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PETER LANG
FLOCEL SABATÉ (ed.)
PERVERSE IDENTITIES
IDENTITIES IN CONFLICT
Identities. An interdisciplinary approach to the roots of the present Identités. Une approche interdisciplinaire aux racines du présent Identidades. Una aproximación interdisciplinar a las raíces del presente
The urgent need for the study of exclusive identities in conflict is ever more apparent in a globalizing world in which societies are becoming multicultural and complex and in which inter-cultural contact and the co-existence of languages and cultures comes increasingly to bear on the construction of plural identities. The present book considers perversion in the construction of identity and the perverse usage of identity in areas such as social cohesion – xenophobia, racism, ostracism, rejection, ageism, marginalisation – and the mismanagement of linguistic identity, language groups and associated discriminatory practise arising out of historical and culturally based discrimination. The texts were submitted in an international meeting held in the Institute for Identities and Societies of the University on Lleida (Catalonia, Spain) in November 2012.
FLOCEL SABATÉ is Professor of Medieval History and director of the Institute for Identities and Society (IRIS), at the University of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain). He has led many research projects attending interdisciplinary approaches to social identities and has wrote many studies, specially about European Medieval Society.
www.peterlang.com
PERVERSE IDENTITIES
Identities. An interdisciplinary approach to the roots of the present Identités. Une approche interdisciplinaire aux racines du présent Identidades. Una aproximación interdisciplinar a las raíces del presente
Vol. 3
Editorial Board: – Flocel Sabaté (Editor) (Institut for Research into Identities and Society, Universitat de Lleida) – Paul Aubert (Aix Marseille Université) – Patrick Geary (University of California, Los Angeles) – Susan Reisz (Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú) – Maria Saur (London University)
PETER LANG Bern · Berlin · Bruxelles · Frankfurt am Main · New York · Oxford · Wien
FLOCEL SABATÉ (ed.)
PERVERSE IDENTITIES
IDENTITIES IN CONFLICT
PETER LANG Bern · Berlin · Bruxelles · Frankfurt am Main · New York · Oxford · Wien
Bibliographic information published by die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at ‹http://dnb.d-nb.de›. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library, Great Britain Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available
Institute for Research into Identities and Society (IRIS) at the University of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain) ISBN 978-3-0343-1556-2 pb. ISSN 2296-3537 pb.
ISBN 978-3-0351-0774-6 eBook ISSN 2296-3545 eBook
This publication has been peer reviewed. © Peter Lang AG, International Academic Publishers, Bern 2015 Hochfeldstrasse 32, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland [email protected], www.peterlang.com All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. Printed in Switzerland
Contents
Flocel Sabaté Perverse Identities. Identities in conflict��������������������������������������������������� 9 María Teresa Quintillà Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic������������� 19 Jesús Corsà Identity in conflict in a Medieval border: the case of an offer/agreement by the count Ermengol VI of Urgell������ 47 Pilar Jiménez Identités en conflit. Disputes entre catholiques et « bons hommes » à la veille de la Croisade contre les Albigeois, 1206-1207���������������������� 59 Luciano Gallinari Ethnic identity in medieval Sardinia: rethinking and reflecting on 14th and 15th century examples������������������� 81 Esther Martí The Battle of Sanluri in the process of recreating Sardinian identity��� 119 Rafael M. Mérida Magia, hechicería y sexualidad en la narrativa caballeresca temprana: tres identidades perversas y domesticadas�������������������������� 147 Marta Miquel-Baldellou Tracing Miss Havisham in the Mirror, or Aging through the Other������ 171 Jacques Migozzi « Hypocrite lecteur, mon semblable, mon frère ! » : le roman populaire du XIXe siècle et de la Belle Époque entre manichéisme et mauvaise foi������������������������������������������������������� 187
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Matthieu Letourneux Vous dites Fantômas ? Dynamique sérielle et identités perverses��������� 201 Emma Domínguez-Rué Helpless and Invisible: Female Identity, Invalidism and the Cult of True Womanhood in Ellen Glasgow’s The Miller of Old Church����� 215 Régis Meyran Du mythe à l’idéologie politique : l’utilisation des légendes populaires par le Régime de Vichy��������������� 231 Daniel Carmona, Raúl Travé Agrarian Colonization and Francoist neo-traditionalism���������������������� 249 José Antonio Langarita Perversion, Urbanity and Homosexuals. Multidimensionality in the Sex Life of the City����������������������������������� 259 Šárka Novotná Cléopâtre de la Main parmi les ruines de l’identité du papier mâché : les identités perverses dans Hosanna de Michel Tremblay��������������������273 Estrella Díaz Aventura y perversión en El último goliardo����������������������������������������� 291 Luis Espinosa Evil in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld: Havelock Vetinari������������������������ 301 Benoît Santini Identités perverses et malfaisantes versus identités rebelles dans la poésie chilienne de la dictature et de la Transition�������������������� 323 Kálai Sándor Les structures de la perversion (L’analyse de quelques romans de Thierry Jonquet)������������������������������ 353 Mariona Lladonosa The use of immigration in the debate on identity in Catalonia during the course of resumption of democracy�������������������������������������� 369
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Laura Menna Hashtag Identity: Semiotics of The Spanish 15M Protest��������������������� 399 Mariona Visa Front Pages of the Spanish and Catalan Press on the Demonstration of September 11th, 2012: Illustrating a National Identity or a Nationalist Farce?�������������������������� 413 Pablo Giori Cultural nationalism: How are cultural practices involved in the nation-building process?�������������������������������������������������������������� 431 María Ángeles Calero El morfema género en el pensamiento de la Real Academia Española: ¿Cuestión que va más allá de la teoría gramatical?������������������������������� 447 Mónica Labonia La royauté joola-ajamaat : constructions sémantiques et représentations autour du genre��������������������������������������������������������� 475 Montse Solsona Immigration subsaharienne et altérité : une approche sociobiographique à la perception de la différence������������������������������� 497 Chabier Gimeno Cultural Bricolage on Minors who Migrate on Their Own������������������ 527 Teresa Torres Reconstruction of the identity in destination���������������������������������������� 561 Fidel Molina, Dolors Mayoral, Paquita Sanvicén Leadership and Complex Identities in Associations of African Immigrants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 579 Joseba Achotegui Mi Nombre es Nadie. El Síndrome de Ulises. Emigrar en el Siglo XXI. Salud Mental y Migración���������������������������� 591
Perverse Identities. Identities in conflict Flocel Sabaté Universitat de Lleida
We cannot live without identity. In the 12th century, Chrétien de Troyes explained that when the Knight of the Lion stopped remembering his past acts, he did not know who he was and stopped living like a human being: he went into the forest and fed on raw meat1. To be human and to live like, and among, humans, one has to maintain an identity, based on memory. This acts, structured as a historical account, as the thread that bonds a human being to a group, which then invokes its own cohesion or unity through social and cultural traits, shared over a time longer than the life of the individual2. The jumble of explicative ideas that act as the mortar to link the account of the memory that the identity is built on inextricably conditions the whole and how this is experienced. That is reason for the trilogy: identity, memory and ideology3. Identity is concentric, the sum of circles of solidarity among its members. The working of European medieval society is a good example. The consolidation of the notion of lineage generated a specific cohesion, followed by another made up of the solidarity group, either feudal or a dependence on the band, to which another was added with the jurisdictional domain or being part of a municipal community. Above these, the consolidation of national feudal monarchies aimed to establish another higher circle, which was crowned by yet a higher one, of belonging to Christianity. In each circle, individuals exteriorise mechanisms of internal solidarity and rejection of those who do not form part of it, with the corollaries of tension and violence. However, although they may fight 1 2
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Chrétien de Troyes, El Caballero del León (Madrid: Siruela, 1986), p. 50. Flocel Sabaté, “Identidad y memoria en el oficio del historiador”, ¿Qué implica ser medievalista? Prácticas y reflexiones en torno al oficio del historiador (Mar del Plata - Buenos Aires: Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata - Sociedad Argentina de Estudios Medievales, 2012), vol. 1, pp. 66-67. Flocel Sabaté, “Identitats”, Identitats, Flocel Sabaté, dir. (Lleida: Pagès editors, 2012), pp. 9-16.
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with each other, they collaborate when they share the upper circle against external otherness. It is especially important to discern what the definitively inassimilable otherness is that which remains outside all the circles of relations. Thus, the cohesive ideology has a vital weight in shaping traits of cohesion that condition the relation with otherness. Depending on how the cohesive ideology evolves, identity will be considered as a certain degree of tension towards the otherness. We can see this in the evolution of the Christianity that configured the identity of medieval Europe. In a first stage, in the 6th century, Pope Gregory I explained that, as the Jews were unable to perceive the fate God reserved for them, they had been reduced to a position of servants – quasi servos eos denotaverit quibus libertatem pollicebatur – in a society dominated by those who had followed God’s guidance, the Christians4. At a second moment, in the 11th century, Pope Alexander II accentuated this image while emphasising that the veritable enemy was the Muslim – Iudeos non debemus persequi sed Sarracenos – while the Jews were destined to serve – parati sunt servire – and thus: Iudei servari debeant, non occidi5. In a third stage, in the 13th century, accepting that the aim was to standardise society in accordance with the evangelical mandate – fiet unum ovile et unus pastor –6, Roger Bacon forecast the return of the Greek Church, the conversion of the Tartars and the destruction of the Muslims, in other words, the annihilation of the inassimilable otherness7. The cohesion of late medieval society, under the fear of a wrathful, anthropomorphised God, who punished the humans if they tolerated or favoured his enemies8, highlighted the negative view of other identities, presenting them as perverse and generating intolerance towards them. The preachers who travelled the late-medieval towns and cities demanded that the authorities take legal measures and that the people adopt attitudes against
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Gregorius I, Homilia, CV, Patristica Database, vol. 95, col. 1223. Alexander II, Epistolae et diplomatas, Patristica Database, vol. 146, col. 1386-1387. Evangelium Ioannem 10, 16. Marjorie Reeves, The Influence of Prophecy in the Late Middle Ages. A Study in Joachism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 399. Flocel Sabaté, “Die Juden in der Krone Aragón: Der Juden in der Krone Aragón: Der Zusammenbruch der Koexistenz”, Integration, Segregation, vertreibung. Religiöse Minderheiten und Randgruppen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel (7.-17. Jahrhundenrt), Klaus Herbers, Nikolas Jaspert, eds. (Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2011), pp. 313-328.
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Jews and Muslims9 because, as Vicenç Ferrer reiterated in his sermons, no havem majors enemichs (“we have no greater enemy”)10. Thus, the traits that united an identity forced an intolerant attitude towards other identities, which were discredited through descriptions emphasising their negative character in all aspects11. The 16th-century clash with a wide range of enemies of the Catholic faith saw a social cohesion openly proposed that excluded and fought to the death against the inassimilable enemies of the true faith12, be these protestants, Turks or even American pagans13. In contrast, seeking cohesion through the cultural and social traits that form the backbone of national unity leads to an introspection that excludes otherness, even physically, which is thus displaced beyond the frontiers, at the same time distancing confrontation. This could be a trait of coexistence in the compound monarchies, as Denmark, for example, was defined at the start of the 19th century, where one Crown brought together territories under Norwegian, Danish and German identity14. It was precisely Rousseau who understood that the best cohesion would be achieved through one’s own collective identity. That is why he argued that “the task of the legislator is to create social institutions that make the citizens distinct from other men by making them more national and parochial and more involved in their own political order”15. It is thus no surprise that title I of the first constitution arising from the French revolution, in September 1791, was about the creation of des fêtes nationales (“National holidays”) with the
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Pedro Cátedra, “Fray Vicente Ferrer y la predicación antijudaica en la campaña castellana (1411-1412)”, ‘Qu’un sang impur…’ Les Conversos et le pouvoir en Espagne à la fin du moyen âge. Actes du 2ème colloque d’Aix-en-Provence 18-19-20 novembre 1994 (Aix-en-Provence: Publications de l’Université de Provence, 1997), pp. 19-35. Vicent Ferrer, Sermons, Gret Schib, ed. (Barcelona: Editorial Barcino, 1975), vol. 3, p. 14. Pierre Sorlin, El antisemitismo alemán (Barcelona: Ediciones Península, 1976), pp. 13-49. Aleksey Klemeshov, “The Conversion and Destruction of the infidels in the Works of Roger Bacon”, Religions and Power in Europe. Conflcits and Convergence (Pisa: Edizioni Plus - Pisa University Press, 2007) p. 23. Flocel Sabaté, Fin del mundo y nuevo mundo. El encaje ideológico entre la Europa medieval y la América moderna en Nueva España (siglo XVI) (Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2011), pp. 67-72. Anne Marie Lindgreen, Lykke L. Pedersen, eds., Danish Modern History. Stories of Denmark 1600-2000 (Copenhaguen: The National Museum, 2005), pp. 142-147. Anne M. Cohler, Rousseau and Nationalism (New York: Basic books, 1970), p. 33.
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purpose of entretenir la fraternité entre les citoyens, et les attacher à la Constitution, à la patrie et aux lois (“maintain brotherhood among citizens, and link them to the Constitution, the homeland and the laws”)16. This led towards the fusion of people and state into the nations that characterised the 19th century17. Identity was deposited in nations with full state powers, which sought cohesion based on a supposed ethnic18 and linguistic unity19, backed up by a secular historical account20. This was the case of successful fast re-creations like Finland21, discourses of identity to unite the country as achieved in France22 or hasty searches for unificatory references, like in Spain23. Thus, the collapse of multinational empires, especially the Austro-Hungarian after the First World War, was explained by the artificiality represented by a state that “imprisoned” national identities that not only desired to be recognised (the Austro-Hungarian empire recognised eleven nations within its interior)24, but sought recognition as states, more coherent with national identity25. However, these proposals did not lead to nation states but rather to the establishment of large minorities that felt very
16 Ferdinand Mélin-Soucramanien, Les constitutions de la France de la Révolution à la IVe république (Paris: Éditions Dalloz, 2009), p. 7. 17 Roland Calinger, “Nationalsm in Europe: A historical Overview to 1900”, National identity as an issue of knowledge and Morality, N. V. Chavchavadze, Ghia Nodia, Paul Peachey, eds. (Washington: Paidea Press - The Council for research in values and philosophy, 1994), p. 12. 18 Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood. Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 167-184. 19 Benedict Anderson, L’imaginaire national. Réflexions sur l’origine et l’essor du nationalisme (Paris: La découverte, 2002), pp. 77-118. 20 Stefan Berger, “The Power of National Pasts: Writing National History in Nineteenthand Twentieth-Century Europe”, Writing the Nation. A global perspective, Stefan Berger, ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 33-38. 21 Hannes Saarinen, “The Building of the Finnish Nation in the 19th Century”, Empires and States in European Perspective, Steven Ellis, ed. (Pisa: Edizioni Plus - Università di Pisa, 2002), pp. 137-146. 22 Régis Meyran, Le mythe de l’identité nationale (Paris: Berg International, 2009), pp. 8-52. 23 José Álvarez, Mater Dolorosa. La idea de España en el siglo XIX (Madrid: Taurus, 2001), pp. 197-627. 24 Soma Morgenstern, En otro tiempo. Años de juventud en Galitzia oriental (Barcelona: Editorial Minúscula, 2005), pp. 388-389. 25 Martin Moll, “A vulnerable Empire: the Habsburg monarchy in the European Power System, 1815-1918”, Empires and States in European..., pp. 191-193.
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uncomfortable inside states identified with a single national identity26. In fact, national unity implied a degree of enmity towards otherness, with a force that went beyond reasoning. Thus, Michael Jeismann stated that, in the 19th century, “nationalism was not merely orchestrated by states and elites: rather, the emotional and irrational mechanisms of national identification and alienation were related to long-established cultural and religious s ources, but could also be activated by short-term enmities and conflicts which themselves were a product – at least in part – of particular political interests”27. Curiously, although the social and economic dynamism at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th forced a growing mixing of identities, especially in the so-called new receptor countries of large-scale immigration28, the mixing of identities was often experienced as a nuisance. A Catalan immigrant who, from solid economic roots and accompanied by his family, emigrated to Argentina in 1909, returned seven years later, arguing that one of the drawbacks of the host country was the large mixture of national identities: este es un país loco y estrambótico porque está formado por una mescla de todas las razas del mundo y para ganar mil pesos no saben lo que cuestan y para gastarlos hay una gentuza que te sacan la piel como a los conejos, y el que no joroba es porque no puede, en esta si alquilas una pieza al lado para vecino tienes un russo, al otro un italiano o un japonés y cada vecino representa una nación, así que ya puedes comprender con que satisfacción se vive29. this is a crazy, outlandish country because it is made up of a mix of all the races of the world and they don’t know how hard it is to earn a thousand pesos and to spend it there’s a rabble who skin you like a rabbit, and anyone who doesn’t pester you it is because they can’t in this land if you hire a pad on one side your side your neighbour is a Russian, on the other an Italian or a Japanese and each neighbour represents a nation, so you can understand how great living here is.
26 Csaba Lévai, “Hungary as a Multi-Ethnic State in the 19th-Century Austro-Hungarian Empire”, Empires and States in European…, pp. 137-146. 27 Michael Jeismann, “Nation, Identity and Enmity”, What is a nation? Europe 1789-1914, Timothy Baycroft, Mark Hewitson, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 27. 28 Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, “La explosion demogràfica y sus consecuencias”, Historia Universal, José Maria Salrach, ed. (Barcelona: Salvat Editores, 1980), vol. 10, pp. 277-278. 29 Francesc Farràs, Del Pirineu a la Pampa (Salàs transatlàntic) (Tremp-Salàs de Pallars: Garsineu Edicions-Ajuntament de Salàs de Pallars, 2011), p. 29.
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In reality, there is nothing that can compare to the 20th century to show the deadly consequences of the conformation of national identities30. Moreover, the mobility and adaptation of the main axis of identity can convert old coexistences into new intolerances that do not hesitate to take these to the extreme of annihilating the otherness. Amin Maalouf imagined the man who felt proud to be Yugoslav in 1980, maybe adding that he lived in the Federal Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina and that his family was a traditionally Muslim one, who would the present himself some years later as a Muslim, adding that he was Bosnian and reneging on the old Yugoslav identity, and then even placing his condition as a Bosnian before that of being a Muslim some years later31. It is an identity that mutates with the circumstances, but especially adopting new vectors of cohesion. That is why the old neighbour becomes the enemy, and can even be exterminated, not for what he had done but because the latest reference adopted does not include him among “us” but as part of the otherness instead32. Thus, identity has led to the triumph of an irrationality with very severe consequences. It is in this setting that, as Elie Wiesel writes, there have been various, scènes de folie collective sans lesquelles nulle armée qui se respecte ne saurait fonctionner (“scenes of collective madness without which no self-respecting army can function”)33. It should come as no surprise then that Amin Maalouf talked about fatal identities34. Nor that Francesco Remotti spoke out contro l’identità (“against identity”), especially when this seeks, la purezza (“purity”), with its inherent germe della pulizia (“seed of the dirtiness”)35. Thus, we must pay close heed to how the elements that make up an identity have been selected: why have elements of exclusion been chosen instead of inclusion, although there are enough elements inside each culture and each individual to incline them towards adopting intolerant identities or, in contrast, integrating or compound identities, to use Maalouf ’s
30 David El Kenz, ed., La massacre, objet d’histoire (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 2005), pp. 303-383. 31 Amin Maalouf, Identidades asesinas (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1999), pp. 22-23. 32 Veliboc Čolic, Los bosnios (Cáceres: Editorial Periférica, 2013). 33 Elie Wiesel, Le testament d’un poète juif assassiné (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1980), p. 252. 34 Amin Maalouf, Identidades asesinas… 35 Francesco Remotti, Contro l’identità (Bari: Editori Laterza, 2012), pp. 21-29.
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terminology36. A veritable deconstruction of identity is required to find its composition. This is what Gabor Gulyas proposed in the exhibition “What is Hungarian? Contemporary Answers”, in Budapest in 2012, where he detailed five key aspects of national identity: legends and collective memory, common destiny, prejudices of character, social roles and conflicts37. These efforts to approach the phenomena of social identification through rational analyses are contemporary with the drift towards a world where frontiers have become permeable38, secularism has broken segmentations for religious reasons39, migrations have forced alternatives to the interpretation of cultures as closed realities40 and information has not only become generalised41 but has also contributed to new intergenerational and intercultural convergences that condition social conceptions42. All this has taken place in a world where the political, economic and strategic references of power43 have been altered and one 36 Amin Maalouf, Identidades asesinas…, pp. 49-50. 37 Gábar Gulyás, curator, What is Hungarian? Contemporary answers, exhibition, Mücsarnok Kunsthalle, Budapest, 2 August – 14 October 2012. 38 Ronnie D. Lipschutz, “Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society”, Millenium, 21 (1992), pp. 389-420; Paul Hirts, Graname Thompson, “Globalization and the Future of the Nation-State”, Economy and Society, 24/3 (1995), pp. 408-442. 39 Partha Chatterjee, La nación en tiempo heterogéneo y otros estudios subalternos (Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores, 2008), pp. 255-272. 40 Joan Josep Pujadas, “Migracions i societats multiculturals”, Diàlegs al voltant de la interculturalitat, Dolors Mayoral, Fidel Molina, Francesca Sanvicén, eds. (Lleida: Pagès editors, 2006), pp. 47-67. 41 Bouchra Boulouiz, Histoire des utopies et des théories de la communication, À l’ère de la communication totale (Casablanca: Afrique Orient, 2011), pp. 164-166. 42 That is why a new cultural political has been predicted una nueva política cultural que parta de la premisa de que el ámbito predominante de la política informacional es el espacio de los medios de comunicación y se dirime con símbolos, aunque conecte con valores y temas que tienen su origen en la experiencia vital de la gente en la era de la información (“that starts from the premise that the predominant environment of the informational policy is the space in the media and that is settled through symbols, although it connects with values and themes whose origins lie in the experiences of the people in the era information”). Manuel Castells, La era de la información (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1999), vol. 3, p. 405. 43 Hassan Aourid, Occident, Est-ce le Crépuscule? (Rabat: Éditions et Impressions Bouregreg, 2011), pp.13-150.
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that has become so globalised that what happens anywhere in the world provokes reactions of adhesion or rejection everywhere44. It is truly a new scenario, one that requires genuinely multicultural ways of thinking and multi-related behaviour45, in which to debate the contrast between universality and particularity46. This has been theorized around civic identities that sustain democratic, liberal, multi-cultural and multinational states47, and warnings have been sounded about the new strategies of the powerful aimed at redirecting globalisation for their own benefit and not for the common good48. However, the combination of conflicting interests and the secular ballast under the collective behaviour means that the course of history is rarely what is expected49. In the course of the change from the 20th to the 21st centuries, the fear of some of being swallowed up by globalisation50, the strategies of the ruling elites to maintain the structures of social51 and economic power52, resorting to populism if necessary53 and various degrees of confusion caused by the latest ideological changes and the international 44 45 46 47 48 49
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Philippe Moreau Defarges, Un mundo de injerencias (Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra, 1999), pp. 73-115. Gerd Bauman, El enigma multicultural. Un replanteamiento de las identidades nacionales, étnicas y religioses (Barcelona: Paidós, 2001), p. 187. Andrew Vincent, Nacionalism and Particularity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 240-241. Will Kymlicka, Ciudadanía multicultural (Barcelona: Paidós, 1995), pp. 242-263. Susan Georges, Nous, peuples d’Europe (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2005), pp. 248-249. Del mismo modo que la Primavera de la Libertad de 1848 finalizó con el golpe de Napoleón de 1851, la Oda a la Libertad de Berlín (de 1989), fue el preludio de los conflictos étnicos de los noventa y de la comunicación de Sarajevo (“In the same way that the Spring of Freedom of 1848 ended with Napoleon’s 1851 coup, the Ode to Freedom in Berlin (in 1989), was the prelude to the ethnic conflicts of the nineties and the butchery of Sarajevo”). Sidney Tarrow, El poder en movimiento. Los movimientos sociales, la acción colectiva y la política (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1997), p. 322. Tamara Palacio, “Conflictividad política en la era de la globalización: la paradoja de la diferencia”, Revista Tales, 4 (2011), pp. 304-309. Gérard Noiriel, À quoi sert l’identité ‘nationale’ (Marseille: Agone, 2007), pp. 82-114. Kevin Phillips, American theocracy. The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century (New York: Peguin Books, 2007). Sergiu Miscoiu, Au Pouvoir par le ‘peuple’. Le populisme saisi par la théorie du discurs (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2012), pp. 117-119.
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scenario54, have led to a return to the ethnic identity references bounded by the ethnic group, nation55, language56 or religion57. In times of confusion, the population find a clear security in these in the global context, while also emphasising the virulent rejection of otherness. It is a kind of reinforcing of identities that lets some invoke the clash of civilisations58 and others, in contrast, ask to jeter des ponts avec l’Autre et favoriser en conséquence le rapprochement […] sur de nouvelles bases (“build bridges with each other and therefore foster reconciliation on a new basis”)59. In fact, after a first decade of the 21st century marked by armed conflict that, driven by various interests, have sought to justify the struggle against the otherness that attacks us60, the need to relever le défi de civilization (“addressing the challenge of civilisation”) has been imposed61, to be able to state, like Robert Kagan, that “the world has become normal again”, in other words, far from the teleologies and placed in the hands of its inhabitants for them to articulate the conviviality62. And this requires 54 Maarten Brands, The Obsolescence of almost all Theories concerning International Relations (Wassenaar: Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1996), pp. 3-18. 55 Karin Von Hippel, “The Resurgence of Nationalism and Its International Implications”, Order and Disorder after the Cold War, Brad Roberts, ed. (Cambridge (Mass.); London: The MIT Pres, 1995), pp. 101-116. 56 Juan Carlos Moreno, El nacionalismo lingüístico. Una ideologia destructiva (Barcelona: Ediciones Península, 2008), pp. 173-204. 57 ‘Europa versus Islam’ is the statement analyzed by Christiane Stallaert (Christiane Stallaert, Perpetuum mobile. Entre la balcanización y la aldea global (Barcelona: Anthropos Editorial, 2004), pp. 108-114. 58 Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1996), pp. 301-321. 59 Mohammed Chiguer, Pensée piégée, Islam et modernité (Rabat: Édition KMC Experts, 2008), pp. 259-260. 60 António Louçâ, Pedro Caldeira, Rui Zink, Carlos Orais, Francisco M. Rodrigues, Tariq Al-Khudayri, De Cabul a Bagdad. A guerra infinita (Lisbon: Dinossauro, 2003), pp. 9-70; Philippe Sands, Lawless World. The Whistle-Blowing Account of How Bush and Blair are Taking the Law into Their Own Hands (London: Penguin Books, 2006), pp. 1-288; Andrew Greeley, A stupid, unjust and criminal war (Iraq 2001-2007) (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2007), pp. 1-215. 61 Gilles Kepel, Terreur et martyre. Relever le défi de civilisation (Paris: Éditions Flammarion, 2008), pp. 304-389. 62 Robert Kagan, The Return of History and the End of Dreams (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), pp. 3-105.
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us to ponder the vigour of the old segmentations in all aspects of human relations, to attempt to find the reasons that lead to Identities in conflict. These tensions arise from the definition of identity itself, which enables us to talk more expressively about perverse identities. If the perspective of identity permutes all of society, the same vision will be applied to all the elements that configure social relations, be these language, gender, social class or any other indicator, both today and throughout earlier historical periods. Thus, asking ourselves about identities in conflict becomes a way to investigate the elements of cohesion adopted in different aspects of human groups and their various forms of relationship. We thus reach a specific perspective, a kind of transversal axis to contribute to renewing research into society, penetrating into all its interstices through the path of conflict. This justifies rejecting cultural formulae of contempt and practices that are not respectful with that which is labelled otherness, whatever the social environment it is found in. The interdisciplinary nature of the Institute for Research into Identities and Society at the Universitat de Lleida, bringing together different aspects of the social sciences and humanities, is ideal for tackling the challenge of analysing the subject transversally. Under the title of “Perverse Identities. Identities in conflict”, outstanding specialists in the different fields of the study of society were invited to participate and everyone involved in research into these aspects was called on to contribute. The committee of experts narrowed the numerous proposals received down to 82 papers, which were presented and discussed in a Lleida over three autumn days in November 2012. This was followed by long scientific discussions and proposals for publication, which were duly submitted to peer-review. All this has led to this final selection of 30 texts that take us through history, literature, linguistics, sociology, anthropology and even psychiatry, through different scenarios to analyze the identities in conflict. Thus, the result is an interdisciplinary work with a diachronic perspective, that brings us closer to the reasons, causes, consequences and mechanisms that feed these perverse identities.
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic María Teresa Quintillà Universitat de Lleida
Introduction1 Nowadays one aspect analyzed by Sociolinguistics in its approach to the controversial issue of sex differences regarding language is the problem of linguistic varieties due to sexual difference. These sociolects a ccording to gender are known as sexolects and we can distinguish between “ feminolect” or female speech and “masculinolect” or male speech. As Buxó Rey argued in 19832, the “sexosociolinguistic” rules have two main purposes. On the one hand, they identify women with their sexual and social role and, on the other hand, they mark the role and status of women in front of their interlocutors. According to María Isabel Menéndez3, the gender rules determine the reproduction of the social order. It’s an ideological imposition that, through differential socialization of men and women from childhood, decisively affects our way of being in this world. Patriarchal society and androcentrism, by the gender system, has resulted in a sexist social structure, namely women and men do not have the same status and social position. The gender is a basic principle of social order that is not neutral but is based on a hierarchy in which the male point of view always takes the top position.
1
2 3
This work is part of the research project Comedia y tragedia romanas. Edición crítica, traducción, estudio y tradición (FFI2011-23198), whose principal investigator is Dr. Maria del Carmen González. María Jesús Buxó, Antropología lingüística (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1983), p. 52. María Isabel Menéndez, Discursos de ficción y construcción de la identidad de género en televisión (Palma: Universitat de les Illes balears, 2006), pp. 56-57.
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In the history of the study of linguistic differences according to gender, we can distinguish three periods or stages. In a previous stage we find a wide tradition in Western culture of linguistic stereotypes and prejudices, which can be traced from classical antiquity until today4. Secondly, to mid-twentieth century, dialectology began to be interested in the features of female speech. These features, according to the ancestral tradition supra mentioned, were seen as deviations from the standard pattern, of course the male standard pattern. Most sociolinguistic studies done according to the variationist paradigm belong to this approach5. In fact, from the William Labov’s research in English6, genre became a social crucial variable for the analysis of linguistic variation. Labov, regarded as the founder of the variationist sociolinguistics, pointed out the traits which mark out the language of women: self-correction, hypercorrection and self-consciousness in their linguistic behaviour. Besides, Labov identified women as the leaders of linguistic changes, because they are more likely to adopt prestige forms of language. As a result, several researches appeared free of prejudices of previous stages, since they were based on quantitative data. The emergence of feminist theories in linguistic studies supposed a substantial change, especially from the work of Robin Lakoff in 19757. This controversial book started an interesting line of research based on pragmatic studies on the speaking time, politeness forms, etc. This study had resulted in the scientific postulation of the sexolects.
4 5 6
7
María Teresa Quintillà, “Los sexolectos o la caracterización del discurso femenino en el ámbito grecolatino”, Faventia, 23 (2005), pp. 43-60. More bibliographic details in: María Ángeles Calero, Percepción social de los sexolectos (Cádiz: Universidad de Cádiz, 2007), pp. 23-24. William Labov, The social stratification of English in New York City (Washington D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1966); William Labov, “Contraction, delection and inherent variability of the English copula”, Language, 45 (1969), pp. 715-762; William Labov, Language in the inner city: studies in the black English vernacu lar (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972); William Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1972); William Labov, “The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change”, Language Variation and Change, 2/2 (1990), pp. 205-254. Robin Lakoff, Language and Woman’s place (New York: Harper & Row, 1975).
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Nevertheless, due to the complexity of feminist interpretation, several interpretation patterns of the data obtained in this research field have emerged. These patterns are not necessarily opposed, but often overlap and complement each other. Firstly, there is the theory of deficit versus dominance, according to which the subordination of women is the key factor to explain the specificity of their linguistic behavior8. Secondly, there is the theory of the cultural difference. According to this theory, feminolect (“female speech”) and masculinolect (“male speech”) are the result of the cultural segregation experienced by people of both sexes in childhood and adolescence and that leaves an imprint on their goals and discursive styles9. Finally, the postmodern model or fluid model is emerging from Judith Butler’s thesis. As this philosopher has argued, the individual subjects develop their gender identities through repeated representations of behaviors coded as masculine or feminine. Judith Butler10 analyzes how the language in its performative dimension (i.e., an act that produces effects) plays a central role in the subjective construction and in the identity development and how the language is involved not only in the reproduction of power relations but also in its subversion. In this regard, Calero11 underlines that one of the elements that marks out individual identity is the sexual group which each one considers to belong to. As she points out, sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication and discourse analysis have highlighted the relationship between linguistic diversity and sexual difference; however, what is linked to specific 8
Candance West, Don H. Zimmerman, “Sex roles, interruptions and silences in Conversation”, Lenguage and Sex: Difference and Dominance, Barrie Thorne, Nancy Heneley, eds. (Rowley: Newbury House, 1975), pp. 105-129; Helena Leet-Pellegrini, “Conversational dominance asa function of gender and expertise”, Language: Social pshycological prespectives, Howard Giles, William Peter Robinson, Philip M. Smith, eds. (New York: Pergamon Press, 1980), pp. 97-104. 9 The main exponent of this viewpoint is: Deborah Tannen, You just don’t understand. Women and men in conversation (New York: Ballantine Books, 1990); Deborah Tannen, Gender and Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). 10 Judith Butler, Excitable Speech. A Politics of the Performative (New York-London: Routledge, 1997). 11 María Ángeles Calero, Percepción social de los sexolectos…, p. 10.
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communication strategies and language uses is not biological sex, but the sex class or gender. This fact means that belonging to a gender (male or female) determines both the discourse and how to interpret it. And that is true due to the different attitudes that men and women adopt in their life and as we face different situations, differences that have clearly a cultural exegesis. According to this author, linguistic ideology is a result of a particular history (in our case, the hierarchy between sexes) and also becomes an interpretative filter that reproduces a concrete representation of reality (in our case, the patriarchy) and affects future linguistic behaviours. Regarding the differences between the sexolects, those in Western languages have to do, on one hand, with inventory preferences and, on the other hand, with styles of conversation. As regards to inventory, women and men tend to use different words (adjectives, exclamations, etc.) or assign different meanings to identical words. Another proven fact is that linguistic expressions of feelings and courtesy are more common in female speech than male. Finally, it has been found that female speech is submitted to some restrictions (taboos) which there are not in male speech and often contains features shared with sociolect children (diminutives, hypochoristics, etc.). With respect to the conversational styles, as argued Pearson, Turner and Todd-Mancillas o Lozano12, women understand the speech act more as a social relationship act than as an act of transmitting information. So they develop strategies in order to cooperate with the speaker and they overlap in conversation more than men. They feel more comfortable in the private discourse and tend to use nonverbal elements (like gaze and gestures) that encourage empathy and emotional transmission. It could be thought that this recognition of linguistic variants according to the speaker’s sexual condition is an exclusive topic of sensitivity of current linguistics. However, as it will seen, the theory of a differential use of language by men and women is not anything new and it was already
12
Judy C. Pearson, Lynn H. Turner, William Todd-Mancillas, Gender and Communication (Dubuque: Brown Publishers, 1985); Isabel Lozano, Lenguaje femenino, lenguaje masculino. ¿Condiciona nuestro sexo la forma de hablar? (Madrid: Minerva Ediciones, 1995).
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
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installed in Greece and Rome, more or less roughly intuited by ancient grammarians. That’s why the study on existence and extent of female sociolect in ancient languages would confirm the traditional even secular character of the female and male linguistic behaviour in their respective gender and to each other. Also it would prove that only by very slow processes it has transformed itself partially13.
1. Objectives This paper aims, firstly, to validate a methodology for the study of sociolects (here, sexolects) in the ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and demonstrate the feasibility of the sociolectal study in them, regardless of the literary genre to be applied, although it is undeniable that some literary genres offer greater opportunities, because they are closer to conversatio nal language real use. Secondly, we pretend to establish and describe the features which mark out the female speech, through quantitative frequency indices. Finally, we intend to show that most lexical grammatical and syntacti cal peculiarities, generally attributed to female speech, are linked both to the projection of self feelings as the inclusion of the other in the speech.
2. State of the issue Our research is based on a tradition of considerable studies in this field. On the ancient Greek, there are previous remarkable contributions of authors like Gilleland, McClure, Sommerstein, Bain and, more recently, 13 Jordi Redondo, Estudio de los sociolectos de la lengua griega: literatura ática clásica y literatura helenística e imperial. Proyecto de investigación para el acceso a plaza de catedrático de universidad (Valence: Universitat de València 2012), p. 6. Academia. edu. 3 January 2013, .
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Redondo14. And on the ancient Latin, we would underline the works of Adams, Dutsch and Quintillà15.
3. Approach to the question The study of the features of female speech in the ancient languages (and more specifically in Latin language, the topic of this paper), can analyze three main aspects. 14 Michael E. Gilleland, “Female Speech in Greek and Latin”, AJPh, 101 (1980), pp. 180-183; Laura McClure, “Female Speech and Characterization in Euripides”, Lo spettacolo delle voci II, Francesco De Martino, Alan H. Sommerstein, dirs. (Bari: Levante edtirori, 1995), pp. 35-50; Alan H. Sommerstein, “The language of Athenian women…”, pp. 61-85; David M. Bain, “Female Speech in Menander”, Antichton, 18 (1984), pp. 24-42; Jordi Redondo, The language of Women in Ancient Greece (University of Calgary: unpublished dissertation, 2003); David M. Bain, La lingua femminile all’Atene classica (Università degli Studi di Firenze: unpublished dissertation, 2005); David M. Bain, More on the language of women in Classical Greece: Attic comedy and oratory (University of Calgary: unpublished dissertation, 2006); David M. Bain, Osservazioni sociolinguistiche sulla lingua di Aristofane e Il socioletto femminile nella commedia e nei tribunali dell’Atene classica (Università degli Studi di Ferrara: unpublished dissertation, 2007). 15 James N. Adams, “Female Speech in Latin Comedy”, Antichthon, 18 (1984), pp. 43-77; James N. Adams, “Neglected Evidence for Female Speech in Latin”, The Classical Quarterly, 55 (2005), pp. 582-596; Dorota M. Dutsch, Femenine Discourse in Roman Comedy. On Echoes and Voices (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); María Teresa Quintillà, “Los sexolectos o la caracterización del discurs femení en el ámbito grecolatino”, Faventia, 27 (2005), pp. 45-62; María Teresa Quintillà, “La caracterització del discurs femení a la tragèdia de Sèneca. Una idea desassenyada?”, Estudis clàssics: imposició, apologia o seducció? Actes del XV Simposi de la Secció Catalana de la Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos, Joana Danés et alii, dirs. (Lleida: Diputació de Lleida, 2007), pp. 445-463; María Teresa Quintillà, “El discurso femenino en la tragedia de Séneca. Nueva aproximación”, Actas del XII Congreso Español de Estudios Clásicos II, Angeles Almela, José Francisco González et alii, dirs. (Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos, 2010), pp. 1017-1025; María Teresa Quintillà, “Diferencias discursivas de género en la expresión de los sentimientos: Plauto vs. Séneca”, Estudios sobre teatro romano: el mundo de los sentimientos y su expresión, Rosario López, ed. (Saragossa: Libros Pórtico, 2012), pp. 277-310.
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Firstly, we have the statements of several Greek and Roman authors (philosophers, grammarians and poets). They inform us of existing beliefs about the existence and characteristics of feminolect, although they often do in a scattered and intuitive or little proved manner. In this sense, Dorota Dutsch, ponder on how ancient philosophy approaches the ontology of femininity and its relationship with language and thought. Indeed, in literature and proverbs, woman was considered talkative by nature, unwise in their arguments, unable to stay true to their word and keep a secret and especially deceiver; and, by contrast, man was described as wise, honest, discreet and naïve, stereotypes that still circulate freely in our society. And what’s more, the female speech, with its peculiarities, was interpreted as a deviation from the male norm or proprietas. Among the Roman authors, we can stand out the grammarian Donatus and his theory of style and literary genres in his comments on Terence. According to Donatus, female comic characters speak in a way that is characteristic of women in general. The grammarian concludes that there are two types of female comic speech: on the one hand, the seductive and flattering speech (sermo blandus); on the other hand, the discourse of complaint and self-pity16. In most of the Donatus comments on female speech, some features that are simple indicators of the gender of the character talking are interpreted as transgressions of the standard. Therefore we can conclude that masculinity was a prerequisite for linguistic proprietas. Thus, the female speech was sight like a different speech than the standard log (sermo) because femininity would be cause enough for linguistic impropriety. Looking at some passages of Cicero (Tusculanae disputationes 2.21.55; 2.20.46; 2.23.56-2.24.57; 4.28.60-1), we can see that the concept of standard discourse (sermo aptus) is explicitly defined as a sermo characterized by containment (modus), with its limits and ratios. It is a sermo that must flee from the adulation (adulatio), flattering tone (blanditia) and emotional exhibitionism, indeed all characteristics associated with female speech. 16 Donatus (Ter. Ad. 291,4): proprium est mulierum, cum loquuntur, aut aliis blandiri […] aut se commiserari […]; On the seductive and flattering speech, see: Don. Ter. An. 685,1; on the complaint and self-pity speech, see: Don. Ter. Ad. 291,2 (4) Proprium est mulierum, cum loquuntur, aut aliis blandiri… aut se commiserari… nam haec omnia muliebria sunt.
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On the other hand, Quintilian (inst. 11.1.1) sets the limits and characteristics of the ideal suitability for imitative speech, warning of the obvious difficulties when imitating speech, thoughts and emotions of children, women and foreigners (in brief, all those who represented the otherness). Regarding the Greek authors, first we find the concept of prépon (“ suitability”), explained by Plutarch in his comparison between Aristophanes and Menander (Mor. 854a-c). Moreover, if we review the human taxonomy of Aristotle (Rhet. 1408a 25-9) in three parameter (age, ethnic group and gender), the idea that emerges is that anér (adult Greek and male) and his speech is the standard from which all other people (women, children and foreigners) and their speeches are evaluated and then considered marginal. According to Aristotelian theory (explained in his Politics), the deficiencies attributed to female speech arise from the own imperfect nature of women. So, if we apply the Aristotelian definition to the field of language, we can conclude that, in the Greek imaginary, the woman was able to express herself elegantly and fluently, but always to a lesser extent than man17. Plato, who states clearly that the female sociolect is defined in phonological level by its archaic character18, formulates some theories about the relationship between speech and female identity, and among them, as it is shown in the Timaeus, Plato presents a vision of femininity as the result of a moral degeneration from masculinity. 17 As it is shown by Jordi Redondo (Jordi Redondo, Estudio de los sociolectos de la lengua griega…, p. 14, it is known to everyone that prejudices of cultural tradition have shaped the thinking of a philosopher, Aristotle in this case (Arist. Po. 1454a 16-26.). On the issue of gender and female sex in biological Aristotle treaties, see: Suzanne Saïd, “Féminin, femme et femelle dans les grands traités biologiques d’Aristote”, Actes des colloques de Strasbourg II. La femme dans les sociétés antiques (mai 1980 et mars 1981), Edmond Lévy, dir. (Strassbourg: AECR, 1983), pp. 93-123; Lesley Dean-Jones, Women’s Bodies in Classical Greek Science (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 19-20. 18 Feature that coincides with the conclusions of some studies of current sociolinguistics: Peter Trudgill, “Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban British English of Norwich”, Language in Society, 1 (1972), pp. 175-195; Farida AbuHaidar, “Are Iraqi Women More Prestige Conscious than Men? Sex Differentiation in Baghdadi Arabic”, Language in Society, 18 (1989), pp. 471-481; Elizabeth Gordon, “Sex, Speech, and Stereotypes: Why Women Use Prestige Speech Forms More than Men”, Language in Society, 26 (1997), pp. 47-63.
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A second way to approach the feminolecte in Ancient languages would be the analysis of the writings of female authorship, approach which could provide more meaningful data. However, the almost invisibi lity of female literary production forces us to reject this way of approach. Indeed, the works written by women who have survived are really very few. In Greek, we have poems and fragments of seven poets19. Regarding the Latin female writers, we have accurate information of thirty-three authors20. However, we only preserve original texts of eight of them. Finally, the last way to approach is the study of fictional female discourse (either in drama or other literary genres, where the poet reproduces a dialogue and tries to express plausible attitudes and emotions). The genre more accessible in this sense is obviously the drama, especially comedy. That is why, Dorota M. Dutsch21 points out that, in Roman literature, the comedy is a fascinating field to study due to two main reasons: first, because it often uses the discursive female features; then because this fictional speech is a whole fiction: it is written and performed by men, female fictional speech 19 We have the poems of Sapho in the 4th century BC, nine fragments of Telesilla in the 5th century BC, some poems of the beocian Corinna, contemporary of Pindar, and some poems of women writers from the Hellenistic period, that appear in the Greek Ancient Anthology, like Erinna (three epigrams from the 4th century BC), Moero (two epigrams from the 4th century BC), Anyte of Tegea (twenty epigrams from the 3rd BC) and Nossis (eleven or twelve epigrams from the 3rd BC). About these writers see: Martin Litchfield, “Die griechischen Dichterinnen der Kaiserzeit”, Kyklos. Griechisches und Byzantinisches. Rudolf Keydell zum 90. Geburstag, Hans-G Beck, Athanasios Kambylis, Paul Moraux, eds. (Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1978), p. 101; Diane Rayor, Sappho’s Lyre: Archaic Lyric and Women Poets of Ancient Greece (California: University of California Press, 1991); Diane Rayor, “Korinna: Gender and the Narrative Tradition”, Arethusa, 26 (1993), pp. 219-231. 20 The classical Latin women writers played genres like oratory (Hortensia, Mesia and Carfania), epistolography (Cornelia, Servilia, Clodia, Pilia, Caecilia Attica, Terentia, Tullia, Publilia, Fulvia, Hacia, Octavia the Minor, Julia, Livia Drusilla, Claudia Severa, the empress Julia Domna, Marcella, Paula and Eustoquia, Celantia, Fabiola, Furia and the empress Flacilla), autobiography (Agripina the Minor) and poetry (Memmia Timothoe, Cornificia, Sulpicia I, Hostia Cintia, Perilla, Sulpicia II, and Aconia Fabia Paulina). Aurora López, “Escritoras latinas: las prosistas”, Estudios de filología latina en honor de la profesora Carmen Villanueva Rico (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1980), pp. 47-69; Aurora López, No sólo hilaron lana. Escritoras romanas en prosa y verso (Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas, 1994). 21 Dorota M. Dutsch, Femenine Discourse in Roman Comedy. On Echoes and Voices (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
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in palliata should be assessed on the extent to which it is an artifice by playwrights and actors. The gap between male playwright or actor and his female speech is a central issue that should no be forgotten in the study of female speech in Roman comedy. Nor we should forget that the discursive characterization of a character is built on two cornerstones: the speech performed on the stage by the character himself and the objective description made by other characters. Thus, for example, in Plautus’ comedy, the speech of the Roman matrona (uxor dotata) is defined by her husband and her slaves. A special case are other male characters, such as bachelors who aboveboard criticize customs and speech of legitimate wives, and other women, even matronae, who pick on their own gender22. Due to time constraints, in this paper we will only discuss the results regarding the discursive features present in female speeches and we will leave the indirect characterization, i.e. the one that is made by other characters in stage, for another time. When sociolinguistic authors have tried to specify the defining features of fictional female discourse in ancient drama, the current researches have been more concerned to list expressions typically feminine than to analyze what women do with these words or expressions and how they contribute to define the identity of the characters on the stage as women. Certainly, this approach is due to a matter of effectiveness and prevalence, because a theory of discourse identity can not be built without having some quantitative data, which should be catalogued and submitted to taxonomy.
22 In Plautus’ Aulularia (166-169), to his sister insistence to marry, Megadorus answers that he does not want to submit to orders and rebukes (clamores, imperia), and other marital disadvantages. Thus, in Menaechmi, the Matrona’s father complains about the arrogant behaviour of the uxores dotatae, even when dealing with his own daughter (761-769) and he describes them as feroces. Examples of misogyny by women: Aul. 124; Merc. 512; Poen. 210-232; examples of self-criticism with regard to the female speech: wordiness (Aul. 124, Cist. 120), false sweetness (As. 222, Truc. 225), deception (Epid. 546). See: María Teresa Quintillà, “Diferències discursives de gènere a Plaute: del lament a la rauxa”, Artes ad humanitatem, Esperanza Borrell, Pilar Gómez et alii, eds. (Barcelona: Diputació Provincial de Tarragona, 2010), vol. 2, pp. 97-107.
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
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As a result, it is reasonable that most studies on fictional female speech would be focused on lexicon and morphology, which are more accessible areas. However, we agree with Jordi Redondo23, when he reclaims a whole study which analyzes features in all the linguistic levels (phono logy, morphology, syntax, lexicon and style). Furthermore, all attempts to characterize the female speech in ancient drama are related to its emotional nature. Indeed, most of the observed peculiarities belong to the feelings demonstration and the inclusion of the others in the discourse. So, three types of female speech emerge associated with corresponding feminine archetypes on the stage: firstly, seductive or flattering speech (sermo blandus or blandimenta), characterized by persuasion and deception resources, such as emphatic possessive pronouns, terms of politeness, circumlocutions, etc. This is a speech associated to the meretrix character; secondly, the complaint and self-pity speech, attributed to helpless characters, like virgins or female slaves; finally, the angry speech (sermo rabiosus), exclusively used by the matrons.
4. The analyzed markers and their frequency indices In three previous approaches24, we examined the female speech in two seemingly opposite playwrights, Plautus and Seneca, in two periods (second century BC and first century AD, respectively), and in two dramatic subgenres, that are basically antithetical, such as comedy and tragedy. Both in Seneca as in Plautus, the first task to do is to determine the number of lines assigned to male and female characters, respectively, in order to precise parameters for subsequent analyzes of the specific lexical and morphological markers, as well as their frequency indices. 23 Jordi Redondo, Estudio de los sociolectos de la lengua griega…, p, 92. 24 María Teresa Quintillà, “La caracterització del discurs femení a la tragèdia de Sèneca. Una idea desassenyada?”, Estudis clássics: imposició, apologia o seducció?…; María Teresa Quintillà, “Diferències discursives de gènere a Plaute: del lament a la rauxa”, Artes ad humanitatem…, vol. 2, pp. 1017-1025; María Teresa Quintillà, “Diferencias discursivas de género en la expresión…”, pp. 277-310.
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It should be remembered that the frequency index shows objectively the use of a term according to the amount of discourse assigned. So in the Plautus’ comedies the number of lines assigned to female characters is, according to Adams25, 2.620 lines – data that matches our results –, and 18.594 lines assigned to male characters, that amounts to a total of 21.214 lines (see table 1): Table 1. Plautus. Distribution of lines according to gender. Total Plautus 21.214
Female speech vv % 2.620 12,4
Male speech Vv % 18.594 87,6
As it can be seen in the table 2, in Seneca’s tragedies, unlike the Latin comedy, where the amount of verses assigned to female characters is much inferior than to male characters, the differences are not so overwhelming, although the number of lines assigned to male characters continues being superior. Table 2. Seneca. Distribution of lines according to gender. Total Tragedies Her. F. Tro. Phoen. Med. Phaed. Oed. Ag. Thy. Her. O. Total
Total vv 1344 1179 664 1027 1280 1061 1012 1112 1996 10675
F vv 222 763 312 650 503 89 673 69 1319 4600
Lyric verses M
% 17 65 47 63 39 8 67 6 66 43
vv 1122 416 352 377 778 972 339 1043 677 6076
F % vv 83 0 35 260 53 0 37 84 61 12 92 0 33 303 94 0 34 583 57 1242
M % vv 0 296 34 0 0 0 13 260 2 317 0 320 45 0 0 345 44 0 27 1538
Dialogued verses F % vv 26 222 0 503 0 312 69 566 41 491 33 89 0 370 33 69 0 736 25 3358
M % vv 100 826 66 416 100 352 87 117 98 461 100 652 55 339 100 698 56 677 73 4538
% 74 100 100 31 59 67 100 67 100 75
So, in a total of 10.675 verses, female speech occupies a volume of 5.128 verses (48%), in front of the male speech with 5.547 verses (52%), proportion with important variations in some tragedies.
25
James N. Adams, “Female Speech in Latin Comedy”, Antichthon, 18 (1984), pp. 43-77.
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
31
4.1. Seneca In our first approach to the tragedy of Seneca26, we analyzed three indicators: specifically, the different use of interjections, adjectives expressing pathos and polite modifiers. The results obtained showed that, although not as obvious as in the case of Latin comedy, tragedies of Seneca corroborate the features traditionally attributed to male and female speech respectively. Thus, with respect to the interjections (see table 3), it was concluded that they can not be considered as a feature exclusive to characterize female speech, although several differences can be detected specially in the semantics of the context in which they are used, i.e., the interjections are more frequent in exclamative contexts when it comes to female speech, and they are more common in interrogative contexts in the male speech27. Table 3. Seneca. Interjections distribution. Interjection ei heu eheu pro o Total
Total 5 11 3 21 121 161
F 2 7 2 6 55 72
Frequency index 1/2564 1/732 1/2564 1/854 1/93 1/71
M 3 4 1 15 66 89
Frequency index 1/1849 1/1386 1/5547 1/370 1/84 1/62
Regarding the use of expressions of pathos that are common in exclamations such as the adjectives miser/a, miserandus/a or infelix, what can be translated as “poor me!” and which are used without their lexical meaning to express a distress or pity feeling, it was shown that there is a greater
26 María Teresa Quintillà, “La caracterització del discurs femení a la tragèdia de Sèneca...”. 27 Excepting the character of Hercules, who makes an unusual display of pathos in a male character, this kind of affective terms (see interjections and adjectives like miser, etc.) is predominantly used by women and elderly man (among them we could include Amphitryon, Oedipus and Theseus, the father of Hippolytus), in order to emphasize the notion of helplessness and vulnerability. In contrast, in male speech, negative interpellations which mean rebuke in stronger terms are more common (like Ulysses versus Andromache, or Hippolytus versus Phaedra). However, this forcefulness also appears in female characters, although they are usually angry wives who argue with their husbands (for example, Medea versus Jason).
32
María Teresa Quintillà
propensity of the female speech for the use of these adjectives, that are traditional indicators of a more emotional speech (see table 4). Table 4. Seneca. Distribution of infelix, miser/a and miserandus/a. Forma
F
Infelix Miser Misera Miserae Miseram Miseras Miseri Miseris Misero Miseros Miserum Total miser/a Miseranda Miserandae Miserande Miserandus Total miserandus/a TOTAL
10 6 21 7 1 1 7 9 4 10 4 70 8 1 0 1 10 90
Freq. (4600) 1/460
1/66
1/460 1/51
M 7 11 8 1 0 0 1 5 1 2 9 38 5 0 2 0 7 52
Freq. (6076) 1/868
1/160
1/868 1/117
TOTAL 17 17 29 8 1 1 8 14 5 12 13 108 13 1 2 1 17 142
Overall, 63% of the occurrences of these adjectives are in the female speech; that is, one of these adjectives is used every 56 verses in the feminine discourse, while in the male speech, the frequency is lower: one example every 106 verses. And if we look at each individual adjective, the ratio is always higher in female speech, but in any case we can not consider any term as exclusive by either sex. One of the most stereotypical features of female speech – also in modern languages –, as Irene Lozano28 demonstrated for the Spanish language, is the use of polite expressions. In Latin, indeed, some verbs were used to attenuate or modify an order or a question, and it is mentioned by Donatus (Ter. Eu. 656, 1) when, 28 Irene Lozano, Lenguaje femenino, lenguaje masculino. ¿Condiciona nuestro sexo la forma de hablar? (Madrid: Minerva Ediciones, 1995).
33
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
beside the emphatic use of possessive adjectives mentions the verb amabo as examples of blandimenta apta mulieribus (“typical female flattery”). As it was shown by Adams29, in the comedy of Plautus and Terence this fact is very clear, and the data widely corroborate that the use of this kind of modifiers (essentially, the verbs obsecro, quaeso and amabo) is more frequent in female speech, and even there is a preference for specific terms according to sex of characters. At the end of Roman republic and in the Imperial writers, the situation changes: the verbs obsecro and quaeso are still in use, but they do not indicate sexual differentiation. Still according to Adams, during the first century AD, when Seneca writes his tragedies, the changes go a step further: the verb obsecro dies out and quaeso becomes uncommon. It seems that the verb rogo would have assumed the semantic roles of both verbs and there are not evidences of sexual distinction. In the Seneca’s tragedy, the analyzed polite modifiers30 are terms used to tone down or modify an imperative or question and they are three verbs: obsecro, precor and quaeso; no trace of amabo, oro or rogo, usual forms in comedy with this modifier function (see table 5). Table 5. Seneca. Polite modifiers (atenuant verbs). Forma OBSECRO PRECOR QUAESO TOTAL
F 2 17 3 22
Freq. 1/ 2564 1/ 301 1/ 1709 1/ 233
M 0 15 2 17
Freq. 0 1/ 370 1/ 2773 1/ 326
TOTAL 2 32 5 39
So it can be concluded that the preference for these mitigating terms is greater in female speech than in male: women use these idioms once every 233 verses, but men only once every 326 verses. About the preferences for either word, it is shown that obsecro is an exclusively female term, whereas precor and quaeso are used indistinctly by both sexes, although its use is always more common in female speech.
29 James N. Adams, “Female Speech in Latin...”, pp. 43-77. 30 María Teresa Quintillà, “La caracterització del discurs femení a la tragèdia de Sèneca…”.
34
María Teresa Quintillà
As usually happens, and especially in a subject like this, the simple statistical data are not enough and they must be nuanced by the analysis of contexts in which these expressions are used. Of all the above it follows that the formal use of quaeso, precor and obsecro is clearly higher in female speech than it is in male speech, in a proportion of 7 to 2 or, in other words, 32% in female speech versus 12% in male speech. These results agree perfectly with the initial premise stating that the use of polite terms with an attenuator value is much more common in the speech of female characters. In a second approach (published in 2010), we analyzed and obtained data concerning to another linguistic element: sc. the intimate forms of address starring the body parts. The intimate forms of address consist of a vocative accompanied or not by a possessive adjective. From the data obtained in other writers it is shown that their use has a higher incidence in female than male speech and they are linked to the emotional nature traditionally attributed to feminolect (circumstance which had already been highlighted by the grammarian Donatus)31. For our study, we have distinguished three kinds of intimate forms of address: vocatives that invoke some body parts (the own body or the body of the interlocutor: anime, manus, oculi, etc.); vocatives relating to people (kinship terms and others, like mater, alumna, genitor, anus, etc.); and the addresses relating to abstract concepts (spes, amor, fortuna, pudor, fama, etc.), as it is shown in table 6. Table 6. Seneca. Intimate forms of address. Interpellations Interpellations relating to body (anime, manus, oculi, etc.) Interpellation relating to individuals (mater, alumna, fili, genitor, etc.) Interpellations relating to abstract ideas (spes, amor, fides, etc.) Total
Number 42 196
% 16% 73%
31 269
11% 100%
31 Don. Ter. Ad. 291 (2): muliebritur queritur et ex perturbatione sua aestimans metu multa facit ea, quae pauca sunt. (4) proprium est mulierum, cum loquuntur, aut aliis blandiri […] aut se commiserari […] nam haec omnia muliebria sunt, quibus pro malis ingentibus quasi in ceruum rediguntur et enumerantur nullius momenti querelae. See also: Don. Ter. Hec. 87, 2.
35
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
We analyzed 269 terms of address; among them, there are 42 (16%) relating to body parts; 196 (73%) referring to individuals (kinship terms and others); and 31 (12%) relating to some personified abstract concepts. Our first approach focused on vocatives relating body parts32 and the second33, on the kinship or personal terms. Table 7. Seneca. Interpellations to body parts. F
Body parts invoked
anima/e manus caput oculi pectus mens Total
19 3 2 0 0 1 25
Frequency index (4.600) 1/ 242 1/ 1533 1/2300 0 0 1/4600 1/177
M
10 2 3 1 1 0 17
Frequency index (6.076) 1/607 1/3038 1/2025 1/6076 1/6076 0 1/357
Total
29 5 5 1 1 1 42
As we can see in table 7, among 42 interpellations to body parts, 60% (25) appears in female speech, and only 40% (17) does it in male speech. If we look at the frequency index, it is clearly higher in female speech; namely, we find this kind of appeals once every 177 lines in female speech, while in male speech the frequency rate is once every 357 verses. The data confirm that this type of emotional appeal, a formula that expresses a feeling of great excitement and agitation, is more common in the speech of female characters and, when it appears, has a higher content of pathos. It is now necessary to analyze some contextual distribution aspects, since the presence of other elements normally characterizes the feminine discourse or the accumulation of these elements determines the true value of the appeal. Therefore, we analyzed comparatively in male and female speech parameters such as which is the sentence context, which is the addressee character, which is the user character, which are the body parts invoked
32 María Teresa Quintillà, “El discurso femenino en la tragedia de Séneca…”. 33 María Teresa Quintillà, “Diferencias discursivas de género en la expresión de los sentimientos…”.
36
María Teresa Quintillà
and also the presence of other indicators (interjections, polite modifiers, interrogative formulas and recurrent adjectives). From this analysis, as it can be seen in table 8, it follows that the predominating sentence context, in which the interpellations expressing feelings appear, is imperative (48%) and interrogative (44%) while enunciative or exclamative contexts are hardly present (4%). Furthermore, in almost all cases (92%), the female character speaking refers to a part of her body (so they are actually self exhortations) and only very occasionally (8%) the female speaker refers to another person. The next thing to check was if there was a significant combination of several indicators in female speech. In this way, it has been observed that an accumulation of imperative verbs is common in interpellation context, as in the next examples: Sen. Phaed. 592: Aude, anime, tempta, perage mandatum tuum (Phaedra encourages herself before speaking to Hippolytus: “Dare, my soul, try it, fulfils the task yourself that you’ve given”). Sen. Ag. 868: eheu, quid hoc est? Anime, consurge et cape / pretium furoris (Cassandra describes the Agamemnon’s murder: “Oh! What’s that? My soul, arise and get paid for your delirium”).
Often, this accumulation also appears combined with imperatives and interjections (Phaed. 592, Ag. 868): Sen. Phaed. 599: en, incipe, anime! (Phaedra) Sen. Her. O. 1857: Agedum senile pectus, o miserae manus, / pulsate (Alcmena) Sen. Her. O. 965: pro nimis mens credula (Deïanira) Sen. Ag. 868: eheu, quid hoc est? anime, consurge et cape / pretium furoris. (Cassandra)
If the context is interrogative, we can very often find formulaic patterns (containing the adverb quid, the vocative anime and a verb). They are, in fact, aporetic interrogative sentences, i.e. formulas or clichés whose mission is to intensify the distress of the scene: Sen. Her. O. 842: Quid, anime, cessas? Quid stupes? Factum est scelus (Deïanira: “Why don’t you act, my soul? Why do you stay amazed? The crime is done.”) Sen. Her.O. 1828: Quid, anime, trepidas? Herculis cineres tenes; / complectere ossa. (Alcmena: “Why do you tremble, O my soul? You have in your hands the ashes of Hercules. / Embrace his bones”)
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
37
Sen. Ag. 108: quid, segnis anime, tuta consilia expetis? Quid fluctuaris? (Clytemnestra: “Why, my indolent soul, do you crave safe projects? Why do you waver?”) Sen. Ag. 915: quid, anime demens, refugis? (Electra: “Why do you flee, my mad soul?”) Sen. Oed. 1024: quid, anime, torpes? Socia cur scelerum dare/ poenas recusas? (Jocasta: “Why, my soul, do you remain paralyzed? You are shill and, however, do you refuse to share his punishment?”) Sen. Phaed. 719: anime, quid segnis stupes?/ regeramus ipsi crimen…; (Nurse: “O My soul, why do you stay amazed and indolent? Let us turn the evidence against him…”) Sen. Phaed. 112: quo tendis, anime? Quid furens saltus amas?/ fatale miserae matris agnosco malum:/ peccare noster nouit in siluis amor. (Phaedra: “Where are you going, my soul? Why this mad love of forest glades? I recognize my wretched mother’s fatal misfortune. Her love and mine know how to sin in forest depths.”).
There are 11 interpellations of this kind in female speech: once every 418 verses34, a much higher proportion compared to male speech (once every 1.519 verses). In our third and last approach to the topic (a study published in 2012), we analyzed the interpellations to human beings that are linked to feelings expression, like desperation and emotional perturbation. We have already mentioned that the forms of address concerning individuals constitute the greater part of the emotional interpellations (73%)35. Table 8. Seneca. Frequency index of interpellations. F 85
IF (4.600) 1:54
M 110
IF (6.076) 1: 55
TOTAL 195
34 Her. O. 1828; Ag. 915; Phaed. 112; 719. 35 We ruled out those interpellations which can be classified as invocations to divinity and we have take into account only those vocatives relating to deities that are focused on the kinship between speaker character and interlocutor character; for example, when in tragedy Hercules Otaeus the hero chides Jupiter as his father, this interpellation is included in the amount of intimate terms of address concerning individuals, because his keyword is the term pater (Her. O. 1147, 1714, 1725). By contrast, when in Agamemnon (Ag. 340) the chorus of Argive women invoke Juno as soror et coniunx, consors sceptri, regia Iuno (“as wife and sister share the sceptre’s might, Juno the royal!”), we have not take into account this vocative for our analysis, because it does not describe any kinship between speaker character and interlocutor character.
38
María Teresa Quintillà
The obtained data (see table 8) allow us to say that, statistically, if the issue is assessed in global terms, there are not significant differences between female and male speech relating to frequency index. However, if we analyze the data in detail, we could discover some striking preferences (see tables 9a, 9b and 9c): Table 9a. Seneca. Generic terms and age.
Generic terms and age
uirgo iuuenis puer anus senex TOTAL
1 1 1 0 1 4
F 1: 4600 1: 4600 1: 4600 0 1: 4600 1:1150
7 5 2 1 15
F 1:657 1:920 1:2300 1:1533 1:306
4 2 1 1 0 8
M 1:1518 1:3036 1:6072 1:6072 0 1:759
Table 9b. Seneca. Other terms.
Nurse, pupil, mistress
alumna altrix nutrix era TOTAL
M 0 1 1 0 2
0 1:6072 1:6072 0 1:3036
Table 9c. Seneca. Kinship.
Father / mother
Daughter / son
Brother / sister
parens genitor pater genetrix mater nata, gnata nate, gnate, nati liberi frater soror germane
F 5 10 7 1 4 0 19
IF (4.600) 1:920 1: 460 1: 657 1: 4600 1:1150 0 1: 230
M 11 20 20 1 17 6 6
IF (6.072) 1:552 1:303 1:303 1:6072 1:357 1:1012 1:1012
TOTAL 16 30 27 2 21 6 26
1 3 1 1
1: 4600 1:1533 1: 4600 1: 4600
2 3 3 2
1:3036 1:2024 1:2024 1:3036
3 7 4 3
39
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
Spouse Stepmother Total
coniunx consors socia sponse nouerca
F 12 1 1 0 0 66
IF (4.600) 1:383 1: 4600 1: 4600 0 0 1:70
M 4 0 3 1 1 100
IF (6.072) 1:1518 0 1:2024 1:6072 1:6072 1:61
TOTAL 16 1 4 1 1 166
It has been shown that in female speech the interpellation dominant is the invocation addressed to sons and husband, while in male speech is the appeal to parents, especially to mother. From the detailed study of two kinds of addresses, sc invocations to the son by this mother or father, and, on the other hand, invocations to mother by her daughter or son, it can be concluded that female speech is distinguished from male by a prevalence of rhetorical interrogative and exclamative sentences and by a higher presence of pathos indicators and several strategies to the projection of the speaker’s emotions or to inclusion of the other in speech, with a ratio of 2 to 1 (see figure 1)36:
36 Here are some examples of indicators (vocatives, interjections, redundant pronouns, terms relating to body parts, etc.), in female speech, specifically in interpellations to sons by mothers: Sen. Her. O. 1341: Gemit: peractum est. Membra complecti ultima, /o nate, liceat; Her. O. 1396: Non virus artus, nate, emineum coquit,/ sed dura series operis et longus tibi; Her. O. 1765: Ad Tartara olim regnaque, o nate, ultima/ rediturus ibas – quando ab inferna Styge / remeabis iterum?; Her. O. 1810: Quis memor uiuit tui,/ o nate, populus?; Her. O. 1826: Quae tibi sepulcra, nate, quis tumulus sat est?; Her. O. 1916: iamne Elysias, o nate, domus,/ iam litus habes, / ad quod populos natura uocat?; Her. O. 1929: […] teque labores, o nate, timent?/ fallor, fallor uesana furens […]; Her. O. 1947: Vnde sonus trepidas aures ferit?/ unde mesas inhibet lacrimas fragor?/ agnosco agnosco uictum est chaos./ a Styge, nate, redis iterum mihi fractaque non semel est mors horrida?; Tro. 461: Mihi gelidus horror ac tremor somnum excutit, / oculosque nunc huc pauida, nunc illuc erens/ oblita nati misera quaesiui Hectorem:/ […] O nate, magni certa progenies patris,/ spes una Phrygibus, unica afflictae domus, / ueterisque suboles sanguinis nimium inclita/ nimiumque patri similis; Tro. 469: O nate sero Phrygibus, o matri cito,/ eritne tempus illud ac felix dies/ quo Troici defensor et uindex soli/ recidiua […]. Heu me […]; Tro. 556-62: Vtinam quidem esses, nate, materna in manu/ nossemque quis te casus ereptum mihi/ teneret, aut quae regio – non hostilibus/ confossa telis pectus ac uinclis manus/ secantibus praestricta, non acri latus/
40
María Teresa Quintillà
interrogative 43% exclamative 24% exhortative 14% desiderative 9,5% enunciative 9,5%
Figure 1. Seneca. Distribution of sentence context: interpellations to son.
exhortative 43% interrogative 29% exclamative 14% enunciative 14%
Figure 2. Seneca. Distribution of sentence contexts. Interpellations to son. Male speech.
In contrast, in male speech, no only this kind of interpellation are used by few characters (namely, Hercules and Amphitryon), but also these interpellations have less emotional charge, as it is evidenced by the lower presence of terms traditionally expressing feelings, as it can be seen in Figure 237. utrumque flamma cincta maternam fidem/ umquam exuissem. Nate, quis te nunc locus,/ fortuna quae possedit?; Phoen. 500: Ad te preces nunc, nate, maternas feram,/ sed ante lacrimas; Phoen. 515-516: Nate post multos mihi/ remisse soles, nate suspensae metus/ et spes parentis, cuius aspectum deos/ semper rogaui, cum tuus reditus mihi / tantum esset erepturus, aduentu tuo / quantum daturus; Med. 845: Ite, ite, nati, matris infaustae genus/ placate uobis munere et multa prece dominam ac nouercam; Med. 924: placuit hoc poena genus,/ meritoque placuit: ultimum magno scelus/ animo parandum est: liberi quondam mei,/ uos pro paternis sceleribus poenas date. 37 Here are some examples of the same indicators as in 25 footnote in male speech, specifically in interpellations to sons by fathers: Her. F. 520: quid deos frustra precor?/ ubicumque es, audi, gnate (Amphitryon); Her. F 622: O nate, certa at sera Thebarum salus,/ teneone in auras editum an uana furor/ deceptus umbra? (Amphitryon); Her. F. 918: Nate, manantes prius/ manus cruenta caede et hostili expia (Amphitryon);
41
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
4.2. Plautus Let us now summarize the conclusions regarding the female speech consolidation in the comedy of Plautus. For this purpose, we choose again the analysis of emotional appeals, now linked to verbal abuse, sc to linguistic expression of anger, rage or resentment38. Specifically, we analyzed the insults that we might call standard or élémentaires39, since they are insults that belong to colloquial register of the Latin language40 and we excluded “Plautinisms” because they are artificial creations far from the colloquial praxis. The data examined include over 176 individual insults, representing 30 different words. The analyzed terms appear sorted by frequency index in the table 10: Table 10. Insults: frequency index. TERM scelesta sceleste scelus mala uerbero impudens impudice carnufex furcifer pessuma pessumae pessume mastigia
F 3
M 36
TOTAL 39
% 22
TERM fur
F
M 4
TOTAL 4
% 2
2
20 20 15
20 20 17
11 11 10
improbe legirupa lutum
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
14 13 9
15 13 10
9 7 6
odium uenefice crux
1
1 2 2
2 2 1
1 1 1
8
7
4
culex cana
1
1
1
Her. F. 953: Quod subitum hoc malum est?/ quo, nate, uultus huc et huc acres refers/ acieque falsum turbida caelum uides? (Amphitryon); Her. F. 1039: Nondum litasti, nate: consumma sacrum (Amphitryon); Her. F. 1227: Quis uos per omnem, liberi, sparsos domum / deflere (Hercules); Thy. 1002: Adeste, nati, genitor infelix uocat,/ adeste (Thystes). 38 Sociolinguistics has widely analyzed the insults from a gender perspective. See about Spanish language: Ángel López, Ricardo Morant, Gramática femenina (Madrid: Cátedra, 1991), pp. 139-173. 39 According to: Pierre-Jean Miniconi, “Les termes d’injure dans le théâtre comique”, REL, 36 (1958), p. 162. 40 Josef Hofman, El latín familiar (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 1958), pp. 125-132.
42 TERM flagitium propudiosa propudium propudiose nequissime nequissimus
María Teresa Quintillà F 2 1
M 4 4
TOTAL 6 5
% 3 3
TERM dicacula cuculus cucule
F 1 1
M 2
TOTAL 1 2
% 1 1
1
3
4
2
TOTAL
15
161
176
100
%
9% 91%
100%
From the study of this resource in the Plautus comedy we may conclude, firstly, that there is a clear asymmetry in the use of insults, with a higher presence of insults in male speech than female, data fully agreeing with those obtained nowadays by Sociolinguistics about gender differences in the speech of men and women41. This agreement shows that verbal aggression is clearly associated with stereotypical attributes of masculinity, reason why men resort to swearwords and insults without restrictions, while women do it much less because of their subjection to social pressure. In this case, the covert prestige would legitimize men, because aggressiveness associated to the use of insults would make them to value it positively and promote their use or, at least, not repress it. Secondly, unlike what has sometimes been postulated about the study of insults in comedy of Plautus (arguing that the use of swearwords and insults is a defining feature of the language of slavery), the data examined suggest that frequency indexes are not only decided by social status of speaker character, and this conclusion can be applied to both the female speech and male, as it can be seen in figures 3, 4 and 5 and in table 11:
matrona 60% ancilla (slave) 20% lena, mulier, meretrix 20%
Figure 3. Plautus. Female characters using insults. Social status. 41 Robin Lakoff, Language and Woman’s…; Seog Kee, La utilización de los tacos: factor sexo y nivel sociocultural (Madrid: PhD Dissertation, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1991).
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
43
Ingenui (freeborn) 58% Serui (slaves) 42%
Figure 4. Plautus. Male characters using insults. Social status.
adulescens 38% senex 25% deus 13% parasitus 8% leno 5% miles 5% dux 3% piscator 3%
Figure 5. Plautus. Male character using insults. Freeborn.
Table 11. Plautus. Male characters using insults (freeborn). Male characters (freeborn) adulescens senex deus parasitus leno miles dux piscator Total
Number 35 23 12 7 5 5 3 3 93
% 38 25 13 8 5 5 3 3 100
Indeed, the characters representing free men (senes, adulescentes) are more often using this type of apostrophe. At least that is what emerges from the results of the study of 30 analyzed insults and 176 tracked fragments. Therefore, it could be inferred that the offensive interpellation
44
María Teresa Quintillà
is closely related to power abuse, possible only among equals, but especially relevant in relationship between characters placed at a higher level in the social hierarchy (young and old masters) and characters under them (slaves). About the linguistic preferences, there are not clear differences between male speech and female when launching an insult against another character. However, there are remarkable divergences depending on the sex of the addressee character: the insults against women evoke recurrently very specific ideas (wickedness, basically), data showed in figures 6 and 7 and in table 1242:
wickedness 90% indecency 10%
Figure 6. Plautus. Invectives against women. Meaning 1.
mala 50% pessuma 20% scelesta 20% propudiosa 5% impudens 2,5% dicacula 2,5%
Figure 7. Plautus. Invectives against women: meaning 2.
42 Persa 365: mulier nulla erit quin sit mala,/ quae praeter sapiet quam placet parentibus (says Saturius); Persa 367: uirgo atque mulier nulla erit quin sit mala / quae reticet si quid fieri peruorse uidet (says the daughter of Saturius to him); Miles 894: Mala mulier mers est. ~ (says Periplectomenus senex to Acroteleutium meretrix); Merc. 512: Ly. Quasi deicas nullam mulierem bonam esse. Pa. Haud equidem dieco / nec mos meust ut praedicem quod ego omnis scire credam.
Differences between Male & Female Speech: a classical topic
45
Table 12. Plautus. Invectives against women. Meaning and distribution. Evoked concept Word
Addressee character ancilla lena mala matrona meretrix, mulier ancilla Wickedness90% pessuma/ae lena meretrix ancilla lena scelesta, scelus matrona meretrix propudiosa ancilla propudium uirgo Indecency10% impudens ancilla dicacula meretrix
Number of cases Total 11 2 20 (50%) 3 5 5 1 8 (20%) 36 2 4 8 (20%) 1 2 1 1 1 4 (10%) 1 1
By contrast, evoked ideas in the insults against male characters are much more diverse and they included corporal punishment, indecency or criminality (see figure 8)43: corporal punishment 41% wickedness 26% indecency 18% nonentity 6% criminality 6% others 3%
Figure 8. Invective against men. Meaning.
43 The terms used against male characters are: corporal punishment (uerbero, carnufex, furcifer, mastigia, crux), indecency (flagitium, impudens, impudice, propudium), criminality (fur, legirupa, uenefice), wickedness (sceleste -scelus, improbe, pessume), nonentity (nequissime, cucule, culex), others (lutum, odium).
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María Teresa Quintillà
Conclusions Having reached the end of our work, I think it can be said that, although both playwrights (Plautus and Seneca) approach the idealized and distorted recreation of speeches categorized as male and female in different ways, both coincide in choosing the interpersonal exchange, the intimate relationship between speaker and interlocutor characters, in order to make more visible the preferences associated with discursive behaviour of men and women on the stage. So, it can be concluded that in the female fictional speech the playwright tend to emphasize emotional aspects associated with self-pity and aporia (a feeling of physical and mental helplessness) and, in contrast, repress, words, idioms and phrases linked to aggressiveness and forcefulness, traditionally identified with the stereotypical male discourse.
Identity in conflict in a Medieval border: the case of an offer/agreement by the count Ermengol VI of Urgell Jesús Corsà Universitat de Lleida
1. Research objectives1 In this paper I wish to provide a number of outstanding and innovating news referring to the duality adopted for the earldom of Urgell politic nobility living in the Andalusian border settlements conquered at the beginning of the 12th century at those lands close to Montsec. This social statement clearly uses the special and temporal context, the unpredictable and unstable context in border lands, in a period full of changes and transformations as the 11th and 12th centuries were, to behave and defend a recent got heritage acquired by conquest. For that reason, let us look into this border transformation because in that historical period it is influenced by the religious reform and running feudal system. All I pretend to extract as a referent to the transformation of this frontier and the new situation evolved from this process surrounds the follo wing reference: […] Et, si d(e) illo uicecomite [Guerau Ponç II de Cabrera] mens uenia, si lo habeat ille sus filius cui ille lo iachiat; et, si sarrecenos guerriant Os, que ille comes [Ermengol VI d’Urgell] en uallat ad illu(m) vicecomite(m) p(er) fide(m) et sine e ngan, et n(on) faciat pace(m) de Vrgello d(e) mentre que Os e(st) in guerra, et q(uo)d donet cata annu(m) ille comes in Tartarenz XXV solidos et III capizes de blato et mediu(m) de tritico […]2.
1 2
Used abbreviations: ACA, Arxiu de la Corona d’Aragó; AHN, Archivo Histórico Nacional; BC, Biblioteca de Catalunya. BC, reg. 4058, perg. 168.
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This quote forms part of one offer/agreement of count Ermengol VI of Urgell and Guerau Ponç II of Cabrera. As we can see, the script hides perfect important information to extract a sketch of the borderland reality and the outstanding men’s intentions interviewing in the territorial expansion. It should be pointed out that in this written analysis there would be added information from other documents in order to corroborate what we want to show.
2. Border, feudality and religion This paragraph must be placed in the 11th-12th century border territorial context in the district/kingdom of taifa of Lleida. It is know that the northern region from the Andalús, historically named as Les Aspres3, was conditioned by the existence of three farmhouses perfectly structured surrounding a fortification placed at the higher part of a hill. The group of buildings of this land was featured for its hisn’s pre-eminence placed in a geodesic privileged part full of natural defences, well connected with the fortified area formed of a group of watchtowers and with a full dominium of the farming lands4. It has to be remembered that the border among the Andalus and the northern Christian counties and kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula suffered from a hard and long process of change during the Early Medieval Ages. Thus, the border reality of the 9th-10th centuries, characterized by a non structured intermediated space5, was transformed into the desire of the emergent noble leaderships. Although the particular singularities, it was generalized 3 4
5
Flocel Sabaté, El territori de la Catalunya Medieval. Percepció de l’espai i divisió territorial al llarg de l’Edat Mitjana (Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau Editor, 1997), p. 386. Jesús Corsà, El Poblament rural andalusí a les Aspres, nord del districte/taifa de Lleida (finals del segle X - principis del segle XII) (Lleida: Universitat de Lleida, PhD Dissertation, 2012), pp. 729-730. José María Mínguez, Las sociedades feudales (Madrid: Nerea, 1994), p. 92; Flocel Sabaté, “La marca en els comtats de l’any mil”, Plecs d’Història Local, 65 (1996), pp. 36-37; Juan José Larrea, La Navarre du IVe au XIIe siècle. Peuplement et société (París-Bruseles: De Boeck, 1998), pp. 94-96; Philippe Sénac, La frontière et les hommes (VIIIe-XIIe siècle): le peuplement musulman au nord de l’Ebre et les débuts de la reconquête aragonaise (París: Maisonneuve & Larose, 2000), pp. 375-386; Iñaki
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the border privatization6, aspect that, with no doubt, allows to start talking about the aristocratization of the frontier7. Consequently the frontier disappears under a Christian society’s dynamic expansion. The result of this process of territorial expansion and the inefficiency of the political border settlements inspired by the amirites8 provokes that at the beginning of the 11th century the frontier evolves from being a separation mark into a line among two entities. In this context it should be emphasized the Urgellenc aristocracy, who realized that in a few decades, have enlarged their domains considerably. This social statement was linked to the House of Urgell’s arbitrage and superiority. Nevertheless, the local situation imposed the power and the domain of the count was far away to be dominant in a territory, where the viscount was the authority. This reality should be taken in mind when reading and interpreting medieval texts because all of them are related to people’s political and economic interests. Sometimes, the struggle for survival, the continuity and to guarantee the interests of these new territorial entities seemed to bring oneself to annoying situations that could provoke alterations in the hierarchic order established in the Early Christian medieval society. That’s why we can realize that we are working with identities and patrimonial interests which are the cause of certain discords with the last authority of the social scale, in that case the count of Urgell. This could evolve into a direct or indirect conflict among both parts, although the usual reaction is to establish agreements between the two parts. Thus, the count power has its own perfect mechanisms in order to guarantee and look after the border leaders9.
6
7 8
9
Martín, “La articulación del poder en la cuenca del Duero: el ejemplo del espacio zamorano (siglos VI-XI)”, Anuario de Estudios Medievales, 31 (2001), pp. 91-105. Juan José Sánchez, La configuración de un sistema de poblamiento y organización del espacio: el territorio de León (siglo IX-XI) (León: Universidad de León, 2002), pp. 348-349. Flocel Sabaté, Atles de la “Reconquesta” (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1998), pp. 17-19. Felipe Maíllo, “Sobre la presencia de los muslimes en Castilla la Vieja en las Edades Medias”, Actas del III Curso de Cultura Medieval. Seminario: Repoblación y reconquista (Aguilar de Campoo: Centro de Estudios del Románico, 1993), p. 19; Dolors Bramon, De quan érem o no musulmans. Textos del 713 al 1010 (Barcelona: Eumo Editorial, 2000), pp. 347-348. The laying down of personal agreements allows to get close the opposed parts (Adam J. Kosto, Making Agreements in Medieval Catalonia. Power, Order, and the Written Word, 1000-1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 26-77).
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This helps to prevent defectors and possible illegal alliances among the Muslims damaging the territorial integrity and giving contra-power in a difficult but a rich land as the borders was. It is necessary to contextualize the region enquired during the historical moment in which the border changed into a simple separation line, and thus, the next territorial expansion implying a warlike period against the Andalusian governments. From that moment, another important factor in this expansion appears the religious point of view. It was in the middle eleventh century when from the northern Christian societies, was experimented an ideological formulation in which coincided identity and otherness values, territorial expansion, justifying the use of power and the establishment of the religions point centres which got benefit after the conquest10. All these items empower and help the political, economic and religious system based on the feudalism. At the same time, from the political point of view with the consolidation of the sovereign power, as well as from the spiritual point of view influenced by the reformist Cluny11, the interests of the territorial conquest were related to treaties with Muslim taifas in order to exchange gold for peace12. During this period feudalism was intensified, as well as the Christian identity of the society13. At this moment religion justified the social order and put in the ideological basis in the military operations. During the 11th century, the Church spread new thoughts that rose during the second half of the century as a consequence of the Gregorian reform, so in that way the fight against the Muslim took a religious point of view relating to God14. The last decades of the 11th century and the firsts of the 12th were
10 Philippe Sénac, “Islam et chrétienté dans l’Espagne du haut moyen age: la naissance d’une frontière”, Studia Islamica, 89 (1999), pp. 91-108. 11 Dominique Iogna-Prat, Ordenner et exclure. Cluny et la société chrétienne face a l’hérésie, au judaïsme et à l’islam (1000-1150) (Paris: Flamarion, 2003), pp. 324-359. 12 In fact, during this short period the Christian people preffer the Muslim gold instead of lands. (Pierre Bonnassie, Catalunya mil anys enrera (Segles X-XI) (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1979), pp. 313-314). 13 Jean Flori, Croisade et chavalerie. XIe-XIIe (Paris-Bruseles: De Boeck Université, 1998), pp. 81-213. 14 Flocel Sabaté, “Frontera peninsular e identidad (siglos IX-XII)”, Las Cinco Villas aragonesas en la Europa de los siglos XII y XIII, Esteban Sarasa, coord. (Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 2007), p. 77.
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especially tense as the Christendom15 as the Islamic communities16 lived specific radicalism in the religious behaviour. In relation to the mountainous region we are working with, Aspres, it is significant the farmhouse and the hisn from Os, a downed place, in this period, by violence of the Christian forces. In order to be able to understand the frontier reality and, at the same time, the documentary speech, we need to know how was Os before being taken by counts and why they were after afraid of the Andalusian attacks. As it is known, the Christian conquerors found, after the effort of occupation of the last Andalusian north-occidental region, a structured and organized village formed by a castle, some houses, a bread wood stove and a group of almunia – named as mansions in the documents – surrounding the inhabited nucleus. At the same time, it is important to consider that the conquerors catalogued the Islamic living in Os as a castrum malignum and its population as malignam gentem17. The usage of these adjectives in the people’s descriptions and the fact that the castle of Os was a difficult place to conquer, make us think about the border reality. In that way, it is important to think about these descriptions to identify that in Os, differently as in the last decadent decade in Lleida (mid 12th century), where el despoblament remet a una ciutat fortament decadent, amb cases que, abandonades, s’enrunen per si soles sense que ningú no les arregli, en creixent degradació (“the population rift was because a strong decadent city, with abandoned houses that fall down and no one mends them in an increasing degradation”)18, there is not a collective conscience and fear of the future, or during the same times, the Andalusian populations don’t show any mistrust. We observe that the adjectives given by the Christians when describing the defeated from Os did not transmit any sense of lack of hope in the future, perfectly shown in the capital city decadence and the Christians impact three decades after that. For this reason, we can deduce there is no parallelism. Os seems to be an exemplar community as it resisted until the last moment and, it could
15 John V. Tolan, Saracens. Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), pp. 109-123. 16 Vicent Lagardère, Les almoravides jusqu’au règne de Yusuf B Tasfin (1039-1106) (Paris: Éditions l’Harmattan, 1989), pp. 30-60. 17 BC, reg. 4158, perg. 166. 18 Flocel Sabaté, Història de Lleida. Alta Edat Mitjana (Lleida: Pagès Editors, 2003), p. 214.
