Barry Levy

Published for the Jewish Public Library

by McGill-Queen’s University Press Montreal & Kingston • London • Buffalo

©Jewish Public Library 1990 ISBN 0-7735-0793-0 (cloth) ISBN 0-7735-0791-4 (paper) Legal deposit second quarter 1990 Bibliotheque nationale du Quebec

Printed in Canada on acid-free paper

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Levy, B. Barry Planets, potions, and parchments: scientific Hebraica from the Dead Sea scrolls to the eighteenth century Catalogue of an exhibition, presented by the Jewish Public Library, held at the David M. Stewart Museum in Montreal, from May to September, 1990. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-7735-0793-0 (bound). ISBN 0-7735-0791-4 (pbk.) 1. Science — History — Sources — Bibliography — Exhibitions. 2. Medicine — History — Sources — Bibliography — Exhibitions. 3. Hebrew imprints — Bibliography — Exhibitions. I. Jewish Public Library (Montreal, Quebec) II. David M. Stewart Museum III. Title. Q105.C3M65 1990

016.509

C90-090230-2

Graphic design and Hebrew calligraphy by: “LEOGRAPHIC” Efly Givon Designer

Contents Foreword

vii

Preface

vin

Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction: Of Whirlwinds and Crucibles

l

Chapter One

God and Nature in Ancient Times Chapter Two

Chapter Three

Astronomy

19

Mathematics and Geometry

39

Chapter Four

General Science

Chapter Five Chapter Six Chapter Seven

9

51

Medicine

65

Science and Religious Ritual

95

Geography and Cartography 109 Postscript 133 Glossary 135 Bibliography 136 Index 138

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Introduction Of Whirlwinds and Crucibles

God and Nature

To be sure, scientific awareness predates Job.

Job, the pious hero of the biblical book that

The ancient Sumerians and Egyptians were keen

bears his name, was challenged by Satan (with

observers of nature. Solomon, a biblical sage of

God’s approval) in a test of his faith. After

legendary proportions, is described as a master of

seemingly endless tragedy, including loss of his

natural science — having knowledge of all types of

wealth, the deaths of his children, and continuous

trees, animals, birds, insects, and fish (I Kings

physical suffering, Job demanded that God reveal

5:13-14). The ancients possessed much medical

to him his sins, the justifications of his

and astronomical knowledge; skulls discovered at

presumably divinely ordained torture. Unmoved

biblical and pre-biblical sites, for instance,

by appeals to justice or by the psychological needs

conclusively demonstrate their ability to perform

of His devoted servant, God declined to answer

successful cranial surgery. The devising of

Job’s request. Instead, He confronted him from a

medical treatments and quarantine, the creation

whirlwind (a tornado or a storm) with a lengthy

of calendars, predictions of astronomical

series of taunts, including:

phenomena, the development of mathematical

Where were you when I built the earth’s foundations?

sophistication, and the awareness of procedures that could enhance agricultural productivity all

Did you ever command the day to begin?

underscore ongoing attempts throughout

Have you gone to the depths of the sea?

Antiquity to master nature and the environment.

Do you know the laws of heaven?

But these were often accompanied by beliefs to

Can you raise your voice to the clouds?

the effect that political and military successes or

Can you make lightning go?

failures were a diety’s conscious choices, that the

Do you know when mountain goats give birth?

presence or absence of rainfall was divine

Do you give the horse strength?

response to human behaviour, and that human

Does the eagle fly at your voice? ... Job 38-39

illness was punishment for violating religious taboos. Concomitant beliefs often assumed divine

Job’s meek response, ... Therefore, I spoke but did not understand, Things too wondrous for me I did not know ... (42:3),

abilities to do whatever was desired. Divine interference in nature was deemed to be a possible, if not a frequent, event. The Bible repeatedly portrays God as above

conceded the strength of God’s position. God’s

nature and in control of it. This position stood in

mastery of these and other natural phenomena set

contrast to ancient pantheistic paganism, which

Him apart from man. Having created both man

perceived divine and semi-divine forces in all

and nature, God epitomized the knowledge and

objects and natural phenomena, and offered a

power that placed Him above and beyond the

litany of rites and observances to manipulate

levels of ignorance and impotence exemplified by

them, or a least to attract their positive aspects

Job and, by extension, the rest of the human race.