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also be treated as an fundamentalist society, malignam gentem19, possibly influenced by the new doctrines of the Islamic clerks of Larida, who tilt for the renewal and unifying almoravits arrived at the capital city in 1102. However, we discover that the Andalusian society in Os didn’t abandon its habitat, it maintained until the end, stoically resisting. Thus we interpret that the Christian conquerors, not only considered the castle as malicious for their conquer battle, but probably, their inhabitants should be traditional, religious and loving their land, the one they considered from them. So, after that, it is not strange that the count of Urgell took into account a possible coming back of the Muslim population after occupying Os. The region seems important and strategic enough as for the Muslim took a nother military campaign, fact that would alter the Urgellenc possessions.
3. Cases full of parallelism Other real occasions in where this occurred also existed. On the one hand, we can show Santa Linya’s case, an Andalusian settlement conquered at the beginning of the 11th century, but having a post conquest stage hardfought between Christians and Muslims for this fortification and its place. After the analysis of some documents we discover that the Santa Linya’s village and bastion was the scenario of some conquest and re-conquest campaigns among the Christian and the Islamic forces who came to temporary recover the place. Santa Linya, as well as Àger, was occupied at the beginning of the third decade of the 11th century20 and some years after the Muslism recover it. It is said that from the 1046/1047 these two territories are from the Andalusians again, but not for a long time, because from 1048/1049 Santa Linya and Àger were again a Christian territory21, but as we note, at the end of that century Santa Linya’s territory is under 19 BC, reg. 4158, perg. 166. 20 ACA, Cancelleria, perg. Ramon Berenguer I, cap. 9, núm. 1. 21 Carme Alòs, “Castell de Santa Linya”, Catalunya Romànica, Antoni Pladevall, dir. (Barcelona: Enciclopèdia Catalana, 1994), vol. 17, p. 212; Francesc Fité, Eduard González, Arnau Mir de Tost. Un senyor de frontera al segle XI (Lleida: Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Lleida, 2010), pp. 134-136.
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Islamic control again. In fact, the tenant of the castle of Àger, Galceran Erimà, gave in his will to his son Pere, Àger’s abbot, Santa Linya’s castle22 as soon as it was conquered by Guerau Ponç II viscount of Cabrera. This fact confirms us that in 1094 Santa Linya’s castle was out of Àger’s dominion, allowing us to discover the military disputes among the two political entities during the eleventh century in Aspres. Therefore, we understand that Santa Linya’s placement was a wanted place among the Christians and the Muslims during the whole century. We observe as the fortification turned from the count to the Andalusians and, at the same time, we discover that under the Christian government, the old Islamic territory was fragmenting into little castles and small places that may difficult the Islamic, the re-conquest of those lost territories. In that way, the Christian/count strategy consisted in fragmenting and build bastions in the territory in order to create a system of fortifications recovering the principal places23. That would condemn in that way the Islamic conquest to fail. On the other hand, it is documented that at the beginning of the 90s from the 11th century Tragó was conquered to the Muslims24. In that period Guerau Ponç II of Cabrera and his wife Elvira gave as a donation all the churches from Tragó and its dominion to Sant Pere d’Àger: […] donatores sumus domno Deo sancto Petro de Ager omnes ecclesiis que sunt et erunt omni tempore in castrum Dracone […] Adhuc ei damus opus iam dicte canonice medictate de omne decimum de omne nostrum dominicum que abemus et abebimus in castrum Drachone et in omnibus suis terminis eo ut omnipotens Deus25.
Nevertheless, this riverside territories fell, during 1094, in favour of the Muslim again because in Galceran Erimà’s testament it is written that he makes one’s will the castrum de Tracono if God allows the recuperation of this land and its integration to Guerau Ponç’s II of Cabrera dominion26.
22 Cebrià Baraut, “Els documents, dels anys 1093-1100 de l’Arxiu Capitular de la Seu d’Urgell”, Urgellia, 8 (1986-1987), p. 45 (doc. nº 1119). 23 This is the case of Privà’s castle, an ex novo settlement founded during the second half of the 11th century. The new land takes a huge part of the ancient land from the Santa Linya’s farmhouse. ACA, Cancelleria, pergs. Ramon Berenguer I, cap. 9, núm. 1. 24 Francesc Fité, “Castell de Tragó”, Catalunya Romànica…, vol. 17, p. 394. 25 Ramon Chesé, Col·lecció diplomàtica de Sant Pere d’Àger fins 1198 (Barcelona: Fundació Noguera, 2011), vol. 1, pp. 403-404 (doc. nº 148). 26 Cebrià Baraut, “Els documents, dels anys 1093-1100…”, p. 45 (doc. nº 1119).
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After some time, the lords of Àger confirm at Sant Pere’s abbey that the bequest was done before all that. Despite all of these problems, finally, Tragó was defenetly conquered the 4th of November of 1098 and Guerau Ponç II of Cabrera and his wife Elvira donate their castle. The document found says the following: [...] donamus uobis ipsum castrum qui uocator Drachon, qui nobis aduenit per donitum Domino Deo de potestate sarracenis uel omnesque uoces et est in comitatu Barchinona27.
For this reason the possession of this settlement was clearly specified. This is a historic value document as it allows us to know the Islamic reality of the 11th century. We can absolutely mark the Muslim presence nearby the river Noguera Ribagorçana at the end of the eleventh century and the final conquest of that place. This is the usual documented keynote in the northern region of the district or taifa of Lleida. It should be taken into account that the Islamic conquest of Os is not documented, as the examples of Santa Linya and Tragó. Despite this, the documented reference taken as the vertebral part of this paper, allows us to know the public fear of the Muslims fighting again to get the settlement; worry that motivated count Ermengol VI to secure the fidelity of Guerau Ponç II of Cabrera specifying that he wouldn’t be able to sign the peace with the Muslims in case they attacked Os. This is a peculiar aspect of this document as it considered the possibility of a new attack from the Muslims, like in the surrounding territories. In that way, it is clear the daily use of gaining and loosing border territories, and at the same time the disbelief among the hierarchies owning power, those who have to update and confirm their fidelity convincing the others. All these references allow us to investigate and think about the border fluctuation among both, Christian and Islamic. As Chalmeta says: un estudio del “tagr”no puede nunca ser estático; no se puede “sumar” los datos procedentes de diversas épocas. Antes bien, hay que distinguir cuidadosamente entre las distintas fases cronológicas para evitar una imagen plana y, además que no nos cuadren los mapas. A study of the tagr can never be static; data coming from different ages can’t be “added” in. Before that, it should be carefully distinguished among the different
27 AHN, sec. Clero, perg., carp. 1014, doc. 21.
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chronological phases to avoid a simple image and, as well as, for the good use of the maps28.
The same happens with Pere Balañà who considers that the notion of borders semantically changes during the medieval centuries29. Following the explanations from these masters, we think it is necessary to carefully analyze everything that took place in the borders during the eleventh and the twelfth century, when some specific circumstances from this period also took place, while the Muslim groups were in decadence and the Christian/feudal society was rising. That’s why it is important to take into account the personal interests of the Urgellenc elite, who fought in order to gain more territories and money, as well as the fondness of the Andalusians to regain the conquered lands; all of this creates a swing for some decades in the borders. It is detected that the frontier territories were unpleasant because of violent movements generated by the counts who wanted to look for new lands to conquer. But it is clear that the southern answer was not less blunt. In that way, the Andalusians had enough capacity to organize military campaigns to regain the list lands, although it was just momentary. The border during the 11th and 12th centuries was an unsteady place, where conflicts were permanent.
4. Consideration of the dedication It is important to take into account that, since the taifa kingdoms falling down a new so much complex period started, while the time of consolidation of some cities was changed – Seville and Granada – and the decadent periods, in which lots of cities become poor30. In the first half of the 12th 28 Pedro Chalmeta, “El concepto de Tagr”, La Marche Supérieure d’Al-Andalus et l’occident chrétien, Philippe Sénac, ed. (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1991), p. 16. 29 Pere Balañà, “La frontera islàmica extrema, un territorio d’excepció”, La transformación de la Frontera al Segle XI, Flocel Sabaté, ed. (Lleida: Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Lleida, 2000), pp. 67-83. 30 Christine Mazzoli-Guintard, Ciudades de al-Andalus, España y Portugal en la época musulmana (s. VIII-XV) (Granada: Editorial al-Andalus y el Mediterráneo, 2000), p. 279.
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century growing up of the urban border cities turned into a difficult situation because of the expansion of the kingdoms and counties from the North of the Peninsula; as well as the Almoravits from the South. This reality marks the end at the growing up of the taifa capital cities. Some good examples were the conquests of Barbastre (1064), of Toledo (1085) and Balaguer (1105), which show the beginning of an important decadence in the Andalusian society. It is a fact that the border societies live doubting about their continuity31. Then, in this border context took place the region of Premontsec, a territory pressured by the earls of Urgell and especially by Guerau Ponç II of Cabrera, who continued an expansion campaign32. We are studying a period in which the borders were marked by the north-south conquer process33. That’s a real fact because some years before of the writing of this document Balaguer was taken34. So, it is such a good spatial and territorial context for the writing of a document which took care of the personal interests of the people. Once contextualized the quote, in which the earl Ermengol VI reminded the viscount Guerau Ponç II not to sign the treaty of peace with the Muslims in case that these came back to Os after its conquest in 1116, it is proposed its comprehension. We can find that analyzing and comparing the earl’s worries related to the borders, we see that Ermengol VI needed to avoid a possible change of interests coming from the south-west border warriors. That’s why this document was realized, a legal contract among the two different powers, count and viscount. Through this document it was renewed the fidelity among Guerau Ponç and his count, it means that the alliance is sealed. Ermengol VI had guaranteed that Guerau Ponç did not sign any peace treatment with the Andalusian and that he did not act freely, consequently, he did not work for his own benefit. The behaviour of the viscount, in other case, could be contrary to the counts’ interests but the agreement kept both into the legal context the whole time. At the same time, the count did not want the viscount to act and take decisions by himself without taking into account his authorities’
31 Flocel Sabaté, Història de Lleida…, p. 106. 32 Jesús Corsà, El Poblament rural andalusí a les Aspres…, p. 938. 33 Flocel Sabaté, “Frontera peninsular e identidad (siglos IX-XII)”, Las cinco Villas aragonesas…, p. 50. 34 Balaguer was conquered on the 1105 by Pedro Ansúrez, count of Carrión, Lord of Valladolid and father-in-law of the dead Ermengol V of Urgell (Prim Bertran, “El comtat d’Urgell i la Conquesta de Balaguer”, Balaguer, 1105 cruïlla de civilitzacions, Flocel Sabaté, dir. (Lleida: Pagès Editors, 2007), p. 170).
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decisions. From a hidden point of view, it can be seen the preoccupation and the fear to the possible creation of a counter power in the southern border of Urgell’s earldom. This fact could be related to the viscount if he wanted to have benefits on the border’s situation and the possible leaving of the Muslims if they did not behave into the earl’s authorities. Obviously, it is not strange at all to find this private agreement because we think that it is possible an unknown situation if the count did not maintain or breaks the relationship with his vassals. So the viscount could create an autonomous dominion under the Muslim consent. We have to take into account that these were border lands, which is a synonym of great possibilities. Living among two different worlds held the opportunity to obtain benefits from this strategic situation of the two political parts. This spatial reality can be used to develop a dominion huge enough than the ruled territories by Urgell. It is important to mention that this last idea is a speculation taken from the lecture of the text and the comprehension and comparison of the exposed documents that show the border instability. Related to this reflexion, it is important to remember that in the county feudal society of that moment it was assured the fidelity towards the counts and the benefits given by the territorial expansion. In fact, the most attractive part of the border lands was not the economical gains, but the huge possibilities in the feudal aspects of transforming the territory in a neetwork of bounded castles and the benefits and feudal rights from these castles in order to reward different services, accumulate incomes and to get jurisdictions, which supposes richness and privileges for a close future35.
Conclusion To sum up, we can observe that the border land turned from a separation space during the 9th-10th centuries, to a simple line kept by husun and towers during the 11th-12th centuries. At the same time, the northern Iberian Christian peninsular societies’ feudalization transformed the territorial
35 Flocel Sabaté, “Las tierras nuevas en los condados del nordeste peninsular (siglos X-XII)”, Studia Historica. Historia Medieval, 23 (2005), p. 152.
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expansion in order to evolve and continue the dynamical patrimonial and economical boom of the richest families, in that case, from the Count of Urgell. This political and social reality implied the bond tightness among its components. It is clear that, this same feudal dynamics guarantee the territorial position and the reward of the participants, whose are inserted in a pyramid of tenant castles fidelities. In fact, this system allows the lodgement and growing of its members, assuring the regime’s fidelity. Despite, the Urgell warrior class, appearing in a new territory extremely rich in new possibilities to create a new huge private property, has its own mentality and ambitions. We understand that the nobility, established in occupied lands of the northern Andalus, had to learn to coexist with the constant risk that supposes to possess border territories during the 11th century and during the first half of the 12th century given that the Muslim Andalusian powers still show to possess some capacities of action in order to regain lost lands and fortifications. In that way the border was transformed into an uncertain space with no clear or stable limits, but a space to establish some definitely control from a political and cultural point of view, which was not difficult to obtain with some time and effort. The examples of Santa Linya, Tragó and Os clearly show that. The other option was referred to the feudal bonds. We deduce that the earl demands to his vassals show that Ermengol VI did not fully trust Guerau Ponç, because throughout the analyzed coexistence, he reminded him the obligation of being subjected to the count house of Urgell whatever happens. For these reasons we consider that the earl was totally aware that the viscount lived in a double world, the border, place offering the possibility of getting benefits of the territorial context, marked with violence, in order to grow a power that could be able to disconnect from the count of Urgell and which could get a great rival thanks to the Muslims. This circumstance leads to suppose terrible consequences in relation to the integrity and the continuity of the house of Urgell due to the possibility that the counter power broke the dynamism of the territorial expansion and the equilibrium of the feudal pyramid. Finally, we suggest that behind all these words it was hiding a world driven by the different territorial and economic interests, which became the main cause of the conflict among the counts and viscounts. Thus are basic to identify the wicked and controlling mentality facing the others, that is, the superior people against their vassals. We realise as well that the border was a world of opportunities in order to break the harmony of the feudal/ vassal system. We suggest that the different clauses of feudality were elements in order to avoid a possible absence in the duty of the count authority.
Identités en conflit. Disputes entre catholiques et « bons hommes » à la veille de la Croisade contre les Albigeois, 1206-1207 Pilar Jiménez Université Toulouse-Jean Jaurès
Le thème de ce colloque, « identités en conflit, identités perverses », m’offre l’occasion de revenir sur l’étude d’un sujet un peu oublié : les rencontres et disputes affrontant catholiques et dissidents dans plusieurs bourgs et villes du Languedoc entre l’été 1206 et l’été 1207. Etudié dans les années 1960, surtout par des historiens catholiques et/ou dans la mouvance de l’historiographie catholique, le sujet n’a pas depuis suscité grand intérêt1. En revenant sur ces affrontements dialectiques, je voudrais insister sur le contexte d’extrême tension qui précède le déclenchement de la Croisade et la période de répression, militaire puis judiciaire, dominant le XIIIe siècle. Contrairement à l’opinion défendue par l’historiographie catholique, qui avait envisagé dans la catégorie des rencontres dialectiques celles ayant fait s’affronter un siècle auparavant à catholiques et dissidents, je pense que les rencontres controversées tenues entre l’été 1206 et l’été 1207 en constituent les premiers épisodes. Depuis le milieu du XIIe siècle, dans le contexte de lutte contre l’hérésie, la papauté avait envoyé plusieurs légations cisterciennes pour combattre la dissidence dans le Languedoc. C’est alors que les « bons hommes » – nom que se donnent les adeptes de la dissidence implantée dans les territoires situés entre Albi, Toulouse, Carcassonne et Foix – furent plusieurs
1
Christine Thouzellier, Catharisme et Valdéisme en Languedoc à la fin du XIIe et début du XIIIe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1966, réimp. Marseille, 1982); Elie Griffe, L’aventure cathare (1140-1190) (Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1996); Marie-Humbert Vicaire, Saint Dominique, la vie apostolique (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1965); Elie Griffe, « Le modèle évangélique des Apôtres à l’origine de l’ordre de saint Dominique », Heresis, 2 (1991), pp. 323-340.
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fois soumis au jugement par la hiérarchie catholique2. A travers l’étude de la dernière légation pontificale envoyée par la papauté en 1206, et en insistant sur la méthode novatrice qu’elle inaugure, je souhaite attirer l’attention sur le conflit identitaire qui se joue en arrière-plan, celui affrontant depuis le XIIe siècle les défenseurs de deux conceptions médiévales de l’ecclesia.
1. La lutte contre l’hérésie à l’Aube du XIIIe siècle La bulle du 10 mars 1208 du pape Innocent III appelait les chevaliers chrétiens à combattre au nom de Dieu les hérétiques du sud de la France. En 1204 et 1205, le pape avait déjà fait appel au roi de France Philippe Auguste pour venir combattre avec ses vassaux les hérétiques du Midi. Dans l’appel de 1208, Innocent III se montrait fermement déterminé. Pour combattre des hérétiques, il offrait la rémission des péchés aux chevaliers qui prendraient la croix (cruci signati) et les invitait à devenir les nouveaux seigneurs des territoires pris aux hérétiques3. Le pape prétendait venger le meurtre de son légat Pierre de Castelnau à Saint-Gilles, près d’Arles, le 14 janvier 1208, dont il rendait responsable les hérétiques. La disparition du légat portait un coup dur à la politique théocratique de la papauté et à la lutte contre l’hérésie dont Innocent III avait fait, dès son arrivée au siège de Saint Pierre en 1198, l’un de ses principaux combats. En 1203, il avait confié à Pierre de Castelnau, ancien archidiacre de Maguelone puis moine de l’abbaye cistercienne de Fontfroide, près de Narbonne, la mission de 2
3
Si dans les premiers documents à faire référence à leur existence, les dissidents se nomment eux-mêmes « bons hommes », les cisterciens préfèrent les qualifier d’Ariens. Sur cette dénomination, voir : Pilar Jiménez, « Les débuts de la dissidence des ‘bons hommes’ en Languedoc. Au temps de la dénomination de ‘l’Arriana haeresis’ », La dissidence occidentale dans tous ses états : hérétiques, révoltés, insoumis, indignés, Jean-Pierre Albert, Anne Brenon, Pilar Jiménez, éds. (Toulouse: Méridiennes Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, sous presse). Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Historia Albigensis, éds. Pascal Guebin, Etienne Lyon (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1926) ; Histoire Albigeoise (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1951). Le texte de la bulle d’Innocent III est recueilli par : Pierre des Vauxde-Cernay, Histoire Albigeois…, pp. 31-32.
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« chasser l’hérésie de la province de Narbonne »4. Homme de confiance du pape – ils se connaissaient depuis longtemps –, Pierre de Castelnau avait été nommé légat pontifical avec Raoul, un autre moine de la même abbaye de Fontfroide. Un an plus tard, en 1204, le pape demandait à l’abbé de Cîteaux, Arnaud Amaury, de se joindre aussi à la légation pontificale. Celle-ci remplaçait la précédente, composée par les cisterciens Rainier de Ponza et Gui, envoyés par Innocent III deux mois après les débuts de son pontificat. Par la lettre du 21 avril 1198, Innocent III l’adressait aux archevêques et évêques du Midi, puis aux princes, barons et comtes, c’est-à-dire aux autorités ecclésiastiques et civiles des régions de Languedoc, Provence, Lyonnais et nord de l’Espagne, pour leur annoncer l’envoi des légats5. Le pape paraissait résolu à épurer l’Eglise des maux déjà répertoriés dans ses traités : « la corruption du clergé et l’orgueil, le premier de tous les vices, dont l’hérésie serait le premier fruit »6. L’hérésie était devenue, avec la violence provoquée par des routiers à solde loués par les princes, les principaux facteurs perturbateurs de la paix et de l’unité de l’Eglise7. La légation des frères Rainier et Gui avait comme mission de prêcher et de combattre l’hérésie. Si la prédication monastique venait appuyer dans le Midi celle des évêques, elle avait surtout comme objectif de persuader les autorités religieuses et laïques méridionales de faire appliquer avec zèle les sanctions canoniques contre les hérétiques. Ces sanctions condamnaient les hérétiques à l’exil, ainsi que les fauteurs et partisans d’hérétiques, confisquant leurs biens, les excommuniant et lançant l’interdit sur leurs terres. Entre les deux légations pontificales, celle de 1198 et celle de 1203, la bulle d’Innocent III, Vergentius in senium, en 1199, avait fait monter 4 5 6
7
Innocent III, Lettres, Patrologie Latine, vol. 214, n° 29, col. 273. Innocent III, Lettres, Patrologie Latine, vol. 214, col. 82. Innocent IIII, De contemptu mundi et De miseria conditionis humanae, Patrologie Latine, vol. 217, col. 701-746. Une étude de l’ensemble de la correspondance concernant l’hérésie dans les premières années du pontificat d’Innocent par : Monique Zerner, « Questions sur la naissance de l’affaire albigeoise », L’écriture de l’histoire, Claudie Duhamel-Amado, Guy Lobrichon, éds. (Paris: De Boeck, 1966), pp. 427-444. Le III Concile de Latran, en 1179, avait déjà condamné dans le même canon 27, autant l’hérésie que la violence des routiers comme les principaux obstacles pour parvenir à la paix, voir: Giuseppe Alberigo, Giuseppe Dossetti, Perikles P. Joannou, Claudio Leonardi, Paolo Prodi, éds. Les Conciles Œcuméniques (Paris: Le Cerf, 1994), pp. 482-483.
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d’un cran le combat contre l’hérésie. En faisant de l’hérésie un crime de lèse-majesté divine, une attente contre le pape, représentant ou vicaire du Christ sur terre, l’hérétique devenait l’ennemi par excellence de la société chrétienne. En criminalisant l’hérésie, la papauté se sert de cette accusation pour imposer sa politique théocratique auprès des princes occidentaux, mais aussi pour combattre toute résistance et/ou opposition envers elle. Dès sa promulgation, la bulle est appliquée dans les villes italiennes en conflit avec le pape, puis un an plus tard, en 1200, en Languedoc. C’est dans ces deux espaces géopolitiques, où la papauté rencontre une forte opposition à faire respecter sa politique théocratique et centralisatrice, que les affaires d’hérésie se multiplient dans les premières années du XIIIe siècle. Dans le Midi, les affaires d’hérésie se portent non seulement contre des prélats catholiques, l’affaire de l’archevêque de Narbonne, Bérenguer, déposé de son siège peut en témoigner8, mais aussi contre des princes méridionaux, l’exemple du comte de Toulouse étant le plus frappant. Excommunié plusieurs fois pour avoir refusé de prêter le serment aux légats qui l’engageaient à appliquer la politique pontificale sur ses domaines, le comte de Toulouse fut accusé d’hérésie. Suspecté d’avoir commandité le meurtre de son légat Pierre de Castelnau en janvier 1208, le pape lance un nouvel appel aux chevaliers chrétiens pour venir se croiser cotre les hérétiques, offrant en proie les terres de ceux-ci9.
2. La Nouvelle Predication (Apostolique) Dans ce contexte de lutte contre l’hérésie, une série de rencontres controversées se tiennent entre les membres de la dernière légation envoyée par
8
9
Géraldine Paloc, « L’ ‘anticléricalisme de l’intérieur’: l’affaire Bérenger de Narbonne (1203-1212) », L’anticléricalisme en France méridionale (milieu XIIe-début XIVe siècles), Cahiers de Fanjeaux, 38 (2003), pp. 355-373. Monique Zerner, « Le déclenchement de la Croisade Albigeoise. Retour sur l’affaire de paix et de foi », La Croisade Albigeoise (Carcassonne: Centre d’Etudes Cathares, 2004), pp. 127-142 ; Pilar Jiménez, « Le catharisme fut-il le véritable enjeu religieux de la Croisade ? », La Croisade Albigeoise…, pp. 143-155.
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Innocent III et les représentants de la dissidence, de l’été 1206 à la fin de 1207, c’est-à-dire dans les mois qui précédent le meurtre du légat et l’appel à la Croisade. L’expérience mise en place par la nouvelle et dernière légation pontificale en Languedoc en 1206 est qualifiée de « sainte prédication » par notre principal rapporteur, le cistercien Pierre de Vaux de Cernay. Il la décrit dans ces termes : Ici commence le récit qui raconte de quelle manière les prédicateurs vinrent en pays albigeois. L’an 1206 de l’Incarnation du Verbe, l’évêque d’Osma, Diego, homme remarquable et digne de remarquables éloges, s’en vint à la Curie Romaine avec le suprême désir de résigner son épiscopat pour se consacrer plus librement à la prédication de l’Evangile chez les païens, mais le seigneur pape Innocent ne voulut pas acquiescer au désir du saint homme : il lui ordonna même de retourner à son siège. Or, il advint que, revenant de la Curie et passant à Montpellier, il rencontra le vénérable Arnaud abbé de Cîteaux, frère Pierre de Castelnau et frère Raoul, moines cisterciens, légats du Siège Apostolique : tous voulaient renoncer à la légation qui leur avait été commise, tant ils étaient découragés devant l’insuccès à peu près total de leurs prédications aux hérétiques ; chaque fois, en effet, qu’ils voulaient prêcher aux hérétiques, ceux-ci leur objectaient le comportement détestable des clercs : si donc ils voulaient corriger la vie des clercs, il leur faudrait renoncer à la prédication. Mais ledit évêque remédia à leur perplexité par un conseil salutaire : il les invita très instamment à s’adonner avec plus d’ardeur encore à la prédication, laissant de côté tous autres soucis, et pour fermer la bouche aux méchants de s’avancer en toute humilité pour agir et enseigner à l’exemple du Divin Maître et d’aller à pieds, sans or ni argent, imitant en toutes choses la prédication apostolique. Mais lesdits légats, ne voulant rien innover de leur propre chef, dirent que si quelque autorité favorable voulait bien inaugurer cette méthode, ils la suivraient… bientôt, renvoyant à sa ville d’Osma sa suite et ses voitures, ne gardant qu’un seul compagnon, il quitta Montpellier avec les deux moines légats ci-dessus nommés…10.
Si pendant un an et demi, une nouvelle forme de prédication est mise à l’œuvre pour combattre l’hérésie, la prédication itinérante et mendiante, évangélique, imitant l’idéal apostolique11, elle se voit renforcée par la discussion avec les hérétiques12. De courte durée, elle fut envisagée au moment de la plus grande tension entre la papauté et les autorités – ecclésiastiques 10 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, pp. 11-12. 11 Marie-Humbert Vicaire, « Saint Dominique à Prouille, Montréal et Fanjeaux », Cahiers de Fanjeaux, 1 (1966), pp. 15-33. 12 Contrairement à l’opinion défendue par Marie-Humbert Vicaire ( « Saint Dominique à Prouille, Montréal et Fanjeaux… », p. 25), les disputes théologiques et ses débats préliminaires étaient littéraires et non réelles. Voir la note 21.
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et laïques – du Midi. On pourrait même penser que les défenseurs d’une solution non armée se donnaient une dernière chance de régler de manière pacifique l’affaire de l’hérésie. Elle parvient sans doute trop tard, la solution armée avait probablement gagnée la majorité des esprits. 2.1. Sources et témoignages C’est ainsi que Pierre, de l’abbaye cistercienne des Vaux de Cernay, près de Paris, décrit les débuts de celle qu’il qualifie de « sainte prédication », dans son Historia Albigensis, chronique sur les événements de la Croisade (1209-1229). Le moine commence sa rédaction en 1213, à son retour du Midi où il avait accompagné son oncle Guy, abbé du monastère des Vaux de Cernay, lors de sa nomination comme évêque de Carcassonne l’année précédente. Cette nomination avait été très bien accueillie par les croisés dont le chef, Simon de Montfort, devenu depuis 1209 seigneur de Carcassonne et de Béziers, était ami de l’abbé depuis longtemps. Ce n’est donc pas dû au hasard si Pierre, neveu du nouvel évêque de Carcassonne, devient l’auteur de l’Historia, œuvre de propagande et support des croisés. Le nom Historia était alors, en effet, réservé au récit des événements contemporains. En initiant sa rédaction de la Croisade quatre ans après les débuts des événements, en 1213, Pierre devient à la fois l’historiographe de la Croisade et de Simon de Montfort, le chef militaire des croisés depuis la prise de Carcassonne en août 1209. Probablement pour cette raison, en décrivant l’itinéraire parcouru par la nouvelle légation pontificale de 1206 à partir de Montpellier, le moine Pierre suit celui réalisé par l’armée des croisés au début des hostilités, en 1209. Car ce sont les castra du vicomte de Carcassonne, Béziers et Albi et ceux de leurs vassaux que le cistercien mentionne comme lieux où la nouvelle légation catholique s’arrête pour prêcher et discuter avec les dissidents. La deuxième source fondamentale pour la connaissance des rencontres entre catholiques et dissidents est la Chronique de Guillaume de Puylaurens13. Clerc toulousain, faisant probablement partie de l’entourage de Foulque,
13 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244), éd. Jean Duvernoy (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1976).
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évêque de Toulouse, Guillaume fut chapelain du comte Raymond VII. Il rédige sa chronique au moins quarante ans après les évènements rapportés, c’est-à-dire entre 1250 et 1273-75, date probable de son décès. Bien que la chronique ne porte pas de titre, elle s’intéresse principalement à l’affaire de la Croisade et l’auteur reconnait avoir recueilli les informations à partir de différents témoignages. Les douze chapitres qui traitent de la période précédant la Croisade sont une sorte de plaidoirie visant à justifier la disparition d’une partie de l’aristocratie méridionale, et plus précisément toulousaine, infectée, d’après le chroniqueur, par l’hérésie, cause du lancement de la guerre. C’est ainsi que, d’après Guillaume, l’un des premiers endroits où la légation catholique s’arrête en 1206 pour prêcher et débattre avec les hérétiques est Verfeil, castrum situé au cœur des domaines du comte de Toulouse. Il n’est donc pas étonnant que cette rencontre soit ignorée de l’Historia Albigense, le cistercien étant plus intéressé pour présenter les territoires de l’Albigeois comme les plus infectés par l’hérésie14. Bras droit dans la lutte contre l’hérésie que la papauté menait depuis le milieu du XIIe siècle dans le Midi, les cisterciens étaient à la tête des différentes légations pontificales, la première remontant aux années 1145, était dirigée par Bernard de Clairvaux. Fidèles défenseurs de l’orthodoxie romaine, les cisterciens n’étaient pas vraiment de polémistes – contrairement aux cluniciens, leurs prédécesseurs dans la lutte contre l’hérésie. Combattant avec zèle tous ceux qui s’opposaient à l’application de la politique pontificale, les cisterciens s’acharnent dans la diabolisation des dissidents, présentant d’eux une image déformée. Evitant de préciser le contenu de la dissidence, on peut affirmer que les cisterciens font un « usage pervers » – pour utiliser les termes proposés par les organisateurs du colloque – de l’identité et du contenu de la dissidence. Ils présentent les « bons hommes » comme l’incarnation du mal par excellence, empêchant la paix et l’unité de l’Eglise, gangrénant la société chrétienne toute entière. Cette vision de la dissidence justifie pleinement la position extrême qu’ils défendent à la veille de la Croisade, le recours à la guerre, aux armes au nom de Dieu pour la combattre. D’ailleurs, si en 1206 les cisterciens acceptent le dialogue avec les hérétiques, c’est sans doute grâce à l’action de l’évêque d’Osma qui parvient à obtenir l’accord du pape au
14 Pilar Jiménez, « Aux débuts de la dissidence des ‘bons hommes’ en Languedoc… ».
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moment de plus grand désespoir, lorsque les cisterciens reconnaissaient l’échec de leur légation. 2.2. Prêcher et discuter Composée par les cisterciens Raoul, Pierre de Castelnau et Arnaud Amaury la légation pontificale rencontre l’évêque Diègue d’Osma au printemps 1206 à Montpellier, à son retour de Rome. D’après l’Historia Albigense, les cisterciens étaient prêts à renoncer à leur mission et désiraient revenir dans leurs monastères. Après avoir sollicité l’accord du pape, Diègue, l’évêque castillan, les invite à prêcher humblement, allant à pied, sans or ni argent, et imitant sur tous les aspects la prédication apostolique15. Les légats acceptent à condition de se soumettre à l’autorité de l’évêque. Diègue se met alors à la tête de la délégation, renvoyant son équipage en Castille et gardant uniquement avec lui l’un de ses chanoines et compagnons, Dominique, futur fondateur de l’ordre des dominicains en 1216. Plus précisément, en quoi consistait la nouvelle prédication proposée par l’évêque castillan ? Dans sa lettre aux légats cisterciens, Innocent III présentait la prédication en affirmant qu’elle devait « porter la parole de Dieu et e nseigner la doctrine afin d’accomplir le ministère qu’on leur avait confié ». Prêcher et enseigner la doctrine étaient donc les objectifs de la nouvelle mission confiée par le pape. En enseignant les fondements de la doctrine catholique suivant le modèle de prédication apostolique, de manière itinérante, humblement et pauvrement comme l’avait préconisé l’évêque d’Osma, les prélats combattaient indirectement les « erreurs » que les dissidents avaient pu divulguer auprès de la population. C’est justement cette méthode de prédication, imitant le modèle apostolique,
15 Dans un premier temps, en 1205-1206, lorsque l’évêque d’Osma revenait d’un voyage en Danemark où il avait accompagné une légation pontificale, il avait proposé au pape de mettre en pratique la prédication apostolique pour lutter contre l’hérésie. Le pape avait alors refusé. Ce n’est que dans la lettre de novembre 1206 que le pape confirme la proposition de Diègue et demande aux légats de mettre en pratique la nouvelle méthode de prédication, voir: Innocent III, Epistola IV, Patrologie Latine 215, col. 1024-1025 B.
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que les « hérétiques » avaient appliquée dans le Languedoc. Après un demi-siècle de lutte infructueuse contre les dissidents, la papauté réalise à travers l’obstination de l’évêque d’Osma que la prédication itinérante et de proximité, à l’origine de l’expansion de la dissidence, devait aussi servir à ramener la population sur la « bonne voie », tout en combattant les « fausses croyances »16. Dans la nouvelle prédication, on accorde enfin une place importante aux disputes et controverses publiques. Malheureusement, ni l’Historia Albigense ni la chronique toulousaine de Guillaume de Puylaurens renseignent sur le contenu des prédications ou sur les thèmes des sermons prononcés par l’évêque d’Osma, devant nous contenter des brèves allusions aux thèmes qu’ont probablement été l’objet des disputes durant certaines rencontres. J’y reviendrai. Nos deux auteurs insistent sur le caractère public des disputes qui se tiennent entre les représentants de la légation catholique et ceux de la dissidence dans différents castra ou villes. La disputatio, discussion ou débat public animé traitant de préférence d’un thème de théologie17 – la controverse étant réservée pour débattre d’une question ou aspect de la foi en particulier18 – était à l’époque réduite à un exercice académique. Depuis la première moitié du XIIe siècle, grâce à l’influence des nouvelles écoles urbaines, la disputatio était devenu un combat discursif dont l’art et les règles étaient bien établis. Plus précisément, depuis le premier traité antihérétique de l’Occident médiéval, le Contra Petrobrusianos de l’abbé
16 Le pape confirme l’intérêt et l’importance qu’il accorde à la prédication, dans le IV concile de Latran (1215) et dans l’autorisation de la création d’un nouvel ordre, l’ordo praedicatorum en 1216, voir: Rosa Maria Dessi, Michel Lauwers, « Introduction. Praedicatores et prophèse », La parole du prédicateur Ve-XVe siècle, Rosa Maria Dessi, Michel Lauwers, éds. (Nice: Colections du Centre d’Etudes Médiévales de Nice, 1997), p. 15. 17 Bernardo C. Bazan, Gérard Fransen, John F. Wippel, Danielle Jacquart, Les Questions disputées et les questions quodlibétiques dans les facultés de théologie, de droit et de médecine (Turnhout: Brepols, 1985), p. 40. Sur la typologie de la dispute, voir les ouvrages essentiels: Olga Weijers, La “Disputatio” à la faculté des arts de Paris (1200-1350). Esquisse d’une typologie (Turnhout: Brepols, 1995); Olga Weijers, La disputatio dans les facultés des arts au moyen âge (Turnhout: Brepols, 2002). 18 Alain Rey, éd., Dictionnaire historique de la langue française (Paris: Le Robert, 2006), vol. 3, p. 1101. Un exemple de controverse celle que provoque Bérenger de Tours autour de l’eucharistie, au milieu du Xe siècle.
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de Cluny Pierre le Vénérable, vers 1130/1140, les disputes, dialogues ou controverses entre deux adversaires (hérétiques ou infidèles) n’étaient que de dialogues fictifs dont l’intérêt était de mettre dans la bouche des hérétiques ou infidèles les arguments que le polémiste catholique souhaitait réfuter19. Produits de la littérature polémique contre l’hérésie, les disputes fictives connaissent une importante diffusion au XIIIe siècle, servant certainement à l’instruction des prédicateurs qui devaient combattre sur le terrain les erreurs de leurs adversaires20. Il me parait donc important d’insister sur le caractère public des rencontres et sur l’usage de la disputatio entre adversaires réels, s’affrontant en chair et en os, comme nouvelle arme mise au service du combat contre l’hérésie dans le Languedoc, à la veille de la Croisade. Surtout lorsqu’on a pu réévaluer le but des différentes rencontres entre catholiques et dissidents dont témoignent les sources à partir de la deuxième moitié du XIIe siècle21. Qualifiées à tort de « colloques », « conférences » et/ou « controverses », ce sont des assemblées judiciaires où les dissidents étaient contraints de comparaître devant les catholiques pour être interrogés et jugés sur leurs pratiques et croyances22.
19 Dominique Iogna-Prat, Ordonner et exclure. Cluny et la société chrétienne face à l’hérésie, au judaisme et à l’islam (1000-1150) (Paris: Flammarion, 2000), p. 127 ; Laura Gaffuri, « Paroles pour le clergé, paroles pour le peuple. Définition de la foi et réfutation de l’hérésie dans deux sermonnaires mariaux du XIIIe siècle », La parole du prédicateur, Ve- XVe, Rosa Maria Dessi, Michel Lauwers, éds. (Paris: Diffusion, C.I.D., 1997), vol. 1, p. 353. En étudiant la prédication à Vicence, l’auteur souligne que la dispute avec les hérétiques avait été autorisée en 1259-1260. D’après l’auteur « les Ars praedicandi interdisaient toute référence dans la prédication aux doctrines des hérétiques afin d’éviter qu’une réfutation mal comprise ne devienne publicité pour les adversaires ». 20 Carola Hoécker, Disputatio inter catholicum et paterinum hereticum (Florence: Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2001). 21 Vers 1190, le traité de Bernard de Fontcaude (Adversus valdensium, Patrologie Latine, vol. 204, col. 793-840) est un bon exemple. Il accepte la discussion, la controverse avec les dissidents, dans son traité contre les vaudois. Il affirme avoir discuté avec eux car, d’après lui, la discussion est le moyen incontournable pour faire surgir la lumière. 22 Je fais référence à l’assemblée de Lombers (1165), qualifiée de « conférence » par : Elie Griffe, L’aventure cathare (1140-1190)…, pp. 59-66. Au sujet des autres jugements, je me permets de renvoyer à mon article : Pilar Jiménez, « Aux débuts de la dissidence des ‘bons hommes’ en Languedoc… ».
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3. Itineraires et Recontres (été 1206-1207) Partant de Montpellier à une date imprécise qui peut se situer entre juin et août 1206, la nouvelle légation composée par les deux clercs castillans et les deux moines cisterciens, Raoul et Pierre de Castelnau – l’abbé de Cîteaux, Arnaud Amaury, devait repartir à son monastère pour assister au chapitre général – initie ainsi son périple. Elle se dirige vers Servian, castrum situé à 62 km de Montpellier. Le seigneur du lieu, Etienne de Servian, vassal du vicomte de Béziers, Carcassonne et Albi, accueille des membres notables de la dissidence des « bons hommes », comme luimême l’avoue en février 1210 en abjurant l’hérésie. Il reconnait avoir protégé les hérétiques et permis d’avoir des « écoles d’hérésie », p rêcher publiquement et organiser des disputes publiques23. Les dissidents se dénommaient Baudoin et Théodoric. Le dernier, qualifié de docteur de la dissidence, ancien chanoine de Nevers (Guillaume de son ancien prénom), était réputé comme homme de grande culture, « puits de science et de religion chrétienne ». La halte de la légation dans ce castrum a sans doute demandé des négociations préalables et l’accord de son seigneur. Mais, le cas de Servian n’a pas dû être unique. D’autres castra ou villes comme Fanjeaux et Montréal, dans les territoires des comtes de Toulouse, accueillaient et protégeaient aussi les hérétiques. La rencontre de Servian, avec ses débats et discussions, se prolonge pendant huit jours, après lesquels, Pierre des Vaux de Cernay affirme que, malgré les critiques des dissidents, les habitants finirent par être convaincus par les arguments catholiques et se rebellèrent contre les responsables de la dissidence. Ces derniers auraient pu être expulsés s’ils n’avaient pas jouit de la protection du seigneur du castrum. Escortés par la population, les légats catholiques partent de Servian en direction de Béziers. Dans cette ville la prédication et discussion avec les dissidents se prolonge pendant quinze jours. D’après l’auteur de l’Historia, la légation finit par confondre les dissidents, confortant dans leur foi les rares catholiques habitant la ville. Le cistercien n’apporte aucune autre précision ajoutant simplement que c’est après cette rencontre de Béziers que l’évêque
23 Claude de Vic, Histoire générale du Languedoc (Toulouse: Privat, 1879), vol. 8, col. 584 ; Elie Griffe, Le Languedoc cathare de 1190 à 1210 (Paris: Létouzey, 1971), p. 26.
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d’Osma et le moine Raoul conseillent Pierre de Castelnau de se retirer pendant un certain temps car ils craignaient pour sa vie, les dissidents ne le tenant pas en grande estime24. De Béziers, les légats se rendent à Carcassonne où ils prêchent et discutent pendant huit jours. D’après le cistercien Pierre, c’est alors que dans cette ville, siège de Trencavel, vicomte de Carcassonne, Béziers, Albi et vassal du comte de Toulouse, se produit un miracle. Gui, l’abbé de Vauxde-Cernay et nouvel évêque de la ville, rapporte le récit suivant à son neveu Pierre : « les hérétiques faisaient la moisson le jour de la Nativité de Saint Jean-Baptiste, qu’ils tenaient, non pour un prophète mais pour un démon des plus malins. Comme donc ils coupaient des gerbes, l’un d’eux vit la sienne qu’il tenait à la main toute sanglante. Il crut alors qu’il s’était blessé à la main, mais il constata qu’elle était saine ». Il est intéressant d’insister sur le fait que le miracle se produit à Carcassonne, siège du pouvoir des Trencavel dont les domaines, don l’Albigeois, étaient les plus infectés par l’hérésie d’après l’image diffusée par les cisterciens depuis les débuts de la Croisade. Par ailleurs, Pierre des Vaux de Cernay n’apporte aucune précision sur les disputes, ajoutant simplement que depuis Carcassonne « nos prédicateurs s’en allaient de cité en cité pour prêcher et discuter partout »25. Dans son récit, le moine passe ensuite à la fameuse rencontre de Montréal. A la même année 1206, le chroniqueur toulousain Guillaume de Puylaurens fait référence à une des premières rencontres entre catholiques et hérétiques, celle qui eut lieu à Verfeil, castrum situé dans les domaines du comte de Toulouse, aux frontières de l’Albigeois. Du côté des dissidents se trouvaient Pons Jourda et Arnaud Arrufat, ce dernier appartenait à une des familles de la noblesse de Castelnaudary. Les registres de l’Inquisition toulousaine le présentent en train de prêcher à Castelsarrasin vers 1204 devant le sénéchal de Raymond VI, Pons Grimoard26. D’après les bribes
24 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 13. 25 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, pp. 13-14. 26 Dans les mêmes registres (Bibliothèque Municipale de Toulouse, ms. 609, fol. 250 r°, Doat XXII, fol. 34v°, 58v°. ), on rencontre Arnaud Arrufat en train de consoler (sorte d’extrême onction cathare) vers 1206 à Verfeil le chevalier Maffre de Paulhac qui avait alors 14 ans. Avant la Croisade, Arrufat avait aussi consolé le chevalier Pierre Arrufat de Castelnaudary, un membre de sa famille.
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d’informations apportées par la chronique, la dispute a pu s’engager sur la conception du salut pour les dissidents. J’y reviendrai. Pendant le premier trimestre de 1207, nos deux sources rapportent la rencontre tenue à Montréal, dans les domaines du vicomte Trencavel, à la frontière du Toulousain. Pour cette rencontre, sans doute l’une des plus importantes, le légat Pierre de Castelnau rejoint la légation. Au dire de nos deux chroniqueurs, les quatre légats furent accueillis par un grand nombre d’hérétiques et durent affronter quatre représentants de la hiérarchie des « bons hommes » de Toulouse et de Carcassonne : l’évêque de l’Eglise des « bons hommes » de Toulouse, Guilhabert de Castres, le diacre de Cabaret dans le diocèse des « bons hommes » de Carcassonne, Arnauld Oth, puis Benoît de Termes qui deviendra en 1226 l’évêque de l’Eglise des « bons hommes » du Razès. La rencontre dura quinze jours. D’après Guillaume de Puylaurens, quatre arbitres furent élus et, selon Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, ils étaient tous croyants d’hérétiques. Il s’agissait de deux chevaliers du castrum, Bernard de Villeneuve, coseigneur de Monréal et de Bernard d’Arzens, ainsi que deux bourgeois, Raymond Gut et Arnaud Rivera27. Chaque parti a rendu ses écrits aux arbitres. Nos deux sources présentent les arbitres comme membres de la société du castrum, élus parmi les laïcs et ayant pour mission de se prononcer ou donner leur avis sur une question religieuse28. Après quinze jours de dispute, les arbitres ne se sont pas prononcés. Voyant les dissidents en situation de faiblesse, ils décidèrent de conserver les arguments des catholiques et, pour éviter leur diffusion, ils les confièrent aux hérétiques. Le chroniqueur toulousain précise que, quelques années plus tard, un témoin de la rencontre lui dit que environ cent cinquante hérétiques se seraient convertis après cette controverse. En avril 1207, après la rencontre de Montréal, l’abbé de Cîteaux, Arnaud Amaury, arrive de France avec douze abbés et plusieurs moines pour intégrer la légation catholique. Suivant le conseil de l’évêque d’Osma, prêchant l’Evangile et pratiquant l’humilité, tous partirent à pied vers les 27 Lors de la controverse de Montréal, d’après Guillaume de Puylaurens, quatre arbitres furent élus, à savoir, les chevaliers Berrnard de Villeneuve, coseigneur de Montréal et Bernard d’Arzens, chevalier de Montréal, ainsi que deux bourgeois, Raimond Gut et Arnold Rivière, auxquels chaque parti a rendu ses écrits. 28 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244)…, p. 56 (doc. nº 53).
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territoires que l’abbé de Cîteaux avait désigné à chacun pour prêcher, assumant ainsi le travail ingrat « de devoir discuter avec les hérétiques »29. La même année 1207, et avant de repartir dans son diocèse de Castille, l’évêque d’Osma assiste à une nouvelle rencontre avec les hérétiques à Pamiers, dans les territoires du comte de Foix. La sœur du comte, Esclarmonde de Foix, était devenue « bonne femme » (religieuse cathare) en 1204 et, d’après le chroniqueur toulousain, elle avait ouvert une « maison d’hérétiques » à Fanjeaux et protégeait ouvertement les hérétiques30. La dispute eut lieu dans le palais du comte de Foix, ce dernier qualifié de « cruel persécuteur de l’Eglise et ennemi du Christ » par Pierre des Vaux de Cernay car il avait une épouse et deux sœurs hérétiques. La légation catholique rencontre d’abord d’autres hérétiques, les Vaudois (les ensabattés). La controverse eut comme arbitre un clerc séculier qui finira par donner raison aux catholiques. Quelques hérétiques furent aussi convaincus et convertis, partant à Rome se réconcilier et obtenir la pénitence du pape. Parmi les convertis, entre juin et août certains finirent par fonder un nouvel ordre, les Pauvres Catholiques, dont Durand de Huesca devient le prieur. Il sera aussi l’auteur de plusieurs textes de polémique contre les cathares31. D’après Guillaume de Puylaurens, à Pamiers la légation catholique rencontre d’autres hérétiques – probablement des « bons hommes » – qui finirent par se convertir. Après la rencontre de Pamiers, l’évêque d’Osme repart à son diocèse de Castille avec l’intention de revenir dans le Languedoc. Il décède peu de temps après et son travail de prédication apostolique est poursuivi par l’abbé Gui des Vaux de Cernay. D’après son neveu Pierre, les « saints prêcheurs vont continuer le travail de discussion avec les hérétiques, qu’ils écrasent avec le poids de leurs raisonnements pertinents ». L’image du cistercien ne fait pas de doute sur la conviction portant sur la légitimité des arguments catholiques face aux « arguments pervers » détenus par les
29 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay , Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 20. 30 Sur les « maisons » d’hérétiques, voir : Anne Brenon, « L’Hérésie et les femmes en Languedoc au début du XIIIe siècle: un espace religieux privé? », Le choix hérétique. Dissidence chrétienne dans l’Europe médiévale (Cahors: La Louve Éditions, 2006), pp. 142-143. 31 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 21. A propos de la production polémique de Durand de Huesca, la thèse de: Christine Thouzellier, Catharisme et Valdéisme en Languedoc à la fin du XIIe…, p. 215.
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hérétiques. Des quatre légats composant la légation pontificale de 1206, il ne reste à la fin de 1207 que le chanoine castillan, compagnon de l’évêque d’Osma, Dominique, puis le cistercien Pierre de Castelnau. Ce dernier sera donc assassiné dans les premiers jours de l’année suivante, le 14 janvier 1208, provoquant l’appel à la Croisade par Innocent III et le déclenchement de celle-ci un an après, en 1209. Sur l’organisation même des rencontres, nous ne disposons pas d’information. On peut déduire, à travers les commentaires des chroniqueurs, qu’elle n’a pas dû être toujours évidente. Rappelons que depuis les débuts de la dissidence en Languedoc, les élites des castra en milieu rural, ainsi que l’oligarchie des villes se montrent les plus favorables à la réception et à l’accueil de la dissidence dans les territoires compris entre Albi, Toulouse, Carcassonne et Foix. Nos deux chroniqueurs en témoignent. La halte de la légation à Servian, mais aussi à Fanjeaux ou Montréal, a certainement exigé des négociations préalables ainsi que l’accord de leur seigneur. Comme le rappelle Guillaume de Puylaurens, à Montréal et à Fanjeaux, les membres de la noblesse locale et de la hiérarchie de l’Eglise des « bons hommes » se trouvent parmi les représentants du parti dissident participant à la dispute. Montréal accueillait plusieurs « maisons de bons hommes/bonnes femmes », maisons où ces religieux et religieuses dissidentes vivaient en communauté. De leur côté, les membres de la hiérarchie catholique locale ont certainement joué un rôle important, participant aux négociations préalables aux rencontres dans ces lieux où, tous les habitants n’étaient pas forcément gagnés à la dissidence, contrairement à l’image présentée par nos chroniqueurs32. Guillaume de Puylaurens, à la fin de son récit sur la rencontre à Montréal, exprime sa désolation dans ces termes :
32 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244)…, pp. 55-57. Le chroniqueur toulousain affirme que des hérétiques furent convaincus par les arguments des catholiques à Pamiers. C’est alors qu’il rapporte l’échange entre l’évêque de Toulouse, Foulque et un chevalier de Pamiers, Pons Adémar de Roudeille. Ce dernier disait à l’évêque : « -‘Nous n’aurions jamais pu croire que Rome avait des arguments aussi nombreux et aussi efficaces’… -‘Pourquoi donc ne les chassez-vous pas, ne l’expulsez-vous pas du pays ?’ dit l’évêque, -‘Nous ne pouvons pas. Nous avons été élevés avec eux, nous avons des cousins parmi eux, et nous les voyons vivre honorablement’ ».
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Pilar Jiménez O douleur ! Qu’à ce point de vil abaissement fût arrivé l’état de l’Eglise et de la foi catholique au milieu des chrétiens, qu’il fallût s’en remettre au jugement des laïcs pour de tels outrages !33.
L’itinéraire que nous venons de tracer en croisant les données de deux chroniqueurs catholiques est loin d’être complet. Il résulte du choix délibéré des auteurs, surtout du plus contemporain des faits, le cistercien Pierre, qui l’avoue lui-même en disant : « comme il serait trop long de raconter comment […] nos prédicateurs, s’en allaient de cité en cité […] omettons ces voyages et venons à l’essentiel »34. En rapportant ces rencontres, les deux auteurs contribuent à justifier, à légitimer, les troubles provoqués par les effets de la Croisade. D’ailleurs, l’itinéraire retenu par le cistercien rappelle le parcours de l’armée des croisés durant l’été 1209, aux débuts des opérations de la Croisade (Béziers, Carcassonne), c’est-à-dire, celui des domaines du vicomte Trencavel (Albi, Carcassonne, Béziers). Pour les cisterciens, depuis la mini-croisade dirigée par l’abbé de Cîteaux, Henri de Marcy, contre Lavaur en 1181, l’Albigeois était devenu la région la plus infectée pas l’hérésie. Notons également que la dénomination Albigeois est celle qui, à partir des premières années du XIIIe siècle, sert aux polémistes catholiques à identifier les hérétiques du Languedoc, dès lors accusés également de dualisme35. Cette accusation contribue certainement à la diabolisation des dissidents et sert encore la papauté pour justifier leur éradication par l’usage de la violence. Ordonnée par la papauté pour satisfaire ses ambitions politiques, soutenue surtout par les cisterciens qui témoignèrent du zèle avec lequel ils se donnèrent à la tâche, la Croisade est à l’origine des profondes transformations politiques que, à court et moyen terme, a subi le Languedoc. A commencer par la disparition des deux principautés méridionales, vicomté de Trencavel et comté de Toulouse, la première disparait dès les débuts du conflit, en 1209, la deuxième, ébranlée à la fin de la Croisade, en 1229, fini par être annexée à la couronne capé tienne en 1271.
33 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244)…, p. 59. 34 Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 14. 35 Pilar Jiménez, « Aux débuts de la dissidence des ‘bons hommes’ en Languedoc… ».
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4. Deux Conceptions Medievales de l’Ecclesia en Jeu Nous l’avons dit, la dispute publique a été mise au gout du jour par les prédicateurs dirigés par Diègue d’Osma lors des rencontres affrontant catholiques et dissidents dans le Languedoc de 1206. Nos deux sources principales évoquent, souvent en filigrane, quelques-uns des thèmes ayant été objet de dispute durant ces rencontres. De la même manière que nos chroniqueurs ne se soucient pas d’informer sur l’itinéraire précis suivi par la légation pontificale, ils ne renseignent pas beaucoup à propos des thèmes traités dans les débats. Une des rencontres a dû marquer les esprits de l’époque car les deux chroniqueurs s’attardent sur elle, je fais référence à celle de Montréal. Avec Pamiers, ce sont les deux uniques rencontres à être citées par nos deux auteurs. Leurs témoignages apportent quelques bribes d’information sur les questions théologiques qui ont pu être à l’origine du conflit entre ces deux identités. D’après le moine Pierre, à la fin de la première rencontre qui avait duré huit jours, celle de Servian, l’un des responsables du parti de la dissidence, Théodoric, « acculé aux dernières conséquences » par l’évêque d’Osma, s’adresse à celui-ci dans ces termes : ‘Je sais de quel esprit tu es. En vérité c’est dans l’esprit d’Elie que tu es venu’ (cf. Luc 1, 17), à quoi le saint évêque de répondre : ‘Si c’est dans l’esprit d’Elie que je suis venu, toi, c’est dans l’esprit de l’Antéchrist que tu es venu’36.
Fidèle à l’esprit des polémistes cisterciens, le moine des Vaux-de Cernay avoue dans son récit qu’« il serait trop long de rapporter les propos de cette fameuse discussion », retenant uniquement les accusations que s’adressent respectivement les représentants de deux partis à la fin de la dispute. La référence de Théodoric, l’un des maîtres de la dissidence, à l’esprit du prophète Elie nous met sur la piste de plusieurs questions ayant pu être objet du débat, en même temps qu’elles posent la question de l’interprétation
36
Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 13.
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des Ecritures (Ancien et Nouveau Testament) et de leur réception par les dissidents37. Sans doute le prophète le plus cité de l’Ancien Testament, Elie, est souvent comparé dans le Nouveau Testament à Jean-Baptiste, dont la venue est annoncée par l’ange Gabriel (Luc 1, 17), préconisant qu’il aura l’esprit et la force d’Elie38. Au contraire, les « bons hommes » croyaient que le diable avait parlé par la bouche d’Elie et de Jean-Baptiste. Pierre des Vaux de Cernay le rappelle aussi dans son récit du miracle produit à Carcassonne le jour de la fête de Saint Jean-Baptiste, précisant que les hérétiques croyaient qu’il était un démon. C’est donc d’un esprit animé par le diable que Théodoric accuse l’évêque d’Osma d’être venu à Servian. Il est aussi possible que des questions théologiques aient été soulevées à la lecture des références du Nouveau Testament où le prophète Elie est mentionné. Les trois évangiles synoptiques le présentent en compagnie de Moïse et de Jésus lorsque ce dernier annonce la Transfiguration, changement d’apparence corporelle de Jésus qui se produit pendant quelques instants de sa vie terrestre pour révéler sa nature divine à trois de ses disciples (Matthieu 17,1-8, Marc 9,1-9, Luc 9, 28-36). La Transfiguration parvient au moment où les disciples reconnaissent en Jésus le Messie attendu. Elle est interprétée par les catholiques comme la préfiguration de l’état corporel annoncé par Jésus aux fidèles pour leur propre résurrection. Cette lecture des passages des Ecritures n’est pas acceptée par les dissidents
37 Comme d’autres sources de l’époque en témoignent, les dissidents privilégiaient le Nouveau Testament acceptant de l’Ancien les livres qui annoncent l’envoi du Fils, Jésus, par le Père. Sans refuser l’ensemble de l’Ancien Testament, comme les polémistes catholiques l’affirmaient souvent. En 1165, lors de l’interrogatoire des bons hommes, adeptes de la secte protégée par les chevaliers de Lombers, la hiérarchie catholique de l’Albigeois demande si les bons hommes acceptaient la Loi de Moïse. Ils répondirent qu’ils se référaient uniquement à l’ensemble du Nouveau Testament. La réponse est probablement déformée par l’auteur catholique du rapport. Les documents issus de la dissidence témoignent de l’acceptation de l’Ancien Testament qui, comme le NT, accueillaient et interprétaient suivant leur propre logique (Pilar Jiménez, Les Catharismes. Modèles dissidents du christianisme médiéval (XIIe-XIIIe siècles) (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008), pp. 268-311. 38 Luc 1, 17 : « il marchera devant Dieu avec l’esprit et la puissance d’Élie, pour ramener les cœurs des pères vers les enfants, et les rebelles à la sagesse des justes, afin de préparer au Seigneur un peuple bien disposé ».
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languedociens qui défendent leur propre conception du salut et du rôle joué par Jésus39. Pour eux, le Fils de Dieu, Jésus, est envoyé sous l’apparence d’un corps pour apporter aux hommes – anges déchus de son royaume au début des temps – le moyen d’y retourner, c’est-à-dire le salut par le Saint Esprit. Suivant cette conception du salut, les trois personnes de la Trinité ne sont pas égales, ni en autorité ni en pouvoir. Inspirée de la tradition des premiers temps chrétiens, elle manifeste un profond mépris de la chair. Poussant à l’extrême le rejet de la chair, à l’origine du péché, les dissidents nient que le Fils de Dieu ait pu revêtir un corps de chair. Ce mépris de la chair est à nouveau ravivé pendant les temps carolingiens. Insistant sur la vision négative du monde et du pouvoir de ce monde, la tradition monastique de l’époque le véhiculait à travers la lecture et les commentaires de l’Apocalypse40. Au milieu du XIIe siècle, dans le nouveau contexte de l’après-reforme grégorienne, cette tradition est réactivée par certains dissidents, dont les « cathares » de Rhénanie et les « bons hommes » du Languedoc. Ils proposent un autre modèle d’Eglise, du rôle et du pouvoir de celle-ci et de sa hiérarchie, ainsi que des sacrements comme moyens de parvenir au salut. Ce modèle ecclésiologique est fondé sur une autre conception du salut et des origines cosmogoniques – avec sa christologie et eschatologie propre –, fondées sur la croyance dans l’existence de deux mondes, l’un bon et l’autre mauvais, d’après la lecture que les dissidents réalisent de certains passages de l’Evangile de Jean. L’ecclésiologie dissidente a dû sans doute représenter un danger pour le modèle théocratique
39 Au sujet de l’esprit d’Elie, le même qui avait inspiré la venue de l’évêque d’Osma d’après Théodoric, les « bons hommes » pensaient que le diable avait parlé par la bouche d’Elie et de Jean-Baptiste, croyant également que c’était le diable qui avait donné la Loi à Moïse. Voir : Pilar Jiménez, Les Catharismes. Modèles dissidents du christianisme…, p. 302. 40 Alfonso Hernández, Anthropologie et ecclésiologie dans l’exégèse biblique carolingienne selon le Commentaire sur le prophète Osée d’Haymon d’Auxerre (Buenos Aires : Universidad de Buenos Aires-Université de Paris 1-Panthéon-Sorbonne, thèse doctorale, 2009), 2 volumes; Pilar Jiménez, « Y-a-t-il eu un dualisme chez les Albigeois ? Commentaires sur l’étude d’Uwe Brunn à propos du ‘dualisme hérétique’ d’après les ‘Otia Imperialia’ de Gervais de Tilbury », Les nouveaux horizons de l’ecclésiologie : du discours clérical à la science du social, Frédéric Gabriel, Dominique Iogna-Prat, Alain Rauwel, éds. (Auxerre : Centre D’Études Médiévales d’Auxerre, 2013) < http://cem.revues.org/12893>.
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d’Eglise que les catholiques prétendent imposer au lendemain de la réforme grégorienne. De ce danger parait aussi en témoigner la rencontre de Montréal, au printemps de 1207. Dans tous le cas, elle a dû marquer les esprits. Probablement l’une de plus longues, elle dure quinze jours, les responsa bles du parti dissident mettent en cause la légitimité de l’Eglise romaine représentée par l’évêque d’Osma : Des multiples disputes qui eurent lieu avec les hérétiques en divers endroits, l’une des plus solennelles fut à Montréal…; y assistèrent nos susdits champions (l’évêque Diègue d’Osma et son chanoine, le futur saint Dominique), le vénérable personnage Pierre de Castlenau, légat, et son collègue maître Raoul, et plusieurs autres gens de bien ; et du côté adverse les dirigeants hérétiques Arnaud Oton, Guillabert de Castres, Benoît de Termes, Pons Jordan, et beaucoup d’autres, dont le nom n’est pas écrit dans le livre de vie. On disputa plusieurs jours par écrit, devant des arbitres choisis par les parties…, auxquels les parties remirent chacune ses écrits. Du côté des hérétiques, le fond de la dispute fut qu’Arnaud Oton n’appela l’Eglise romaine (que l’évêque d’Osma défendait) ni la sainte Eglise, ni l’Epouse du Christ, mais l’Eglise du diable et la doctrine des démons, disant qu’elle était cette Babylone que Jean dans l’Apocalypse nommait la mère des fornications et des abominations, soûle du sang des saints et des martyrs de Jésus-Christ, et que son ordination n’était ni sainte ni bonne ni instituée par le Christ, et que jamais le Christ ni les apôtres n’avaient ordonné et disposé la messe telle qu’elle est aujourd’hui. A quoi, l’évêque (d’Osma) s’offrit de prouver le contraire par les autorités du Nouveau Testament…; les partis remirent donc les écrits aux laïcs à qui on avait donné le pouvoir de conclure et comme ils ne voulurent pas délibérer, ils se séparèrent ainsi, sans achever l’affaire…41.
D’autres exemples témoignent par ailleurs de la même critique et mise en cause par les dissidents de l’Eglise catholique, de la dignité de sa hiérarchie et de l’efficacité de ses sacrements (baptême, eucharistie, confession, mariage, extrême onction). Ils contestaient également l’obligation imposée par l’Eglise romaine de réunir la communauté de fidèles uniquement à l’intérieur des églises, bâtiments construits par la main de l’homme. Pour les dissidents, la communauté des fidèles pouvait se réunir n’importe où au nom du Christ. Elle avait déjà été exprimée avec virulence par les « bons hommes » de Lombers en 1165. De la conception du salut défendue par les « bons hommes » a aussi pu traiter la dispute de Verfeil, en 1206. D’après Guillaume de Puylaurens,
41 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244)…, pp. 57-59.
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pendant la rencontre, et après que les deux partis aient argumenté durant longtemps, l’évêque Diègue d’Osma demande aux dissidents (Pons Jourda, Arnaud Arrufat) comment ils comprenaient-ils la référence de l’Evangile de Jean (3, 13) où il est dit : ‘Personne n’est montée au ciel, etc’. L’un répondit que Jésus, qui parlait, se qualifiait de ‘fils de l’Homme’ qui est dans les cieux’. ‘Vous comprenez donc, dit l’évêque, que son Père qui est aux cieux est un homme dont il s’appelle le Fils !’. Ils dirent que c’est ainsi qu’ils l’entendaient. L’évêque leur dit : ‘Comme le Seigneur dit par la bouche d’Isaïe : ‘le ciel est mon trône et la terre l’escabeau de mes pieds’, il s’ensuit que si c’est un homme qui est assis dans le ciel, ses pieds touchent la terre, ses jambes ont la longueur de la distance de la terre au ciel !’. Ils dirent qu’ils croyaient ainsi, et il ajouta aussitôt : ‘Que Dieu vous maudisse, car vous êtes de grossiers hérétiques. Je croyais que vous aviez une certaine subtilité’…; Par ce passage de l’Ecriture, les catholiques prouvaient que le Christ est Dieu et homme, qui descendit du ciel pour être homme, et qui pourtant en tant que Dieu était au ciel, d’où il était descendu42.
D’évidence, les propos tenus par les dissidents sont déformés par le chroniqueur. A l’origine de la controverse, les questions sur l’égalité des personnes de la Trinité et la négation de l’incarnation du Fils ont pu être objet de la dispute. En corolaire des questions, évoquées en filigrane, les conséquences eschatologiques de l’interprétation dissidente sont abordées lorsque l’évêque d’Osma demande à ses adversaires de préciser leur interprétation du verset de Jean 1, 13. La question du rôle joué par le Fils dans le salut, mais aussi du lieu d’attente des âmes des justes (sauvés) morts avant la venue du Fils sont implicites. Pour les dissidents, c’est Jésus le premier à être monté au ciel après sa mort et à l’ouvrir à tous ceux qui avaient attendu sa venue. Ils niaient la résurrection des corps, le Jugement dernier, l’enfer et le Purgatoire comme lieu d’attente car, après le décès du corps, l’âme sauvée -ayant reçu le consolamentum, sacrement de salut par le Saint Esprit- revenait au royaume de Dieu. C’est d’ici qu’elle avait été expulsée au début de la création à cause du péché d’orgueil commis par le diable, créature divine. Les âmes de tous ceux qui, à l’article de la mort, n’avaient pas reçu le salut, n’avaient pas été « consolés » – c onsolamentum –, devaient encore attendre. Les dissidents ne croyaient donc pas dans le Purgatoire et contestaient l’efficacité des prières et des offrandes (messes,
42 Guillaume de Puylaurens, Chronique (1229-1244)…, pp. 53-55.
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dons, ex-votes…) pour les morts qui, d’après les catholiques, offraient aux vivants la possibilité d’intercéder dans le salut d’autrui43. Pour conclure sur le contenu des disputes, notons enfin l’absence de mention ou de référence à un éventuel dualisme professé par les dissidents languedociens qui, s’il avait existé, aurait dû être relevé par les catholiques. Certes, au début de son Historia, le moine cistercien en fait mention lorsqu’il accuse les hérétiques de croire « en l’existence de deux créateurs, l’un invisible, qu’ils appelaient le dieu ‘bon’, l’autre visible, qu’ils appelaient le dieu ‘mauvais’ »44. L’accusation est d’évidence infondée. Des extraits d’un traité d’origine dissidente languedocienne, datant probablement de la fin du XIIe siècle, mettent en cause cette accusation que les polémistes catholiques adressent de manière abusive aux dissidents, témoignant ainsi de l’usage pervers qu’ils font de l’identité dissidente. Il est vrai que la Historia Albigense du cistercien Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay a largement contribué autant à la diffusion du nom d’Albigeois, par lequel on a qualifié ensuite les hérétiques du Midi (« de Toulouse et autres lieux ainsi que leurs partisans »), qu’à la diabolisation, à la ‘perversion’ de l’identité de ces dissidents chrétiens d’époque médiévale, en conflit avec l’Eglise triomphante. Du conflit entre ces deux identités, initié presque un siècle auparavant, au lendemain de la réforme grégorienne, les rencontres ou affrontements dialectiques du Languedoc entre 1206 et 1207 représentent une exception. Pour la première fois, les partisans des deux identités se retrouvent pour discuter de leur conception respective de l’Eglise, des sacrements, de leur interprétation des Ecritures, choix inenvisageable jusqu’alors par les légations cisterciennes. Constatant l’échec des légations précédentes, la papauté autorise aux défenseurs d’une résolution pacifique de l’affaire d’hérésie de tenter une dernière chance. Elle parvient un peu trop tard. L’« affaire de la paix et de la foi » était déjà en marche.
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La croyance dans le Purgatoire est instaurée par l’Eglise catholique à la fin du XIIe siècle, voir: Jacques Le Goff, La naissance du Purgatoire (Paris: Gallimard, 1981). Sur le refus du Purgatoire par les « bons hommes » (Pilar Jiménez, Les Catharismes…, pp. 300-302). Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Histoire Albigeoise…, p. 5.
Ethnic identity in medieval Sardinia: rethinking and reflecting on 14th and 15th century examples Luciano Gallinari CNR, Istituto di Storia dell’Europa mediterranea
Et ego[…] solus sicut agnus remaneo inter lupos in terris meis Hugh II Judge of Arborea to James II King of Aragon (December 19th, 1325)
1. Catalans and Sardinians before and during the conquest of Regnum Sardinie et Corsice1 The relationship between Catalans and Sardinians encompasses almost all the Later Middle Ages – officially beginning from the mid-twelfth century – and it continues, with significant changes at the institutional level from 1297, until the sixteenth century when the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica merged into the Crown of Spain, even though persisting well beyond on artistic, linguistic and cultural levels lato sensu2.
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2
Used abbreviations: ACA, Archivo de la Corona de Aragón; ACA C, Archivo de la Corona de Aragón, Cancillería; ACA RA, Archivo de la Corona de Aragón, Real Audiencia. On April 4th, 1297 Boniface VIII established the Regnum Sardinie et Corsice and enfeoffed it to the Aragonese monarch, James II, as a reward for ceding the Kingdom of Sicily, subtracted from 1282 to the House of Anjou, and in order to persuade him to act against the Church’s enemies, giving to the Pope effective – though indirect – authority on the two lower Tyrrhenian islands, where Pisa, Genoa and the Empire had undermined his authority. The pontiff also wanted to tie him with the Guelph party by means of James II, linked to Hohenstaufen dynasty, who in those years seemed to have been the hero of pro-empire forces. The real conquest of the Regnum, however, took place only after almost thirty years of diplomatic negotiations, following a successful military campaign led by the Dauphin Alphonso against the Commune of Pisa (1323-1326), which held a third of Sardinia. See: Antonio Arribas, La conquista de Cerdeña por Jaime II de Aragón (Barcelona: Instituto Español de
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Within this long period, however, this work focuses on a limited lapse of time – from the mid-twelfth century until and the end de iure and de facto of Arborea’s Judicate in 1420. During this time, the historian can observe an interesting comparison / clash between a Judical Sardinian identity on the one hand and a Catalan-Aragonese one on the other, as a result of political and cultural “discourses”. As it happens during any time of crisis-individual or collective – this process of identity-making elaboration between these two parties increased in a notable matter, especially between the mid-fourteenth century and 1420 when the Judicate of Arborea and the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica engaged in a long military, political and institutional conflict3. However, even for the period previous to the clash there are some data that inform on the vision allow to see how the image of the two subjects’ mutual identity changed with the flow of time, transforming their respective identity profiles from a positive value to another one decidedly negative. In order to examine this change, we will use different types of sources produced mainly by Iberians together with data coming from inside the Arborea’s Judicate, though these must be evaluated even more carefully since they were copied in records of Catalan-Aragonese Chancery. We
3
Estudios Mediterráneos, 1952); Vicente Salavert, Cerdeña y la expansión mediterranea (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1956); Francesco Cesare Casula, La Sardegna aragonese (Sassari: Chiarella, 1990); Mauro G. Sanna, “Papa Giovanni XXII, Giacomo II d’Aragona e la questione del Regnum Sardinie et Corsice”, Tra diritto e storia. Studi in onore di Luigi Berlinguer promossi dalle Università di Siena e di Sassari (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2008), pp. 2, 737752; Maria Eugenia Cadeddu, “L’espansione catalano-aragonese nel Mediterraneo: riflessi nella storiografia iberica contemporanea”, Quel mar che la terra inghirlanda. Studi mediterranei in ricordo di Marco Tangheroni, Franco Cardini, Maria Luisa Ceccarelli, eds. (Rome-Pisa: CNR-Pacini, 2007), pp. 149-156. The contrast is just the primary factor for the recognition of himself and the others, without which there cannot be an ethnic identity. The latter is, however, not stable and defined once and for all, but it is: costruita, sviluppata, cambiata e preservata durante la vita, attraverso varie negoziazioni di identità […]. See: Ugo Fabietti, L’identità etnica. Storia e critica di un concetto equivoco (Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica, 1995), pp. 121-122, 154; Tiziana Mancini, Psicologia dell’identità etnica. Sé e appartenenze culturali (Rome: Carocci, 2006), pp. 20-23; Karmela Liebkind, “Ethnic Identity. Challenging the Boundaries of Social Psychology”, Social Psychology of Identity and Self Concept, Glynis M. Breakwell, ed. (London: Surrey University Press, 1992), pp. 147-185.
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have no other copies of this Judical documentation that could confirm how reliable they are4. It should not be forgotten that one of the main issues for Sardinian historians is the paucity of medieval sources – public and / or private – produced in the island and escaped from war ravages; a situation that affords no room for counterbalancing the documentation coming from outside of the island, mainly from Iberian and Italic peninsulas5. Having recently discussed one of the sources written on the island – the fifteenth century anonymous chronicle Memoria de las cosas que han aconteçido en algunas partes del reino de Cerdeña – which allows to take a look at the Sardinian history from inside, in the present paper we want to examine some of its components as a very stimulating source of information for reconstructing identity-making discourses developed in Judical Sardinia. In different parts this source offers to its readers an image of Arborea’s dynasty quite different from the one emerging from the interpretation of island’s external sources: not only Catalan-Aragonese ones, but also others of Italic origin. However, before analysing the documents, it is relevant to look a little more closely at some documents from the Iberian world, which allow to observe what kinds of image were proposed, especially of Arborea’s rulers and, more generally, of the whole Sardinian people at the beginning of the fourteenth century, during the long preparation for the military expedition against the Commune of Pisa.
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5
We refer to the documentary series of Procesos contra los Arborea, ten volumes containing copies of letters, depositions and interrogations pertinents to the process promoted by the Aragonese Kings Peter IV and John I against the Judges of Arborea Marianus IV, Hugh III, Eleanor, his son Marianus V and Brancaleone Doria, all them guilties of rebellion and treason against Iberian monarchs, their rightful lords on the strength of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica’s papal investiture. These documents are kept in the Archives of the Crown of Aragon in Barcelona. Several times, even recently, we returned on the issue of Sardinian sources paucity and to the reconstructions made by some historians, which made the documents tell more than what was included in their texts. See: Luciano Gallinari, “‘Discorsi’ identitari catalano-aragonesi e giudicali fra XIII e XV secolo: una chiave di lettura stimolante”, Identity, Memory and Ideology in the Middle Ages, Flocel Sabaté, ed. (forthcoming); Luciano Gallinari, “The legend of the Princess of Navarre. A founding myth for the dynastic identity of the Arborea judges in their political, military and ideological conflict against the kings of Aragon in the fourteenth century”, Identity, Memory and Ideology… (forthcoming).
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At the same time, as diplomatic activity was carried out by King James II of Aragon in parallel to the preparation of the army to be sent in the island, on the Catalan-Aragonese side the sources suggest a positive image of Sardinian judges and emphasize several times the parental ties which linked them to Iberian kings: 1) Iacobus, etc. Nobili et egregio viro Iohanni, iudici Arboree ac vicecomiti de Basso, dilecto consanguineo suo […] vos tanto securius requirendum prouidimus quanto nobis astrictius et sanguinis coniungit ydemptitas et intima necessitudo cohunit6. 2) ad presenciam nobilis et egregii viri dompni Iohannis Iudicis Arboree ac vicecomitis de Basso, Karissimi consanguinei nostri […]7.
Beyond its legitimacy, this argument of closeness and friendship links between the House of Aragon and that of Arborea was recalled many years later, on the eve of the Sardinia’s conquest, by King James II in some instructions to one of his ambassador directed to Hugh II’s presence, dated December 22nd, 1322. In this document, however, the reference made by the king, after a series of points dedicated to mutual commitments, appears very pragmatic as it is linked to a money loan that the judge should have granted him in order to subsidize the military expedition to the island. The royal ambassador should have had to remind the following: al dit jutge la antiga amistat e el deure del parentesch que és estat e és entre la casa del rey d’Aragó e del dit jutge. E sobre açò venga al feyt del prestech en aquella mellor manera que puga8.
Historian can draw on other documents, also dating to the beginning of fourteenth century, this time directed to James II, which afford a view from inside the island, at least as it can be inferred by their authors and content. This is the case of the letter written in 1303, or in years immediately near, from the Dominican friar Federico de Fulgineo, Judge of Arborea’s
6 7 8
ACA C, reg. 334, f. 26; edited by: Vicente Salavert, Cerdeña y la expansión mediterra nea…, vol. 2, p. 46 (June 5th, 1301. Lleida). Vicente Salavert, Cerdeña y la expansión mediterranea…, vol. 2, p. 47 (June 5th, 1301. Lleida). Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea (Sassari: Fondazione Banco di Sardegna, 2005), pp. 20-21.
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former confessor, when they are waiting for the King of Aragon’s campaign at any time. Even if he appears in favour of Aragonese dynasty’s establishment in Sardinia, the religious gave a hint of military nature in appearing favourable to Arborea’s dynasty by proposing almost covertly for the Judge of Arborea a prominent political role in the island. For this purpose, his observations on the island people are noteworthy. Sardinians were presented in very negative terms as a sort of scattered flock (Sunt enim modo Sardi velud oues non habentes pastorem), which was illegally against the Aragonese king – volendo suo domino naturali tam optimo contra iura resistere – that could not be governed by local elders because of widespread envy and their inexperience, unless it were not in behalf of an external authority. Therefore, Fulgineo recommended to James II two things: 1) to appoint a homo aliquis prudens – in all likelihood, the same judge of Arborea – who would be able to mediate between Sardinians and their new feudal lord, and 2) to not deploy from the beginning a great war equipment that would have frightened islanders, although the religious believed it was useful to instil fear of war in them9. So far as interesting for the way in which it was presented the early fourteenth century Sardinian society, in reality, Fulgineo’s discourse 9
Vicente Salavert, Cerdeña y la expansión mediterranea…, vol. 2, pp. 76-77 (June 25th, 1303?. Pisa): […] populus ille Sardicus tot iam annorum curiculis insultibus conquassatus volendo suo domino naturali tam optimo contra iura resistere in dampna peiora prioribus prolabatur […] me nuper fuisse confessorem iudicis Arboree et ab eo beneficia mee conditionis paruitatem excedentiam recepisse, quare in Sardinia diutius conuersatus, extimo quedam ut regia maiestas vestra facilius et commodius dictam insulam consequatur. Sunt enim modo Sardi velud oues non habentes pastorem, et quamuis inter eos sint quidam principaliores in quos respicit populus vniuersus, tamen illi inexperientia et invidia operante nequeunt dictum populum Sardicum sine diuisionibus et emulationibus gubernare.[…] Quamuis ergo bonum sit bellorum timorem eis ingerere, tamen puto quod in principio non esset melius magno apparatu armarum eos amplius deterrere, quia credunt quod si bello soiugauerunt aut se de Sardinia expellendos aut se omnes necis gladio morituros. Set optimus modus esset si predictos principaliores posset aliquis homo prudens, qui hoc sagaciter ageret per blanditias et pacis promissiones alicere, quia reliquus populus illo fertur quo hii principaliores eos deducunt […]. About the dating of this letter (Francesco Cesare Casula, La Storia di Sardegna (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1994), vol. 1, p. 135) seems to be in favour of a period close to 1323, when the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica’s conquest was undertaken.
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proposes an image in negative shades of the political situation in the island that is not very reliable. We cannot neglect that when it became clear that the Crown of Aragon would have undertaken the Regnum’s conquest many peoples, as Fulgineo, offered their services and expertise to new dominus. In addition, we also need to remember that in the decades between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the Judge of Arborea, the territorial lordships of Ligurian and Tuscan origin – Doria, Malaspina, Gherarardesca, Visconti – not to mention the same Commune of Pisa, direct lord of at least a third of the whole Sardinian territory, went through a time of political and economic development attested by many survived sources. Thus, following Fulgineo’s terminology, there were in Sardinia several Pastores ruling their flocks with significant results from their points of view. In that historical moment, general reference to a single populum Sardicum did not make sense, since various political actors were active in the island, more or less always in open conflict with each other. Even the advice of not using a large army on the island appears somehow biased, since the army would not have been directed indifferently against all Sardinian peoples, but only against Pisa, which from the Apostolic See’s perspective had usurped the Regnum’s possession. A different matter was in relation to other institutional realities in Sardinia, who recognized the Regnum’s papal infeoffment and swored allegiance to Iberian sovereign. They did not used weapons against them, though perhaps the presence on the island of many Catalan-Aragonese troops created more of a concern. Francisco Hispano offered further elements on the Judges of Arborea’s image that Catalan-Aragoneses could make in the early fourteenth century and, more generally, on Sardinian people saw by him quite uniformly without all relative differences of institutional affiliation between Sardinian subjects of the Judicate and Sardinian subjects of the Pisa or of Tuscan-Ligurian families. In a letter to the Aragonese king, of which we need to highlight the bias, the author expressed the presumed enthusiasm of the Judicate’s Sardinians for the imminent arrival of the Iberian monarch, after the death of Judge Giovanni or Chiano without will in the spring of 1304. According to this source, before Pisa’s claims, ready to intervene by force, Arboreans would have said that they are ready to submit to James II’s authority, while, on the other hand, the women from
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Sassari would have publicly stated that James II ruled with full rights over whole the island10. The topic of Sardinians’ approval for the new Aragonese domain was also recalled in some Iberian documents of the conquest period. We can see for example a letter by Guillem Oulomar to James II, informing him of the great joy shown by Sardinians – even by the Judicate inhabitants, as he was then at Oristano – for the arrival of the Catalan-Aragonese army reinforcements: No us porets pensar, senyor, lo gog que aquesta terra mostra com aquesta gent vostra és venguda fresca11. Further confirmation of the positive image Iberians enjoyed in those years, seen as liberators by the nefarious Pisan presence in the island. Vision promoted, in this specific case among the Judicate subjects, in order to support and feed the clash with the Tuscan Commune. After these few examples, we can now turn to the moment following the Regnum’s conquest when relations between Judicate’s Sardinians and Catalan-Aragoneses became even closer and analyse them also through island internal sources. In this regard, we are puzzled by the different features of Judge Hugh II’s identity that emerge from an analysis of this documentation. With Iberians’ arrival on the island, there is an increased of elements useful for the scholar to draw an ethnic identity profile, especially for the Judicate’s Sardinians and their rulers, in spite of small narrative and documentary available sources. The Memoria presents the Arborea’s ruler as the protagonist of the fundamental period of Iberians’ arrival in Sardinia, even imposing him on the Dauphin Alphonso’s character, a true leader of Iberian army of conquest. In earlier works we noted that, during this very early stage of direct relations between Arboreas and Catalan-Aragoneses, the anonymous chronicle did not keep any notice of the vassalage link between the judge 10 ACA, Cartas Reales Ddiplómaticas de Jaime II, 1267, Cerdeña y la expansión medi terranea…, doc. nº 185; Vicente Salavert, “Un nuevo documento para la historia de Cerdeña”, Studi storici in onore di Francesco Loddo Canepa (Firenze: Sansoni, 1959), vol. 2, pp. 301-303. See also some observations on the institutional condition especially of the Judicate of Calari, but which can also be extended to the Judicate of Arborea: Luciano Gallinari, “Il Giudicato di Calari tra XI e XIII secolo. Proposte di interpretazioni istituzionali”, RiMe-Rivista dell’Istituto di Storia dell’Europa Mediterranea, 5 (december, 2012), pp. 147-187. 11 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 106-107.
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and the King of Aragon. Indeed, in his account, Hugh played a fundamental role even in events to which he did not take part at all, as the building of the Bonaria’s fortress – the first Catalan-Aragonese outpost in Sardinia – from where Iberians proceeded to the conquest of the Pisan city of Castel di Cagliari. This role is absent in Iberian contemporary sources, which bestow that building to Dauphin Alphonso. Neither is there mention of the judge’s absence from Castel di Cagliari’s siege, due to some health problems arose immediately after the conquest of Villa di Chiesat as stated by Dauphin Alphonso himself12. The same discrepancies emerge for episodes in which the judge had a much lower importance, such as Castel di Cagliari’s surrender that would have happened thanks to Hugh II, which would have agreed with the city’s Pisans, for the trust they had in him: Los del Castillo de Cállar […] començaron a pactearse con el júdiçe d’Arborea como con persona que antiguamente conoçían, et fiziéronlo venir al campo de Bonayre do el infante estava. Y de allí tractaron y acordaron de se dar al dicho júdiçe d’Arborea, los quales se dieron confiando en su virtud.Y así el señor infante […] prometió observar los pactos fechos et capitulados entre los del Castillo de Cállar y el júdiçe d’Arborea13.
This is an element in sharp contrast to what can be inferred from the analysis of contemporary Tuscan sources as we shall see later, which on the contrary show that Pisa mistrusted the judge to the extent of wanting to place by his side a most reliable condominus. Mistrust is further confirmed after the Pisan soldiers’ massacre by the judge marking the beginning of his alliance with James II. According to the Memoria, however, Pisans, exhausted by the Iberian siege and having no longer any hope of aid from their 12 […] ego ad ipsum dominum infantem personaliter devenissem nisi esset corporea infirmitas que post capcionem et adquisicionem Ville Ecclesie me recessi habita dicta terra totaliter occupavit. And the document issued on March 8th of the same year by Dauphin Alphonso: […] vobis respondemus ad ea quod egritudine quam passus estis et adhuc patimini nobis plurimum displicet, scientes quod incolumitas vestre persone est nostra direccio et eius infirmitas, magna turbacio […]. See: Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 119-120 (February 19th, 1324. Oristano), 123-124 (March 8th, 1324. Castel di Cagliari). 13 Paolo Maninchedda, ed. Memoria de las cosas que han aconteçido en algunas partes del reino de Cerdeña (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2000), p. 45.
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Motherland, would have promised to surrender themselves to the Judge of Arborea, while the Dauphin, for his part, would have guaranteed to keep the pacts stipulated between the two parties, thus acting as a sort of notary, and not as the royal authority’s representative in whose name those agreements would be stipulated. The news reported by the Memoria is not totally unfounded, but it is manipulated at the right point to put the Judge of Arborea in a position of absolute prominence and to remove from the scene other protagonists of the event with which the ambassadors of Pisa meet up: that is Berenguer Carròs […] and altres cavallers. The reworked version is quite sophisticated as by leaning on some safe items: Hugh II was named procurador general de Sardenya per lo senyor rei d’Aragon and he was indeed summoned to attend the event of capitulation in Bonaria. The Memoria, then, develops a sort of laudatory “discourse” on the political identity of the Arborea’s ruler in Sardinian history of that period14. An echo of the role played by Hugh during diplomatic negotiations between Pisans and Aragoneses is not to be found in Tuscan sources, but rather in the Iberian ones, and, although the latter report of a seemingly to a significant role, this is not certainly that of the main actor in the events. On June 1st 1324, Dauphin Alphonso announced to Hugh II that he requested his presence in Castel di Cagliari because the Commune of Pisa’ ambassadors had come to Alghero, super que consilium vestrum nobis utile fore reputamus. The Dauphin also informed him that, in order to facilitate his arrival to the camp, he would make available an adequate fleet to make the journey by sea without running any risk, and he ordered that the fleet captain obeys the judge tamquam nobis. If, however, the Arborea ruler would decide to reach Cagliari by land, the Dauphin assured that 14
See the reconstruction of Castel di Cagliari’s surrender, explained by Ramon Muntaner (Ramon Muntaner, Crònica, Chap. CCXC; Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. Ferran Soldevila (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1971), pp. 930-931): els missatges de Pisa e el noble En Berenguer Carròs […] e altres cavallers […] anaren tant, que vengren al castell de Càller, e trameteren missatge al jutge d’Arborea, qui era procurador general de Sardenya per lo senyor rei d’Aragon. E tantost ell venc al castell de Bonaire […]. E los misssatges de Pisa parlaren ab aquells del castell de Càller, e dilluns [june 9, 1326], ells reteren lo dit castell de Càller al dit senyor rei d’Aragón, e per ell al dit jutge d’Arborea, e al dit noble En Berenguer Carròs, e als altres. In the later Chronicle of Peter, the Ceremonious, there appear to be no mention to an eventual participation of Hugh II’s to the delivery of Castel di Cagliari made by Pisans.
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Aragonese and Sardinian soldiers would have meet the judge sic quod intrabitis campum nostrum honorifice sociatus15. Mutatis mutandis, this seems to replicate the Memoria’s account of the reception made to Hugh II by the Dauphin himself and leading members of Iberian army engaged in Villa di Chiesa’s siege, although with less emphatic tones, but nonetheless revealing the significance of the judge’s presence in Castel di Cagliari for the Dauphin16. Importance that the judge held, in the eyes of Alphonso, who later became king of Aragon, for the whole period of his reign, as showed by archival documents of this sovereign, who always considered very important Hugh II’s opinion in Sardinian affairs. This was an opinion that he was keen to emphasize repeatedly to all his officers of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica. Quite different, on the other hand, is the image proposed by Pisan contemporary sources in which the judge is presented as a character inadequate for the office he was appointed to. Furthermore, according to Tuscans, Hugh could have not become judge because of his dynastic relationship with the predecessor Marianus III of Arborea. However, reading some of these sources we can detect important nuances in the description of Hugh II’s personal and dynastic situation. Let us see them in detail. The Pisan chronicle De proeliis Tusciae, does not seem to call into question Hugh II’s right to succeed at the Judicate’s helm, even if it subordinates this to the approval by the Tuscan Commune – assentiente comuni pisano – and to the payment of 12,000 florins, which expressed the implicit recognition of a superior auctoritas, at least de facto, of the Tuscan city over the Judicate. After paying the sum demanded, Hugh was able to come into Judicate’s possession: Dum sedes iudicatus arborensis vacaret in Sardinea, et deberetur Ughoni de Basso, assentiente comuni pisano, dictum comune petivit a dicto Ughone XII milia florenorun in adiutorium expensarum; quos ille persolvit et iudicatum accepit17.
15 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 139-140. 16 […] El infante, quando vido o supo que venía el júdice, cavalga con todos los prinçipales señores et sale mas de dos millas a los reçebir con gran triumpho de trompetas y atabales y así lo tomó a su costado y se fueron sobre villa de Iglesias […]. See: Paolo Maninchedda, ed. Memoria de las cosas…, p. 35. 17 Ranieri de Granchi, “De proeliis Tusciae”, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, Celestino Meliconi, ed. (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1915), p. 108.
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This source also added that, because of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica’s concession to James II, Pisa did not trust the new judge and it would have wanted to place him next to a sotium for the Judicate political government, as it had happened not many years before18. This element of Pisa’s distrust towards Hugh II appears in other Tuscan contemporary sources, and it illustrates one aspect of the new judge’s identity-making profile. In this respect, an example is provided by the Cronaca di Pisa di Ranieri Sardo that focused on the concept of treason perpetrated against the Tuscan city: Negli anni Domini 1324 […] missere Ughetto giudicie d’Arborea tradì Pisa et fe’ uccidere molti Pisani i quali erano iti al suo soldo, et fecie montare missere Alfonso figliuolo del re d[i] Raghone, et asediare Villa di chiesa et far molti danni in Sardingnia et altrove ongni tradimento usando19.
Similar terms appear in Giovanni Villani’s Nuova Cronica, who added, however, also another important element concerning the judge’s dynastic condition, which was presented as a bastard with no right to the judical throne: avenne che’l detto giudice, il quale tenea ed era signore d’Arestano e bene del terzo di Sardigna, a dì XI d’aprile tradì i Pisani, e fece mettere a morte quanti Pisani e loro soldati che si trovarono in sue terre, e eziandio i Pisani suoi famigliari e soldati. E fatto questo malificio, incontanente mandò i suoi ambasciadori al re d’Araona, che venisse per la terra. La cagione del detto rubellamento si disse che fece perché i Pisani il trattavano male, e che quando il detto giudice prese la signoria, i Pisani s’opposuono ch’egli era bastardo, e convennersi comprare dal Comune di Pisa per avere la signoria X M fiorini d’oro […]; per la qual cosa poi non fu loro amico di cuore20.
The arguments of the “feudal” census paid to Pisa, the intention of the Tuscan Commune to place him side by side with a compañero para poder regir el Judicado and the legal weakness of Hugh II’s dynastic condition were also recalled by the Memoria. The anonymous chronicle reported the news of a clash 18 Ranieri De Granchi, “De proeliis Tusciae…”, p. 108 (Quia autem Iacobus rex Aragonum, cui privilegiata fuerat Sardinia a Bonifatio papa VIII, exigebat et petebat Sardiniam a Pisanis, Pisani dubitantes de regimine Sardinie, sotium regiminis dare voluerunt predicto Ughoni). 19 Ottavio Banti, Cronaca di Pisa di Ranieri Sardo (Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 1963), pp. 77-78. 20 Giovanni Villani, Nuova Cronica, Giuseppe Porta, ed. (Parma: Guanda, 1990), II, Lib. X, chap. CXCVIII, pp. 384-385.
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between the judge and one of the ambassadors sent by Pisa to regulate his accession to Oristano’s throne, following an insult received: llamólo que era bastardo et que no era cosa que podía poseer tal señoría ni ser señor d’ella21. According to this source, after this episode involving Tuscan ambassadors, the political situation evolved rapidly and, in order to eliminate this sort of Pisa’s political control on his Judicate, the judge approached the king of Aragon. Other interesting news about both the succession in the Judicate of Arborea and Hugh II’s very personality come from a document written on May 20th, 1321 by friar Guillelmus de Montegranato in Aruernya, bishop of Santa Giusta, in which he states that Marianus III decessit sine prole. This matter would have precluded any direct relationship between Marianus and Hugh and, indeed, the religious also added that to Marianus successit […] eius avunculus, qui nunc regnat. Accordingly, Hugh II would have been the maternal uncle of the deceased predecessor. On a more strictly identity- making level, friar Guillelmus proposed to the Aragonese king a close alliance with Oristano’s ruler – defined prudentissimus, cautus et inimicus pisanorum occultus – who would have assured him the Regnum Sardinie et Corsice’s conquest because he was potencior […] et maior of Pisans and Doria, main opponents to a Catalan-Aragonese conquest of Sardinia22. The description of Hugh II’s character made by the friar seems to confirm the claims of Pisan contemporary accounts, which spoke repeatedly of treason against Tuscan Commune, so far as they prove to be unreliable on the judges’s real strength, unable to resist Pisa on the military level without Catalan-Aragonese help. Another element for addressing the identity-making profile of the Judge of Arborea and its House could be found in a document issued by King James II on December 30th, 1322, in response to some capitulations the Oristano’s ruler sent to him. In detail, the Aragonese king replied to the Hugh II’s sixth and last request in the following way:
21 Paolo Maninchedda, ed., Memoria de las cosas…, p. 23. 22 See: Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 11-12; Vicente Salavert, “Jaime II de Aragón y Ugone II de Arborea y la conquista de Cerdeña (sobre un nuevo documento)”, La Corona d’Aragona in Italia (secc. XIIIXVIII): 1. Il “Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae” nell’espansione mediterranea della Corona d’Aragona (Sassari Alghero, 19-24 maggio 1990) (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1995), vol. 2/2, p. 758.
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[…] scribimus tam in presentibus quam in dictis rescriptis sub solito et antiquo titulo vestro nullam facere voluimus novitatem, cum ignoramus intecionis (sic) vestri propositum, verumtamen, si obtatis per nos de alio vobis provideri titulo, rescribatis nobis intencionem vestram, et nos super eo providemus quod merito eritis inde contentus.
From this text it can be inferred that Hugh II had asked the Aragonese king if he could change his own Judical title, but without producing the reasons for such request. The monarch rejected it, but showed himself available to give him another title only after hearing his motivations. This situation recalls what would happen about a century later just after Arborea’s defeat in the battle of Sanluri (June 30th, 1409). In the latter case, the Judical Vicar Leonardo Cubello among the conditions of San Martino’s Capitulations (1410), in which the Judicate of Arborea ceased to be, inserted one concerning his person and the new dynasty that would rule the Marquisate of Oristano, the new institutional body that had replaced the Judicate. Cubello asked for and received by the Royal Lieutenant Pere Torrelles a title that would made him equal to other barons of the Crown23. A while ago, we interpreted Cubello’s request as a sort of “social reconversion”, which aimed at his inclusion in the Aragonese society with a noble title that would guarantee the Sardinian maiorale – i.e. that is the exponent of the Judical aristocracy – an adequate social status. Perhaps, a similar motivation may have prompted Hugh II’s request to change his own title given that, in the 20s of the fourteenth century, the institutional relations with the Crown of Aragon began to take concrete shape and, thus, the judge would have wanted a title with unequivocal identity-making and social characteristics24. If so, the Judical dynasty and perhaps also by Arborea’s society could have felt the need for a higher degree of harmony with the Crown of Aragon. And, perhaps, it is not by chance that there are documentary records of this political will into two characters, well distinct from each
23 Pasquale Tola, Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1984 [first edition: Codex Diplomaticus Sardiniae, Augusta Taurinorum, 1861]), I/2, p. 38: […] Respon lo dit Lochtinent de rey que, concordades les dites coses, el donarà al dit micer Lehonardo un títol de marqués de Oristany e comte de Cossiano ab los quals se intitularà a sa gran honor e se.n pot tenir rahonablement per content. 24 Luciano Gallinari, “Guglielmo III di Narbona, ultimo sovrano d’Arborea, e la guerra dei Cent’anni”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 18 (1993), pp. 106-109; Luciano Gallinari, “Gli ultimi anni di esistenza del regno giudicale d’Arborea: riflessioni e prospettive di ricerca”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 25 (2000), pp. 185-188.
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other, who, however, are linked by a desire for a peaceful coexistence with Catalan-Aragoneses: Hugh II, whose legitimacy on the Judical throne was called into questions by Pisans, and Leonardo Cubello, a collateral member of the Judical dynasty that, as vicar, led the submission to Aragonese king of the Judicate’s historical core. Quite distinct from them, all the other Arborea’s rulers triggered a strong contrast between Judicate Sardinians and Iberians also from an identity-making point of view. Two further considerations on this Hugh II’s request are noteworthy. In the first place, the request may reveal a bond with the judical title different from that presented by the historiography on medieval Sardinia and, at the same time, it could also reflect a very pragmatic attitude by the judge keen to join at full in the new institutional “container” of the Aragonese Crown, with a new social identity that did not lend itself to possible misunderstandings. Secondly, the judge’s request could be linked to his petition to the Aragonese monarch to be able to grant nobility titles to his descendants; prerogative of great importance that he obtained in consideration of the assistance provided during the Regnum’s conquest, which is important not only from an institutional point of view but also from an identity-making one, since with it the judge could have changed the social identity of his children25. With the final conquest of Castel di Cagliari, the type of CatalanAragonese image changes in the available sources. In those more pro- Judicate such as the Memoria, the abrupt change is introduced by terms that connote very negatively the Iberians: […] arribados, les hizieron grandes ofertas et promesas de seguridad, por vía que los dexaron entrar. Y entrados, quebraron la fe y los echan fuera de la ciudad a todos, ombres y mugeres, grandes y pequeños, y metieron a saco la tierra, y a ellos catavan fasta las camisas […]26.
The tones remind the accusations made by Pisans some years before against the Judge Hugh: in essence Catalan-Aragoneses were blamed to have broken their word. And, with more diplomatic but no less effective wording, the image has changed also in documents of the same Judge Hugh II, who informed 25 Pasquale Tola, Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna…, vol. 1, Parte II, sec. XIV, pp. 691-692. 26 Paolo Maninchedda, ed., Memoria de las cosas…, p. 46.
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Cardinal Napoleone Orsini of the situation on the island after the rebellion of Sassari against Iberian rule: sardi propterea non diligunt cathalanos nec nos, et si possent, credimus quod predictorum dominorum et nostris adversariis [the Pisans] adhererentur27.
According to the judge, then, for Sardinian subjects of the Regnum, the image of Iberians – now oppressors, rather than liberators from Pisa’s yoke, as only a few years earlier – and that of the Arborea’s Judicate would overlap. One wonders if these statements are inflated at least in part, since in the Judical document leaks out Hugh II’s fear that the Commune of Pisa’s reinforcements would have arrived really in Sardinia, and that they would have allowed the military reaction of Sassari’s inhabitants and of the Regnum’s subjects against Catalan-Aragonese and the Judicate, their main ally on the island. But, besides Sardinians once subjects to Pisa and now to Aragon, and the Judicate’s subjects, since the beginning of the Iberian presence in Sardinia a further identity-making insular group emerges from internal and Catalan-Aragonese sources. Described as independent as much from the Judicate as from the Regnum Sardinie et Corsice, Barbaricini were Sardinians resident in the island’s mountainous regions, the boundaries of which, however, were much more extensive than those that today are attributed to the Barbagia region. This ethnic group occurs several times in the sources throughout most of the fourteenth century and, although in some cases these are sources to be evaluated carefully because of their political nature, it appears to have remained, at least in part, politically unrelated to both the Judicate and the Regnum. This at least would seem indicated by the sources identified. On June 29th, 1333 Alphonso IV asked Hugh II to eliminate the prohibition enacted years before to prevent that royal traders went in the Judicate and vice versa Judical merchants went in Regnum to sell and buy goods they needed. A measure applied because barbarrazini Barbayre incessantly gentibus regalis districtus ac vestris dampna inferebant. The request of the king was motivated by the fact that, at the date indicated in the document, the phenomenon of barbarian aggression was over and that the royal customs would have benefitted from the restoration of normal business activities28. 27 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 165-167. 28 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 398-399.
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Regardless of any other data of economic nature, such request seems to bring to scholar’s attention the existence of this additional type of Sardinian identity; ethnic as conflicting with the other two predominant on the island at the time: the Catalan-Aragonese and the Judical one. Barbaricini will reappear in fourteenth century’s sources, always in an “other” position with respect to the two main protagonists of the island historical events: now allies of the judges against Iberians, now rebels to both. To move further on the analysis of the identity-elaboration process of the Arborea’s House and the whole Judical society, we may pay a special attention to relationship between these identities and the chivalric culture, especially because provides an additional tool to detect different signs of the high regard in which the rulers of Oristano were held by Aragonese kings, also because of their aid in the Regnum’s conquest. We may, thus, consider the appointment as knight of donnikellu Peter of Arborea, Hugh II’s son, at the hands of Alfonso IV following his coronation on April 3rd, 1328: […] el dit senyor féu de la sua mà dehuit cavallers novells, tots nobles de sos regnes, dels quals […] lo segon fo lo fill del jutge d’Arborea, lo qual jutge havia nom Hug, e lo fill havia nom Pere […]29.
A relevant element of this investiture is undoubtedly that Pietro was appointed as knight at the coronation ceremony, a very important act of the Aragonese monarchy’s identity construction process30. And, not least, the
29 Pere el Ceremoniós, Crònica, chap. 37, 43; Les quatre grans cròniques…, pp. 1016, 1019; Ramon Muntaner, Crònica…, chapter CCXCVI, p. 936: Primerament lo senyor rei féu cavaller aquell dia lo noble En Jacme de Xèrica, e el dit noble ne féu vint. E aprés lo dit senyor rei féu cavaller lo noble fill del jutge d’Arborea […]. In addition, the chronicler reminds that the donnikellu would have to appoint twenty knights more, ten Catalan and ten Aragonese, to whom he then would have provide some heretats in Sardinia. 30 It was King Alphonso III the Liberal (1286) who reorganised the kings of Aragon’s rites of coronation. From his kingdom onwards the different stages of the ceremony were set: unction, coronation, reception of the Order of Chivalry and mutual oath between the King and the Kingdom. In addition, always Alphonso III decided that was the monarch himself that had to assume the crown, doing then the same with his wife. The subsequent detailed regulation of kings and queens of Aragon’s coronation ceremonies (January 20th, 1353) is due to Peter IV, who also applied it to his own case. See: Prim Bertran, “La pretendida coronación de Juan I y el estamento nobiliario de la Corona de Aragón”, Hidalguía, 240 (1993), pp. 691-703.
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fact that he was the second in a list of new milites appointed by the new sovereign (eighteen according to Peter IV, twenty in Muntaner’s opinion), the first of which was Jaume de Exerica, grandson on his mother’s side of the great Sicilian admiral Ruggero di Lauria and brother of Pere, who would marry Bonaventura de Bas Serra, Hugh II’s daughter. All these elements indicate the consideration enjoyed by the Arboreas and the family links formed with some of the most relevant Catalan-Aragonese Houses. Moreover, the appointment as knight of donnikellu Peter of Arborea is an episode further relevant in the context of the discourse on identity since, as we can see from Aragonese sources, was himself to make a request to the king of Aragon. On March 9th 1328, Guillem d’Anglesola suggested to King Alphonso IV appointing as knight the judge’s son, who would have made him explicit request of it while he was in Barcelona for attending the new king’s coronation: […] e entés que.l [fill] del jutge d’Arborea és a Barchelona ab enbaxadós, e segons que.s diu, ve que vós lo façats cavaler[…]31.
We have long been dealing with the issue of the potential presence of militia in the Judical society and with the structure and offensive capacity validity of Arborea’s army, reaching the conclusion that typical elements of chivalric culture remained fundamentally unrelated to the Judical society over the centuries. With regard to the period examined here, apart from some judges and members of their House – appointed as knights by Aragonese kings – there are only very few other mentions of milites among the Judical ranks in known sources. This is only partially surprising, if we consider that the Judical societies – not only that of Arborea, the last of the original four to disappear – maintained throughout the course of their existence a social structure derived from their Byzantine origin in the Early Middle Ages. Such structure developed on a land that had not experienced any long Germanic domination, neither a deep penetration of feudal structures as it has been the case in the rest of Western Europe until the eleventh century, when the island left for good the Greek political orbit to enter the Western one. On account of all this, it is even more significant that the appointment as knight was required by the same Peter who, in this way, wanted 31 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, p. 229.
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to acquire a further, important element of identity and social recognition within the new political and institutional container: the Crown of Aragon. There is also an additional aspect of the same episode that could confirm what we say. On October 5th, 1328 Alphonso IV ordered Hugh II to punish in an exemplary way Peter de Azeni and the notary Peter Penna, his courtiers who were present in Barcelona with the donnikellu. They had been guilty of attempting to dissuade Peter from receiving the military belt, contracting marriage with Catalan-Aragonese women and, even worse, sibi nullatenus expedire quod nostre se in aliquo submiteret magestati32. Such serious are those sovereign’s allegations that may reveal the existence of positions against the Judges of Arborea’s political and institutional rapprochement to the House of Aragon through personal and matrimonial bonds. In this story, nationalistic positions seem to emerge as prompted by individuals very close to the very Judical family, which tended to preserve the House of Arborea from Iberian “contaminations” and to keep it intact. Perhaps – with all due caution – this is another example of ethnic conflict, lato sensu, between Sardinians and Catalan-Aragoneses fuelled by the concern about the growing bonds between the judges and the Iberian world, which would have meant a loss of freedom and previous identities. There are other echoes of this interesting episode in a slightly later Aragonese documentation. On April 11th, 1329 in a reply to Hugh II, Alphonso IV mentioned the sentence imposed only on Peter de Azeni, despite the fact that the monarch in this document clearly mentions iniquos tractatus Petri de Asene et Petri Penne notarii et eorum nequeum propositum, well illustrating how the two characters shared the anti-Aragonese initiative. From this reading and the role of the Judical emissary in the Iberian court again in 1331, it would seem possible to deduce that the notary Penna had escaped to the royal punishment request but continued to harbour anti-Catalan feelings. The latter finds support in 1332 his passage to the Doria family service, then in collision with Aragonese Kings unlike Oristano’s rulers who, thanks to Hugh II’s marriage policy planned for his children, merged more and more with Iberian Peninsula’s highest social level families33. 32 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, p. 251. 33 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 267, 323 [January 8, 1331]; Francesco Cesare Casula, La Sardegna aragonese. 2. La Nazione sarda (Sassari: Chiarella, 1990), p. 436.
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And, precisely in one of these unions, the marriage of donnikellu Marianus with Timbors de Rocabertí at the beginning of 1333, reappears the ceremony of appointment as knight of that Hugh II’s son in the occasion of the same wedding. In this circumstance, however, everything happened at the initiative of King Alphonso who communicated his will to the judge in a letter dated December 15th, 1332: […] in cuiusquidem sollempnizatione matrimonii disponimus illum [Mariano] militari cingulo manibus propriis insignire.
The reasons for this decision were clearly expressed by the sovereign: this ceremony was adequate to royal honour and favourable to beneficiary’s status, in consideration of the affection brought to the House of Arborea34. A further confirmation of the substantial otherness of the Judical society with regards to the militia’s world seems to come from Aragonese sources just before these events. On February 1st, 1326 Ramon de Peralta asked the Dauphin Alphonso to send to Sardinia m ilitary reinforcements, given the news of the army prepared by Pisa to reconquer the island. Among the requests, the one concerning soldiers on horseback stands out; he was in great need of them because, although he had 60 Sardinian men on horseback, they no an cavals, sino àuls roçins sarts, que en nugun feit de batala ni d’armes no.n porie hom fer comte. Statements that maybe find further confirmation in other Iberian documents: on May 23rd, 1330 the same King Alphonso IV, in a memorial informing the judge of his new provisions for the horse service to be paid by feudal lords and heretats in Sardinia, he arranged that for an annuity of 2,000 sous they would have to provide I hom ab cavayl armat, but the animal had to be a cavayl de Spanya. Otherwise, they should have provide II hòmens a cavayll ab II rocins sarts bons e su[fficients]35. This complicated operation of integration and cultural assimilation of the Judical dynasty and its state prompted by Hugh II since the 20s of the fourteenth century was interrupted gradually starting from the mid-fourteenth century with the beginning of the rebellion of his son Marianus IV. He became the bearer of a different political discourse, full 34 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 387-388. 35 Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea…, pp. 190, 279.
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of nationalistic and identity-making tones aimed at the independence of the Judicate and its rulers from Iberian monarchs. It is no coincidence that this judge realized a 360 degrees-anti-Aragonese policy, well reflected among other things also by the marriage policy put in place for his three children, none of whom married with members of Iberian families. In total antithesis to what his father did.
2. Sardinians and Catalan-Aragoneses in the second half of the fourteenth century (1347-1396) The relationship between Sardinians and Iberians degenerates for good from the mid-fourteenth century, when at the helm of the Judicate of Arborea came Marianus IV (1347), the Judical dynasty’s more able ruler according to a part of historiography that has favoured a nationalist reading of Sardinian history. In fact, the results obtained call for a detailed reassessment of Hugh II’s figure who, maintaining good relations with the Crown of Aragon, could guarantee over three decades of peace and prosperity for the Judicate and his own House. Under his son Marianus IV, the clash between islanders and Iberians was not only on a military level, perhaps the least interesting for the historian, since, with a few exceptions, there were no episodes of particular importance. But that clash took place especially at legal and institutional levels, offering much more stimulating reflections on identity. The conflict between the judge and the Catalans worsened after the naval battle of Porto Conte (August 1353), won by the Catalan fleet, as a consequence of the contrast between Marianus IV and Admiral Bernat de Cabrera, which originated from the suspicions the latter had on the judge. In this story, the conflict unfolds at the institutional level and shows precisely how the relationship between Catalan-Aragoneses and Oristano’s rulers changed, in relation to what it has been shown about the confidence and spirit of collaboration existing between Alphonso IV and his officers on the one hand and the judge Hugh II on the other. At this time, the atmosphere was very different and each one had pledged to highlight his prerogatives in an escalation that will lead to open warfare and to renegotiate the status, that is, the identity of the other one.
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After Bernat de Cabrera’s refusal to go to Bosa, in order to liaise with the Sardinian ruler on the delicate situation created between the judge and the King of Aragon, and the subsequent convocation of Marianus IV in Alghero to clear himself, the ruler replied in a haughty manner communicating the image which – according to Iberian sources’ report – he would have had of himself and of his own House, not used to pay a visit at anyone who was not a king or a king’s firstborn son. With reference to what has been done thirty years earlier by his father Hugh II, who went to the Villa di Chiesa’s siege in order to meet with the Dauphin Alphonso: Quibus verbis dictis respondit dictus iudex quasi cum malincholia: ‘Marauillam-nos molt del capitá qui de nós se maravella, car per çert d.aytants nobles gouernadors hic ha hauts et en R. de Cardona et altres qui.s daven a honor que junguéssen en la terra d’Arborea. E jamés la Casa d’Arborea no ha acustumat anar a nengú qu.ich uenga sino a fill de rey et encara primogenit, en que més que nós ho cuidavem haver fet per plaer-li fer et convidar en ço del nostre’36.
As mentioned earlier, this would be the image given by the judge of himself and his House, since also in this case it is a document drawn up by Iberian notaries and included in the feudal process for the rebellion against Marianus IV initiated by Peter IV. We do not have the original documents produced by the Judical Chancery, which could confirm this events’ interpretation. The presence of the term malincholia used to describe the attitude of the Sardinian ruler calls for a handling with care37. In the legal documentation produced by Iberians, it appears, as other terms 36 ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, vol. III, f. 35v; Paul Veyne, Comment on écrit l’histoire. Texte integral (Paris: Seuil, 1996), p. 366. Noted that the level of tasks that a person assigned oneself or the breadth of his ambition depended on the idea that he has of himself. From this we found that, generally, this idea is inspired by the status of the person in question. 37 In a previous work, we highlighted that we are not sure if Marianus IV was really malincholicus, or if, on the contrary, Aragonese emissary had chosen this term to make a political “discourse” in order to provide a negative image of the judge and to justify the sovereign’s political action aimed to obtain from the Pope the permission to proceed militarily against him. See: Luciano Gallinari, “Alcuni ‘discorsi’ politici e istituzionali nello scontro tra Pietro IV d’Aragona e Mariano IV d’Arborea”, Sardegna e Mediterraneo tra Medioevo ed Età Moderna. Studi in onore di Francesco Cesare Casula, Maria Giuseppina Meloni, Olivetta Schena, eds. (Genova: Brigati, 2009), pp. 149-183. A decidedly more traditional interpretation of the Procesos’s passage and of the term malincholicus is given by: Corrado Zedda, “La figura di Mariano
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do – suspectus, livorosus, author of an inhonestum text – with a strong, negative value. They tended to represent Marianus IV as a psychologically unbalanced personality, capable of harbouring internal reprehensible feelings not suitable for a person who at the same time – according to Aragonese documents – was trying to obtain from the pope the investiture of the Regnum Sardinie et Corsice at the expense of the king of Aragon, who did not pay the due feudal census38. It may not to be a coincidence that at the time of Marianus IV insurrection in the sources reappear a reference to a Sardinian identity-making group with characteristics somewhat indefinite, given the data paucity at scholars’ disposition, that, however, even in these fourteenth century’s central decades, seems to maintain a character of otherness compared to Judical subjects and, even more so, to Regnum’s subjects. We refer to Barbaricini, already mentioned above toward the end of Alphonso IV’s and Hugh II’s governments. Now, in the 60s of the fourteenth century, Sardinians of the island’s mountainous regions appear in the documentary series of Procesos contra los Arborea; a very important source for the history of Sardinia but one which, due to its political nature, requires additional caution in the usage of the offered data. Among the testimony collected, there is also that of the Sardinian Giovanni Corso, who testified to Aragonese officers that Marianus IV had attacked Castel di Cagliari, setting up several fires assisted by some Barbaricini to the salt mines of the capital39. The fact that the witness, in his deposition, clearly refer to the “nationality” of judge’s allies would IV d’Arborea attraverso la lettura dei Procesos contra los Arborea”, Quaderni Bolotanesi, 23 (1997), pp. 244-245. 38 On March 6th, 1354 Matteo Abrini, archpriest of Arborea, testified that he heard, from royal officers and Genoese nobles captured at the Battle of Porto Conte, that the judge himself was driven by negative feelings towards the king. This is why he was asked to lend a securitas with the purpose of not to harm royal subjects nor to damage their properties: et etiam quare intellexerat per officiales regios et gentiles homines ianuenses captos in debellacione habita contra eosdem quod iudex ipse erat livorosus vel suspectus prefato domino rege. ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, vol. V, f. 98v 39 ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, vol. VIII, f. 17v: [ the Sardinian Giovanni Corso] dixit […] et adiessit se vidisse et audivisse predictum iudicem Arboree personaliter percipientem quibusdam sardis barbaraxinis quod ponerent ignem in domibus
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suggest that – and here the conditional is more than ever compulsory – for him the Barbaricini were something “other” than the Judicate’s ordinary subjects, discernible with respect to them. If these were not, in fact, it would have made no sense to specify their nature: they would have been just Judicate’s Sardinians. The specification of Barbaricini’s participation to these Arborean attacks may indicate the desire to bring out their complicity in the Judge of Arborea’s feudal rebellion. In this case, therefore, Barbaricini were not Judicate’s subjects but they would have been a distinct, political subject in part, but on this occasion ally of Oristano’s ruler. Marianus IV, therefore, would have been able to establish a relationship with them other than the open conflict emerged at the time of his father, which will be confirmed about thirty years later also by his son-in-law, Brancaleone Doria. By observing the change of the relationships between Arboreas and Barbaricini, now allies, it could be argued that in the mid-fourteenth century the identity-making profile of Judical Sardinians had changed in the eyes of Barbaricini, who now focused their aggression only against Iberian possessions in the island. Moreover, as time went by and the conflict worsened, the negative image of Catalan-Aragoneses was confirmed by the Memoria’s authors with an episode inaccurately dated to 1330 (in fact, it took place on 1370). The rebellion of Sassari and its dedication to Judge Marianus IV were a result of peccados et maltratamiento committed by Catalan-Aragoneses against Sardinians, when the former robbed them and drove them away from their lands. For all of that, they brought upon themselves a proper punishment according to unspecified “prophecies”: Año MCCC[X]XX. El día de Sancta Margarita los catalanes, {o} por sus peccados et maltratamiento que fazían a los sardos, y especialmente a los saçares, de quando los avían así robado et lançado de su tierra, se revellaron y dieron la çiudad al júdiçe Mariano, que fue el terçero fijo del júdiçe Ugo, y con él entró mosén Blanca con toda su gente, do mataron et robaron muchos catalanes, según estava profetizado40.
As we can see, this anonymous chronicle used quite strong terms against the new rulers – especially, given that the text was produced in the Regnum’s salinarum domini regis, et non decessit inde dictus iudex donec vidit positum ignem in singulis domibus salinarum. 40 Paolo Maninchedda, ed. Memorias de las cosas…, p. 46.
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capital. These terms concern not only the sphere of political legitimacy of the actions undertaken by Iberians, but also that of ethics and justice. The “Discourse” used by Judical Sardinians to explain their “legitimate” reaction both on the political and institutional level as well as, and especially, on the military one with reference not only to Sassari’s conquest, cited in the examined source, but also to a more general military opposition to Aragonese kings. Some further comments should be made about Mariano IV’s entrance in Sassari with Brancaleone Doria, Lord of Monteleone and future husband of Eleanor of Arborea. The historical sources report that Sassari was conquered by Judical troops alone and that, until November 1370, between the two men there was a state of open belligerency, resulting from Doria’s fears to lose his possessions with the Judical expansion41. Even in this situation, there fore, the Memoria offers a version of events not corresponding to what happened. It can be assumed that this was simply a mistake because in those years the relations between Marianus IV and Brancaleone repeatedly shifted between alliance and confrontation. Or, we can also presume that chronicle’s authors have manipulated the sequence of events in such a way as to show at least two generations of Judical rulers – Marianus IV de iure and Brancaleone Doria de facto – harmonious and peaceful in dealing with Catalan-Aragonese common enemy. In this way, the text would give continuity over time, even on this occasion, to the Arborea dynasty’s political “discourse” through several generations of rulers and it would also enhance its role in defending islanders’ interests. These considerations notwithstanding, it should be noted here that almost the same charges laid by the Memoria on the Catalan-Aragoneses in the 20s of the fourteenth century – after the Regnum‘s conquest – were again made against them, mutatis verbis, at the end of the fourteenth century in the process of open military clash between the Judge of Arborea and the King of Aragon. In this case, the three charges – treason of the word, expulsion from Sassari of all insular inhabitants, and plundering of their property – reappear on January 6, 1392 in a letter addressed to Governor-General Joan de Montbuy and written by Pietro Marongio, mayor of that city: Clar e manifest es a cascun que aquesta ciutat de Sasser es fundada per Sarts propris e naturals e no pas per Cathalans ni per altra generacio, e lo rey ab los Cathalans 41 Francesco Cesare Casula, La Sardegna aragonese.., pp. 83-86.
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malvadament e higua la levaran sots bona fe als dits Sarts, e.ls gitaran fora ab gran traycio […] e s.eren mesos en la dita ciutat M heretats de Cathalans en les possessions e bens dels dits mesquins Sarts siutadants e edificadors de la dita ciutat; e haxi apres, migensant la [divinal] gracia avent esguart a la justa raho, los dits Sarts ha recobrada la dita ciutat […] que.ll rey no tramet en la illa si no menyadors e robadors, per so que viscan de robaria, perque a vos torna en gran plaer que les robaries se fassen en la illa, per tal que puscats ben viure e grassament, e per so que en Cathalunya no podets viure, venits en la illa per robar e menyar42.
In evaluating Sassari podesta’s claims, we must take into consideration that the documentation consulted presents him as sided with Brancaleone Doria, true lord of Sardinian state’s political life. Marongio formulated a “discourse” full of a strong sense of ethnic and nationalist opposition: it is relevant to note the personal pronouns nosaltres / vos used in this passage, where Sassari’s podesta openly threatened Aragonese Governor-General and all the Crown’s subjects: nosaltres Sarts som bastants de correr.vos [the Catalans] e dapnificar per terra, per manera que.us sera dan, e tots aquells que porem aconseguir en terra no creem que tornen james en navili ni barcha43.
In turn, these statements recall a propagandist discourse with similar nationalistic tones made fifteen years before by Judge Hugh III to Duke of Anjou’s ambassadors, in the Court of Oristano in order to communicate that their master had violated promises made with regards of the anti-Aragonese alliance and, at the same time, the firm belief that only Sardinian forces would suffice to defeat the Crown of Aragon44. The last years of fourteenth century are much rich of food for thought about the discourse on ethnic identities. By analyzing different sources available, we can detect some very indicative terms of images proposed by the two contenders of themselves and mutually elaborated. This is the 42 Francesco Cesare Casula, Carte reali diplomatiche di Giovanni I il cacciatore, re d’Aragona riguardanti l’Italia (Padova: Cedam, 1977), pp. 61-63. 43 The document of Sassari’s podesta to the governor-general is in: ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, X, f. 33r-33v; Francesco Cesare Casula, Carte reali diplomatiche di Giovanni I…, pp. 61-63. 44 We have addressed such discourses of ethnic identity between Sardinians and Aragoneses in a very recent work: Luciano Gallinari, Una dinastia in guerra e un re descurat? I giudici d’Arborea e Giovanni I re d’Aragona (1379-1396) (Cagliari: Istituto di Storia dell’Europa mediterranea del CNR, 2013), pp. 204-206.
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period wherein there was a great use of the nació sardesca expression by both sides, islander and Iberian, bending that concept to the political aims of the moment. Here, we will examine some examples of this, always remembering that in most cases the island’s internal sources speak in an indirect way. That is, they appear copied in records of Aragonese Kings’ Chancery, and they offer the legal and political point of view of these latter. The historian has not the chance to assess – not even in part – in contemporary Judical documentation the truthfulness of the information provided. We cannot underestimate that the records we are dealing with had an archival purpose inside the Crown, or that they were documentary collections outward-facing – in the Judical case, the Apostolic See holder of the Regnum’s dominium eminens – with specific political aims: in this case, the granting of papal authorization to proceed militarily against the judges of Arborea, guilty of rebellion and treason against their feudal lords, the kings of Aragon. This problem should never be forgotten by scholars, if a reconstruction as accurate as possible of the events is to be pursued. Let us now examine a few examples. On June 17th, 1390 in a Brancaleone Doria’s letter to the Aragonese governor Joan de Montbuy – which evoke statements made over forty years before by Marianus IV in defence of Sardinian customary law threatened by Aragonese right’s interference – some elements appear praising the role attributed by him to Arborea’s judges. According to him, the House of Arborea felt invested with political representation, not just of their subjects but of the whole nació sardescha, on behalf of whim it had signed on 1388 the peace with John I King of Aragon. Therefore, taking over the task of defending it and doing justice to it in the event that it had been victim of Aragoneses: Vós sabets bé que la Casa d’Arborea ha feta la pau e concordia d’aquesta illa no solament per ella sola et per aquells de son domini, mas per tota la nasció sardescha, axí prelats com laychs45.
The political discourse of Count of Monteleone makes use of a strong Sardinian nationalist topic, in a more ideological than legal tone, as he claimed for Arborea’s House the right to defend also Sardinians living in Regnum, although they were directly subject to royal authority as explicitly stated in the text of the peace treaty signed: 45 ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, IX, f. 7r.
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inter Cathalanos et Aragonenses, Sardos et alios honorem regium preservantes ex parte una, et domum Arboree et Sardos ad domum ipsam spectantes ex altera.
By doing so, Brancaleone forges a character of ethnic identity for this Sardinian nasció in sharp contrast with the Catalan-Aragonese element, with clear political aims that allow him to act regardless of the boundaries between the Judicate and the Regnum. These matters were rejected by the Aragoneses, who sought the automatic application of feudal investiture, making the Iberian monarch the natural lord of all Sardinian inhabitants of the Regnum, including of course those residing in the Judicate. A part of island’s inhabitants seems to remain untouched by this discourse of Sardinian ethnic identity, opposed to the Catalan-Aragonese one. Also, at the end of the fourteenth century, in fact, several references to Barbaricini, inhabitants in the mountainous regions of Sardinia appear in Iberian sources, and in Sardinian ones duplicate in the former. On August 11th, 1390 Brancaleone Doria wrote a letter to Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica’s governor about several villages that were supposed to return to royal authority, following the peace of 1388. With his letter, Brancaleone, apparently willing toward the Aragonese officer, told him it was impossible to return this territory to the Regnum since even the House of Arborea had never exercised its authority over it, as their inhabitants son gents que esta per si matex et a posta ne a manament de negun senyor no volen fer. In a tone, seemingly ironic and almost provocative, Brancaleone invited the Aragonese governor to try himself to subjugate the Barbaricini of that area of Sardinia, an enterprise already paid dearly by the judges of Arborea who had repeatedly tried to extend their authority over several villages, which allegedly they already possessed in the region46. If it was not a lie to avoid returning the disputed territories to the Iberians, these statements, together with the others of Hugh II and Marianus IV age, would seem to draw the historian’s attention to a question that, given the present state of knowledge, can hardly be answered with any degree of precision: 46 ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, IX, f. 8v-9v: Al fet de la vila de Seulu [above the line Sehuni] vos responem que negun jutge d’Arborea no.ls ha pogut senyorajar, car són gents que esta per si matex et a posta ne a manament de negun senyor no volen fer. Noresmenys porets provar si los porets dominar et sotsmetre-los a rahó et justicia, la qual cosa nos par imposible, com moltes vegades a la cort d’Arborea és car costat, ben que nós ne havem moltes d’aquexes viles en la Barbaria, que no.ls podem ben senyorajar […].
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that is, where the island’s internal regions belonged to the Judicate of Arborea or the Regnum Sardinie et Corsice? This matter deserves further investigation, which could help to give a more precise connotation to the clash between Sardinia’s two main states between the fourteenth and the fifteenth century, confirming or not the nationalist character seen by a part of historiography in the above-mentioned military conflict. Regardless of such historiographical issues, if some Judical inhabitants considered the Catalan-Aragoneses as exploiters and thieves of others’ property, and violators of the word, the Iberian side proposed an equally negative image of the islanders rebels, drawn – in theory – by Sardinians themselves, after they realized their mistake in supporting the royal battle prompted by Brancaleone Doria. On November 8th, 1391 Francesc de Montbuy, Lieutenant Governor in Chief of the Logudoro, gave notice of this to king John I by means of Pere Deuna, emissary of Alghero. The royal officer informed the sovereign he had learned from some spies that Sardinian rebels were concerned because of both the news of the great fleet set up to help Martin, Duke of Montblanc, the king’s brother, to put on the Sicilian throne his son, as well as the taxes imposed by the Count of Monteleone to support the costs of war against Catalans. For these reasons, they had regretted their choice in favour of Arborea, since from a condition of freedom under royal government they had passed to that of servants and traitors: Ay mesquins nosaltres, soliam esser franchs con erem del senyor rey et a nós fa tots peytas et traydos47. The concept of freedom enjoyed by inhabitants in royal lands at this situation was an argument often used by Aragonese kings to distinguish their dominion from that of other monarchs, from Iberian ones in the first place48. This is with reference to the privileged status they could 47 ACA, RA, Procesos contra los Arborea, X, f. 4v-5v. 48 See in this regard a dialogue between King Alphonso IV and his wife about a conversation he had with representatives of Valencia, who were opposed to some territorial donations made by the sovereign in favour of his son, the Dauphin Ferran. The head of the Valencia’s delegation threatened to kill everyone present at the meeting except the King, the Queen and the Dauphin Ferran if he had been sentenced to death by the King for his opposition to royal provisions. In view of these statements, the Queen would say to her husband that her brother, the King of Castile, would decapitate all his subjects threatening him in this way. In response, Alphonso IV would have said: […] el nostre poble és franc, e no és així subjugat com és lo poble de Castella, car ells tenen anós com a senyor, e nós a ells com a bons vassalls e companyons. See: Ferran Soldevila, “Crònica de Pere el Cerimoniós…”, p. 1020.
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enjoy thanks to many institutions counterbalancing royal authority, such that they can be considered as the freest people in the world. The negative image that Catalan-Aragoneses had of Sardinians in the last years of the fourteenth century is confirmed by a document dated on July 1st, 1393 when King John I declared his happiness to Huguet de Just Sent, a Castel di Cagliari’s inhabitant, since he had known that several islanders – peoples and entire communities – had expressed the desire to submit themselves to his authority49. Even at this circumstance, a careful reading of single words used by the Aragonese king reveals how the identity-making profile of Sardinians had changed in a negative way for the rebellion against their natural lord. Urging them to improve their living conditions by achieving peace, John I spoke of sutzetat et opprobri de lur fama, hoping that in the future they would aim to ensure their salut et redempció by resuming royal obedience. Sutzetat et opprobri, were terms and concepts strongly negative in the sovereign’s eyes and they projected also, and above all, on the moral level the failures of which Sardinians were spotted at the legal level with their rebellion, overturning the coeval society’s order and not recognizing the naturalitas of the king’s domain. This image, expressing a morally negative identity of Sardinian rebels, can be better understood if one consider that John I had maintained, and possibly even enhanced, compared to his father, his own conception of royal sovereignty, endangered by various feudal uprisings during his kingdom, including also the endemic one of Arborea’s judges. This contrast between the Aragonese king and the Sardinian rulers and their subjects provides further details concerning the identity discourse explained by the king. On the one hand, the islanders – after acknowledging that their grans faltes comeses against the monarch and deciding to return to royal obedience – would experience a positive change of their status and identity, as they would have not been included anymore in the libre dels dampnats since they had supported the rebellion and treachery of the Judicate dynasty. On the contrary, they would have benefited from the memoria of the monarch’s loyal and faithful subjects. On the other hand, the king – whose image is fully positive, representing the Crown and his “legitimate” right – appears with feelings such as benignitat, gracia, merçè, mansuetud, paciencia and, finally, mercy.
49 ACA, C, Curiae sigilli secreti, reg. 1965, f. 72v-73r.
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At the same time, another echo of the capacity reached by John I’s power and of the limits imposed by his subjects can also be found in the Somnium super materia scismatis, composed between August and October 1394 by the poet Honorat Bovet. Here, the Aragonese king, in order to exonerate himself for having not worked hard enough to solve the problem of the Church’s division, clearly outlines the situation of his royalty and a detailed identitymaking profile of his subjects. With regard to his power’s capacity, the king considered it so strong as to make him in fact a sort of condominus rather than a king, with an allusion to the practice of Pactism with his Crown’s Estaments that he had to comply to, just as his predecessors: Et tu preterea non ignoras quod nos in regno nostro nec plene regimus nec regnamus […]. Sumus ergo rex per hunc modum: magis videmur consocii quam regnantes, adding furthermore etiam nos oportet de nobis querelantibus respondere50.
50 Giampaolo Mele, “Giovanni I d’Aragona, il Musico, tra cultura ‘cortese’, Scisma d’Occidente e la progettata spedizione contro gli Arborea”, Giudicato d’Arborea e Marchesato di Oristano: proiezioni mediterranee e aspetti di storia locale, Atti del 1° Convegno Internazionale di Studi (Oristano, 5-8 dicembre 1997) (Oristano: Istar, 2000), vol. 1, p. 736; Ivor Arnold, L’apparition Maistre Jehan de Meun et le ‘Somnium super materia scismatis’ d’Honoré Bonet (Paris: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Strasbourg, 1926), pp. 73-74. In the extensive bibliography on the royal power in the Crown of Aragon and also on Pactism see, among others: Miguel Ángel Ladero, “El ejercicio del poder real: instituciones e instrumentos de gobierno”, El poder real en la Corona de Aragón (Siglos XIV-XVI. XV Congreso de historia de la Corona de Aragón (Jaca, 20-25 de septiembre de 1993) (Zaragoza: Gobierno de Aragón, 1996), vol. 1/1, p. 97; Tomás de Montagut, “El renacimiento del poder legislativo y la Corona de Aragón (siglos XII-XV)”, Renaissance du Pouvoir Legislatif del l’État, André Gouron, Albert Rigaudière, dirs. (Montpellier: Société d’histoire du droit et des institutions des anciens pays de droit écrit, 1988), pp. 165-177; Bonifacio Palacios, “Los actos de coronación y el proceso de ‘secularizaciòn’ de la monarquia catalano-aragonesa (Siglos XIII-XIV)”, Actes du colloque organisé par le Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et la Casa de Velázquez (Madrid 30 novembre et 1er decembre 1984) (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1986); José Angel Sesma, “Todos frente al rey (la oposición al establecimiento de una monarquía centralizada en la Corona de Aragón a finales del siglo XIV)”, Genese médiévale de l’Espagne moderne. Du refus à la révolte: les resistances, Adeline Rucquoi, coord. (Nice: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de Nice, 1991), pp. 75-94; José Angel Sesma, “El poder real”, Ceremonial de consagración y coronación de los reyes de Aragón (Zaragoza: Diputación General de Aragón, 1992), vol. 2, pp. 85-102; Flocel Sabaté, “Discurs i estratègies del poder reial a Catalunya al segle XIV”, Anuario de estudios medievales, 25/2 (1995), pp. 617-646; Flocel Sabaté, “Municipio y monarquía en la
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These considerations attributed to John I are even more sad, if we consider that during the thirteenth century, with the incorporation of the regimen in regnum, throughout Europe the king had become the head of the politic body, and an agent of the progressive transformation of the immanent reality, while his executive role was growing even stronger. Regere was not, therefore, only correcting but also directing the crowd, unifying it by means of its directive force and leading it toward the good. The princeps assumed, therefore, a new and important mediating function between natural and spiritual needs of life according to the grace, and he guided his subjects’ actions towards a collective aim51. Bitterness, that of John I who thanks to the limits of his power shared with the Corts of his Kingdoms, reached an understanding of all his subjects in tones certainly not laudatory: greedies, covetous, intents only to accumulate wealth, careful to avoid wars and long trips: vivunt enim parce et cupide, ut mus montis; de ventre non curat dum aurum solum valeant congregare; suam terram invitissime transeunt, ut vitent expensas ; extra, non se cupiunt sequi guerram nec longa vel remota viagia visitare. Et si nos forsa in donis, ponpa et expensis contigerit occupari, nos sine metu arguere non verentur.
Such identity-making image of Catalans raises more than a concern, since we can hard share the description attributed by the poet Bovet to the Hunter. Accordingly, they would be reluctant to undertake wars and exploration voyages. How, then, to explain the continued expansion of the Aragonese Crown in the Mediterranean during two centuries of almost uninterrupted activity, when obvious reasons of the royal dynasty were united to private interests, and that was based on almost continuous military clashes with the main contenders not only in Europe? Cataluña bajomedieval”, Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval, 13 (2000-2002), pp. 252-282. 51 For more details on the sophisticated elaboration process of the ontological character of the princeps in this historical period, see: Michel Senellart, Les arts de gouverner. Du regimen médieval au concept de gouvernement (Paris: Seuil, 1995), pp. 4051, 125-128, 137, 151, 204-205; Walter Ullmann, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages. An Introduction to the sources of Medieval Political Ideas (London: Sources of History Limited, 1975), p. 78; Laurent Mayali, “De la juris auctoritas a la legis potestas. Aux origines de l’état de droit dans la science juridique medievale”, Droits savants et pratiques françaises du pouvoir (XIe-XVe siècles), Jacques Krynen, Albert Rigaudière, eds. (Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 1992), p. 136.
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As a poetic text, therefore, lacking historiographical aims since its author probably resided in Barcelona in 1392/1394, it is likely to reflect, at least in part, some opinions of the sovereign committed to defend his authority and autonomy from the emergence of feudalism and municipal governments as well as the growth of the Court’s circles closer to him. In fact, however, just the uncompromising work of John I intensified his adversaries’ action in order to influence the governmental activity of the monarchy, weakened by the policy of dissolving royal heritage and a lifestyle above his capacity. Everything favoured even more the development of the Pactist system, against which this sovereign took a strong position as he avulsed the prolonged times of parliamentary meetings52.
Conclusions The few examples of identity-making discourses examined in this work show the potential of reading traditional documentary sources, especially of those already published, in order to increase the range of interpretations proposed so far by historiography and to specify, at least in part, the model applied to the relationships between Sardinians and Catalan-Aragoneses. This is a relationship analysed mainly through institutional and economical categories, leaving in the background the numerous examination possibilities offered by a social sciences’ typical reading. And here, indeed, it takes shape in this work and in previous ones an even greater wealth of details available to the scholar for reconstructing motives, purposes and action methods of the late Middle Ages 52 Anton Luis González, “Sobre ‘poder y sociedad’. El poder real en la corona de Aragón (siglos XIV-XVI)”, XV Congreso de historia de la Corona de Aragón…, vol. I/1, pp. 303-304, 308-310. During his kingdom (1387-1396), John I attended for a short time, only at the end of the Montsó Corts celebrated by his father Peter IV between 1382 and 1384, and interrupted them definitively due to the invasion of the troops under Bernard d’Armagnac’s command. Following the threat of invasion, John I took the opportunity not to convoke never again the Corts because in the relationship with them he saw limited his power of action. See: Rafael Tasis, Joan I el rey caçador i músic (Barcelona: Editorial Aedos, 1959), pp. 172-175; Rafael Tasis, Pere el Cerimoniòs i el seus fills (Barcelona: Vicens Vices, 1980), pp. 172-173.
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Sardinian history’s protagonists, caught in the folds of individual documents, with a detailed analysis of the single terms that may be found in the sources. Here, again, the identity images are enriched with nuances: the images of not only the Judges of Arborea, engaged in a complex work of integration into a new social and cultural context – the CatalanAragonese society – which led them to try the development of a new dynastic and personal identity, proposing to replace the title of judges and requesting and obtaining the appointment as milites and the granting of nobility titles. Here, more images also appear such as those of Judical Sardinians and Regnum’s subjects engaged in an ethnic as well as military conflict. Next to them, we find a third type of Sardinians: the Barbaricini – now opponents of the Aragoneses and the Arboreas, now allies of the latter – whose expansion area once again raises historiographical problems not completely resolved on the true extent of the Judical domain and of the royal one in the internal areas of the island. All these examples, as well as many others that here cannot be treated in full, reaffirm the need for a deep re-reading of Sardinian history during the Middle Ages’ last two centuries; a reassessment that should be more attentive to documents’ content, and less inclined to build a priori interpretation models often used in modern political and nationalistic purposes. A re-reading that delivers to scholars and readers a Judicate of Arborea’s history without its laudatory tones, but that still puts greater emphasis on its nature of a unicum institutional framework in medieval Western Europe.
Annexe Bibliography Ivor Arnold, L’apparition Maistre Jehan de Meun et le ‘Somnium super materia scismatis’ d’Honoré Bonet (Paris: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Strasbourg, 1926), pp. 73-74. Ottavio Banti, Cronaca di Pisa di Ranieri Sardo (Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 1963).
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Prim Bertran, “La pretendida coronación de Juan I y el estamento nobiliario de la Corona de Aragón”, Hidalguía, 240 (1993), pp. 691-703. Francesco Cesare Casula, Carte reali diplomatiche di Giovanni I il cacciatore, re d’Aragona riguardanti l’Italia (Padova: Cedam, 1977). Francesco Cesare Casula, La Sardegna aragonese: 1. La Corona d’Aragona; 2. La Nazione sarda 2 vols. (Sassari: Chiarella, 1990). Francesco Cesare Casula, La Storia di Sardegna (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1994). Rafael Conde, Diplomatario aragonés de Ugone II de Arborea (Sassari: Fondazione Banco di Sardegna, 2005). Maria Eugenia Cadeddu, “L’espansione catalano-aragonese nel Mediterraneo: riflessi nella storiografia iberica contemporanea”, Quel mar che la terra inghirlanda. Studi mediterranei in ricordo di Marco Tangheroni, Franco Cardini, Maria Luisa Ceccarelli Lemut (Rome-Pisa: CNR-Pacini, 2007), pp. 149-156. Ugo Fabietti, L’identità etnica. Storia e critica di un concetto equivoco (Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica, 1995). Luciano Gallinari, “Guglielmo III di Narbona, ultimo sovrano d’Arborea, e la guerra dei Cent’anni”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 18 (1993), pp. 91-121. Luciano Gallinari, “Gli ultimi anni di esistenza del regno giudicale d’Arborea: riflessioni e prospettive di ricerca”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 25 (2002), pp. 155-190. Luciano Gallinari, “Alcuni ‘discorsi’ politici e istituzionali nello scontro tra Pietro IV d’Aragona e Mariano IV d’Arborea”, Sardegna e Mediterraneo tra Medioevo ed Età Moderna. Studi in onore di Francesco Cesare Casula, Maria Giuseppina Meloni, Olivetta Schena, eds. (Genova: Brigati, 2009), pp. 149-183. Luciano Gallinari, “Il Giudicato di Calari tra XI e XIII secolo. Proposte di interpretazioni istituzionali”, RiMe-Rivista dell’Istituto di Storia dell’Europa Mediterranea, 5 (2012), pp. 147-187. Luciano Gallinari, Una dinastia in guerra e un re descurat? I giudici d’Arborea e Giovanni I re d’Aragona (1379-1396) (Cagliari: CNR, Istituto di Storia dell’Europa mediterranea, 2013). Luciano Gallinari, “Discorsi identitari catalano-aragonesi e giudicali fra XIII e XV secolo: una chiave di lettura stimolante”, Identity, Memory and Ideology in the Middle Ages, Flocel Sabaté, ed. (forthcoming). Luciano Gallinari, “The legend of the Princess of Navarre. A founding myth for the dynastic identity of the Arborea judges in their political,
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military and ideological conflict against the kings of Aragon in the fourteenth century”, Identity, Memory and Ideology in the Middle Ages, Flocel Sabaté, ed. (forthcoming). Anton Luis González, Sobre “poder y sociedad”, El poder real en la corona de Aragón (siglos XIV-XVI), XV Congreso de historia de la Corona de Aragón (Jaca, 20-25 de septiembre de 1993) (Zaragoza: Gobierno de Aragón, 1996), vol.I/1, pp. 293-351. Ranieri de Granchi, “De proeliis Tusciae”, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Città di Castello: Lapi, 1915-1922), vol. XI/2. Karmela Liebkind, “Ethnic Identity. Challenging the Boundaries of Social Psychology”, Social Psychology of Identity and Self Concept, Glynis M. Breakwell ed. (London: Surrey University Press, 1992), pp. 147-185. Tiziana Mancini, Psicologia dell’identità etnica. Sé e appartenenze culturali (Rome: Carocci, 2006). Laurent Mayali, “De la juris auctoritas a la legis potestas. Aux origines de l’état de droit dans la science juridique medievale”, Droits savants et pratiques françaises du pouvoir (XIe-XVe siècles), Jacques Krynen, Albert Rigaudière, eds. (Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires, 1992), pp. 129-149. Giampaolo Mele, “Giovanni I d’Aragona, il Musico, tra cultura ‘cortese’, Scisma d’Occidente e la progettata spedizione contro gli Arborea”, Giudicato d’Arborea e Marchesato di Oristano: proiezioni mediterranee e aspetti di storia locale. Atti del 1° Convegno Internazionale di Studi (Oristano, 5-8 dicembre 1997) (Oristano: Istar, 2000) vol. 1, pp. 699-760. Tomás de Montagut, “El renacimiento del poder legislativo y la Corona de Aragón (siglos XII-XV)”, Renaissance du Pouvoir Legislatif del l’État, André Gouron, Albert Rigaudière, dirs. (Montpellier: Publications de la Société d’histoire du droit écrit et des institutions des anciens pays de droit écrit, 1988), pp. 165-177. Ramon Muntaner, Crònica’, Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. Ferran Soldevila (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1971), pp. 667-1000. Bonifacio Palacios, “Los actos de coronación y el proceso de ‘secu larización’ de la monarquía catalano-aragonesa (Siglos XIII-XIV)”, Actes du colloque organisé par le Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et la Casa de Velázquez (Madrid 30 novembre et 1er decembre 1984) (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1986), pp. 113-127.
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Flocel Sabaté, “Discurs i estratègies del poder reial a Catalunya al segle XIV”, Anuario de estudios medievales, 25/2 (1995), pp. 617-646. Flocel Sabaté, “Municipio y monarquía en la Cataluña bajomedieval”, Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval, 13 (20002002), pp. 252-282. Vicente Salavert, Cerdeña y la expansión mediterranea (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1956). Vicente Salavert, “Un nuevo documento para la historia de Cerdeña”, Studi storici in onore di Francesco Loddo Canepa (Firenze: Sansoni, 1959), vol. 2, pp. 301-303. Vicente Salavert, “Jaime II de Aragón y Ugone II de Arborea y la conquista de Cerdeña (sobre un nuevo documento)”, XIV Congresso di storia della Corona d’Aragona. La Corona d’Aragona in Italia (secc. XIII-XVIII): 1. Il “Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae” nell’espansione mediterranea della Corona d’Aragona (Sassari Alghero, 19-24 maggio 1990) (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1995), vol. II/2, pp. 757-767. Michel Senellart, Les arts de gouverner. Du regimen médieval au concept de gouvernement (Paris: Seuil, 1995). José Ángel Sesma, “Todos frente al rey (la oposición al establecimiento de una monarquía centralizada en la Corona de Aragón a finales del siglo XIV)”, Genese médiévale de l’Espagne moderne. Du refus à la révolte: les resistances, Adeline Rucquoi, coord. (Nice: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de Nice, 1991), pp. 75-94. José Ángel Sesma, “El poder real”, Ceremonial de consagración y coronación de los reyes de Aragón (Zaragoza: Diputación General de Aragón, 1992), vol. 2, pp. 85-102. Ferran Soldevila, “Crònica de Pere el Cerimoniós”, Les quatre grans cròniques (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1971), pp. 1001-1225. Rafael Tasis, Joan I el rey caçador i músic (Barcelona: Editorial Aedos, 1959). Rafael Tasis, Pere el Cerimoniòs i el seus fills (Barcelona: Vicens Vices, 1980). Pasquale Tola, Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna (Sassari: Carlo Delfino, 1984 [first edition: Codex Diplomaticus Sardiniae, Augusta Taurinorum, 1861]) [Presentation by Alberto Boscolo; Introduction by Francesco Cesare Casula].
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Walter Ullmann, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages. An Introduction to the sources of Medieval Political Ideas (London: Sources of History Limited, 1975). Paul Veyne, Comment on écrit l’histoire. Texte integral (Paris: Seuil, 1996). Giovanni Villani, Nuova Cronica, Giuseppe Porta, ed. (Parma: Guanda, 1990). Corrado Zedda, “La figura di Mariano IV d’Arborea attraverso la lettura dei Procesos contra los Arborea”, Quaderni Bolotanesi, 23 (1997), pp. 235-250.
The Battle of Sanluri in the process of recreating Sardinian identity Esther Martí CNR, Istituto di Storia dell’Europa Mediterranea
Introduction The Battle of Sanluri of 1409 represents one of the most critical moments of conflict that the Crown of Aragon maintained in Sardinia for the royal occupation and control of the island. For the Sardinian people, the battle represents, without a doubt, the hardest and most sorrowful expression of open conflict with the Crown of Aragon, which lasted almost from the Iberian troops arriving in Sardinia. First through clashes linked especially to the interests of Genoa and the Malaspina and Doria families, thereafter, from 1353 by means of an open war with the house of Arborea, from which the Sanluri chapter represents a definitive turning point in favour of the Catalan-Aragonese1. The harsh defeat of the Arborean troops – Catalan documentation speaks of five to seven thousand killed in battle, in addition to another thousand people who died in the defence of the town of 1
There was another conflict, defined as a second battle near the city of Oristano, which Catalan sources say was another great victory. In any case, the conflict between the parties continued, and by means of mediation and pacts, in 1410 an agreement with was reached with Leonard Cubell, based on which Oristano, much of Campidano, Goceano and Milis would be converted into territory of the Crown, abolishing the title of Giudice of Arborea. There was still standing conflict with the Viscount of Narbonne, who continued to control Sassari and Logudoro. This would be accompanied with an agreement to sell his rights in 1420. See: Luisa d’Arienzo, “La Battaglia di Sanluri e il suo contesto storico”, La batalla de Sent Luri. Textos y documentos (Oristano: S’Aluvre, 1997), pp. 24-27; Alessandra Cioppi, Battaglie e protagonisti della Sardegna medioevale (Cagliari: AM&D Edizioni, 2008), pp. 111-120. For an overview of the events in Sardinia since the arrival of the Catalan-Aragonese until the Battle of Sanluri, see: Francesco Cesare Casula, Profilo storico della Sardegna catalano-aragonese (Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre, 1982), pp. 19-78.
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Sanluri2 – and the almost immediate death of Martin the Younger, have made this macabre scenario a place of remembrance for the Sardinian people and an event which, remembered throughout the ages, has been transformed into a container of various elements that are essential for the formation of the Sardinian identity. In this spirit, much of contemporary historiography has described the consequences of this battle as crucial to the fate of Giudicato of Arborea and its ideale nazionalistico di una Sardegna tutta sarda3 (“nationalist ideal of a fully Sardinian Sardinia”). To this end, this study will analyse how this conflict has been viewed from medieval sources to the present, illustrating the use that this battle has made. The virtual absence of Sardinian sources during the Middle Ages is well known, a fact that contrasts with the large amount of documentation generated by the Crown of Aragon, the result of an articulated bureaucracy, which has enabled it being consulted over the centuries4. This undoubtedly influences the perception of the conflict and how it has been viewed and treated by the chroniclers and historians throughout the centuries, which of course influences the perception and in the use that has been made of the battle – and is being made – in recent times. The classic Catalan sources dealing with aspects related to the Battle of Sanluri are well known and at first revolve mainly around the letters sent or received by King Martin the Elder, before moving on to a series of texts, largely based on the documents from the Archive of the Crown of Aragon5. Moreover, the battle of Sanluri occupies a special place – that we explain later – in the formation of a national Sardinian consciousness, which began in the late 18th century, with a feudal revolt led by Giovanni Maria Angioy6, which also presents a remarkable ideological burden. Thus, it would be with Ottocento, a compact group of Sardinian intellectuals that started concerning themselves with the preparation of a history for 2 3
4 5 6
Luisa d’Arienzo, “La Bataglia di Sanluri…”, pp. 19-20. Francesco Cesare Casula, “Ricerche archivistiche sulla battaglia di Sanluri del 1409”, Studi storici in onore di Giovanni Todde. Archivio Storico Sardo (Cagliari: Deputazione di storia patria per la Sardegna, 1986), p. 124. Luisa d’Arienzo, “La Bataglia di Sanluri…”, p. 15. All these types of documents have been compiled by Rafael Conde in his work: Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…. Marisa Cocco-Angioy, Giovanni Maria Angioy e l’insurrezione della Sardegna (Cagliari: Pisano, 1985).
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Sardinia, a phenomenon, which by means of the works of Manno, Martini, Tola, among others, encouraged a growing audience to read books on Sardinian arguments. It would be during the mid 19th century, when after the disappointment of the Falsi d’Arborea7, the Sardinian intellectual class begins to transform this cultural nationalism into vindication with political touches, trying to give its people the prestige and standing which, from its point of view, history had taken away. The first voices that together with the construction of a unitary state were born, pointing to the specificity of Sardinia. A specificity felt like a identifying act, that collects national consciousness, following a process of global influence, drawing largely on a discourse of purity of traditions and race, while looking past those elements that might appear in the eyes of the men of cultures less polluted, less touched by the “invader” historical constant. During the time of the birth of Partito Sardo d’Azione (1921), the agricultural cooperatives, which would lead to greater demand for federalism on the one hand and autonomy on the other 8, until reaching an independence discourse, linked at certain points to Lilliu intellectual thinking, and the idea of constant Sardinian resistance that it derived 9. For this reason, we must talk about the recreation the Sardinian identity, given that in the vague and lengthy process of creating an identity10 for the Sardinian case, we must take into account how this process affected such factors as a change of dynasty from the Spanish Crown to the House of Savoy under the Treaty of London in 1718, which involved changes in the management of the kingdom, the institutions, and the way of relating 7
Luciano Marrocu, “Fantasie di grandezza: Pietro Martini e i falsi d’Arborea”, La perdita del Regno. Intellettuali e costruzione dell’identità sarda tra Ottocento e Novecento (Rome: Riuniti, 1995), pp. 44-54. 8 Luciano Marrocu, “La‘Nazione sarda’ in età contemporanea”, Quaderni bolotanesi, 19 (1993), pp. 159-163. 9 Antonello Mattone, “Prefazione”, La costante resistenziale sarda (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2002), pp. 80-88. 10 The study of identity has become a prism where we find the explanation of different destabilizing agents of society for the development of an identity that involves disseminating a certain theory of values to be applied in a community, creating groups of solidarity and a discourse of unity-otherness of a shared memory and justifying ideology. See: Flocel Sabaté, “Identitats”, Identitats, Flocel Sabaté, dir. (Lleida: Pagès Editors, 2012), p. 20.
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to the power11. Nevertheless, more than this, we must surely take into account the importance the Sardinian people exercised, especially in the 19th century, with the birth of nationalist hopes. The creation of an intellectual class would begin to develop a discourse that linked the Sardinian “purity” factor, whether cultural, material, spiritual, and physical, factors opposed to invaders. Hence, a remarkable change arose in the perception of identity, denying and almost demonizing any element linked to the different cultures that had occupied the island for centuries, inevitably taking much of the “blame” to atone the Catalan-Aragonese period and the subsequent Spanish period. Therefore, in this process of the recreation of the Sardinian identity – which would not always be accompanied by a conscious dissertation of the elements spread in Sardinia by Iberian culture that later became part of Sardinian culture, which they felt were their own12– the role played by the Battle of Sanluri and above all of the facts derived from it, has been and remains one of the central pillars.
1. The Battle of Sanluri and the visions given by historiography There are different elements in the descriptions that we have received throughout history, treated skilfully by the island’s intellectual class, which united with the discursive strength of the non-commutable historical facts, which have contributed to the Battle of Sanluri being one of the essential elements in the puzzle of Sardinian identity and a symbol of independence for the Sardinian nation. 11 At an institutional level this treaty ended four hundred years of Sardinia b elonging to the Crown of Aragon. However, the Duke of Savoy would commit to preser ving the legal and institutional Iberian footprint on the island. See: Lluis Guia, “Un regno senza parlamenti al crocevia della guerra di successione spagnola”, Il regno di Sardegna in età moderna. Saggi diversi, Francesco Manconi, ed. (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2010), pp. 128-129. 12 See for example certain religious invocations, the influences on folklore, in the kitchen, or in the language: Ester Martí, “Ideology and identity of urban oligarchies in late medieval Sardinia”, Identity, Memory and Ideology in Middle Ages, Flocel Sabaté, dir. (forthcoming).
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Thus, among the documents of the Royal Chancery concerning this battle and its consequences, the ones studied by Rafael Conde are truly interesting, the majority of letters being from Martin the Humane regarding these facts. Among these, some concepts associated with the Sardinians stand out, such as nuestros rebelles (“our rebels”), or a nación sardesca traydora e rebelle (“treacherous and rebellious Sardinian nation”), or the Sardinians movidos por folla audacia e presumpción temeraria (“driven by wild audacity and reckless presumption”), or the need de domar la superbia de los ditos sardos (“to subdue the arrogance of such Sardinian”), thus justifying the attack and the subsequent looting of Sanluri as divine will13. This documentation undoubtedly contributed to the viewpoint of historians and Sardinian historiography to create a somewhat anti-Catalan sentiment, reinforcing the idea of a free Sardinian kingdom, completely opposed to the idea of the Catalan sovereignty reflected in these letters sent communicating the victory in this battle, which enabled the total aquisició e recuperació del dit regne de Serdenya (“complete acquisition and recovery of this kingdom of Sardinia”)14. On the other hand, Zurita pointed out in his Annals how important this victory was for the Crown of Aragon; Fue esta victoria de las muy señaladas y famosas que hubo en aquellos tiempos por parecer que se restituía con ella al rey la posesión de aquel reino que tanto tiempo había sido rebelde (“So celebrated and famed was this victory that it seemed then to bring back under the king’s control that kingdom which had long been rebellious”)15. Zurita also quoted Pedro Tomich, added that the participation of the Catalan nobility in this company was great, rousing patriotic interest in this argument – no quedó casa en Cataluña de la cual no interviniese algún caballero (“there was no home in Catalonia which some knight did not wade in”) – thus with este socorro los que estaban en los castillos de Cáller y del Alguer y Longosardo se ripararono de los trabajos y fatigas que habían pasado defendiéndose siempre de los enemigos con gran esfuerzo y constancia como muy fieles (“with such support those who were in the castles of Cagliari, Alghero and Longosardo recovered from the troubles and hardship they had gone through, always defending 13 Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, pp. 34, 36, 40, 64. 14 Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, p. 44. 15 Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón (Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 1978), vol. 4, p. 916.
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themselves against the enemies with great effort and perseverance as well as with great loyalty”)16. The bloody battle was, in the eyes of the Spanish historiography of the 16th century, more than justified, because: entendiendo el rey de Sicilia que los sardos estaban muy obstinados en su rebelión y que el vizconde de Narbona y Branca de Oria tenían gran multitud de gente y esperaban cada día nuevo socorro de genoveses, determinó de salir a darles la batalla […]17 (“King of Sicily, seeing that the Sardinians were very determined in their rebellion and that the viscount of Narbonne and Branca de Oria had great crowd of people and was waiting any day new rescues from the Genoeses, he resolved to give battle out”). On the other hand, it was one of the cruellest battles that occurred on the island, due to both the number of deaths18, as well as the ruthless repression the Catalan-Aragonese troops exercised on the population of Sanluri, judging by the documentation. Fara pointed this out in the late 16th century: […] gli Aragonesi respinsero il visconte di Narbona, lo sconfissero e devastaraono l’isola mettendola a soqquadro […], conquistato il vilaggio di Sanluri e pressa la rocca, senza far distinzione di sesso e di età ne truccidarono tutti gli abitanti19 (“[…] The Aragonese fought the viscount of Narbonne off, they defeated him and devastated the island by creating havoc […], they captured the v illage of Sanluri and, once the castle was taken, they slaughtered all the residents with no distinction of sex or age”).
16 Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón…, vol. 4, pp. 913-914. 17 Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón…, vol. 4, p. 914. 18 There is no unity in the number of deaths. The Dietari of Barcelona and Zurita spoke of some 5000, Alpartil more than 8000, Tomic and Turell between 6000 and 7000, Carbonell 7000. See: Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, p. 128. The figures, while markedly rounded in their favour by Iberian historiography, nonetheless denote a gruelling confrontation between the two armies and a remarkable attachment of the Sardinian population to the Arborense cause, in a type of opposition between peoples, in which the giudicali Sardinians saw one of the few possibilities to preserve their culture facing a pitched battle against the Catalan-Aragonese, under the direction of William of Narbonne, heir to the House of Arborea. See: Luciano Gallinari, “Gli ultimi anni di esistenza del Regno giudicale d’Arborea: riflessioni e prospettive di ricerca”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 25 (2002), pp. 184-185. 19 Ioanis Francisci, Opera. De rebus Sardois (Sassari: Gallizzi, 1992), vol. 3, p. 117.
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Thus, with regard to the repression suffered by this Arborense population after the defeat, the harshness of the army’s burden on Sanluri must be pointed out, where they killed all the inhabitants who could not be useful for work, while others were enslaved20. Sardinian historiography has treated this favourably for the most part since the beginning of the 18th century, using it as one of the main aspects, as of the next century, which is based on the ideological discourse of the loss the kingdom from Sardinian hands, passing it to the hands of a invader branded ruthless and merciless. Thus, Giuseppe Manno in his Storia di Sardegna of principles from the 19th century proves that la terra di Sanluri andava a sacco con novella strage di mille di quei popolani, ed occupavasi dai vincitori la possessione di quel castello21 (“the land of Sanluri was looted with new massacre of a thousand of its inhabitants, and the winners took control of the castle”). Tola, for whom this battle was infamous for the many wounds and blood it cost to Sardinia22, noted, Nel 30 giugno del 1409 s’ingaggiò la battaglia, e fu combattuta con tanto ardore, che per quei tempi e pel numero dei combatenti e dei morti, fu una delle più micidiali e più sanguinose (“In June 30, 1409, the battle began and it was fought with such ardor that, by the number of fighters and deaths, it was one of the most fatal and bloodiest at that times”). He added, referring to the harsh repression: la barbara insolenza dei vincitori passò poi a fil di spada, senza distinzione di sesso o di età, gl’innocui abitanti di Sanluri23 (“the barbarous insolence of the victors then put to the sword the harmless inhabitants of Sanluri with no distinction of sex or age”). We must highlight the fact that this matter was explained in the letters sent by King Martin the Elder to various members of the monarchy reporting on the success of the battle. For the monarch, the harsh repression is a true execution and extermination against the nación sardesca, with la ayuda de nuestro senyor Dios24. The elder sovereign tells us that
20 Francesco Cesare Casula, “Gli schiavi sardi della battaglia di Sanluri del 1409”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 15 (1990), p. 11. 21 Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1996), p. 125. 22 Pasquale Tola, Dizionario biografico degli uomini illustri di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2001), vol .1, p. 59. 23 Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico della Sardegna (Sassari: Delfino 1984-1985), vol. 2, p. 9. 24 Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, p. 42.
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the Aragonese troops entered Sanluri by force of arms and were morts e tallats tots los hòmens que dins la dita vila en deffensió de aquella foren atrobats, e menades les dones en perpètua servituts catius en la dita ciutat de Càller25 (“killed and cut all the men who were found defending the town, and reduced women to perpetual servitude, captives in the mentioned city of Cagliari”). In a response letter to his son, King Martin of Sicily, where the father was pleased with him for the success of his company and for being terrible lamp als rebelles, dels quals fort gran part han portat la pena que mereixeien (“dreadful lightning to the rebels, those who have already received much deserved punishment”) however, he reminds him that he must be a just judge, harshly punishing the guilty and not being excessive with those who were not directly at fault, but without being too magnanimous to prevent future riots26. The battle meant, then, a humiliating defeat (judging by the Catalan documentation), and the beginning of the end of Giudicato di Arborea27. This fact was experienced by the Sardinian village as a humiliation for the loss of the “state”, especially at the hands of the heir of the House of Arborea, the Viscount of Narbonne, who sells Sassari and Logudoro, together with his dynastic rights to Alfonso the Magnanimous in 1420, after years of negotiations28. Therefore, we must take into consideration another feeling that lasted in the memory of most of the Sardinian people after this defeat and its inevitable consequences, a sense of discouragement due to years of war and internal factional divisions obviously playing in favour of the Iberian monarchy. Boscolo pointed out how Martin the Younger’s troops were well informed in the days preceding the Battle of Sanluri with regard to the strong internal Arborean divisions, through Sardinian prisoner statements made in an initial skirmish near the Castle of Omonimo. According to them, they stated that their people, divided and tired of the disaster of continued 25 Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, p. 50. 26 Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri…, p. 104. 27 Concerning the consequences of the Battle of Sanluri, the Catalan-Aragonese expansion and the giudicali troop resistance, see: Francesco Cesare Casula, Profilo storico della Sardegna…, pp. 83-106; Bruno Anatra, “La Sardegna aragonese: istituzioni e società”, Storia della Sardegna. Dalle origini al Settecento, Brigaglia Manlio, Mastino Attilio, Giacomo Ortu, eds. (Rome: Editori Laterza, 2006), vol. 1, pp. 155-157, 159-160. 28 Francesco Cesare Casula, Profilo storico della Sardegna…, pp. 104-105.
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war, were not always willing to obey their leaders. These factions among the Sardinian supporters of peace and those who wished to continue the war, Boscolo further explains, would well continue being present for years to come, thus obligating the Marquis of Oristano to perform a complicated policy balance between the parties 29. Thus, all these factors have also entailed interest in this battle and its consequences by different Sardinians authors, from those considered classics to what we have today. Thus, one of the first works to consider is the Memoria de las cosas que han acontecido en algunas partes del reino de Cerdeña, by an anonymous author. It is a chronicle of facts and legends that occurred on the island between 1005 and 1479. We have not received the original, which scholars date around the late 15th century, and was written using Sardinian, Italian and Catalan sources. The current copy is from the late 16th century in Spanish, and is an accumulation of facts, with no apparent previous design. It is curious that it does not compile the facts of the Battle of Sanluri. In fact, there is a notation next to the copy, made by another hand, which reads: Falta aquí una hoja que debía reseñar la campaña del rey Martín de Sicilia ¡Es lástima! (“What lacks here is a page that should review the campaign of King Martin of Sicily. What a shame!”). Maninchedda, who has studied and published the report, hypothesizes that this knowledgeable about the history of Sardinia could be a scholar from Cagliari during the late 19th century30. Moreover, Vico, in his General History of the Island and Kingdom of Sardinia, of 1639, offers a rather favourable vision of Aragon, where 29
Alberto Boscolo, “L’impresa di Martino il Giovane in Sardegna”, Medioevo Aragonese (Padova: Cedam, 1958), pp. 31, 33-35. Antonio Caldarella, moreover, points out how the Sardinians: erano discordi fra di loro e che, malgrado gli ordini del visconte di Narbona e del suo Capitano, preferivano andare a mietere e a occuparsi delle faccende domestiche, anziché impegolarsi in una lotta di dubbio risultato e comunque di sola utilità per gli stranieri (“they disagreed among themselves and that, despite the orders of Viscount of Narbonne and his captain, they preferred to go harvesting and to do housewok, rather than engaging in a struggle of uncertain outcome and, anyway, only useful for foreigners”). Antonino Caldarella, L’impresa di Martino I, re di Sicilia in Sardegna (a. 1408-1409) (Palermo: Presso l’Accademia, 1954), p. 74. 30 Paolo Maninchedda, Memoria de las cosas que han aconteçido en algunas partes del reino de Cerdeña (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2000), pp. 18-19.
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he makes many praises to King Martin of Sicily, fue tan valeroso por si mismo, y peleò tan valientemente (“was so brave for himself, and fought so valiantly”). However, he speaks of five thousand dead, and the rigour of the repression in the village: […] fuese siguiendo el alcance por la cavalleria hasta encerrar los que huian en Monreal; y en este interin los infantes combatieron el lugar de San Luri, y le entraron, exercitando en los vencidos todo rigor, quitandoles las vidas, sin perdonar estado, sexo, ni edad, y despues se les assolò el castillo y el pueblo: el mismo rigor se usò con algunos de los presos, que conocidos por parciales en la rebelion de Branca Oria, todos fueron passados a cuchillo Genoveses, y Sardos31. he was following the enemy with cavalry to sizing up those who were fleeing towards Monreal, and at the same time infants were fighting in the place of Sanluri, where they burst into exercising rigorously over the vanquished, taking away the lives, sparing no status, sex, or age, and then they attacked the castle and the village. The same rigor was used with some of the prisoners, who were accused of bias in the rebellion of Branca Oria, all Sardinians and Genoeses were then put to the sword.
He continues with the statement that: Fue esta victoria la más señalada en el mundo, y sus efectos fueron no solo la recuperacion de Sardeña, y Corcega, pero la restauracion de toda Italia, que quedó asombrada de tener cabe si Rey tan poderoso, tan guerrero, tan valeroso por su persona, tan prudente, y tan mancebo32. This victory was the most marked in the world and its effects were not only the regaining of Sardinia and Corsica, but the restoration of all Italy, who was amazed to have a king so powerful, such a warrior, so courageous, so wise and so young.
With these ostentatious words, Manno describes Leonardo Cubello’s submission to the Crown of Aragon after his sedition in the area of Oristano, thus continuing the war after the death of the young king: Leonardo Cubello calava finalmente a sottomettersi ad emichevole concordia. Con quesa abolivasi perpetuamente il nome infausto per gli Aragonesi di giudice di Arborea. […] in tal maniera il giudicato di Arborea, che solo soprastava alla ruina
31 Francisco de Vico, Historia general de la isla y reyno de Sardeña (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2004), vol. 5, p. 122. 32 Francisco de Vico, Historia general…, vol. 5, p. 122.
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degli altri stati dell’isola, cadeva per sempre; abbenchè non mai tanto potente e tanto illustre, quanto nell’ultimo periodo della sua esistenza33. Leonardo Cubello at last gave in to submit himself to a friendly agreement. With this, it disappeared perpetually for the Aragoneses the ominous name of judge of Arborea […] in this way, the Giudicato of Arborea, which only led to the destruction of the other states of the island, fell apart forever, even though they had never been so powerful and so illustrious as in the last period of its life.
The cultural renaissance of Sardinia in Ottocento, following the global lines of independence of peoples and the discovery of nations as well as the appreciation of what is popular and indigenous as something of value, which entailed the creation of a Sardinian historiography that moved in this direction. The measured words of Baron Manno, as a man of the court and mediator that he was, became much more forceful opinions in the mouth of Tola, undoubtedly one of the other great historians who would create school in Sardinian Ottocento. In his Codice Diplomatico words such as independence, freedom and causa nazionale dei sardi (“national cause of Sardinians”) when referring to Arboreans and the Sardinians, are opposed to expressions like stranieri conquistatori (“foreign conquerors”), ambitious, violators of pacts, prepotente cupidigia degl’invasori e spogliatori aragonesi (“arrogant greed of Aragonese invaders and thieves”), referring to the latter34. Moreover, contemporary historiography commonly uses the term independence, and the loss of it, linked to the Battle of Sanluri. Thus, Boscolo wrote in relation to the situation of no return that would lead to the inevitable armed conflict of 1409: La guerra fra i Sardi dell’Arborea e gli Aragonesi, da tempo in lotta, gli uni per l’independenza, gli altri per il possesso dell’isola, riprese […] più accanita di prima ed è noto altresì che, morto Giovanni I nel 1396, Martino il Vecchio, suo successore, si trovò in Sardegna di fronte a una situazione molto difficile35. The war between Araborea’s Sardinians and Aragon, long engaged in fighting, the ones for independence, the others for possession of the island, resumed more unrelenting than before, and it is also known that, following the death of John I in 1396, Martin the Elder, his successor, found in Sardinia a very difficult situation.
33 Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna…, pp. 126-127. 34 Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico…, pp. 7, 11. 35 Alberto Boscolo, “Documenti sulle guerre tra l’Arborea e l’Aragona all’epoca di Martino Il Vecchio”, Medioevo Aragonese (Padova: Cedam, 1958), p. 17.
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Always in the same publication, the historian, reproducing the text of Scano, presents the arrival of the Viscount of Narbonne to the government of the House of Arborea after the death of the successors of the giudichessa Eleonor in this way: Brancaleone Doria, come è noto, tentò di assumere il governo del giudicato di Arborea, ma non vi riuscì. Venne preferito dai Sardi del giudicato un parente di Eleonora, il visconte di Narbona Guglielmo III, che continuò la guerra contro l’Aragona e tenne vivi gli ideali di indipendenza36. Brancaleone Doria, as is well known, tried to take over the government of the Giudicato of Arborea, but did not succeed. Sardinians of the Giudicato preferred a relative of Eleanor, the Viscount of Narbonne William III, who continued the war against Aragon and kept alive the ideals of independence.
2. “Sa batalla” among legends and places of remembrances The Battle of Sanluri has been lived throughout the centuries as a t raumatic event for the Sardinian people, and as an element of remembrance, linked to the death of young King Martin the Younger and the disappearance of the House of Aragon, for the Catalan-Aragonese. It seems inevitable, then, that this battle is related to a whole series of legends, with a veil of mystery accompanying this historic moment that sealed the fate of two peoples, allocating them to be one for a long time. 36 Alberto Boscolo, “Documenti sulle guerre tra l’Arborea…”, p. 21; Dionigi Scano, “Serie cronologica dei giudici sardi”, Archivio storico sardo, 21/3-4 (1939), pp. 8384. Luisa d’Arienzo wrote: Guglielmo III non rinunciò ai suoi diritti ereditari e continuò ad intitolarsi giudice d’Arborea e a portare avanti la ribellione, con l’appoggio dei sardi che ancora speravano nell’indipendenza dall’Aragona […]. Si spensero, così, per i sardi che avevano risposto la loro fiducia nel nobile francese, le speranze di conseguire l’indipendenza dai nuovi dominatori (“William III did not renounce to his hereditary rights and persisted in keeping the title of Judge of Arborea and carried on the rebellion with the support of the Sardinians who still hoped in the independence from Aragon […]. For the Sardinians who had put their trust in the French nobleman, the hopes of achieving independence from the new rulers ultimately fade out”). See: Luisa d’Arienzo, Documenti sui visconti di Narbona e la Sardegna (Padova: Cedam, 1977), vol. 1, pp. 20-21.
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Thus, Zurita, concerning the death of Martin the Younger, noted the imprudence of allowing the heir to direct the battle, risking his life, whether in the field, or by the risky Sardinian climate: Aunque importaba mucho a la autoridad y reputación del rey que la isla de Cerdeña se redujese a su obediencia y saliese de la sujección de los que la tenían tiranizada, todavía le pareció que se aventuraba mucho en poner el rey su hijo su persona a tanto peligro así de los enemigos como de la región y aire de la isla siendo tan pestilente; y envióle a decir que consideresase que aunque Cerdeña importaba tanto a la Corona de Aragón no se debía por ella poner todo el resto en tanta aventura, y que era pescar con anzuelo de oro37. Although it was very important for the authority and reputation of the king that the island of Sardinia subjected itself to his obedience and release itself from the rule of those who had tyrannized it, the king thought it was risky to expose his heir to such danger as the one of the enemy and of the region and the air of the island, being so pestilent, and he sent him away to show that he considered that although Sardinia mattered so much to the Crown of Aragon, it was not due for her to put all the rest in such an adventure, as it was like fishing with gold hooks.
Zurita, always in his Annals, explains by reviewing the causes according to different authors that could cause the death of the young king: Estando en la mayor fiesta y regocijo de la victoria que aquel príncipe hubo de sus enemigos, adoleció de calenturas; y aunque a 21 de julio pareció que estaba mejor del accidente, se agravó de suerte que murió dentro de cuatro días en la fiesta de Santiago: y según Tomich y otros escriben fue su mal de una fiebre pestilencial, aunque Lorenzo Valla afirma que no se pudo atribuir a la contagión del aire, pues ninguno de los suyos adoleció de aquella dolencia. Martín de Alpartil añade otra causa por donde le sobrevino la muerte: que creyendo que había convalecido, le llevaron por complacerle una doncella sarda de Sant Luri, que era hermosísima, y siendo muy rendido a aquel vicio, le acabó la vida38. While celebrating and rejoicing the victory that the prince won over his enemies, he felt ill with fever and, although on July 21 he seemed to be better, he got worse and died within four days, the day of Saint James. According to Tomich, and others writing, his illness was a pestilential fever, although Lorenzo Valla argues that it could not be attributed to the air infection as none of his suffered from the same. Martin de Alpartil added another cause for his death: that, believing he was recovered, to please
37 Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón…, vol. 4, p. 912. 38 Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón…, vol. 4, p. 918.
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him they brought in a Sardinian maiden from Sanluri, who was very beautiful and, being much exhausted by that vice, it took his life.