and deflect their negative ones. The Bible offered

Taken to its radical conclusion, this assumption

the notion that the universe had been created by

leaves God the Creator and Master, and people

one God, who could control its forces and use

insignificant creatures whose only real knowledge

them to serve His will, in some cases as rewards

is of their insignificance and whose only grace lies

and punishments for His creatures. Occasionally,

in suffering under the divine master’s harangues.

He even changed the course of what appears as

Though this position did influence some religious thinkers, it was not adopted thoughout

nature to achieve these goals, as when He sent the plagues against the Egyptians through Moses,

the Bible and did not become a normative Jewish

delayed sunset so that Joshua could complete a

idea. Nor, on the whole, did Western civilization

battle, captured Jonah in the belly of a fish after

identify with it. In a symbolic sense, people

he had been trapped in a storm, and defeated the

reacted to it by trying to learn what only God

four hundred Baal priests through a heavenly fire

seeemed to know; the evolution of this quest for

brought down at the demand of Elijah.

knowledge of nature - the history of science - has been the human response to God’s intimidation of Job.

On Miracles While the Bible seems quite comfortable with

these stories, post-biblical thinkers were often

interpreters even used them to justify augmenting

troubled by them. Philo of Alexandria (first

miracles described in tire Bible almost at will,

century CE), the best-known Jewish thinker of

substituting, through midrashic fancy, miracle on

Hellenistic Egypt, asserted God’s ability to

top of miracle for some scientifically defensible

influence the world by directing the natural forces

biblical reports.

that He had created. But shortly thereafter, the rabbis in Israel taught that many objects and events seemingly not in conformity' with nature had been created during the final moments of the sixth day of creation. They thus suggested that these apparent exceptions to nature were, in themselves, part of it, not deviations or alterations after the fact. A few centuries later, Genesis Rabbah went even further, articulating a principle that accommodated virtually every possible change. It suggested that God contracted with each tiling He created that it would be available to

Pre-modem writers, for the most part, believed in God and tire Bible. Therefore, though tire potential for conflicts with emerging scientific knowledge was great, tire commitment to resolving tire conflicts was strong. Tire results of this Commitment are evident in the welldocumented presence of scientific discussions in religious books and in tire fact that many important I lebrew scientific works were composed by, with tire support of, or at the

perform the unusual acts He might request in the

request of tire same rabbis who served as tire

future. Thus, all matter was enlisted in the service

nation’s religious leaders.

of God and prepared to alter its natural course. Medieval philosophers wrote extensively' about

Frequently, the authors of the most important medieval Jewish tracts on mathematics,

miracles, as the unusual events described in these

astronomy, geography, and medicine are well

passages came to be known. Some perceived

known as rabbinic writers. Maimonides, Moses

them as evidence of divine concern for mankind

Isserles, Elijah Mizrahi, Abraham Urn Ezra,

and direct interference in the course of human

Gersonides, and Mordecai Jaffe are famous as

existence; miracles thus proved God’s existence

Bible commentators or halakhic authorities; their

and His involvement with people. Such thinkers

names are well known to all who dabble, however

were prone to read biblical miracle stories as

casually, in classical rabbinic literature. Their

accurate historical reports, though they were not

discussions of scientific matters are less well

necessarily of one mind on how to understand

known, but, in some cases, they' were of universal

exactly what had occurred. Others agreed that the Bible would not relate

significance, not merely Jewish interest. It may' be somewhat imprecise to call them scientists and

untruths, but suggested that the truths of the

their works scientific, because application of the

miracle narratives might fall outside tire historical

term to medieval thinkers is anachronistic, but

realm. In other words, tire point of an account of

this exhibition highlights their contributions to

a miracle could be to teach divine protection of

what we now call the sciences, and no more

Israel, to warn of tire impending punishment of

satisfactory' term is available.