Turning to the Sardinian authors, Fara in the late 16th century, using the same sources as Zurita, Lucio Marineo and Tarafa, wrote that the heir of Martin the Humane died: […] spossato dalle fatiche della guerra o, forse, dai troppo frequenti rapporti con una bellissima donna sarda, colto da febbri […], fu sepolto con solenni onoranze nella cattedrale di Cagliari ove anco oggi riposa39 (“tired by the fatigues of war or, perhaps, because of too frequent dealings with a very beautiful Sardinian woman, seized with fever […], he was buried with solemn honors in the cathedral of Cagliari, where he still rests today”). Vico, in his General History of the Island and Kingdom of Sardinia, of 1639, describes the king’s death as follows: […] le falteó un achaque de calenturas que a los 21 de luglio parece que le dexaró, y por festejarle la salud escogieron los suyos de entre los despojos de S. Luri una donzella hermosissima, que con el imperio de su singular belleza, se eximio del cuchillo, que a todos degolló, y fuera mejor que no le eximiera, porque aunque sin culpa suya lo fue de su Rey: claro está, que sus privados no le llevaron la donzella para el mal efecto que sucedio: pero medios ilicitos nunca prometen mejores fines, y mas quando la incontinencia del Principe estava no poco conocida. En fin creyéndole sus privados convalecido, y el animoso contra su salud se entregó tan rendido a la donzella, que le acabó la vida 40. had an ailment of fever and it seemed to have improved on 21 July, and for celebrating his health, his own selected a beautiful maiden among the spoils of Sanluri who, thanks to her unique beauty, escaped the knife that killed all the others; and, it would have been better not to spare her as, even though it was not his fault, it was of her king. It is clear that the king’s closest men did not bring him the maiden to cause what happened, but illicit means never promise better purposes, and especially when the Prince’s lack of control was well known. Finally, although the king’s men thought he had recovered, the king acting against his health was so intimately taken by the maiden that this led him to death.
Vico continues with: otros dan otras causas, y algún mal afecto a Sardeña lo atribuye a su aire no sano, a quien satisfaze Laurencio Vala diziendo: que no se pudo atribuir a la contagion del aire, porque solo él fue 39 Ioanis Francisci, Opera. De rebus…, vol. 3, p. 119. 40 Francisco de Vico, Historia general…, p. 122.
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el enfermo entre todo un exercito41 (“others provide different causes, and some malicious not keen on Sardinia blames the unhealthy air of the island, to whom contradict Lorenzo Valla saying that it could not be attributed to an air infection, because only the king fell ill amongst an army”). An interesting view, with an inevitable romantic touch, which Manno provided us with, who knew the work of Fara and Zurita on this matter. From their point of view the young Martin is presented as a virtuous hero, courageous, but unable to forgo inappropriate vices and passions, as he had done abundantly in precedence in his Sicilian territories, passions that, not knowing how to contain them and consequently not having fully recovered from an illness, would lead inevitably to his death. It is here that the figure of the bella di Sanluri (“the beauty of Sanluri”) appears, defined by Manno as a beautiful maiden, for which the young king loses his head, and life, abusing the pleasure42. Manno continues his reflection with an affirmation that seems valuable to our discourse: Morì pertanto D. Martino lagrimato dai suoi Siciliani non meno che dai Catalani e dai Sardi; i quali nella di lui gioventù e prodezza riconoscevano gli auspizi di grande incremento per i reali d’Aragona43 (“Thus he died, Martin wept by his Sicilians no less than by the Catalans and the Sardinians, who in his youth and prowess recognized the beginnings of a large increase for the crown of Aragon”). See how the author indistinctly refers to the Sardinians a few lines below in the same way, without differentiating between Sardinians that are loyal subjects of
41 Francisco de Vico, Historia general…, pp. 122-123. 42 Il giovanetto principe colle virtù degli eroi, aveva eziandio alcune delle ordinarie loro fiacchezze. Le di lui passioni erano talmente smodate, che famose erano diventate in Sicilia le sue dissolutezze. E più famose restar dovevano in Sardegna; poiché presentatasi a lui, mentre non era pienamente riscosso da una infermità sopportata nel suo ritorno a Cagliari, una donzella del luogo debellato di Sanluri di forme leggiadrissime, tanto perdutamente in lei s’invaghì, che egli trovò nell’abuso il termine dei piaceri (“The young prince by the virtues of the heroes also had some of their common weaknesses. His passions were so extravagant that his debaucheries had become famous in Sicily. And, they must remain more famous in Sardinia as showing up before the king, while he was not fully recovered from an illness endured in his return to Cagliari, a maiden of the defeated place of Sanluri, very beautiful, he fell for her so desperately that he found in the abuse the end of his pleasure”). See: Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna…, pp. 125-126. 43 Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna…, p. 126.
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the Crown of Aragon and those belonging to the territories of Arborea, often called nazionali or provinciali44. Boscolo, in his work on the legends that circulated around the king, pointed out how soon after the death of Martin the Younger, a legend was born out of his disappearance and the causes that had produced it, which lasted over the centuries as the Legenda della Bella di Sanluri. Thus, from Alpartil, Valla and Zurita, and Fara and Manno subsequently, the tradition was formed of the death of the young king, by the abuse of love45. Regarding the Sanluri beauty, Tola says the king’s unbridled passions and illicit abuse of love caused his immature death46. The same vision of his death is offered by Della Marmora, of a king who morì pochi giorni dopo in conseguenza dei suoi eccessi amorosi (“he died a few days later as a result of the excesses of love”), retaking the figure of Bella di Sanluri, a hero unjustly forgotten by history, in his words, because other weapons managed to avenge their compatriots47. More cautious, Spano wrote: Spirò in Cagliari giorni appresso del suo trionfo, chi dice di malattia d’intemperie, chi d’abuso di piaceri48 (“He died in Cagliari days after his triumph, who says beacause of mal air, who because of pleasure abuse”). It is interesting that some of the foreign travellers who visited the island in the 19th century have also left their impression on the Battle of Sanluri and especially about the death of the young Sicilian monarch, where the figure of the beauty of Sanluri occupies a central role, as a heroine. Among them, Vuiller in 1843, wrote: Gli annali del patriottismo sardo celebrano una singolare Giuditta: la bella di Sanluri, che giurò la morte del re don Martino. Siccome questa strana eroina aveva orrore del sangue, è con le frecce di Cupido ch’ella provò a liberare il paese e vi riuscì. Don Martino morì fra le sue braccia, d’amore e di sfinimento49.
44 Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna…, pp. 125-126. 45 Alberto Boscolo, “Leggende su Martino il giovane”, La politica italiana di Martino il Vecchio re d’Aragona (Padova: Cedam, 1962), pp. 149. 46 Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico della Sardegna…, p. 10. Although in its opera (Pasquale Tola, Dizionario biografico…, p. 59), it is said that the king is dead da crudel morbo nei fiori dei anni suoi (“because of a cruel disease in his the prime of his life”). 47 Alberto della Marmora, Itinerario dell’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Illisso, 1997), vol. 2, p. 111. 48 Giovanni Spano, Guida della città e dintorni di Cagliari (Cagliari: A. Timon, 1861), p. 46. 49 Gaston Vuiller, Le isole dimenticate la Sardegna. Impressioni di viaggio (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2005), p. 125.
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The annals of Sardinian patriotism celebrate a singular Judith: the beauty of Sanluri, who swore the death of King Don Martin. Given that this weird heroine detested blood, it was with Cupid’s arrows that she tried to free the country and succeeded. King Martin died in her arms, because of love and exhaustion.
Tyandale, who left his feelings about the island in writing in 1849, following the opinions of known Sardinian authors, said that Martin of Sicily ammaliato dal fascino di una bella donna di Sanluri, si rovinò la salute con ogni sorta di dissolutezza e morì vittima della propria intemperanza50 (“bewitched by the charm of a beautiful woman from Sanluri, he ruined his health with all sorts of debauchery, and died victim of his own intemperance”). Edwards, in his particular vision of the island of Sardinia in 1889, seen as an exotic and primitive place, regards the beauty of Sanluri as: […]-una donna che riuscì a conquistare il conquistatore. Questa damigella lo stregò (al rey) talmente con la sua bellezza che egli non volle dividersi da lei. Morì qui, a Sanluri, fra le sue braccia, vittima degli eccessi amorosi e della malaria. Così, secondo le parole del canonico Spano, « ella vendicò i torti subiti dalla sua terra »51. a woman who succeded in conquering the conqueror. This maid bewitched the king with her beauty that he would not part from her. He died here, in Sanluri, in her arms, a victim of the excesses of love and malaria. Thus, in the words of Canon Spano, she revenged the wrongdoings her land had suffered from.
Thus, for much of the Sardinian intellectual class of the late 19th century, the image of this beautiful heroine was born, who as a Judith avenged the people of ignominy and repression52. We have to wait for the studies of Caldarella and Boscolo, who in the middle of the 20th century studied the reasons for the death of the young king and the possible role of the beauty of Sanluri in this, by means of the new documents found in the archives. Caldarella speaks of a possible incident that those faithful to the king attempted to hide, in which the monarch would suffer fatal injuries. The author assumes that the girl later known as the beauty of Sanluri had had
50 John Warre, L’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2002), vol. 2, p. 228. 51 Charles Edwardes, Sardegna e i sardi (Ilisso: Nuoro, 2000), p. 251. 52 Daniel Girona, Martí rey de Sicilia, primogènit d’Aragó (Barcelona: Real Acadèmia de les Bones Lletres, 1919), pp. 51-52.
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an important role in a trap that would have stopped Martin, acting as bait53. Boscolo, thanks to new documents from the Archives of the Crown of Aragon, is able to report news that is more accurate about the mysterious female figure that the Sardinian intellectual class wrote about with many rivers of ink for centuries. Through the correspondence between Martin the Humane and the merchant Gerardo De Doni, a confidant of the royal House, who was always besides Martin the Younger, we know the existence of a woman who lived in L’Alghero with her mother, and appeared to be pregnant. The sovereign asked De Doni that once the creature was born it should be separated from the mother and brought up by the Crown. If the young woman had not given birth, the merchant should find her a husband and offer a substantial dowry. The documentation provides us with no further information about this woman, but the above is sufficient to recognize a potential Bella di Sanluri in this young woman54. Although we have left the main focus of our study, we should briefly consider the consequences of the battle in subsequent events. Thus, after the death of Martin of Sicily, the Viscount of Narbonne continued his fight on the island, trying to take L’Alghero in May of 1412, with the help of the city of Sassari, being defeated. The identity discourse that is derived from this fact is quite interesting, either in the popular memory of the people of L’Alghero, who for centuries annually represented the burning of a French-dressed doll while singing verses against the French and the people of Sassari, whom they accused of betrayal to the CatalanAragonese king, an episode that is recently being re-taught in the schools of L’Alghero. Above all, discourses of identity have been made by some Sardinian intellectuals, including Tola, who stands out. This author, who reproduces the text of the popular verses sung by the people of L’Alghero called Cobles de la conquista dels francesos55, affirms: Narrano largamente gli storici nazionali come questa vittoria fosse poi macchiata dalla barbara ebbrezza dei vincitori coll’uccisione dei prigionieri francesi e del Bastardo di Savoia figlio di Amadeo VII […] ma ciò che tace la storia […] sono le 53 Antonino Caldarella, L’impresa di Martino I…, pp. 82-84. 54 Alberto Boscolo, “La ‛Bella di Sanluri’ ultima amante di Martino il giovane”, Medioevo aragonese (Padova: Cedam, 1958), pp. 41-43. See also: Daniel Girona, Itinerari del rey en Martí (1396-1410) (Barcelona: Impr. de Henrich y C. en Comandita, 1916), p. 235; Alessandra Cioppi, Battaglie e protagonisti…, pp. 243-248. 55 Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico…, pp. 46-50.
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Strofe che per voto popolare, e per più di due secoli colà si cantarono con solennità […], l’ebbra moltitudine alternava coi cori musicali l’aspro, disarmonico e catalano ritornello barbaro concetto, che con strania lingua, e sotto cielo italiano, acuì per sì gran tempo56. National historians widely narrate how this victory was then stained by the barbaric thrill of the winners with the killing of the French prisoners and the Bastard of Savoy, son of Amadeo VII […] but what history does not tell […] are the verses that, by popular vote and for more than two centuries, were there solemnly chanted […], the inebriated crowd alternated with musical choirs the harsh, discordant and Catalan chorus, barbarous notion, with a foreign language and under the Italian sky, was heard for such a long time.
In this same episode, Vuiller during his journey on the island, documenting various historical facts about this occurrence, wrote in this regard: La colonia aragonese di Alghero non cessò di combattere l’indipendenza della Sardegna. Un tempo, durante la festa della città, si celebrava il ricordo della vittoria riportata sui Sardi, quando questi erano comandati da un luogotenente del visconte di Narbona. Si concludevano i festeggiamenti col dare fuoco ad un mani chino di paglia vestito da soldato sardo e cantando strofe ingiuriose nei confronti dei Sassaresi e dei nemici. Quest’usanza si perpetuò; per lungo tempo gli abitanti di Sassari furono in guerra aperta con quelli di Alghero, e non si oserebbe affermare che tutto l’odio si sia ancora spento57. The Aragonese colony of Alghero did not cease fighting for the independence of Sardinia. Once upon a time, during the city’s feast, there were celebrations for the memory of the victory over the Sardinians, when they were commanded by a lieutenant of the Viscount of Narbonne. The festivities ended by giving fire to a straw dummy dressed as a Sardinian soldier and singing verses insulting people from Sassari and enemies. This custom persisted, for a long time the inhabitants of Sassari were in open war with those of Alghero, and no one would dare and say that all the hate is still off.
Without a doubt, following Manno’s work is curious, since it deals with the issue of the consequences of the defeat of Macomer, a definitive end in a long series of mishaps for the total control of Sardinia by the Crown. The Marquis of Oristano, as is well known, paid a high price for his rebellion, ending his days in the prison of Xativa, losing all his possessions
56 57
Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico…, p. 42. Gaston Vuiller, Le isole dimenticate…, p. 109.
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and the titles of Marquis of Oristano and Count of Goceano being passed on to the Catalan-Aragonese sovereign. Manno somehow does not avoid making a comparison, which we read between the lines, with the bitter taste of this victory and that of the Battle of Sanluri. If while in the latter, the fate of the young King Martin was attached to the “Giuditta”, that in the name of the Sardinian nation would snatch his life away, unfortunately this time the inevitable fall would be of the Viceroy of Sardinia, Nicolò Carrós, who had made the detention of the Marquis a personal fact. His Giuditta, who had persuaded the Viceroy according to Manno, would be the Viscountess of Sanluri, which would affatturato her son Dalmac of Carròs, Earl of Quirra, thus causing death. Once again, we must point out the interesting fact concerning the author’s contention that this misfortune must see più che la volontà divina, l’opera maligna dell’uomo58 (“more than the will of God, the malignant work of man”). These words, enclosed in the birth of cultural nationalism, with a large patriotic dose from a people that somewhat avenged any who had acted against the formation of a “free” state. It is also very interesting to see how the Battle of Sanluri has become a place of memory, these being considered as spaces or monuments, sites, which condense the images of a past full of meaning, places capable of commemorating, an environment of civil rituals which usually manifest themselves with a strong political content, with symbolic value or points that convey a sense of belonging to a certain group59. Thus, the Battle of Sanluri is still evoked in the toponymy of the territory, such as in the Bruncu de sa batalla, the top of the hill where the army of the Viscount was, or in S’Occidroxiu, the Sardinian slaughterhouse, the battlefield that saw the defeat of the giudicali60 troops. The perception of Sanluri as a
58 Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna…, pp. 153-154. 59 Ugo Fabietti, Vincenzo Matera, Memoria e identità. Simboli e strategie del ricordo (Rome: Meltemi, 2000), pp. 35-37; Albert Balcells, “Els llocs de memòria”, Les identitats a la Catalunya contemporània, Jordi Casassas, ed. (Cabrera de Mar: Galerada, 2009), p. 89. 60 Luisa d’Arienzo, “La Bataglia di Sanluri…”, p. 21; Francesco Cesare Casula, “Gli schiavi sardi della battaglia di Sanluri del 1409”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 15 (1990), p. 11; Aldo Aveni, “Memoria di antiche battaglie nella toponomastica sarda: ‘Sedda sa Batalla’”, Uomini e guerre nella Sardegna medioevale, Joan Armangué, coord. (Mogoro: P.T.M, 2007), pp. 5-16.
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decisive event that changed the history of the Sardinian people61 continues to occupy an important position, in addition to the toponymy in the annual re-evocation of the battle, which since the beginning of this millennium has been carried out in the same area where lore and memory place the battle. On the other hand, we cannot ignore the monument erected to the memory of Martin the Younger in the Cathedral of Cagliari. Boscolo pointed out the creation of another legend on the island, years after the king’s death. It had to do with the transport of the mortal remains of the sovereign in Catalonia, a legend disproved by Scano ho explained how it was decided in the 17th century to create a more dignified tomb for the sovereign, proven by the presence of his remains in the cathedral during this century62. Scano pointed out that when Archbishop Vico renovated the cathedral with Baroque themes, the remains of the king were exhumed and moved to a new tomb dedicated to him. While the mausoleum, defined as grotesque by Della Marmora63, was not yet finished, his remains would repose in the Chapel of Santa Maria de Betlem. In 1686, a ceremony was held for the transfer of the remains to their final destination; a ceremony devoid of the pomp that the counsellors of Cagliari were wishing, since the crisis of the time and the actions of a few years before – the murder of the Viceroy – advised caution in carrying out, in the words of Boscolo, una cerimonia, oltre l’altro troppo costosa, che avrebbe potuto ridestare nei Sardi il ricordo dell’antico passato64 (“a ceremony, also too expensive, 61
Alessandra Cioppi, “Arborea e Aragona in campo. Incontro e scontro di due identità”, La Battaglia di Sanluri come scontro fra culture: quanto simili e quanto diverse? Atti del convegno di studi (Las Plassas, 24 giugno 2007), Francesca Carrara, Giorgio Murru, Giovanni Serreli, coords. (Dolianova: Grafica del Parteola, 2008), p. 31. 62 Alberto Boscolo, “Leggende su Martino il giovane”, La politica italiana di Martino il Vecchio re d’Aragona (Padova: Cedam, 1962), p. 155. 63 Alberto della Marmora, Itinerario dell’isola di Sardegna…, p. 89. In fact, with the arrival of the Piedmontese, a kind of anti-Spanish black legend begins to spread among the ruling class, a distaste for all things Iberian, either through the resistance of institutions, languages, consuetudes, or ecclesiastical organizations, factors that were faced daily and against those who fought, which led to associating Spanish world influences with the opposite of innovation. See: Francesco Manconi, “L’ ‘Ispanizzazione’ della Sardegna: un bilancio”, Storia della Sardegna. Dalle origini al Settecento, Manlio Brigaglia, Attilio Mastino, Gian Giacomo Ortu, eds. (Rome: Editori Laterza, 2002) vol. 3, p. 127. 64 Alberto Boscolo, “Leggende su Martino…”, p. 156.
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that could have resumed the memory of the past among Sardinians”). Scano also speaks of a ceremony recurring every year on 2 November, and from the late 17th century would take place in front of the mausoleum. The funeral rite had a catafalque covered with a silk cloth with the Aragon coat of arms embroidered in gold, with a cushion upon which rested a crown and a sceptre, a surrounded catafalque, following an ancient tradition of twenty-four candles65. All this pomp and dedication to the only remains of a monarch present in the Sardinian capital so far by the oligarchy in Cagliari in the late 17th century almost induce thinking how strong this cultural ligament ruling class was with the Hispanic world, with which they identified and reproduced their values. Thus, Gazano, in his History of Sardinia in 1777, during the rule of Savoy, wrote about the death and the subsequent mausoleum of the hapless sovereign: Basti dire che il caso acerbo fu universalmente compianto, e che i cittadini di Cagliari, nella cui cattedrale fu poi sepolto, vollero onorarne la memoria a perpetuità con ergergli a spese pubbliche un superbo mausoleo di finissimi marmi, dove coll’intervento di tutti l’ufficialità, e con pompa veramente regia si ripose l’illustre cadavere. Monumento questo […] che serve di testimonianza perenne non meno alle glorie di quel monarca invitto, che all’affettuosa pietà usata da detti cittadini inverso di lui66. Suffice it to say that the unripen case was universally lamented, and that the citizens of Cagliari, in whose cathedral was then buried, wanted to honor his memory in perpetuity by erecting at public expense a superb mausoleum of the finest marble where, with the assistance of all loads officers and with truly royal pump, the illustrious king corpse was placed to rest. This monument […] that serves as a permanent witness to not only the glories of that invincible monarch but also the loving mercy showed to him by those nationals.
By the turn of the century and thanks to the influence of the works of Manno and Tola above all, the views of the intelligentsia, many of them foreign 65 Alberto Boscolo, “Leggende su Martino…”, p. 56; Dionogi Scano, “Morte e sepoltura di don Martino d’Aragona re di Sicilia”, Mediterranea, 9 (1929), pp. 4-8. 66 Michele Antonio, La Storia della Sardegna (Cagliari: Reale Stamperia, 1777), vol. 3, p. 89. Cossu seems to have the same opinion: un magnifico mausoleo eretto a spese de Calaritani in memoria del funerale ed esequie che celebrano al re don Martino (“a magnificent mausoleum erected at the expense of inhabitants of Cagliari in memory of the funeral and obsequies of King Martin”). See: Giuseppe Cossu, Città di Cagliari. Notizie compendiose sacre e profane (Cagliari: Stamperia Reale, 1780), p. 47.
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travellers, local authors or officials who write about the Sardinian kingdom, speaking of the mausoleum dedicated to the young King, express in their speech a more or less veiled sentiment of admiration for the feats he accomplished, as may be the case of Smith, who in 1828 wrote: Nella cappella a sinistra vi è un bel mausoleo in memoria del giovane e intraprendente Martino, re di Sicilia, che cadde vittima dell “intemperie” nel giro di un mese dopo la sua clamorosa vittoria a Sanluri67 (“In the chapel to the left there is a beautiful mausoleum in memory of the young and enterprising Martin, King of Sicily, who fell victim of “bad weather” in the space of a month after his resounding victory in Sanluri”), a sentiment increasingly derived towards nostalgia for what did not happen, because of the impossibility of obtaining a Sardinian state, synonymous with freedom, materializing in the figure of Martin the Younger, who smashed the dreams of the Sardinian people. Thus, Valery, in 1837 wrote about this mausoleum: Un monumento straordinario è quello di don Martino, il giovane re di Sicilia e vinci tore di Sanluri; è un cenotafio in marmo, forse superiore per grandezza ai più vasti mausolei di Venezia e dell’Italia, che riempie tutta una cappella a enorme testimonianza dell’asservimento della Sardegna68. A extraordinary monument is that of don Martin, the young king of Sicily and winner of Sanluri, it is a marble cenotaph, perhaps superior in magnitude to the largest mausoleums of Venice and Italy, which fills a whole chapel to witness to the great enslavement of Sardinia.
In 1856, Angius referred to this same sculpture, not depriving the reader of a mixture of sadness and anger at what he, a religious and intellectual Sardinian, had interpreted as being Aragonese domination and after Spanish by Sardinia. Concerning the mausoleum of King Martin, his pen thus expressed: è questo alla memoria del vincitor di Sanluri funesto campo, dove molte migliaia di sardi, che difendevano i loro diritti, infelicemente cadevano. Se a Cagliari spagnuola era questo un monumento di gloria, a Cagliari sarda è una memoria dolorosa. In verità starebbevi meglio una cappella a qualche patrono nazionale, che un cenotafio odioso69. 67 Willian Henry, Relazione sull’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1998), p. 202. 68 Antoine Claude Pasquin, Viaggio in Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1996), p. 131. 69 Vittorio Angius, “Cagliari. Descrizione geografico-storica della città e del territorio”, Dizionario geografico storico-statistico-commerciale degli stati di S.M. il Re di Sardegna (Bologna: Atesa Editrice, 1983), p. 196.
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This is to the memory of the winners of Sanluri baleful field, where many thousands of Sardinians, who were defending their rights, sadly fell. If for the Spanish Cagliari this was a monument of glory, in the Sardinian Cagliari, this is a painful memory. Indeed, it would be better a chapel dedicated to some national patron, than a hateful cenotaph.
In the same spirit the canon, Spano, in the second half of the same century, gave his opinion on the funerary monument, only finding interesting: i due piangenti puttini colle mani sulla testa […], forse il miglior accessorio di tutto il colossale monumento, specialmente quello a destra che sembra una satira come se fosse il genio della Sardegna piangendo la disgrazia di aver perduto la libertà nazionale!70. the two weeping little angels with their hands on his head […], perhaps the best accessory of the whole colossal monument, especially the one on the right that looks like a satire as if it was the genius of Sardinia crying disgrace of having lost the national freedom.
Conclusions For historiography and the Sardinian people the Battle of Sanluri has represented an important element in the configuration of their national identity. This battle was almost immediately associated with the loss of a possible Sardinian state embodied in the House of Arborea, to be subsequently joined to the discouragement that the fate of the Sardinian nation had at the hands of the heirs of the House of Arborea, that reaching an agreement with Alfonso the Magnanimous years later, they sold their dynastic rights. Thus, at the dawn of the modern age, this battle and the facts derived from it, would be seen as the last real chance to achieve a “free” Sardinian state. That is why venues like the place where tradition says the mismatch between giudicali and Aragonese troops took place, or the mausoleum dedicated to Martin of Sicily, have a significant weight with very different connotations. Thus, while the battleground will be linked to killing 70 Giovanni Spano, Guida della città…, p. 47.
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by the Sardinian people and the harsh repression of the Sanluri population, this mausoleum initially claims a sentiment of honorary facts among citizens of Cagliari – at least among the ruling class, who were proud of their Catalan-Aragonese origin71 – considering it a honour to hold the body of a member of the royal family in the cathedral, who fought to defend the Crown from Sardinian rebels. This near veneration seems to have been resisted in the city until well into the 17th century, as we have seen, moving slowly with the change of the ruling house – the progress of the 19th century and Sardinian national feeling, as a place of remembrance rather than just a place of history, while lacking that intention of remembrance72 – and as such, leaving to the discretion of the visitor, in the past and in the present, their considerations on its symbolic meaning. Moreover, for the Catalans, on the other hand, the memory of this battle is deeply tied to the end of the dynasty of counts, the same with the untimely death of the only heir of Martin the Humane, and the considerations of independence and freedom that projects the Catalan feeling of nationalism since the 19th century. All this in a paradoxical perversity of fate of two peoples, Catalans and Sardinians, which history has united and memory – or the politics of memory – have partially separated. And in the words of Nola: Pues, si bien es cierto que la razón de ser fundamental de un lugar de memoria es detener el tiempo, bloquear el trabajo del olvido […], encerrar el máximo de sentidos en el mínimo de signos […], los lugares de memoria no viven sino por su aptitud para la metamorfosis, en el incesante resurgimiento de sus significaciones y la arborescencia imprevisible de sus ramificaciones […]73. If it is true that the raison d’être of a place of memory is to stop the time, to block the work of forgetting […], to enclose the maximum of senses in the smallest of the signs […], the places of memory live only for their ability to metamorphosis, in the incessant resurgence of their meanings and unpredictable arborescence of their ramifications.
71 Ester Martí, “Ideology and identity of urban oligarchies in late medieval Sardinia”, Identity, Memory and Ideology… 72 Pierre Nola, Les lieux de mémoire (Montevideo: Trilce, 2008), p. 34. 73 Pierre Nola, Les lieux de mémoire…, p. 34.
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Annexe Bibliography Bruno Anatra, “La Sardegna aragonese: istituzioni e società”, Storia della Sardegna. Dalle origini al Settecento, Brigaglia Manlio, Mastino Attilio, Giacomo Ortu, eds. (Rome: Editori Laterza, 2006), vol. 1, pp. 151-166. Vittorio Angius, “Cagliari. Descrizione geografico-storica della città e del territorio”, Dizionario geografico storico-statistico-commerciale degli stati di S.M. il Re di Sardegna (Bologna: Atesa Editrice, 1983). Michele Antonio, La Storia della Sardegna (Cagliari: Reale stamperia, 1777), vol. 3. Aldo Aveni, “Memoria di antiche battaglie nella toponomastica sarda: ‘Sedda sa Batalla’”, Uomini e guerre nella Sardegna medioevale, Joan Armangué, coord. (Mogoro: P.T.M, 2007), pp. 5-22. Albert Balcells, “Els llocs de memòria”, Les identitats a la Catalunya contemporània, Jordi Casassas, ed. (Cabrera de Mar: Galerada, 2009), pp. 83-113. Alberto Boscolo, “L’impresa di Martino il Giovane in Sardegna”, Medioevo Aragonese (Padova: Cedam, 1958), pp. 21-35. Alberto Boscolo, “Documenti sulle guerre tra l’Arborea e l’Aragona all’epoca di Martino Il Vecchio”, Medioevo Aragonese (Padova: Cedam, 1958), pp. 15-21. Alberto Boscolo, “Leggende su Martino il giovane”, La politica italiana di Martino il Vecchio re d’Aragona (Padova: Cedam, 1962), pp. 37-46. Antonino Caldarella. L’impresa di Martino I, re di Sicilia in Sardegna (a. 1408-1409) (Palermo: Presso l’Accademia, 1954). Francesco Cesare Casula, Profilo storico della Sardegna catalano-aragonese (Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre, 1982). Francesco Cesare Casula, “Ricerche archivistiche sulla battaglia di Sanluri del 1409”, Studi storici in onore di Giovanni Todde. Archivio Storico Sardo (Cagliari: Deputazione di storia patria per la Sardegna, 1986), pp. 123-133. Francesco Cesare Casula, “Gli schiavi sardi della battaglia di Sanluri del 1409”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 15 (1990), pp. 9-20. Alessandra Cioppi, Battaglie e protagonisti della Sardegna medioevale (Cagliari: AM&D Edizioni, 2008).
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Alessandra Cioppi, “Arborea e Aragona in campo. Incontro e scontro di due identità”, La Battaglia di Sanluri come scontro fra culture: quanto simili e quanto diverse? Atti del convegno di studi (Las Plassas, 24 giugno 2007), Francesca Carrara, Giorgio Murru, Giovanni Serreli, coords. (Dolianova: Grafica del Parteola, 2008), pp. 17-44. Marisa Cocco-Angioy, Giovanni Maria Angioy e l’insurrezione della Sardegna (Cagliari: Pisano, 1985). Rafael Conde, La batalla de Sent Luri. Textos y Documentos (Sanluri: Proloco, 1997). Giuseppe Cossu, Città di Cagliari. Notizie compendiose sacre e profane (Cagliari: Stamperia Reale, 1780). Luisa d’Arienzo, “La Battaglia di Sanluri e il suo contesto storico”, La batalla de Sent Luri. Textos y documentos (Oristano: S’Aluvre, 1997), pp. 15-27. Luisa d’Arienzo, Documenti sui visconti di Narbona e la Sardegna (Padova: Cedam, 1977). Alberto della Marmora, Itinerario dell’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Illisso, 1997). Charles Edwardes, Sardegna e i sardi (Ilisso: Nuoro, 2000). Ugo Fabietti, Vincenzo Matera, Memoria e identità. Simboli e strategie del ricordo (Rome: Meltemi, 2000). Ioanis Francisci, Opera. De rebus Sardois (Sassari: Gallizzi, 1992), vol. 3. Luciano Gallinari, “Gli ultimi anni di esistenza del Regno giudicale d’Arborea: riflessioni e prospettive di ricerca”, Medioevo. Saggi e rassegne, 25 (2002), pp. 155-190. Daniel Girona, Martí rey de Sicilia, primogènit d’Aragó (Barcelona: Real Acadèmia de les Bones Lletres, 1919). Daniel Girona, Itinerari del rey en Martí (1396-1410) (Barcelona: Impr. de Henrich y C. en Comandita, 1916). Lluis Guia, “Un regno senza parlamenti al crocevia della guerra di successione spagnola”, Il regno di Sardegna in età moderna. Saggi diversi, Francesco Manconi, ed. (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana 2010), pp. 99-131. Willian Henry, Relazione sull’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1998). Giovanni Lilliu, La costante resistenziale sarda, Antonella Mattone, ed. (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2002). Ester Martí, “Ideology and identity of urban oligarchies in late medieval Sardinia”, Identity, Memory and Ideology in Middle Ages, Flocel Sabaté, dir. (forthcoming).
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Francesco Manconi, “L’‛Ispanizzazione’ della Sardegna: un bilancio”, Storia della Sardegna. Dalle origini al Settecento, Manlio Brigaglia, Attilio Mastino, Gian Giacomo Ortu, eds. (Rome: Editori Laterza, 2002) vol. 3, pp. 105-127. Giuseppe Manno, Storia di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1996). Luciano Marrocu, “Fantasie di grandezza: Pietro Martini e i falsi d’Arborea”, La perdita del Regno. Intellettuali e costruzione dell’identità sarda tra Ottocento e Novecento (Rome: Riuniti, 1995), pp. 44-54. Luciano Marrocu, “La ‛Nazione sarda’ in età contemporanea”, Quaderni bolotanesi, 19 (1993), pp. 159-166. Paolo Maninchedda, Memoria de las cosas que han aconteçido en algunas partes del reino de Cerdeña (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2000). Pierre Nola, Les lieux de mémoire (Montevideo: Trilce, 2008). Flocel Sabaté, “Identitats”, Identitats (Lleida: Pagès Editors, 2012), pp. 7-18. Dionigi Scano, “Serie cronologica dei giudici sardi”, Archivio storico sardo, 21/3-4 (1939), pp. 17-125. Dionigi Scano, “Morte e sepoltura di don Martino d’Aragona re di Sicilia”, Mediterranea, 9 (1929), pp. 4-8. Giovanni Spano, Guida della città e dintorni di Cagliari (Cagliari: A. Timon, 1861). Pasquale Tola, Codice diplomatico della Sardegna (Sassari: Delfino, 1984-1985). Pasquale Tola, Dizionario biografico degli uomini illustri di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2001). John Warre, L’isola di Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2002). Antoine Claude Pasquin Valery, Viaggio in Sardegna (Nuoro: Ilisso, 1996). Francisco de Vico, Historia general de la isla y reyno de Sardeña (Cagliari: Cooperativa Universitaria Editrice Cagliaritana, 2004). Gaston Vuiller, Le isole dimenticate la Sardegna. Impressioni di viaggio (Nuoro: Ilisso, 2005). Jerónimo Zurita, Anales de la Corona de Aragón, vol. 4 (Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 1978).
Magia, hechicería y sexualidad en la narrativa caballeresca temprana: tres identidades perversas y domesticadas Rafael M. Mérida Universitat de Lleida
A lo largo de las últimas tres décadas han ido viendo la luz diversas monografías que han prestado atención al estudio de la magia, la brujería y la hechicería en las letras españolas de los siglos XV y XVI: volúmenes como los de Garrosa Resina1, Alonso Palomar2, Bognolo3, Álvarez López4, Pedrosa5, Mérida Jiménez6, Zamora Calvo7, Andrés Martín8, Neri9, Lara Alberola10 o García Soormally11, junto a diversas misceláneas como la 1
Antonio Garrosa, Magia y superstición en la literatura castellana medieval (Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, 1987). 2 Pilar Alonso, De un universo encantado a un universo reencantado. Magia y literatura en los Siglos de Oro (Valladolid: Grammalea, 1994). 3 Anna Bognolo, La finzione rinnovata. Meraviglioso, corte e avventura nel romanzo cavalleresco del primo Cinquecento spagnolo (Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 1997). 4 Fernando Álvarez, Arte mágica y hechicería medieval. Tres tratados de magia en la corte de Juan II (Valladolid: Diputación Provincial de Valladolid, 2000). 5 José Manuel Pedrosa, Entre la magia y la religión: oraciones, conjuros, ensalmos (Oiartzun: Sendoa, 2000). 6 Rafael M. Mérida, Fuera de la orden de natura; magias, milagros y maravillas en el Amadís de Gaula (Kassel: Reichenberger, 2001); Rafael M. Mérida, El gran libro de las brujas (Barcelona: RBA-Integral, 2004). 7 María Jesús Zamora, Ensueños de razón. El cuento inserto en tratados de magia (siglos XVI y XVII) (Madrid-Frankfurt: Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2005). 8 Andrés Martín, Ofelia-Eugenia, La hechicería en la literatura española de los Siglos de Oro (Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 2006). 9 Stefano Neri, L’eroe alla prova. Architetture meravigliose nel romanzo cavalleresco spagnolo del Cinquecento (Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 2007). 10 Eva Lara, Hechiceras y brujas en la literatura española de los Siglos de Oro (Valencia: Universitat de València, 2010). 11 Mina García, Magia, hechicería y brujería entre ‘La Celestina’ y Cervantes (Sevilla: Renacimiento, 2011).
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editada, entre otros, por López-Ríos12 y el tomo XXVII de Edad de Oro13, así lo confirman, al igual que certifican la diversidad teórica empleada, la variedad de textos manejados y sus dispares logros. En cualquier caso, resulta innegable que, aunque se trate de un tema que ha ido suscitando creciente interés entre la crítica académica, todavía no ha merecido la abundancia de investigaciones que exige. En el presente trabajo quisiera valorar una intersección de imágenes literarias en torno a las representaciones de la magia, la hechicería y la sexualidad perversa femenina en la literatura caballeresca española de fines del siglo XV e inicios del XVI. En concreto me centraré en la época de los Reyes Católicos, o, para mayor precisión, en el período fernandino (1474-1516), ya que durante esta época se consolidaron los pilares de una evidente redimensión ética y estética de indudable interés que conocerá notable repercusión en la narrativa renacentista y que penetrará en otros géneros literarios —gracias también al impulso de Fernando de Rojas y de la progenie celestinesca— y que, por supuesto, no es ajena al proceso histórico derivado de la bula de Sixto IV que favoreció la instauración del Santo Oficio en la Corona de Castilla (1478) y en la Corona de Aragón (1482). Voy a detenerme en tres obras caballerescas de muy diverso origen y factura que conocieron la letra impresa incunable y post-incunable con el objetivo de valorar cuestiones literarias e históricas de genre y de gender: la Historia de la linda Melosina (traducción de la obra francesa de Jean d’Arras, pero presentada como obra anónima, impresa por vez primera en 1489), el Amadís de Gaula, de Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo (probablemente ya impreso durante la última década del siglo XV, cuya difusión e influencia se extienden hasta llegar a Cervantes) y el Floriseo, de Fernando Bernal (un singular libro de caballerías cuya única impresión conocida data de 1516). Se trata, por consiguiente, de tres obras unidas por una comunidad caballeresca en donde la relación entre el universo “fuera de la orden de natura” y la identidad perversa femenina (de, por ejemplo, Melusina, Urganda la Desconocida y Bucarpia) desempeña un puesto que no conviene desdeñar.
12 Santiago López-Ríos, Fantasía y literatura en la Edad Media y los Siglos de Oro (Madrid-Frankfurt: Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2004). 13 Florencio Sevilla, Edad de Oro: Magia y ciencia en la literatura áurea (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 2008).
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Conviene advertir, antes de seguir adelante, que magia y hechicería, como también brujería, remiten a categorías que, aunque interrelacionadas, no siempre se implican mutuamente. Si bien resulta frecuente el empleo del término “magia” como hiperónimo de los otros dos, valdrá la pena advertir que las investigaciones antropológicas, historiográficas o filológicas sobre este ámbito no coinciden en una delimitación nítida: así, la hechicería puede entenderse como una modalidad de “magia popu lar” o como una práctica supersticiosa; la magia puede restringirse a sus expresiones más doctas, a la manera de la alquimia; la hechicería puede ser aprehendida como un conocimiento ligado a un pacto diabólico muy próximo al de las brujas; la brujería, en fin, como una “magia negra”… Además, la evolución de las acepciones de los tres términos, justamente durante los siglos XV y XVI, propicia numerosos solapamientos en torno a las identidades que designan, según confirma la consulta de las palabras “bruja” y “hechizo” en el Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española de Sebastián de Covarrubias (1611). Como resulta bien sabido, uno de los pilares temáticos y estructurales de la literatura caballeresca hispánica durante este período es el vinculado a dicha esfera: magias, milagros y maravillas, junto a hechicerías o encantamientos, fueron asociados de manera fiel y constante a una pléyade de personajes, espacios, objetos y acciones con el propósito de provocar admiraciones y espantos entre los lectores, así como, por supuesto, con el objetivo de enriquecer las tramas —pienso sobre todo en los libros de caballe rías extensos, los cuales, a diferencia de la narrativa caballeresca breve, se caracterizaron por sus complejos entramados de aventuras14—. Recuérdese que aquellas ficciones que suelen agruparse bajo la etiqueta “libros de caballerías”, capitaneadas por las caudalosas narraciones que se integran en los ciclos fundacionales de Amadís y de Palmerín, han venido definiéndose entre la crítica por una factura en donde primaría aquel afán de aventura que gustaba de los excesos más inverosímiles, hasta cierto punto como consecuencia de la recreación o de la potenciación de algunos recursos técnicos y temáticos heredados de la novela artúrica francesa de los siglos XIII y XIV15. Un buen ejemplo de este gusto se observa en el uso de la magia, según 14 Emilio José Sales, La aventura caballeresca: epopeya y maravillas (Alcalá de Henares: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 2004). 15 Carlos Alvar, “Raíces medievales de los libros de caballerías”, Edad de Oro, 21 (2002), pp. 61-84.
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confirma una atenta lectura de Amadis de Gaula16, de Palmerín de Olivia y de Primaleón, atribuidos a Francisco Vázquez e impresos en 1511 y 151217. Inevitable resulta citar la célebre caracterización de Martín de Riquer18, según la cual, este conjunto de obras podría definirse “por la p resencia de elementos maravillosos (dragones, endriagos, serpientes, enanos y gigantes desmesurados, edificios construidos por arte de magia, exageradísima fuerza física de los caballeros, ambiente de misterio, etc.) y por situar la acción en tierras lejanas y exóticas y en un remotísimo pasado”.
1. Melusina Un caso paradigmático de las interrelaciones entre el universo sobrena tural femenino y la imaginación caballeresca sería la peculiar trayectoria de Melusina en las letras europeas medievales. Este personaje cristaliza como una curiosa simbiosis de rasgos benéficos y maléficos que se convertiría en prototipo del hada feudal, de acuerdo con Jacques Le Goff19. Su leyenda constituye, en sí misma, un crisol memorable de los vasos comunicantes entre folclore, literatura religiosa y ficciones cortesanas20; así lo confirmarían textos doctrinales o didácticos como De nugis curialium (1181-1193), de Gualterio Map, Otia Imperalia (1209-1214), de Gervasio de Tilbury, y Speculum Naturale (h. 1250), de Vicente de Beauvais, entre otros, según demostró la aportación de Laurence Harf-Lancner, donde quedó confirmada la vitalidad de los relatos melusinianos, en latín y en vulgar, desde finales del siglo XII21. Pero el modelo más perfecto y celebrado de la imaginería melusiniana se escribirá doscientos años más tarde. Se trata del Livre de Mélusine, compuesto en francés por Jean d’Arras entre 1387 y 1392. Nos hallamos
16 17 18 19 20 21
Rafael M. Mérida, Fuera de la orden de natura… Anna Bognolo, La finzione rinnovata. Meraviglioso…, pp. 151-210. Martín Riquer, Caballeros andantes españoles (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1967), p. 11. Jacques Le Goff, Un autre Moyen Âge (Paris: Gallimard, 1999), pp. 295-316. Myriam White, Jacques Le Goff, Envoûtante Mélusine (Paris: Klincksieck, 2008). Laurence Harf-Lancner, Les fées au Moyen Age. Morgane et Mélusine. La naissance des fées (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1984).
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ante un nuevo ejemplo de reconversión de motivos folclóricos y cultos: Jean d’Arras supo tejer un relato que permitía introducir elementos tan diferentes como los derivados del contacto con un personaje del “otro mundo”, el elogio de la caballería, unos modelos de comportamiento para la nobleza, el discurso misógino tan caro a la doctrina eclesiástica medieval, la tradición simbólica de los bestiarios o la recuperación de un linaje. Aunque la comparación de esta obra con otros textos coetáneos la distinga por su simplicidad estructural, parece innegable que la combinación novedosa de motivos cautivó a numerosos lectores franceses, al margen de los intereses que promovieron originariamente su redacción22. Un interés que se transmitió hacia otros reinos, como los que componían los dominios de Isabel y Fernando, donde las aventuras de Melusina y de su linaje gozaron de una importante difusión, según demuestran el incunable de la traducción castellana impreso en 1489 (Toulouse) y una segunda versión, diferente de la anterior, aparecida en 1526 (Sevilla), así como una tercera impresión de 1512, valenciana, hoy desaparecida, que habría sido adquirida por Fernando Colón23. Además, resulta oportuno destacar que este relato melusiniano —maravilloso y cristiano a un tiempo— se ofreció también como un texto caballeresco, ligado en diversos capítulos al universo artúrico, una obra repleta de batallas y de aventuras, algunos de cuyos personajes muestran, al tiempo que un aspecto físico que desvela su extraordinaria genealogía, unas cualidades excepcionales en un amplio espacio geográfico que abarca desde Irlanda hasta Siria, pasando por Francia, Chipre o Armenia. Por este motivo parece adecuada la ubicación del incunable de 1489 de la obra de Jean d’Arras en la órbita de una serie de traducciones que combinaron maravilla cristianizada y aventura caballeresca que se difundieron, e incluso imprimieron, por los mismos años, como el Baladro del sabio Merlín con sus profecías24, según la contextualización ofrecida por Cátedra y Rodríguez Velasco. 22 Arno Gimber, “Le roman de Melusine: de l’origine du roman moderne en France, Allemagne et Espagne”, Die Welt der Feen im Mittelalter, Danielle Buschinger, ed. (Greifswald: Reineke, 1994), pp. 67-79. 23 Jean d’Arras, Historia de la linda Melosina, Ivy Corfis, ed. (Madison: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1986); Leonardo Romero, “Ediciones en castellano de la Melusina de Jean d’Arras”, Homenaje a Justo García Morales (Madrid: Anabad, 1988), pp. 1006-1020. 24 Pedro M. Cátedra, Jesús D. Rodríguez, Creación y difusión de “El baladro del sabio Merlín” (Burgos, 1498) (Salamanca: Seminario de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas, 2000), pp. 8-10.
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La historia narrada constituye un magnífico ejercicio de invención genealógica: Elinás, rey de Albión, desposa a la poderosa hada Presina de cuya unión nacerían Melusina, Melior y Palestina. El hada había hecho jurar a su esposo que no la vería durante el parto y mientras las criara, pero el rey olvidó la promesa y Presina desapareció con sus tres hijas y se trasladó a Avalón, la Isla Perdida, el reino de su hermana. Cuando Presina desvele las razones que motivaron la separación de su padre, Melusina y sus hermanas planearán una venganza mediante hechizos y encantamientos, gracias a los cuales lo encerrarán en la montaña de Brunbeloys. Pero no saben el castigo que espera a cada una ellas. El hada Presina empieza a explicárselo dirigiéndose a Melusina, la mayor de las tres: Dize la madre, –¡Maluadas hijas! ¿Como lo osastes hazer? Mucho mal aves hecho. Aquel que vos avia engendrado, en el qual yo avya mj alegria e plazer mas que en ombre del mundo, vosotras me lo aves quitado. Sabed pues que yo vos punjre segun vuestros meresçimjentos. E tu, Melosyna, que eres la mas ançiana que mas deujeras ser conosçiente e eres estada al contrario, la por que este mal es venjdo, por esto seras tu la primera punjda. E por que tu e tus dos hermanas aves asy tratado a vuestro padre, ponjendolo en logar do no deve jamas ser librado, yo te do por tu penjtençia que cada savado tornes en figura de sierpe del onbligo avajo. E sy tu hallas ombre que te qujera tomar por muger, prometiendo que en el tal dya no te vea nj procure, tu vivjras en tu cuerpo natural e moriras como honesta muger e de ti vendra muy noble linage. Mas sy eres de tu marido a la fyn descuvjerta, sepas que deves tornar en el tormento primero, en el qual quedaras fasta que venga el Alto Juez a vos juzgar25.
Esta penitencia hasta el día del Juicio Final, citada a partir de la traducción de 1489, acabará cumpliéndose, a pesar de las artes ocultas que Melusina conoce y que ha puesto en práctica contra su padre: Melusina se une a Remondín, tras jurarle que no le verá los sábados; ella, a cambio, le procura riquezas, entre las que destaca su castillo de Lusignan, y una gran familia. Sus hijos, no obstante, tendrán todos peculiares características físicas: Urién, físicamente bien proporcionado, a excepción de la cara que era pequeña y ancha, con un ojo rojo y otro azul pálido, con enormes orejas que, cuando creció, se le hicieron tan grandes como las aspas de un molino de viento. Eudes, el segundo, tenía una oreja incomparablemente más grande que la otra, aunque todos 25 Jean d’Arras, Historia de la linda Melosina…, pp. 8 y 10.
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sus otros miembros eran bellos y proporcionados. Guyón, el tercero, era un niño bellísimo, pero con un ojo más alto que otro. Antonio, el cuarto, era grande y bien formado, mas en la mejilla izquierda tenía una pata de león, y antes de que tuviera ocho años era velluda y de uñas cortantes. Reinaldo, el quinto, vino al mundo con un solo ojo, aunque veía con tanta claridad que divisaba las naves en el mar a una distancia de veinte leguas. Jofré, el sexto, era alto y fornido, fuerte, valiente y cruel, pero tenía un diente que le salía de la boca más de una pulgada. Fromonte, el séptimo, era bastante hermoso, pero tenía sobre la nariz una mancha velluda, como la piel de una comadreja. Oruble, el octavo era enorme y nació con tres ojos, uno de los cuales estaba en la frente: era tan cruel que antes de llegar a los cuatro años había matado a dos de sus nodrizas. Los hijos menores se llamaron Ramón y Thierry. Sin embargo, azuzado por su hermano, Remondín descubrirá el cuerpo de serpiente de Melusina, mientras ésta se bañaba un sábado: -¡A hermano señor! —dize el conde.— Por ser aquel a quien yo, como a hermano, so mas en este mundo obligado, vos quiero avisar. Comun le[n]guage es ya en mj tierra y vuestra que aquella, en quien vos tanto os fiajs, los sabados, quando de vos se esconde, es por que a vn otro que mas ama, con quien el tal tienpo se ayunta. E so muy marauillado que sea tan grande vuestra cobardia que vos no podajs saver do va o donde viene en tal dia. Ca otros dizen que es vna fada que cada sabado haze su penjtençia e se torna en figura de sierpe. Desto yo no se que me crea. Por que vos soys mj hermano, no vos quiero encobrir este secreto, mas antes por vos lo dezir so yo espresamente aqui venido. Pensad quando Remondin oyo estas palabras, que malencomja començo de rreynar en su coraçon. E asy ayrado, comiença de enpujar la tabla do comja. E se levanta de la tabla e entra en su camara todo lleno de zelos de la linda Melosina. . . [D]ize la ystoria que hecho el forado [en la puerta de la habitación], començo a mirar Remondin lo que se hazia dentro. E vio como Melosina era fasta el honbligo en figura de muy hermosa muger. E dende abajo era en figura de vna sierpe luenga de .x. pies e hancha de .v. E ende ella peynava sus cauellos e maneava por el agua [de una pila de mármol en la que se bañaba] su cola que era tan grande que hazia venir la honda del agua fasta la puerta de la camara do era26.
Remondín, triste y airado, se da cuenta de que ha roto su promesa y, al cabo de un tiempo, desvela el secreto de su esposa. Más adelante llegará 26 Jean d’Arras, Historia de la linda Melosina…, pp. 147 y 151.
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incluso a repudiarla, como consecuencia de las bárbaras acciones de Jofré (quien mata a su hermano Fromonte e incendia la abadía en donde profe saba). El hada, con intensa aflicción, le informa que su despecho le ha condenado a penar y a sufrir hasta el día del Juicio Final y se despide de todos. En el original francés, la última pena que Presina impusiera a su hija Melusina también acabará cumpliéndose, pues tres días antes de la muerte de Remondín, quien vive retirado en una ermita de Montserrat, la serpiente aparecería encima de los muros de la fortaleza, de modo que todos pudie ron verla, y dio tres vueltas alrededor; tras posarse en la torre Pictavina, donde profirió graves lamentos y suspiros, que a los que allí estaban les parecía que era la voz de una dama. La serpiente, a continuación, voló hasta el monasterio, donde contemplaron su vuelo el prior y los monjes. Cabe señalar, sin embargo, que este episodio desapareció en la traducción castellana, supresión que adquiere un cierto relieve, pues las deformidades físicas, casi monstruosas, que caracterizan a los hijos de Melusina siguen muy fielmente el texto francés27. Quién sabe si como consecuencia de esta vinculación de Melusina y Remondín con tierras catalanas, o simplemente a causa de la extraordinaria y extensa historia narrada, las aventuras del hada-serpiente y de su familia cautivaron no sólo a los lectores franceses, sino también a los aragoneses, catalanes y, especialmente, a los castellanos de los siglos XV y XVI28 . Según Le Goff y Harf-Lancner, Melusina encarnaría la sexualidad benéfica, féerica y femenina, la riqueza transmitida por vía materna, la magia fértil, aun teniendo en cuenta la maldición de su madre, lo monstru oso de su progenie y su desastrado final. Sus hijos, a excepción de Oruble, fueron valientes guerreros, nobles que, como ella misma, cumplieron sus compromisos con la nobleza y con la iglesia, pues aparece descrita como una mujer devota y caritativa, a pesar de unos iniciales conocimientos ocultos que acaban siendo marginados. Jean d’Arras cristianizó su comportamiento y sus actividades, pues a pesar de su origen y de su naturaleza híbrida, el hada se declara creyente en todo cuanto debe creer una católica. Melusina fue dominada sobrenaturalmente por su madre (el hada 27
Ivy Corfis, “Beauty, Deformity, and the Fantastic in the Historia de la linda Melosina”, Hispanic Review, 2 (1987), pp. 181-193. 28 Alan Deyermond, “La historia de la linda Melosina: Two Spanish Versions of a French Romance”, Medieval Hispanic Studies Presented to Rita Hamilton (London: Tamesis, 1976), pp. 57-65.
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Pristina) y socialmente por el vínculo matrimonial que le unía a su esposo (Remondín). Pero, además, para evitar cualquier sospecha de heterodoxia, fue domesticada mediante un baño de credibilidad por el anónimo traductor al castellano de 1489. La vinculación de lo maravilloso con la sexualidad femenina se produjo mediante una adaptación al imaginario mágico de fines del Medioevo: Ca segun yo pu[e]do sentir, lo dicho puede ser verdad ca los secretos de Dios son profundos, jnposibles de ser conosçidos de njinguna corporal creatura, ca los corporales ojos no pueden tanto mirar que puedan las espirituales cosas ver nj los jntelectuales tanto mjrar para los divinales juiçios. E por ende, el poder de Dios puede hazer lo que le plaze. Algunas vezes se menta en diuersas ystorias de diuersas fadas aver diuersos hijos. Como pudo ser, dexemos el conosçimjento Al que asy lo ordeno, ca tales secretos Dios los puso en su seno. Tanto sera, por ventura, la persona de grueso entendimjento que no lo creera, e otros de sutil que avran mas visto e no lo tendran por jnposible29.
2. Urganda la Desconocida Para explicar y comprender la curiosa caracterización de Urganda la Desconocida, uno de los seres mágicos más originales de las letras hispánicas del Medioevo —si no el más original de todos ellos— y su populari dad en el Renacimiento, conviene recordar, en primera instancia, que las aventuras amadisianas que hoy leemos constituyen el último estadio de una trayectoria de más de siglo y medio de la que conservamos sobre todo testimonios indirectos. En efecto, el “Amadís primitivo” era ya popular a mediados del siglo XIV y los modelos literarios que imitó remiten especialmente a las tradiciones de la “materia de Bretaña”, que obtuvieron una notable difusión entre los círculos cortesanos de aquella centuria30.
29 Jean d’Arras, Historia de la linda Melosina…, p. 192. 30 Rafael M. Mérida, “La materia de Bretaña en las culturas hispánicas de la Edad Media y del Renacimiento: textos, ediciones y estudios”, Revista de Literatura Medieval, 22 (2010), pp. 289-350.
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Su aparición inicial en el Libro I del Amadís de Rodríguez de Montalvo31 resulta muy interesante: Gandales quedó cuidando en lo que dijera [la doncella], y al cabo de un rato viola tornar muy deprisa en su palafrén, diciendo a grandes voces: –¡Ay, Gandales, acórreme que muerta soy! Y miró y vio venir hacia ella un caballero armado con su espada en la mano, y Gandales hirió el caballo de las espuelas y metióse entre ambos, y dijo: –Don caballero, a quien Dios dé mala ventura, ¿qué queréis a la doncella? –¡Cómo! —dijo él—; ¿queréisla vos amparar a ésta que por engaño me trae perdido el cuerpo y el alma? –De eso no sé nada —dijo Gandales—, mas amparárvosla he yo, porque mujeres no han de ser por esta vía castigadas, aunque lo merezcan.
Nos encontramos ante una escena habitual en las letras del Medioevo europeo cuya acción se regula también según los modelos cortesanos y caballerescos de la época: una doncella pide socorro —ante el peligro que la acecha o la infamia que pretende cometerse contra ella— a un caballero, quien debe prestarle ayuda inmediata. El comentario de Gandales resulta, desde esta perspectiva, definitorio de su conocimiento de la doctrina en torno a la defensa y protección de toda mujer. Sin embargo, y por esta misma razón, la nítida acusación debería de sorprender al lector, pues ¿cómo una “donzella más guarnida de atavíos que hermosa”, según se la ha descrito pocas líneas antes, puede “por engaño” perder “el cuerpo y el alma” de un caballero? ¿Qué se oculta tras las duras acusaciones de uno y la misteriosa identidad de la otra? La lucha entre ambos paladines, a caballo y a pie, no pierde dureza y, extrañamente, se interrumpe cuando la joven los separa: –Caballeros, estad quietos. El caballero que tras ella venía apartóse luego, y ella le dijo: –Venid a mi obediencia. –Iré de grado —dijo él—, como a la cosa del mundo que más amo. Y echando el escudo del cuello y la espada de la mano, hincó las rodillas ante ella; y Gandales fue por ello muy maravillado. Ella dijo al caballero que ante sí tenía: –Decid a aquella doncella de bajo el árbol que se vaya luego; si no, que le cortaréis la cabeza.
31
Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula, ed., Juan Manuel Cacho (Madrid: Cátedra, 19871988), pp. 253-254.
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El caballero se volvió hacia ella y díjole: –¡Ay, mala, yo me maravillo que la cabeza no te tiro! La doncella vio que su amigo era encantado, y subió en su palafrén llorando, y fuese luego32.
Se trata de un episodio que podemos calificar como maravilloso, ante alguien valorado por sus poderes y que provoca la sorpresa que muestra Gandales. El caballero no logra entender los motivos que provocan el radical cambio de actitud de su contrincante. Y la doncella empieza a adquirir una consistencia como personaje y una mayor relevancia en la trama, pues si ha sido capaz de realizar un encantamiento como el que supone la sumisión y acatamiento feudal del caballero enamorado, con casi toda probabilidad nos encontramos ante un personaje que, en principio, parece engarzarse en la tradición literaria de magas, brujas o hadas (a estas alturas de la obra ignoramos cuál de ellas en concreto). Gandales pretende averiguar algo más, pero la doncella le recuerda que no le asiste una fortaleza que ella no pueda modular a su antojo y le amenaza al afirmar que “que si vos fuéseis el mejor caballero del mundo, haría yo que él os venciese33”. La aparente fragilidad de la doncella al pedir auxilio a Gandales podría considerarse como una treta narrativa para que el caballero demuestre su valor y su acatamiento de los votos caballerescos. Esta escena supone una argucia del narrador en el proceso de presentación formal de esta enigmática mujer como personaje con facultades excepcionales cuando confirma a Gandales su conocimiento del pasado y cuando vaticina el futuro de Amadís. Pero además de los patrones proféticos, también la caracterización posterior de la doncella —su verdadero bautismo— nos suscita el recuerdo de los modelos de las novelas bretonas y descubre detalladamente su plena dimensión maravillosa: –¡Ay, señora! —dijo Gandales—, os ruego por Dios que me digáis dónde os hallaré para hablar con vos en su hacienda [de Amadís]. –Esto no sabrás tú por mí ni por otro —dijo ella. –Pues decidme vuestro nombre, por la fe que debéis a la cosa del mundo que más amáis. –Tú me conjuras tanto que te lo diré, pero la cosa que yo más amo sé que más me desama que en el mundo sea, y éste es aquel más hermoso caballero con quien te combatiste; mas no dejo por eso yo de traerlo a mi voluntad sin que él otra cosa
32 Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, pp. 254-255. 33 Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, p. 255.
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hacer pueda. Y sabe que mi nombre es Urganda la Desconocida; ahora mírame bien y conóceme si pudieras. Y él que la vio doncella, que a su parecer no pasava de dieciocho años, viola tan vieja y tan delgada que se maravilló cómo en el palafrén se podía tener; y comenzóse a santiguar de aquella maravilla. Cuando ella así lo vio metió mano a una bolsita, que en el regazo traía. Y poniendo la mano sobre ella tornó como al principio, y dijo: –¿Te parece que me hallarías aunque me buscases? Pues yo te digo que no tomes por ello afán; que si todos los del mundo me buscasen, no me hallarían si yo no quisiese. –Así Dios me salve, señora —dijo Gandales—, yo así lo creo34.
Con esta transformación espectacular, Urganda adquiere una identidad y un rango de primer orden: a sus dotes proféticas y a sus poderes maravillo sos cabe ahora sumar una capacidad de metamorfosis y una autonomía que la vincula al árbol genealógico de aquellos seres extraordinarios de las literaturas medievales y, en especial, a la dinastía de las hadas. Esta tercera aparición de quien sabemos por fin que se llama Urganda la emparienta a grandes trazos con Morgana, con Merlín y con la Dama del Lago. De entrada, con la primera como consecuencia de la intensa relación que la liga a sus amantes (mediante una actuación próxima a la del arquetipo de la sexualidad femenina maléfica); con el segundo, además, por sus dotes proteicas para cambiar su fisonomía; con la tercera por el manto de protección con que cubre al héroe. En efecto, este episodio parece definir a Urganda como un híbrido de los tres modelos. No debe sorprendernos que Urganda se dibujara a la manera de estos tres personajes tan característicos de la esfera maravillosa artúrica, combinando rasgos de uno y de otras de manera harto singular: capacidad de auto-transformación (de donde procedería su sobrenombre), don de la profecía, conocimiento omnisciente, función protectora del destino del héroe y de su familia,… Este particular sincretismo que revelan sus orígenes, sin embargo, sufrirá una profunda revisión a lo largo de los cuatro libros de la refundición de Rodríguez de Montalvo, factor que redunda —a veces paradójicamente– en su importancia en la estructura narrativa de las hazañas de Amadís y de su hijo Esplandián, así como, por extensión, de todo el ciclo amadisiano y del imaginario literario caballeresco en la España renacentista que reverbera a través de las lecturas de Alonso Quijano. Urganda se muestra en sus apariciones iniciales en el Libro I de Amadís como un hada benefactora del héroe al entregarle una lanza 34 Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, pp. 256-257.
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mágica e iniciar un atento seguimiento de su trayectoria, que incluye su presencia directa e indirecta (por ejemplo mediante epístolas proféticas o doncellas que cumplen la función de portavoces suyos) a lo largo de la trama. La Desconocida participa en momentos de especial resonancia en el desarrollo de la narración, bien sea por su dimensión simbólica —como serían las investiduras de Galaor35 y de Esplandián36—, bien por su función dinamizadora37. En oposición a Arcaláus el Encantador, mago antagonista y enemigo por excelencia, Urganda cumple el papel de auxiliar directo a quien se reserva una misión general y, a diferencia de aquél, encarna un modelo progresivamente más cortesano, hasta el punto de transformarse de manera plena en el Libro IV y en las Sergas de Esplandián (“libro quinto” del ciclo amadisiano, obra también de Rodríguez de Montalvo) en consejera regia y en portavoz de la ortodoxia religiosa. Este complejo proceso responde a la nueva ideología con que Rodríguez de Montalvo intentó bañar, a fines del siglo XV, tanto la refundición del legado que llegó a sus manos como la creación de episodios ajenos al original perdido. A lo largo de Amadís de Gaula se produce un firme deslizamiento de la materia sobrenatural, que parte de la maravilla artúrica (libro I), transcurre por cauces en los que la magia racionaliza o cristianiza cualquier brote que remotamente se le pueda vincular (sin apenas fisuras en los libros II y III), hasta alcanzar una absoluta asimilación religiosa (libro IV), cuando llega a introducirse ambiciosamente la noción providencial del milagro para justificar y reducir la heterodoxia que pudiera escapar a los límites impuestos. Así, en el capítulo 126 (libro IV) la Desconocida afirmará ante la corte del rey Lisuarte, olvidando sus perversidades amorosas y el orgullo féerico de su aparición inicial, nada más y nada menos que lo siguiente: –Mis señores, yo supe, sin que me fuesse dicho, esta tan gran fiesta sobre tantas muertes y pérdidas que por vos han passado; y Dios es testigo, si algo o todo de aquellos males por mí pudieran ser remediados, que por ningún trabajo de mi persona dexara de poner en ello mis fuerças. Mas como de aquel alto Señor permitido estuviesse, fue en mí con su gracia de lo saber, mas no de lo remediar; porque lo que por Él es ordenado, sin Él ninguno es poderoso de lo desviar38.
35 36 37 38
Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, libro I, cap. 11. Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, libro IV, cap. 133. Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, libro II, cap. 57, o libro IV, cap. 123. Garci Rodríguez, Amadís de Gaula…, p. 1628.
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A lo largo de la obra, Montalvo oscila entre el deseo explícito de negar entidad a la maravilla y el imperativo narrativo de intensificar todos aquellos recursos que magnifican la extraordinaria trayectoria del padre (Amadís) y del hijo (Esplandián). Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo ofreció una reevaluación del universo maravilloso del imaginario medieval gracias a la presencia de un personaje tan carismático como Urganda la Desconocida. Su relevancia y talante explican que tanto los continuadores del ciclo amadisiano como muchos otros autores de ficciones caballerescas renacentistas se sintieran obligados a introducirla en sus narraciones, ya fuera de manera explícita o implícita, ya como modelo de la magia benéfica, ya como referente genealógico o putativo de los encantadores que pueblan las aventuras de sus héroes. Aunque Páez de Ribera atacará la heterodoxia de Urganda en su Florisando (1510, “libro sexto” del ciclo), no cabe duda de que la Desconocida se convirtió en un modelo casi eximio. Por ejemplo, Feliciano de Silva, en la tercera parte de su Florisel de Niquea (1546), cedió a Urganda y a Alquife (su esposo desde el séptimo título del ciclo de Amadís: el Lisuarte de Grecia, de 1514), un protagonismo exuberante, que le permitió acabar las aventuras de su ficción caballeresca de manera harto espectacular. Desde esta perspectiva, por consiguiente, la transformación que sufrirá Urganda merced a Miguel de Cervantes simbolizaría también un homenaje (como un anti-homenaje en el texto apócrifo de Avellanada, ya en 1614) a este ser tan proteico como afortunado. Y es que los versos de cabo roto “Al libro de Don Quijote de la Mancha” que albergan la profecía de Urganda la Desconocida al inicio de la primera parte del Quijote apuntalaron el talante irónico de Cervantes hacia los libros de caballerías desde un buen comienzo de su magna novela al tiempo que nos revelarían el eco de la fama de este personaje medieval en las letras de nuestro siglo XVI, convertido en uno de los paradigmas de la magia benéfica desde su aparición estelar en el Amadís de Gaula cuatrocentista. Y, a lo largo de los cuatro libros de que se compone, progresivamente desexualizada gracias a la ortodoxia que le impuso Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, quien transformó su carácter seductor y maléfico en la escena inicial citada, que puede interpretarse como parte del legado de la tradición amadisiana primitiva, en beneficio de la sabia maternal y ortodoxa.
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3. Bucarpia El Floriseo de Fernando Bernal fue acabado de imprimir el 10 de mayo de 1516 en el taller valenciano de Diego de Gumiel, es decir, a fines de esta época fundacional de las letras caballerescas áureas. Bernal fue un escritor atento a las modas y a los gustos de sus coetáneos —en primera instancia, de los del noble caballero a quien dedicó su obra, el marqués Pedro Fajardo Chacón—. Un creador deseoso de emplazarse en la vanguardia de un género editorial que empezaba a gozar de considerable aprecio popular y aún con pocos creadores en activo, mediante una incursión que pretende combinar los arquetipos heroicos iniciales del ciclo amadisiano (si bien su protagonista se antoja más cercano de la figura de Esplandián, protagonista de las Sergas, tal vez editado entre 1496 y 1509, que de su padre Amadís) con sus encarnaciones más novedosas (al menos del libro sexto del ciclo: el Florisando de Páez de Ribera, 1510). Hoy sabemos que Bernal no tuvo el éxito al que legítimamente podía aspirar, pues su novela, a diferencia de algunas otras compuestas durante aquellas décadas, no fue reimpresa, aunque gozase de la fortuna de ser recreada e imitada, tal como confirman una continuación (el Reimundo de Grecia, de 1524), sobre cuya autoría han surgido recientes dudas, y un romance de Andrés Ortiz sobre su protagonista39. Las explicaciones que la crítica ha desarro llado para justificar un eco tan relativamente modesto como éste han ido centrándose, sobre todo al calor de las aportaciones de Javier Guijarro Ceballos40 —a quien debemos su única edición en casi cinco siglos41—, en un aspecto estético, vinculado a su “realismo”, de indudable interés para la caracterización de la prosa novelesca renacentista. Quisiera valorar ahora un personaje femenino, asociado a la magia, que apenas ha sido estudiado y que me parece de gran interés para reflexionar
39 Javier Guijarro, Reimundo de Grecia (Salamanca, Alfonso de Porras y Lorenzo Liondelei, 1524). Guía de lectura (Alcalá de Henares: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 2007). 40 Javier Guijarro, El ‘Floriseo’ de Fernando Bernal (Mérida: Editora Regional de Extramadura, 1999); Javier Guijarro, “El Floriseo de Fernando Bernal (1516) y su continuación, el ‘Reimundo de Grecia’ (1524)”, Edad de Oro, 21 (2002), pp. 205-224. 41 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo, ed., Javier Guijarro (Alcalá de Henares: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 2003).
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sobre otras modalidades de representación literaria del universo mágico más perverso. Me refiero al episodio protagonizado por el héroe que da título a la novela y por su antagonista Bucarpia, que ocupa el capítulo 31 de la obra. La aparición de Bucarpia se produce durante el periplo inicial del joven caballero, cuando Floriseo, tras perder a sus nobles progenitores, que han sido secuestrados y esclavizados, y tras ser educado por el ermitaño Graciano, emprende su trayectoria, movido por un ideal profundamente religioso que aparece asociado, explícitamente y en primera persona, a un modelo sexual de castidad: “en tanto que Nuestro Señor no me diere muger con que la sirva yo, no conosceré otra pecando con ella”42. La alusión a la religiosidad extrema y a la castidad sexual que se auto-impone Floriseo resulta interesante en la medida en que con esta declaración Bernal estaría definiendo el horizonte de expectativas que va a delimitar la personalidad de su protagonista y que le emparienta con la misma estirpe de héroes que encarna la caballería cristiana de Esplandián, pero también la más antigua que difunde Galaz, caballero virginal presente en la Demanda del Santo Grial artúrica y en sus versiones castellana y portuguesa43. Galaz, Esplandián y Floriseo son frutos de un mismo árbol genealógico que, frente a la caballería más netamente terrenal, se define por un ideal de cruzada religiosa. A lo largo de los capítulos iniciales de Floriseo, cuando el protagonista se haga llamar “Caballero del Desierto”, su autor introduce episodios de contenido explícitamente sexual, al igual que hicieron sus mentores literarios, como, por ejemplo, la falsa acusación de violación de una doncella44. No extraña a priori la presencia de un espacio marginal, regido por Bucarpia, quien domina una Isla de la Fortuna aparentemente seudoamazónica, si recordamos que fue en el capítulo 157 de las Sergas de Esplandián, de Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, en donde irrumpieron definitivamente en el imaginario caballeresco del Renacimiento español45: Sabed que a la diestra mano de las Indias ovo una isla llamada California mucho llegada a la parte del Paraíso terrenal, la cual fue poblada de mugeres negras sin que algún varón entre ellas oviesse, que casi como las amazonas era su estilo de bivir; esta 42 43 44 45
Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 27. Carlos Alvar, El rey Arturo y su mundo (Madrid: Alianza, 1991), pp. 179-181. Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 45. Emilio José Sales, “California, las amazonas y la tradición troyana”, Revista de Literatura Medieval, 10 (1998), pp. 147-167.
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eran de valientes cuerpos y esforçados y ardientes coraçones, y de grandes fuerças. […] E algunas vezes que tenían pazes con sus contrarios mezclávanse con toda segurança unos con otros y avían sus ayuntamientos, de donde se seguía quedar muchas dellas preñadas; y si parían hembra guardávanla, y si varón luego era muerto. La causa dello, según se sabía, era porque en sus pensamientos tenían firme de apocar los varones en tan pequeño número que sin trabajo los pudiessen señorear con todas sus tierras, y guardar aquellos que entendiessen que cumplía para que la generación no pereciesse46.
Esto sería así si no fuera porque en el Floriseo la identidad de Bucarpia y sus súbditas se esboza, además de profundamente sexualizada como las amazonas en las Sergas, mediante una inversión más acentuada de los roles de género, aunque nunca a través de la masculinización descrita por Montalvo. En efecto, el trepidante ritmo de la trama conduce a Floriseo a una Isla, “apartada de todo camino de navegación”47, la extranjería de cuyos habitantes resulta menos religiosa que sexual, menos deudora del arquetipo de la virgo bellatrix48, de la secular tradición amazónica49 o del eco de la todopoderosa maga Circe en las letras caballerescas50 que, a mi juicio, de otros mecanismos éticos y estéticos manejados por Bernal. Las mujeres que pueblan aquel territorio insular no sólo serían “las más hermosas del mundo”, sino que dominan a los hombres, que son “los más disformes e cobardes”, de manera que “ellas son las que mandan e los varones son mandados d’ellas”51. Resulta interesante constatar que el deseo de Floriseo por desembarcar en la Isla de Fortuna no sea provocado por la riqueza material que le describe el maestre de la nave, sino “por quitar tan
46 Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Sergas de Esplandián, Carlos Sainz de la Maza, ed. (Madrid: Castalia, 2003), pp. 727-728. 47 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 56. 48 María Carmen Marín, “La aproximación al tema de la virgo bellatrix en los libros de caballerías españoles”, Criticón, 45 (1989), pp. 81-94. 49 Ana Benito, “El viaje literario de las Amazonas: desde las Estorias de Alfonso X a las crónicas de América”, Maravillas, peregrinaciones y utopías: literatura de viajes en el mundo románico, Rafael Beltrán, ed. (Valencia: Universitat de Valènicia, 2002), pp. 239-51. 50 María Carmen Marín, “La maga enamorada: tras las huellas de Circe en la narrativa caballeresca española”, Les literatures antigues a les literatures medievals, L. Pomar, ed. (Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert, 2009). 51 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 56.
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mala costumbre e poner en libertad a los varones”. Es decir, el joven héroe estaría combinando la dimensión caballeresca de su misión y un sentido de la justicia divina tan inevitablemente masculino como misógino. Las primeras palabras de Bucarpia al héroe se antojan una declaración de principios plenamente sexual. Como no podía ser menos, acompañada de “cincuenta mugeres bien adereçadas de ropas de algodón e muchas perlas en la cabeça”52, de gran hermosura, la señora explica y justifica ante Floriseo ese mundo al revés, respecto de la doctrina cristiana, que rige con las siguientes palabras: Bien avéis sentido en este poco espacio que aquí avéis estado cómo esta tierra me es sujeta, e avréis visto cómo de hombres no se haze mucho caso. E por ventura, por ser vos varón, os avréis dolido de los varones d’esta tierra. No os maravilléis, que esto es cosa natural d’esta isla. E pluguiera a Dios que ansí no fuera porque no se pudiera llamar esta tierra contra natura; pero, pues por lo natural no se sigue mengua, ruégoos que por esso no nos tengáis en menos, ni nos aborrezcáis53.
El parlamento de Bucarpia es, sin lugar a dudas, tan informado como cortés y perspicaz: no ignora la ley de Dios que mueve a Floriseo, emplea el binomio “natura” / “contra natura” que imagina en su interlocutor y maneja de forma oportuna la retórica con el objetivo de minimizar la “mala costumbre”. Igualmente, abre y cierra su saludo mediante un desafío explícito, aunque velado tras amables palabras, pues en tanto que señora de la isla no admite la desconsideración del extranjero, a quien previene. Pero Floriseo no se siente extranjero sino cristiano y esta identidad, unida a su auto-percepción como enviado por la divinidad para restaurar un orden natural inalterable, vinculado ahora a la subordinación de las mujeres —como en episodios anteriores lo ha sido la conversión de los infieles musulmanes—, filtra su mirada y otorga sentido a su respuesta, en donde se concentra la fe inquebrantable que ya le conocemos y la sospecha del personaje, realista por materialista (“que por ventura no sea esta flaqueza de los hombres causada por algún engaño vuestro”, en cuyo caso, “dinas sois las mugeres d’esta tierra de infamia e pena54”). A Floriseo no le basta la reproducción de la especie con la que, según Bucarpia, sobra para
52 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 57. 53 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 57. 54 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 57.
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conceder estatuto de normalidad sexual a su pueblo; su credo construye el orden natural mediante la naturalización de unos roles de género. Sin embargo, la solución a tan espinosa cuestión no acabará siendo religiosa. Bernal evita incidir mediante un paréntesis en el desarrollo de la trama que justifique la acción de su héroe y prefiere racionalizar el origen de la presencia de seres tan deformes en la Isla. Monstruos físicos (los varones) y morales (las mujeres) cuya naturaleza se explica mediante dos vías —médica (para unos) y mágica (para las otras)— que pretende aliviar a los lectores de toda congoja sin apenas dilación: E aviendo pensado e comunicado con los suyos e con el maestre, que era hombre sabio, halló que la causa de ser los hombres d’esta isla tan viles era su casamiento temprano e la gran hermosura de las mugeres, a quien todos de todo punto se davan, de lo cual nacían flacos. E como de doze años se casassen, hazíanse más flacos en el cuerpo e muy sojuzgados a sus mugeres. Esta era una causa natural. E otra era que ellas eran nigrománticas e hazían la noche de su boda ciertos conjuros sobre sus maridos para que las obedeciessen, e aun dizen que les davan a bever algunas cosas pestíferas que tenían poder en aquel caso55.
Los varones de la Isla de Fortuna aparecen como unos degenerados por sus excesos sexuales; las artes de encantamiento de las mujeres no influyen en su físico, sino en su actitud de sumisión. Sus prácticas públicas y sus saberes ocultos merecen la reprobación moral y política más contundente, al tiempo que nos encontramos ante una de las escasas representaciones de la hechicería en un libro de caballerías. La solución que acabará encontrando Floriseo para remediar el mode lo “contra natura” que impera en esta isla será sexual y militar, pues ordena a su compañero Roberto que despose a Bucarpia: “Esto harás tomando por muger esta señora e sojuzgándola, e mandando que los hombres no se casen hasta xxv. años e que ellos manden en sus casas, a lo cual les animarás56”. La edad de matrimonio impuesta no resulta baladí; tampoco el papel de Roberto como adalid de un modelo de masculinidad ciertamente pedagógico. Pero Floriseo, no contento con la ortodoxia sexual, también impone a su compañero una tarea inquisitorial (“E harás quemar toda hechizera y hechizos que hallaras”57), que remite tanto a las condenas del 55 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 57. 56 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 58. 57 Fernando Bernal, Floriseo…, p. 58.
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Antiguo Testamento (Éxodo, 22.18), como a los autos de fe de la época en que nuestra obra fue redactada58. Si bien no dudo que en este episodio pueda hallarse un eco de la tradición de las amazonas reinstaurada por Montalvo, me parece pertinente destacar cómo Francisco Bernal está siguiendo la estela de cristianización y racionalización de la maravilla medieval, esbozada en la Historia de la linda Melosina, inaugurada en el libro III del Amadís de Gaula y reforzada en las Sergas de Esplandián. Esta Isla de Fortuna, que parece emplazada en las antípodas, y no tan cercana en el mapa como la navegación del héroe refleja, a la manera de un rincón paradisíaco en sus riquezas, tiene como objetivo definir la doble identidad, masculina y femenina, sexual y diabólica de lo monstruoso59 que Floriseo debe combatir para alcanzar la cima de la perfección caballeresca. Un camino de perfección en el que casi cualquier persona extranjera que saldrá al paso será sinónimo de enemigo. A mi juicio, Bucarpia sería simultáneamente deudora de la reina amazona Calafia, que aparece en las Sergas, y de la corriente misógina medieval, omnipresente en tantas piezas religiosas y literarias de la Castilla del siglo XV y principios del XVI. La imitación (ex contrario) de Calafia da razón de Bucarpia como figura más o menos tópica del repertorio de personajes caballerescos, mientras que el componente misógino y moralista le da la conformación particular de la que se dota al personaje. Bucarpia es hechicera, como Celestina, aunque sin la detallada exposición de los saberes que enumera Pármeno a Calisto, porque el realismo de Rojas (o del “antiguo autor” del auto primero) se acomoda a una estética diversa, como no podía ser menos, y porque sus conocimientos son transformados mediante la misma operación de racionalización y de cristianización apuntada para Urganda la Desconocida, el modelo fundacional de la magia amadisiana según los cuatro libros iniciales. Desde esta perspectiva, además, Bucarpia se vincularía a la revisión moral que el propio Rodríguez de Montalvo ya introdujo, por ejemplo, en el capítulo 73 (libro III) de Amadís a propósito del papel de hombres y mujeres en la sociedad de su tiempo. El episodio protagonizado por Bandaguida, asesina de su madre, desposada con su padre y madre de un monstruo como es el temible Endriago, en otro espacio insular, la “Ínsola
58 Rafael M. Mérida, El gran libro de las brujas…, pp. 110-119, 133-151. 59 Claude Kappler, Monstruos, demonios y maravillas a fines de la Edad Media (Madrid: Akal, 1986).
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del Diablo”60, que Amadís pisa en su camino hacia Constantinopla, me parece un modelo de aventura que, como el de la Isla de Fortuna, a un tiempo se ofrece como programa de higiene sexual y como modelo de restablecimiento de los roles genéricos al amparo de la ortodoxia religiosa cristiana. Ambos personajes femeninos son aquí y allí unas figuras otras, extranjeras y enemigas de los varones, fuentes de maldades que alteran el orden natural y engendradoras de monstruosidades y sometimientos.
4. Apuntes finales Durante el reinado de Fernando II de Aragón (1474-1516), que abraza el de su esposa Isabel I y el de su hija Juana de Castilla, constatamos el primer período de expansión de la narrativa caballeresca hispánica, época durante la que se difundieron en letras de molde, con notable éxito, obras medievales, traducciones al catalán y al castellano de textos foráneos o piezas originales editadas en formatos diversos —narraciones extensas en folio y relatos breves en cuarto61—. Se trata de una época en la que con fluyeron vectores políticos (en torno a la conquista de Granada, pero que también apuntan hacia las campañas africanas), económicos (la expansión comercial mediterránea y el inicio de la americana), religiosos (la lucha contra los “infieles” que tiñe de cruzada estas décadas, sin olvidar la instauración del Santo Oficio) y materiales (la difusión que propicia el desarrollo de los talleres de impresores en los reinos de Castilla y de Aragón) que favorecieron el cultivo del ideal caballeresco. Esta primera edad de oro quedaría certificada mediante una simple consulta de la nómina de impresiones que empezaron a circular en los territorios ibéricos y la relevancia literaria de algunos textos alumbrados por las prensas, como el Tirant lo Blanch de Joanot Martorell (impreso ya en 1490) y el Amadís de Gaula de Rodríguez de Montalvo, que son, además, dos de las novelas más atractivas del Medioevo tardío europeo, la segunda de ellas con una 60 Simone Pinet, Archipelagoes. Insular Fictions from Chivalric Romance to the Novel (London: University of Minnesota, 2011), pp. 95-101. 61 José Manuel Lucía, Imprenta y libros de caballerías (Madrid: Ollero & Ramos, 2000).
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amplia resonancia en el imaginario cultural que culmina simbólicamente en 1605, durante el escrutinio libresco de la primera parte del Quijote. Además, fue durante este período cuando se consolidaron los modelos temáticos y estructurales fundamentales que serían cultivados por una extensa nómina de creadores a lo largo y a lo ancho del Renacimiento español. A manera de conclusión, me gustaría destacar dos aspectos que me parecen de interés. En primer lugar, el hecho de que si bien pueden establecerse ciertos paralelismos en torno a las representaciones de la magia, de la hechicería y de la sexualidad femenina entre los personajes abordados y la tradición que inaugura Fernando de Rojas durante este mismo período cronológico, las diferencias resultan apabullantes. A favor de la comunidad, especialmente atractiva entre Celestina y Urganda, contaríamos sobre todo con el factor de la funcionalidad temática y del carácter pedagógico de la Tragicomedia y de Amadís, así como su difusión y recepción: al igual que en Celestina, esta esfera desempeña una misión central en la refundición de Rodríguez de Montalvo (en un caso vinculado a la brujería y a la hechicería históricas urbanas; en el otro a las maravillas y magias de la narrativa de raigambre cortesana); ambos personajes femeninos son elogiados o vituperados y, quizás más importante, ambos crean una progenie de indudable resonancia en la literatura del siglo XVI62. Sin embargo, cabe destacar que la estética realista de Rojas sigue modelos del todo opuestos a los de Montalvo y que persigue objetivos divergentes —el cierto tono realista de Floriseo no debe confundirnos a propósito de nuestra pesquisa—, como diferentes fueron los destinatarios en quienes pensaban ambos creadores, según muestran sus piezas proemiales. En segundo lugar, cabe admitir que la narrativa caballeresca renacentista del período fundacional ofrece una peculiar revisión del papel de la identidad femenina (y de su sexualidad perversa) en la sociedad y en la cultura, menos sumiso y más transgresor. Oscilando entre Eva y Ave, son ensalzadas y condenadas, elogiadas y vituperadas, magnificadas y marginadas, como si a un tiempo sus autores debieran contentar a tirios y a troyanas, para que unos y otras encontraran la semilla de la evasión y de la ruptura que estas ficciones prometían y dosificaban. Las críticas de los moralistas a estas narraciones durante todo el siglo XVI
62 Rafael M. Mérida, El gran libro de las brujas…, pp. 327-361.
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por su perniciosa influencia sobre la juventud —especialmente sobre las jóvenes— lo ratifica y la mención a magias, hechicerías y brujerías, así como a la sexualidad que escapaba al control de la Iglesia, resulta inequívoca63. En este toma y daca, los creadores, traductores, adaptadores y editores de estas ficciones caballerescas se antojan alumnos sagaces al tirar la piedra y esconder la mano: mostraban sin remilgos y condenaban de paso (o, si preferimos, con una fe religiosa inquebrantable que ilustra las perniciosas consecuencias de la heterodoxia, pero descrita a veces sin tapujos). La mezcla no sólo de aventuras y hazañas, sino de magias y hechicerías, de erotismos y sexualidades, ayer como hoy, les garantizó el éxito durante el Renacimiento.
63 Elizabetta Sarmati, Le critiche ai libri di cavalleria nel Cinquecento spagnolo (con uno sguardo sul Seicento). Un’analisi testuale (Pisa: Giardini, 1996).