evildoers, or to glorify' tire Creator. Some

Forceful pressures to convert were

representatives of this group went so far as to

exerted on Iberian Jews from the end of the

claim that biblical narratives were written as

fourteenth century until tire expulsion a century

miracle stories to captivate and educate tire naive

later. So many of these people and their children,

and ignorant, but that sophisticated readers would

known variously as Marranos, conversos, new

appreciate tire birth behind them and not be

Christians, and secret Jews, advanced to

misled by their fabulous aspects. In this case, an

positions of power in the church and government

allegorical reading of each story — which offered

that major efforts were undertaken to certify and

an abstract concept, not historical information, as

preserve bearers of pure Spanish blood. Indeed, it

its main point — would be required.

often seemed impossible for pure-blooded

Other approaches to explaining divine

Iberians to resist the collective assault on

interference in nature were suggested as well, but

knowledge, wealth, and power waged bv this

one tiring remained clear: either God could be

important group. Both Jewish and non-Jewish

credited with the ability to change natural law or

leaders vigorously debated the status of the

He could not. In tire former case, virtually

Marranos, many of whom returned to Judaism

anything became possible; in tire latter, tire par¬

when given the opportunity to escape to

ticular biblical passage had lobe either interpreted

Amsterdam, Venice, or other friendly cities. But

in light of what was accepted as possible

their access to the universities and to the most

according to non-biblical thinking or else be

advanced scientific knowledge of flic day ensured

deprived of any serious authority.

their impact on cartography, astronomy,

Problems inherent in these positions, coupled

medicine, and other sciences; in the context of

with scientific skepticism about religious

recent Jewish scholarly trends that acknowledge

teachings or tire pious assumption that God and

their Jewishness, fliev, too, deserve a place in the

His actions arc beyond human understanding,

exhibition.

have fostered tire anti-scientific attitudes popularized by some religious writers. Some

4 / Planets, Potions and Parchments

Judaism and Science

Jewish and Marrano contributions were shared fully with the non-Jewish world. Jews often wrote

in Arabic, Latin, or the other accepted languages of scientific expression, and translated works into Hebrew, thereby ensuring that the essential

collection of scientific compositions. Many of these have never been published, and very few of those tiiat have been exist in scientific

compositions by learned Christians and Moslems

editions. This situation highlights a paradoxical

would be available to their co-religionists who

trend that has dominated Jewish studies for the

were less fluent in these languages. Hundreds of

past several centuries. As late as the eighteenth

important scientific works were translated from

century, writers were composing syntiietic works

Arabic into Hebrew, and often from Hebrew into

in which religion and science informed and

Latin; similar exchanges were routine for works

influenced each otiier. As the sciences drew away

composed in Hebrew. Indeed, one may readily

from religion, and religion from the sciences, tins

document both the international and

pattern ceased to exist, and several alternatives

interconfessional nature of the medieval scientific

emerged.

endeavour and die important role in its development played by Jewish writers and translators. The multi-faceted education of medieval tunes encouraged mastery of all knowledge as it existed,

The religious community tended to ignore scientific concerns and to focus on religious and spiritual issues. It is inaccurate to attribute this trend only to die emergence of Hasidic Judaism, because some Hasidic writers, such as Rabbi

and therefore doctors of sacred law (Moslem,

Gershon Henoch (who, after much scientific

Christian, or Jewish) could be expected to study

research, reinstituted the use of blue threads in

medicine, astronomy, and the other scientific

the tzitzit) and Rabbi Solomon of Helm (who had

disciplines. In fact, mastery of halakhah (Jewish

a strong interest in mathematics), did contribute

religious law), the professional requirement of

to the Jewish scientific literature. But the

every rabbi, necessitated extensive knowledge and

mystical atmosphere fostered by many Hasidic

understanding of astronomy, die internal and

groups left little room for independent scientific

external anatomy of all kosher animals, die

thinking.

theories of combustion and causality, all sorts of

As Hasidism was developing into a leading

botanical information, and many aspects of

religious movement, the scholarly study of

gynaecology, pediatrics, and internal medicine.