Tracing Miss Havisham in the Mirror, or Aging through the Other Marta Miquel-Baldellou Universitat de Lleida
1. Introducing the discourse of aging in Charles Dickens The bicentenary of Charles Dickens was celebrated in the year 2012, showing that, two hundred years after his birth, many of his characters have become part of our common cultural background and iconography. Classic and postmodern theatrical and cinematic adaptations have greatly contributed to popularising Dickens’ novels and characters even further, so as to suit the demands of different audiences through the years. From the perspective of aging studies, some of his novels have featured outstanding old characters that still pervade our popular culture and are, even nowadays, easily identified as eminently Dickensian. The way aged characters were portrayed in his novels significantly evolved as the author grew older. As a case in point, Fagin, in Charles Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist, published in 1837, when the author was merely in his mid-twenties, is often sarcastically referred to as “the merry old gentleman” or even “the old Jew”, and presented as a self-confessed miser, teaching children to become pickpockets and exploiting them, until he is finally apprehended and sentenced to death. Fagin’s bleak characterisation as an aged character remains negative for the most part until his pitiable anguish and vulnerability is ultimately revealed at the end of the novel, while in prison, he awaits his execution. Charles Dickens’ portrayal of the aged was subsequently transformed in A Christmas Carol, published in 1843, when the author was over thirty, through the depiction of one of his most popular aging characters, Ebenezer Scrooge. In comparison with Fagin, who is portrayed as eminently wicked, Dickens’ depiction of Scrooge has often been interpreted more ambiguously and he has also been given much attention
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as a character, probably due to the belief Scrooge was mostly inspired by Dickens’ conflicting feelings towards his own father. In this respect, to use Richard Kelly’s words, “the emotional ambivalence that Dickens felt towards his father (a man to be at once demonised and loved), as well as Dickens’ life-long insecurity about his finances, may have well influenced the creation of the two Scrooges of his tale”1. Throughout the novel, Scrooge undergoes a moral metamorphosis, at first being portrayed as greedy and selfish, whereas when the novel finishes, he is ultimately perceived as a benevolent, and even, sociable old man, owing to the moralising visits of the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present, and Yet to Come. Likewise, when he was well advanced in life, given the fact that he died in 1870, Charles Dickens envisioned one of his most popular aging characters, Miss Havisham, in his novel Great Expectations, published in 1861, when the author was almost fifty years of age. Up to our days, Miss Havisham has arisen as one of the most outstanding portrayals of “the wealthy aged lady”, in a similar way to Jane Austen’s aristocratic Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Charlotte Bronte’s mischievous Mrs Reed, and Oscar Wilde’s sarcastically high-class Lady Bracknell, just to mention some other popular representatives of nineteenth-century literary depictions of the well-to-do aging woman. In most cases, these wealthy aged women were portrayed ambiguously, through awe and sarcasm, respect and contempt, at all times depending on the relation they established with the heroes and heroines of their respective novels, usually men or women significantly younger, and thus, they were hardly ever given a central role in Victorian novels, except for the part they played as mentors or adversaries of young protagonists. Hence, the insight into age these characters denote ultimately comes hand in hand with the cultural conceptualisations of aging that prevailed in Victorian times, which conditioned the way the aged were perceived in society as well as the way they approached their own process of aging. Drawing on Teresa Mangum’s precepts, old age in Victorian times was perceived in a diverse and even contradictory way. Likewise, categorising an individual as aged also significantly depended on gender
1
Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol, ed., Richard Kelly (New York: Broadway Press, 2003), p. 14.
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issues, as men and women were regarded elderly on different criteria. The age assigned to men was mostly ascribed according to their capacity for work, which, even if may vary in different individuals, could obviously extend until late in life. Conversely, women were considered aged with respect to their reproductive capacity, which inevitably involved they were deemed old remarkably earlier than men. In Victorian times, old age became a matter of concern to the extent that the functioning of the body was interpreted as a sign system whereby fixed symptoms were indicative of normality or deviance; the latter being often associated with the aging process, thus ultimately contributing to the stigmatisation of the elderly2. These scientific principles gradually gave way to the discourse of old age that prevailed in Victorian England, often informing the contemporary literary manifestations of aging that recurred at the time. Given the ambivalent discourse of old age, Charles Dickens’ well-known character Miss Havisham conflates as well as disrupts some perceptions of ‘the aged wealthy lady’ in Victorian times. Gaining insight into the portrait of Miss Havisham as an aged woman involves analysing different aspects that give shape to the construct of age, such as the discourse of aging prevailing in Victorian times as well as the way Miss Havisham is necessarily perceived as an aged character, her chronological age and default body, to use Margaret Gullette’s term, as well as the image of aging Miss Havisham consciously intends to project.
2. Miss Havisham and the Victorian discourse of aging In Charles Dickens’ novel Great Expectations, Miss Havisham remains a mirror of old age; a victim of circumstances that turned her into a tragic figure, prematurely aged. In this sense, she becomes a social construct, ultimately reifying the expectations of those that transformed her into what she is: a bleak embodiment of female aging. In Charles
2
Teresa Mangum, “Growing Old: Age”, A Companion to Victorian Literature and Culture, Herbert Tucker, ed. (London: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 97-109.
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Dickens’ novel, Miss Havisham suffers an emotional shock when her fiancé abandons her on their wedding day, having previously conspired with a member of her own family to deprive Miss Havisham of her fortune. This turning point urges Miss Havisham to cut herself off from the world, locking herself up in a decrepit old mansion, Satis House, and never removing her old wedding dress, while the wedding cake on the table of her sumptuous living room gradually falls prey to the rottenness and decay that characterise the place. Miss Havisham thus lets herself grow aged prematurely, due to grief and sorrow as a result of a generous but unwise passion in her youth. Detached from the rest of human beings, except for her adopted daughter Estella and those relatives occasionally paying her a visit in an attempt to inherit her fortune, Miss Havisham considers herself a victim of her circumstances and apparently constructs her own process of aging through rejection and detachment. Hence, Miss Havisham envisions her process of aging as she perceives others expect her to grow aged, that is, depressed, in isolation, and virtually living a life-in-death, as her surviving relatives merely seem to await her demise. The tragic circumstances that befell Miss Havisham in her youth contribute to determining how people expect her to age. Owing to the public ostracism to which she was exposed, Miss Havisham was doomed to remain in a permanent state of spinsterhood, and given her condition, she was also publicly expected to grow old before due time. This prevalent discourse of age and gender in Victorian times necessarily conditions Miss Havisham’s process of aging, as she is socially required to act older than she actually is. Given this cultural and social context, Miss Havisham is thus expected to fit an image of aging according to the demands of others. Inquisitively looking into how others perceive her, she gains insight into the image she projects, in an attempt to match their expectations, which commune with the prevailing Victorian discourse of aging. In this respect, Miss Havisham often plays the game of diverting her gaze from the look of others to the image she perceives of herself, thus giving shape to a series of reflections which create a sort of mirror effect. As a case in point, in Great Expectations, Pip significantly notices Miss Havisham’s diverting glances from him to herself during his first visit to Satis House, hence narrating: “before she spoke again, she turned her eyes from me, and looked at the dress she wore, and at the dressing-table, and finally at herself in the
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looking-glass”3. Staring at herself through the discourse of aging she has imbibed, and thus, through the eyes of others, Miss Havisham attempts to identify with her own image as reflected in the mirror. It is in this respect that Miss Havisham contemplates her reflection through what Kathleen Woodward would consider the mirror of old age. According to Jacques Lacan’s psychological stage of development, known as the infant mirror stage, the infant is able to identify with her unified reflection in the mirror in sharp contrast with her self-perceived disunified body. Conversely, in Kathleen Woodward’s mirror of old age, the aged individual is unable to identify with the image projected in the mirror, as the aged individual feels, in contrast with Jacques Lacan’s precepts, that her fragmented image in the mirror cannot possibly match what she feels to be her truly unified self 4. The aging person is thus reluctant to recognise herself in the fragmentary image she apparently projects in the mirror, thus inverting, in old age, Jacques Lacan’s principles of psychological development. Correspondingly, when Miss Havisham stares at her image as reflected in the looking-glass, she necessarily perceives a difference between the way she looks and what she recognises as her true self; a passionate and much younger identity the mirror cannot possibly trace back but which lies dormant waiting to accomplish her plans of revenge. In this respect, Pip notices Miss Havisham’s eccentric appearance, all dressed in white as a young bride, with jewels and bridal flowers in her hair that stand in sharp contrast with her wrinkles and her white hair. Having worn her wedding dress for so long, it now gives the impression that she is wearing a disguise of youth in her old age, thus wishing to be frozen in youth and actually widening the divide separating the youth of her past from the present reality of her aging process. Unable to comply with the aged image others seem to have imposed on her and which reflects in the mirror, Miss Havisham merely sits by a looking-glass she has willingly half-concealed through a series of tokens from her youth, as Pip notices, having found “her handkerchief, and gloves, and some flowers, and a prayer-book, all confusedly heaped about the looking-glass”5. Hence, there is a constant 3 4 5
Charles Dickens, Great Expectations (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985), p. 89. Kathleen Woodward, “Instant Repulsion: Decrepitude, the Mirror Stage, and the Literary Imagination”, The Kenyon Review, 5/4 (1983), pp. 43-66. Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 87.
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and latent discrepancy between the age Miss Havisham is expected to be and the age she herself perceives to be. This difference has, by extension, been traditionally extrapolated to the general public who has often taken Miss Havisham as significantly older than Charles Dickens had initially envisioned her in his novel. Dwelling in the gloomy domains of her dilapidated mansion, Satis House, Miss Havisham has conventionally been perceived as an almost elderly woman – a truly embodiment of old age – and it is through this image of aging that Miss Havisham has prevailed in the memories of readers as well as in subsequent adaptations of Charles Dickens’ seminal novel. The persistent inconsistency between the age Miss Havisham is perceived to be and her actual age also recently came to the fore when the last film adaptation of Great Expectations began to take shape. In Mike Newell’s film under the same title of Dickens’ novel, released in the year 2012, actress Helena Bonham-Carter played the role of Miss Havisham in spite of considerable initial distress, precisely due to the age Miss Havisham has traditionally been perceived to be. Apparently, Helena Bonham-Carter felt initially concerned about playing her part in the film owing to the way Miss Havisham had typically been portrayed in previous adaptations, ultimately describing Dickens’ character as “a pensioner in a bridesmaid’s dress”6. Nonetheless, Helena Bonham-Carter was finally convinced she was the right age to play Miss Havisham, as Mike Newell asserted that the character in Charles Dickens’ novel, in spite of her aging appearance, is truly in her forties, just exactly the age Bonham-Carter was at the time. The concern of an actress to play the role of Miss Havisham must thus be understandable from the perspective of age, and taking into consideration Mike Newell’s reassuring clarifications to his leading actress, it further underscores the disparity existing between Miss Havisham’s actual age and how old she has traditionally been alleged to be. This persisting inconsistency seems to be rooted in the seminal novel that inspired all its subsequent adaptations. It must be acknowledged that, in Great Expectations, Miss Havisham’s appearance is thoroughly 6
“Helena Bonham Carter plays Miss Havisham in new Great Expectations film”, The Daily Telegraph, 21 October 2012. 22 April 2013, .
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described from Pip’s childish perspective. As a young boy, Pip approaches female aging, to use Kathleen Woodward’s words, from the youthful structure of the look7 as well as from the male gaze perception of age later on, when he gives shape to his story as an adult narrator. From his perspective as a seven-year-old child, Pip instantly identifies Miss Havisham as an embodiment of aging, which, from the contextual and normative system of youth/old age, inevitably involves a source for the abject. Hence, from Pip’s eyes, Miss Havisham arises as a haunting emblem of old age, associating her with former images of death and decay he recollects from the past. It is in this way Pip perceives Miss Havisham: I saw that the bride within the bridal dress had withered like the dress, and like the flowers, and had no brightness left but the brightness of her sunken eyes. I saw that the dress had been put upon the rounded figure of a young woman, and that the figure upon which it now hung loose, had shrunk to skin and bone. […] Once, I had been taken to one of our old marsh churches to see a skeleton in the ashes of a rich dress, that had been dug of a vault under the church pavement. Now, waxwork and skeleton seemed to have dark eyes that moved and looked at me. I should have cried out, if I could8.
The portrait of Miss Havisham rendered from Pip’s perspective necessarily comes hand in hand with Margaret Gullette’s tenets of traditionally approaching age as a stage of loss and decline9, thus ultimately contributing to mirroring the discourse of ageism that also prevailed in the conceptualisations of age pertaining to Victorian times.
3. Being your age, looking your age, acting your age The way the aging process is publicly as well as personally approached not only depends on a set of cultural and social norms internalised through
7 8 9
Kathleen Woodward, “Performing Age, Performing Gender”, NWSA Journal, 18/1 (2006), pp. 162-189. Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 87. Margaret Gullette, Declining to Decline: Cultural Combat and the Politics of the Midlife (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997).
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time, but the materiality of the body also acquires a significant relevance to give shape to the discourse of aging. Accordingly, Margaret Gullette refers to the default body10 to describe those physical effects that aging exerts on the individual body and which also determine the way aging is ultimately constructed. In this respect, Kathleen Woodward has also enumerated a series of factors that influence the general concept of age, pointing out there are social and cultural factors involved as well as biological and chronological issues; the two latter respectively referring to the state of a person’s physical capacities and the number of years a person has lived so far11. As an author, Charles Dickens seemed to regard age as an important factor to typify the characters in his literary works. As a case in point, together with the manuscript of his novel Great Expectations, which has been for years on display at Wisbech and Fenland Museum in England, there can also be found Charles Dickens’ annotations about dates, which provide significant information about the age of the characters from the beginning to the concluding chapters of the novel. In the light of these calculations, Pip is seven years old at the onset of the story and twenty-three by its end, while Miss Havisham is envisioned as a woman of fifty-six when the novel is put to an end, which surprisingly means, taking into consideration the novel in its entirety apparently covers the span of fifteen years, that Miss Havisham is approximately only forty years of age when Pip meets her for the first time in the first chapters of Great Expectations. Hence, Pip’s grotesque description of Miss Havisham as an almost senescent lady comes rather as a surprise when referring to a lady of scarcely forty years of age. Charles Dickens’ annotations with regard to Miss Havisham’s age refer to what Kathleen Woodward would consider her chronological age as well as what Margaret Gullette would appropriately term Miss Havisham’s default body, that is to say, the body carried through time. Nonetheless, this explicit, and apparently unambiguous, approach to age seems to stand in sharp contrast with regard to the way Miss Havisham is perceived as well as how she is expected to behave given her situation as an aging single woman of wealth in Victorian times. From the youthful structure 10 Margaret Gullette, Aged by Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), p. 161. 11 Kathleen Woodward, “Performing Age, Performing Gender…”, pp. 162-189.
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of the look, even from the beginning of the novel, Miss Havisham would arguably be perceived as an aged lady, and this is precisely how Pip and most people around her seem to perceive her: a woman much older than she actually is. This premise underlining the discourse of aging is also inextricably related to the politics of gender prevailing at the time. According to Karen Chase, “when menopause began, a woman was considered to have entered both the portals of old age and mental instability”12. Women were thus deemed to grow older earlier given the fact that the threshold propelling them towards old age was based on their capacity for reproduction, which was generally established to decline around the age of forty. Taking into consideration Miss Havisham remains past that threshold for most of the narrative, judging from Charles Dickens’ annotations, the cultural perceptions of age and gender prevailing at the time necessarily labelled Miss Havisham as aged. Likewise, as Karen Chase argues, old age as perceived in women also came hand in hand with other associated concerns, such as illness, invalidism and insanity, which greatly contributed to stigmatising aging women. Hence, the way the aging body is approached inevitably reflects cultural and social values giving shape to an ageist discourse that compels aging women to act their age.
4. Specular moments and the construct of aging The dressing room in which Miss Havisham often dwells in Satis House is presided by a partially draped looking-glass. By definition, a mirror has traditionally involved an inherently established duality between the reality outside and its own reflection, which apparently renders back its original image in a faithful way. In a metaphorical sense, the mirror inevitably underscores a double-sided quality that establishes a divide between appearance and reality, pretence and actuality, what individuals are and what they aspire to become. In Great Expectations, this duality is brought to the fore when Miss Havisham, as a sort of alternate Lady
12
Karen Chase, The Victorians and Old Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 42.
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of Shalott, reluctant to stare at her reflection, sits by her looking-glass half-concealed through her tokens, while at times, even if surreptitiously, she also finds herself peeking at her reflected image in the mirror. At some points, Miss Havisham makes use of the gaze of others, who become social mirrors in which she can reflect herself, while she also stares at herself in the mirror and becomes another viewer, transforming herself from subject to object of her own gaze, thus ultimately ‘othering’ herself. Likewise, as shown above, there is also the duality existing between Miss Havisham’s actual age according to Charles Dickens’ annotations, and the age Miss Havisham has traditionally been mistaken for, mostly owing to her aging appearance as well as the existing ageist discourse. This duality, as reflected in the mirror, also implies aging is ultimately a construct, that is, a created category determined by social and cultural values. Focusing on the relevance that mirror images often acquire in Victorian literature, Kay Heath has discussed to what extent age can be approached as a self-constructed category of identity in Victorian life13. Following Kathleen Woodward’s precepts about the mirror of old age, Kay Heath draws attention to what he calls specular moments in Victorian literary works whereby middle-aged characters glance at mirrors with the view to gain insight into their own process of aging. As a result of this act of self-contemplation, Kay Heath claims it is possible to analyse the way individuals associate with, or conversely, dissociate from the signs of age as reflected in the mirror so as to examine how this positioning ultimately affects their identity. Judging from their image reflected in the mirror, characters identify the effects of age on their body, and to use Kay Heath’s words, they write their age scripts according to the degree their process of identification with the signs of age they recognise in their mirror image. Taking into consideration these precepts, Miss Havisham also writes her age script when she looks at herself in the mirror, and given the prevailing normative discourse of age and gender, she apparently decides to age by the book. Being deserted in youth and condemned to ostracism by unrequited love, she appears to indulge in her seclusion
13 Kay Heath, Aging by the Book: The Emergence of Midlife in Victorian Britain (New York: University of New York Press, 2009), p. 146.
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as a wealthy aging lady. However, given the fact that she is only in her forties and she is willing to be surrounded by youngsters such as her adopted daughter Estella and her friend Pip to accomplish her plans, it can be argued Miss Havisham is truly wearing a mask of age, as she ultimately disassociates herself from the aged image reflected in the mirror as well as the aged image others expect her to display. In this respect, Miss Havisham subverts the prevailing discourse of aging as well as the existing discourse of gender inasmuch as she apparently complies with the contextual perceptions of old age in women, but truly makes use of them to challenge such prescribed notions of gender and aging. Given her actual age, it seems her aging appearance is mainly due to the gloomy domains that surround her as well as her lifetime wish to condemn herself to a life of seclusion and detachment. It can thus be argued that Miss Havisham makes use of different degrees of affectation to accentuate age, and apparently comply with the demands society makes on her as an aging woman. In this context, Margaret Gullette has referred to plays in which younger actors are cast to play older characters14. Through these representations of old age, actors make use of techniques such as wearing wigs or carrying canes so as to achieve intended age affects, and hence prevent the default body from revealing its unwanted youth. Likewise, Miss Havisham also seeks to put those age affects into practice, initially drawing Pip’s attention to those qualities that necessarily characterise her as lonely, eccentric and in poor health, thus apparently aiming to match those stereotypes that have traditionally been associated with old age. As a case in point, Miss Havisham stresses her seclusion and detachment from the outside world as she warns Pip not to be afraid of a woman that has not seen the sun since the day he was born. Similarly, Miss Havisham also takes care to underline her turn for sick fancies, claiming it was owing to her whimsical nature that she invited Pip to come and play in Satis House. Likewise, Miss Havisham seems completely unable to smile, as if her face had been transfixed in a gloomy expression, incapable of expressing any emotion, and she also points at her heart, stressing it was once utterly broken. Miss Havisham, in clear resemblance with Ebenezer
14
Margaret Gullette, Aged by Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), p. 168.
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Scrooge, is also depicted as having a distinguishing bad temper as well as a perpetual gloomy turn, which are also illustrative of that conventional portrayal of the aged that has often characterised them as remarkably grouchy. In addition to her eccentric personality, her appearance also labels her as remarkably aged. At the onset of the novel, even if Miss Havisham is alleged to be scarcely forty, she already walks leaning on “a crutch- headed stick”15; an item which inevitably denotes frailty and weakness, having been traditionally regarded as indicative of old age. Likewise, her quiet manner also gives the impression of utter stagnation, as Pip remarks “her chest had dropped, so that she stooped; and her voice had dropped, so that she spoke low, and with a dead lull upon her; altogether, she had the appearance of having dropped, body and soul, within and without, under the weight of a crushing blow”16. Besides, Miss Havisham appears to be constantly haunted by thoughts of approaching death, pointing with her stick at the long table in her dressing room where, in her words, she will be laid in her bridal dress upon her demise. Nonetheless, despite the image of Miss Havisham as an eminently elderly character, mostly spread through Pip’s perception – which in turn reflects the prevailing discourse of aging at the time – it is Miss Havisham’s own resolve to stress her aging traits that has also contributed to shaping her image as an ostensibly aged character. Her mask of age ultimately seeks to conceal her real intentions of taking revenge on the male sex, as she expects Pip to fall in love with her adopted daughter Estella. Hence, Miss Havisham, being only in her forties, mostly feigns old age, relying on the popular belief that takes for granted an elderly lady could apparently do no wrong. As a case in point, the most evident sign of Miss Havisham’s determination to look older is her concern to contradict those who threaten to undermine the effects of aging she has so cunningly meant to display. As she looks at her image in the mirror, Miss Havisham resolves to state she is aged and ensure others perceive her as such, thus complying with the prevailing discourse of age and gender, while disguising her actual intentions to avenge herself.
15 Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 113. 16 Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 91.
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5. Miss Havisham and archetypal characterisations of the aged Miss Havisham also remains a mirror of old age inasmuch as she also reflects different archetypes of the aged that have infused the literary tradition. In this respect, Miss Havisham switches roles of stereotypical characterisations often ascribed to old women – such as the witch, the granny, or the vampire – which, given their apparently opposing connotations, contribute to stressing Miss Havisham’s double nature even further. As a case in point, Miss Havisham often exhibits several traits that have customarily characterised the archetype of the witch. She lives in the sole company of her daughter Estella in a dilapidated gothic mansion with dusty furniture and beetles groping about the hearth. Her ways are equally deceitful as it is not until long that she unveils the actual reasons why she invites Pip to come to her house. Besides, from his childish perspective as a seven-yearold young boy, Pip notices the stick on which Miss Havisham often leans, ultimately literally stating Miss Havisham looks “like the Witch of the place”17. Likewise, the fatal accident that finally befalls Miss Havisham, as her bridal dress catches fire soon after her confession, is also highly evocative of the punishment traditionally inflicted on women supposed to be witches. Miss Havisham also presents some features that resemble those of a vampire. In her seclusion, she lives in utter stagnation, as if time had not gone by, with all the clocks stopped, surrounded by darkness and literally living a life-in-death. As she lives in a world of her own, surrounded by death and decay, Miss Havisham also condemns her adopted daughter, Estella, to dwell in the same gloomy atmosphere. Hence, it can be argued that Miss Havisham ultimately establishes a relation of vampirisation with the young people she surrounds herself with, as if she was in need of nourishing on their youth to prolong her existence. Actually, Estella has been aptly raised as Miss Havisham’s instrument to give way to her plans of revenge, and Miss Havisham’s wicked plans turn into action when she invites Pip to her house. Miss Havisham’s revenge entails Pip’s falling in love with Estella and indulging in “great expectations” to finally find out 17 Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 113.
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that, Estella, being a lady, cannot possibly comply with Pip’s wishes to love her. Therefore, Miss Havisham truly intends Pip to undergo the same grief she experienced when she was abandoned soon after her betrothal. Miss Havisham thus lives preying on others, as her plan to take revenge, which consists of metaphorically vampirising a young couple, is precisely what ultimately appears to keep her alive. Nonetheless, Miss Havisham also performs some actions that can be considered as traditionally pertaining to those of a kind-hearted granny. According to Herbert Covey, grandparenthood has probably been “the most common relational role played by older people”18. In this respect, even if apparently, it seems out of benevolence that Miss Havisham entreats Pip to come and play in Satis House and, in spite of his initial reluctance, Pip feels increasingly eager to visit Miss Havisham, even though his interest rather responds to his awakening attraction towards Estella. Besides, Pip initially suspects Miss Havisham to be his benefactress, and hence, the benevolent person that may turn him into a gentleman with great expectations. Likewise, in a deeply touching final episode, as a kind-hearted granny, Miss Havisham ultimately repents and embraces Pip, while she confesses her intended plans of revenge and implores Pip’s forgiveness. It is precisely in this final scene when Miss Havisham appears to take off the mask of aging she has constantly been wearing. Miss Havisham regrets having encouraged Estella to break Pip’s heart, and thus re-enact the same outrageous event she had to bear in youth when Compeyson deserted her. Nonetheless, significantly, it is when she shows her true colours that Pip envisions Miss Havisham as young for the first time, thus describing her repentance stating: “she dropped on her knees at my feet; with her folded hands raised to me in the manner in which, when her poor heart was young and fresh [italics mine] and whole, they must often have been raised to heaven”19. It is relevant to notice that, when Miss Havisham behaves honestly, Pip immediately pictures her in his mind as “young and fresh”. However, it is assumed it is too late to be sorry as Miss Havisham is ultimately severely punished for having transgressed the current policies of age and gender.
18 Herbert Covey, Older People in Western Art and Society (New York: Praeger, 1991), p. 101. 19 Charles Dickens, Great Expectations…, p. 410.
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Conclusions Miss Havisham remains a mirror of old age in Victorian times, reflecting the tenets involved in the construct of the prevailing discourse of female aging. However, peeking at her reflected image and, conversely, half-concealing her looking-glass, Miss Havisham also embodies the ambivalent nature of aging. Apparently, she complies with the precepts of age and gender, given her condition as an aging woman deserted by her lover in her youth, enclosing herself in her mansion and perpetually living in the memories of her past; and likewise, out of grief, she also appears to have undergone a process of premature aging, looking almost elderly despite the fact she is merely in her forties for nearly the entirety of the novel. Hence, the image of Miss Havisham that has prevailed until our days matches that of a remarkably aged lady. Nonetheless, as his notes assert, Charles Dickens truly envisioned her as a middle-aged woman. This disparity between Miss Havisham’s appearance and her actual age is mostly rooted in the fact that she is exclusively portrayed from the perspective of Pip, who represents the youthful and male structure of the look as well as the ageist discourse of aging at the time. Nonetheless, Miss Havisham also plays an active role to feign particular age effects that contribute to highlighting her aged appearance to her own advantage. Wearing a cane and accentuating her sickly traits, she intends to appear older so as to conceal her plans of revenge. Miss Havisham thus ultimately regards the mirror of old age as both repulsive and alluring, identifying with those age effects but also making use of them for her own benefit, thus complying with as well as subverting the social and cultural discourse of age prevailing at the time.
« Hypocrite lecteur, mon semblable, mon frère ! » : le roman populaire du XIXe siècle et de la Belle Époque entre manichéisme et mauvaise foi Jacques Migozzi Université de Limoges
« Le génie du mal a recruté une armée de poètes et de romanciers dont le talent a contribué plus qu’on ne le pense à l’explosion des révolutions qui sont venues périodiquement affliger la France. […] Nous considérons comme perdus pour la double cité du ciel et de la terre ceux qui lisent certains romans que tout le monde désigne… ». Comme en témoigne ce prospectus alarmiste diffusé en 1853 par les éditeurs de la Bibliothèque des poètes et romanciers chrétiens, stigmatisant le roman populaire et son influence éminemment vénéneuse, les fictions de grande consommation ont été dès la « querelle du roman-feuilleton »1 et l’avènement de « la civilisation du journal »2, autrement dit dès l’entrée de la littérature dans l’ère médiatique et de la culture-marchandise, accusées de pervertir les lecteurs (et surtout les lectrices !) sous couvert de les divertir. Ce discours véhément de prophylaxie sociale et morale, dont l’abbé Bétlhéem se fera une spécialité au début du XXème siècle avec sa célèbre sélection commentée Romans à lire et à proscrire, sera repris inlassablement par les élites de tous bords jusqu’à la fin du XXe siècle, les progressistes laïques puis les marxistes s’entendant au moins sur un point avec les chrétiens les plus intransigeants3 : le roman populaire est aliénant car il égare et mystifie ; 1 2
3
Lise Dumasy, La querelle du roman-feuilleton – Littérature, presse et politique, un débat précurseur (1836-1848) (Grenoble : ELLUG-Université Stendhal, 1999). Dominique Kalifa, Philippe Régnier, Marie-Eve Thérenty, Alain Vaillant, La Civilisation du Journal. Histoire culturelle et littéraire de la presse française au XIXème siècle (Paris : Nouveau Monde Éditions, 2012). « De nos jours, la peste est inoculée aux âmes à profusion sur nos marchés littéraires et le peuple, alléché par l’attrait de ce poison, l’achète en quantité ; il lit avec avidité des romans qui doivent leur succès à leur caractère pornographique et à la glorification des instincts les plus bas. On sait, hélas ! les conséquences. Opposer à cette
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le roman populaire est dangereux car il flatte la « folle du logis » et stimule les fantasmes, donc favorise l’émergence d’une identité perverse chez le lecteur pris dans les rets du romanesque. Ces mêmes récits plébiscités par le grand public ont été en revanche ultérieurement épinglés pour leur manichéisme, dispensant en même temps que « l’espoir et la consolation » un prêt-à-penser / prêt-à-rêver fondé sur une vision archaïque : conséquemment, dans le roman populaire riche en péripéties, par delà le ballet des déguisements, des quêtes ou usurpations d’identité, les bons sont bons, les méchants sont méchants, autrement dit le lecteur ne devrait pas être troublé par l’identité perverse de personnages ambigus mais au contraire conforté dans son axiologie par le dévoilement de l’identité véritable, quand tombent les masques et que les identités temporairement perverties – donc, conformément à l’étymologie du latin pervertere, mises sens dessus dessous – se retrouvent au dénouement rétablies. Stricto sensu, l’identité des personnages dans le roman populaire du XIXe siècle et de la Belle Epoque n’apparaîtrait donc pas perverse en dernière instance, même si fréquemment des suborneurs ou des infâmes, voire des pervers, s’emploient à pervertir les identités avant d’être châtiés. (Qu’il soit clair que mon propos ne raisonne que sur ce corpus, et que les hypothèses ici présentées, si elles demeurent probablement valables pour une large part pour les fictions populaires multimédiatiques ultérieures, devraient être fortement nuancées dès lors qu’on s’attacherait à des récits plus récents, en particulier par exemple aux séries télévisées contemporaines construites autour de héros ambivalents : Desperate housewives, Dexter, Mad men, Doctor House…). En me fondant sur les travaux de quelques illustres prédécesseurs ou partenaires de recherche au long cours, pionniers dans le défrichement du roman populaire et de ses genres (Jean-Claude Vareille, Umberto Eco, Daniel Couégnas, Paul Bleton, Matthieu Letourneux) et en y mêlant quelques considérations de mon cru, je tenterais aujourd’hui à gros traits de rendre raison de ce paradoxe, selon lequel le récit paralittéraire pourrait pervertir le lecteur lors même qu’il déploierait un « système « pansémique », redondant, marqué par la polarisation idéologique » épouvantable intoxication, qui éteint tout sentiment élevé et tue les âmes, des lectures saines, intéressantes, populaires, à des prix infimes, voilà quel serait le sérum opportun. » (Prospectus de 1912 des éditions de la Bonne Presse pour la présentation de « Stella », nouvelle collection du Petit Echo de la mode).
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(critère 3 du « modèle paralittéraire » proposé par Couégnas dans son ouvrage fondamental4). Pour ce faire, je prendrai pour fil directeur de mon propos la représentation des figures criminelles dans le roman populaire français de 1840 à 1914 et leur recours à la dissimulation de leur identité, avec pour terminus la spectaculaire floraison au début du XXe siècle de la cohorte prestigieuse des « voleurs de visages »5 tels qu’Arsène Lupin, Chéri Bibi et surtout Fantômas, « l’Insaisissable, le Maître de l’effroi ». Avec ce dernier « génie du crime » et la mascarade définitive qu’il impose sur l’identité, on pourra peut-être alors saisir emblématiquement que la séduction du jeu romanesque tient au miroir que tend cette « feintise ludique partagée »6 aux fantasmes du lecteur. Comme l’a souvent martelé avec brio Jean-Claude Vareille, le roman populaire (français) du grand Dix-Neuvième siècle – et probablement bon nombre de ses avatars postérieurs – déploie des représentations expressionnistes irriguées par une Vision des Essences, nourrie comme dans les sociétés dites primitives, d’une rêverie somatique et ontologique. Plus que des caractères subtilement travaillés, les figures criminelles incarnent du même coup des types à tendance allégorique : le Traître (de mélodrame !), la Femme fatale, l’Espion, le Suborneur, l’Ogre ou l’Ogresse (c’est le cas de le dire dans Les Mystères de Paris !)… , tous pourvus d’une identité stable et avant tout fonctionnelle. Comme le dit en effet avec justesse Daniel Couégnas : « Le « Méchant : sa fonction narrative est de créer le scandale. Sa fonction pragmatique est d’indigner et/ou de faire peur »7, ce qu’emblématise avec une géniale malice en février 1911 le célèbre incipit de la série de 32 volumes des Fantômas publiés en 32 mois par Pierre Souvestre et Marcel Allain dans la collection du Livre Populaire d’Arthème Fayard : – FANTÔMAS ! – Vous dites ? – Je dis… Fantômas. – Cela signifie quoi ? – Rien… et tout !– Pourtant, qu’est-ce que c’est ?
4 5 6 7
Daniel Couégnas, Introduction à la Paralittérature (Paris : Seuil, 1992). Didier Blonde, Les voleurs de visage (Paris : Editions A. M. Métailié, 1992). Jean-Marie Schaeffer, Pourquoi la fiction ? (Paris : Seuil, 1999). Daniel Couégnas, Introduction à la Paralittérature…, p. 173.
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– Personne… mais cependant quelqu’un ! – Enfin, que fait-il ce quelqu’un ? – Il fait peur !!!
Selon la position systémique qui leur est assignée dans un dispositif mani chéen – comme dans la distribution des rôles narratifs tout au long de la série des James Bond de Ian Fleming, telle que l’ a décryptée Umberto Eco dans une analyse désormais classique8 – les Méchants sont donc tout d’une pièce, leur identité est fort rarement clivée. Certes, certains infâmes connaissent leur rédemption, mais il s’agit alors d’une conversion irréversible, jamais d’une oscillation axiologique qui pourrait les rendre pervers : abandonné défiguré et pantelant au bagne de Toulon, le monstrueux Rocambole des premiers volumes des Drames de Paris de Ponson du Terrail ressurgit métamorphosé physiquement et moralement dans La [bien nommée !] Résurrection de Rocambole en 1866 pour traquer désormais les criminels et jouer le Justicier, protecteur de la veuve et de l’orphelin, avec l’appui de l’ancienne prostituée Baccarat, devenue elle-même sœur Marianne. Cet « imaginaire sursaturé de valeurs », « où l’éthique, l’esthétique et l’ontologique, en position de réversibilité et d’implication réciproque ne font en définitive qu’un »9 hérite incontestablement, lorsqu’il s’agit de donner corps aux criminels, des codes imposés dès le XVIIIe siècle par la physiognomonie de Lavater, que la caricature a contribué à disséminer tout au long du XIXe siècle, et dont la vogue de l’anthropologie criminelle de Cesare Lombroso propose à la fin du siècle une version positiviste et rationalisée. En bref, le Méchant a le physique de son emploi. Version noble : le prince de Gonzague a la beauté du Diable, androgyne, italienne et noire, à l’image de sa scélératesse de grand seigneur déviant : « Gonzague était un homme de trente ans, un peu efféminé de visage, mais d’une beauté rare au demeurant. Impossible de trouver plus noble tournure que la sienne. Ses cheveux noirs , soyeux et brillants, s’enflaient autour de son front plus blanc qu’un front de femme […] Ses
8 9
Umberto Eco, « Structures narratives chez Fleming », De Superman au Surhomme (Paris : Grasset, 1993) [Il superuomo di massa, Milano : Bompiani, 1978]. Jean-Claude Vareille, « Les images d’Épinal sont-elles édifiantes ? », L’édification. Morales et cultures au XIXe siècle, Stéphane Michaud, dir. (Paris : Créaphis, 1993), p. 97.
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yeux noirs avaient le regard clair et orgueilleux des gens d’Italie. Il était grand, merveilleusement taillé ; sa démarche et ses gestes avaient une majesté théâtrale »10. A opposer bien sûr à l’harmonie toute française, virile et blonde du chevalier de Lagardère : « Henri de Lagardère était d’une taille un peu au-dessus de la moyenne. Ce n’était pas un Hercule ; mais ses membres avaient cette vigueur souple et gracieuse du type parisien […] Il avait des cheveux blonds, légèrement bouclés, plantés haut et découvrant un front qui respirait l’intelligence et la noblesse. […] Le sourire du gai vivant n’effaçait point la fierté du porteur d’épée. Mais ce qui ne se peut peindre à la plume, c’est l’attrait, la grâce, la juvénile gaillardise de cet ensemble »11. Version canaille, où l’infamie donne dans la difformité : voici l’entrée en texte dans le chapitre 5 des fondateurs Mystères de Paris, du Chourineur, tout à la fois léonin et simiesque, et de sa « gerce », la Chouette, dont le nom parle de lui-même. C’est un véritable feu d’artifice du bestiaire lavaterien : Une sorte de frémissement de terreur courut parmi les hôtes du tapis-franc. Rodolphe lui-même, malgré son intrépidité naturelle, ne put vaincre une légère émotion à la vue de ce redoutable brigand, qu’il contempla pendant quelques instants avec une curiosité d’horreur. […] On ne pouvait voir quelque chose de plus épouvantable que le visage de ce brigand. Sa figure était sillonnée en tous sens de cicatrices profondes, livides ; l’action corrosive du vitriol avait boursouflé ses lèvres ; les cartilages du nez ayant été coupés, deux trous difformes remplaçaient les narines. Ses yeux gris, très clairs, très petits, très ronds, étincelaient de férocité ; son front, aplati comme celui d’un tigre, disparaissait à demi sous une casquette de fourrure à longs poils fauves… on eût dit la crinière d’un monstre. Le Maître d’école n’avait guère plus de cinq pieds deux ou trois pouces ; sa tête, démesurément grosse, était enfoncée entre ses deux épaules larges, élevées, puissantes, charnues, qui se dessinaient sous les plis flottants de sa blouse de toile écrue ; il avait les bras longs, musculeux ; les mains courtes, grosses et velues jusqu’à l’extrémité des doigts ; ses jambes étaient un peu arquées, mais leurs mollets énormes annonçaient une force athlétique. Ce homme offrait, en un mot, l’exagération de ce qu’il y a de court, de trapu, de ramassé dans le type d’Hercule Farnèse.
10 Paul Féval, Le Bossu (Paris : Flammarion, 1997), p. 53. 11 Paul Féval, Le Bossu…, p. 97.
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Quant à l’expression de férocité qui éclatait sur ce masque affreux, quant à ce regard inquiet, mobile, ardent comme celui d’une bête sauvage, il faut renoncer à les peindre. […] Rodolphe la voyait de profil ; son œil vert et rond, son nez crochu, ses lèvres minces, son menton saillant, sa physionomie à la fois méchante et rusée, lui rappelèrent la Chouette12.
Plus d’un siècle plus tard, Ian Fleming activera les mêmes clichés en dotant la cohorte des adversaires de 007 des mêmes attributs monstrueux comme le soulignera Umberto Eco13: cheveux roux, en apanage démoniaque du Chiffre (Casino Royal), de Hugo Drax (Entourloupe dans l’azimut), de Goldfinger, de Rosa Klebb (Bons baisers de Russie), Jack Spang (Les diamants sont éternels) ; mains velues et tête énorme (Hugo Drax) ou absence de cou (Jack Spang, Rosa Klebb, Goldfinger)14. Ainsi guidé sur le plan herméneutique par cette pansémie de signes redondants, le lecteur à plus d’un titre averti du roman populaire n’est jamais dupe quant à l’identité des méchants, fût-elle dissimulée. Au besoin le texte n’hésite guère à l’alerter ou plutôt à le conforter dans son diagnostic, comme dans La Porteuse de pain de Xavier de Montépin (1884) lorsque l’assassin Jacques Garaud s’affiche sous une identité usurpée, celle de Paul Harmant, nom d’emprunt qui apparaît en signature d’une lettre : « Dans ce voyageur nos lecteurs ont reconnu déjà, malgré sa transformation et le changement de couleur de sa chevelure, Jacques Garaud, le contremaître de la fabrique d’Alfortville ; Jacques Garaud, l’incendiaire ; Jacques Garaud, l’assassin de son patron »15. Si le lecteur connaît donc d’emblée les méchants, il peut aussi approuver les Bons contraints parfois, mais rarement, par une nécessité éminemment supérieure à assumer en apparence une identité perverse, celle de l’espion. Paul Bleton, dans son ouvrage La cristallisation de l’ombre. Les origines oubliées du roman d’espionnage sous la IIIe République cite ainsi
12 Eugène Sue, Les Mystères de Paris (Paris : Albin Michel-Hallier, 1977), p. 48 [Première partie, chapitre 5]. 13 Umberto Eco, « Structures narratives chez Fleming… », pp. 196-200. 14 « Cette singulière unité physionomique des Méchants de service confère une certaine unité au rapport Bond-Méchant, d’autant que le Méchant se distingue également par une série de caractéristiques raciales et biographiques ». Voir: Umberto Eco, « Structures narratives chez Fleming… », pp. 200-201. 15 Xavier de Montépin, La Porteuse de pain (Paris : Presses de la Cité, 1992), p. 73.
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un monologue de la vaillante Germaine Aubry, dans Cœur de Française d’Arthur Bernède, (Tallandier, Le Livre national (série rouge), 1919) : « Ai-je bien le droit de faire cela ? […] Va, courage !…; tu n’es pas l’espionne qui trahit et qui ment… Tu es le soldat envoyé en reconnaissance et qui cherche à surprendre l’ennemi… Tu es l’extrême avant-garde d’une armée qui attend de toi les renseignements qui vont éclairer sa route !… En avant Française !…; En avant toujours et quand même ! » et le commente judicieusement : « C’est le pathos patriotique qui est chargé de résoudre la contradiction entre éthique et espionnage, d’inventer une morale patriotique supérieure à la morale naturelle : la duplicité s’en voit en même temps assumée et effacée »16. Bref, lorsque surgit lors des « lectures dérobées » du « roman du quotidien »17 le tandem des Affreux et des Justes le lecteur est en pays de connaissance, d’autant que cette vision des Essences est propagée de manière hyperbolique et constante par la presse à grand tirage à compter des années 1880, qui spectacularise le fait divers en construisant médiatiquement un imaginaire du crime, comme l’ont souligné les travaux des historiens AnneClaude Ambroise-Rendu ou Dominique Kalifa. Mais ce fixisme ontologique, qui rassure tout autant qu’il effraie, ne dissimule-t-il pas un questionnement taraudant, qui hante la Fin de siècle, sur l’identité énigmatique des individus et la part d’ombre que recèle chacun ? Les méchants stéréotypés du roman populaire sont après tout contemporains des névrosés de la décadence et des premiers travaux de Freud… C’est donc fort probablement à une hantise sociétale sur l’identité et ses abysses qu’il convient de rapporter la floraison dans les premières années du XXe siècle de toute une phalange de bandits masqués et voleurs de visages, et ce de manière transnationale et transmédiatique : Raffles, Arsène Lupin, Lord Lister, Zigomar, Chéri-Bibi, Fantômas… Bondissant des feuilletons, fascicules, dime novels ou romans bon marché vers les écrans du muet sous la forme de serials, les gentlemen- cambrioleurs et les génies du crime semblent de fait se disputer la vedette dans les années précédant la Grande guerre18. Tous sont des descendants de Protée, virtuoses dans l’art du déguisement, insaisissables. Pourtant, si 16
Paul Bleton, La cristallisation de l’ombre. Les origines oubliées du roman d’espionnage sous la IIIe République (Limoges : Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2011), p 151. 17 Anne-Marie Thiesse, Le Roman du Quotidien (Paris : Points Seuil, 2000). 18 Voir le musée virtuel : « Popular Roots of European Culture » ; et les expositions thématiques « Fantômas et l’Européenne du crime »
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tous fascinent le grand public, leur charme n’est pas de même nature. Plus séducteur que menaçant, le gentleman-cambrioleur continue à assumer, par delà son panache de hors-la-loi, l’héritage gratifiant du héros épique, à l’occasion justicier libertaire. Si son identité est dissimulée à plaisir, le jeu de masques ne vaut donc pas symptôme d’une identité perverse du protagoniste, et si dès sa première apparition en 1905 dans la nouvelle « L’arrestation d’Arsène Lupin », le héros de Maurice Leblanc se montre pervers ce n’est pas en tant que personnage mais bien en tant que narrateur. Trompé savoureusement par le texte, comme il le sera à l’identique 21 ans plus tard par Agatha Christie dans Le Meurtre de Roger Ackroyd, le lecteur entend d’abord en effet le panégyrique de Lupin par un « je » qui se fond dans la communauté des passagers du transatlantique : « Arsène Lupin parmi nous ! l’insaisissable cambrioleur dont on racontait les prouesses dans tous les journaux depuis des mois ! l’énigmatique personnage avec qui le vieux Ganimard, notre meilleur policier, avait engagé ce duel à mort dont les péripéties se déroulaient de façon si pitto resque ! […] Arsène Lupin, l’homme aux mille déguisements : tour à tour chauffeur, ténor, bookmaker, fils de famille, adolescent, vieillard, commis voyageur marseillais, médecin russe, torero espagnol ! », mais c’est pour découvrir trois pages avant la fin du récit que le narrateur d’Andresy n’était autre que Lupin ! 19 Avec rouerie et élégance, le gentleman-cambrioleur nous convie donc à jouer avec les apparences, sans coup férir. Avec Fantômas, « Maître de l’épouvante », il n’en va plus de même : le jeu de masques terrifie au lieu de divertir, et génère un vacillement inquiétant de l’identité. On se permettra donc ici, après d’autres, et notam ment Jean-Claude Vareille, de poser le démoniaque héros de Souvestre et Allain comme un terminus ad quem de cette bande de héros criminels peuplant le roman populaire du XIXe siècle et de la Belle Epoque. Véritable mythe moderne, et recensé comme tel dans le Dictionnaire des mythes fantastiques de Pierre Brunel et Juliette Vion-Dury20, Fantômas et « Gentleman-cambrioleur » . 19 Maurice Leblanc, « L’arrestation d’Arsène Lupin », Arsène Lupin gentlemancambrioleur (Paris : Pierre Lafitte, 1907), pp. 13-14. 20 Pierre Brunel, Juliette Vion-Dury, Dictionnaire des mythes du fantastique (Limoges : Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2003).
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subjugue le grand public dès son apparition en février 1911 dans le premier des 32 volumes, écrits/dictés « à la vapeur » et à quatre mains par Souvestre et Allain entre février 1911 et septembre 1913). Son aura maléfique l’érige en allégorie du crime, comme le rappelle l’ultime opus de la série initiale, La Fin de Fantômas. « Fantômas n’était pas, en effet, seulement, le Roi de l’épouvante, le Maître de l’effroi, le Génie du crime, le Tortionnaire inégalable, c’était surtout l’Insaisissable. Fantômas, c’était le légendaire bandit que tous les services de la Sûreté s’efforçaient d’atteindre depuis des années, et que l’on n’arrivait jamais à appréhender »21. Fantômas, c’est donc avant tout un « nom lugubre, [un] nom d’horreur, [un] nom de sang, [un] nom de mort », qui suscite le (délicieux) frisson de la terreur par sa seule évocation sous forme de cri et le charme (littéralement ) du signifiant. Plus rarement, car on parle/fantasme sur Fantômas bien plus souvent dans le récit qu’on ne l’aperçoit, ce héros criminel se résume à une « silhouette d’horreur, silhouette d’épouvante, silhouette maudite ! … »22: Son aspect était fantastique, et le malheureux Jules trembla de tous ses membres… […] Il était des pieds à la tête, moulé dans une sorte de tricot noir, semblable à ceux qu’avaient adoptés depuis longtemps les rats d’hôtel, vêtements sinistres qui permettent à ceux qui les portent, de se confondre avec la nuit, d’être à peu près insoupçonnables dans un endroit sombre, alors que tout autre habillement, fatalement, fait un peu tache de lumière et risque d’attirer les regards… Mieux que les rats d’hôtel, d’ailleurs, l’homme avait soigné son costume ! Il n’avait pas, en effet, le visage à découvert ; celui-ci était entièrement dissimulé sous une longue cagoule noire, masque flottant, qui empêchait de voir ses traits et où s’allumaient seulement, comme deux charbons ardents, les reflets de ses deux prunelles…23
Par delà cette magnétique effigie de criminel masqué, promise à une expansion iconique quasi inépuisable dans « la mémoire rétinienne » (Pierre Nora) du grand public via le cinéma et la bande dessinée, qui est toutefois 21 Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain, « La Fin de Fantômas », Fantômas (Paris : Robert Laffont, 1988), p. 823. 22 Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain, « La Fin de Fantômas… », pp. 892-893. 23 Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain, Fantômas. Le mort qui tue (Paris : Fayard, 1911), p. 188.
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Fantômas ? C’est justement là le problème pour tous ceux qui le traquent ou tentent de l’approcher, de ses increvables adversaires diégétiques Juve et Fandor jusqu’aux lecteurs d’hier et d’aujourd’hui ! Car, qui est Fantômas en tant que Fantômas ? peux-tu bien me le dire, Fandor ? poursuivit Juve qui commençait à s’animer. Certes, nous avons vu au cours de notre existence mouvementée un vieux monsieur comme Etienne Rambert, un anglais trapu comme Gurn, un robuste gaillard comme Loupart, un chancelant et maladif individu comme Chaleck. Nous les avons reconnus tour à tour pour être Fantômas et c’est tout. Quant à voir Fantômas lui-même, tel qu’il est, sans artifice, sans fard, sans barbe postiche, sans perruque mobile, Fantômas, tel que son visage est sous sa cagoule noire[...].voilà ce que nous n’avons pas encore obtenu, réalisé ; voilà ce qui rend notre chasse au bandit sans cesse difficile, souvent périlleuse. [...] Fantômas est toujours quelqu’un, parfois deux personnages, jamais lui-même !24
Dans la France du début du XXe siècle, au moment où se développent avec l’anthropométrie, le relevé des marques corporelles, la photographie signalétique… les premières tentatives systématiques de contrôle des individus par l’Etat, Fantômas serait-il dans ces conditions un symbole de résistance à une surveillance généralisée ? Ce qui est certain en tous cas, c’est que Juve et Fandor fréquentent l’inventeur de ces méthodes, le fameux Alphonse Bertillon, mais que les mesures scientifiques de ce dernier sont déjouées par Fantômas, qui va jusqu’à se fabriquer des gants en peau humaine pour égarer les enquêteurs modernistes adeptes des empreintes digitales ! Par delà ce potentiel libertaire dont certains ont pu créditer l’Insaisissable, Jean-Claude Vareille voit toutefois avec raison dans son identité perpétuellement évanescente le fondement d’une force dérangeante inédite : « Et ici éclate la modernité du personnage comme du texte qui le supporte : il n’y a pas chez Fantômas d’être d’au-delà de l’apparence, l’apparence est son être. Fantômas n’a qu’une essence : son masque. On peut donc contempler seulement ses avatars successifs »25. Amplifiant son propos, il s’avance alors vers des conclusions qui nous concernent au premier chef : 24 Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain, Fantômas. La Main coupée (Paris : Fayard, 1911), p. 241. 25 Jean-Claude Vareille, L’Homme Masqué, le Justicier et le Détective (Lyon : Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1989), p. 144.
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[…] le cycle de Fantômas, comme celui de Chéri-Bibi son contemporain, appartient à l’esthétique baroque, celui du reflet et du faux-semblant, du dédoublement et du morcellement irrépressible des apparences. La logique aristotélicienne de l’identité, de la non-contradiction et du tiers-exclu vacille ; les contraires fusionnent, l’unité se scinde, les surfaces et les êtres se mettent à briller et à se renvoyer des images tournoyantes : nous sommes au centre d’un labyrinthe de foire où les glaces ménagent de fausses sorties et rendent palpables d’invisibles obstacles26.
Fantômas ne se contente pas en effet d’être masqué, son essentielle (littéralement) hypocrisie (là encore littéralement) identitaire fait de lui une enveloppe qui dissimule un vide vertigineux, car avec lui la sarabande carnavalesque des jeux de masque n’ jamais de fin. « Dans Le Policier apache27, cette technique du miroitement atteint un paroxysme difficilement égalable » dans le chapitre XVIII« Fantômas contre Fantômas » : lors d’un bal masqué organisé chez la grande-duchesse Alexandra, alias Lady Beltham, maîtresse du Génie du crime, ce ne sont pas moins de plusieurs Fantômas qui se croisent et dialoguent, sans qu’on puisse toujours savoir si celui qui parle est Jérôme Fandor déguisé en Fantômas, Tom Bob, le célèbre détective américain, lui aussi déguisé en Fantômas, un policier de surveillance déguisé en Fantômas et qui finira assassiné, ou Fantômas lui-même déguisé en… Fantômas. Il est vrai qu’on apprendra deux cents pages plus loin que Tom Bob avait depuis belle lurette été assassiné et que Fantômas avait usurpé son identité, ce qui permet d’ailleurs à Tom Bob/Fantômas, tombant un autre de ses masques, celui du Père Moche, de mobiliser la police pour prendre au piège Juve, emprisonné parce qu’on le prend pour Fantômas et libéré comme tel par la bande d’apaches que Fantômas commande et manipule ! En bref, le lecteur s’enfonce dans un texte qui accumule les mystifications et méprises en matière d’identité(s), au point que Fantômas, véritable trou noir identitaire, peut être considéré comme une fantasmagorie, et donc à ce titre un écran à fantasmes. C’est ce que n’hésite d’ailleurs pas à déclarer JC Vareille : […] il émane bien de ce que, faute d’un terme plus approprié, on appellera « l’incons cient ». Il est « l’autre », le perpétuellement autre, celui que l’on ne peut saisir en dépit de sa présence hallucinante, celui qui grouille, fourmille et est toujours ailleurs, 26 Jean-Claude Vareille, L’Homme Masqué, le Justicier et le Détective…, p. 139. 27 Titre fondé sur un oxymore, portant à ébullition l’imaginaire sécuritaire de la Belle Époque fascinée par les récits de crime voir: Dominique Kalifa, L’Encre et le sang. Récits de crimes et société à la Belle Époque (Paris : Fayard, 1995).
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ici et au delà, présent et absent, celui qui agit ou fait agir et que l’on est incapable de discerner. Bien sûr, en tant que tel, il se rattache au principe de plaisir et se soucie peu des obstacles de la réalité. […] l’Insaisissable est celui qui détermine sans être déterminé, qui peut tout et sur lequel on ne peut rien, à la fois l’envers et le dedans, le double, l’autre de Juve et de Fandor qu’il obsède] et finalement de tous les lecteurs, le plus efficace des Premiers Rôles et des personnages le plus flou28.
Tel un emblème, par son succès foudroyant et durable de criminel « voleur de visage », Fantômas nous met du même coup sur la piste d’un processus décisif en matière d’identité perverse et de romanesque, qui ne tient plus à la seule thématisation par la fiction des détournements de l’identité et de ses déviances mais de la relation foncièrement ambivalente que le lecteur construit avec les « mauvais genres » qui l’invitent à se délecter de la mise en scène de la violence. Comme l’avait noté Daniel Couégnas en forgeant le sixième critère de son « modèle paralittéraire », l’identification provoquée par la fiction populaire, lorsqu’elle évoque des relations dominant/dominé ou Méchant/Victime, peut en effet relever d’une « ambivalence sado- masochiste », ou encore s’avérer « jubilatoire, transgressive et iconoclaste » lorsque – précisément comme dans Fantômas – « dans les séquences de poursuite, la relation poursuivant/poursuivi est susceptible d’entraîner un basculement du processus identificatoire »29. Corollairement, et peut-être encore plus fondamentalement, c’est la production même du récit, en tant que machine textuelle à gratifications fantasmatiques pour la part du lecteur que Vincent Jouve propose, après Michel Picard, de nommer le « lu », qui présuppose un assentiment du lecteur sinon au « côté obscur de la force » du moins à sa perpétuelle renaissance, car « autoriser la perpétua tion du Mal, c’est permettre que la série se poursuive » « La paralittérature exacerbe [donc d’après Couégnas] l’antagonisme du discours moralisateur et du plaisir de la lecture, qui sont néanmoins complices ! »30. A faire défiler en accéléré quelques figures représentatives des crimi nels hantant le roman populaire français du XIXe siècle et de la Belle Epoque, nous aboutissons alors, en raisonnant sur « l’effet-personnage » sur le lecteur plutôt que de se limiter à une approche textualiste soulignant 28 Jean-Claude Vareille, L’Homme Masqué, le Justicier et le Détective…, pp. 142-143. 29 Daniel Couégnas, Introduction à la Paralittérature…, p. 177. 30 Daniel Couégnas, Introduction à la Paralittérature…, pp. 177-178.
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la stéréotypie des figures criminelles, à reconsidérer l’ambivalence même du plaisir procuré par la fiction et pris à la fiction. C’est sur ce dernier point que je voudrais conclure : la stimulation de l’identité perverse du lecteur par ce que je me suis risqué à appeler naguère le « storyplaying », i.e. l’investissement et la traversée du récit par le lecteur31. L’entêtante et souvent rayonnante présence de figures criminelles révèle en effet que la puissance consolatoire de la fiction romanesque, et particulièrement pour nombre de genres dits de grande consommation (polar, thriller, aventure, espionnage, horreur, porno…) repose souvent sur un pacte d’écriture et « un contrat de lecture » placés sous le signe de la duplicité et de l’ambivalence, valeurs cardinales du storyplaying. Dans son essai de synthèse Matthieu Letourneux, en rappelant le double sens irréductible de toute catharsis, tout à la fois « processus de purgation (l’une des traductions du terme), d’élimination des passions par leur spectacle, […][ et ] compréhension critique des passions, […] travail de purification (autre traduction du terme). »32, a pu ainsi, en consonance avec les analyses présentées ici, souligner le « paradoxe central du roman d’aventures, qui joue à tous les niveaux du texte » et montrer que son succès tient à son ambivalence dans la mise en récit et en scène(s) de la violence transgressive : « En un sens, le roman paraît condamner les valeurs de sauvagerie, à travers un discours moral, un dispositif actantiel manichéen, et une mise à distance de l’univers de l’aventure (dépaysement et esthétique du romanesque) ; à l’inverse, le cœur du texte consiste en la mise en scène de cet univers sauvage à travers une succession de mésaventures violentes, la figuration d’un espace de liberté à la fois cruel, sans lois et infiniment plus riche que l’espace réel du quotidien dans lequel le héros peut entièrement laisser s’exprimer son libre-arbitre. […] Littérature d’évasion, le roman d’aventures privilégie l’écart avec le quotidien, un romanesque qui, comme la rêverie et le jeu, valorise le fantasme. Le récit met en scène un principe de plaisir triomphant dans un univers de fiction du possible, à la fois attirant et effrayant »33. 31 Jacques Migozzi, « Storyplaying. La machine à fabriquer ses histoires et à apaiser son esprit », Finding the Plot, Diana Holmes, Dave Platten, Jacques Migozzi, Loïc Artiaga, dirs. (Cambridge (UK) : Cambridge Scholar Publishing, 2013), pp. 32-44. 32 Matthieu Letourneux, Le Roman d’aventure (Limoges : Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2010), p. 391. 33 Matthieu Letourneux, Le Roman d’aventure…, pp. 351-352.
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Extrapolons hardiment : lorsque le lecteur s’encanaille avec de mauvais genres aux charmes équivoques, sa lecture cathartique ne lui fait-elle pas goûter aux délices de « la mauvaise foi » selon une autre formule de Letourneux ? Cette proposition fait écho en tous cas aux analyses de JeanMarie-Schaeffer qui, lorsqu’il raisonne sur « le romanesque » et son « rôle important dans notre économie mentale »34, distingue deux grandes tendances, un romanesque blanc , optimiste ou heureux, et un romanesque noir, malheureux ou pessimiste, puis note leur fréquent mixage : « On a souvent noté la tendance par exemple dans le roman grec à détailler les aventures des héros et à s’attarder sur les outrages qu’ils subissent. En fait cela montre qu’il est rare que le romanesque blanc lui-même se passe entièrement de toute incursion dans le romanesque noir »35. Et de poursuivre (et pour nous de conclure) : « notre méchanceté – qui n’est pas moins « humaine » que notre bonté – a elle aussi besoin de nourritures fictionnelles »36.
34 Jean-Marie Schaeffer, « Le romanesque », , p. 13. 35 Jean-Marie Schaeffer, « Le romanesque… », p. 9. 36 Jean-Marie Schaeffer, « Le romanesque… », p. 10.
Vous dites Fantômas ? Dynamique sérielle et identités perverses Matthieu Letourneux Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense
On le sait, depuis Rodolphe dans Les Mystères de Paris, puis Les Habits noirs de Paul Féval et le Rocambole de Ponson du Terrail, la littérature populaire a toujours été friande d’identités d’emprunt. De tous les êtres fuyants qu’elle a affectionnés Fantômas est sans doute celui qui a poussé le plus loin cette logique. Différents chercheurs se sont d’ailleurs penchés sur cet aspect, à l’instar de Jean-Claude Vareille, dans un article essentiel1, ou de Didier Blonde dans son essai sur Les Voleurs de visages2. Rappelons que dans la série de 32 romans écrite par Pierre Souvestre et Marcel Allain entre 1911 et 1913, le génie du crime adopte au moins 33 identités successives, et ses adversaires, Juve et Fandor, onze chacun, sans compter les identités d’emprunt de Lady Beltham, d’Hélène et de Vladimir3. Etant à peine pourvu d’une identité propre, Fantômas ne cesse de s’en créer de nouvelles, ou de les voler à ses victimes. Lui qui est en réalité Gurn, abandonne dès le premier volume ce nom pour celui de Fantômas. Il devient, au fil des romans, Etienne Rambert (sa première identité, dérobée au père de Fandor, son ennemi juré), l’apache Loupart, Tom Bob, le père Moche, le Banquier Nanteuil, le forain Barzum ou encore Juve… Et ce
1 2 3
Jean-Claude Vareille, « A propos du roman populaire, Fantômas et la problématique du masque », Trames, 3 (1981), pp. 109-126. Didier Blonde, Les Voleurs de visages (Paris : Métailié, 1992). Voir les chiffres d’ALFU, dans : L’Encyclopédie de Fantômas, Amiens, Autoédition, 1981. ALFU compte onze identités pour Fandor (douze avec celle de… Fandor !), onze pour Hélène, onze pour Juve, huit pour Vladimir… Il y en a sans doute une dizaine aussi pour Lady Beltham (Comtesse Alexandra, religieuse, Anglaise dans le volume VIII, amie dans le IX, etc.).
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n’est qu’une petite partie d’une longue liste, faisant de Fantômas une sorte de Frégoli4, et de la collection de ses aventures un véritable bal masqué. Or, ces incessants changements de rôles du personnage en font le roi des identités perverses, puisqu’il s’agit toujours pour lui de prendre la place d’autres individus (de pervertir leurs identités) afin de mieux commettre ses crimes. Si Fantômas terrorise, c’est que son nom même, Fantômas, n’en est pas un, mais le substitut de son identité réelle, celle de Gurn, sergent sud-africain. Le nom de Fantômas (« fantôme » et « masque ») désigne donc moins l’identité d’un homme qu’un refus d’être identifié. Cette plasticité du personnage est sans égal en littérature. Elle fait de la dynamique de changement de rôles l’un des mécanismes centraux du récit, déterminant un mode de lecture spécifique ; au point qu’il s’agit d’un des lieux où se joue la signification de la série. Mais encore faut-il comprendre quelle signification revêt ce procédé. En effet, l’un des pro blèmes que posent les œuvres les plus sérielles de la littérature populaire, c’est qu’elles ne sont pas marquées par une volonté très précise d’offrir une vision du monde dont l’écriture serait l’expression. Ainsi, il est tentant, comme on le fait souvent, de décrire la violence de Fantômas et le trouble des identités comme l’expression des maux de la Belle Epoque, de l’anarchisme et de la guerre à venir. Mais en bons professionnels, les auteurs se contentaient en réalité de resservir des stéréotypes accumulés depuis un siècle dans les récits criminels. Série conçue par l’éditeur Fayard autant que par les auteurs, écrite à quatre mains, à raison d’un volume de 600.000 signes par mois pendant 32 mois, dictée et non écrite, la collection des Fantômas ne cherche évidemment pas à faire œuvre littéraire. Le procédé des identités perverties n’a sans doute pas été choisi pour la signification qu’il pouvait revêtir, mais en fonction des effets qu’il produisait. Au premier niveau, cette démultiplication du personnage de Fantômas exprime moins un discours formulé intentionnellement par les auteurs qu’elle n’illustre les mécanismes narratifs induits par les choix éditoriaux
4 Dans Un Roi prisonnier de Fantômas, on apprend que « le marquis de Sérac, extraordinairement rapide doué de l’agilité d’un Frégoli, saisissait alors dans un placard, une camisole de femme, rembourée à l’intérieur. Il enfilait une vieille robe, passait des savates, se jetait un bonnet sur la tête, un fichu sur les épaules, quarante secondes après le départ de Wulfenmimenglaschk, le marquis de Sérac était devenu… Madame Ceiron ». On devinera que Madame Ceiron et le marquis de Sérac sont tous deux des prête-noms de Fantômas, ce « Frégoli ».
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qui commandent à l’exécution de l’œuvre. Fantômas est conçu contractuellement avec l’éditeur comme une collection associant un genre, le roman policier (et donc des thèmes et un type d’intrigue) et des personnages récurrents5. Or, dans de telles collections, l’auteur est contraint d’offrir des récits similaires tout en cherchant à renouveler le plaisir du lecteur par des procédés de variation. Multiplier les changements d’identité, c’est introduire de la variation, au même titre qu’on le fait en changeant de décor (Londres ou la Russie plutôt que Paris6) ou qu’en imaginant un crime excentrique. Il y a un exotisme des rôles – apaches, directeur de cirque, milliardaire, Tzar – comme il existe un exotisme des crimes et des décors. En effet, dans les premiers romans de la série, nous ne voyons presque jamais Fantômas agir en son nom propre (cela n’est plus aussi vrai par la suite). Ceux que nous voyons agir, ce sont d’autres personnages – le père Moche, Loupart, Nanteuil – dont nous ignorons encore qu’ils ne sont qu’une identité d’emprunt de Fantômas. Habituellement, dans un récit de fiction, le nom propre individualise le personnage et l’empêche de se confondre avec d’autres. Or, c’est cette convention romanesque qui est pervertie ici. Ou plutôt la logique sérielle de la collection lui en substitue un autre, qui revient à mettre en crise dès l’abord l’association du nom propre et du personnage. Ainsi, dans Juve contre Fantômas, Juve file l’Apache Loupart quand celui-ci va cambrioler l’appartement du Docteur Chaleck… et l’on apprend bien plus tard que Loupart et Chaleck ne font qu’un : Fantômas. Dès lors, c’est la mécanique de la lecture elle-même qui pervertit les identités, puisque nous, lecteurs, entrons dans une logique de mise en crise de la relation du récit à l’univers de fiction qu’il produit, cherchant sans cesse à démasquer Fantômas derrière chacun des personnages, ressaisissant le texte comme une série de signes pervers, et interprétant le pacte de lecture comme lui-même piégé. Dans Le Policier Apache, les auteurs exploitent le procédé en multipliant les indices selon lesquels le père Moche est l’identité d’emprunt de Fantômas ; mais cette évidence permet de masquer le véritable tour de passe-passe du texte, le fait que Tom Bob, le détective qui traque le père Moche, est également Fantômas. 5
6
« M. Pierre Souvestre vent [sic] et cède à M. Fayard […] une série de romans po liciers qu’il doit écrire spécialement pour M. Fayard et dont tous les épisodes seront reliés par des personnages principaux qui devront figurer dans chacun d’eux », Institut Mémoire de l’Edition Contemporaine, fonds Marcel Allain, 8.75. Respectivement dans Le Pendu de Londres et La Cravate de chanvre.
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Ainsi, lire un roman de la série des Fantômas, c’est être invité à appréhender la narration comme un dispositif piégé, dans lequel les actions des personnages ne sont pas rapportées à leurs motivations réelles. Le pacte de lecture de Fantômas incite le lecteur à mettre en crise les référents avoués du texte. La lecture joue contre le texte et contre ses énoncés, sui vant un procédé proche de ceux du fantastique tel que le définit Tzvetan Todorov (et un tel procédé explique sans doute en partie que Fantômas ait pu être perçu comme un personnage fantastique). Mais Souvestre et Allain cherchent moins à susciter le fantastique qu’à redéfinir, d’une façon originale, le principe du récit policier – puisqu’ils avaient été engagés par Fayard pour écrire « une série de romans p oliciers ». Or, en quoi réside ici le principe déductif ? Dans une série portant le nom du criminel, Fantômas, on ne cherche pas à découvrir qui est l’assassin ou le voleur, puisqu’on sait, par définition, que c’est toujours Fantômas ; mais il s’agit de deviner derrière quels personnages se cache Fantômas. Le cas du Mort qui tue illustre les transformations que le principe de la collection à criminel récurrent impose par rapport à la logique d’enquête policière traditionnelle7. Le roman est d’abord paru dans la presse, sous le titre L’Empreinte, un an avant que soit imaginé le personnage de Fantômas. Il s’agit d’une enquête traditionnelle, au terme de laquelle on découvre que les empreintes laissées par le suspect ont été déposées à l’aide des mains coupées d’un cadavre, ce qui permet, dans un second temps, de démasquer le coupable réel. Devenu Le Mort qui tue, troisième roman de la série Fantômas, la mécanique du récit n’est plus la même. Plus de fausse p iste possible : on sait dès l’origine que le coupable est Fantômas, puisque c’est ce qu’implique le pacte de lecture sériel. La question devient alors de savoir comment Fantômas s’y est pris pour faire croire que Jacques Dollon était le coupable. Ressaisie dans une série, l’appréhension du texte change entièrement. Un tel mécanisme de lecture n’est rendu possible que par le mode d’édition du texte. La sérialité de Fantômas est réglée par la périodicité de la collection : un roman sort chaque mois. Le lecteur sait donc qu’il va retrouver les protagonistes et l’univers de fiction auquel il est familier dans chaque nouveau roman. C’est un nouveau cycle de lecture qui débute 7
Sur les transformations intervenues d’une version à l’autre, voir : Loïc Artiaga, « Introduction et notes. Le Mort qui tue », Fantômas, Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain (Paris : Robert Laffont, 2013), vol. 1, pp. 641-642.
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à chaque fois, mais commandé par des règles narratives, thématiques et stylistiques – des règles du jeu – qui elles n’évoluent que lentement. La mécanique sérielle, avec son nouveau volume chaque mois, conduit le lecteur à attendre, comme un élément du contrat de lecture, ce jeu des identités perverties. C’est parce qu’il connaît les règles du jeu sériel (c’est toujours Fantômas le criminel, mais il n’est jamais présent en son nom propre), que le lecteur sait d’avance qu’il faut se méfier des identités apparentes, les mettre en cause. La logique de sérialité conduit ainsi le lecteur à appréhender autrement le récit ; à lire à la fois dans le sens du texte (dans le sens de la série) et contre le texte (en ne se fiant pas à ce qu’il raconte). Mais pour repérer que Fantômas se cache derrière l’un des personnages du roman, il faut engager un second niveau de sérialité. De fait, les indices permettant de mettre en doute les identités ne se repèrent pas seulement à travers des actions plus ou moins louches (suivant un principe de rationalité fondé sur un modèle référentiel), mais à travers leur convergence avec les scénarios intertextuels que le lecteur de ce genre de récits (les récits policiers et criminels et, plus généralement, la littérature populaire) est en droit d’attendre. Autrement dit, le déchiffrement du texte repose avant tout sur des logiques intertextuelles et architextuelles. En effet, la série de romans est entièrement conçue pour guider le lecteur dans ce jeu de déchiffrement, puisque les auteurs saturent leurs œuvres de références intertextuelles : les nombreuses scènes de cabaret borgne convoquent évidemment le Lapin blanc de Sue et ses imitateurs, le bal masqué celui de Rocambole et d’autres, les souterrains ceux des « mystères urbains » de Zaccone et de quelques-uns, certaines enquêtes reprennent clairement Conan Doyle (pensons au serpent de Juve contre Fantômas), Tom Bob s’inspire de Nick Carter (et parfois de Sherlock Holmes), etc. Plus généralement, Fantômas hérite, par couches successives, de toute la tradition des récits de mystères urbains et de récits criminels. C’est ce que semble d’ailleurs indiquer cette liste tirée du premier Fantômas, évoquant « des chefs tels que Cartouche, Vidocq, Rocambole… ». La généalogie conduit des bandits du XVIIIe siècle à Ponson du Terrail en passant par Vidocq, dessinant un trajet implicite, du récit de brigands des livres de colportage aux grands feuilletons criminels en passant par l’imaginaire policier des mystères urbains8. 8
Même si cette lecture générique escamote les enjeux éditoriaux et commerciaux associés à une telle liste. Sur cette question, voir : Matthieu Letourneux, « Des feuilletons aux collections populaires : Fantômas, entre modernité et héritages sériels »,
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Pour lire le texte, le lecteur engage des compétences sérielles élargies par rapport à la série stricte des romans de Fantômas. S’il met en doute les identités de certains personnages, c’est à partir des héritages des récits criminels et des récits de mystères urbains qu’il repère dans le texte. Le conflit du père et du fils dans le premier Fantômas apparaît comme un poncif du feuilleton ; un notable qui fréquente les apaches (comme dans Juve contre Fantômas) est généralement un chef criminel dans un récit de mystère urbain ; et si un suspect est absent du récit (comme dans Le Mort qui tue), ou si un cadavre disparaît (comme dans La Mort de Juve), c’est généralement qu’il y a un tour de passe-passe narratif (combien de morts présumés réapparaissent par la suite dans les romans-feuilletons ?). Mais ici, le lecteur cherche à rattacher dans la diégèse ces scénarios intertextuels du genre aux actions de Fantômas – c’est-à-dire, en réalité, aux scénarios sériels de la collection. Héritier de vastes ensembles architextuels, le récit en récupère les tics qu’il exagère, comme en roue libre. Quand il y a des passages secrets dans la littérature populaire, les maisons de Fantômas sont entièrement truquées, avec pièce à double fond et décors de théâtre. Quand on assassine dans un feuilleton criminel, Fantômas massacre l’ensemble des passagers d’un paquebot transocéanique9. De même en est-il pour la question, qui nous préoccupe, de la substitution des identités : Rodolphe et Rocambole se grimaient ? Fantômas le fera plusieurs fois par volume. Aussi n’est-on pas obligé de penser cette dislocation des identités et des personnages comme un discours sur le monde. On peut aussi, plus simplement, y voir l’expression d’une surenchère sérielle. Dans le premier épisode, Fantômas se substitue au père de Fandor ; dans le second, il est à la fois Chaleck et Loupart. Bientôt, il deviendra officier, Tzar, et même… religieuse ou mariée en robe blanche ! Tout se passe comme s’il fallait toujours surenchérir dans une frénésie de renouvellement. Du fait même de sa dynamique sérielle, la collection est toujours tentée par une logique de l’excès et de la surenchère, contrainte de toujours trouver des solutions pour se renouveler10. Belphégor, 11/1 (2013) [En ligne], mis en ligne le 05 avril 2013, consulté le 07 avril 2014 . 9 A deux reprises : dans La Fille de Fantômas et La Fin de Fantômas. 10 Pour désigner cette pente des séries vers le délire à force de surenchère au fur et à mesure des épisodes, les critiques de séries télévisées parlent de ce moment où elles
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Dernier avatar d’un genre passablement usé, Fantômas en exagère les tics d’une façon qui apparaît totalement déconnectée de la réalité. Dès lors, c’est la mécanique sérielle et ses rouages qui sont mis au jour, et l’effet de réel tend à décroître au profit du jeu sériel. Les auteurs ne manquent d’ailleurs pas de signaler ce caractère artificiel d’un imaginaire régulièrement dénoncé comme désuet (« Juve, vous en êtes encore à Rocambole et Rocambole est mort… », Fantômas). Plus généralement, les romans ne cessent de dire le caractère artificiel des épisodes, les comparant au théâtre (« je n’ai guère l’esprit à bâtir des intrigues de théâtre », L’agent secret, « ce coin du Bois [avait] un aspect irréel, un aspect féerique, de décor de théâtre, charmant », Le Policier apache), au cinéma (« Comme si le passé tout d’un coup se fût dressé devant ses yeux sur la bande imaginaire d’un cinématographe de rêve », Le Policier apache) et, bien sûr, à la littérature (« C’est du roman-feuilleton ce que vous nous contez là ! », Le Mort qui tue ; « c’est un roman que vous bâtissez là M. Juve », Fantômas). Cette référence à d’autres formes fictionnelles est une façon de signaler que le référent est avant tout intertextuel. Mais elle revient aussi à souligner l’usure des procédés, exploités depuis près d’un siècle. A terme d’ailleurs (en fait, progressivement, dès le huitième volume), les auteurs renoncent en partie à dissimuler Fantômas derrière ses masques. Le criminel se déguise encore, mais on ne cherche plus en général à nous cacher son identité réelle. L’enquête reflue alors au profit de la poursuite. Cette usure est déjà signalée dans La Fille de Fantômas, quand, coincés sur un paquebot, Juve et Fantômas se déguisent sans cesse, sans parvenir à tromper leur adversaire. Au bout d’un moment, las, ils sont obligés de convenir que le truc est éculé, et y renoncent : « ces plaisanteries ne sont pas dignes de nous, agissons à visage découvert », signalant du même coup une mutation du pacte de lecture sériel : désormais, pour le lecteur, Fantômas apparaîtra en son nom propre, même quand il sera grimé. Le dispositif narratif abandonne la question des identités pour laisser place à la seule thématisation du déguisement. Mais en littérature populaire, les imaginaires génériques sont cons tamment tiraillés entre deux logiques contradictoires : une variation au tour des stéréotypes qui les conduit à s’écarter des référents réalistes pour
finissent par « sauter par-dessus le requin » (« jump over the shark »), en référence à une scène fameuse de la série Happy Days.
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pérenniser les héritages sériels d’une part, et d’autre part une lente mutation malgré tout des imaginaires architextuels au fur et à mesure que se transforment la société et le contexte culturel et technique de production des œuvres. Si une telle contradiction est aisément résolue dans certaines formes comme le récit de cape et d’épée et le roman d’aventures géographiques (puisque leurs univers de fiction, éloignés de l’expérience du lecteur, leur permettent de reformuler plus aisément les changements du monde suivant leurs logiques sérielles), la tension entre stéréotypie sérielle et illusion référentielle est beaucoup plus grande quand il s’agit de formes se réclamant d’un genre de la modernité comme le roman criminel ou le récit de « mystères urbains », obsédé par les mutations sociales, urbaines et économiques. Et de fait, en même temps qu’elle dit l’usure d’un genre et de ses logiques de diffusion, la série des Fantômas hérite paradoxalement de la préoccupation centrale de cette littérature criminelle et urbaine, celle de représenter le monde moderne et ses mutations parfois inquiétantes. Du même coup, le discours d’actualité reste extrêmement présent. D’abord parce que la série témoigne d’une fascination pour la technologie la plus récente – automobiles, TSF, téléphone, appareils photo kodak, dynamomètres, cinématographe, escaliers roulants et appareils électriques inscrivent le roman dans une modernité clinquante caractéristique de la Belle Epoque. Ensuite, parce que, même si les auteurs ont abandonné l’espace du feuilleton journalistique, ils continuent de penser leur œuvre comme un produit de l’actualité médiatique : un roman comme Le Pendu de Londres peut par exemple être décrit comme le tissage de trois ou quatre faits-divers authentiques issus d’articles de journaux. Il y a, dans Fantômas, la trace de cette « fiction d’actualité » que Marie-Eve Thérenty a bien décrite dans son étude des premières fictions médiatiques11. Mais les emprunts à l’époque sont ressaisis comme une autre façon de se jouer des identités : le lecteur reconnaît Hamard derrière le personnage d’Havard, l’acteur Pierre Bressol derrière Bonardin, le légiste Brouardel derrière le médecin Ardel ; de même, il retrouve les criminels fameux de l’époque (Jud, Crippen, Liabeuf ou la bande à Bonnot) derrière les crimes de Fantômas. Mais en déformant l’actualité, le roman la théâtralise, et 11 Marie-Eve Thérenty, « L’invention de la fiction d’actualité », Presse et plumes ; Journalisme et littérature au XIXe siècle, Maria-Eve Thérenty, Alan Vaillant dirs. (Paris : Editions du Nouveau monde, 2005), pp. 415-428.
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fait des contemporains des pantins grimaçants, autres identités p erverties par le récit. C’est sans doute un même processus de trouble que produit la découverte, par le lecteur de l’époque, d’événements authentiques, dont il peut avoir souvenir, derrière les crimes les plus délirants qui lui sont c ontés : le meurtre par matelas empoisonné ? Le souvenir d’un fait- divers réel ; les fleurs qui empoisonnent ? Une anecdote tirée de la presse. Le tournage policier pris pour un événement réel ? Un autre fait-divers authentique…12 Ressaisie par les auteurs, l’actualité devient elle-même un spectacle de Grand-Guignol. Rien d’étonnant alors que, dans la fameuse « armoire aux trucs », c’est-à-dire dans le dossier dans lequel les a uteurs conservaient les faits-divers à exploiter dans leurs romans, figurait en bonne place, parmi les coupures de presse et les faits-divers, le ca talogue de 1911 d’une boutique de prestidigitation, celle d’Horace Hurm et Prevost, avec « menottes siamoises », « couteau qui traverse le bras », « cadenas obéissant » et série de trappes, rondes ou carrées, à levier ou non13. La réalité devient un théâtre à trucs, et Fantômas en est l’acteur principal, jonglant avec les rôles. Ainsi la série exploite-t-elle la tension entre les effets de réel et l’héritage d’imaginaires stéréotypés dont l’œuvre propose une version hystérique. Une telle tension se traduit par des mécanismes contradictoires. Si le lecteur évalue le texte en fonction de référents intertextuels et architextuels – ceux du genre et ceux de la collection – il ressaisit sa lecture en termes pseudo-réalistes. A l’inverse, l’univers référentiel, proche du sien, lui apparaît constamment déformé, caricaturé par les effets de fictionnalisation. A cet égard, le masque et les changements d’identité expriment parfaitement la relation ambiguë de la série à la réalité référentielle. La fonction irréalisante du masque et du jeu des identités rappelle ce que le théoricien de la fiction Kendall Walton associe aux « props », objets ou gestes ayant valeur de « soutiens », de « supports » de fiction14. Le bâton que l’on prend pour se battre à l’épée est un « prop » parce qu’il désigne à la fois l’artifice et le sérieux du jeu. De même, le masque de carnaval 12 Voir le dossier critique des volumes I et II de : Pierre Souvestre, Marcel Allain, Fantômas (Paris : Robert Laffont, 2013) ; Loïc Artiaga, Matthieu Letourneux, Fantômas, Biographie d’un criminel imaginaire (Paris : Les Prairies ordinaires, 2013). 13 Armoire aux trucs, Institut Mémoire de l’Edition Contemporaine, fonds Marcel Allain, 6.11. 14 Kendall Walton, Mimesis as Make-Believe (Harvard : Harvard University Press, 1993).
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est un « prop » parce qu’il ne cherche pas à imiter l’identité de l’être qu’il reprend (monstre, animal, célébrité), mais à en exhiber le caractère fictif à travers une caricature grimaçante. De même enfin, en littérature populaire, les stéréotypes et les scénarios intertextuels, jouent le rôle de « props », dans la mesure où, au sein de ces « props » que sont les conventions du récit de fiction15, ils déterminent des règles du jeu spécifiques, celles du genre et des autres logiques sérielles. Ils servent d’abord à circonscrire un espace conventionnel de la fiction, ce que Goffman appelle un cadre de l’expérience modalisateur16. S’ils mettent en évidence le caractère ludique du discours, dans son écart avec le réel, c’est pour faciliter l’immersion fictionnelle. Dans Fantômas, comme dans le reste de la littérature po pulaire, les stéréotypes explicitent la nature conventionnelle de la fiction et le pacte de lecture sériel. Mais du même coup, en tant que props, que « supports de fiction », ils lancent le jeu de la fiction, produisent un effet de vraisemblance architextuelle et facilitent la suspension volontaire de l’incrédulité. Le lecteur joue le jeu de la fiction, tremble pour les personnages et est horrifié par les crimes de Fantômas, parce qu’il sait que tout cela n’est qu’un jeu. Or, la logique sérielle de la collection à personnage récurrent tend à concentrer autour de la fonction-Fantômas ce principe du « prop ». Acteur prédéterminé de tous les épisodes criminels, mais aussi de la dynamique narrative conduisant du masque au dévoilement, Fantômas organise les principaux scénarios intertextuels du récit. Traquer Fantômas pour le démasquer correspond à la fois à la dynamique narrative et au processus de lecture. Le lecteur sait que Fantômas est l’élément par lequel le récit glisse d’une affirmation de la familiarité du monde à l’explicitation de sa nature radicalement fictionnelle (jusqu’au délire) et conventionnelle, puisque, dans le récit, il est celui qui peut tout – piéger un grand magasin ou devenir qui il souhaite. Autrement dit, le personnage de Fantômas thématise dans la diégèse la fonction de fictionnalisation qui lui est associée dans la narration. Or, s’il joue le rôle de prop, on peut supposer que Fantômas engage le processus de fictionnalisation pour mieux produire un effet de réel. Tout comme les stéréotypes n’ont de sens que s’ils produisent de la vraisemblance, le mouvement irréalisant associé à Fantômas est reformulé 15 Sur l’idée que le récit de fiction fonctionne comme un jeu, on renverra à : Michel Picard, La Lecture comme jeu (Paris : Editions de Minuit, 1986). 16 Erving Goffman, Les Cadres de l’expérience (Paris : Editions de Minuit, 1991).
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à l’intérieur de la fiction comme étant le plus sérieux, c’est-à-dire le plus effrayant, le plus agressif. Et de fait, même si ses actions sont excentriques jusqu’à l’absurde (remplacer un parfum par du vitriol, se substituer au Tzar), elles représentent par leur démesure grotesque même ce qui doit horrifier au premier chef le lecteur. Fantômas est un monstre, et si l’altération qu’il produit dans la réalité n’est qu’un jeu de fiction, les conventions du récit consistent pour le lecteur et les auteurs à engager la logique de l’inquiétante étrangeté, fantastique et terrifiante, ou de la sidération horrifiée. Dès lors, on comprend mieux la fonction des incessants changements d’identité du personnage. Ils ne font rien d’autre que de métaphoriser, dans le récit, cette logique réversible de fictionnalisation : tout n’est qu’affaire de déguisements, de postiches, de costumes, de trucs de magicien et de tours de passe-passe, bref, d’une fiction qui se donne comme telle. Mais ce motif, en même temps qu’il présente la série comme une vaste machine à produire de la fiction, insiste sur le fait que les masques sont autant ceux du carnaval que ceux du criminel – entre le plaisir du jeu fictionnel et le sérieux de l’univers de fiction. Le fait que Marcel Allain ait conservé, dans ses affaires, toute une documentation consacrée au « cabaret du néant », ce débit de boisson qui proposait, dans un cadre horrifique de caveau, un spectacle mélangeant illusionnisme grand-guignolesque et farces bon enfant, est révélateur de l’importance qu’avait pour l’auteur l’articulation des deux faces de la fiction. Contrairement à ce qu’on pense parfois, il n’y a pas de contradiction entre la théâtralité assumée du récit et la peur. Au contraire, les deux sont étroitement liés. Aucune scène ne révèle l’ambiguïté de l’œuvre aussi bien que le bal masqué dans Le Policier Apache au moment où apparaît un nouveau convive : « costume terrible ! figure dramatique… personnage d’épouvante ! on le nommait, ce masque […] : ‘- Fantômas ! c’est un Fantômas !…;’ » Il s’agit d’un Fantômas et non de Fantômas, car ce n’est qu’un déguisement. C’est le policier Tom Bob qui l’a enfilé (Tom Bob qui est lui-même en réalité Fantômas… Autrement dit, Fantômas déguisé en Fantômas). Bientôt apparaît un deuxième Fantômas, Fandor cette fois. Puis on découvre le cadavre d’un troisième Fantômas : il s’agit d’un agent de police, assassiné dans le jardin. Une telle révélation arrache ces mots à Fandor : « mais il y a donc trois Fantômas ? » - « Il y en avait quatre ou cinq, répondit lady Beltham, je ne sais plus moi-même ! » La surenchère conduit à la fiction généralisée, à l’irréalisme délirant. Mais elle conduit aussi à la mort et au drame.
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On le voit, la valeur de l’ensemble des masques, trucs et déguisements diffère profondément selon qu’on les considère en termes de narration ou de diégèse, c’est-à-dire d’un côté ou de l’autre du « prop » – du procédé signalant le pacte de lecture fictionnalisant. Expression pour le lecteur d’une fiction qui manifeste ses artifices, les changements d’identité annoncent, pour les personnages, une tromperie aux conséquences tragiques conduisant à des morts violentes. On retrouve la distinction bien repérée par Jean-Marie Schaeffer entre ordre ludique de la fiction et ordre sérieux de la tromperie17. Ce double niveau – sérieux de la diégèse, jeu de la narration – permet au lecteur d’appréhender l’œuvre aux deux niveaux de la fiction : caractère ludique de la dynamique fictionnalisante, mais sérieux, dans la fiction, des objets figurés. C’est retrouver évidemment des principes cathartiques bien connus, et la « maîtrise de la situation » que permettent selon Freud, les mécanismes fictionnalisants18. Ils sont ici redoublés par l’obsession du déguisement et du théâtre, au croisement de la terreur du criminel sans visage et des trucs de magicien. L’inquiétude n’est qu’un jeu, mais le jeu reste inquiétant. Dès lors, rien n’empêche le lecteur de chercher à donner sens aux changements d’identité extravagants, ou à la course-poursuite sans fin pour démasquer Fantômas. Vision d’une société réduite à un jeu de masques, modernité comme surface clinquante cachant mal une sauvagerie profonde toujours prête à rejaillir, criminalité invisible et polymorphe qui s’infiltre partout… le lecteur peut d’autant plus facilement interpréter le jeu des masques que la tradition du feuilleton criminel avait suscité de telles interprétations bien avant Fantômas19. Mais rien n’empêche de relire cette version en termes esthétiques, et les avant-gardes et les surréalistes feront de cette dynamique l’expression d’une agression contre le goût bourgeois20 La supposée intention de signifier des auteurs importe moins que les effets de sens produits par les mécanismes sériels – ceux de la collection et ceux du
17 Jean-Marie Schaeffer, Pourquoi la fiction (Paris : Seuil, 1999). 18 Sigmund Freud, « Personnages psychopathiques sur la scène », Revue française de psychanalyse, 44/1 (1980), pp. 177-183. 19 Matthieu Letourneux, « Paris, terre d’aventures ; La construction d’un espace exo tique dans les récits de mystères urbains », Le voyage à Paris, Gabrielle ChamaratMalandain, Claude Leroy, éds. (Nanterre : RITM, 2007). 20 Robin Walz, Pulp Surrealism : Insolent Popular Culture in Early Twentieth-Century France (Berkeley : University of California Press, 2000).
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genre dont elle a hérité les imaginaires. Ces significations n’ont pas même à être intentionnelles, puisque la logique du récit invite aussi à l’interrogation inquiète du sens, derrière les apparences et les identités trompeuses, et appelle à l’interprétation. D’autant que les déguisements excentriques de Fantômas ne contredisent nullement l’idée d’une peinture de la société contemporaine. Car ces identités que Fantômas met en crise ne sont pas neutres. Homme d’affaire, banquier, médecin, policier, juge mais aussi concierge, vagabond, infirmier… la succession des rôles le dit : ce sont les piliers de la société moderne qui servent de masques à Fantômas, produisant, par leur énumération seule, un paradoxal effet de réel, alors même que le personnage irréalise le monde à coup de tours de passe-passe. Ce qu’expriment les déguisements de Fantômas, c’est une logique de réversibilité de la fiction sérielle, entre jeu réglé et illusion référentielle. Fantômas fait de la société tout entière un théâtre à trucs, un spectacle de prestidigitateur, mais il incite dans un même mouvement le lecteur à trembler devant ses artifices, et à interroger fiévreusement le sens, ou sa béance. En outrant les processus sériels, Fantômas révèle l’importance des mécanismes du jeu dans les productions populaires. Dans ces fictions, les stéréotypes et les scénarios intertextuels, mais aussi tous les procédés visant à révéler les artifices du récit, fonctionnent comme des « props », « soutiens » et « supports » de la fiction. Comme tels, ils invitent à prendre au sérieux leurs intrigues outrées, précisément parce que celles-ci s’affirment artificielles. C’est ce qui permet aussi aux œuvres de se nourrir des héritages architextuels les plus stéréotypés, tout en prétendant parler du monde et de la réalité contemporaine. C’est sans doute parce que la collection des Fantômas se situe à une position charnière qu’elle peut ainsi expliciter ces logiques en les exagérant. Dernier rejeton d’une longue tradition du feuilleton criminel dont il hérite des imaginaires, Fantômas en dévoile les mécanismes par son exagération, et réduit le monde à des déguisements, des masques. Cela vient de ce qu’il appartient déjà à une autre logique sérielle, marquée par ses contraintes propres, non plus celles de la presse et du feuilleton, mais celle des collections standardisées. Dès lors, la surenchère des masques et des identités perverties métaphorise aussi l’écart de l’œuvre par rapport à ses héritages. Fantômas peut révéler les mécanismes d’un genre dont il offre le souvenir grimaçant, comme le font ses déguisements multiples. C’est en définitive cette identité – celle des héritages sériels – que pervertit Fantômas par le jeu de masques.
Helpless and Invisible: Female Identity, Invalidism and the Cult of True Womanhood in Ellen Glasgow’s The Miller of Old Church Emma Domínguez-Rué Universitat de Lleida
He likes us that way. He keeps us shut up in houses and tied up in clothes, and says it isn’t proper for us to do anything to develop strength, and he only marries the weak ones1.
Woman’s dialogue with Mother Nature in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s s tory “Improving on Nature” is an aptly ironic portrait of the socio-politicomedical constraints placed upon upper- and middle-class women in the nineteenth century, the fin de siècle, and the first decades of the twentieth century. As this paper seeks to illustrate, the overtly misogynistic attitude that permeated religious, social and medical predicaments in the Victorian period often pushed women into serious states of illness, chronic inva lidism, or even serious mental disorders. The cult of True Womanhood conveniently idealised maternity and defined the virtues of obedience, piety and passivity as essentially feminine, while it condemned the desire of an education or the practice of birth control as unnatural and dangerous to women and to the whole of society. Medical men of Victorian England and America consciously or unconsciously helped to justify gender roles and women’s seclusion in the domestic on the grounds that their specific physiology made them slaves of their reproductive system. As women’s ovaries presumably controlled their lives and their behaviour, genitals determined social roles, and doctors urged mothers to remind their daughters that any deviation from their natural and legitimate functions as wives and mothers could ruin their health forever. Athena Vrettos remarks on the fact that advice books also 1
Charlotte Perkins, “Improving on Nature”, The Yellow Wallpaper and Selected Short Stories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Denise D. Knight, ed. (London: Associated University Presses, 1994), p. 214.
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helped both to naturalise and pathologise women’s symptoms of ill health. By instructing women to be vigilant upon any “dangerous signs” in themselves and others, they socialised them into becoming “narcissistic watchdogs of their own symptoms while suggesting that they lacked […] the capacity to solve the problems their own bodies “naturally” created”2. As Jill Matus also notes in Unstable Bodies, the manipulation and distortion of the concepts of nature/natural is crucial to the medical and socio-political discourse of the period: “disputed constructions of ‘nature’ signal the cultural stakes involved in representations of sexual difference”3. Judith Butler similarly points that “gender is not to culture as sex is to nature; gender is also the discursive/cultural means by which ‘sexed nature’ or ‘natural sex’ is produced and established as pre-discursive […] the difference between nature and culture is always a function of culture”4. The control of menstrual functions was therefore crucial to the proper development of female health, and the first crisis arrived with puberty. Physicians seemed to ignore the physical and psychological trauma the arrival of menstruation represented for girls who, accustomed to “the freedom of androgynous childhood”, as Showalter puts it, found themselves imprisoned in long skirts and the restricting roles of the adult female. Physical exercise, study, and social life outside home and church were either strictly forbidden or severely curtailed, and physical and mental breakdown frequently appeared as a result of such strong social and sexual repression. As Showalter quotes from a Victorian doctor, “puberty, which gives man the knowledge of greater power, gives to woman the conviction of her dependence”5. Similarly, the end of women’s reproductive period, like its beginning, implied a series of social and emotional conflicts that doctors could only translate as side-effects of the changes in women’s reproductive organs.
2 3 4 5
Athena Vrettos, Somatic Fictions: Imagining Illness in Victorian Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 24. Jill L. Matus, Unstable Bodies: Victorian Representations of Sexuality and Maternity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 2. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 7. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 18301980 (London: Virago Press, 1987), pp. 56-57.
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Social conventions, dressing codes, dietary habits (girls were d eprived from rich foods, as they were thought to induce masturbation), and heavy restrictions on physical exercise (corsets, skirts and petticoats made exercise impossible) often left women confined and repressed, often malnourished. As Janet Beer and Ann Heilmann contend, “the physical confinement of women in unnatural and cramping clothes is only too apt a reflection of their cultural-conceptual immurement in injurious roles where they are forced to represent the extremes of Angel or Whore”6. Mothers and doctors hardly ever informed young girls about their menstrual cycles except for the warning that they would cause weakness and suffering. As Diane Price Herndl similarly posits, the medical discourse of the period provided ambiguous and often contradictory definitions of womanhood, although it invariably stated the evidence of woman’s inferiority and of her inherent weakness, which caused a natural proclivity to sickness: She was pure and sexual, innocent and guilty, capable of running a large household but incapable of professional work […] encouraged by social mores to bear fewer children but condemned for using birth control or abortion, expected to maintain her social standing but risking her health by seeking too much pleasure or luxury. American culture and medicine made it clear, however, that she was in constant danger of illness and sure to experience much pain during her life7.
The ideal of True Womanhood and its adjoining Cult of Invalidism regarded women as angels of purity and innocence, and thus as necessarily “less carnal” and physically weaker than men. Besides, middle-class women who displayed symptoms of emaciation showed their decorative status – and their husbands’ wealth in being able to afford such an unproductive wife – as opposed to the large and fleshy working-class women. As a result, the notion that a true lady had to be petite and fragile in order to emphasise her angelic, bodiless, and passionless nature encouraged delicacy and an unnatural weakness in women. As Anne Douglas Wood observes,
6
7
Janet Beer, Ann Heilmann, “‘If I Were a Man’: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Sarah Grand and the Sexual Education of Girls”, Special Relationships: Anglo-American Affinities and Antagonisms 1854-1936, Janet Beer, Bridget Bennett, eds. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), p.182. Diane Price, Invalid Women: Figuring Feminine Illness in American Fiction and Culture, 1840-1940 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 38.
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a sizable number of American women wanted or needed to consider themselves ill. Equally important, the self-diagnosis of these women was confirmed, even encouraged, by their society […] Dewees, professor of midwifery at the University of Pennsylvania in the early part of the nineteenth century, stated in his standard work on the diseases of females that woman was subject to twice the sicknesses that affected man just because she has a womb8.
Control of food intake was crucial in achieving this appearance of sickly loveliness, so fasting and vomiting were common practices among young women of the period, who wished (and imperiously needed) to appear attractive to the male gaze. In her introduction to Victorian Literature and the Anorexic Body, Anna Krugovoy Silver observes that the erotic appeal of a woman’s small waist derives from her physical weakness and vulnerability, especially when juxtaposed with man’s strength. Symbolically, the waist signifies woman’s ethereal nature, the aerial qualities that separate her from man; a woman’s light weight suggests her spiritual, rather than carnal, nature. Her “angelic” nature is thus reflected in her weak, slight body […] they understood her weakness and invalidism, demonstrated by her lack of appetite, as closely connected to a hyperbolic femininity9.
Several critics and scholars have defined the invalid or convalescent woman as an extreme version – or, as Smith-Rosenberg puts it, “a stark caricature” – of patriarchal notions of femininity10. The figure of the invalid thus exemplifies the romantic ideal of woman as body and nature (as opposed to man as mind and civilisation) as well as endorsing the Victorian cult of True Womanhood that views women as weak, delicate, pure and dependent. As Price Herndl observes, the decade of the 1840s marks the beginning of the establishment of professional (male) doctors in British and America, and the gradual depiction of women as increasingly weak and sickly, sick enough to need a doctor at all times11. 8
Ann Douglas, “‘The Fashionable Diseases’: Women’s Complaints and their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America”, Clio’s Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, Mary S. Hartman, Lois Banner, eds. (New York: Octagon Books, 1974), pp. 2-3. 9 Anna Krugovoy, Victorian Literature and the Anorexic Body (Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 44. 10 Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), p. 207. 11 Diane Price, Invalid Women: Figuring Feminine Illness in American…, p. 17.
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Invalidism as a symbol of women’s powerless position in Victorian America and their struggle for self-definition constitute a major theme in the fiction of the Virginia writer Ellen Glasgow (Richmond, 1873-1945). Glasgow explores the cult of invalidism as a metaphor to reveal the mechanisms of patriarchy: her novels warn against adhering to its values, since women are moulded to become paragons of extreme selflessness and ultimately reduced to virtual inexistence. The author seems to suggest that the doctrine of female self-immolation, often physically debilitating, always smothers women’s ambitions and desires and denies their emotional, psychological, sexual and intellectual needs. This paper attempts to examine the figure of the female invalid as an emblem of the incapacitating effects of Victorian patriarchal standards, more specifically as Glasgow portrays them in her 1911 novel The Miller of Old Church. Sometimes innocent and self-sacrificing, sometimes ridiculous and almost hilarious, sometimes selfish and evil, Glasgow’s female invalids are always tragic and ultimately pitiable. As he comments on these characters, Julius Rowan Raper points out that Glasgow’s attack is not so much directed at the lady in particular, but at a destructive ideal that identifies femininity as analogous to extreme delicacy and even sickness, an invention “of males who desired to guarantee and protect the sanctity of their own bedrooms while they were busy in their neighbor’s”12. Glasgow’s invalid characters noticeably respond to the author’s attempt of coming to terms with her own health crises, which often prevented her from travelling or socialising, and at times threatened her literary career. However, it is my belief that they served another purpose apart from that of exorcising her own delicate health: they are in my view symbols of the patriarchal invalidation of all women’s integrity of self. They represent extreme examples of the pathetic shadows the cult of True Womanhood produced, whom one could not always find lying glamorously on a feathered couch, as I will presently illustrate. In The Miller of Old Church Glasgow created one of her best specimens of the selfish and tyrannical invalid in the character of Angela Gay. The novel takes place in the rural setting of the Southside, where the lives of three families are intertwined, together with their intricate past of secret tragedies. The
12 Julius Rowan, Without Shelter: the Early Career of Ellen Glasgow (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), p. 224.
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wealthy and aristocratic Gay family lives in the stately mansion of Jordan’s Journey, and old Reuben Merryweather lives in the overseer’s cottage with his granddaughter Molly. The Gays are darkly linked to the Merryweathers through Molly, the illegitimate child of old Jonathan Gay, who made Reuben’s daughter Janet pregnant and then deserted her. It is Molly Merryweather and her domestic world that gives shape and consistency to the story: Glasgow’s ambivalent feelings towards illness, as well as her concern for women’s plight under the Victorian code of femininity will be distilled in the protagonist and the minor women characters that surround her. As critic Pamela Matthews states, during this period Glasgow was trying to construct her personal and intellectual self as she struggled between two conflicting definitions, “one toward a tradition of womanhood signified by isolation and passive femininity, the other toward a tradition of cooperative strength”13. While trying to establish her position in the world of American letters, Glasgow had to confront her own emotional and health crises and witness her sister Cary’s decline and death. The Miller of Old Church was the last book Cary revised for her sister before her death in August 1911, the same year in which the book was published. Cary had been Glasgow’s main support through her literary career, as the author’s dedication to the novel evidences: “To my sister Cary Glasgow McCormack, in loving acknowledgment of help and sympathy through many years”. According to Goodman, Cary “made it possible for her sister to envision a different future”, since her “beautiful and literary” elder sister “epitomized everything that Glasgow wanted to be”14. The author was still ambiguous about her commitment to women’s traditions, since her professional aspirations collided with the selfless and tragic lives of many women in her life. Her sympathy for the victimised genteel lady is more patent in her next novel, Virginia (1913), but as Matthews observes, The Miller of Old Church is crucial in her move away from the desire for male approval and towards female affiliation: She realized […] that the female traditions she tried to deny – passivity, selflessness, dependence on men – are really male traditions of womanhood […] caring for and
13
Pamela Matthews, Ellen Glasgow and a Woman’s Traditions (Charlottesville-London: The University Press of Virginia, 1994), p. 55. 14 Susan Goodman, Ellen Glasgow: A Biography (Baltimore-London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), p. 34.
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identifying with others becomes, from an altered viewpoint, evidence of obsessive selflessness and weakness15.
The novel starts with the arrival of handsome and dandyish Jonathan Gay, who comes to visit his mother Angela and his unmarried aunt Kesiah. Mrs. Gay’s name is both defining and sarcastic. Although her appearance and manners are those of a delicate and angelic beauty, Jonathan’s mother is an example of the cruel invalid who tyrannically rules the family with an iron hand-hidden under a silk glove: “she dominated not by force, but by sentiment, […] she had surrendered all rights in order to grasp more effectively at all privileges”16. Her seemingly weak heart and her lovely helplessness allow her to impose her will within and beyond the household. Angela’s fragility prevents those around her from taking a single step without her approval, since any opposition might be fatal: One of Mrs. Gay’s first principles of diplomacy was that an unpleasant fact treated as non-existent, was deprived in a measure of its power for evil. By the application of this principle, she had extinguished her brother-in-law’s passion for Janet Merryweather17.
As Kesiah tells Jonathan, it was due to Angela’s influence that old Mr. Gay decided not to marry Janet Merryweather when she became pregnant, which drove her to despair and madness. Janet died shortly after giving birth to her daughter. As Kesiah explains her nephew, Mr. Gay told Angela about his intention of marrying Janet, and she suffered (or pretended to suffer) one of her heart attacks and made everyone fear for her life: “We lived in a continual panic about her for several years, and it was her weakness, as much as her beauty, that gave her her tremendous power over him. He was like wax in her hands, though of course he never suspected it”18. Old Mr. Jonathan adored Angela, and she made him promise never to mention the matter again while she was alive: they thought it would be only for a short while, but she has by now outlived him ten years in spite of her apparent weakness19.
15 16 17 18 19
Pamela Matthews, Ellen Glasgow and a Woman’s Traditions…, p. 60. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church (New York: Doubleday, 1911), p. 72. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 325. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 192. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, pp. 83-84.
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Despite her many virtues and Angela’s wickedness, Kesiah’s qualities are eclipsed by Angela’s delicate beauty. Unlike her sister, Kesiah is neither physically impaired nor does she pretend to be so: she has actually effaced herself continually to take care of Angela and, to my mind, she is the one who really deserves to be pitied. While Angela has taken advantage of her looks and her delicacy to subvert the Victorian cult of invalidism and use it for her own benefit, Kesiah has been truly invalidated by family duties and patriarchal conventions. For instance, her gift for painting and her hopes to go abroad and study art in Europe were sacrificed to duty and tradition, again mainly because of Angela’s influence: When she was young she had a perfect mania for drawing, and it used to distress mother so much. A famous portrait painter […] saw one of her sketches by accident and insisted that we ought to send her to Paris to study. Kesiah was wild to go at the time, but of course it was out of the question that a Virginia lady should go off by herself and paint perfectly nude people in a foreign city. […] Why on earth should a girl want to go streaking across the water to study art […] when she had a home she could stay in and men folk who could look after her? […] she made herself ridiculous when she talked of ambition20.
Kesiah’s ambitions are ruined after a life of enforced domesticity and selfless drudgery for her invalid sister, thus providing a remarkable metaphor for women’s invisibility under patriarchy. She is described in the novel as a shadow, almost non-existent: because of her plainness and her spinsterhood; she seems to be ignored by everyone around her, almost as if she were transparent: In offering no allurement to the masculine eye, [Kesiah] appeared to defeat the single end for which woman was formed. As her very right to existence lay in her possible power to attract, the denial of that power […] had deprived her […] of her only authoritative reason for being. […] It was the habit of those around her to forget her existence, except when she was needed to render service21.
An instance of Kesiah’s invisibility, derived from the unrealistic belief that women’s appearance must conform to men’s ideal of it, is provided by the comically chivalric family lawyer, Mr. Chamberlayne. He regards Angela as an epitome of womanly virtue because she is fragile and beautiful, but 20 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, pp. 75-76. 21 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, pp. 70, 79-80.
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makes his best to ignore Kesiah and even avoids looking at her, as if she was an abomination of nature. Both women are thus examples of the debilitating effects of patriarchy, which forces artificial selves upon women. As critic Barbro Ekman points out, Mr. Chamberlayne is one of those “ugly and repulsive men” Glasgow delights in ridiculing, who ironically “think of themselves as irresistible to women”22, as the following quote illustrates: In his long and intimate acquaintance, he had never looked at Kesiah in the face, and he never intended to. He was perfectly aware that if he were for an instant to forget himself so far as to contemplate her features, he should immediately lose all patience with her. No woman, he felt, had the right to affront so openly a man’s ideal of what the sex should be23.
Marcelle Thiebaux aptly observes that “both women […] are genuine products of the code of beautiful behaviour that deformed them as women and warped their human development”24. Hence, invalidism, illness and madness appear in the novel both as a physical or mental condition and also as a powerful metaphor for women’s position in patriarchy. Along with Angela and Kesiah, as this paper aims at illustrating, the independent and self-assertive Molly is surrounded by other invalid as well as invalidated women. These minor characters serve as opposites that emphasise her strong personality and act as uncanny mirrors of the self she could become if she adhered to the Victorian code of femininity. Being socialised into self-effacement and conditioned to believe that the only fulfilment possible lies in marriage, these women have become faint and diffuse versions of a human being. Even the ghostly shadow of victimised Janet Merryweather is present in the novel, and certainly determines Molly’s attitude towards men and marriage. When Molly becomes twenty-one, old Mr. Gay’s will makes her a heiress and the truth about her origins is revealed. Molly receives her father’s inheritance on the condition that she lives with the Gays, so she moves to Jordan’s Journey and travels abroad with her aunts for a while. During this period, she especially learns to appreciate Kesiah’s goodness and starts 22 Barbro Ekman, The End of a Legend: Ellen Glasgow’s History of Southern Women (Stockholm: Uppsala, 1979), p. 75. 23 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 98. 24 Marcelle Thiebaux, Ellen Glasgow (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1982), p. 97.
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to regard her with affection, while she begins to unmask the evil behind Angela’s loveliness, “so soft that she could smother a person like a mass of feathers”25. She gradually gets to know more about her mother’s story and Angela’s active (or, should one say, passive?) participation in Janet’s tragic ending. Through Kesiah, Molly learns how, some twenty years earlier, her mother had also innocently believed that Angela’s delicate beauty was the outward expression of a pious nature: in her despair, Janet had “flung herself on the mercy of that gentle heart and had found it iron”26. Living in Jordan’s Journey, Molly feels the softly oppressive influence of Angela, “an influence so soft and yet so overpowering that she had at times a sensation of being smothered in scented swansdown”27. By trying to make a lady of her, Mrs. Gay attempts to suffocate Molly’s self-assertiveness in the same way she smothered Kesiah’s personality and ambition. For instance, she shows her disapproval of Molly’s walks in the fields, since she regards them as improper and unnecessary for a lady. Here Glasgow again points to the evidence that patriarchal strictures debilitated not only women’s minds but their bodies as well, until they became sad caricatures of a human being: (poor dear mother used to say that the difference between the liver of a lady and that of another person, was that one required no exercise and the other did) – but Kesiah, who is the best creature in the world, is very eccentric in some ways, and she imagines that her health suffers when she is kept in the house for several years. Once she got into a temper and walked a mile or two on the road, but when she returned I was in such a state of nervousness that she promised me never to leave the lawn again unless a gentleman was with her28.
In the same way that Kesiah and Mr. Gay allowed Angela to control their lives, young Jonathan Gay’s blind adoration for his mother’s sickly loveliness causes him to fall in the same trap. Jonathan is a dandy and a careless flirt who predictably repeats his uncle’s weakness of seducing a woman and then abandoning her, presumably out of consideration for Angela’s delicate health. He immediately feels attracted by Molly’s beauty, a replica of her mother’s, but the protective influence of Janet’s story seems to be 25 26 27 28
Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 174. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 426. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 317. Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 74.
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there to warn her. Being turned down by Molly, Jonathan seeks entertainment in another fresh flower, and his chosen victim is Molly’s friend Blossom Revercomb. Because her religious beliefs prevent her from having sexual intercourse outside marriage, Jonathan marries her in secret with the promise that he will inform his family of their union in due time. Jonathan is of course afraid of distressing his lovely and fragile mother by acknowledging such an inappropriate match. Blair Rouse argues that Jonathan “is an object of pity”: rather than a villain, he posits, “he is really a rather weak, affable young man who is the slave of his own inclinations and the victim of his mother’s emotional entanglements”29. Although I agree in the fact that Jonathan is not a consciously wicked character, he represents the typical southern cavalier who carelessly exploits women, since it is assumed that gentlemen of his social position are non-monogamous by nature. His double sexual standard obviously obliges him to behave like a gentleman with the ladies of his acquaintance, but also allows him to behave in a less gentlemanly manner with other women, as the separation of spheres guarantees the invisibility of his actions. It is worth noting that Angela is not entirely to blame for Jonathan’s behaviour: his apparent concern for his mother actually provides a very suitable excuse to elude the consequences of his actions. As the novel later discloses, Jonathan does not have any intention of ever revealing the truth about his marriage to Blossom. By the time Molly moves to Jordan’s Journey, Jonathan does not pay any more secret visits to Blossom and he soon gets tired of her. He starts openly pursuing Molly, since she is now an equal and thus an eligible wife. Blossom’s lovesickness gradually turns into insanity and she starts walking distractedly across the fields, hopelessly seeking Jonathan. She finally despairs when she discovers him courting Molly while she is hiding behind some bushes. Thus Blossom becomes another victim of the romantic illusions about love she has been conditioned to believe: after having given everything for the sake of a man, she is transformed into a pathetic shadow by Jonathan’s betrayal. Like Janet, she becomes another ghost roaming the forest. Not knowing about Jonathan’s marriage to Blossom, her father believes that he has seduced her and shoots him. As Ekman notices,
29 Blair Rouse, Ellen Glasgow (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1962), p. 74.
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“ironically enough Angela manages to bear this very real tragedy without a heart attack”30. Glasgow offers a more optimistic view of marriage through the love story of Molly and Abel Rebercomb. Abel is madly in love with Molly, and they even become engaged at one point in the novel. However, she never seems to be convinced of the implications of marriage and fears that its constraints will suffocate her. After she receives her father’s inheritance, she realises about the possibilities of self-improvement that her new social status can offer, and confesses her doubts about marriage to Abel. When she asks him for time to clarify her ideas, Abel convinces himself that Molly does not love him and instead he marries her unattractive friend Judy Hatch. Judy’s plainness makes her believe that marriage to any man is an honour and definitely preferable to no marriage at all, so when Abel proposes to her she accepts without hesitation. Judy is devotedly religious and secretly pines for the young and handsome Reverend Orlando Mullen. Although Reverend Mullen insists that virtue and good deeds are more important than beauty, he falls in love with Molly when Judy is a more fervent Christian than she is. Reverend Orlando Mullen’s sermons are illustrative of the important role that religious predicaments played in the maintenance of patriarchal values, by significantly equating marriage with sacrifice – that is, woman’s self-sacrifice for her husband: No womanly woman cared to make a career. What the womanly woman desired was to remain an Incentive, an Ideal, an Inspiration. If the womanly woman possessed a talent, she did not use it – for this would unsex her – she sacrificed it in herself […] self-sacrifice was the breath of the nostrils of the womanly woman. It was for her power of self-sacrifice that men loved her and made an Ideal of her. […] The home was founded on sacrifice, and woman was the pillar and the ornament of the home31.
Mullen also shows his hypocrisy by endlessly praising Angela Gay as an epitome of womanliness when she precisely embodies vanity, selfishness and cruelty. Glasgow ironically voices the contradiction in male ideals through Molly’s wise remarks: “If you part your hair and look a certain way nothing you can do will keep them from thinking you an angel. When
30 Barbro Ekman, The End of a Legend…, p. 75. 31 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 130.
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I smile at Mr. Mullen in church it convinces him that I like visiting the sick”32. Abel and Judy’s marriage is obviously never happy. Judy, formerly an exemplary self-effacing homemaker, becomes more and more distracted and gradually loses contact with the world because of her unspoken love for Reverend Mullen, losing her appetite and her physical strength. Through the description of Judy’s wasting body, Glasgow again parallels the exhibition of physical decline (possibly anorexia) as a symbol of women’s emotional and psychological starvation. Anna Krugovoy Silver has similarly noticed such an analogy in her analysis of Florence Nightingale’s works: in her novel Cassandra (1852), Nightingale had established this equation, which she viewed as the result of patriarchal constraints on women33. Judy finally dies from premature labour caused by a neurotic belief that Mullen has had a fatal accident with his horse, after giving birth to a stillborn child. The symbolism of dead children, which Glasgow uses in other works of fiction, is in my view a grim confirmation of the barrenness and destruction conventional relationships bring about. By subverting the traditional role of motherhood, which ideally confers women the highest measure of happiness, Glasgow highlights the potentially fatal effects of silencing and incapacitating women. Thus Judy becomes another victim of a system that deprives women from expressing their desires and feelings, even when they are socialised into living only through their emotions. As Pamela Matthews observes, The Miller of Old Church marks Glasgow’s increasing awareness of the need to reassess the male-defined concept of “women’s traditions”: in trying to define a female self against a male tradition of possessiveness, assumed superiority, and attempts to dominate, Glasgow implies that women are too easily convinced of their inferiority and their need for male support, and too quick too assent to the diminished view of themselves reflected back from a male gaze34.
Through the characters of Kesiah Blount, Blossom Revercomb and Judy Hatch Revercomb (together with the invisible but ever-present spirit of Janet Merryweather), Glasgow furnishes the protagonist with images 32 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, p. 176. 33 Anna Krugovoy, Victorian Literature and the Anorexic Body…, pp. 17-18. 34 Pamela Matthews, Ellen Glasgow and a Woman’s Traditions…, p. 57.
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in which to mirror herself so that she can recognise the dangers of accepting this distorted image of female identity as true. These minor characters have conformed to that debilitated version of themselves and have thus become shadows of the women they really are, or could have been. As Thiebaux remarks, it is surprising that the novel finishes with the conventional happy union of the lovers, since “Abel demands that Molly gives herself completely”35. Despite Abel’s noble heart and sincere love for Molly, his speech in the final love scene seems to voice the patriarchal discourse of marriage, according to which a woman must give up everything for her husband, while he never renounces any of his privileges: My beauty, your submission is adorable if it would only last! […] If it isn’t everything you’re offering me – if you are keeping back a particle of yourself – body or soul – it is too late. I won’t take anything from you unless I take everything – unless your whole happiness as well as mine is in your giving36.
After more than four hundred pages of Molly’s sceptical refusal of marriage, it is almost bizarre to see her begging for Abel’s forgiveness, since Abel’s words imply a concept of married life that cages Molly in domesticity. Despite the romantic ending of the novel, Glasgow seems to hope (along with the reader) that Molly will continue to remember her mother’s story, and that the tragic examples of the other women around her will prevent her entrapment in patriarchal strictures. Molly’s assertiveness and her constant awareness of herstories hint at Glasgow’s own effort of recovering the lost narratives of previous generations of women, silenced and invalidated by masculine notions of femininity. Glasgow’s own lifelong struggle with illness and her concern for women’s plight under Victorian constraints perhaps make this endeavour more evident, since she probably sensed illness as a threat to everything she had achieved in the professional world. In fact, Glasgow spent her whole life both fighting her own condition as an invalid and denouncing the social mores that defined her philosophy of life as not-valid.
35 Marcelle Thiebaux, Ellen Glasgow…, p. 99. 36 Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church…, pp. 431-432.
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Annexe Bibliography Janet Beer, Ann Heilmann, “‘If I Were a Man’: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Sarah Grand and the Sexual Education of Girls”, Special Relationships: Anglo-American Affinities and Antagonisms 18541936, Janet Beer, Bridget Bennett, eds. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), pp. 178-202. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London: Routledge, 1990). Ann Douglas, “‘The Fashionable Diseases’: Women’s Complaints and their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America”, Clio’s Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, Mary S. Hartman, Lois Banner, eds. (New York: Octagon Books, 1974), pp. 1-22. Barbro Ekman, The End of a Legend: Ellen Glasgow’s History of Southern Women (Stockholm: Uppsala, 1979). Ellen Glasgow, The Miller of Old Church (New York: Doubleday, 1911). Ellen Glasgow, A Certain Measure: An Interpretation of Prose Fiction (New York: Harcourt, 1943). Susan Goodman, Ellen Glasgow: A Biography (Baltimore-London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998). Anna Krugovoy Silver, Victorian Literature and the Anorexic Body (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Pamela R. Matthews, Ellen Glasgow and a Woman’s Traditions (Charlottesville-London: The University Press of Virginia, 1994). Charlotte Perkins, Improving on Nature, “The Yellow Wallpaper” and Selected Short Stories of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Denise D. Knight (London: Associated University Presses, 1994). Diane Price Herndl, Invalid Women: Figuring Feminine Illness in American Fiction and Culture, 1840-1940 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993). Blair Rouse, Ellen Glasgow (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1962). Julius Rowan, Without Shelter: the Early Career of Ellen Glasgow (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971). Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (London: Virago Press, 1987).
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Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985). Marcelle Thiebaux, Ellen Glasgow (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1982). Athena Vrettos, Somatic Fictions: Imagining Illness in Victorian Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
Du mythe à l’idéologie politique : l’utilisation des légendes populaires par le Régime de Vichy Régis Meyran Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis
1. Introduction : Mythe, idéologie et légendes sous Vichy 1.1. Mythe et idéologie Notre intention est de comprendre la façon dont un certain nombre de légendes populaires a été utilisé, en contexte fasciste ou autoritaire, afin de légitimer le pouvoir de Vichy ou les intentions politiques des autonomistes bretons. Comment expliquer cette proximité entre les légendes et le pouvoir ? Lévi-Strauss nous fournit une hypothèse intéressante, quand il écrit que « rien ne ressemble plus à la pensée mythique que l’idéologie politique »1, avançant que dans nos sociétés contemporaines, celle-ci a peutêtre remplacé celle-là. Dès lors, en filant la comparaison proposée par Lévi-Strauss, nous retiendrons que l’idéologie politique ne s’exprime pas seulement dans le style, la syntaxe ou le mode de narration, mais encore dans le récit lui-même, grâce auquel, comme dans un mythe, l’homme politique interprète le passé, analyse le présent et prévoit l’avenir… Par ailleurs, notons que, par le biais de la propagande, l’idéologie vise à légitimer vis-à-vis du public le pouvoir d’un homme politique ou le pouvoir recherché par un parti, ce qui correspond aussi une fonction dévolue aux mythes dans les sociétés traditionnelles. Nous ajouterons cependant que cette comparaison a ses limites : le mythe a cours dans une société traditionnelle où le temps est plus ou moins perçu comme cyclique ; alors que les idéologies politiques (pensons à celles du XXe siècle : socialisme, fascisme, néolibéralisme par exemple) s’inscrivent dans un temps linéaire, et sur une échelle du progrès. Cela 1
Claude Lévi-Strauss, Anthropologie structurale (Paris : Plon, 1958), p. 239.
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dit, comme dans le cas du mythe, elles tentent de conjurer les hasards de l’Histoire en les intégrant à leur récit. En tout cas, l’idéologie n’est pas un mythe. Mais que se passe-t-il quand une idéologie récupère les légendes populaires ? Comme nous allons le voir, la tradition se trouve alors figée et infléchie pour venir renforcer l’idéologie. Nous retiendrons, d’ailleurs, deux dimensions de l’idéologie, qui la rapprochent du mythe : d’abord, la capacité d’enchantement du réel grâce au développement d’une « vision du monde » (pour ceux qui la cautionnent) ; ensuite, la capacité de légitimer le pouvoir politique. 1.2. Légendes sous Vichy L’idéologie de Vichy a été très étudiée, en particulier la propagande par le folklore, mais on n’a peut-être pas assez insisté sur l’utilisation dans ce cadre des mythes et légendes populaires. Les contes, relevant de la tradition orale, n’intéressèrent pas les propagandistes de Vichy, qui préféraient réinventer la tradition en mettant en scène dans leurs textes des personnages typiques, tels que l’Arlésienne, le paysan, l’artisan… En outre, la nature même du conte le rendait peu utilisable d’un point de vue politique. Selon Marie-Louise Tenèze2, le conte obéit en effet à des règles strictes et il est difficile de le rattacher à une tradition nationale ; il est poétique et peu précis historiquement. On ne le trouve d’ailleurs réquisitionné au sein des régimes fascistes que rarement et encore sous des formes grotesquement défigurées, comme dans l’Allemagne nazie, où par exemple, selon l’anthropologue Hermann Bausinger3, le Petit chaperon rouge fut présenté parfois comme incarnant la pureté de la race germanique. A l’inverse, on comprend mieux que, dans cette période, les légendes, l’autre grande forme de littérature orale, acquirent une importance politique supérieure à celle des contes. La légende, au contraire du conte, est caractérisée par une imprécision tant dans la forme que sur le fond, ce qui la rend très malléable ; par ailleurs, elle comporte des précisions historiques et en termes de lieu. Elle est donc bien mieux utilisable dans une 2 3
Marie-Louise Tenèze, « Introduction à l’étude de la littérature orale : le conte », Annales. Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations, 24/5 (1969), pp. 1104-1120. Hermann Bausinger, Volkskunde ou l’ethnologie allemande (Paris : Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1993).
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perspective à la fois régionaliste et nationaliste. Une légende peut servir aisément à ancrer un peuple dans une histoire mythique, qui vient tout naturellement justifier le pouvoir du chef de l’Etat (Pétain) ou de ceux qui voudraient le détenir (les autonomistes bretons en France occupée).
2. Le contexte: Vichy, la Bretagne occupée 2.1. Le Régime de Vichy et son projet culturel Le 2 juillet 1940, Philippe Pétain s’installe à Vichy. Dans la zone sud du pays, il compte, grâce à la relative liberté que lui octroie l’occupant nazi, mener l’ « Etat » dont il se proclame chef vers la « Révolution nationale ». Secondé par des idéologues d’extrême droite et des transfuges socialistes ou communistes, Pétain développe une propagande officielle, qui est une synthèse de plusieurs courants hétéroclites : pensée réactionnaire du XIXe siècle (Bonald, Maistre), plusieurs éléments de la tradition révolutionnaire de 1789 (le drapeau, la Marseillaise), les idéaux de l’Action française (haine du parlementarisme et de l’ « anti-France », nationalisme intégral), l’esprit des ligues de combattants de l’entre-deux-guerres, des éléments de pensée anti-libérale et paradoxalement des éléments de modernisation étatique (appliqués en politique industrielle). La propagande contient plus qu’un simple projet réactionnaire. Pour Henry Rousso, le Régime de Vichy avait la volonté de transformer radicalement les structures sociales et mentales, pas seulement les structures de l’Etat…4. L’idéologie est en outre centrée sur le culte du chef : Pétain, présenté comme le héros de Verdun, est ainsi décrit comme le vieux chef qui a su faire le « sacrifice » de sa personne, en s’engageant dans la collabo ration avec l’occupant nazi (songeons à sa célèbre formule : « J’étais avec vous dans les jours heureux, je reste avec vous dans les jours sombres »). L’Histoire de France est décrite par une galerie de portraits
4
Henry Rousso, Le Régime de Vichy (Paris : Presses Universitaires de France, 1987), p. 25.
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(Vercingétorix, Clovis, Charles Martel, Jeanne d’Arc) qui se termine par celui de Pétain. 2.2. Un projet conservateur et nationaliste Le projet idéologique du régime est bien résumé par le slogan « Travail, famille, patrie » (voir document 1), qui promeut l’ordre et la discipline, les valeurs de la famille patriarcale traditionnelle et chrétienne, la France éternelle (le village, l’église, le clocher…), ainsi que l’éternel féminin (la femme glorifiée en tant que femme au foyer et mère : interdiction de recruter les femmes dans les services publics, peine de mort pour les femmes « avorteuses »). A quoi s’ajoute le culte des origines françaises, assorti de xénophobie et d’antisémitisme. Dans la nouvelle imagerie, le passé gaulois est omniprésent et mythi fié. C’est le cas avec l’omniprésence de la francisque, symbole de Vichy d’inspiration gauloise, ou encore avec la référence fréquente à Gergovie. Par exemple, le 30 août 1942, les chefs locaux de la Légion recueillent une parcelle de terre de chaque commune de France pour les envoyer à Gergovie, placées dans un cénotaphe de marbre scellé par Pétain lui-même…5 2.3. Le retour aux « traditions françaises » et à la paysannerie Enfin, ce projet vise par ailleurs à renouer avec les supposées valeurs traditionnelles de la France profonde (comme l’indiquait l’autre slogan « la terre ne ment pas »), assimilées hâtivement aux trois éléments suivants : les paysans, les artisans, les traditions rurales. Les idéologues des bureaux de régionalisme, destinés à la propagande folklorique, sont pour la plupart des écrivains locaux et régionalistes (notamment des membres du Félibrige, comme Charles Maurras et la maurrassienne Philadelphe de Gerde), et un certain nombre de folkloristes, issu du Musée national des arts et traditions populaires (MNATP) – en particulier André Varagnac, directeur-adjoint, qui est nommé au bureau du régionalisme de Toulouse.
5
Laurent Olivier, « L’archéologie française et le Régime de Vichy », Les Nouvelles de l’archéologie, 67 (1997), pp. 17-22.
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On peut parler ici d’un véritable « projet culturel », selon l’expression de l’historien Christian Faure. En effet, les travaux savants des folkloris tes sur les mœurs et coutumes du peuple, de même que les textes des écrivains régionalistes, sont intégrés à la propagande officielle à travers une débauche de publications (quotidiens, magazines, revues savantes…) et d’interventions de « spécialistes » à l’université, à la radio ou aux actua lités cinématographiques. Dans les « bureaux du régionalisme » de chaque région, on incite le peuple à revêtir les anciens costumes paysans, on réhabilite d’anciennes fêtes traditionnelles, on monte de toutes parts des associations folkloriques. Le personnage historique le plus convoqué dans la propagande est le poète Frédéric Mistral, présenté comme un double de Pétain. Mistral fut le fondateur, avec quelques amis, en 1854, d’un mouvement littéraire, le Félibrige, visant à faire renaître l’ancienne littérature occitane. Son projet passait par l’imposition d’une langue unique, le provençal, créée à partir du dialecte local de la région d’Arles et d’Avignon. Bien après la mort du poète (1914), et sous l’influence de bon nombre d’idéologues d’extrême-droite et membres du Félibrige qui sont venus à Vichy pour réaliser leur utopie provençaliste, Pétain va se ranger derrière Mistral pour se parer du prestige de Mistral – ce dernier, présenté au peuple comme le héros de l’identité provençale et, plus largement, occitane, devient un des héraults du nouveau régime. Un bon exemple est le dessin de Léo Lelée pour la Revue d’Arles, revue de propagande et de folklore publiée par le Museon Arlaten, musée ethnographique de la ville d’Arles, entre 1940 et 1944, et dont le directeur, Fernand Benoît, est un fervent maréchaliste. Le dessin, réalisé pour la fête des mères, est supposé faire découvrir aux enfants « Les grandes figures de l’histoire de France », or les figures en question sont le maréchal Pétain et Frédéric Mistral (voir le document 2). Plus généralement, et sans entrer dans les détails, car cela a bien été étudié6, on sait que, dans les bureaux de propagande, l’idéologie se concentre en particulier sur la paysannerie, l’artisanat, la langue, le costume – et elle est diffusée au moyen de nombreux magazines, et par la création de groupes folkloriques locaux. Autant d’éléments « traditionnels » 6
Christian Faure, Le Projet culturel de Vichy (Paris-Lyon : Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1989); Régis Meyran, Le Mythe de l’identité nationale (Paris : Berg International, 2009).
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parfaitement idéalisés qui sont supposés relever le pays de la crise morale qu’il a subi dans l’entre-deux-guerres, en particulier à cause du Front populaire… Un autre aspect moins connu est l’utilisation des traditions légendaires.
3. Les légendes dans la propagande en régime autoritaire ou fasciste Au niveau régional, l’Histoire s’entremêle avec la légende, le folklore et la langue, pour ancrer l’identité du peuple dans un passé mythique, supposé revivre sous l’impulsion du nouveau chef de l’« Etat ». Ce que résume l’introduction anonyme au premier numéro de la revue régionaliste limousine Notre Province (janvier-février 1942) : « Le Maréchal voit dans la restauration de la vie provinciale une des meilleures forces du relèvement national. […] Depuis les troubadours du temps de la chevalerie jusqu’aux délicats poètes du Félibrige qui, à travers les temps troubles où nous vivons, expriment leurs émotions dans la langue de nos pères, toute une suite d’écrivains dit la gloire de notre petite patrie ». On voit ici comment les traditions légendaires (troubadours et félibrige) sont convoquées pour renforcer l’idéologie pétainiste. Examinons maintenant trois cas de légendes populaires réquisitionnées par Vichy. 3.1. Le cas de Jeanne d’Arc Le cas de Jeanne d’Arc, entre histoire et légende, a été bien étudié par les historiens7. On sait par exemple qu’un certain nombre de légendes se sont imposées du vivant même de Jeanne d’Arc (1412-1431). C’est le cas de la découverte miraculeuse de l’épée dite de « Charles Martel » sous l’autel de Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois. Ou encore du mythe de la « chef de guerre » commandant les armées de Charles VII. Jeanne, comme les
7
Colette Beaune, Jeanne d’Arc. Vérités et légendes (Paris : Perrin, 2004); Michel Winock, « Jeanne d’Arc », Les Lieux de mémoire, Pierre Nora, dir. (Paris : Éditions Gallimard, 1997), vol. 3, pp. 4427-4473.
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prédicateurs de l’époque, se disait envoyée de Dieu. Elle mettait en avant sa virginité pour prouver, selon les mœurs de son temps, qu’elle était envoyée de Dieu (et non une sorcière), et affirmer clairement sa pureté, aussi bien physiquement que dans ses intentions religieuses et politiques. Dans la période post-révolutionnaire, elle est devenue un mythe : symbole national français lors de la guerre de 1870, elle est reprise par de nombreux partis, depuis le parti socialiste, notamment avec Jean Jaurès, jusqu’à l’extrême-droite. Selon les cas, elle est présentée comme une égérie de la nation et de la laïcité (chez Michelet), ou bien comme icône du patriotisme et du catholicisme (chez Péguy). Mais bientôt apparaît un conflit de la fin du XIXe siècle entre droite et gauche pour s’emparer du mythe de « la Pucelle d’Orléans », conflit dont la droite nationaliste de l’époque sort victorieuse, après la canonisation de de Jeanne par l’Eglise catholique8. Entre 1909 et 1912, les Camelots du roi (l’une des principales ligues d’extrême droite de l’entre-deux-guerres) en font leur patronne. Tout comme les autres ligues d’extrême-droite : Faisceau de Georges Vallois, Croix-de-feu, Jeunesses patriotes de Taittinger… A la même époque, Drumont voit en elle une « Celte » qui repousse les ennemis de la patrie : juifs et franc-maçons. Sous la Révolution nationale de Pétain, on voit en Jeanne une terrien ne, une bonne catholique et une anglophobe. Examinons deux exemples dans les revues de folklore. Tout d’abord, le mythe de Jeanne d’Arc « chef de guerre » est évoqué à travers des extraits de deux auteurs dans un numéro de la Revue d’Arles datant d’avril-juin 1942 : le général Frédéric Canonge (1837-1927), auteur de Jeanne d’Arc guerrière (1907) ; et Frantz Funck-Brentano (1862-1947), écrivain, chartiste et académicien, membre de l’Action française. Ce dernier la décrit ainsi : « Elle a été la vierge des combats, guerrière dans l’âme. Du guerrier elle avait la hardiesse, le courage, l’endurance, l’énergie. Elle restait à cheval, sous sa blanche armure en plates d’acier, des journées et des nuits entières »9. La dureté à soi-même et l’endurance sont de valeurs classiques de l’extrême-droite, permettant de justifier paradoxalement ici, entre les lignes, la collaboration entre la France et l’Allemagne nazie, sorte de mal
8 9
Bernard Richard, Les emblèmes de la République (Paris : Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 2012), pp. 262-265. Frantz Funck-Brentano, « Jeanne d’Arc, chef de guerre », La Revue d’Arles, 12 (1942), p. 124.
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nécessaire, mais aussi peut-être, de façon anachronique et commode, de justifier aussi la guerre de puissances de l’Axe Berlin-Rome contre les Anglais. Par ailleurs, Jeanne d’Arc est inscrite dans la galerie des héros n ationaux, et constitue en quelque sorte un double de Pétain : elle permet de légitimer lr pouvoir du chef de l’« État ». C’est ce que nous donne à voir l’affiche de la « fête nationale de Jeanne d’Arc » de 1942, reproduite dans ce même numéro de la Revue d’Arles. Jeanne y patronne la remise des « Médailles du Maréchal » pour les agriculteurs méritants. Le spectacle comporte une représentation de l’ouverture de l’opéra « Mireille » de Gounot (en référence au poème épique éponyme de Mistral), suivie de chants et danses exécutés par des écoliers ou des groupes folkloriques locaux (L’« escolo mistralenco » et la « Capello » d’Arles), et se termine par « Maréchal, nous voilà ! »10. 3.2. La légende de saint Césaire Voyons le cas d’une légende locale, celle de saint Césaire en pays d’Arles. Dans Césaire d’Arles (470-542), né de parents chrétiens et gallo-romains, devint archevêque d’Arles et fut béatifié. Suspect aux rois ariens wisi goths et ostrogoths, il renforça ses liens avec les Francs chrétiens quand ceux-ci annexèrent la Provence. Il est donc naturellement devenu par la suite le symbole du ralliement de la région au christianisme11. De même en est-il dans les pages de la Revue d’Arles, dans un numéro centré sur la longue durée des traditions locales (un article évoque « les poids anciens du pays d’Arles », un autre la vie des paysans locaux au XVIIIe siècle). Un texte rédigé par Fernand Benoît12 met en scène le récit légendaire de la vie de saint Césaire, ce qui permet de donner, en un sens, des racines chrétiennes au nouveau régime (Pétain n’est pas cité dans cet article mais il est encensé systématiquement dans chaque numéro de la revue). On y découvre la légende de saint Césaire : « Saint-Césaire, maître des vents, remplit un de ses gants de vent marin, dans les marais d’Arles, et le jeta contre la montagne au nom du Christ ; aussitôt, d’une caverne qui se creusa 10 Frantz Funck-Brentano, « Fête nationale de Jeanne d’Arc », La Revue d’Arles, 12 (1942), p. 125. 11 Marie-José Delage, ed., Vie de Césaire d’Arles (Paris : Éditions du Cerf, 2010). 12 Fernand Benoît, « Saint Césaire, abbé du monastère de Trinquetaille et archevêque d’Arles », La Revue d’Arles, 14 (1942), pp. 206-209.
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dans le rocher, souffla un vent du Nord, que le vulgaire appelle le Pontias et qui donna la fertilité à la vallée ». Le héros légendaire est ici convoqué par Benoît parce qu’il est supposé « jeter les fondements » d’un lieu, la ville d’Arles éternelle. Mais dans ce texte, c’est aussi la patrie tout entière qui est magnifiée : Césaire est selon l’auteur représentative de la « Gaule chrétienne, la Gaule mérovingienne, qui est la France de Clovis, de Hugues Capet et de Saint-Louis ». En toile de fond, la légende locale vient légitimer (mais ce n’est bien sûr pas une spécificité vichyste) l’essence de la vieille France, la « vraie France » pour reprendre le terme de Herman Lebovics13. 3.3. La tarasque La tarasque est un dragon légendaire supposé vivre dans les marécages près de Tarascon, et terrorisant les habitants. Ce dragon est décrit au XIIIe siècle par le chroniqueur italien Jacques de Voragine, dans son ouvrage La Légende dorée. Plusieurs versions différentes racontent la mort de la tarasque, la plus célèbre est celle de sainte-Marthe, venue évangéliser la région, qui grâce à sa compassion chrétienne réussit à amadouer la bête et à la tenir en laisse. La fête de la Tarasque fût créée par le roi René d’Anjou au XVe siècle, pour lutter magiquement contre les débordements intempestifs du Rhône (la tarasque étant accusée de venir intempestivement bousculer les digues de barrage du fleuve). On voit en tout cas avec cette légende toute l’importance de l’idéolo gie : la légende se fonde sur une tradition pré-romaine mais a été transformée en une machine à éradiquer le paganisme. Puis, la légende est réutilisée par Vichy, ainsi que le « rite festif », alors qu’il était tombé en désuétude depuis la fin du XIXe siècle. Dans un article14 de la Revue d’Arles datant de 1941, on apprend que 3 fêtes régionales chrétiennes ont été restaurées par les élites locale depuis l’avènement du nouveau régime, dont notamment la « procession de NotreDame-du-Chateau », qui est organisée, entre les Alpilles et Tarascon, sous la présidence de Mme la maréchale et du sous-préfet d’Arles : une fête 13 Herman Lebovics, La Vraie France: les enjeux de l’identité culturelle, 1900-1945 (Paris : Belin, 1995). 14 Daniel Séchelles, « Renaissance des traditions au pays d’Arles. La tarasque », La Revue d’Arles, 5-6 (1941), pp. 152-153.
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traditionnelle est donc transformée en événement o fficiel. Dans le même esprit de « renaissance des traditions » (sic), la fête de la Tarasque est également restaurée, mais l’auteur précise : « en raison des circonstances, on supprima les bruyantes réjouissances populaires », et son récit enchaîne sur une description des fêtes de la tarasque telles qu’avaient pu les o bserver Frédéric Mistral. On voit, dans ce texte, à quel point une fête officielle organisée par Vichy pouvait être factice puisqu’ici, tout forme de chahut est interdit, et que la description en est absente. On notera par ailleurs l’usage d’un texte de Mistral, servant de référence pour authentifier le rite. 3.4. Conclusion de cette partie Que pouvons-nous conclure de l’utilisation par Vichy de ces récits légendaires ? Revenons à nos deux éléments constitutifs de l’idéologie, et tout d’abord, la capacité de légitimer le pouvoir politique. On voit dans ces trois exemples la façon dont les légendes sont utilisées politiquement. Ce sont des mythes de fondation de l’identité locale qui viennent servir l’identité nationale. En cela, le procédé n’est pas nouveau et la continuité avec la IIIe République est évidente – Anne-Marie Thiesse ayant fort bien montré comment le discours régionaliste venait s’inscrire dans celui de la nation, un peu à la façon de « poupées gigognes »15. Nous pouvons noter par ailleurs l’importance de la religion chrétienne, dans les trois cas étudiés, comme garante de l’ordre du monde. Il est à noter d’ailleurs que les revues de propagande folklorique se concentrent sur des traditions christianisées… Au contraire par exemple du groupe carcassonnais de la revue Folklore Aude, dont les membres, proches de la Résistance, s’intéressaient à l’amour courtois ou aux Cathares – bref aux traditions légendaires laïques ou hérétiques. Enfin, nous pouvons relever l’appropriation symbolique de ces légendes, ayant pour effet de légitimer le pouvoir du maréchal Pétain, phénomène particulièrement évident dans le cas de Jeanne d’Arc. En ce qui concerne notre second point, la capacité d’enchantement grâce au développement d’une « vision du monde », il est certain, même si nous ne pouvons pas le montrer dans la limite de cet article, que les légendes
15 Anne-Marie Thiesse, Ils apprenaient la France. L’exaltation des régions dans le discours patriotique (Paris : Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1997).
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convoquées par les régionalistes de Vichy venaient aussi appuyer le projet de révolution des structures mentales des Français. Mais il n’est pas sûr que la réquisition de légendes encore prégnantes dans l’imaginaire collectif ait pour autant permis aux idéologues de la Révolution nationale de transformer la société. Car la société paysanne qu’ils imaginaient ressemblait à un décor de théâtre, située pour ainsi dire hors de la réalité. Leur projet de retour à la tradition, contre-balancé par un modernisme en matière de planification économique, s’est d’ailleurs soldé par un échec. Mais avant de passer à la seconde partie, faisons un détour par la Bretagne en France occupée, où les légendes populaires furent également convoquées par l’idéologie.
4. Légendes dans la France occupée 4.1. Les autonomistes bretons et le Barzaz-Breiz Le Barzaz-Breiz est un recueil de chants folkoriques bretons, transcrits, annotés et traduits en français au XIXe siècle par le vicomte Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué, dont la première édition date de 1839. L’histoire de la fabrication de ce livre a fait couler beaucoup d’encre. Pour ce qui nous concerne, nous retiendrons de la polémique la chose suivante : il n’est pas si important de savoir si le Barbaz-Breiz était un « faux », si certains chants ont été fabriqués de toutes pièces ou réécrits, mais plutôt de comprendre que la littérature orale est venue servir l’idéologie de La Villemarqué, le panceltisme. Après un voyage au Pays de Galles, et avoir été admis dans un cercle néodruidique gallois, ce dernier a en effet cherché à créer une « Société des bardes de Bretagne », qui disparaîtra après sa mort. C’est dans ce contexte qu’il publie en 1838 le Barzaz-Breiz. L’ouvrage est bien reçu par les romantiques parisiens16. Georges Sand inventera d’ailleurs, à propos de cet ouvrage, la notion de « littérature orale ». Mais la notice d’introduction du livre élabore une vision légitimiste ou, selon les commentateurs, nationaliste voire séparatiste, de la Bretagne
16 Jean-Yves Guiomar, « Le ‘Barzaz-Breiz’ de Théodore Harsart de La Villemarqué », Les Lieux de mémoire…, vol. 3, pp. 3479-3514.
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(dans le cas d’Olier Mordrel, membre fondateur du Parti autonomiste breton, puis du Parti national breton et collaborationniste notoire). Pour Donatien Laurent, ce livre témoigne d’un folklore tardif ne remontant pas aux bardes du Ve siècle, comme le prétendait La Villemarqué, mais plus probablement de l’époque des premiers romans médiévaux. En outre, les textes ont été remaniés par La Villemarqué, toujours d’après Donatien Laurent, lequel a étudié ses carnets de collecte. Pour Nelly Blanchard, qui s’appuie sur les travaux de Laurent : « l’auteur a parfois arrangé des chants, compilé plusieurs versions, ajouté des éléments et quelquefois, semble-til, inventé des textes »17. On voit dans l’introduction de La Villemarqué à la quatrième édition (1846) du Barzaz-Breiz le parti-pris panceltique : les bardes ont une « grave mission » la « conservation de la langue…, des bonnes mœurs, des vertus sociales », bref ils sont « un des instruments les plus actifs de la civilisation ». Dans la suite du texte, cette civilisation celte est mise sur un plan nationaliste : tel barde est « victime de son dévouement à la cause de son pays » ; tel autre (à qui les Francs ont « coupé la langue ») est humilié par les Francs, traités d’envahisseurs « de race étrangères », qui imposent leurs ménestrels. Enfin, les bardes défendaient les Bretons « menacés par la Normandie, l’Angleterre ou la France » et, aujourd’hui, même s’ils ne parlent plus la langue, « ils ont toujours la main qui lance la flèche de la mélodie nationale »18. En Bretagne occupée également, les régionalistes remirent au goût du jour les légendes de héros et de saints, retraçant ainsi l’histoire mythologique de la « race » celte (au sens anthropologique cette fois), avec l’appui complaisant de l’occupant nazi. Ainsi, l’éditorialiste de la revue Arvor, parue entre 1940 et 1944, Roparz Hemon, expliquait-il: « Nous sommes les descendants d’un grand peuple qui régna en maître sur la majeure partie de l’Europe; à l’extrême occident du monde, nos ancêtres surent conserver, développer et enrichir leur civilisation. […] Pour un Breton, connaître Sophocle, Tacite ou victor Hugo est chose secondaire. Il importe plus qu’il connaisse […] le ‘Barzaz Breiz’ »19. Comment 17 Nelly Blanchard, Barzaz-Breiz: Une fiction pour s’inventer (Rennes : Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2006), p. 11. 18 Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué, « Introduction », Barzaz-Breiz. Chants populaires de la Bretagne (Paris : A. Franck, 1846), p. 67. 19 Françoise Morvan, Le monde comme si. Nationalisme et dérive identitaire en Bretagne (Arles : Actes Sud, 2002).
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comprendre cette phrase ? Le Barzaz-Breiz, ce recueil de légendes et chants mythologiques, narre les aventures de Merlin, Arthur, la submersion de la ville d’Is ou encore les batailles des Bretons contre les Francs… si l’on ajoute l’introduction idéologique de La Villemarqué, ce recueil est parfaitement indiqué pour venir appuyer les théories des nationalistes bretons. 4.2. La légende arthurienne La légende d’Arthur, seigneur breton défendant la Bretagne contre l’envahisseur (y compris les ennemis surnaturels) existe dans la tradition folklorique galloise, et a été fixée par écrit par Geoffrey de Monmouth, un évêque anglo-normand au service du roi d’Angleterre, au XIIe siècle dans son Historia regum Britanniae. Chrétien de Troie, au XIIe siècle, y a ajouté quelques éléments supplémentaires (Lancelot, le Graal) et a créé le genre de la romance arthurienne dans la littérature médiévale. Or, cette littérature vient vite servir l’idéologie. Par exemple, Guillaume le Conquérant, ce Normand qui a conquis l’Angleterre, s’est servi de la légende arthurienne pour asseoir sa légitimité auprès des Gallois : Normands et Gallois étant supposés avoir été unifiés par Arthur, les Gallois pouvaient bien l’aider à combattre les Angles et les Saxons. Le même phénomène au XIIe siècle avec Henry II Plantagenêt, qui se présenta comme successeur d’Arthur pour mieux unifier l’Angleterre20. Pour ce qui est de la France occupée, on peut citer le cas de Xavier de Langlais, écrivain et peintre issu de la nébuleuse autonomiste : sa grande œuvre sera le Roman du Roi Arthur, cycle auquel il travailla toute sa vie, et publié en cinq volumes, entre 1965 et 1971. La légende arthurienne vient alors servir un projet autonomiste fondé sur une idéologie raciale et antisémite. Nous y reviendrons. Il reste à ce demander pourquoi ce projet de révolution mentale par la culture traditionnelle et la littérature orale a échoué. Cela tient probablement à la conception de la langue que se faisaient les régionalistes, celle d’une langue unifiée, écrite et pure, déconnectée du peuple.
20 James Douglas Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian Romance from the Beginnings down to the Year 1300 (Gloucester Mass : Peter Smith, 1958).
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5. La langue comme projet politique 5.1. La réhabilitation du provençal et de l’occitan à Vichy Le mouvement régionaliste le plus actif sous Vichy fut sans contexte le Félibrige: au XIXe siècle, un petit groupe de poètes avignonnais, et parmi eux Frédéric Mistral (1830-1914), avait inventé ce mouvement littéraire, qui entendait faire renaître la littérature occitane, qui avait progressivement décliné après le XIIe siècle. Les parlers d’oc, restés proches du g allo-romain car n’ayant pas subi l’influence franque, étaient épars, puisque faits de différents patois, et regroupables en 4 sous-ensembles dialectaux : gascon, languedocien, provençal, nord-occitan. Le félibrige décida d’imposer une langue unique, le provençal, plus ou moins librement inspirée du « parler naturel » d’Arles et d’Avignon et en utilisant la transcription phonétique française. À partir de cette définition, les félibres développèrent un dictionnaire et encouragèrent la création littéraire en provençal, pour qu’un nouveau classicisme voit le jour. Plus tard, dans les années 1920, un mouvement dissident chercha, dans le Sud-Ouest, à imposer une écriture différente de cette langue unique qui fut nommé, contre le provençal, l’occitan. Revenons à Vichy, où les régionalistes s’engagent dans la voie frayée par Mistral, avec l’appui politique de Pétain : ils tentent de développer le provençal et l’occitan, par la diffusion de grammaires et de dictionnaires, en encourageant l’apprentissage des parlers locaux dans les écoles, en créant des « académies » locales à Arles, Toulouse, qui décernent des prix littéraires. Cette politique de la langue s’exprime particulièrement à Toulouse, avec l’action d’un prêtre occitaniste, Joseph Salvat, en collaboration avec le folkloriste André Varagnac, alors directeur du bureau du régionalisme. Salvat organise des cours par correspondance, donne des leçons à la Radio régionale, monte un congrès savant de linguistique et de phonétique occitane (novembre 1941) et obtient la possibilité de dispenser des cours facultatifs de langues dialectales dans les écoles primaires. Le conte dialectal acquiert alors une place importante dans cette nouvelle politique culturelle. Ainsi, on réédite le vieux poète en langue d’Oc Antonin Perbosc (1861-1944), qui est régulièrement célébré à Toulouse, notamment dans la revue occitaniste Lo Gai Saber, ou à Nice, dans le journal régionaliste L’Echo des Provinces. Celui-ci, alors qu’il était instituteur dans un village du Tarn-et-Garonne, avait entrepris entre 1900 et 1908 de faire réciter des contes
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à ses élèves âgés de 7 à 13 ans : contes facétieux, contes d’animaux ou de rares contes merveilleux qu’il notait en transcription phonétique. Ces contes sont publiés dans les pages de la revue Lo Gai Saber. Chansons populaires et contes sont aussi très présents, en provençal, dans la Revue d’Arles. 5.2. Le Breton unifié sous l’Occupation Le cas de la Bretagne, située en zone d’occupation allemande, est très comparable, comme l’ont très bien montré les travaux de Françoise Morvan. Dans la mouvance des partis politiques nationalistes, comme le Parti autonomiste breton, puis le Parti national breton, ou des mouvements culturels bretons, tels les Seiz Breur ou l’Ar Falz, la question de la langue apparaît dès l’entre-deux-guerres comme centrale. Roparz Hemon, l’écrivain régionaliste qui dirige sous l’Occupation l’Institut celtique et plusieurs publications, et est fortement impliqué dans la collaboration culturelle et politique avec les nazis, adopte avec une commission d’écrivains, une orthographe unifiée le 8 juillet 1941 – alors que le breton était fait de variantes dialectales diverses. A la suite de quoi, l’enseignement facultatif du breton dans les écoles est autorisé. Cette unification de l’orthographe a de l’importance, car elle permet de fabriquer une unique langue bretonne, normalisée et artificielle. Ce type d’attitude est parfaitement représenté par la personne de Xavier de Langlais, qui défendit sous l’Occupation l’idée d’une langue et d’une culture bretonne « pures », notamment en créant en 1942 un timbre sur le slogan: Komzomp Brezoneg, c’est-à-dire « Parlons breton », tout en distillant des idées antisémites dans la presse bretonnante. Prenons un second exemple, celui de le revue autonomiste et organe du Groupe Régionaliste breton Breiz Atao (« Bretagne toujours »), revue née en 1919, interrompue en 1939, se réclamant de Maurras puis du fascisme mussolinien, qui renaîtra au moment de la création du Parti national breton, et dont la ligne changera en 1931, avec le rouge Yann Sohier. Au sein de cette revue, l’importance de la langue unifiée et purifiée, comme celle du mythe, sont répétées. Voici un extrait d’un article de 1924 sur l’enseignement du breton : Règles à suivre dans l’élimination des termes étrangers […] Tous les mots qui se sont implantés dans l’usage au détriment des mots vraiment bretons et celtiques doivent être pourchassés sans pitié et expulsés, non seulement de la langue littéraire, mais de la langue usuelle, familiale.
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[…] Élimination des termes étrangers, formation d’un vocabulaire, supposent la ruine du prestige dont jouissent indûment la langue et la civilisation française, en d’autres termes supposent la naissance d’un sentiment celto-breton, très intense. Aucun résultat durable et sérieux ne peut être atteint sans l’existence d’un tel sentiment21.
L’analogie entre langue « pure » et société « pure » est ici poussée très loin, puisque les mots étrangers, qui doivent être « pourchassés et expulsés », sont perçus de la même manière que les individus étrangers dans les conceptions ultra-nationalistes et racistes des autonomistes bretons les plus durs.
Conclusion Que retenir finalement des usages des légendes populaires et des parlers locaux par le Régime de Vichy comme en France occupée ? D’abord, on notera que, malgré l’énergie déployée, et le nombre impressionnant de publications sur la question, le peuple ne s’est pas massivement mis à parler provençal ou breton. D’où le grand paradoxe du régionalisme sous Vichy : ses défenseurs souhaitent qu’on reconnaisse les traditions populaires « vivantes », mais ils ne font en un sens que les figer, et il en est allé de même de la langue. Le problème est qu’il est impossible d’imposer une langue au peuple, quand le « peuple » ne parle presque plus les patois. Comme le rappelle le linguiste Claude Hagège22, toute tentative de représenter par écrit une langue jusque-là orale constitue un coup de force artificiel, puisque en réalité aucune langue écrite n’a jamais pu être constituée à partir d’une langue orale transcrite. Toute langue écrite résulte à la fois d’une création linguistique et culturelle, c’est-à-dire qu’elle répond à des attentes socio-économiques: le projet d’imposer une langue au peuple était donc une chimère, tout au moins dans de telles conditions. Par ailleurs, revenons à notre question de départ, et notamment aux deux dimensions de l’idéologie, qui rapprochent l’idéologie du mythe : la capacité de légitimer le pouvoir politique ; la capacité d’enchantement du 21 Yann Sohier, « Enseignement du Breton aux bretonnants », Breiz Atao, 61-62 (1924), p. 386. 22 Claude Hagège, L’Homme de paroles. Contribution linguistique aux sciences humaines (Paris : Fayard, 1985), p. 121.
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réel grâce au développement d’une « vision du monde » (pour ceux qui la cautionnent). Il semble, après analyse, que les deux points n’ont pu s’avérer efficaces que pendant un temps très court. Concernant le premier point, on sait bien que l’idéologie ne peut fonctionner que dans un contexte favorable à sa réception. Or, l’enthousiasme du début fait place dès printemps 1942 à une hostilité de plus en plus marquée de l’opinion publique vis-à-vis de la propagande de Vichy23. Quant au deuxième point, l’idéologie comme « enchantement du réel », il apparaît qu’il s’agissait d’utopies (la Provence et la Bretagne « pures et éternelles » pourrait-on dire) produite par un petit groupe d’intellectuels, utopie qui n’a jamais pu acquérir la force du mythe auprès d’un « peuple » qui ne semble pas s’être reconnu outre mesure dans cette quête de l’identité pure. C’est peut-être la grande erreur des fascismes du XXe siècle d’avoir cru pouvoir faire des idéologies l’équivalent des mythes.
Annexe Document 1 : Affiche de propagande. Autour du portrait de Pétain on voit : le slogan « Travail, famille patrie » ; le drapeau français ; la francisque (emblème de Vichy, cette supposée arme gauloise est en réalité une pure invention) ; le paysan, l’artisan et la femme au foyer (les héros anonymes de la Révolution nationale) ; un clocher symbolisant la vie villageoise ; et enfin une usine, car à côté de sa volonté de « retour à la terre », le régime de Vichy a développé des aspects modernistes au point de vue économique.
23 Pierre Laborie, L’opinion française sous Vichy (Paris : Le Seuil, 1990).
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Document 2 : Dessin de Léo Lelée pour la Revue d’Arles, « Les grandes figures de l’histoire de France ».
Agrarian Colonization and Francoist neo-traditionalism Daniel Carmona, Raúl Travé Universidad Miguel Hernández
Introduction General Franco’s Agrarian Colonization Project, which was carried out instead of the Agrarian Reform Law planned by the government of the Second Spanish Republic, spread lots of new villages across the Spanish geography. Within the context of the controversy provoked by the recovery of historical memory in Spain1, the agrarian colonization villages have been one of the major issues in dispute, as some considered them to be part of “Franco’s Heritage”2, a fact that is not only patent in place names, which still refer to the former Head of State (Llanos del Caudillo, in the province of Ciudad Real, for instance), but also in their very existence, which is yet another clear proof of the fact that today’s Spain has not entirely broken with its past. More than three hundred villages were built as part of the Agrarian Colonization Project between the beginning of the 1950s and the end of the 1960s. Although the INC (Instituto National de Colonización)3 was created in 1939, colonization plans were not implemented until the 1950s because of the economic problems of the post-war period. These plans were carried out mainly in rural regions where land ownership was highly concentrated. The INC expropriated (and paid a fair price for) uncultivated
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There was public debate around the passing of the historical memory law in 2007, about the need to reopen unsolved cases from Franco´s dictatorship. The issue 52 of Revista de Patrimonio Histórico Andaluz deals with this under the meaningful title: “Pueblos de Colonización 1939-1971: ¿Recuperar el patrimonio rural de Franco?” (‘Colonization Villages 1939-1971: Recovering Franco´s rural heritage?’): “Debate e investigación: Pueblos de colonización 1939-1971”, Revista de Patrimonio Histórico Andaluz, 52 (2005), pp. 38-127. National Institute of Colonization.
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and unused plots from big landowners, which they then equipped with hydraulic infrastructures (from which landowners’ non-expropriated plots could take advantage too), and later divided and shared out among the future settlers, after the villages were put up4. Three colonization villages – Mingogil, Cañada de Agra and Nava de Campana – were placed in the municipality of Hellín, in the province of Albacete during the first half of the 1960s. The Hellín area had been in decline since the downfall of the sulphur mines and the esparto grass industry. The settlers, who began to arrive there in 1964, were country people coming from the surrounding areas. Many of them had obtained the right to live there, which entitled them to a land plot and a house, because the construction of two dams, Cenajo and Camarillas, had displaced them from their small home villages (Alcantarilla de Jover and Camarillas). Others were simply local country people with no properties, former INC workers, and even people coming from far-away regions such as Granada.
Figure 1: Location Map.
These three villages have recently been the object of ethnographic fieldwork, motivated by a heritage-valuing initiative focusing on Intangible 4
Carlos Barciela, María Inmaculada López, “El fracaso de la política agraria del primer franquismo 1939-1959. Veinte años perdidos para la agricultura española”, Simposio sobre política agraria 1939-1959 (Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 2005), p. 43.
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Heritage. The initiative decided to make the recovery of these communities’ collective memory a top priority, considering collective memory as one of these communities’ most significant expressions, as well as the basis and framework on which their social identification process stands. Maurice Halbwachs5 defined collective memory as “the process of reconstruction of the past as lived and experienced by a particular group, community or society”. A social sense of belonging is built upon this experienced past – this sense of belonging could be defined as a set of ideas regarding a concrete reality developed by certain social sectors with the aim of ensuring or emphasizing a hierarchical social structure and providing a reference with which individuals who occupy a territory can identify themselves6.
1. The Founding Father’s Good Children In the colonization villages in Hellín we could ascertain that collective memory is expressed through a discourse with a clear core: the matter of their origin. This seems understandable since many of the current residents lived the villages’ foundation in first person, whether it was as part of the starring cast (i.e.: the settlers themselves and the INC workers), as supporting actors (late settlers), or as the privileged audience (children). This discourse points to Franco as the person responsible for the villages’ origin, according to it, he was the founder and the indisputable creator of the colonization villages, the person who “took the land from the rich to give it to the poor” in order to make it productive. Furthermore, he provided the settlers with homes with running water and electricity, and equipped each village with a school, a doctor, and sometimes even a cinema. Of course, not everybody entirely subscribes this discourse. There is an important variation to it, not as ideological as it is generational, that 5 6
Maurice Halbwachs, La mémoire collective (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1950), p. 174. Pablo Palenzuela, Javier Hernández, Poner Monachil en el mapa. Estudio antropológico de un proceso de transformación cultural (Granada: Universidad de Granada-Diputación Provincial de Granada, 1995), p. 18.
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denies such a generosity from the regime, a parallel discourse that assumes that the Caudillo used the settlers as a means to get a colossal and arduous work done, one that sees the house and the land plot as hardly a present. On the other hand, the discourse fails to provide an explanation regarding the motivations that led Franco to undertake such a huge endeavour, besides the fact that, after the construction of the dams of Cenajo and Camarillas the people living in the areas to be flooded had to be relocated elsewhere. Interestingly, those who don’t support the interpretation according to which the colonization was more of a Robin-Hood-like deed than a dictator’s whim don’t appear to suggest any alternative explanation (it even seems as though they might not need it). However, criticism towards the impact of colonization in the following generations is commonplace and unanimously shared, inasmuch as it is a practical issue that affects everyone (i.e.: indivisibility of houses and plots).
Figure 2: The colonization project tried to create a society based on traditional social relations (Mingogil 1960s).
The goodness behind the colonization initiative is definitely the axis of the discourse. Despite the criticism expressed by the younger generations, this idea of goodness surpasses even the settlers’ personal ideologies, a fact that is especially significant if we take into account that these communities
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have mostly emerged from the peasantry and the local rural proletariat and that, from the beginning of democracy up to the last municipal elections in 2011, left-wing parties PSOE and IU have always been the most voted candidacies in the villages. The idea that “Franco made us rich by expropriating the masters’ properties” leaves room for a curious contradiction: “In the last moment, Franco must have turned into a socialist to do this”. Obviously, this is not a coincidence. This idea is the main identity reference developed by Franco’s regime with the aim of ensuring a hierarchical social structure. It is particularly supported by the first generation (settlers and former INC workers), not only because they had the State to thank for their houses and plots, but also because being a settler involved being subjected to a process of equalization (the guardianship) which consisted of treating them as the children of good old Daddy State for five years, while denying them any chance of taking their own decisions regarding the house, the plot, the crops or the community. In the case of the INC workers, they consider themselves privileged for having worked for the State, which was certainly much better than working on their own or for a master. In 1971 the INC was eliminated and substituted by the IRYDA (Instituto Nacional de Reforma y Desarrollo Agrario)7, which led to all of the INC workers in the colonization villages losing their job and being offered to be settlers. The first social structure of the colonization villages was extremely homogeneous and characterised by the gratefulness to the State, and values such as solidarity and equality (dangerously understood as equalization) were recurrently claimed. After Franco’s demise in 1975 and Spain’s subsequent transition process towards democracy, the colonization villages, by then officially dependent of the IRYDA, accelerated their adaptation to the new circumstances in a context of deep economic crisis, a crisis that the agricultural sector (the one and only economic activity of the villages) had already been suffering in a very serious way for a while. The transition opened a long period of uncertainty during which the villages felt abandoned by the State and doomed to disappearance. The progressive deterioration of the villages’ public spaces since the demise of IRYDA was perceived as proof of the decline of the communities
7
National Institute of Reform and Agrarian Development.
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themselves. This perception is reflected in the discourse through statements about the communities’ social relationships (“We all used to help each other in everything, but now they do things in their own way”) and public spaces (“Now everything is in a mess. They don’t care about anything. IRYDA used to have gardeners take care of all this, but they are no longer around”). The tone gets reproachful in some cases: “You treated us as your sons and then you abandoned us”. This fatalism feeds not only on the past but also on present solid evidence, such as the demographic stagnation in Cañada de Agra and Mingogil, and it is also projected into the future by a dark omen: the “single estate”, some sort of myth of the eternal return, in which the slow abandonment of farms and the concentration of plots would turn the land again into a single estate in the hands of a single owner, a new master (señorito), thus closing the circle initiated when the Caudillo tried to change the natural order of things by giving the land to people who would work it. It is very important to point out that never in the colonization villages in Hellín there have been monuments or place names specifically related to the Caudillo, no matter how common that was elsewhere. Nonetheless, Franco is still alive in the collective memory discourse of the local people as the “Founding Father and Great Builder”, not only representing the State symbolically, but also physically embodying it and taking it all up. Consequently, once the Maker disappeared, his work was headed down the path to decay, one that could as well lead to extinction.
Conclusion In brief, the villagers’ social identity could be synthesized in them being the good children of Franco, the Great Father (who was at the same time the personification of the State and a weird kind of revolutionary capable of providing those who work the land with plots of it). This identity is supported by the unquestioned and unconditional gratitude to the dictator for having granted the villagers means of support, at least theoretically, and for having socially promoted them to the status of land owners. This is all theoretical because, while it is true that settlers were provided with means of support, these were not a gift. Settlers had to pay a
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price for them, a price that was actually higher than the amount of money set to buy the plot and the house; much higher than the work of removing the stones from the plots in order to cultivate them was worth, and higher than the amount of money they had to invest in the plots until they were productive. The real price they had to pay was having to relate to an identity that is perverse inasmuch as it was deeply manipulated, as the product of the subjection to a rigid process of political and social control exerted by and during the process of colonization, including the selection of the settlers, their equalization and inclusion in the INC and IRYDA hierarchy, and the period of guardianship during the first five years. A process that took advantage of the settlers’ vital needs in order to get supporters, if not attached-debtors and/or clients, people who were forever politically neutralized by being denied participation in public issues, by being deprived of that sphere of their lives which was overshadowed while they were busy trying to satisfy their individual and family needs and combine them with the country’s modernization.
Figure 3: Sección femenina exhibition during the 1960s (Mingogil).
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The process went beyond ideological proselytism, even though this was a fundamental part of it, as shown by the direct presence of the socializing institutions of the regime (Sindicato Vertical, Falange, Movimiento Femenino), and other institutions certainly close to it (Church). The most effective strategy in this symbolic process was paternalism, as shown by the practical assumption of patronizing premises in the discourse of the settlers themselves. A good example of this is a recurrent reasoning, suspiciously similar to the biblical parable of the talents, used as in the New Testament for classifying people, in this case the settlers, into “good kids”, those who made the most of the opportunity they were given, and “wayward children”, those who not only wasted that chance but didn’t even do a single thing right because of their lazy and erratic behaviour: “For those who worked, things went well. But for those who spent their time sitting by a bar, there was no way things could go well”. The true social and political nature of the colonization is thus made clear. It goes beyond the official/economic aim of the modernization of agriculture. Its true nature plays an important role in the project of creating a new fascist society8, a society conceived of as technically modern, but based on traditional social relationships in order to sustain a strongly hierarchal power structure, as it was the case with the army. The settlers and the INC and IRYDA officials were part of that troop and to a great extent they were treated as soldiers under the paternalistic surface of the regime’s social policy. The fissures in the discourse of memory began to emerge with the second generation and increased with the third and the fourth. The legal ban on plot and house divisions has generated plenty of family conflicts among the children and the grandchildren of the settlers since only one person can inherit the family estate. In addition, there are also agriculture’s everlasting difficulties, which have definitely made it impossible to earn one’s living with a single land plot. This has led to a majority of the people leaving the village or getting jobs elsewhere and making farming their second activity. We also need to take into account the current neighbours’ weak decision-making power regarding the settlements’ public spaces. The result is an identity discourse 8
Bibiana Treviño, “La utopía ruralista del primer franquismo en los planes de reconstrucción de posguerra”, Actas de la II Conferencia de Hispanistas de Rusia (Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1999).
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of the younger generations that is as vague and inconsistent as it is full of criticism, a cry-out for change that fails to find clear references that could help them sketch a new identity.
Annexe Bibliography Carlos Barciela, Maria Inmaculada López, “El fracaso de la política agraria del primer franquismo 1939-1959. Veinte años perdidos para la agricultura española”, Simposio sobre política agraria 1939-1959 (Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 2005), pp. 1-52. Gregorio Canales, David Jerez, “La actuación del Instituto Nacional de Colonización en el municipio de Hellín (Albacete)”. Investigaciones geográficas, 11 (1993), pp. 71-92. Maurice Halbwachs, La mémoire collective (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1950). Pablo Palenzuela, Javier Hernández, Poner Monachil en el mapa. Estudio antropológico de un proceso de transformación cultural (Granada: Universidad de Granada-Diputación Provincial de Granada, 1995). Pablo Palenzuela, “El patrimonio inmaterial de los pueblos de colonización: memoria colectiva y culturas del trabajo”, PH Boletín del Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico, 52 (2005), pp. 94-101. Bibiana Treviño, “La utopía ruralista del primer franquismo en los planes de reconstrucción de posguerra”, Actas de la II Conferencia de Hispanistas de Rusia (Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1999).
Perversion, Urbanity and Homosexuals. Multidimensionality in the Sex Life of the City José Antonio Langarita Universitat de Girona
Introduction In this work, I hope to address the question of the construction of urban public space based on the critique of heterosexual logic and mount an analysis of the restrictions placed on sexual otherness and of the forms of control and stigmatization that derive from these restrictions. I hope to make an analysis of the sexualization processes of the city using the Spanish state as my principal point of reference. The urban space that manifests itself within the Spanish state isn’t so much a physical space as it is an ideological one1. It is an urban space that extends beyond simple architecture or the construction of buildings to contribute to the construction and defamation of ideas and truths themselves – a place in which legitimized conducts are predetermined along with an idea of which conducts should be supervised, sanctioned, and negated. Within these devalued conducts, one inarguably finds those which arise from shared desire between two people of the same sex. This fact notwithstanding, absolute control based wholly and definitively on submission is a difficult exercise to carry out with an entire population2. No rule can be so strict and so absolute as to leave no room for its own violation. As Godelier points out, that which guarantees domination is not subjugation or violence against persons but the actual consent of the dominated to their domination, a consent which to a certain extent makes them cooperate in the reproduction of their
1 2
Manuel Delgado, El espacio público como ideología (Madrid: Catarata, 2011). Michael Foucault, Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (New York: Random House, 1995).
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own domination3. What guarantees domination is thus the acceptance and endorsement of rules and sanctions imposed on deviation by the social group. But despite these sanctions, the exercises in exclusion, threats, harm, and humiliation, sexual relations between people of the same sex continue to be a source of joy, pleasure, and enjoyment for many men who have sex with other men.
1. Critique of Heterosexual Hegemony Every society has that which needs be sanctioned, controlled, and regulated through distinct forms of formal and informal government4. In matters of sexuality, this regulation is affected by the paradigm of heterosexuality as the only legitimate sexual option. Heterosexuality does not produce rejection, as it is the first guarantee of social acceptance. It needs no explanation and brooks no criticism. Heterosexuality presents itself as the only reasonable interpretation of the world5. As if it were a fact that one simply accepts, full stop, without regard to social, political, or cultural context. Heterosexuality presents itself as a natural and naturalized occurrence, exclusive and absolute. Heterosexuality is not simply a form of sexual organization, however. More importantly it is a form of social organization which indicates when, how, where, with whom, and why one should have sexual relations6. What is and what is not sex is defined through the paradigm of heterosexuality, a paradigm which decides what belongs within the realm of the acceptable and what belongs within the realm of the abject, treating the exercise as if the topic at hand were something that could be reduced to one sole
3 4
5 6
Mauricie Godelier, Lo ideal y lo material (Madrid: Taurus, 1989), p. 31. Ken Plummer, “La diversidad sexual: una perspectiva sociológica”, La sexualidad en la sociedad contemporánea: lecturas antropológicas, Jose Antonio Nieto, coord. (Madrid: Fundación Universidad-Empresa, 1991), pp. 151-193. Oscar Guasch, La crisis de la heterosexualidad (Barcelona: Laertes, 2007). Edward Laumann, John Gagnon, Robert Michael, Stuart Michaels, The Social organization of sexuality (London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 6.
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practice or to one single objective7. Heterosexual sex is presented as an unchangeable and singular act whose purpose is not only human reproduction but also the maintenance of social legitimacy. To achieve this end, various apocalyptic discourses are used which label all sexualities situated outside of heterosexual logic as an abomination. The sexuality which heterosexualized discourse presents is only possible with the commencement of the reproductive capacity of the sexual subjects. That is to say from the woman’s first menstrual cycle and the man’s first ejaculation. Any sexual activity which lies outside of this fertile period is viewed as undeniably suspicious and worthy of control and supervision. This is why so many different controls and regulations have been developed in regards to childhood sexuality, geriatric sexuality, and any other sexuality which includes practices that do not have reproduction as their ultimate goal – both human reproduction, and even more importantly, the reproduction of heterosexuality as a social fact. Well beyond a simple sexual option, heterosexuality is a quality which determines access to certain social privileges for all of those who comply with its mandate8. Heterosexuality therefore becomes a sort of final destination for those who seek social acceptance; an arrival point which sells itself as complete satisfaction insomuch as it is a social demonstration of success shared by those who have decided to ascribe to its mandate. It inspires feelings of inclusion and social acceptance. Sexual acts are thus evaluated according to a hierarchical system which allows for a differentiation between those which are legitimate and those which should remain excluded, sanctioned, and stigmatized9. In this hierarchy, the “other”, or better yet the “others”, are those groups which lack the desire and/or ability to arrive at the predetermined sexual goal. That is to say all of those who possess certain discredited characteristics which place them in a position of suspicion and fear10.
7
Jose María Valcuende, “De la heterosexualidad a la ciudadanía”, AIBR. Revista de antropología Iberoamericana, 1 (2006), pp. 125-142. 8 Jose María Valcuende, “De la heterosexualidad…”, pp. 125-142. 9 Gayle Rubin, “Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality”, Pleasure and danger: Exploring female sexuality (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), pp. 267-319. 10 Erving Goffman, Stigma. Notes on the management of spoiled identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963).
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2. The Sexed City We accept, then, that sex is more than just sex. That is to say that sex is, above all, a cultural category that ordains social difference. We can think then of public space as a project in heterosexualization in which the different areas of the city are organized around the celebration of heterosexuality. Parks, plazas, and streets are spaces designed for family-oriented enjoyment and consumption, or at any rate, they are designated as spaces for the public display of couples who exemplify and demonstrate the success of the heterosexualization project. No urban planning project addresses the need for homosexual cruising spots in the same way that they do the need for playgrounds, commercial areas, or other recreational spaces where heterosexual families regularly gather. Public space seems to conceal domination through the presence of a fictitious social neutrality, an egalitarian fantasy filled with friendly, cordial relationships capable of overcoming any entailed inequality. Very often this urban space is presented as an idealized space with no social problems, a space whose subjects assume, accept, and share the same social norm11. Conflicts are reduced to the individual sphere and any discussion is based on a critique of behaviors and persons already labeled as delinquent, foolish, depraved, etc. Nevertheless, this harmonious myth within which public space is constructed never ceases to be an object of suspicion and supervision due to the degree of sexual chaos which is inarguably alive and well in the city. As Jeffrey Weeks points out12, heterosexuality is presented as rational and inevitable while at the same time it is constantly being threatened by the social conditions in which it operates, a fact which pokes myriad holes in its principal argument of inevitability. It’s viewed as “natural”, although we have to affect it; it’s inevitable, but is subject to constant danger; and finally it is supposedly spontaneous, although we have to learn it. It’s for this reason that the city has been the object of constant inspection and sexual vigilance. A sea of testimonies has arisen, however, that defies such vigilance and actually gives rise to the promotion of diverse
11 Manuel Delgado, El espacio público como ideología… 12 Jeffrey Weeks, Sexuality and its discontents (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).