Judaism, which explored many aspects of the

Geometry was needed for calculating the sizes of

religion’s evolution in an attempt to understand

irregular plots of land, and familiarity with the

its history literature, beliefs, and practices,

technicalities of mathematics was so necessary

emerged as an important intellectual priority. But

for rendering decisions in inheritance claims that

while it attempted to be scientific, it was not

compendia of these laws sometimes began with

particularly interested in science. Wissenschaft

math lessons. Astronomical works ostensibly

des Judentums, “the science of Judaism,” as this

devoted to explaining the workings of die calendar

intellectual endeavour was known, was, itself, not

were often introduced by a lengthy essay on

overly concerned with Wissenschaft; it had its

geometry, and the laws of probability were an

own agenda, dominated by a deep concern for the

important element in the codification of many

intellectual study of Judaism and often by a desire

problems associated with the dietaiy regulations.

for religious reform.

The need to know specific aspects of tiiese

The legitimate institutional heirs to the

sciences assumed die integration of scientific and

medieval commitment to integrating religion and

religious concerns; the intellectual abilities and

science are, ironically, Orthodox — Yeshiva

accomplishments of the people who were involved

University and several Israeli schools of higher

virtually ensured their additional curiosity,

learning tiiat describe themselves as both

thorough study of the fields, and, in some cases,

scientific and religious. Yeshiva University’s

original contributions to diem. But even if diese

motto, Torah uMadac (“Torah and Science”) has

factors were deemed of secondary importance, die

emerged from decades of ideological scrutiny as a

vast number of astronomical, biological,

call for the synthesis of religious and scientific

mathematical, and medical discussions hi the

studies. How it fulfills tins goal and how that

Talmud required that any serious talmudist be

fulfillment differs from the medieval model on

conversant with much scientific information, and

which it is based are beyond our present concern,

careful examination of the medieval

but similarly minded institutions that teach

commentaries, an essential aspect of all Talmud

commitment to these potentially conflicting

study, shows tiiat the scientific data had advanced

systems of til ought are rare indeed.

beyond any limitations inherent in its local Babylonian origins. Nothing illustrates the relationship between the sciences and Judaism more clearly than the sheer numbers of Hebrew manuscripts and books on die sciences. Thousands of Jews contributed to the study of the sciences, and many wrote scientific books. Many libraries possess hundreds of Hebrew manuscripts, each of which is a

Science for Its Own Sake Much of die scientific study undertaken by Jews in ancient and medieval times was motivated by practical concerns — religious, medical, or agricultural. But die exploration of science for its own sake also was far from unusual, as can be seen from the range of dieoretical discussions that found then way into

5 / Of Whirlwinds and Crucibles

the literature. Inevitably, the number of non-Je-

preserved by Jews for use in scientific study. In

wish scientific thinkers far surpassed the number

some cases, they also provide important variant

of Jewish ones, and their collective contribution

readings in marginal or inter-linear notations, and

was therefore far greater. This led to some later

a few works are presented in both manuscript and

perceptions of science as foreign to and even as

printed versions, which allows a comparison of

conflicting with Jewish interests, which

these two forms of transmission.

sometimes tended to draw Jews away from

The exhibited items also offer a good sample of

science and to leave the impression that they did

the scholarly languages used by Jews during the

not contribute measurably to its development.

last thousand years, including Hebrew, Arabic,

In some cases, the patent for a particular tool

Latin (which was the language of European

or notion properly belongs to a Jewish writer, but

scholarly discourse and not reserved for the

it remained for modem historians to ensure

church), Spanish, Aramaic, Portuguese, German,

proper attribution. The function of the Fallopian

and Yiddish. They also portray the history of

tubes, called shevil (“path”) in Hebrew and na¬

writing, the evolution of both the Semitic and

med after Fallopias, who discovered, in the six¬

Western scripts, the types of writing materials in

teenth century, that they served as paths for the

use — ceramic bowls, papers, and parchments —

ova, is described by Maimonides in Hilkhot Issu-

and the resultant types of amulets, manuscripts,

rei Bi 'ah 5:4, though it is possible that he depen¬

and printed books.