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perversions. In the case of the Spanish state, in 1893 Suarez Casañ had already become aware of the existence of places in Barcelona where major sexual perversions were being enacted. Even today there exist in our capital at night, dark and lonely alleys where, under cover of shadows, gross sins are committed […]. In these well-known places, which pose a danger to personal security and decency, gas or electric street lamps should be constructed – lamps that will with their very rays banish these nighttime scoundrels, these enemies of morality. We do not insist upon this delicate point, which weighs on the conscience of all and which we alone have pointed out, in order to prove that this shameful vice isn’t as imaginary as one may choose to believe judging by the natural repugnance which it inspires. We do so with the belief that the authorities should awaken to their responsibility and nip this in the bud, thereby undoubtedly avoiding major disaster13.
The darkness that a city full of strangers gives birth to is deeply associated with grave danger as well as the worst offenses against morality. This is the idea that Enrique Rodriguez-Solis puts forth in his work, Historia de la prostitución en España y América. All of those who fear the light of day and distrust openness issue forth from their dark holes, leave their lairs and ooze out, practicing their activities under the cover of shadows. They are the beloved of the most committed criminals and the most deeply depraved […]. Professions and industries which prosper by day die with the coming of night. Others, on the other hand, cannot live without her14.
Later, at the beginning of the 20th century, Max-Bembo published his work, La mala vida en Barcelona15, in which he attempts to shed light on the immoral acts that were taking place in Barcelona at the beginning of the 20th century16. 13 Vicente Suarez, Conocimientos para la vida privada. La pederastia (Barcelona: Editorial Maucci, 1893), p. 55. 14 Enrique Rodríguez-Solis, Historia de la prostitución en España y América (Madrid: Imprenta de Fernando Cao y Domingo del Val, 1891), p. 250. 15 Max-Bembo, La mala vida en barcelona. Anormalidad, miseria y vicio (Barcelona: Editorial Maucci, 1912). 16 La mala vida en Barcelona (1912) was introduced as a contribution towards the analysis of immoral social acts such as begging, prostitution, and delinquency in the urban sphere. It is a book that seeks recognition through the citation of numerous prestigious thinkers of the era while also employing a neutral language that is supposedly the fruit of rigorous investigation but which undoubtedly transmits the
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Beneath the lime trees, in this verdant avenue untouched by the rays of the sun, in these benches which offer passing rest, this is there that the conquest begins. First come innocent questions, later picaresque, and then finally, a formal declaration. If no people pass, beneath these same lime trees, amorality finds shelter; if it happens, it happens in the peaks that feign Montserrat, where unbridled passion reigns supreme. Sometimes the authorities come very close to discovering the homosexuals, but they escape, making use of their numerous secret passageways…; […] The park is no longer a place for young lovers: it now belongs to the homosexuals17.
In 1956, Mauricio Carlavilla published his book entitled, Sodomitas, Homosexuales, Politicos, científicos, criminales18. In which he attempts to link homosexuality and Communism. The author uses the category of homosexual in an attempt to belittle the Communist subject and leave him with no right of reply, given that the accusation of homosexuality in and of itself generates such a heavy stigma that it leaves no room for response. For his own part, Antonio Sabater published Gamberros, homosexuales vagos y maleantes, a book which had a huge social impact and which sounded the alarm regarding the different forms of perversion that could be found in the Spanish cities of the era19. To some extent the book helped lay the foundation for the Francoist dictatorship’s new ley de peligrosidad social, a law aimed at the control of anti-social elements which was itself a strengthening and reiteration of the regime’s older ley de vagos y maleantes, literally a law
heavy moral and ideological burden of its author. Max-Bembo does not know how to classify or define homosexuals, he simply classifies them as a sexual inversion based on the fact that they do not complete sex’s ultimate goal of reproduction. “We know that normality is the legacy of reproductive instinct, the masculine uniting itself with the feminine in order to propagate the perfection of the species. This instinct can be diverted, that is to say it becomes an anomaly the minute it does not fulfill its legacy; it becomes perverted as soon as the attraction between opposites diminishes; aberration exists as soon as life’s ultimate objective is taken away” (Max-Bembo, La mala vida en Barcelona. Anormalidad…, pp. 21-22). It should be pointed out that Constancio Bernaldo de Quirós and José María Llanas Agilaniedo had also previously published another book with similar intentions entitled: La mala vida en Madrid (Madrid: B. Rodríguez Serra, 1901). 17 Max-Bembo, La mala vida en Barcelona. Anormalidad…, pp. 49-50. 18 Mauricio Carlavilla, Sodomitas. Homosexuales, políticos, científicos, criminales, espias, etc. (Madrid: Nos, 1956). 19 Tomás Sabater, Gamberros, Homosexuales, Vagos y Maleantes (Barcelona: Hispano Europea, 1961).
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to address “slackers and villians” and which is famed for having been used in the control of homosexual behaviour during Franco’s regime. Despite the various campaigns that were mounted against the expansion of homosexuality within large cities, it is undeniable that the grand metropolis has been the focal point and ultimate destination for an endless number of dissidents and rebels in search of the pleasures that a city has to offer. There are no available studies about migration in the Spanish state which take sexual orientation into account. However, a large number of homosexuals did migrate from the countryside to the city and even from more restrictive countries to more lenient ones in an attempt to find respite from the control to which the they were subject in their native countries. The city has always been a key element in the configuration of modern gay identity20. In his book, Gay New York, George Chauncey describes the strategies and pathways utilized in the construction of gay identity in New York City from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century21. Chauncey shows that a larger urban homosexual presence has been key in the construction of a new, gay lifestyle which adapts itself to different social contexts. Having said that, this construction of identity is also inarguably affected by a class component, which, although on occasions has been considered unimportant, does not cease to be present in the exercise of privilege. As far back as 1600, certain European cities such as Florence, Venice, and Rome proved quite attractive to the homosexual population22. Sydney, Australia also became a destination point for some North American homosexuals23. As did Bangkok and Singapore within the Asian continent24. This recognition of homosexuality within the urban environment and the liberties that it entails have permitted the formation of minority spaces – meeting places in which homosexuals have constructed their own personal version of the world. Without a doubt, the social isolation of which the 20 Henning Bech, When men meet (Cambridge: The University of Chicago Press, 1997 [1987]). 21 George Chauncey, Gay New York: gender, urban Culture, and the making of the gay male world 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994). 22 Robert Aldrich, The seduction of the mediterranean. Writing, art and homosexual fantasy (London-New York: Routledge, 1993). 23 Robert Aldrich, “Homosexuality and the City: Historical Overview” Urban Studies, 41 (2004), pp. 1719-1737. 24 Peter Jackson, Gerard Sullivan, Lady boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys; Male and Female homosexualities in contemporany Thailand (Nueva York: The Haworth Press, 1999).
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homosexual community has been accused many times can not be seen as anything but a defense mechanism against a hostile environment25. In many ways, the construction of minority spaces has permitted the recognition and hence the survival of homosexuals.
3. One Night Stands in Urban Spaces Urban gay culture has played a very important role in the welcoming of newly-arrived homosexuals to the city. This in turn gives birth to a sort of mutual aid society, if you will, which many homosexuals have used to find work, lodging, and even sexual recreation. But the persecution of homosexuals cast it’s long shadow on the Western world throughout the 20th century. This harassment provoked the homosexual community into developing an array of alternative communication tactics, reclaiming spaces, and striving for self-affirmation, all of which allowed them to more or less maintain a hidden sex life in the face of anti-gay policies26. In the New York City of the 30s and 40s, homosexuality began to threaten national security and various administrations wielded new forms of control over homosexuals. Hundreds of men were arrested in New York for cruising or visiting local gay rendezvous points and the arrests only multiplied in the decade following the Second World War27. Parks and streets became places where many New York men would go to find their sexual partners and be initiated into the gay scene. Parks were safer and more popular spots than the streets, as the streets always left one more open to the possibility of arrest or homophobic attack. Bryant Park, Brooklyn’s Prospect Park, and Battery Park which was frequented by sailors were some of the most popular places for sexual encounters during this era28. Other US cities had their own gay cruising zones such as Lafayette Square in Washington, The Public Garden and Boston Common
25 26 27 28
Oscar Guasch, La crisis de la heterosexualidad (Barcelona: Laertes, 2007). George Chauncey, Gay New York: gender, urban Culture…, p. 5. George Chauncey, Gay New York: gender, urban Culture…, pp. 8-9. George Chauncey, Gay New York: gender, urban Culture…, pp. 8-9.
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in Boston, Bughouse Square and Union Square in Chicago, or the Ferry Building and Union Square in San Francisco29. In Europe, sexual encounters between men were also a common practice in larger cities. In The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde, the protagonist roams the city at night, passing through neighborhoods where various illicit acts are being committed, leaving the reader with the impression that things of a sexual nature are taking place between these men30. Marcel Jouhandeau also talks about French parks. Curiously, we watch each other pass […] and when we think that the other has gone, we sit down next to another and end up leaving with a third. Fortunately, parks similar to those that we have in France can be found in every neighborhood in the world – gardens where we discover one another like heavenly bodies, like faces that we will never see again, and the only thing that consoles us is the fact that we have already left31.
In Paris, the vespasienne, as French urinals were called, were well-known as unholy sanctuaries and many were most assuredly used for the exchange of pleasures although never without being exempt from police persecution. In 1950 alone there were 463 sentences handed down, 379 in 1960, 406 in 1970, and 379 in 197432. In the case of the Spanish state, outside of the testimonies of authors of a more reactionary turn or authors close to the Francoist regime, there exist very few references that can give an accurate account of these furtive encounters between men at the beginning and middle of the century. In Jean Genet’s novel, The Thief’s Journal, the author makes reference to the existence of places in the Republican Barcelona of the 1930s in which sex between men was practiced. “The rebels, during the riots and chaos of 1933, tore down one of the dirtiest, but also one of the most beloved public urinals. It was right beside the port and the barracks and the hot urine of thousands of soldiers had rusted its metal”33.
29 Allan Bérubé, “The history of gay bathhouses”, Policings public sex (Boston: South and Press, 1996), pp. 187-220. 30 Oscar Wilde, The picture of Dorian Gray (Rock Island: Necropolis Press, 2011). 31 Marcel Jouhandeau cited by: Didier Eribon, Una moral de lo minoritario. Variaciones sobre un tema de Jean Genet (Barcelona: Anagrama, 2004), p. 128. 32 Geoffroy Huard, “El ojo del poder en los meaderos. Las prácticas homosexuales en los urinarios públicos de París, 1945-1975”, Ayer, 87 (2012), pp. 89-109. 33 Jean Genet, El diario del ladrón (Barcelona: RBA, 2010), pp. 64-65.
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The Franco regime tried its best to put a stop to any form of sexual expression that lay outside of the moral mandate dictated by the church. Faced with this, Spanish homosexuals adopted their own jargon which allowed them to participate in sexual intrigues and flirtations just as they would in any other Western country. This form of sexual flirtation and cruising was known as “running the race”, which was the same phrase used by prostitutes to refer to the plying of their trade34. Here the public lavatories were also a definite meeting point for workers and employers35. In the lavatories one found, “the most private lives alongside the most public. […] The most secretive is timidly shared with whomever and the most absolutely modest becomes completely immodest within the context of a generously shared intimacy”36. In Madrid, cruising took place in Preciados Street and in the Gran Via as well as in the first car of Metro line number two. Valencia had the Barrio del Carmen, in Sevilla it was Maria Luisa park, in Zaragoza Jose Antonio Plaza and the public lavatories of Plaza España37. In Barcelona, cruising spots could be found in Monjuic Park, the Rambla, the Victor Pradera lounge, Sagrada Familia Plaza, Plaza Catalunya and its lavatories as well as Plaza Urquinaona and Sarrià Station38. While heterosexuals looked for their partners from within the institutions which the regime had authorized, homosexuals looked for their relationships in the street and in other public spaces39. After Franco’s death, anonymous sexual encounters began to become more visible in the public sphere. In Antonio Roig’s 1977 book, Todos los parques no son un paraíso, one can already find various explicit references to the cruising zones which the author knew of during his stay in London. I met George in the Piccadilly toilets. How is it that something so marvelous can happen in such a vile and corrupt latrine? I run the risk of running into an undercover policeman (agitators, I think they’re called), the type that goes after “delinquents” but
34 Oscar Guasch, La sociedad rosa (Barcelona: Anagrama, 1991). 35 Francisco Vázquez, Richard Cleminson, “Los invisibles”, A History of Male Homosexuality in Spain, 1850-1939 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007). 36 Ricardo Llamas, Francisco Javier Vidarte, Homografias (Madrid: Espasa, 1999), p. 40. 37 Albert Ferrarons, Rosa sobre Negro. Breve historia de la homosexualidad en la España del siglo XX (Barcelona: Egales, 2010), p. 92. 38 Armand Fluvià, El moviment gai a la clandestinitat del franquisme (1970-1975) (Barcelona: Laertes, 2003), p. 46. 39 Oscar Guasch, La sociedad rosa (Barcelona: Anagrama, 1991), p. 63.
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in reality only captures victims. It could happen that one of these people who use the police as a counterpoint makes me the victim of one of their blackmail schemes. But instead of all this I found George, a man with a loneliness much like mine40.
In Antonio Roig’s text one can also see the dangers that cruising in public parks in London presented in the 1970s. Suddenly a younger man appeared. He looked terrible. “Identification. I’m a cop” […] A rain of kicks and punches was unleashed. I protected myself as best I could. “I’m going to search you”. He searched all of my pockets. He ound about 50 pennies and a return ticket. “We’re going to the police station”, he insisted while pushing me once again into the darkness […]. With another blow he threw me to the floor. My bottom lip began to bleed. This time I couldn’t get back up. Everything was spinning. He leaned over me and took my wallet. When I finally sat up he threatened me. “I don’t wanna see you around here again because if I do, I’ll kill you”41.
There are other literary essays by European authors that also relate cruising stories. One such work is The Swimming Pool Library by Alan Hollinghurst in which the protagonists of the story meet in a urinal42. Or there’s The Orton Diaries by Jon Orton where the author relates in detail a sexual encounter he had in 1967 in a small urinal in London, I […] popped into a little pissoir – just four pissers. It was dark because someone had taken the bulb away. There were three figures pissing. I had a piss and, as my eyes became used to the gloom, I saw that only one of the figures was worth having – a labouring type, big, with cropped hair and, as far as I could see, wearing jeans and a dark short coat. […] I nipped in there sharpish and stood next to the labourer. I put my hand down and felt his cock, he immediately started to play with mine. The youngish man with fair hair, standing back against the wall, went into the vacant place. I unbuttoned the top of my jeans and unloosened my belt in order to allow the labourer free reign with my balls […] The little pissoir under the bridge had become the scene of a frenzied homosexual saturnalia. No more than two feet away the citizens of Holloway moved about their ordinary business. I came, squirting come into the bearded man’s mouth, and quickly pulled up my jeans. As I was about to leave, I heard the bearded man hissing quietly, “I suck people off! Who wants his cock sucked?” When I left the labourer was just shoving his cock into the man’s mouth to keep him quiet43.
40 Antonio Roig, Todos los parques no son un paraíso (Cerdanyola del Vallès: Planeta, 1997), p. 48. 41 Antonio Roig, Todos los parques…, p. 48. 42 Alan Hollinghurst, The Swimming-Pool Library (London: Chatto & Windus, 1988). 43 Joe Orton, The Orton Diaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), pp. 105-106.
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Edmund White asserts that “[…] most people, straight and gay, think that cruising is pathetic or sordid - but for me, at least, some of my happiest moments have been spent making love to a stranger beside dark, swiftly moving water below a glowing city”44. In “A matter of Life and Sex”, Oscar Moore uses the phrase ‘the tango of the urinals’ to refer to the set of rules, steps, and strategies that come into play during anonymous cruising between men45. Urban gay culture has given a lot of emotional support to people who’ve arrived in the city longing to put other forms of sexuality into practice. The city has been an escape mechanism which allows for anonymous sexual encounters. It allows one to come into contact with the largest number of sexual partners possible in an environment that doesn’t require explanations. Through the use of a system of subcultural codes, the city has given homosexuals the ability to identify other men who roam the streets, looking for the same sort of interaction as they do.
4. New Tendencies Since the 1970s, the visible growth of the homosexual population within the urban environment has lent to an increase in the political power enjoyed by homosexuals as a group. This has helped to construct a greater homosexual representation and has allowed for more of an impact on local politics in larger cities46. The ability to consume has given the gay community a passport to quality urban living47. In so far as there has been a huge proliferation of restaurants, clubs, and vacation destinations that approve of sexual diversity and which have found their consumer niche in the grand metropolis.
44 Edmund White, The Flâneur. A stroll through the paradoxes of Paris (London: Bloomsbury, 2001), p. 147. 45 Oscar More, A Matter of Life and Sex (New York: Dutton, 1992). 46 Robert Bailey, Gay politics, Urban polities: Identity and Ecónomics in the Urban settin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999). 47 Engin Isin, Patricia Wood, Citizenship and identity (Londres: Sage Publications, 1999).
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But the gay urban population hasn’t only become consumers, they’ve also become a commercial product of the city itself48. One observes a practice that appears inclusive of sexual minorities, but which still reproduces models of exclusion based on the question of class. If we accept the premise that the process of integration requires segregation in order to construct identity and recognition, it follows that the inclusion of certain groups of homosexuals as consumer subjects and therefore full citizens has at the same time given rise to practices which exclude those sexualities which have not yet found their niche in the market as well as excluding homosexuals who do not have access to the economic resources necessary for the acquisition of high quality citizenship. This new, “homonormative”49 culture has left behind a good many social groups with which it had previously shared the journey throughout the 20th century. It has also contributed to the construction of a new form of urban distribution which can be seen in many ways as gentrification. The gay population has been historically drawn to run-down neighborhoods, putting it in a pioneering role in regards to urban transformation. The neighborhood of Chueca, in Madrid, is a prime example of the gentrification under consideration. Where beforehand these zones were awash in decay and degradation, now these spaces have been rehabilitated by the LGBT community and have actually become some of the city’s most trendy and fashionable zones50. Another example is the Cabbagetown neighborhood in Toronto, Canada, which, in the 19th century belonged to the city’s working class district but which in the intervening years has become a major homosexual destination, increasing the value of the neighborhood through the addition of bars, restaurants, and shops51.
48 David Bell, Jon Binne, “Autenticating queer space: citizenship, Urbanism and Governance”, Urban studies, 41 (2004), pp. 1807-1820. 49 Lisa Duggan, “The new homonormativity: the sexual politics of neoliberalism”, Materializing Democracy: Toward a Revitalized cultural Politics, Russ Castranovo, Dana Nelson, eds. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002). 50 Begoña Enguix, “Espacios y disidencias: el orgullo LGTB”, Quaderns-e de l’Institut Català d’Antropologia, 14 (2009), pp. 1-34. 51 Anne-Marie Bouthillette, “Gentrification by gay male communities: A case study of Toronto’s Cabbagetown”, The margins of the city. Gay men’s urban lives, Stephen Whittle, ed. (Vermont: Arena, 1994), pp. 65-83.
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Conclusions As we can see, some aspects of the homosexual question have been assimilated by capitalism and the consumer culture which has developed within the city environment. At the same time, other aspects which do not have economic implications are still the object of scorn and rejection. A rejection which sadly does not solely originate with defenders of the heterosexual project, but which also comes from assimilationist groups who are willing to separate, differentiate, and distance themselves from that which, on some level, could still tie them to their “perverse” roots.
Cléopâtre de la Main parmi les ruines de l’identité du papier mâché : les identités perverses dans Hosanna de Michel Tremblay Šárka Novotná Masaryk University Brno
1. L’introduction au monde pervers de Claude Lemieux alias Hosanna En essayant de proposer les premières ébauches définitoires de la perversion, nous trouverons dans les études psychanalytiques le fait qu’elle consiste en conception pathologique de la sexualité1. En allant un peu plus loin, la cause du pathologique s’explique par un problème général de la relation envers la réalité2, ou bien par le désir de substituer la réalité par son propre rêve, de lui attribuer une nouvelle identité. En effet, la perversion est un problème identitaire qui mène au renversement de la réalité et à sa subordination corrélative à la propre vision. Tel est aussi le cas de Claude Lemieux alias Hosanna, homosexuel et travesti de nuit, protagoniste de la pièce de théâtre Hosanna (1973) de Michel Tremblay3. En l’occurrence, Claude change la réalité en scénario 1 2 3
Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel, Kreativita a perverze (Praha : Portál, 2001), p. 11. Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel, Kreativita…, p. 39. La caractéristique la plus fréquemment citée quant à Michel Tremblay (Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais (Montréal : Leméac, 1984), écrivain et dramaturge québécois, est celle qu’il est né « à Montréal, dans un quartier populaire » (Luc Boulanger, Pièces à conviction : entretiens avec Michel Tremblay (Ottawa : Leméac, 2001), p. 171). En effet, il s’agit du trait qui détermine toute son œuvre qui forme un chronotope influencé par sa propre expérience. Tremblay forme une mimesis dont le rôle s’avère analogue à celui de la tragédie grecque : elle a la valeur d’un document ontologique (Jacques Taminiaux, Le théâtre des philosophes (Grenoble : Millon, 1995), p. 5) dont le but consiste conséquemment à ‘exhiber l’étant en totalité tel qu’il est en vérité’ (Jacques Taminiaux, Le théâtre des
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fantasmatique où s’enchevêtrent des visions religieuses, des évocations historiques, sa quotidienneté ainsi que ses rêves : HOSANNA – […] Les trompettes pètaient, les tambours pètaient, le ciel était… (Silence.) le ciel était rouge vin avec des barres jaunes, cibole ! Pis… Hosanna faisait son entrée ! […] déguisée comme Elisabeth Taylor, avec dans les mains un fouet pis une boule en papier mâché ; Hosanna faisait son entrée dans Rome ! Pis pendant ce temps-là, l’enseigne de la Pharmacie Beaubien garrochait ses lumières rouges pis jaunes dans le miroir, pis Cuirette ronflait… […] son bras autour du cou d’Hosanna qui faisait son entrée triomphale dans Rome !4
Tel est l’univers d’Hosanna : bruyant pour couvrir le silence, pompeux pour couvrir la solitude, mais avant tout, il est théâtral, créé du papier mâché, où son propre moi est réduit au niveau superficiel des masques, où tout est l’imitation fragile d’une durée éphémère. Quand même, l’homme désire y trouver la certitude ontologique et souhaite que cet univers théâtral remplace la réalité. Ainsi, entre l’individu et le monde, entre l’imaginaire et le réel, se forme une frontière dont le fondement est le corps de l’individu, sa chair. Dans ce mur symbolique, Michel Foucault y trouve une déchirure : la sexualité qui signifie le vide de l’expérience personnelle et qui nie
4
philosophes…, p. 7). Pour atteindre cette vérité, Tremblay non seulement situe ses pièces dans l’espace québécois (en s’approchant ainsi du concept de la polis, de la cité de la tragédie grecque), mais il laisse également les personnages qui l’habitent s’exprimer dans leur langue naturelle, voire vulgaire, c’est-à-dire en joual qui est pour la première fois mis en scène en 1968 par la pièce Les Belles-Sœurs. Cet événement signifie une vraie révolution en étant « considérée comme la naissance du ‘théâtre québécois’ » (Luc Boulanger, Pièces à conviction : entretiens avec Michel Tremblay (Ottawa : Leméac, 2001), p. 10). Le joual ne contribue pas seulement à la formation de la plasticité des personnages, mais il est promu à l’outil de l’expression de la profondeur psychologique et, comme tel, de l’expression du tragique. Depuis la victoire des Belles-Sœurs sur la scène, Tremblay a créé une grande quantité de pièces de théâtre dans lesquelles se reflète l’évolution du Québec pendant les dernières décennies. Ce reflet de la société québécoise ainsi que du sentir subjectif de l’individu accompagnent la difficulté d’établir clairement le genre de son théâtre. A côté de la réactualisation des schèmes de la tragédie grecque et du théâtre réaliste, il frôle souvent le théâtre de l’absurde qui côtoie l’espace symbolique de la souffrance individuelle. Cet univers complexe et multiforme est complété par la création romanesque dans laquelle les personnages théâtraux revivent et s’évoluent en contribuant à former de l’œuvre de Michel Tremblay une mosaïque impressionnante. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais (Montréal : Leméac, 1984), p. 60.
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la présence de Dieu5 : dans la société québécoise fondée sur les valeurs chrétiennes6, ce vide en tant que la différence de l’expérience subjective au niveau de la corporéité apporte un vrai déracinement. A ce point précis, il y entre l’até, l’aveuglement de la tragédie grecque dont les termes nous aideront à structurer notre analyse : en vue du vide, le protagoniste lui-même prend le rôle divin du créateur, celui d’une nouvelle réalité, du monde imaginaire. Toutefois, ce monde subjectif se formera toujours en dépendance de l’entourage environnant qui se caractérise par son discours spécifique. Dans ce cas concret, vu les coordonnées de la pièce en question, il y intervient « l’univers intertextuel catholique [, un] espace où circulent des actants, des relations, des axiologies, des récits… »7 qui doit forcément influencer la constitution du monde pervers de Claude, car c’est justement le discours qui accompagne la formation de l’identité8. Il s’agit bien-sûr de sa transposition, de l’image perverse adaptée étant donné que l’identité de Claude repose avant tout sur les mots : l’homme crée des constructions compliquées (parce qu’éloignées de la réalité) comparables au temple en tant qu’institutionnalisation de sa perception avec les fondements aux structures réelles9.
5 6
7 8 9
Michel Foucault, Myšlení vnějšku (Praha : Herrmann & Synové, 1996), pp. 8-13. La configuration de la société de l’époque de la création de la pièce signifie pour Hosanna la condamnation à l’exil dans son propre monde en renforçant la frontière foucaldienne. Tremblay atteste ce fait en parlant de la pièce La Duchesse de Langeais (1968) publiée cinq ans avant la représentation d’Hosanna. Les deux pièces ont plusieurs traits en commun ; la Duchesse est également homosexuel et travesti qui désire remplacer la réalité par un construit imaginaire où ses rêves puissent s’accomplir : « Dans les années soixante, au Québec et ailleurs, les gens ignoraient la réalité homosexuelle. Un personnage aussi cru, efféminé et vulgaire était […] un véritable acte de provocation ! […] Après la lecture, une femme est venue me voir. Elle m’a demandé pourquoi c’était un homme ET NON UNE FEMME qui lisait La Duchesse… ! Elle ne pouvait pas s’imaginer qu’un homme puisse parler aussi explicitement de son attirance pour un autre homme… » (Luc Boulanger, Pièces à conviction…, p. 36). Dominique Maingueneau, Genèses du discours (Liège : Editeur Pierre Mardaga, 1984), p. 46. Dominique Maingueneau, Genèses…, p. 6. Ces considérations nous rendent possible de concevoir le discours dans son extension terminologique tel qu’il apparaît chez Michel Foucault : comme « lien avec le désir et avec le pouvoir » (Michel Foucault, L’ordre du discours (Paris : Gallimard, 1971),
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Dans la présente étude, dans le deuxième chapitre, nous tenterons tout d’abord de reconstruire les espaces de ces mondes, tant imaginaires que réels. Pour le passage de l’internement imaginaire au réel, à la sphère des relations sociales, Jacques Lacan introduit la désignation « le stade du miroir ». C’est précisément le miroir, comme nous esquisserons dans le troisième chapitre, qui devient le point critique de la pièce. Le mot crisis est d’ailleurs dérivé du verbe grec « juger »10 et le « jugement » inadéquat sur soi-même, l’aveuglement lors de son observation dans le miroir réel ainsi que métaphorique, celui des relations, aboutit à la méconnaissance et à la conflictualité pluridimensionnelle. La multiplicité conflictuelle se reflète dans le nom d’Hosanna auquel visera le quatrième chapitre. Afin de confirmer la valeur ontologique du nom acquis et de l’identité formée par son intermédiaire, il a besoin d’autrui. Ce rôle est fourni par Raymond Bolduc alias Cuirette. Nous nous dédierons à leur relation mutuelle dans le quatrième chapitre. C’est d’ailleurs la relation avec autrui qui mène Hosanna à une certaine catharsis à laquelle sera consacré le dernier chapitre. Vu que nous touchons les notions comme la relation avec autrui, l’éta blissement de l’identité et des valeurs ontologiques, en tant qu’appui métho dologique, nous recourrons à la philosophie de Jean-Paul Sartre et de Maurice Merleau-Ponty que nous compléterons par la psychanalyse de Jacques Lacan.
2. La rencontre des espaces et leur seule intersection conflictuelle Dès le début, le caractère conflictuel caractérisant la pièce entière surgit dans la didascalie : l’action est vaguement située dans « [u]ne garçonnière meublée’ quelque part sur la Plaza Saint-Hubert »11, une telle description p. 12). Le désir renvoie à la formation de l’image voulue de soi-même et le pouvoir, quant à lui, à la possibilité personnelle, à un « je peux » individuel ainsi qu’aux structures institutionnalisées du pouvoir. 10 Jacqueline de Romilly, Le temps dans la tragédie grecque (Paris : Librairie Philosophique de J. Vrin, 1971), p. 11. 11 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais (Montréal : Leméac, 1984), p. 11.
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donne l’impression de la banalité : la banalité se rattache au monde extérieur ainsi que à un petit univers individuel rempli d’objets où la pièce se déroulera. Néanmoins, la fausseté de cette impression se montre immédia tement, ce sont les touches personnelles de son habitant qui l’altèrent : ensuite, la didascalie situe le lecteur dans la noirceur silencieuse d’ une atmosphère de la tristesse et de solitude navrantes [et les] seules touches personnelles dans ce désespérant décor [représente] un affreux « David » en plâtre, déformé et grotesque à souhait, […] une peinture « érotique », œuvre de CUIRETTE du temps qu’il avait encore des aspirations artistiques […], une « coiffeuse », surmontée d’un très grand miroir, et couverte d’un nombre incalculable de pots de crèmes, de rouges à lèvres […] Et une gigantesque bouteille d’eau de Cologne […] un parfum très cheap, très lourd, très écœurant […] qui a emprisonné Hosanna depuis des années et qui laisse des traces un peu écœurantes d’Hosanna, partout où elle passe12.
Tous ses objets condensent l’espace en le changeant en prison très restreinte et soulignent la séparation du monde environnant : dans la description, il y figure les produits de beautés en tant que les accidents du phénomène de l’être, censés former un masque ontologique, à savoir l’appartenance à la chair du monde, car « [t]out ce qui est corporel s’appréhende dans le voir, le toucher, l’ouïr, etc. et implique dès lors une chair, un corps vivant […] »13. 12 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, pp. 11-12. 13 Guy-Félix Duportail, Les institutions du monde de la vie I, Merleau-Ponty et Lacan (Grenoble : Millon, 2008), p. 22. A cet égard, le plus significatif s’avère le parfum : tout au long de la pièce, Hosanna l’applique de manière réitérée en tant que le détail impor tant de sa propre existence – le parfum laisse partout la trace authentique de sa présence, de son être dans le monde, pourtant, il est cheap, c’est-à-dire l’imitation qui prend successivement les connotations de la corporalité, de la vulgarité et de la fugacité : « CUIRETTE – Calvaire, que ça pue, icitte ! J’le dirai jamais assez ! ça se sent la putain à cinquante cents ! » (Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais (Montréal : Leméac, 1984), p. 15). Finalement, il s’y ajoute la connotation de la mort qui s’évolue en indice interprétatif du monde d’Hosanna : « CUIRETTE – J’pense que c’est la mort que ça sent. […] Quand mon oncle Edouard est mort, ça sentait ça dans le salon mortuaire […] Ta chambre me fait penser au salon mortuaire de mon oncle Edouard […] » (Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 16). La signification du symbole gradue encore par la comparaison d’Hosanna à son propre appartement : « CUIRETTE – Toé ? T’es exactement comme ta maudite maison. Tu sens le parfum à trois milles, pis tu clignotes comme l’annonce de la pharmacie… » (Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 23). Nous nous trouvons face à l’isotopie de la mort : le monde du protagoniste et, corrélativement, son moi sont morts, irréels étant donné qu’ils se forment à partir de la négation du monde réel.
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Néanmoins, la chair peut être acquise seulement dans la corrélation avec le monde et au contact avec autrui. Tout contrairement à Hosanna qui se crée un espace symbolique du désir, du rêve impossible : l’homme rêve d’être la reine, mais, en réalité, Hosanna est un travesti habillé comme Elisabeth Taylor dans « Cléopâtre », en infiniment plus cheap, évidemment. Une Cléopâtre-de-la-Main. […] La perruque est en « cheveux véritables ». Les sandales viennent directement de l’avenue du Parc et l’amoncellement de bijoux, de colliers, de bracelets, de chaînes, de bagues, d’épinglettes et le « cobra » qui entoure la tête d’Hosanna-Cléopâtre, et les serpents qui s’enroulent autour des bras de Cléopâtre-Hosanna proviennent de tous les quinze cents et de toutes les « bijouteries » comprises entre Amherst et Saint-Laurent, sur la Catherine. Mais malgré ce déguisement grotesque, Claude-Hosanna-Cléopâtre ne doit pas être « drôle ». C’est un travesti cheap avec tout ce que ça comporte de touchant, de triste, d’exaspérant et d’exaltant parce qu’exalté14.
Tout s’unit donc dans une dénonciation, tout réfère à la corporalité grotesque qui caractérise Hosanna : le travesti est caractérisé par le même adjectif que les objets de son appartement, à savoir son identité est « cheap », il ressemble à la statue de David, à un objet vide ; tout est un kitsch invraisemblable, une imitation sentimentale. Cette imitation se fonde cependant sur la réalité qui ne se cesse de se faire rappeler, « [p]ar la fenêtre ornée de rideaux de lainage style folklo rique, toutes les cinq secondes, inexorablement, l’annonce néon de la « Pharmacie Beaubien’ s » allume, puis s’éteint »15. Merleau-Ponty désigne les résidus de la réalité dans la sphère invisible de l’imaginaire comme les ruines de l’esprit d’où dérive la ressemblance du 14 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna; La duchesse…, pp. 12-13. 15 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 12. Sauf la pharmacie, le monde extérieur est représenté par le parc Lafontaine. Même celui-ci apparaît présenté par la médiation des lumières : « CUIRETTE – Pis un théâtre… […] Tout allumé. […] Les coins ont changé. On a plus les coins qu’on avait ! […] J’me sus dit ‘Cuirette, mon gars, y’ont construit un théâtre par-dessus la place ousque t’as fait tes débuts… » (Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais…, pp. 15-16). Sur la soi-disant scène du parc, plusieurs temps et espaces s’unissent : parc Lafontaine est un lieu des rencontres des homosexuels sous l’abri de la nuit et des arbres et la lumière évoquée est donc la lumière accusatrice, la lumière du dévoilement de l’homosexua lité et de sa perversité aux yeux de la société. En même temps, la lumière éclaire la sphère intime et individuelle ; il est question de la jalousie d’Hosanna due au passé de Cuirette, au temps quand elle ne faisait pas encore partie de son monde perceptif.
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monde au Forum en tant que « le sens sédimenté de toutes les e xpériences [car] la vie intérieure »16 se formule sur la base de la parole, du discours et elle matérialise un « lieu d’où nous parlons »17 et où les autres peuvent partiellement ou accidentellement entrer par l’acte discursif18. De telles ruines éloquentes sont représentées par la lumière clignotante de l’annonce susceptible d’avoir la forme de la croix et d’accentuer l’idée du secours, du salut. En effet, Hosanna les cherche dans tous les espaces, mais la perception pathologique de la réalité l’empêche de les trouver. Le travesti se trouvant entre le réel et l’imaginaire se situe dans le vide qui souligne même les cordonnées temporelles : « Au cadran-du-réveil matin phosphorescent, sous la lampe d’urne il est trois heures »19. Il est l’heure entre la nuit et le matin, entre vendredi et samedi20. A cette heure de la déchirure, Hosanna rentre de la soirée des travestis montréalais dont le pseudo-monde représente pour elle l’incarnation de la certitude ontologique.
3. Le miroir et son reflet traîtreux Dans le décor de l’appartement, le miroir représente un point éminent en devenant le punctum, centre traumatique lié à la formation de l’identité ou, plus précisément, en l’occurrence, l’indice de son caractère dysfonctionnel. Jacques Lacan désigne le moment crucial de la formation du moi comme le stade du miroir : il s’agit de la transformation du sujet relative à l’image vue dans le miroir en tant que l’extériorité dont le résultat devrait apporter le passage du moi narcissique à la réalité objective. Vu son caractère purement subjectif et souvent problématique, le stade du miroir passe chez Lacan par un grand changement terminologique : d’un
16 17 18 19 20
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible et l’Invisible (Paris : Gallimard, 1990), p. 234. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible…, p. 234. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible…, p. 234. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible…, p. 234. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 32. « HOSANNA – J’me couche pas tu-suite… pas tu-suite… CUIRETTE – Tu travailles, demain… C’est samedi… C’est samedi… c’t’une grosse journée… ».
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côté, il indique un jeu joyeux de la reconnaissance21, de la formation du moi à partir de l’expérience du corps morcelé, mais, de l’autre, il évoque le drame dont le but primordial réside dans le dépassement de la « discordance d’avec sa réalité »22. Or, dans le miroir, il s’y reflète la propre vision, la réalité onirique de l’individu que Lacan compare aux peintures de Jérôme Bosch. Le stade du miroir peut même devenir une tragédie dont la fatalité est assurée par la chair23 : l’individu complète et accommode son image et, si le stade du miroir se trouve au « seuil du monde visible »24, sa conséquence est l’impossibilité de la reconnaissance de la réalité. La séparation de la chair du monde et la méconnaissance du propre moi s’instaurent. Tel est le cas d’Hosanna : le travesti se trouve « morcelé » en plusieurs espaces et en plusieurs réalités où le moi n’apporte que la méconnaissance provoquant la peur : « HOSANNA – J’arais envie de me coucher toute grimée, Cuirette. J’pense que j’ai peur de c’qu’y’a en-dessous… »25. Afin d’éviter la confrontation avec la réalité qui ressemble aux peintures de Bosch, elle passe la majorité du temps devant le miroir pour costumer son moi réel (« Toute une vie, ouan, toute une vie de préparation […] »26) : CUIRETTE – Tu fais jamais l’homme devant ton grand crisse de miroir, jamais ! Pis quand on est couché aussi, tu continues à faire la femme… […] T’as même commencé à te maquiller pour aller travailler, Hosanna ! […] Tu vieillis, Hosanna, pis tu vieillis comme une femme : vite !27
Comme le mentionne Lacan et développe Merleau-Ponty, le miroir réfère à la dimension des relations sociales. « De manière générale, le miroir indique les relations entre moi et autrui, moi et le monde, ainsi que celles des autres entre eux »28. Dans sa vie quotidienne, Claude Lemieux est coiffeur, à savoir il travaille toute la journée devant le miroir où son regard rencontre celui de ses clients :
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Jacques Lacan, Ecrits I (Paris : Seuil, 1999), p. 70. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, p. 94. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 98. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, p. 94. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, p. 27. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, pp. 13-14. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, pp. 47-48. Jenny Slatman, L’expression au-delà de la représentation : sur l’aisthêsis et l’esthétique chez Merleau-Ponty (Leuven : Peeters, 2003), p. 114.
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HOSANNA – Chus ridicule quand chus déguisée en homme quand j’coiffe mes Juives jewish-renaissance. Des vrais gestes de femmes, qu’y me disent que j’ai… « You should work in drags, Claude ! » Pis si j’irais travailler en femme j’gage qu’y me laisseraient tomber parce qu’y veulent pas se laisser toucher aux cheveux par des femmes… Pis chus ridicule quand chus déguisée en femme parce que j’t’obligée de faire la folle pour attirer l’attention parce que chus pas assez belle pour l’attirer autrement…29
Le moi est donc la fiction30, une projection du désir de plaire aux autres, du désir de l’image idéale de soi-même formulée en dépendance du regard d’autrui. Pour atteindre et vaincre la discordance intérieure de son sentir, il se forme le déguisement qui devient l’objet primordial du désir et qui se posera toujours en tant qu’obstacle dans la relation avec autrui en traduisant la fixation excessive à l’apparence superficielle de la chair.
4. Les échos de l’hosanna et l’hybris de l’excessivité blasphématoire Pour l’espace symbolique du désir où Claude atteint son idéal, Roch Turbide propose la désignation de Rome31. Néanmoins, les dimensions de Rome sont plus étendues qu’elles ne paraissent à première vue, c’est le discours religieux qui les élargit et qui rapproche Rome, la ville éternelle, de Jérusalem : en vue d’entrer dans le monde des homosexuels m ontréalais, Claude emprunte son nouveau nom d’Hosanna à la liturgie chrétienne. Dans un premier temps, il peut s’agir d’une révolte personnelle contre les dogmes religieux, d’une ridiculisation de la religiosité de la société québécoise, à savoir d’un déguisement carnavalesque capable de s urmonter la dichotomie du haut et du bas qui réalise la réécriture du récit biblique. Pourtant, le discours biblique renvoie à une certaine axiologique : ce comportement signifie l’hybris, « le péché de l’homme […], l’égoïsme orgueilleux qui cause que l’homme se croit supérieur à dieu. Ou bien, il veut être son propre dieu pour pouvoir dominer complétement sa vie 29 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 29. 30 Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, p. 93. 31 Roch Turbide, « Hosanna ou la quête d’une territorialité », Voix et Images, 2 (1982), pp. 312-313.
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et en profiter au maximum »32. Cette hybris peccamineuse conduit à la transcription du récit de l’entrée triomphale de Jésus-Christ à Jérusalem (Matthieu 21. 9). Lors de cette occasion, Jésus était acclamé par les foules par « Hosannah au fils de David »33. L’hybris s’approfondit par l’évocation de la descendance royale contenue dans l’acclamation dont la mise en relief frôle la tautologie : « [r]oi est descendant du roi »34. Une telle transformation viole également les règles incontestées du pseudo-monde nocturne où « Sandra était peut-être la propriétaire de la place, pis la Duchesse était peut-être la reine incontestée des folles de Montréal, mais Hosanna préparait son entrée… »35. La dénégation des règles et l’idéalité du déguisement mettent en valeur une autre acception du terme : l’hosanna signifie, par extension, une exclamation de joie36. Pourtant, une telle joie sera toujours éphémère vu que le déguisement, comme son incarnation et sa cause, est la négation perverse de la réalité et traduit un vain effort de la sublimation de la chair. Une telle ambivalence conflictuelle se cache même dans le mot même dont la dernière signification est celle d’une prière désespérée, « sauvenous, s’il te plaît »37. Il s’agit de la prière destinée à autrui étant donné que celui-ci est susceptible d’apporter l’affirmation ontologique du déguisement, car l’autre s’avère le spectateur du drame identitaire de Claude et son regard représente la preuve primaire de son être dans le monde38.
5. L’amour, une comédie illusoire Le rôle de l’autre explicitement présent dans la pièce est assumé par Cuirette. Celui-ci apparaît par le biais des contrastes cruels : 32 33 34 35 36
Joseph Ratzinger, Ježíš Nazaretský (Brno : Barrister & Principal, 2007), pp. 78-79. Augustin Pic, « Le Christ Roi », Esprit et vie, 115 (2004), p. 39. Augustin Pic, « Le Christ Roi… », p. 39. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 65. Piero Petrosillo, Křesťanství od A do Z (Kostelní Vydří : Karmelitánské nakladatelství, 1998), p. 65. 37 Piero Petrosillo, Křesťanství od A…, p. 65. 38 Jean-Paul Sartre, L’être et le néant. L’essai d’ontologie phénoménologique (Paris : Gallimard, 1973), p. 325.
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De Cuirette, on pourrait plutôt dire que c’est un « ancien » beu. En fait, du beu, il ne reste que le déguisement. C’est un beu qui a vieilli et qui a engraissé ; sa veste de cuir, jadis moulante et provocante, ne ferme plus depuis longtemps et ses vieux jeans trop serrés moulent plus de suif que de muscles. Mais du beu, Cuirette a gardé l’arrogance, l’assurance bornée, ce qui le rend parfois un-peu-beaucoup ridicule39.
L’homme incarne avant tout la contradiction conflictuelle au niveau de la temporalité : il s’agit du passé, à savoir le temps de la perfection corporelle et du présent, du vide, qui est le temps de l’imitation, de l’imitation de soi-même. En fait, la relation de deux hommes s’avère l’imitation d’une paire ordinaire où, selon la morale chrétienne, les rôles sont clairement distingués40. Nous assistons donc à un jeu ontologique ou, comme le nomme Sartre, à une comédie grotesque qui est dès le début condamnée à l’échec41. Or, chez Sartre, chaque rencontre avec autrui résulte conflictuelle vu qu’il détruit forcément l’illusion solipsiste. C’est pourquoi, Cuirette nie essentiellement la fausse identité d’Hosanna, qui désire réduire son amant à un objet, l’enfermer dans son monde perceptif métaphoriquement matérialisé par son appartement. L’oscillation de la rencontre accidentelle au conflit assimile le premier acte à une danse vulgaire, entre les deux danseurs se trouve le costume dont Hosanna s’évertue à se débarrasser, mais en vain : « Elle enlève ses gants et essaie de dégrafer sa robe, mais n’y arrive pas. HOSANNA – Cibole ! J’avais oublié que c’était des agrafes ! J’vas rester poignée là-d’dans, moé, j’le sens »42. Le costume symbolise la prison et son absence physique ne signifie pas la fin de partie quand c’est toute la réalité qui veut être costumée. Corrélativement, la dénudation deviendra même psychique ; les répliques du dialogue mutuel sont comme des agrafes qui déchirent la chair en cachant le trauma éprouvé, sa dissimulation et des évocations superficielles 39 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 13. 40 Cuirette est censé représenter l’homme et Hosanna, la femme. L’indice du paradoxe apparaît déjà saisi dans les noms des deux hommes : malgré les apparences primaires, tantôt physique comme linguistique, Hosanna est du genre masculin, tandis que Cuirette est le diminutif du genre féminin et, vu la virilité que l’ancien agent de police désire personnifier, il s’agit de la déformation grotesque qui fait de nouveau rappeler la statue de David. 41 Annabelle Dufourcq, « Založení a imaginárno : Merleau-Pontyho reflexe milostných iluzí », Založení a podstata (Praha : Oikoymenh, 2011), pp. 122-123. 42 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 14.
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graduent la tension qui finit par des insultes et par la blessure physique : Cuirette s’échappe par sa liberté relative du monde d’Hosanna, il en est chassé avec un signe de Caïn : « Hosanna saute sur Cuirette et lui éteint sa cigarette dans le front »43. Ce signe trace à jamais son appartenance à l’univers pervers du travesti et la superficialité condamnatoire de l’imitation.
6. L’hybris punie et la fatalité d’une soirée d’Halloween Après la dénudation du premier acte, le second apporte l’intériorisation du drame : le sentiment du vide s’approfondit, le travesti tient sa robe en tant que le triste résidu de son identité perdue, « [l]’enseigne de la Pharmacie Beaubien s’arrête soudain de clignoter »44. Ainsi le contact avec l’entourage extérieur s’interrompt, le sentiment de l’intemporalité s’installe. De l’ambiance mortuaire de l’appartement, nous avançons vers l’espace intérieur de la souffrance, la tonalité est celle de la confession qui a le caractère de l’aparté : pour que ses mots soient plus intimes, plus proches du spectateur, Hosanna se met en avant-scène45 et, ici, la reconstruction du trauma commence : comme chaque année, Sandra organise son « grand party annuel pour l’Halloween »46, il est à souligner qu’il s’agit de la fête que caractérisent l’évocation de la mort et les masques dont le sujet de cette année est celui des « femmes célèbres de l’Histoire ! »47. Sans hésiter, Hosanna décide pour son costume d’habitude, de son identité désirée vu que « Elisabeth Taylor… c’est à moé ! Pis ça, tout le monde le sait ! Ça fait vingt ans qu’Elisabeth Taylor m’appartient ! »48 Dans cette confession, il s’y montre beaucoup plus qu’Hosanna n’accepte : elle ne mentionne plus Cléopâtre, mais Elisabeth Taylor en
43 44 45 46 47 48
Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 25. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 55. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 57. « Elle retourne de la coiffeuse, prend une chaise, vient l’installer dos au public, à l’avant-scène, puis s’assoit à cheval dessus ». Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 57. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 57. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 59.
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soulignant la beauté artificielle, la corporalité à laquelle réfère même la situation temporelle du déguisement qui traduit le désir de ne pas vieillir. Le déguisement en tant qu’extériorité idéale du moi devient l’objet de l’hybris, l’incarnation de la possibilité de réaliser le triomphe rêvé, à savoir l’affirmation de l’être par autrui : « J’ai foxé l’école pour voir Elisabeth Taylor faire son entrée dans Rome, pis j’vendrai mon dernier dentier, s’il le faut pour voir Elisabeth Taylor faire son entrée dans Rome ! »49. De la même manière, Hosanna désire impressionner à l’occasion de la soirée : sa préparation la conduit à une autre proclamation blasphématoire : « Une matière vierge ! J’me sentais comme une statue de la sainte du même nom ! J’me regardais dans le miroir… de face, de profil, de dos en me cassant un peu le cou… »50. Le passage évoque de nouveau la réduction à l’objet qui est due au fait que c’est seulement l’apparence superficielle, l’imitation imparfaite (parce que corporelle) de la transcendance qui jouit de l’importance primordiale aux yeux du travesti. A ce point précis, il y réapparaît l’hamartia, la faute initiale – l’appropriation du rôle du démiurge, du créateur d’un monde où Hosanna réalise son entrée triomphale sous les feux des projecteurs, « les lumières, toutes les lumières du club se sont allumées… Une seconde, j’ai pensé qu’y m’avaient préparé une belle surprise… »51. Cependant, les lumières sont également des lumières structurales qui transpercent le costume en dévoilant la triste nudité et en signifiant l’anagnorisis, la conscience du manque, de l’absence de l’expérience phénoménologique : Tout le monde… était habillé… en Elisabeth Taylor dans Cléopâtre. […] Pis y avaient toutes des plus belles robes que la mienne ! Pis y’avaient toutes des maquillages plus beaux que le mien ! […] J’avais l’air d’une pauvre ! […] J’avais toute le corps en explosion ; j’avais l’impression de tomber dans un trou noir […]52.
En un seul instant, Hosanna se rend compte du caractère ridicule de son déguisement et, par conséquent, de toute son existence. L’anagnorisis apporte la destruction catastrophique d’un rêve et de l’identité artificiellement construite et la triste conscience que n’importe qui peut devenir moi : « j’étais pus Cléopâtre, cibole, j’étais Samson ! […] Pis j’ai toute démoli 49 50 51 52
Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 59. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 63. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 69. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 70.
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mes décors en papier mâché ! Vous avez toutes démoli ma vie en papier mâché ! (Pause.) J’savais pas que vous m’haïssiez tant que ça… »53. Ajoutons que la soirée se déroule vendredi, à savoir au jour malheureux, au jour de la crucifixion de Jésus-Christ et Hosanna veut se prendre pour la victime christique, car, en conformité avec le récit biblique, la condamnation à la mort et la crucifixion sont très proches de l’acclamation de l’hosanna joyeux. Sa crucifixion prétendue commence par le regard d’autrui qui la prive de son être illusoire : « HOSANNA – Chus restée clouée à ma place quequ’ secondes… Cuirette, j’pense que j’tais morte ! Pus j’sais pas qui, mais quelqu’un a commencé à crier : ‘Ose, Anna, ose ! »54. Mais Hosanna n’osera plus rien ; à ce moment, par son propre effort, comme il arrive chez Samson, le temple de l’illusion de la propre existence s’écroule en enterrant son rêve niais avec. Par conséquent, le travesti ne personnifie pas la victime christique, mais, comme Samson, il est seulement un serviteur divin étrange mené au désastre par l’intermédiaire des femmes (par les déguisements féminins) et son aveuglement.
7. L’(im)possibilité de la catharsis A la fin du second acte, Cuirette retourne dans l’univers restreint et étouffant d’Hosanna et si le dernier acte signifie l’intériorisation du drame, Cuirette accepte l’invitation à une dénudation mentale en rejoignant son partenaire dans la fragilité de sa nudité : CUIRETTE – T’sais… […] Quand j’me promenais sur mon bicycle, t’à l’heure, je r’pensais à c’que tu m’as dit… Pis l’important, c’est que tu soyes toé. C’est toute. J’pense que c’est toute. Claude… C’est pas Hosanna que j’aime… (Silence.) Va te démaquiller…55
A la prière d’abandonner les restes du déguisement féminin, « Hosanna se lève et s’installe à sa table de maquillage. Elle prend un pot de démaquillant, le remet à sa place. Elle se regarde dans le miroir »56. 53 54 55 56
Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 74. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 73. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 75. Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 75.
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Hosanna atteint de nouveau le point traumatique qui apporte visiblement le renversement dialectique, elle renonce à quitter les ruines de son temple identitaire, c’est la peur due au regard sur son moi réel qui vainc et la pièce se termine par l’ouverture incertaine des points de suspension. Mais, à la fin, l’hosanna, promesse d’une catharsis, résonne : HOSANNA – Cléopâtre est morte, pis le Parc Lafontaine est toute illuminée ! Elle se lève lentement, enlève son slip et se retourne, nue, vers Cuirette. HOSANNA – R’garde, Raymond, chus t’un homme ! Chus t’un homme, Raymond ! Chus t’un homme ! Chus t’un homme ! Chus t’un homme ! Raymond se lève, se dirige vers Claude et le prend dans ses bras57.
Même Tremblay parle d’une catharsis, c’est-à-dire d’une certaine catharsis douteuse58. Son caractère problématique se trouve contenu dans la réplique citée : qu’est-ce que signifie la mort de Cléopâtre, à savoir la mort du déguisement théâtrale qui peut exister seulement dans la lumière des projecteurs des bars, mais pas dans la lumière du Parc Lafontaine qui est la lumière dans laquelle surgit le caractère pathologique de l’homosexua lité, la nudité grotesque de l’homme qui l’assimile à la statue de David ? Cela signifie que la catharsis est seulement limitée, d’une courte durée et possible dans l’espace de l’appartement d’Hosanna, au contact avec le corps d’autrui.
Conclusion Par la fuite dans la sécurité relative de son appartement, Hosanna tente de surmonter la détermination stricte et limitante du milieu environnant qui est celui des dogmes religieux et de l’incertitude. Néanmoins, son appartement se transforme en univers séparé de la formation des valeurs ontologiques subsidiaires que l’homme croit trouver dans le monde des travestis montréalais. Pour y entrer, il est nécessaire de choisir une identité. Toutefois, celle-ci s’avère profondément conflictuelle vu qu’elle signifie 57 Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse…, p. 75. 58 Luc Boulanger, Pièces à conviction…, p. 62 : « Mais ici, je pense qu’Hosanna effectue une véritable prise de conscience, c’est une catharsis ».
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la dénégation successive du propre moi qui se perd sous les déguisements divers qui sont toujours corporels et plaisants de manière éphémère sous la lumière des projecteurs. Toutefois, hors de la scène, le regard d’autrui, celui du spectateur ne cesse de juger la valeur du masque identitaire, des rôles assumés. Ainsi la société représente un miroir en rappelant inexorablement le m essage oppressant : « Tu es cela »59, c’est-à-dire une imitation de la réalité caractérisable par sa corporalité grotesque et par sa perversité.
Annexe Bibliographie Luc Boulanger, Pièces à conviction : entretiens avec Michel Tremblay (Ottawa : Leméac, 2001). Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel, Kreativita a perverze (Praha : Portál, 2001). Annabelle Dufourcq, « Založení a imaginárno : Merleau-Pontyho reflexe milostných iluzí », Založení a podstata (Praha : Oikoymenh, 2011). Guy-Félix Duportail, Les institutions du monde de la vie I, Merleau-Ponty et Lacan (Grenoble : Millon, 2008). Michel Foucault, Myšlení vnějšku (Praha : Herrmann&synové, 1996). Michel Foucault, L’ordre du discours (Paris : Gallimard, 1971). Jacques Lacan, Ecrits I (Paris : Seuil, 1999). Dominique Maingueneau, Genèses du discours (Liège : Editeur Pierre Mardaga, 1984). Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible et l’Invisible (Paris : Gallimard, 1990). Piero Petrosillo, Křesťanství od A do Z (Kostelní Vydří : Karmelitánské nakladatelství, 1998). Augustin Pic, « Le Christ Roi », Esprit et vie, 115 (2004), pp. 39-40. Joseph Ratzinger, Ježíš Nazaretský (Brno : Barrister & Principal, 2007). Jean-Paul Sartre, L’être et le néant. L’essai d’ontologie phénoménologique (Paris : Gallimard, 1973).
59 Jacques Lacan, Ecrits…, p. 99.
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Jenny Slatman, L’expression au-delà de la représentation : sur l’aisthêsis et l’esthétique chez Merleau-Ponty (Leuven : Peeters, 2003). Jacques Taminiaux, Le théâtre des philosophes (Grenoble : Millon, 1995). Michel Tremblay, Hosanna ; La duchesse de Langeais (Montréal : Leméac, 1984). Roch Turbide, « Hosanna ou la quête d’une territorialité », Voix et Images, 2 (1982), pp. 307-318.
Aventura y perversión en El último goliardo Estrella Díaz Universitat de Lleida
El último goliardo (1984), novela de Antonio Gómez Rufo, constituye una de las revisiones más originales de la Edad Media hispánica de las últimas décadas1. Protagonizada por el barón Toribio de Hita y narrada por fray Domingo de Aranda, esta obra se inspira muy libremente tanto en la litera tura goliardesca en lengua latina como en muchos otros textos en vulgar. Tal vez “por la erudición del autor, o por desarrollarse la acción a la sombra de un convento2” haya sido comparada con Il nome della rosa (escrita por Umberto Eco y publicada en 1980) o calificada como “El nombre de la rosa de la literatura erótica”3, al resultar finalista de la quinta convocatoria del Premio La sonrisa vertical en 1984. La obra del madrileño Antonio Gómez Rufo (1954), en la actualidad, abarca prácticamente todos los géneros literarios y ha sido abundantemente galardonada; sin embargo, El último goliardo representó su primera incursión novelística, pues hasta aquel momento solo había publicado ensayos y relatos cortos. De su extensa obra podemos destacar El desfile de la victoria (1999), Adiós a los hombres (2004), La noche del tamarindo (2008), La abadía de los crímenes (2011) o su reciente La más bella historia de amor de Paula Cortázar (2012). El marco cronológico de El último goliardo se emplaza en el siglo XV, por lo que podríamos considerarla una “novela histórica”; esto es así porque, según Mª del Mar Langa Pizarro4, “llamamos novela histórica a 1
2
3 4
Este trabajo forma parte del proyecto de investigación FEM2011-24064 del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad - Programa de investigación fundamental no orientada del Plan Nacional de I+D+i. Jaume Sisa, “El erotismo que surgió del frío”, El Periódico de Catalunya, 5 de Enero 1985. . Esta noticia, del diario El Día (de Zaragoza) está fechada el 30-12-1984. Aparece en la página web del autor: . Maria del Mar Langa, “La novela histórica española en la transición y en la demo cracia”, Anales de literatura española, 17 (2004), p. 108.
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aquella que trata de reproducir de modo verosímil una determinada época del pasado, preferentemente no vivida por el autor. Para tal fin, conjuga lo real y lo inventado, las técnicas historiográficas y las novelescas”, aunque, según Gómez Rufo5, resulte difícil la delimitación de los géneros literarios ya que, a su juicio, estos deberían definirse por la finalidad que cumplen. Es por este motivo por el que considera que una obra como El nombre de la rosa (novela histórica que propició un renovado interés por el género) bien podría clasificarse, sobre todo, como una novela policíaca6. También esta es la razón por la que el propio autor no incluye, en un artículo en torno a la novela histórica, dentro de este género ni El último goliardo (1984) ni El desfile de la victoria (1999): la primera porque busca la exa cerbación de los instintos sexuales del lector, la segunda porque pretendía, desde la objetividad, denunciar una situación y unos hechos de la historia del franquismo7. Histórica o no, nuestra novela no solo se ubica temporalmente a fines de la Edad Media, sino que introduce a un personaje como el barón Toribio, nacido en Hita “en el año del señor de 1435”8, que se denomina a sí mismo como “el último goliardo”9. La figura del goliardo apareció en el siglo XII, fruto del florecimiento de las letras, del auge cultural, del renacer de la actividad económica o de los avances médicos10. Los goliardos, dedicados al estudio y con un claro afán por llevar una vida aventurera, intentaban escapar de la jerarquización de la sociedad medieval y se situaban a medio camino entre la nobleza, la Iglesia y las clases acomodadas, constituyendo un grupo aparte según ha estudiado Teresa Jiménez Calvente11. A juicio de Luis Antonio de Villena12, el nombre de “goliardo” o bien tendría que ver con el gigante bíblico Goliat —símbolo de la soberbia y del orgullo— o podría proceder etimológicamente de la 5
Antonio Gómez, “La novela histórica como pretexto y como compromiso”, Reflexiones sobre la novela histórica, José Jurado Morales, ed. (Cádiz: Fundación Fernando Quiñones, Universidad de Cádiz, 2006), p. 51. 6 Antonio Gómez, “La novela histórica como pretexto…”, pp. 52-53. 7 Antonio Gómez, “La novela histórica como pretexto…”, p. 60. 8 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1984), p. 21. 9 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 74. 10 Luis Antonio de Villena, Dados, amor y clérigos (Madrid: Cupsa, 1978), p. 30. 11 Teresa Jiménez, Sátira, amor y humor en la Edad Media latina: cincuenta y cinco canciones de goliardos (Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 2009), pp. 24-25. 12 Luis Antonio de Villena, Dados, amor…, p. 53.
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palabra “gula”, designando de esta manera “al hombre amante de los placeres de la mesa, y, por extensión, de los de la carne. El goliardo sería pues un libertino, el que se entrega alegremente a los placeres más elementales de la vida”. Pero serían también, de acuerdo con Ángel Muñoz García13: [los] depositarios de toda la ciencia sagrada y profana [y] a la vez estaban lo sufi cientemente desligados de sacerdotes y monjes como para declararse específicamente distintos y clamar contra la corrupción monástica y la alta jerarquía. […] Pudieron ser los intérpretes de su tiempo y estar abiertos a los cambios, con un raro espíritu de libertad que contrastaba con el estricto orden medieval.
El barón Toribio es presentado como de noble ascendencia. Su ilustre origen y la amplia biblioteca familiar habrían favorecido que desde bien pequeño se aficionara a la lectura y que con tan solo doce años escribiera un Tratado sobre el amor, de gran éxito en toda Castilla —deducimos que en la línea del Ars amandi, de Ovidio, o del Tratado de cómo al hombre es necesario amar, atribuido a Alfonso Fernández del Madrigal—. A partir de los trece se propone poner a prueba todas las perversiones que había narrado en su obra: de sus caprichos no se librarían ni las doncellas del castillo, ni sus madres, ni los hermanos de las amas, ni una oveja llamada Rosalinda14. Cuando llega al convento —a la edad de cincuenta años15—, donde conocerá al novicio fray Domingo de Aranda y le iniciará en los vicios de la carne, ya ha pasado por una vida de excesos, dedicada “al fornicio de ninfas, al adulterio, a la sodomía y a la masturbación” o “a la vida desordenada, al vicio y la gula”16, pero también al estudio y a la lectura. Debido a que es a partir del siglo XII cuando “el orden social decidirá castigar legalmente —eficazmente— a cuantos lleven o fomenten la vida desordenada […] de los clérigos vagantes”17, Toribio considera que él es el “último goliardo” y así lo justifica:
13 Ángel Muñoz, “El goliardo, un letrado nada idiota”, Discursos y representaciones en la Edad Media. Actas de las VI Jornadas Medievales, Aurelio González, Lillian von der Walde, Concepción Company, eds. (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1999), p. 305. 14 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 22. 15 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 12. 16 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 79. 17 Luis Antonio de Villena, Dados, amor…, p. 137.
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Sabed que los goliardos son auténticos intelectuales, hombres cultos que critican con su vida y con su obra todo lo que no esté conforme con la verdadera Naturaleza. No son herejes, sino anticlericales, y por ello se les considera elementos peligrosos para el poder de la Iglesia, que dicta como fe lo que a vos enseñaron y antes me habéis repetido. Por eso la Iglesia les ha perseguido, aunque a mí, aún, no me han descubierto18.
De acuerdo con esta definición, la perversidad goliardesca del personaje se configura a través de las muchas muestras de su heterodoxia sexual (zoofilia, coprofilia, paidofilia, onanismo, sodomía…), pero también a partir de diversos textos que, a modo de relatos intercalados, se introducen en la trama general19, así como intertextos y referencias, especialmente en torno a la sexualidad y el erotismo (de Quintiliano y Cicerón a Boccaccio, el Arcipreste de Hita, Don Juan Manuel, el Marqués de Santillana o Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, por citar algunos). También hemos de considerar las digresiones culturales y morales, que dan fe tanto de la cultura del barón como de su anticlericalismo confeso: desde comentarios al sexto mandamiento hasta un par de discursos contra postulados eclesiásticos o detallada información sobre órdenes religiosas en el siglo XV. Según señalara Pedro López20: “Casi todas las lecciones del barón chocan con los postulados más rancios en materia sexual, como cuando hace elogio de las virtudes del onanismo o reprueba la misoginia de la Disciplina Clericalis, un texto del siglo XII; siempre suele acudir a la autoridad irreprochable del filósofo, en una suerte de contraofensiva paródica”: Sabed que lo que me contáis de la mujer aún es poco, en comparación con la Disciplina Clericalis, escrito en el siglo XII y que es la más vergonzosa sucesión de párrafos misóginos. […] Pero ahora pensad que no puede haber maldad en lo bueno,
18 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, pp. 74-75. 19 Los cuentos son: “Los calzones de San Francisco”, de Franco Sachetti (Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, pp. 27-29), otro que figura como anónimo —pero que en nota a pie de página se especifica que pertenece al Marqués de Sade, “Engáñame siempre igual” (Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, pp. 35-36)—, un breve relato del monje de Ripoll (Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 71), un fragmento del libro Flor de virtudes (Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 73) y un poema lírico popular (Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 79). 20 Pedro López, La sonrisa vertical. Una aproximación crítica a la novela erótica española (1977-2002) (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 2006), p. 58.
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que no puede haber pecado en el amor ni ofensa alguna a Dios por disfrutar de lo que él nos ha dado. Además, no olvidad que una cosa es predicar y otra distinta dar trigo, que ya sabéis que los más grandes fornicadores son los frailes, abades, monjas y obispos, que tanto han venerado a Venus que apenas si pueden vivir sin ración no escasa de lujuria y placer21.
Según José Luis Corral22, la buena narrativa histórica es un instrumento intelectual importante, ya que ayuda a conocer el pasado, nos enseña lo que hemos sido, además de contribuir a entender el presente y por ello a mejorar el futuro; a su entender, si “además nos hace pensar, nos divierte y entretiene, su función está más que justificada”. Qué duda cabe que El último goliardo no solo divierte y entretiene, sino que recrea y documenta de manera generosa cierto ambiente cultural de finales del siglo XV castellano, además de retratar identidades perversas y modelos de sexualidad nada convencionales, entonces y ahora23. Ya hemos apuntado la reticencia del propio autor a considerar “histórica” esta novela, por lo que deberíamos entonces preguntarnos por su principal objetivo. En primer lugar, como él mismo argumentaba, su propósito inmediato era excitar sexualmente al lector y, en segundo lugar, a nuestro juicio, transgredir y ridiculizar la monogamia católica en una época de transición política para España y en una sociedad sobre la que pesaba un pode roso yugo religioso y patriarcal. Y es que, según Antonio Gómez Rufo24, “la transgresión era, en buena medida, el único modo de exigir justicia, pedir el cambio de leyes, destacar la cerrazón de las instituciones y poner en evidencia la hipocresía contenida en los autores de normas que aplicaban a los demás mientras las ocultaban en sus comportamientos personales”. 21 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 74. 22 José Luis Corral, “La novela histórica actual sobre la Edad Media”, L’Edat Mitjana en el cinema i en la novel·la històrica, Josep Lluís Martos, Marinela Garcia, eds. (Valencia: Alacant Institut Interuniversitari, 2009), p. 156. 23 Como ejemplo podríamos considerar esta descripción del narrador Fray Domingo: “Habíamos intimado tanto, tanto nos amábamos, que cada día nos besábamos y acari ciábamos como matrimonio muy bien avenido, lo que no me disgustaba en absoluto y a él tampoco, considerando el mimo y calor que ponía en nuestros retozos volup tuosos. Yo, que no conocía mujer y solo había tenido una experiencia superficial con mi prima Isabel, me encontraba a gusto en los brazos del hermano Toribio” (Luis Corral, “La novela histórica actual…”, p. 83). 24 Antonio Gómez, “Apuntes mínimos sobre la transgresión”, Letra internacional, 79 (2003), p. 49.
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Otro claro ejemplo de la doble moral imperante en la sociedad —medieval o contemporánea— se muestra en la siguiente digresión moral del barón ante la pregunta de Fray Domingo sobre si es lícito que un monje tome esposa: Dios no pone impedimentos al amor, sino que es el hombre quien, queriendo poner puertas al campo, procura limitar el placer propio y ajeno, sin lógica ni razón. Por eso un monje no puede tomar esposa, ni amiga; así lo ordenan obispos y cardenales, teniendo como ellos tienen no amiga, sino amigas, y no esposa, sino esclavas25.
Si los mandamientos eclesiásticos condenaban el pecado nefando, la promiscuidad, el adulterio y la homosexualidad26, Gómez Rufo recrea un personaje como el barón Toribio que transgrede todas las normas y se muestra totalmente ajeno a ellas, ahondando en el debate sobre la naturaleza misma del pecado e incitando al cultivo de los placeres carnales27. Es así como debe entenderse este diálogo entre él y su joven esposa: —Señor, ¿qué es la virginidad? —Un engaño, señora— dijo el barón suspirando. Una gran mentira inventada por los eclesiásticos y que se transmite de padres a hijos para dominar a las mujeres y asegurarse de que les han sido fieles aún antes de conocerlas y de que les vayan a seguir siendo fieles; cuando en realidad todo el mundo sabe que la mujer es infiel después del matrimonio, no antes, cuando la virginidad ya no existe28.
Tras la muerte de su mujer y su retiro durante cinco años en el convento de los dominicos con el joven Fray Domingo, el barón decide emprender un viaje hasta Sevilla que resultará perversamente iniciático para el novicio y en el que conocerán “a más de cien mujeres de toda clase y condición”29, así como a Teresa e Isabel, amigas y amantes “que cada noche veneraban a la diosa Lesbos”30 y con las que convivirán durante varios meses. Finalmente, y tras varias aventuras, Toribio se embarcará con Cristóbal Colón en su viaje a las Indias31 mientras que Fray Domingo regresa al
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 92. Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 49. Pedro López, La sonrisa vertical…, p. 143. Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 56. Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 103 Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, p. 95. Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo…, pp. 116-119.
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convento, desde donde rememorará, antes de morir, sus excesos y pecados cometidos, así como la vida y enseñanzas heterodoxas del barón. La originalidad del autor radica, en primera instancia, en crear una novela ambientada en el siglo XV castellano, decisión sorprendente en la España de aquel momento, cuando todavía no había surgido el boom posterior de corte historicista. En segundo lugar, resulta también insólito que la presentara a un premio de narrativa como “La sonrisa vertical”, nacido en 1978 al abrigo de la colección homónima incluida por Beatriz de Moura en el catálogo de su editorial, Tusquets, dedicada a la literatura erótica y dirigida por el realizador cinematográfico Luis García Berlanga. La colección, a juicio de Pedro López32, “se impuso desde un principio como una bofetada genial a las viejas estructuras heredadas de la censura franquista, por entonces ya casi inoperantes, y más adelante se asentó en la normalidad política y en el nuevo orden sin mayores sobresaltos”. Téngase presente que las obras premiadas y finalistas de las cuatro convocatorias anteriores a 1984 (la de 1983 quedó desierta) recreaban la época contemporánea. Resulta interesante constatar que son muy pocas las obras del premio (finalizado en el 2003) ambientadas en periodos históricos anteriores al siglo XX. La tercera singularidad de Antonio Gómez Rufo, y a nuestro juicio la más interesante, sería que su recreación del siglo XV castellano no pretende desvelar las entretelas eróticas de aquella centuria, sino que la usa como originalísima excusa para dialogar con su más inmediato presente a través de su provocador protagonista y a partir de unas premisas eróticas y sexuales que, sin duda, eran opuestas a las de la España de principios de los años 80, al tiempo que denunciaba la hipocresía imperante: Sobre el erotismo, desde el nacimiento del cristianismo sobre todo, se han sucedido quienes han corrido tupidos velos uno tras otro y quienes, a la misma o distinta velocidad, han ido rasgándolos para que la sociedad pudiese seguir su camino. A los primeros se les ha llamado moralistas, sabios, decentes y honestos; a los segundos se les ha denostado como pervertidos, libertinos, inmorales y subversivos. Pero mientras la sociedad toda seguía el rumbo despejado por los segundos, a los primeros los subían a los altares y les rezaban. La hipocresía, mal histórico, ha constituido un guiño tácitamente comprendido y compartido por todos desde el principio de los tiempos,
32 Pedro López, La sonrisa vertical. Una aproximación crítica…, p. 27.
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una gran burla en la que todos participaban en silencio y en secreto, sabiendo que su secreto era el del vecino y viceversa33.
Pero, además de la denuncia de esta hipocresía de la España posfranquista, no resulta menos relevante constatar que la perversa identidad reflejada en El último goliardo, su gozosa vitalidad, también tenía mucho que enseñar a sus lectores. La Edad Media de El último goliardo sería un periodo histórico diáfano, sin apenas ecos de la oscuridad que, tendenciosamente, suele atribuírsele. Probablemente, esta obra de Gómez Rufo pueda entenderse no como una novela histórica, según sugiere el propio autor, e incluso tampoco como una novela erótica, aunque suene paradójico, sino que tendría mucho más de manifiesto libertario, político y sexual. Quizás, incluso, pudiéramos afirmar que Antonio Gómez Rufo pretendiera presentarse a los lectores como el último goliardo literario.
Anexo Bibliografía José Luis Corral, “La novela histórica actual sobre la Edad Media”, La Edat Mitjana en el cinema i en la novel·la històrica, Josep Lluís Martos, Marinela Garcia, eds. (Valencia: Alacant Institut Interuniversitari, 2009), pp. 147-162. Antonio Gómez, El último goliardo (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1984). Antonio Gómez, “Apuntes mínimos sobre la transgresión”, Letra internacional, 79 (2003), pp. 47-51. Antonio Gómez, “La novela histórica como pretexto y como compromiso”, Reflexiones sobre la novela histórica, José Jurado Morales, ed. (Cádiz: Fundación Fernando Quiñones, Universidad de Cádiz, 2006), pp. 51-66.
33 Antonio Gómez Rufo, “Proceso de seducción”, El País, 6 de Junio 1987. .
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Teresa Jiménez, Sátira, amor y humor en la Edad Media latina: cincuenta y cinco canciones de goliardos (Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 2009). Pedro López, La sonrisa vertical. Una aproximación crítica a la novela erótica española (1977-2002) (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 2006). Maria del Mar Langa, “La novela histórica española en la transición y en la democracia”, Anales de literatura española, 17 (2004), pp. 107-120. Ángel Muñoz, “El goliardo, un letrado nada idiota”, Discursos y representaciones en la Edad Media. Actas de las VI Jornadas Medievales, Aurelio González, Lillian von der Walde, Concepción Company, eds. (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1999), pp. 303-325. Luis Antonio de Villena, Dados, amor y clérigos (Madrid: Cupsa, 1978).
Webgrafía Antonio Gómez, “Proceso de seducción”, El País, 6 de Junio 1987. . Jaume Sisa, “El erotismo que surgió del frío”, El Periódico de Catalunya, 5 de Enero 1985..
Evil in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld: Havelock Vetinari Luis Espinosa Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Introduction The Discworld, a flat, alternate world to ours created by the British author Sir Terry Pratchett, is the setting for a phenomenal literary success in terms of sales and criticism. By the time this paper is written, forty fantasy novels set in the Discworld have been published in thirty-seven different languages, having sold over 70 million copies worldwide1. Many different beings such as vampires, undead, trolls or werewolves populate this “world and mirror of worlds”2, and archetypical fantastic elements like dragons, magic, time travel, afterlife and automata are present. While the Discworld novels were initially developed as a parody of the type of genre inspired by Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings3, they started re-shaping as a unique science-fiction and fantasy series of books that include themes such as racism, technology, social inequalities, war or sexism, all in a growingly dark and somber environment4. Another element to highlight with regard to the Discworld novels is the vast amount of references they include, not only to other literary works, but also contextual elements from our own world, folklore and fairy tales, legends,
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“Terry Pratchett”, Books, Amazon, 10th November 2012, . Terry Pratchett, The Colour of Magic (London: Corgi, 1991). Eve Smith, “Selling Terry Pratchett’s Discworld: Merchandising and the Cultural Economy of Fandom”, Participations: Journal of Audience and Reception Studies, 8/2 (2011), pp. 239-256. Luis Espinosa, “Quantifying irony with sentiment analysis methods: The case of Terry Pratchett’s Discworld”, Current research in Applied Linguistics: Issues on language and cognition, Paula Rodríguez-Puente, Teresa Fanego, Evelyn Gandón-Chapela, Sara Riveiro-Outeiral, María Luisa Roca-Varela, eds. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), pp. 220-239.
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and popular culture in general. In addition, a reader will find several analogies to historical events and persons when reading the Discworld novels5. While the Discworld is a heterogeneous setting where countries or continents that differ largely among themselves exist, this paper focuses on the vibrant Discworld capital, Ankh-Morpork. In this city, as described in Mason6, emigrants from different parts of the Discworld and of different ethnic origin gather together seeking a better (or at least more lucrative) life. Trolls, dwarves, vampires, werewolves, undead or adventurous humans make their way to Ankh-Morpork and open their own businesses, get organized in trade-unions, join the city watch and engage in diplomatic activities. Ankh-Morpork was once a monarchy, but a series of events provoked the demonarchization of the city, and Havelock Vetinari became Patrician and the one and only city ruler. During the first novels of the Discworld series, we read how a system of guilds has been implemented in order to have the city running by itself 7. The Assassins’ Guild takes care of the fixed number of murders to be committed each day, and the Thieves’ Guild does the same in terms of robbery. However, the constant influx of newcomers seeking wealth and prosperity becomes a challenge for the Patrician, who resorts to unorthodox means to keep the city as free from conflicts as possible. Vetinari is indeed a politician, but can also be seen as an evil character. Surely his personality can be described with a vast range of adjectives, as this master of manipulation presents himself in as many forms as needed purpose-wise. However, the means he uses for achieving his goals, the despotic way in which he treats some of his employees, as well as his conspirative nature, shape up the profile of a sometimes ruthless ruler. In this paper, however, we hypothesize that (1) Vetinari cannot be compared with the prototypical evil character of canonical fantasy novels, where the dichotomy between good and evil are normally depic ted in a straightforward monosemic way8. In addition, we claim that (2) 5
6 7 8
Raisa Aromaa, Humour in Terry Pratchett’s “Discworld Series” - Application of Psychological and Linguistic Theories of Humour (Finland: University of Tampere, School of Language, Translation and Literary Studies, 2011). Thimothy Mason, “Imagining the Multicultural City: Terry Pratchett’s Guards! Guards!”, Taylor & Francis Online: English Studies Journal, 4/2 (2007), pp. 285-299. Thimothy Mason, “Imagining the Multicultural City…”, pp. 285-289. Sherly O’Sullivan, “Depictions of Evil in Lois Lowry’s Messenger”, The ALAN Review, 33/1 (2005), pp. 62-67 [Assembly on Literature for Adolescents of the National Council of Teachers of English]; Jaume Albero, “Villains and the Representations of
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Vetinari seems to be descriptively closer to the prototypical evil character in hich-culture literature, with outstanding features such as his way of speaking and interacting with others, as well as a complex and diverse personality that makes the reader feel sympathetic about his motivations, goals and methods. We carry out an empirical approach over the 39 Discworld books published until 2012, and following a corpus-based approach we perform pattern-based searches where we look for recurrent linguistic realizations that provide information that support or reject our hypotheses. Results are presented and discussed in Section 4.
1. Lord Vetinari “‘Ah, Drumknott’, said Lord Vetinari, ‘just go and tell the head of the Musicians’ Guild he wants a word with me, will you?”9. Previous work has outlined a strong association between Lord Vetinari and Niccolò Machiavelli. The main reason being that Machiavelli, in his famous work The Prince outlined the grounds on which the idea of a new prince becoming ruler by his own right. Essentially, whereas a hereditary prince would be focusing his efforts in maintaining the status quo and the well-established political and social institutions, the new prince would have to secure a set of cornerstones for pulling together a successful ruling (building an endurable political structure by differentiating between private and public morale). For example, Mason10 suggests that: [Vetinari] is a politician whose understanding of the ruses of power is masterly, and who is thoroughly ruthless in his determination to ensure the smooth functioning of Evil in J. R. R Tolkien’s Fiction of Middle-Earth”, Brno studies in English, 31 (2005), pp. 155-174; Neil Forsyth, “The Language of Evil: Popular versus ‘Higher’ Culture”, Farming Evil: Portraits of Terror and the Imagintaion. Proceedings of the 7th Global Conference Perspectives on Evil and Human Wickedness (March, 2006), Nancy Billias, Agnes B. Curry, eds. (Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2008), pp. 65-70. 9 Terry Pratchett, Soul Music (London: Victor Gollancz, 1994). 10 Thimothy Mason, “Imagining the Multicultural City…”, pp. 285-289.
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the machine of which he is in charge. He is a technician; success is achieved through the skilled application of light pressure upon specific points of the political body. His techniques are universal in nature; he can advise a group of beleaguered rats in their campaigns against snakes and scorpions as deftly as he runs the affairs of Ankh-Morpork.
The complexity of the character of Lord Vetinari develops as the city of Ankh-Morpork is challenged. Murray11 points out the fact that the inclusive (even populist) nature of the city has close bounds with the essence of carnival. In this context, very few rules apply, and the idea of discrowning (i.e. inverting top and bottom in any given structure) plays an important role. In such context, ensuring the balance in Ankh-Morpork appears to be a challenging task, and in fact the threat to such balance is a central theme in several Discworld novels. This is described in Smith12 as following Todorov’s narrative model of “two moments of equilibrium, similar and different”13. The normality in Ankh-Morpork is its carnivalesque chaos and outburst, and the role of the Patrician is to ensure that this thin equilibrium is not disrupted. One of the unique characteristic of the vetinarian Ankh-Morpork is the organization in Guilds of the city’s power structures. Over 300 Guilds are listed throughout the Discworld books, some of them being unique in their nature and modus operandi, like the Assassins’ Guild, the Fools’ Guild or the Seamstresses’ Guild. Vetinari himself is a trained Assassin, as the following passage suggests14: They said he’d been educated at the Assassins’ School, but no-one remembered what weapons he’d learned. He’d studied languages. And suddenly, with him in front of you, this didn’t seem like the soft option. The Assassins’ Guilds is in charge to keep at bay the number of murders that occur in the city. Members of this guild are the only ones allowed to perform inhumations (as they are called), and it is strongly forbidden to inhume someone without being paid for it, alas for including this activity in the guild’s register. In addition, the education that is provided in the 11 William Murray, Subversions: The Discworld novels of Terry Pratchett (New Zeland: University of Canterbury, 1998). 12 Eve Smith, “Civil discobedience or war, terrorism and unrest in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld”, Comedy Studies, 3/1 (2012), pp. 29-39. 13 Tzvetan Todorov, Arnold Weinstein, “Structural analysis of narrative”, Novel: A Forum on Fiction, 3/1 (1969), p. 75. 14 Terry Pratchett, Jingo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1997).
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guild is superb, and is considered to be one of the Discworld’s finest. And Vetinari has been mentioned several times to be one of the most memorable guild’s members, as the following passage from the Assassins’ Guild Yearbook And Diary (2000) describes. Whilst he is known to view assassination attempts as a normal part of his life as a politician, and whilst he fully understands that the Guild’s members are obliged to take on such commissions, he nevertheless takes a firm view that a dog only gets one bite. Most of the Assassins who have tried to earn the AM$1,000,000 fee have never been heard of since.
We can see, thus, how Vetinari is a politician who rules with iron fist (albeit sometimes disguised as a silk glove) a colorful and chaotic city like Ankh-Morpork. His actions sometimes unveil pure evil, or at least pure pragmatism, while other times these actions seem just to reflect the need of a form of government that has yet to be invented, but which closely resembles Vetinari’s own. As for Vetinari’s similarities with Machiavelli, let us quote the latter in one of the most prominent passages from The Prince (1513). Whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with… Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated.
The analogies between Machiavelli and Vetinari, although triggered by evident similarities at surface level, can be traced to a deeper root. Consider not only the need for a ruler to be either feared (but not hated) or loved, but also the need of a city for a ruler that embodies the most suitable assets needed. A touristic and welcoming city can make do with a government that prioritizes economic growth, exposure and a warm atmosphere. Ankh-Morpork is clearly in need of another form of government, able to guarantee that the city will not be dismantled by any eventuality. This is well understood by the Assassins’ Guild, who are well aware of the need for a political juggernaut in Ankh-Morpork15.
15 Terry Pratchett, Night Watch (London: Doubleday, 2002).
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The only other person not on it any more, it was rumored, was Lord Vetinari, the Patrician. The Assassins understood the political game in the city better than anyone, and if they took you off the register it was because they felt your departure would not only spoil the game but also smash the board…
2. Vetinari as an Evil Character “The Patrician of Ankh-Morpork smiled, but with his mouth only”16
The physical description of a character is bond to provide implicit information about his personality, his motivations and even a prospective idea of how he or she will behave in facing moral challenges. Assuming a close relationship between a character’s dark clothing and his or her dark purposes17, we can argue that Vetinari is described in this dimension fairly straightforwardly, and even his family’s coat of arms is of extreme simplicity, it being a plain simple sable shield (see: figure 1).
Figure 1: Vetinari’s family coat of arms. The family motto can be translated as “if it ain’t broke don’t fix it”.
16 Terry Pratchett, The Colour of Magic (London: Colin Smythe, 1983). 17 Irene López, Elena María García, “Teaching Idiomatic Expressions to Learners of EFL Through a Corpus Based on Disney Movies”, A Survey on Corpus-based Research, Panorama de investigaciones basadas en corpus, Pascual Cantos, Aquilino Sánchez, eds. (Murcia: Asociación Española de Lingüística del Corpus, 2009), pp. 240-253.
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One of the greatest highlights throughout Vetinari’s appearances in the Discworld books is his already classic speech on his first encounter with evil18: The Patrician took a sip of his beer. I have told this to few people, gentlemen, and I suspect I never will again, but one day when I was a young boy on holiday in Uberwald, I was walking along the bank of a stream when I saw a mother otter with her cubs. A very endearing sight, I’m sure you will agree, and even as I watched, the mother otter dived into the water and came up with a plump salmon, which she subdued and dragged onto a half-submerged log. As she ate it, while of course it was still alive, the body split and I remember to this day the sweet pinkness of its roes as they spilled out, much to the delight of the baby otters who scrambled over themselves to feed on the delicacy. One of nature’s wonders, gentlemen: mother and children dining upon mother and children. And that’s when I first learned about evil. It is built into the very nature of the universe. Every world spins in pain. If there is any kind of supreme being, I told myself, it is up to all of us to become his moral superior.
Discussions on this passage seem to suggest that Vetinari is much aware of the evil nature of the world, and therefore feels the need not to challenge the sheer existence of evil, as this would be a futile attempt, but rather making use of intelligence and cleverness in order to disrupt it, or channel it, or in any case control it somehow. Vetinari expresses a slightly different version of this idea in a more succinct way in Guards! Guards!: “There aren’t good people and bad people- there are only bad people on different sides”19. We are therefore interested in examining the extent to which the Patrician of Ankh-Morpork is developed before the reader as an evil character from a classic fantasy point of view, with the explicitness in behavior and cunning motivations overshadowing the inner complexities of our character. It would seem naïve to suggest that Vetinari complies with a canon of any kind in terms of fantastic literature, but exploring explicit language in terms of lexical choices made by Pratchett can provide empiric evidence of how the Patrician of Ankh Morpork is described. We will also present evidence of Vetinari being described as a high culture evil character, who are traditionally described as not being talkative, and as being characters with whom the reader can sympathize due to their contextually fair motivations. 18 Terry Pratchett, Unseen Academicals (London: Doubleday, 2009). 19 Terry Pratchett, Guards! Guards! (London: Corgi, 1990).