ded on earlier medical sources. That hemophilia

The ancient and medieval sciences were

was carried through the female’s family was dis¬

traditionally subdivided into four or seven

cussed in the Babylonian Talmud. And credit for

categories, and Renaissance writers occasionally

the invention of the Jacob’s Staff (properly Gerso-

added others, such as economics and printing.

nides’) was often attributed to others. In short,

The modern sciences include a host of previously

science was a respected international activity in

unfathomed specialties and sub-specialties, to

which Jews shared, from which they learned, to

which historians of science have sometimes

which they contributed, and which, in many ca¬

added history, philology, linguistics, and other

ses , had a profound impact on both their physical

areas often classified as part of the humanities and

and spiritual lives.

social sciences. But, simply put, most of the items discussed below can be classified as part of either

Papers and Parchments The books and manuscripts assembled here can be examined from a number of perspectives. Each is part of the history of science and contains interesting data on the pre-modem evolution of the quest to understand “the world and fullness thereof.” Its contribution to the modem understanding of the world may be minimal or nil, but this is not necessarily indicative of its historical impact, though some items — for instance, most of the folk cures and amulets — were never of great importance. Because many of the books were composed by rabbis or by scholars who wrote with their religious leaders’ support or encouragement, they also should be explored as components of Jewish religious history. Those who wish to derive contemporary religious guidance from earlier Jewish writers may learn much about the integration of science and religion from some of their attempts at synthesis, even if the scientific contents are outdated. Those opposed to such endeavours will find support for ignoring such works and their intellectual model in the fact that many compromises and reinterpretations suggested by earlier scientists have been discredited by later ones. Of course, many of the compositions have had relatively little impact on the development of modem science, while others have had equally little impact on the teachings of contemporary Judaism. Because few of the texts assembled are autographs, virtually all of them exemplify the efforts made to copy and recopy the literature

6 / Planets, Potions and Parchments

the physical or life sciences. The former are dominated by astronomy but include formal cosmologies, mathematics, and geometry, applications of all three to determining the calendar, and meteorology. The latter are largely concerned with medicine and general biology, and also include related rituals such as kosher slaughter and circumcision. All. of the works listed as general science fit into both of these categories, and many of the specialized works assigned to the seven chapters in this catalogue contain discussions of several areas and could have been placed differently. The science-based religious rituals, grouped, for the sake of convenience, in an independent chapter, could also fit neatly into one or another scientific category. Though it has seemed best to group the various books and manuscripts into several chapters and a number of smaller sub-units, many items could easily serve as examples of several fields, and, in several cases, photographs of items displayed in one chapter have also been added to another. While science is largely descriptive, pre-modem writers often sought to find meaning in various natural phenomena and scientific facts. Thus, astronomy was applied to human circumstances through astrology; mathematics became the basis of a sophisticated system of numerology; and medicine was helped along through kabbalistic amulets that complemented biology. The practice of bloodletting was considered medicine; determining when it was efficacious to perform the procedure was controlled by astrology.

Jewish books about science can be studied

rather than a complementary approach to the

from several different perspectives. Here, much

rabbinic world view. Perhaps philosophy, science,

attention is given to the internal Jewish signifi¬

and the Bible appeared to be essentially one

cance of the material, and not only to its

interrelated, inherently problematic discipline,

relevance to the history of science. 'Ibis reflects

whose free spirit and critical goals were

my personal interest in the history of Judaism,

uncontrollable and best shunned.

and recognizes the importance of the classical concern for the integration of religion and science. It is unquestionably true that many of tire lead¬

Using the Catalogue The entries describing the exhibited items

ing medieval rabbis were well trained in the

contain two parts. Following the item’s catalogue

sciences. While some challenged the use of philo¬

number is essential bibliographic information.

sophical-scientific works that necessitated a radi¬

This includes the tide, the author, date and place

cal re-evaluation of traditonal religious thinking,

of publication, the publisher, and the name of the

many others did not. During the Renaissance, in

lending institution. Manuscripts are provided, in

particular, the sciences were well integrated with

the place of publication information, with available

religious concerns, and the literature is replete

data about the scribe, script, and place and date

with examples of kabbalistic scientists, pious

copied. For the latter, I have relied heavily on the

writers who accepted and worked to synthesize

published catalogues of the collections, which are

the teachings of both tradition and science. Du¬

sometimes incomplete, especially when the date

ring the late pre-modem era this attitude changed,

and place of production must be determined solely

and its implications for the history of Judaism

through paleography. These library collections are

have been profound and pervasive.

listed in a special section of the bibliography, and

I would estimate that about thirty percent of the men whose commentaries appear in the Amster¬ dam 1724 Rabbinic Bible (Qehillot Moshe) also

the manuscript number follows the name of the lending institution. The entries also provide brief biographical and

contributed to the study of the sciences. How¬

historical information about the author and his

ever, about ten percent of those whose writings

work. Since many writers contributed to more

were included in the Romm edition of the Babylo¬

than one scientific area, the biographical

nian Talmud did so. This highlights one difference

information is usually found in the first entry, and

between eighteenth and nineteenth centuiy ap¬

subsequent references are marked with an

proaches to the interpretation of sacred literature:

asterisk, which indicates that the person is

the latter favoured writers with fewer scientific

discussed elsewhere in the catalogue. The precise

credentials. But it also points to a major intellec¬

location(s) can be determined through the index.

tual split in the religious community. With some

Some writers discussed in this catalogue are the

marked exceptions, talmudists tended to study

subjects of lengthy monographs or books, but

and teach Talmud in isolation or through more

others are virtually unknown; sometimes, the

traditional approaches, and those who did not are

available biographical sketches repeat essentially

less represented in what has become the standard

the same few facts. While I have verified much, in

Talmud edition. Biblicists, in contrast, were more

many cases full verification has been impossible;

involved as a group in the study of philosophy and

despite the improvements that additional research

the sciences, and then approach to the Bible was therefore informed by these disciplines. This created a schism that continued to grow in subsequent years and produced a situation in which the Talmud has become virtually the sole concern of Orthodox Jewish religious education. The Bible, philosophy, and science (as well as history, literature, grammar, and other traditional subjects) have all been relegated to marginal status. It is not immediately clear whether Bible study was neglected primarily because those most devoted to it were also committed to philosophy and science, but that seems to be a part of the reason. In many circles it offered a competing

might afford (or that experts on the history of science might make), I have not had sufficient time to attempt the task between being asked to serve as Guest Curator and the required date for completing the catalogue, some six months later. I beg the reader’s indulgence for sometimes having gleaned rather than harvested my own crop; I pray that a sufficient amount of grain has been collected, nonetheless, and that a minimum of chaff has remained after the winnowing. Those who wish to explore individual writers or topics further may be initially guided by the bibliography, which includes references for general works and for almost every specific catalogue entry.

7 / Of Whirlwinds and Crucibles

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Chapter One

god and nature in ancient times

The voice of the Lord is over the waters,,. 'Hie voice of the Lord is powerful The voice of the Lord is glorious 'Idle voice of the Lord smashes cedars,,. The voice of the Lord cuts like fire The voice of the Lord shakes the desert... Psalm 29:3-8

And God said [to Elijah], “Come out and stand on the mountain before the Lord.” And the Lord passed by; and there was an extremely powerful wind that split mountains and smashed boulders. The Lord was not in the wind. And after the wind there was an earthquake; and the Lord was not in the earthquake. And after the earthquake, there was a fire; and the Lord was not in the fire. But after the fire, a soft, low voice ... I Kings 19:11 -12

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