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3. Method 3.1. Using an Affective Lexicon “The literature of fantasy, as it has come to be known (Tolkien, Lewis, Peake), is the most obvious site in which a struggle of good and evil is seen to be taking place”20. The above quote describes clearly how the Fantasy genre has constructed a dichotomy between good and evil that in fact is the backbone of most fantasy stories. This has been explored, for example, in the case of C. S. Lewis’ work21, and we will approach the case of Lord Vetinari by carrying out a corpus-based approach. First, an affective lexicon, i.e. a dictionary of positive and negative words22 will be used as a reference for explicit positive and negative language. Then, a computer program that iterates over each sentence of the Pratchett corpus is developed, and keeps track of how many sentences were found that include either the words Patrician or Vetinari together with a positive or negative word. Our intuition is that these scores should provide some light in terms of the explicitness of positive and negative language associated to the figure of Vetinari, thus following the classic statement by Firth23 (1957) “You shall know a word by the company it keeps”. The results obtained are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Number of sentences in which the Patrician is mentioned along with positive or negative affective words.
Sentence count
Positive words
Negative words
570
408
20 Neil Forsyth, “The Language of Evil…”, pp. 65-70. 21 Johanna Wiklund, The Portrayal of Evil in C. S. Lewis’s The Horse and His Boy (Karlstad: Karlstad University, 2006, PhD basic level). 22 Minqing Hu, Bing Liu, “Mining and Summarizing Customer Reviews”, Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2004), pp. 168-177. 23 John R. Firth, “A Synopsis of Linguistic Theory 1930-1955”, Studies in Linguistic Analysis, Philological Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1957), pp. 1-32.
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These results suggest at first glance that Vetinari, as expected, is by no means described with a significantly greater number of negative lexical items. Surely irony, humour and metaphors do play an important role in twitching the meaning of some of our occurrences. However, it seems reasonable to suggest that the Patrician is far from being a classic fantasy evil characters, regardless of the initial impression a reader may have of him being an antidemocratic tyrant who allows the existence of crime syndicates for the sake of order and eventlessness. Table 2 showcases a few examples of the results obtained with our method. Table 2: Sample sentence, affective words and the novel in which they appear. Sentence
Affective word – Polarity
Novel in which it appears
‘Ah, Gorphal,’ said the Patrician pleasantly.
pleasantly – positive
The Colour of Magic
The Patrician disliked the word ‘dictator’.
disliked, dictator – negative
Guards! Guards!
The Patrician liked to feel that he was looking out over a city that worked.
liked, worked – positive
Guards! Guards!
And the smile on Lord Vetinari’s face was one that probably even Leonard of Quirm, with all his genius, would never be able to capture on canvas.
smile, genius – positive
The Last Hero
‘–with vicious cunning they forced the bogus Lord Vetinari –’
vicious, cunning, bogus – negative
The Truth
Vetinari’s eyes narrowed, but the telescopes on Planet Colon were far too unsophisticated to detect his mood.
unsophisticated – negative
The Fifth Elephant
Those cases where there is a mix of positive and negative vocabulary are of great interest because they reflect, in many cases, how Pratchett adds irony
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and plays with figurative language when eliciting the Patrician, which can be argued to be a resourceful technique for appealing to his dark nature as well as his bright genius and his skill in outwitting most of the characters he encounters along the novels. We support this claim with two examples from (1) The Colour of Magic24 and (2) Sourcery. (1) “Now I want you to listen very carefully to what I am about to say,’ said the Patrician amiably, ‘otherwise you will die”. (2) “The current Patrician, head of the extremely rich and powerful Vetinari family, was thin, tall and apparently as cold-blooded as a dead penguin”.
3.2. Evil is Silence The Patrician does not speak much. This is a feature that has been traditionally linked to evil characters in literature. As Somoza25 points out (in Spanish in the original): Almost all truly evil characters speak little, almost nothing or nothing. They hardly answer to an inconsequential sentence from the victim. […] The great villains of literature are ugly or amazingly beautiful, smart or slightly dumb, but hardly speak, they act. And when they speak, they explain their motivations and succeed in us hearing them, their evil experiences an alleviation before our eyes. For this reason, almost none of the truly important characters in literature is plain evil.
By looking at several examples of Vetinari interacting with other characters, he idea of him being a high literature character is reinforced. The following five examples are taken from The Last Hero. (1) “Lord Vetinari gave him a severe look, but essayed a little wave”. (2) “Lord Vetinari pinched the bridge of his nose, ‘Just tell me what you know about Cohen, please’, he said wearily”. (3) “‘I think I can say without fear of contradiction that our wizards can supply wind in practically unlimited amounts’, said the Patrician”. (4) “Lord Vetinari looked at Ponder without speaking”. (5) “‘Do tell me if you have a better idea’, said Lord Vetinari”.
24 Terry Pratchett, The Colour of Magic (London: Colin Smythe, 1983). 25 José Carlos Somoza, “La maldad es silencio (Shakespeare y los personajes malvados)”, Frenia. Revista de Historia de la Psiquiatría, 2/1 (2002), p. 109.
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These excerpts either point out Vetinari’s lack of words (1 and 4), or an extremely and suspicious overly good manners (2 and 3), and his p reference for short sharp sentences (5). Needless to say, Vetinari is also a character who is able to impose his will over other apparently equally powerful characters, not only resorting to his own strengths (power, experience or cunningness) but to his interlocutor’s weaknesses. A few examples of his mastery of words are listed below: (1) “‘This afternoon I shall be speaking to the editor of the Times’, said Vetinari, gently surfing his voice over that of the wizard with all the skill of a born committee manipulator, ‘who is, as we know, a very civic-minded person’”26. (2) “‘It says here in the Letters column’, said the voice of the Patrician, ‘that the phrase ‘stick it up your jumper’ is based on an ancient Ephebian saying that is at least two thousand years old, thus clearly pre-dating jumpers but not, presumably, the act of sticking’. He lowered the paper and looked at Moist over the top of it”27. (3) ‘“Ah, so you too have heard people saying he was murdered’, said Vetinari, his eyes on Reacher Gilt’s face”28. (4) “‘Additional instructions?’ said Moist. ‘And would you mind telling me exactly what his additional instructions are?’ ‘Yes’. The Patrician blew a speck of dust off a little stone troll and put it on its square. ‘And?’ said Moist, after a pause. Vetinari sighed. ‘Yes, I would mind telling you exactly what they are. You have no rights in this matter. We have impounded your horse, by the way, since it was used in the committing of a crime’”29.
What follows is a review of the method followed to extract empirical data that reveals the number of times a characters speaks, taking into account how many times these are mentioned during a novel together with a specific pattern. First, we define the following three patterns for extracting a character’s interventions. • •
26 27 28 29
X_said: Extract all the patterns consisting in the word “said” followed by a capitalized word. It allows to extract patterns like said Rincewind or said Ridcully. said_X: A pattern just like the above, where the name of the character is placed before “said”. Terry Pratchett, Unseen Academicals (London: Doubleday, 2009). Terry Pratchett, Going Postal (London: Doubleday, 2004). Terry Pratchett, Going Postal… Terry Pratchett, Going Postal…
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said_NP: First identify if a sentence contains the word “said”. If yes, look in a window of three words after it, and if any of them is a noun, extract the sequence of words between said and that noun. This pattern extracts, for example, said the abbot or said the small man.
If we look at some of the novels where Vetinari plays a major role, it is interesting to note the case of Guards! Guards!30 In this novel, a secret brotherhood conspires to overthrow the Patrician of Ankh-Morpork and install a puppet-king. Just as all the novels where the City Watch constitutes its core of characters, Vetinari is also a major character as he is the one to make sure that the methods employed by the Watch members are acceptable, and overall the city is his major responsibility and concern. However, he does seem to appear and speak much less in this novel than other characters (see: Table 3). Table 3: Selected frequency distribution of different speech turns taken by prominent characters in some Discworld novels. Novel title
First five characters in order of speech-related appearances
Guards! Guards! (“said Vimes”, 210) (“said Carrot”, 157) (“said Nobby”, 133) (“said Brother”, 106) (“said Colon”, 101)
Number of times Vetinari speaks (“said the Patrician”, 35) (“said Vetinari”, 1) (“said Patrician”, 1)
Men at Arms
(“said Carrot”, 255) (“said Angua”, 118) (“said Cuddy”, 84) (“said Vimes”, 82) (“said Colon”, 77)
(“said the Patrician”, 13) (“said Vetinari”, 3) (“said Patrician”, 1)
Jingo
(“said Vimes”, 243) (“said Carrot”, 137) (“said Nobby”, 119) (“said Colon”, 83) (“said Lord”, 76)
(“said the Patrician”, 41) (“said Vetinari”, 33) (“said: Lord Vetinari”, 1)
30 Terry Pratchett, Guards! Guards! (London: Corgi, 1990).
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(“said Vimes”, 295) (“said Carrot”, 99) (“said Nobby”, 48) (“said Cheery”, 46) (“said Sybil”, 43)
(“said Vetinari”, 14) (“said the Patrician”, 10)
The Truth
(“said William”, 365) (“said Mr”, 215) (“said Sacharissa”, 148) (“said Goodmountain”, 69) (“said Otto”, 51)
(“said the Patrician”, 11) (“said Vetinari”, 4) (“said: Lord Vetinari”, 1)
Night Watch
(“said Vimes”, 437) (“said Sweeper”, 51) (“said Sam”, 34) (“said Nobby”, 30) (“said Carcer”, 30)
(“said Vetinari”, 15) (“said the Patrician”, 4)
Going Postal
(“said Moist”, 473) (“said Groat”, 119) (“said Miss”, 63) (“said Gilt”, 62) (“said Vetinari”, 55)
(“said Vetinari”, 55) (“said the Patrician”, 4)
Thud!
(“said Vimes”, 367) (“said Carrot”, 105) (“said Angua”, 70) (“said Sally”, 54) (“said Nobby”, 44)
(“said Vetinari”, 20) (“said the Patrician”, 3) (“said Patrician”, 1)
Making Money
(“said Moist”, 393) (“said Vetinari”, 89) (“said Adora”, 85) (“said Bent”, 56), (“said Cosmo”, 50)
(“said Vetinari”, 89) (“said the Patrician”, 1)
Unseen Academicals
(“said Glenda”, 273) (“said Nutt”, 204) (“said Trev”, 197) (“said Ridcully”, 168) (“said Ponder”, 98)
(“said Vetinari”, 63) (“said the Patrician”, 4) (“said to Vetinari”, 1) (“said Patrician”, 1)
We acknowledge that this method is flawed in some cases, as we can see in Guards! Guards!, for example, where there are a lot of characters who are members of the brotherhood, and are referred to as “Brother X” and “Brother X”. Another example can be found in Jingo, where the “said Lord” pattern is very frequent. It turns out that in this novel, characters
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like Lord Selachii and Lord Downey appear frequently, and the first rule has been designed to have priority over the others. This is why these cases are counted as belonging to the said_X pattern. This is also the case in The Truth, where William DeWorde is often referred to as Mr DeWorde, thus provoking a wrong spike in the frequency of the pattern “said Mr”. With these issues in mind, it can be suggested that Vetinari, as he is dramatically linked to Ankh-Morpork, plays major roles in novels where the health of the city is threatened. However, his appearances are much less frequent than other characters like the members of the Watch. We claim that Vetinari is a major character in these novels because although he is not present in many conversations, interactions or scenes, his figure is prominent enough to make him present even if he is absent. We therefore argue that the fact that he speaks less in the first novels in which he plays a major role mean that in these cases he is depicted as a somewhat evil character, who shares the “silence is evil” motto with other great villains in the history of literature. We also see an increasing presence of Vetinari in the Moist von Lipwig saga (Going Postal and Making Money), which can be due to two main reasons. First, his degree of evil seems to be decreasing, or at least he is being described more as a human being rather than a cold-blooded tyrant. The fact that he is taking care in some way of Moist von Lipwig (a former hustler who is forced to take care of ruinous or long nonexistent businesses like the postal service or the bank), reveals that his role with regard to other characters can evolve. Surely he is making use of his manipulative talent and limitless power, but the growing number of times he supports his points with speech seem to suggest a shift in the character’s profile. Let us review some of the appearances of Vetinari in the first two Moist von Lipwig novels. We will highlight those interventions in which Vetinari showcases his subtle approach to conversation, in the novel Going Postal31. Mr Moist, this morning you had no experience at all of being dead, and yet but for my intervention you would nevertheless have turned out to be extremely good at it,’ said Lord Vetinari sharply. ‘It just goes to show: you never know until you try. But when you sentenced me—
31 Terry Pratchett, Going Postal (London: Doubleday, 2004).
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Vetinari raised a pale hand. Ah? he said. Moist’s brain, at last aware that it needed to do some work here, stepped in and replied: Er… when you… sentenced… Albert Spangler— Well done. Do carry on. —you said he was a natural born criminal, a fraudster by vocation, an habitual liar, a perverted genius and totally untrustworthy! Are you accepting my offer, Mr Lipwig?’ said Vetinari sharply.
This passage reveals two elements that have been discussed throughout this paper. First, the fact that Vetinari achieves a lot by saying very little, if anything. His raising his hand and answering with a monosyllable is enough to prompt Lipwig to take this conversation the way the Patrician wants him to, and this method seems to be at least as effective as delivering a grandiloquent speech. On the other hand, we see that Pratchett insists in describing Vetinari’s answers to Lipwig as sharp. Note how in such a short passage Vetinari speaks sharply twice. This, again, might be an indicator that Vetinari’s manners resemble those of a high culture evil character, and thus we can argue that Pratchett is not profiling this c haracter as a canonical fantasy villain. A few lines afterwards, we can see how Vetinari prides himself for always “considering the psychology of the individual”, which can be interpreted as him being extremely wary and sympathetic, despite what it could seem from a shallow perspective. “One must always consider the psychology of the individual”, said Vetinari, correcting the spelling on an official report. “That is what I do all the time and lamentably, Drumknott, you do not always do. That is why he has walked off with your pencil”.
Let us highlight as well how Vetinari seems to be lecturing his clerk, correcting the spelling of an official report and noticing a minor theft in his office. This kind of appraisal is also consistent with a depiction of the character in which we, as readers, are invited to feel sympathy and even like him, which seems to be a recurrent issue when we as readers are confronted with marvelous villains32. We would like to draw the reader’s attention to the fact that the Patrician, in these two novels, plays a crucial role in the opening and 32 José Carlos Somoza, “La maldad es silencio (Shakespeare y los personajes…”, pp. 109-120.
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closing stages of a novel. See Figure 2 for a dispersion plot of the words “Moist” and “Vetinari” in the novels Going Postal and Making Money. We therefore argue that the Patrician plays a crucial role in the opening stages of the novel. His manipulative savvy joins forces with weak characters to give him a ground where he can deploy his tactics. He sets the foundations at the beginning of these novels for the action to unravel, taking a step back during the core of the novel (although not entirely), and then coming back with renewed energy to assess, evaluate and even judge the outcome of the actions carried out by his puppets.
Figure 2: Dispersion plot for the appearances of the main character of the novels (Moist) and Lord Vetinari. Left plot corresponds to “Going Postal” and the second one to “Making Money”.
These two plots outline clearly that Vetinari plays a minor role in the development of events, i.e. the core of the novel, being however essential in the opening and closing sections. We argue that this is due to his powerful position, where he has the responsibility, first, to establish the rules of the game that will be played throughout the novel, and second, to provide a valid closure to the adventures of the characters, always dependent on the benefits the city he cares about can have from it. The next passage is from Making Money33, where again the Patrician stands in front of his audience (in this case, Moist) and, with a gesture rather than with words, delivers the message that the meeting is over. He 33 Terry Pratchett, Making Money (London: Doubleday, 2007).
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makes use of the kinesthetic tools he has in order to convey meaning, without having to resort to speech if not entirely necessary. Astonishing, said Vetinari, taken aback. Well, Mr Lipwig, you can at least guess at what we will need in very large amounts for this project. Shovels? Finance, Mr Lipwig. And I would have it, if we had a banking system suitable for the times. I have every confidence in your ability to… shake things up a little. Moist tried one last throw. The Post Office needs me—he began. At the moment it does not, and you chafe at the thought, said Vetinari. You are not a man for the humdrum. I hereby grant you leave of absence. Mr Groat has been your deputy, and while he may not have your… flair, let us say, he will I am sure keep things moving along. He stood up, indicating that the audience was at an end. The city bleeds, Mr Lipwig, and you are the clot I need. Go away and make money. Unlock the wealth of AnkhMorpork. Mrs Lavish gave you the bank in trust. Run it well.
One more example can be found further on, where Vetinari explicitly tells Moist that he “is not a monster”. And the truth of this statement is somewhat challenged by Moist, although without explicitly telling Vetinari. Again, the conversation is following the tracks of the Patrician’s will, and his main trigger is again not language, but rather his gestures. His scarce use of words seem to convey an even more threatening personality, as we can infer from Moist’s thoughts. In addition, this passage ends with Vetinari requesting amiably an amount of money, which provokes an outburst in Moist’s thoughts and expectations. This sudden turn of events is also characteristic of Vetinari’s way of doing things, proposing (or rather urging) sometimes bizarre requests which almost always go together with “the liberty to refuse”. This liberty, as the reader can guess by now, is sometimes non-existent, but nevertheless proposed by the Patrician so that he has what we would call a diplomatic safeguard in case further events become problematic. Let us look at one more example from Making Money34. Hah! So it was just a show to scare me, after all, Moist thought, flicking the wretched ring into the box. I’ve never even heard of stygium before! He must have made it up— He sensed the heat and saw the ring blaze white-hot as it fell into the box. The lid snapped shut, leaving a purple hole in Moist’s vision.
34 Terry Pratchett, Making Money…
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“Remarkable, isn’t it?” said Vetinari. “Incidentally, I think you were needlessly silly to hold it all that time. I’m not a monster, you know”. No, monsters don’t play tricks with your brain, thought Moist. At least, while it’s still inside your head… “Look, about Owlswick, I didn’t mean—” he began, but Vetinari held up a hand. “I don’t know what you are talking about, Mr Lipwig. In fact, I invited you here in your capacity as de facto deputy chairman of the Royal Bank. I want you to loan me—that is to say, the city—half a million dollars at two per cent. You are, of course, at liberty to refuse”. So many thoughts scrambled for the emergency exit in Moist’s brain that only one remained. We’re going to need some bigger notes…
Conclusions This paper has presented and described Havelock Vetinari, a character in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld fantasy saga. We have argued that, although being described as a heartless tyrant who rules the city of Ankh-Morpork allowing the existence of Thieves’ and Assassins’ guilds, Vetinari does not comply with the prototypical profile of a fantasy evil character. In what revolves Vetinari it is difficult to assess whether some of the actions undertaken can be classified as good or evil, thus drawing a fuzzy line between both extremes. Previous research in fantasy literature reveals that in classic fantasy literature, since in many cases the target audience are young adults, there is a clear distinction between good and bad actions, good and bad characters, and good and bad morale. We have carried out a method to correlate sentences where Vetinari appears together with positive and negative words with the aim to draw conclusions related to the polarity this character is mostly associated. Our results seem to suggest that he is a character that cannot be characterized with neither extreme (i.e. him being a plain good or plain evil character). Vetinari, on the other hand, presents himself as a resourceful and inventive ruler, whose means can be thought of being extremely cruel sometimes, and simply very pragmatic other times. Another feature that we have discussed is the extent to which his scarce words when interacting with other characters approach him to the class of high culture evil character, which since Shakesperian literature
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are those who do not speak much, and when they do, they successful make the reader develop some kind of sympathy towards them, even agreeing in certain cases with their methods. On top of this, the power of Vetinari in novels where his plot-wise leadership is more evident (Going Postal and Making Money) seems to be correlated with the number of times he is involved in the action of the novel. He appears prominently at the beginning and the last part of these two novels, which we argue can be due to the need for the plot to have him set the rules that the characters will follow, and to have him evaluate, assess and develop a closure statement. For future lines of research we would encourage research in these lines, exploring the evil dimension of characters like Vetinari as opposed to one-novel characters who are true antagonists. This comparative study should provide enough evidence for the scholars to draw conclusions with regard to the extent to which there is a correlation between Vetinari’s way of ruling the city and others that could be compared to him in terms of evil. We are also interested in the development of the language used by Terry Pratchett in terms not only of lexical complexity and readability, but also to provide empirical figures that help us confirm or reject the hypothesis that his novels have become darker, more mature and with more emphasis on greater and more transcendental topics, parting ways from the ironic and comical structure of his early works. Another option would be to explore with more refined methods our claims in this paper. For example, carrying out some kind of anaphora resolution, i.e. identifying which character speaks when the author writes something like “he said” or “she said”.
Annexe Bibliography Jaume Albero, “Villains and the Representations of Evil in J. R. R Tolkien’s Fiction of Middle-Earth”, Brno studies in English, vol. 31 (2005), pp. 155-174. Raisa Aromaa, Humour in Terry Pratchett’s “Discworld Series” Application of Psychological and Linguistic Theories of Humour
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(Finland: University of Tampere, School of Language, Translation and Literary Studies, 2011). José Carlos Somoza, “La maldad es silencio (Shakespeare y los p ersonajes malvados)”, Frenia. Revista de Historia de la Psiquiatría, 2/1 (2002), pp. 109-120. Luis Espinosa, “Quantifying irony with sentiment analysis methods: The case of Terry Pratchett’s Discworld”, Current research in Applied Linguistics: Issues on language and cognition, Paula RodríguezPuente, Teresa Fanego, Evelyn Gandón-Chapela, Sara RiveiroOuteiral, María Luisa Roca-Varela, eds. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), pp. 220-239. Neil Forsyth, “The Language of Evil: Popular versus ‘Higher’ Culture”, Farming Evil: Portraits of Terror and the Imagintaion. Proceedings of the 7th Global Conference Perspectives on Evil and Human Wickedness (March, 2006), Nancy Billias, Agnes B. Curry, eds. (Oxford: InterDisciplinary Press, 2008), pp. 65-70. Minqing Hu, Bing Liu, “Mining and Summarizing Customer Reviews” Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2004), pp. 168-177. Irene López, Elena María García, “Teaching Idiomatic Expressions to Learners of EFL Through a Corpus Based on Disney Movies”, A Survey on Corpus-based Research, Panorama de investigaciones basadas en corpus, Pascual Cantos, Aquilino Sánchez, eds. (Murcia: Asociación Española de Lingüística del Corpus, 2009), pp. 240-253. Thimothy Mason, “Imagining the Multicultural City: Terry Pratchett’s Guards! Guards!”, Taylor & Francis Online: English Studies Journal, 4/2 (2007), pp. 285-299. William Murray, Subversions: The Discworld novels of Terry Pratchett (New Zeland: University of Canterbury, 1998). Sherly O’Sullivan, “Depictions of Evil in Lois Lowry’s Messenger”. The ALAN Review, 33/1 (2005), pp. 62-67. [Assembly on Literature for Adolescents of the National Council of Teachers of English]. Terry Pratchett, The Colour of Magic (London: Colin Smythe, 1983). Terry Pratchett, Sourcery (London: Victor Gollancz, 1988). Terry Pratchett, Guards! Guards! (London: Corgi, 1990). Terry Pratchett, Moving Pictures (London: Victor Gollancz, 1990). Terry Pratchett, Soul Music (London: Victor Gollancz, 1994).
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Terry Pratchett, Jingo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1997). Terry Pratchett, The Last Hero (London: Victor Gollancz, 2001). Terry Pratchett, Night Watch (London: Doubleday, 2002). Terry Pratchett, Going Postal (London: Doubleday, 2004). Terry Pratchett, Making Money (London: Doubleday, 2007). Terry Pratchett, Unseen Academicals (London: Doubleday, 2009). John R. Firth, “A Synopsis of Linguistic Theory 1930-1955,” Studies in Linguistic Analysis, Philological Society (Oxford: Philological, 1957), pp. 1-32. Eve Smith, “Selling Terry Pratchett’s Discworld: Merchandising and the Cultural Economy of Fandom”, Participations: Journal of Audience and Reception Studies, 8/2 (2011), pp. 239-256. Eve Smith, “Civil disobedience or war, terrorism and unrest in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld”, Comedy Studies, 3/1 (2012), pp. 29-39. Tzvetan Todorov, Arnold Weinstein, “Structural analysis of narrative”, Novel: A Forum on Fiction, 3/1 (1969), pp. 70-76.
Identités perverses et malfaisantes versus identités rebelles1 dans la poésie chilienne de la dictature et de la Transition Benoît Santini Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale
Le concept d’identité est pluriel : il est lié à l’individu, à la collectivité, représente ce qui ne change pas ou ce qui se modifie comme le démontre Paul Ricoeur en définissant les concepts d’ « ipséité » et de « mêmeté ». L’appliquer à la poésie chilienne des années 1973-1990 et de la Transition à la démocratie (depuis 1990) signifie, d’une part, s’intéresser à l’identité du sujet poétique, disloqué, scindé, typiquement post-moderne, partagé en de multiples identités et fuyant. D’autre part, et c’est sur cet aspect que nous nous pencherons, les militaires et le Général Pinochet, chantés dans les recueils de la période de la dictature et même de la Transition, font partie d’un groupe qui se reconnaît par sa parenté, ses similitudes, et constituent une « identité collective » pour reprendre les termes d’Alessandro Pizzorno : al asegurar un círculo de reconocimiento en el que inscribir las preferencias y las acciones propias, el pertenecer a una identidad colectiva refuerza la propia identidad personal2. en assurant un cercle de reconnaissance où inscrire ses préférences et ses actions, le fait d’appartenir à une identité collective renforce son identité personnelle.
Face à cette « identité collective » malfaisante, néfaste, perverse, excluante, se dessine une identité rebelle, combative, qui s’exprime à travers une pluralité de voix individuelles se trouvant dans des situations
1
2
Nous traduisons de la sorte l’expression identidades malvadas employée dans la présentation du colloque organisé à Lleida du 14 au 16 novembre 2012 et intitulé Perverse Identities. Identities in Conflict. Voir : Alessandro Pizzorno, « Algún otro tipo de alteridad : una crítica a las teorías de la elección racional », Revista Sistema, 88 (1989), p. 38.
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distinctes (exil intérieur, déracinement, enfermement). Ainsi, les poètes dissidents, dans un contexte complexe de création plurielle (poètes exilés, poètes de l’intérieur, phénomènes de censure et d’autocensure) reflètent dans leur écriture lyrique la réalité de la répression exercée par les militaires et le Général. Langage de la violence, implicite, dénonciation féroce se combinent dans une série de textes de grande diversité, mais dont les points communs sont l’évocation de l’exclusion, la marginalisation fondée sur les notions d’altérité et de différence ainsi que la destruction des liens sociaux. Amartya Sen, Prix Nobel d’Economie, écrit : Normalement, nous nous percevons comme membres d’une infinie variété de groupes auxquels nous appartenons tous. La citoyenneté, le lieu de résidence, l’origine géographique, le sexe, la classe sociale, les opinions politiques, la profession, les habitudes alimentaires, la pratique d’un sport, les goûts musicaux, l’engagement auprès des autres, font de nous les membres de groupes très divers. Chacune de ces collectivités, auxquelles chacun de nous appartient simultanément, forme notre identité propre3.
L’individu (par exemple, le poète, qui s’exprime moyennant sa voix ou ses voix lyriques) se forge son identité au sein d’un groupe uni par des objectifs et une idéologie communs : la lutte contre le fascisme et la défense d’une liberté. Les sujets poétiques vont alors présenter le groupe malfaisant des militaires et du Général comme l’incarnation d’une « inquiétante étrangeté » selon la terminologie de Julia Kristeva, inspirée de la théorie de Freud4. Deux catégories identitaires se mettent en place : les identités rebelles et les identités perverses ou malveillantes, lesquelles s’opposent et s’affrontent dans des discours accusateurs qui adoptent des mécanismes langagiers habiles et subtils afin de contourner la censure et manient une autocensure derrière laquelle se cache le sens profond du texte. Iván Carrasco écrit : Toda identidad requiere una base efectiva de sustento para tener posibilidades de desarrollo históricosocial, le dé existencia empírica y no se reduzca a una ilusión o una ideología fantástica o alienante. En el discurso literario estas identidades son representadas, configuradas o proyectadas principalmente en la actuación, caracterización y diálogo de personajes o tipos humanos representativos, en determinados enunciados ideológicos o valorativos de los sujetos enunciativos y en los discursos metatextuales complementarios del autor.
3 4
Amartya Sen, Identité et violence (Paris : Odile Jacob, 2006), p. 27. Julia Kristeva, Etrangers à nous-mêmes (Paris : Gallimard, 1991), p. 279.
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Mediante estas estrategias los textos literarios realzan positivamente determinadas identidades y discriminan negativamente otras. La identidad sociocultural puede ser una sola en una sociedad muy pequeña, cohesionada y conservadora, pero lo común es que en las sociedades complejas existan varias y diversas5. Toute identité requiert une base effective de subsistance pour avoir la possibilité de se développer du point de vue historico-social, d’acquérir une existence empirique et afin de ne pas se réduire à une illusion ou une idéologie fantastique et aliénante. Dans le discours littéraire ces identités sont représentées, configurées ou projetées principalement dans les agissements, la caractérisation et le dialogue de personnages ou types humains représentatifs, dans les énoncés idéologiques ou valoratifs bien déterminés des sujets énonciatifs et dans les discours métatextuels complémentaires de l’auteur. Par ces stratégies les textes littéraires mettent positivement en exergue des identités bien déterminées et en discriminent négativement d’autres. L’identité socio-culturelle peut être une seule dans une société très petite, unie et conservatrice, mais ce qui est courant est que dans des sociétés complexes existent plusieurs identités.
Le critique souligne la double posture auctorale : mettre en exergue et discriminer, valoriser ou minimiser. Dans le cas de la poésie chilienne écrite durant la dictature, poésie qui défend une attitude rebelle et tâche d’anéantir les identités malveillantes, le système imposé par la dictature se renverse. Ainsi, s’entrecroisent diverses identités dans le discours lyrique de l’époque, des « types humains représentatifs » de la société d’alors (militaires et victimes de la répression), ainsi que diverses identités socio-culturelles : la culture officielle, la culture subversive et irrévérencieuse, ainsi que les acteurs de ces deux cultures. Surgissent des identités en conflit, dans un contexte de fracture de la société et d’éclatement de l’identité nationale, confirmant ce qu’écrit Massimo Montanari : « chaque identité est un produit de l’histoire, dynamique et instable, engendré par des phénomènes complexes d’échange, de croisement et de contamination »6. Jorge Larraín, sociologue chilien, écrit : El problema más serio para una identidad nacional surge cuando algunos de los miembros de la nación dejan de ser reconocidos como parte de la comunidad, sea porque su integridad física o la de sus posesiones más preciadas no es respetada, sea
5 6
Voir : Iván Carrasco, « Identidades en la poesía canónica de Gabriela Mistral », Estudios filológicos, 48 (2011), pp. 23-32. Massimo Montanari, Le manger comme culture (Bruxelles : Editions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2010), p. 133.
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porque sus derechos y sus contribuciones son sistemáticamente desconocidos. En otras palabras, un conjunto de personas que eran miembros de la comunidad pasan a ser considerados como otros de oposición, como individuos que están fuera de la comunidad7. Le problème le plus sérieux pour une identité nationale surgit lorsque quelques-uns des membres de la nation cessent d’être reconnus comme faisant partie de la communauté, soit parce que leur intégrité physique ou celle de leurs biens les plus précieux n’est pas respectée, soit parce que leurs droits et leurs contributions sont systématiquement ignorés. En d’autres termes, un ensemble de personnes qui étaient membres de la communauté sont alors considérées comme des membres de l’opposition ; comme des individus en-dehors de la communauté.
L’exclusion et la constitution d’un groupe identitaire distinct du groupe dominant caractérisent donc la période de la dictature chilienne et trouvent leur écho dans la production poétique du moment. Il convient de nous demander comment les poètes de l’époque choisie parviennent à faire coexister des identités opposées dans leurs discours lyriques qui se présentent comme une reproduction textuelle-poétique de la société des années 1973-1990.
1. Identités malfaisantes, crimes et violence Les actes du groupe de militaires et du Général, qui constituent en euxmêmes des « identités malfaisantes », ensemble d’individus unis dans le but d’éradiquer l’ennemi intérieur, sont dénoncés vigoureusement par les poètes chiliens de l’époque. Ximena Barraza écrit à ce sujet dans la revue de l’exil Araucaria de Chile : La destrucción del « pueblo » en cuanto sujeto político conlleva la construcción de un orden nuevo. Sobre la muerte de uno se erige la vida de otro8 (« La destruction du “peuple” en tant que sujet politique s’accompagne de la construction d’un ordre nouveau. Sur la mort des uns s’érige la vie des autres »). Face à l’imposition d’un 7 8
Voir : Jorge Larraín, « A treinta años del golpe militar : cambios en la identidad chilena », Persona y Sociedad, 17/3 (2003), p. 145. Ximena Barraza, « Notas sobre la vida cotidiana en el orden autoritario », Araucaria de Chile, 11 (1980), p. 57.
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système de censure, de nombreux auteurs écrivent en appliquant à leur production une autocensure, comme nous l’expliquerons plus loin ; ils se servent d’un langage polysémique ou adoptent un discours davantage accusateur depuis l’étranger (phénomène de la diaspora). Se crée donc ce qu’Ariel Dorfman appelle una contra-cultura abierta, legal (entendiendo la languidez e injusticia de tal palabra cuando la fuerza determina a cada instante las reglas del “juego”), autónoma de las instancias e instituciones oficiales9 (« une contre-culture ouverte, légale (tout en prenant en compte la langueur et l’injustice d’un tel mot lorsque la force détermine à tout instant les règles du “jeu”), autonome des instances et des institutions officielles »). Par conséquent, dans le pays lui-même, ce que l’on appelle apagón cultural n’a qu’un impact limité. Ce fenómeno de parálisis, de estupor, de miedo, una pausa de silencio (« phénomène de paralysie, de stupeur, de peur, une pause de silence ») ne provoque pas la decadencia ni mucho menos la defunción de un conjunto de actividades creadoras que de todos modos sería imposible que desapareciera (« la décadence et encore moins la mort d’un ensemble d’activités créatrices que de toutes façons il serait impossible de faire disparaître ») comme l’explique Carlos Orellana10; bien au contraire : Ariel Dorfman parle même de vigor de esta nueva cultura abierta que se encuentra justamente en la progresiva unidad de pueblo y productor intelectual, de organización de masas y trabajador de la cultura11 (« vigueur de cette nouvelle culture ouverte » qui « se trouve justement dans la progressive unité du peuple et de la production intellectuelle, de l’organisation de masse et des travailleurs de la culture »). L’idée de groupe et l’existence d’identités rebelles face aux identités perverses sont ainsi confirmées. Samuel Guerrero écrit que frente al apagón fascista surgió el contraapagón. El pueblo chileno encendió todas las lámparas con su arte12 (« face à l’ “apagón” fasciste surgit le “contre-apagón”. Le peuple chilien a allumé toutes les lampes de son art »). Par l’écriture poétique, un combat s’organise contre le régime autoritaire, les artistes
9
Voir : Ariel Dorfman, « El Estado chileno actual y los intelectuales », Araucaria de Chile, 10 (1980), p. 45. 10 Voir : Carlos Orellana, « La cultura chilena en el momento del cambio », Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, 482-483 (1990), p. 51. 11 Lire : Ariel Dorfman, « El Estado chileno actual… », p. 46. 12 Voir : Samuel Guerrero, « Luces nuevas en la cultura chilena », Araucaria de Chile, 6 (1979), p. 78.
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s’imposent face aux obstacles que sèment les fonctionnaires de la Junte, ils défendent et rétablissent une certaine justice ainsi que des valeurs que les identités malfaisantes mettent en pièces. Pour atteindre leur objectif, les poètes n’hésitent pas à accuser Pinochet lui-même, utilisant à l’intérieur du pays un langage suggestif, allusif et connotatif. L’écriture de Gonzalo Millán et de Raúl Zurita en est une démonstration claire. La figure du dictateur apparaît dans La ciudad de Gonzalo Millán (publiée en 1979 au Québec et 15 ans plus tard au Chili, au cours d’une période de plus grande ouverture – toute relative – du régime et de publications de recueils de poèmes composés des années auparavant). A travers une succession de phrases brèves, simples, le Moi lyrique tâche de lutter contre le musellement forcé et récupère la parole que la dictature coupe aux artistes durant le régime de Pinochet. Afin de désigner le dictateur, la voix se sert comme d’un leitmotiv du mot tirano qui s’impose de façon autoritaire tout au long du discours poétique : Pasa el tirano en un auto blindado, El tirano disfruta de salud, ¡Muera el tirano!, No cae la Junta. / El tirano no cae, Se encienden los televisores. / Habla por cadena el tirano, El tirano pide sacrificios, En todos los circos hay payasos. / Como el tirano no hay ninguno, Echaron maldiciones contra el tirano, El tirano se cubre la testuz. / El tirano cubre con la mano su pecho. / Hace promesas, Las tropas desfilan delante del tirano, El tirano lleva uniforme de gala, El tirano abraza a Prat. Le tyran passe dans une voiture blindée, Le tyran jouit d’une excellente santé, À mort le tyran!, La Junte ne tombe pas. / Le tyran ne tombe pas, On allume les téléviseurs. / Le tyran parle sur toutes les chaînes, Le tyran demande des sacrifices, Dans tous les cirques il y a des clowns. / Il n’y a personne comme le tyran, Ils jetèrent leur malédiction sur le tyran, Le tyran se couvre la tête. / Le tyran couvre avec sa main sa poitrine. / Il fait des promesses, Les troupes défilent devant le tyran, Le tyran porte un uniforme de parade, Le tyran serre Prat dans ses bras.
La figure du dictateur s’insinue de manière sournoise et grotesque dans le discours poétique à travers des structures syntaxiques similaires (sujet, verbe, complément). Cette omniprésence du tyran, réalité historique (qui se manifeste par le culte de la personnalité, censure des médias, discours officiels) s’accompagne d’une irrévérence du Moi : les vers Tenemos atascado en el recto a1 tirano. / Duro terco pedazo de mierda13 (« Nous avons 13 Gonzalo Millán, La ciudad (Québec : Les Editions Maison Culturelle QuébecAmérique Latine, 1979), pp. 15-16, 18, 19, 25, 46, 52, 61, 72, 86, 99.
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le tyran coincé dans le rectum. / Dur morceau coriace de merde ») emploie un langage brutal, semblable à celui du dictateur et de ses sbires, et ces vers se vengent poétiquement de la violence du régime. Le discours devient fortement accusateur et engagé, bien que le nom de Pinochet ne soit jamais cité. Raúl Zurita, poète de l’intérieur, procède de la même façon. Son tirano fait irruption dans le poème X de la section Pastoral de Chile : Yo sé que tú vives yo sé ahora que tú vives y que tocada de luz ya no entrará más en ti ni el asesino ni el tirano14. Je sais que tu vis je sais maintenant que tu vis et que touchée par la lumière ni l’assassin ni le tyran n’entreront plus en toi.
Le Moi lyrique, qui s’adresse à un interlocuteur – le chili – en le tutoyant (par le biais d’une prosopopée), révèle en 1982 sa foi en un présent libéré des identités assasines (asesino et tirano) à travers l’emploi de présents de l’indicatif utopiques ou uchroniques, actualisant la démocratie en période de dictature. Les singuliers asesino, tirano individualisent le dictateur et ses hommes, euxmêmes « assassins » et regroupés sous le singulier plus collectif qu’il n’y paraît. La pénétration brutale, suggérée par l’expression entrarán en ti se réfère aux viols courants dans les centres de détention et au sentiment de trahison ressenti par la population tout au long des 17 années de régime militaire. Le « tyran » du poète Gustavo Donoso est lui aussi singulier car le Moi le présente comme patron des bouchers, métaphore voilée des militaires. Le pays devient une gigantesque boucherie, et le discours poétique élusif n’empêche pas une forte dénonciation des crimes commis : El tirano entró a la carnicería y quedó gratamente impresionado al ver en perfecto orden animales desollados y sin cabeza. Dio la mano a los carniceros : Eran hombres poderosos y fuertes, de sonrosadas mejillas. “Vengan y síganme”, les dijo, “yo les haré carniceros de hombres”. 14 Raúl Zurita, Anteparaiso (Madrid : Visor de Poesía, 1991), p. 151.
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El resto es Historia conocida15. Le tyran entra dans la boucherie et fut agréablement impressionné en voyant en ordre parfait des animaux dépouillés et sans tête. Il serra la main aux bouchers : C’étaient des hommes puissants et forts, aux joues roses. « Venez et suivez-moi », leur a-t-il dit, « je vous ferai bouchers d’hommes ». Le reste est Une histoire que tout le monde connaît.
A travers ce qui ressemble à une désacralisation parodique et poétique de discours bibliques (« Je vous ferai pêcheurs d’hommes » dans l’Evangile selon Saint Matthieu), la voix poétique souligne la cruauté du tyran (quedó gratamente impresionado). Destructuration et décomposition sont au cœur de l’énonciation (desollados, sin cabeza, carniceros); la violence imposée au corps social s’apparente donc à celle imposée au corps textuel. Si la figure du dictateur occupe une place non négligeable dans l’écriture lyrique chilienne de l’époque, d’autres figures incarnant des identités malfaisantes et perverses surgissent dans des poèmes accusateurs derrière l’implicite (aspect que nous examinerons plus loin-). Tomás Harris brosse un portrait de l’un des militaires, qui font de la torture un jeu. Dans le poème Fenomenología de la confesión, un célèbre tortionnaire de la police secrète de Pinochet, El Chesitán (comme nous l’explique une note de l’anthologie Los poetas y el General utilisée pour cet article), nous est présenté : “Sé muchos trucos” mugió el Chesitán, el guardia fiel a su señor, “mejor te rendís y soltái la pepa...” […] This is the end comenzó a silbar el Chesitán, como un zorzal, tal vez para meter susto o sólo por distraerse de su duro oficio16. 15
Gustavo Donoso, « Buen trabajo », Antología. Los Poetas y el General. Voces de oposición en Chile bajo Augusto Pinochet 1973-1989, Eva Goldschmidt Wyman, Magdalena Fuentes, Victoria Frenkel, éds. (Santiago du Chili : Lom Ediciones, 2002), p. 291. 16 Tomás Harris, « Fenomenología… », p. 183.
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« Je connais beaucoup de trucs » beugla le Chesitán, le garde fidèle à son seigneur, « Il vaut mieux que tu te rendes et que tu dénonces tes complices... » [...] This is the end commença à siffler le Chesitán, comme un fin renard, peut-être pour faire peur ou seulement pour se distraire de son dur métier.
El Chesitán, qui s’exprime au style direct, fait preuve de brutalité : linguistique d’abord, puisqu’il emploie un discours hybride (composé d’anglicismes et d’un langage familier comme « te rendís, soltái ») et, ensuite, à travers les menaces qu’il profère. Les verbes mugir, silbar (« meugler, siffler ») animalisent le bourreau et font du sujet poétique un être grotesque. La soumission (guardia fiel) envers le dictateur tout puissant, implicitement qualifié de señor (« seigneur ») dénonce l’obéissance aveugle des militaires du régime. A d’autres occasions, le complice de la Junte (un militaire ou un médecin) est désigné par le vocable el verdugo (« le bourreau ») comme dans Interrogatorio d’Eduardo Llanos : Sobre el somier electrificado La prisionera dio el penúltimo alarido […]. Despertó con los malos olores y nebulosamente entrevió al verdugo abrochándose el marrueco y entregando su turno al relevo siguiente…17. Sur le sommier électrifié La prisonnière poussa son avant-dernier cri de mort [...]. Elle se réveilla avec les mauvaises odeurs et entrevit nébuleusement le bourreau se boutonnant le marrueco et passant son service à la relève suivante...
Tous les actes décrits au fil du poème justifient l’emploi du terme verdugo. Le Moi décrit avec minutie les actes barbares de torture (somier electrificado) et les résultats sur la victime (dio el penúltimo alarido,
17 Eduardo Llanos, « Interrogatorio », Antología. Los Poetas y el General…, p. 185.
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nebulosamente entrevió al verdugo). Parfois, l’emploi de la métonymie sert aussi à évoquer les actes des militaires pervers et malfaisants de la Junte : dans un poème anonyme, publié en Italie, les militaires apparaissent à travers l’allusion aux armes ou instruments dont ils se servent : Sentía frío, tanto frío, y las esposas me apretaban. Además el dolor de las bayonetas en Mis costillas […]. Los grillos y su canto de clavos, el fresco de la noche me acompañaron en nuestro fusilamiento18. J’avais froid, tellement froid, et les menottes me serraient. En plus la douleur des baïonnettes dans Mes côtes [...]. Les grillons et leur chant de douleur, la fraîcheur de la nuit m’accompagnèrent lors de notre exécution.
Le témoignage à la première personne est comme un chant d’outre-tombe d’une victime fusillée par les bourreaux du régime. Derrière la mention faite à las esposas (les menottes), las bayonetas et au fusilamiento se cachent les militaires de la Junte, adeptes des crimes chantés. Brutalité et violence du groupe identitaire malfaisant deviennent des traits distinctifs du discours lyrique en lui-même. Le langage des militaires est reproduit dans Canto a su amor desaparecido (1985) de Raúl Zurita dans un processus de désacralisation du langage poétique : Mira tiene un buen cul. Cómo te llamas buen culo bastarda chica, me preguntaron19 (« Regarde elle a un beau cul. Comment tu t’appelles petite bâtarde au beau cul, m’ont-ils demandé »). Dans cet antipoème narratif, les souvenirs se succèdent moyennant l’usage du tiret qui établit une liste désordonnée de phrases, pensées, descriptions reproduisant le démembrement 18 Anónimo III (3), Antología. Los Poetas y el General…, p. 159. 19 Raúl Zurita, Canto a su amor desaparecido (Santiago du Chili : Editorial Universitaria, 1990), p. 13.
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et la fragmentation de l’être brutalisé. Parmi ces phrases se détachent des insultes et termes liés à la sexualité qui constituent le reflet d’une réalité dont ont souffert les prisonniers politiques, violés dans les lieux de répression par leurs bourreaux. Menaces et langage grossier refont leur apparition dans In memoriam (2007), recueil de Zurita publié plus de 20 ans après, telles des séquelles indélébiles d’une époque lointaine ; dans « Fellatio », la voix des militaires résonne : ¡Al que se mueva le aceito el culo a bayonetazos! / la puta que los parió…20 (« À celui qui bouge je lui graisse le cul à coups de baïonnettes! / tas d’enfoirés... »). L’énonciation se construit à partir d’une relation sadique, les militaires mettant en place un rapport de domination et de violence sexuelle sur leurs prisonniers. Surgit alors ce que Roland Barthes appelle une « écriture de la violence » car, selon lui, « la violence implique un langage de la violence »21. Raúl Zurita répond donc par l’écriture poétique à la violence politique. Il s’agit pour lui de préserver le souvenir des événements des années après la fin de la dictature, évitant de la sorte une disparition dans les limbes de l’oubli des identités perverses et malfaisantes. L’enfermement des identités rebelles et la torture infligée par les identités malfaisantes sont des thèmes fréquents de l’écriture des poètes emprisonnés. Floridor Pérez, Aristóteles España, Víctor Jara reflètent cette réalité dans des textes composés en prison ou de thématique carcérale. Il s’agit en effet d’identités en conflit : les poètes subversifs affrontent le discours officiel mensonger et univoque, tâchant de rétablir une justice et une vérité historiques à travers la parole poétique. Ils s’opposent directement grâce à leur arme – l’écriture poétique – à l’ordre autoritaire. Ximena Barraza écrit que la efectividad del orden autoritario radica en la omnipresencia de la violencia22 (« la réalité de l’ordre autoritaire réside dans l’omniprésence de la violence »). Cette affirmation s’avère en examinant les poèmes évoquant les centres de détention : l’auteur-compositeur et interprète Víctor Jara écrit son dernier poème Estadio Chile pendant son incarcération, et il y dénonce férocement le régime pinochetiste par le terme singulier de fascismo (Qué espanto causa el rostro del fascismo!) : 20 Raúl Zurita, In memoriam (Santiago du Chili : Ediciones Tácitas, 2007), p. 49. 21 Roland Barthes, « L’écriture de l’événement », Communications, 12 (1968), pp. 108-112. 22 Voir : Ximena Barraza, « Notas sobre la vida cotidiana… », p. 58.
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Somos cinco mil aquí en esta pequeña parte de la ciudad. Somos cinco mil. Cuántos seremos en total en las ciudades y en todo el país?23 Nous sommes cinq mille ici dans cette petite partie de la ville. Nous sommes cinq mille. Combien serons-nous au total dans les villes et dans tout le pays?
Le Moi s’inclut dans un vaste groupe, par l’emploi de la première personne du pluriel (Somos); le nombre important de prisonniers fait de la répression vis-à-vis du groupe subversif (constitué d’identités rebelles) une répression à grande échelle, sans pitié, cruelle. Le stade devient un Chili en miniature (à pequeña parte de la ciudad répond le vers en las ciudades y todo el país). Ce Moi prend la parole au nom des prisonniers du régime dans un chant déchirant, sachant que la mort du poète Jara a lieu dans ce stade national après les tortures infligées par les militaires du régime. Les termes violents qui parsèment l’énoncé – presión moral, terror y locura, Uno muerto, otro golpeado, los militares mostrando su rostro / de matrona llena de dulzura –24 (« pression morale, terreur et folie, L’un mort, l’autre frappé, les militaires montrant leur visage / de matrone pleine de douceur ») ne font que confirmer la brutalité des hommes de la Junte. Selon Paul Ricoeur la violence est la « destruction par quelqu’un d’autre de la capacité d’agir d’un sujet »25 et cette affirmation est vérifiable dans le cas chilien.
2. Identités rebelles et victimes du groupe malfaisant Les victimes des militaires et du dictateur constituent un groupe identitaire rebelle, contrepoint parfait du groupe autoritaire. Face au dictateur s’élève 23 Víctor Jara, « Estadio Chile », Los poetas chilenos luchan contra el fascismo, Sergio Macías, coord. (Berlin : Comité Chile antifascista, 1977), p. 227. 24 Víctor Jara, « Estadio... », pp. 227-228. 25 Paul Ricoeur, Soi-même comme un autre (Paris : Points-Seuil, 1990), p. 186.
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un sujet poétique modèle de justice et de sacrifice, Salvador Allende, qui se suicide au moment du Coup d’Etat après un dernier et émouvant discours prononce depuis le Palais présidentiel de La Moneda. Ainsi, Víctor Jara, dans Estadio Chile – poème déjà cité – fait allusion à la sangre del Compañero Presidente26, utilisant pour l’occasion un lexique de gauche et communiste (Compañero signifiant « camarade »). Le Président devient symboliquement la première victime de la boucherie pinochetiste, pour reprendre l’image de Gustavo Donoso dans son poème Buen trabajo, évoqué plus haut. Salvador Allende, qui défend jusqu’au bout la démocratie, s’inclut donc dans le camp subversif. Si Allende est anéanti (au sens propre du terme), le Moi de La ciudad de Gonzalo Millán procède à une reconstruction d’Allende : Allende dispara. Las llamas se apagan. Se saca el casco. La Moneda se reconstituye íntegra. Su cráneo se recompone. Sale a un balcón. Allende retrocede hasta Tomás Moro27. Allende tire. Les flammes s’éteignent. Il ôte son casque. La Monnaie est intégralement reconstituée. Son crâne se recompose. Il sort sur un balcon. Allende recule jusqu’à Thomas More.
Grâce aux verbes apagarse, reconstituirse, recomponerse, et des phrases brèves, concises et fortement expressives, la voix lyrique révèle son regret d’un passé perdu, antérieur au traumatisme causé par le Coup d’Etat, élaborant un poème à remonter le temps, comme le confirment le verbe retroceder et l’allusion à Thomas More, humaniste anglais de la Renaissance et auteur d’Utopia (« la ville parfaite »). L’utopie représente, dans le cas du poème que nous analysons, le Chili parfait libéré de ses identités malfaisantes, un Chili uni et pacifique.
26 Víctor Jara, « Estadio… », p. 228. 27 Gonzalo Millán, La ciudad…, p. 85.
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Pour sa part, Efraín Barquero, poète exilé à partir de 1973 au Mexique, à Cuba, en France, dédie son poème Así te enterraron à Allende, proposant une vision exactement opposée à celle de Millán. Le sujet poétique s’adresse par une prosopopée au Président défunt : Desde el Palacio envuelto en llamas te sacan, Salvador, te sacan los bomberos. Vas cubierto por un saco de arpillera. Vas como enfermo en una triste ambulancia. Vas escoltado por soldados sin rostro. Ahora vuelas en un avión de carga. […] Así te enterraron, Salvador, como los héroes anónimos del pueblo que al morir desaparecen íntegros en el pecho de todos28. Du Palais entouré de flammes Les pompiers te font sortir, Salvador, les pompiers te font sortir. Tu es recouvert d’un linceul. Tu vas comme un malade dans une triste ambulance. Tu es escorté par des soldats sans visage. Maintenant tu voles dans un cargo. […] C’est ainsi qu’ils enterrèrent, Salvador, comme les héros anonymes du peuple qui en mourant disparaissent totalement dans la poitrine de tous.
Les verbes de mouvement et anaphores (vas, vuelas) ainsi que les phrases brèves, souvent formées d’un vers unique, donnent du dynamisme au texte et semblent vouloir effacer la mort du Président, incapable désormais d’agir pour sa patrie ; Allende devient le représentant des victimes innocentes du groupe pervers et malfaisant. Ce chant funèbre lui rend hommage et s’établit avec lui un rapport affectif (desaparecen íntegros en el pecho de todos). Derrière l’adjectif todos (« tous ») se dissimule le groupe rebelle, qui voit disparaître son modèle. Le nom du Président, Salvador, acquiert une dimension symbolique : cette fonction salvatrice n’est paradoxalement pas accomplie, Allende mourant prématurément. Le Moi procède à la re-création d’un héros afin de conserver le lien avec lui et
28 Efraín Barquero, « Así te enterraron », Los poetas chilenos luchan contra el fascismo…, p. 125.
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sauver son peuple de l’invasion de la mort (envuelto en llamas, enfermo, te enterraron). Une confusion entre le Chili et Salvador Allende s’opère, les deux étant entourés de flammes et d’un linceul, ensevelis par l’oppression et la menace des identités malfaisantes29. En sus du Président Allende, les victimes de la répression sont les artistes et poètes eux-mêmes. Effectivement, comme l’explique Marcelo Coddou, La situación del poeta en exilio le obliga también a atender a otras realidades, unidas […] a lo que pasa en el país lejano, pero que constituyen un campo propio de experiencias : la distancia efectiva del frente de Resistencia, el sentimiento de soledad y abandono en medio de un ámbito nunca hostil pero sí extraño, [...] el alejamiento de las fuentes materiales y cotidianas de su escritura30. La situation du poète en exil l’oblige aussi à prêter attention à d’autres réalités, liées […] à ce qui se passe dans le pays lointain, mais qui constituent un champ propre d’expériences : la distance effective du front de Résistance, le sentiment de solitude et d’abandon au coeur d’un environnement jamais hostile mais étrange, […] l’éloignement des sources matérielles et quotidiennes de son écriture.
Le sentiment d’isolement et l’éloignement de la terre d’origine poussent les poètes à exprimer leur douleur et à faire part de leur expérience d’exilés à travers l’outil poétique. Nombreux sont les poètes qui choisissent comme terre d’accueil l’Europe, les Etats-Unis et le Canada : Gonzalo Millán (1947-2006) s’exile au Québec et au Canada, Javier Campos (1947) aux Etats-Unis tout comme Óscar Hahn (1938), Bárbara Délano (1961-1996) se rend au Mexique en compagnie de son père, Waldo Rojas (1944) choisit Paris ainsi que Mauricio Electorat (1960), Gustavo Mujica (1947) se réfugie à Madrid et Paris. Depuis l’étranger, ils composent ce que l’on appelle communément des poemas del Golpe (poèmes du Coup d’Etat). Óscar Hahn, dans Hotel de las nostalgias (1981), chante la douleur de l’exil et le traumatisme de la répression (donde estamos ahora / en qué país desterrados / enterrados en que cementerio clandestino)31, récupérant ainsi la tradition classique du Ubi sunt adaptée au cas chilien 29 Salvador Allende est également une entité poétique de poètes non chiliens, comme Hombre de la paz (Allende) de l’Uruguayen Mario Benedetti. 30 Voir : Marcelo Coddou, « Poesía chilena en el exilio », Araucaria de Chile, 14 (1981), p. 104. 31 Óscar Hahn, Versos robados (Madrid: Visor, 1995), p. 44.
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des années de la dictature. Sergio Macías (exilé à Madrid) écrit dans Memoria del exilio : Memoria del hombre errante. Templo de los otoños. Celda de los sueños. Cadenas de ecos en la caverna de la carne. Navío de sangre entre arrecifes de huesos. Deseo encontrar después de mi retorno todo igual. Pero ni el viento ni el agua tendrán el sabor de la última despedida32. Mémoire de l’homme errant. Temple des automnes. Cellule des rêves. Chaînes d’échos dans la caverne de la chair. Navire de sang parmi des récifs d’os. Je souhaite tout retrouver pareil après mon retour. Mais ni le vent ni l’eau n’auront le goût des derniers adieux.
L’énonciation, brisée et scindée, est marquée par l’isotopie du déplacement et de l’éloignement (errante, navío, retorno). La voix lyrique, qui emploie des phrases et vers brefs, elliptiques de verbes, exprime la souffrance de la perte de repères et de racines. Les images de la prison (celda, cadenas) et du naufrage (Navío de sangre entre arrecifes de huesos) reflète la réalité de la répression et de la mort subséquente. Le Moi a toujours foi en un retour au pays (Deseo encontrar después de mi retorno todo igual), il ne renonce pas bien qu’il sache que la fracture vécue par le pays laissera des traces indélébiles, comme le souligne la rupture marquée par la conjonction Pero et les négations ni…ni. La réalité de la dictature et de la diaspora se confond avec les espoirs du Moi, emprisonné dans ces geôles et dans un contexte historique difficile. L’écriture est alors témoignage (Memoria del hombre errante) et est capable de préserver le souvenir des conséquences qu’ont eues les actes du groupe malfaisant de la Junte sur les opposants (torture, crimes, exil). La mémoire est encore plus indispensable depuis la fin de la dictature. Ainsi, les poètes qui continuent d’évoquer au cours de la Transition démocratique les crimes commis par le groupe malfaisant le font avec 32 Sergio Macías, Memoria del exilio (Madrid : Ediciones Cultura hispánica-Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana, 1985), p. 18.
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du recul et poursuivent la tâche commencée pendant les années du régime dictatorial par les poètes rebelles. Tel est le cas de Raúl Zurita qui, dans Inri (2003) se sert de façon lancinante du leitmotiv de la chute des corps des victimes de la dictature dans les lacs, les fleuves et l’océan. Tout au long de la section El mar, l’on peut lire : Sorprendentes carnadas llueven del cielo, Impresionantes llanuras llueven para los peces, Asombrosas cosechas llovieron desde el cielo33 (« De surprenants appâts de chair pleuvent du ciel, D’impressionnants plaines pleuvent pour les poissons, D’étonnantes récoltes plurent depuis le ciel »). La voix poétique modifie une réalité (celle des corps lancés dans les volcans, fleuves, etc.) en la recréant. Les corps se transforment en espaces naturels et aliment pour les poissons, au cours d’un processus de régénération. En se remémorant ces actes brutaux accomplis par les militaires, le Moi mythifie la chute des corps, lesquels donnent naissance à une série de cycles. Cette réalité des disparus est traitée par les poètes pendant la dictature, comme le fait le peintre José de Rokha dans son poème ¿Dónde está? : Donde [sic] está Bautista van Showen entre qué despojos la borrachera del instinto criminal lo ha desechado a qué abismal dolor aquellos lo arrastraron34. Où est Bautista van Showen parmi quelles dépouilles l’ivresse de l’instinct criminel l’a-t-il rejeté dans quelle douleur abyssale ceux-là le traînèrent-ils.
A la différence du poème de Zurita, construit sur une série d’affirmations et visions oniriques, ce texte se fonde sur une question, révélatrice d’une quête infructueuse. Le Moi révèle son désemparement, à travers un discours fortement accusateur (instinto criminal, desechar) dans lequel surgit
33 Raúl Zurita, Inri (Santiago du Chili : Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2003), pp. 17, 20, 22. 34 José de Rokha, « ¿Dónde está?... », p. 107.
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parfois l’implicite (aquellos, renvoyant sans nul doute aux militaires du régime). Une opposition se crée entre Baustista, membre malheureux du groupe rebelle et des opposants à la Junte, et aquellos, démonstratif imprécis désignant le groupe des criminels. Ariel Dorfman emploie le même trait distinctif : l’interrogation, afin d’évoquer le thème des disparus, dans son poème Identidad : qué me dices que encontraron otro? que en el río, que no te oigo, esta mañana dices, flotando otro más? que habla fuerte así que no te atreviste tan irreconocible está? que la policía ha dicho que ni su madre podría que ni la madre que lo parió que ni ella podría eso han dicho?35 tu me dis qu’ils en ont trouvé un autre? que dans la rivière, je ne t’entends pas, ce matin dis-tu, ils en ont trouvé un autre en train de flotter? parle plus fort de sorte que tu n’as pas osé tellement il est méconnaissable? que la police a dit que même pas sa mère ne pourrait pas que même pas la mère qui a accouché de lui que même pas elle ne pourrait pas c’est ça qu’ils ont dit?
La voix lyrique, qui fait allusion à l’absence des êtres chers et aux efforts des militaires pour effacer l’identité de l’individu, insiste sur la difficulté de son interlocuteur à évoquer la réalité des disparition (que no te oigo, que habla fuerte). L’emploi de négations (ni su madre podría, ni la madre que lo parió) souligne le cynisme et la cruauté des forces de l’ordre (la policía) qui font usage d’un langage violent et grossier (la madre que lo parió, qui dans le langage populaire est une insulte). Le résultat de la répression est donc le sentiment de vide. Cet emploi récurrent de négations, qui reproduisent l’annullation de l’individu par la Junte et le sentiment d’absence, prend tout son sens dans le poème de Miguel Arteche Para desterrados :
35 Ariel Dorfman, Pastel de choclo (Santiago du Chili : Sinfronteras, 1986), p. 23.
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Nada hay allí que toques con tu mano, / ni pan, ni ‘buenas noches’, ni esa silla, Nada hay allí : sobre un septiembre oscuro / otro septiembre luminoso cruza, Nadie en el bus te mira o te saluda, Nadie en la carta que recibes36. Il n’y a rien que tu touches avec la main, / pas du pain, / pas de « bonne nuit », ni ce chaise. Il n’y a rien là : sur un Septembre obscure / un outre Septembre lumineux traverse. Personne ne te regarde pas dans le bus. Il n’y a personne dans la lettre que tu reçois.
A partir d’un jeu anaphorique et de l’adverbe de lieu allí, le sujet poétique chante la distance, l’éloignement et la séparation.
3. Le non-dit comme arme La pluralité de voix et la diversité d’outils langagiers employés par les poètes de l’époque servent à lutter contre l’univocité imposée par le régime. Citons par exemple l’usage du non-dit et de l’implicite comme arme. Derrière une partie visible se cache le sens profond qu’un lecteur attentif est capable d’élucider. L’un des recours fréquents concerne le maniement de la troisième personne du pluriel afin de dénoncer les militaires du régime, identités malfaisantes incluses au groupe autoritaire, sans les citer explicitement. Dans Más allá de la tortura d’Aristóteles España, le Moi explique : me aplican corriente eléctrica en el cuerpo. Soy un extraño pasajero en viaje a lo desconocido, arden mis uñas y los poros, los tranvías, en la sala contigua golpean a una mujer embarazada37. ils m’appliquent du courant électrique dans le corps. Je suis un étrange passager en voyage vers l’inconnu, mes ongles et les pores brûlent, les tramways, dans la salle contiguë frappent une femme enceinte.
36 Miguel Arteche, « Para desterrados... », p. 203. 37 Aristóteles España, « Más allá de la tortura », Antología. Los poetas y el General…, p. 135.
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La troisième personne du pluriel (me aplican, golpean) désigne le groupe menaçant incarnant ces identités malfaisantes, répressives, criminelles, excluantes, groupe prêt à se servir de la violence la plus extrême pour imposer son autorité et soutirer des informations aux détenus. Les accusations de la voix lyrique renvoient à la réalité des actes de torture commis dans les centres de détention. Cette voix exprime sa souffrance à travers la métaphore du voyage et l’isotopie du déplacement (viaje, tranvías) effectué dans une sorte de tunnel infernal, de Purgatoire, étape antérieure à l’accès à un Paradis comme le révèlent les deux derniers vers du poème (las flores del amor y la justicia crecerán más adelante / sobre las cenizas de todas las dictaduras de la tierra). Aristóteles España, prisonnier dans l’île Dawson (septembre 1973-septembre 1974), mentionne la brutalité des sbires de Pinochet dans le recueil Dawson (1985) ; citons quelques vers de Caminos : Nos llevan a cortar leña por los bosques, de sol a sol, custodiados por patrullas que apuntan directamente a la cabeza. Ordenan cantar y correr, agujerean nuestra sensibilidad, quieren destruirnos como guijarros bajo la nieve, humillarnos38. Ils nous emmènent dans les forêts pour y couper du bois, du lever au coucher du soleil, surveillés par des patrouilles qui visent directement la tête. Ils nous ordonnent de chanter et de courir, ils percent notre sensibilité, ils veulent nous détruire comme des cailloux sous la neige, nous humilier.
L’emploi de la troisième personne du pluriel s’accompagne d’allusions claires à la violence militaire et l’autoritarisme (ordenar, destruir, humillar, apuntar) et d’une constellation sémantique de la brutalité subie par le Moi-poète dans son centre de détention. 38 Aristóteles España, « Caminos », Antología. Los poetas y el general…, p. 137.
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Ariel Dorfman, qui utilise également la troisième personne du pluriel dans Esperanza (Pastel de choclo, 1986), traite quant à lui du thème des disparus de la dictature. Le langage dénotatif et la disposition particulière des strophes caractérisent le chant douloureux du Moi (un père de famille) : Mi hijo se encuentra desaparecido desde el 8 de mayo del año pasado. Lo vinieron a buscar, sólo por unas horas, dijeron, sólo para algunas preguntas de rutina39. Mon fils a disparudepuis le 8 mai de l’année dernière. Ils vinrent le chercher, seulement pour quelques heures, dirent-ils, seulement pour quelques questions de routine.
L’errance du Moi, en quête de son fils disparu, est reproduite graphiquement par le déplacement des vers et le glissement strophique. S’entremêlent alors dénonciation et non-dit ; le lecteur ne connaît pas l’identité des ellos présents dans les verbes vinieron et dijeron, mais cela n’empêche pas la voix lyrique de montrer du doigt la tromperie et le mensonge des militaires de la Junte, comme le confirme le parallélisme de construction restrictif sólo por unas horas, sólo para algunas preguntas, qui crée un contraste avec la durée de l’absence (desde el 8 de mayo / del año pasado). Le jeu langagier à partir des personnes verbales se confirme par l’opposition entre les pronoms nosotros et ustedes. Les deux poétesses Teresa Calderón et Cecilia Vicuña en sont un bon exemple. Teresa Calderón écrit dans Actualidad (poème qui, dès son paratexte titulaire, s’ancre dans les contingences immédiates dans lesquelles elle compose son poème publié à la fin des années 1980 dans le recueil Género femenino) : 39 Ariel Dorfman, Pastel de choclo…, p. 13.
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Después ha ido cundiendo la espesura, Las malas artes, Superaron en verdad a la verdad y andamos vistiéndonos de burla que no vea la cara que reímos de su cara. Tanto miedo es la única mordaza : Todo gira al compás del simulacro40. Puis l’épaisseur a continué à se répandre, Les procédés malhonnêtes, dépassèrent en vérité la vérité et nous marchons en nous vêtant de plaisanterie que leur visage ne voie pas que nous leur rions au nez. Tant de peur est le seul bâillon : Tout tourne au rythme du simulacre.
Ce poème se construit à partir d’un contre-discours, transgresseur et subversif. Le sujet lyrique dénonce avec force les mensonges et impositions du régime dictatorial (espesura de las malas artes, superaron en verdad a la verdad) à travers une opposition entre deux camps (ellos, les identités malfaisantes, et nosotros, le groupe des identités rebelles): superaron en verdad a la verdad, andamos vistiéndonos de burla / que no vea la cara que reímos de su cara). Les rebelles se voient contraints d’adopter un double discours (todo gira al compás del simulacro), de se servir des potentialités expressives de l’implicite (que no vea la cara que reímos de su cara) comme le montre l’emploi de la troisième personne du pluriel. Cecilia Vicuña, pour sa part, rétablit une vérité historique grâce à la parole poétique et en s’adressant courageusement aux membres de la Junte à travers l’emploi du ustedes : Para juzgarnos ustedes tienen que inventar cargos imaginarios aplicar al pasado la violación de leyes que solo existen en el presente41.
40 Teresa Calderón, « Actualidad », Género femenino (Santiago du Chili : Planeta, 1989), p. 24. 41 Cecila Vicuña, « Los juicios del tribunal militar », Los poetas chilenos luchan contra el fascismo…, p. 301.
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Pour nous juger vous devez inventer des accusations imaginaires appliquer le passé la violation des lois qui n’existent qu’en ce moment.
Une fois encore, le mensonge du régime est montré du doigt (inventan cargos imaginarios), mensonge qui constitue un contraste avec les accusations qui suivent – en cambio nosotros / contra ustedes / tenemos cargos / perfectamente reales / palpables y concretos, nosotros solo tenemos / que constatar los hechos perfectamente – (« en revanche nous / contre vous / nous avons des accusations / parfaitement réelles / palpables et concrètes, nous, nous ne devons / que constater les faits parfaitement »). La brièveté des vers crée un dynamisme et accentue la dénonciation effectuée par le Moi. Le non-dit est patent dans l’écriture de Raúl Zurita : dans Anteparaíso (1982), la voix poétique dissimule les troupes de Pinochet au cœur de la série de poèmes Las cordilleras del Duce. Le Duce, sobriquet sous lequel est généralement connu le dictateur italien Mussolini, désigne ici Pinochet. Un entrecroisement entre époques historiques et aires géographiques (années 1930-1940 et années 1973-1982, Italie et Chili) ainsi qu’un glissement d’une identité malfaisante à une autre (celle que représente Mussolini, celle qu’incarne Pinochet) se produisent. Ces cordillères son menaçantes et inspirent la peur : Y entonces dibujados todos pudieron ver las cordilleras del Duce ocupar el cielo que moría oscurecidas eternas como un rostro de muerte levantándose sobre las nieves42. Et alors tous dessinés purent voir les cordillères du Duce occuper le ciel qui mourait obscurcies éternelles comme un visage de mort se levant sur les neiges.
Le verbe ocupar renvoie à une invasion de l’espace géographico-textuel des identités malfaisantes cachées derrière des références implicites ; les blancs textuels abondants, fréquents dans l’écriture zuritienne, creusent 42 Raúl Zurita, « Las cordilleras del Duce », Anteparaíso…, p. 95.
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l’énoncé, rongent la matière textuelle comme la Junte le fait avec les libertés des Chiliens. De même, ces blancs textuels semblent vouloir effacer textuellement les identités malfaisantes qui font irruption dans le discours lyrique.
4. Identités malfaisantes : déformation et grotesque S’il est vrai que le non-dit devient, comme l’explique Zurita en personne, el eje ordenador del lenguaje (« l’axe ordonnateur du langage »)43, d’autres outils langagiers et discursifs attaquent les identités malfaisantes. C’est le cas de la déformation et du grotesque au sein de poèmes composés sous la dictature et même postérieurs. La figure du Général se décompose ainsi que celle de ses hommes moyennant des audaces verbales comme le fait Gonzalo Millán dans La Ciudad : El tirano envejece. El tirano engorda. El tirano usa faja. El tirano se tiñe las canas. El tirano se tiñe las canas con tinturas $WW&KK44. Le tyran vieillit. Le tyran grossit. Le tyran utilise une ceinture abdominale. Le tyran se teint les cheveux blancs. Le tyran se teint les cheveux blancs avec des teintures $WW&KK.
Cette succession de vers brefs, anaphoriques, construits sur la récurrence sémantique de sujet et de verbe, décompose le « tyran » auquel nous avons fait allusion précédemment. Le ton narquois et moqueur désacralise le dictateur, en le faisant tomber de son piédestal. La vision difforme qui nous en est proposée prête à rire et accélère le processus de chute 43 Raúl Zurita, « Chile: literatura, lenguaje y sociedad (1973-1983) », Fascismo y experiencia literaria: Reflexiones para una recanonización, Hernán Vidal, éd. (Minneapolis : Institute for the study of ideologies and literature, 1985), p. 301. 44 Gonzalo Millán, La ciudad…, p. 71.
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du dictateur, lequel abandonnera le pouvoir en 1990 après la victoire du « Non » à Pinochet lors du plébiscite de 1988. Cette décomposition atteint son climax quelques pages plus loin lorsque le Moi annonce de façon presque prophéhtique : El tirano caerá podrido, El tirano se ahoga. / El tirano está atragantado45 (« Le tyran tombera pourri, Le tyran se noie / Le tyran s’étrangle »). Un procédé similaire est employé lors de la présentation des militaires : Los agentes del tirano huelen a rata46, à travers un jeu de mots qui fait d’eux des êtres puants et guettant les opposants, tel un chat attendant ses proies. Le terme ratas est employé à l’époque de la Junte pour désigner les ennemis du régime et l’évocation de ces souris n’est pas anodine : au cours des sessions de torture, il était fréquent que les bourreaux introduisent des souris dans le vagin ou la bouche des prisonnières. L’animalisation des membres de la Junte est un autre trait distinctif de l’écriture des poètes de l’époque qui créent ainsi un bestiaire malfaisant. Dans le poème anonyme « A Chacabuco », on peut lire : En este pabellón de prisioneros no se duerme esta noche, porque el fascismo ha cerrado su hocico con trozos de nuestra carne en sus colmillos47. Dans ce pavillon de prisonniers on ne dort pas cette nuit, parce que le fascisme a fermé son museau avec des morceaux de notre chair dans ses crocs.
Les termes hocico, colmillos (« museau, vibrisses ») animalisent le fascisme de Pinochet et de ses sbires, idéologie présentée comme féroce, dépeçant l’ennemi (trozos de nuestra carne), à travers une inversion et une parodie du discours officiel qui emploie souvent l’expression las garras del marxismo (« les griffes du marxisme »).
45 Gonzalo Millán, La ciudad…, pp. 92, 99. 46 Gonzalo Millán, La ciudad…, p. 67. 47 Anonyme, « A Chacabuco », Los poetas chilenos luchan contra el fascismo, Sergio Macías, éd. (Berlin : Comité Chile antifascista, 1977), p. 25.
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Dans La Tirana (1983) de Diego Maquieira (poète de l’intérieur), l’auteur introduit de façon ludique ironie et allusions sexuelles en présentant un être poétique en piteux état : Yo, La Tirana, rica y famosa la Greta Garbo del cine chileno pero muy culta y calentona, que comienzo a decaer, que se me va la cabeza cada vez que me pongo a hablar y hacer recuerdos de mis polvos con Velázquez. Ya no lo hago tan bien como lo hacía antes antes, todas las noches y a todo trapo ahora no. Ahora sólo a veces entrar a una Iglesia cuando no hay nadie porque me gusta la luz que dan ciertas velas la luz que le dan a mis pechugas cuando estoy rezando. Y es verdad, mi vida es terrible Mi vida es una inmoralidad Y si bien vengo de una familia muy conocida Y si es cierto que me sacaron por la cara Y que los que están afuera me destrozarán Aún soy la vieja que se los tiró a todos Aún soy de una ordinariez feroz48. Moi, La Tirana, riche et célèbre la Greta Garbo du cinéma chilien mais très cultivée et chaude, je commence à dépérir, j’ai la tête qui tourne chaque fois que je me mets à parler et faire des souvenirs de mes copulations avec Velázquez. Je ne le fais plus aussi bien que je le faisais auparavant avant, toutes les nuits et à toute voile dehors maintenant non. Maintenant seulement parfois quand j’entre dans une Église quand il n’y a personne parce que la lumière que font certaines bougies me plaît la lumière qui éclaire ma gorge quand je prie. Et c’est vrai, ma vie est terrible. 48 Diego Maquieira, « La Tirana I (me sacaron por la cara) », La Tirana (Santiago du Chili: Ediciones Tempus Tacendi, 1983).
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Ma vie est une immoralité Et bien que je sois issue d’une famille très connue Et s’il est vrai qu’ils me prirent pour mes beaux yeux Et que ceux qui sont dehors me mettront en pièces Je suis encore la vieille qui se les est tous tapée Je suis encore d’une vulgarité féroce.
La voix lyrique grotesque (comienzo a decaer, soy la vieja) peut être considérée comme la métaphore du tyran Pinochet ; à travers un bouleversement des genres sexuels, la récupération de la fête populaire de la Tirana49 et la désacralisation de la religion et du langage, le poème rompt avec les impositions strictes du régime. Les expressions érotiques, triviales et familières abondent (mis pechugas, me sacaron por la cara, se los tiró a todos) ainsi qu’une brutalité langagière (me destrozarán, ordinariez feroz), laquelle reproduit la violence du langage des militaires et du dictateur, un zig-zag signifiant se mettant alors en place. Même dans la poésie de la post-dictature, par le biais d’une distance critique et grâce à la possibilité de s’exprimer plus librement, cette présentation grotesque et de décomposition du dictateur se prolonge et s’accentue. Raúl Zurita, dans Canto VI (Poemas militantes, 2000), n’hésite pas à citer explicitement le dictateur : A. Pinochet La línea negra entre sus labios exsangües la misma fosa aferrando ahora sus últimas bocanadas de aire, su boca que nunca fue otra cosa que una tumba, ah maldito, maldito entre todos. La fosa negra sin aire, el tajo negro de su boca Cada vez con menos aire50. A. Pinochet La ligne noire entre ses lèvres exsangues la même fosse saisissant 49 La Tirana est une fête religieuse célébrée dans le village de la Tirana (nord du Chile) entre le 12 et le 18 juillet. C’est une fête syncrétique, à la fois andine et catholique. Elle est célébrée en honneur de la Vierge du Carmen et s’accompagne de danses et symboles précolombiens. 50 Raúl Zurita, « Canto VI », Poemas militantes (Santiago du Chili : Dolmen Ediciones, 2000), p. 17.
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maintenant ses dernières bouffées d’air, sa bouche qui ne fut jamais autre chose qu’une tombe, ah maudit, maudit entre tous. La fosse noire sans air, la coupure noire de sa bouche Chaque fois avec moins d’air.
Le Moi caricature la dictateur, dont la présentation s’apparente aux peintures goyesques ou aux monstres de Jérôme Bosch. Il est décrit comme un abîme ténébreux et seule sa bouche monstrueuse constitue l’élément humain reconnaissable (labios…bocanadas…boca); cette bouche est la partie du corps par laquelle sont proférés insultes, menaces et discours mensongers. En outre, le Général tout-puissant d’antan, caractérisé par sa folie criminelle (nunca fue otra cosa que una tumba) a laissé place au tyran du présent de l’énonciation, moribond (exsangües…sus últimas… sin aire…cada vez con menos aire). Par ailleurs, la mort par asphyxie du dictateur est une vengeance textuelle puisqu’il meurt dans mes mêmes conditions que les victimes du régime autoritaire, étouffés et asphyxiés dans les fleuves du Chili ou l’océan.
Conclusion Manuela Gumucio écrit au sujet des nouvelles conditions de vie durant la dictature au Chili : Et c’est face à cette réalité nouvelle et étrange que tous les groupes sociaux se voient obligés de produire un discours organisateur de la réalité, capable de les rassurer. La place de l’identité devient alors fondamentale. Pour ceux qui opèrent l’exclusion, il s’agit d’éliminer les « mauvais Chiliens » et, de leur côté, les victimes ont du mal à reconnaître une identité commune avec leurs bourreaux. L’identité nationale, devient un sujet à penser51.
Ainsi, le poètes anonymes ou reconnus qui écrivent sous le régime de Pinochet reconstruisent une identité qui a été déformée et destructurée, 51 Manuela Gumucio, « Identité, représentations et domination au Chili », Cahiers des Sciences Humaines, 24/2 (1988), p. 275.
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opposant deux groupes identitaires au sein de leur discours lyrique. Ils combattent les « identités malfaisantes » à travers un discours destructeur, anéantissent les militaires du régime en leur ôtant leur propre identité (en employant par exemple le pronom personnel imprécis Ellos) et éliminent le dictateur en le ridiculisant avant que celui-ci ne trépasse en 2006. Ils s’affirment face à une dictature qui annihile l’être, en particulier les opposants, illustrant ce qu’écrit Amartya Sen au sujet de la violence sectaire : « A la source de cette brutalité grossière se trouve également la même conception erronée de l’identité, capable de changer des individus pluridimensionnels en créatures unidimensionnelles »52. La vigueur de la production poétique de l’époque reflète le besoin de parler au coeur d’un champ culturel décomposé et d’un champ littéraire muselé par la censure. La présentation dans ses moindres détails de la violence du régime et de ses acteurs a pour but de rétablir une justice et de manifester une solidarité face à la scission de la société chilienne durant la période dictatoriale. L’identité brisée par la Junte (rejet de l’ennemi de gauche, absence d’intégration des populations indiennes mapuches) est réaffirmée, à travers un rejet envers les identités malfaisantes, reflet des facettes du mal. Comme l’écrit Jorge Larraín, la identidad no es sólo una herencia del pasado, sino también mira al futuro, es un proyecto a construir53 (« l’identité n’est pas seulement un héritage du passé, mais elle regarde aussi vers l’avenir, c’est un projet à construire ») et la poésie chilienne depuis ses origines, en passant par la dictature et l’époque actuelle, s’est assignée cette mission difficile.
52 Amartya Sen, Identité et violence…, p. 238. 53 Voir : Jorge Larraín, Identidad chilena (Santiago du Chili : Lom Ediciones, 2001), p. 259.
Les structures de la perversion (L’analyse de quelques romans de Thierry Jonquet) Kálai Sándor University of Debrecen
Les produits de la culture médiatique ont un trait de caractère qui mérite d’être accentué : plus que les œuvres qu’on range dans le territoire de la culture « supérieure », ils s’adaptent d’une manière particulièrement rapide aux changements sociaux ou politiques. C’est en partie cela qui explique que les produits mass-médiatiques ne peuvent pas être considérés seulement sous le signe de la standardisation : toute tentative, à un moment donné, de la redéfinition et de la représentation de la réalité déclenche les forces de l’invention1. Il en est de même dans le cas du roman policier et surtout dans le cas d’un de ses sous-genres, le roman noir, qui semble particulièrement bien adapté à la représentation de la société, tout en étant, en même temps, une sorte de laboratoire de procédés littéraires. Thierry Jonquet, récemment décédé, a été considéré, dès le début de sa carrière, comme un des membres les plus doués de sa génération. Tout comme Jean-Patrick Manchette, fondateur (un peu malgré lui) de l’école dite « néo-polar », Jonquet lui aussi a fait sienne la réflexion suivante : pour penser la société il faut également penser l’écriture. En même temps que ses romans offrent une image de la société française quasi-contemporaine (Jonquet a commencé à publier des romans dès le début des années 1980), ils (surtout les premiers) possèdent également une savante construction narrative. Il arrive que l’énigme ne réside pas (ou pas seulement) dans l’histoire racontée, mais elle est étroitement liée aux procédés poétiques. Dans cette communication nous nous proposons d’étudier quelques romans de Thierry Jonquet en portant notre attention à la représentation
1
Voir sur ce point : Edgar Morin, L’Esprit du temps (Paris : Grasset, 1962) ; Éric Macé, Les Imaginaires médiatiques, Une sociologie postcritique des médias (Paris : Éditions Amsterdam, 2006).
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des structures de la perversion. On abordera plus ou moins brièvement plusieurs romans : Mémoire en cage, Les orpailleurs, Moloch et Mygale, un de ses romans les plus connus, objet d’une récente adaptation cinématographique réalisée par Pedro Almodóvar. Avant de parler des romans, il semble nécessaire de faire, ne fût-ce que brièvement et sommairement, quelques réflexions sur le propos central de ce colloque : la perversion (étudiée cette fois dans ses rapports avec la société contemporaine).
1. La perversion, la part obscure de nous-mêmes Le titre de cette partie fait référence à l’ouvrage d’Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes – Une histoire des pervers2. L’auteur aboutit, après avoir esquissé un tableau historique des grands pervers, des types de perversion et les différentes théories de la perversion, à l’ana lyse de la société contemporaine considérée comme perverse, vouée à la transparence, à la surveillance, à la tentation de l’abolition de cette part maudite. Elisabeth Roudinesco constate que de nos jours c’est le droit qui donne à la perversion son statut institutionnel, parce que la science ne sait plus la penser. Toutefois, selon l’analyste, la perversion, la jouissance du mal qui rend le pervers à la fois bourreau et victime reste, comme elle a toujours été, une sorte de négatif de la liberté. Pourquoi notre société est-elle perverse ? Quelles en sont les causes ? Il est notoire que Freud, selon qui tout humain est habité par le crime, la transgression, rattache la perversion à la crise œdipienne : l’enfant, qui apparaît dans cette théorie comme un pervers polymorphe, refuse d’admettre la différence au moment où il prend conscience des différences du sexe. Il faudrait donc que l’enfant s’adapte au réel, qu’il fasse l’expérience du manque. Les réflexions de Freud peuvent être complétées par celles d’Edgar Morin qui, dans son livre sur la culture de masse, en parlant de la jeunesse, affirme le suivant : c’est au moment où la psychanalyse introduite par Freud met l’accent sur la puissance du père que l’autorité paternelle
2
Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes-Une histoire des pervers (Paris : Albin Michel, 2007).
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semble reculer dans la société européenne : « Mais y a-t-il encore au jourd’hui un Père souverain à tuer pour arracher son sceptre et s’identifier à lui ? C’est sans doute au moment où la situation entrait en décadence que le grand Tabou pouvait être enfin reconnu, dévoilé, profanisé par la psychanalyse… »3. Sur le terrain politique, c’est la révolution française (1789), sur le terrain culturel, c’est la parution des Souffrances du jeune Werther de Goethe (1777) qui rendent explicite la mise en avant de la jeunesse. Selon Morin, ce sont les valeurs de la jeunesse qui caractérisent de plus en plus la société occidentale. L’auteur est, d’ailleurs, un des premiers qui a essayé de comprendre la culture de masse qu’il considère essentiellement comme un phénomène du XXe siècle, l’époque classique de cette formation étant les décennies qui durent des années 1930 jusqu’aux années 1960. Morin considère cette culture comme celle du happy end (qui se manifeste, de manière classique, à la fin des films hollywoodiens de l’époque, dont les images montrent le baiser du couple situé dans un présent éternel). L’amour, la réalisation de soi, le bonheur, la consommation sont les valeurs les plus importantes de cette mythologie, entendue non pas au sens barthien du terme, mais dans celui d’une proposition qui permet de mettre en jeu les processus de projection ou d’identification. La deuxième partie de l’ouvrage de Morin, intitulé Une mythologie moderne donne une description des composantes de cette mythologie. Il en découle donc, suivant toujours les réflexions de Morin, que cette culture est, par sa nature même, jouissive, le consommateur vit dans un présent éternel : « L’adhésion et l’adhérence au présent font de la culture de masse la culture d’un monde en devenir ; mais, culture dans le devenir, elle n’est pas culture de devenir »4. En ce qui concerne l’évolution ultérieure de cette culture, plusieurs articles de Morin rassemblés dans un 2e tome5 mettent l’accent sur un changement majeur : on constate, à partir des années 1960, que la mythologie du bonheur devient une pro blématisation du bonheur. Le suicide de Marilyn Monroe, de ce point vue événement paradigmatique, rend, selon Morin, évident le fait que sous le succès, sous les signes parfois trompeurs du bonheur, on trouve la solitude, le menace de l’échec, la peur, la violence, la mort. Morin pense que la culture de masse, dont la transformation a contribué, à sa manière, à 3 4 5
Edgar Morin, L’Esprit du temps…, p. 177. Edgar Morin, L’Esprit du temps…, p. 211. Edgar Morin, L’Esprit du temps 2. Nécrose (Paris : Grasset, 1975).
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la constitution des contre-cultures, à l’évolution des féminismes ou des mouvements écologiques, met en scène et façonne – selon la dialectique de la standardisation et de l’invention – cet état du monde. Quoique différente, l’approche d’Alain Touraine, un des analystes les plus importants de la société post-industrielle, montre certaines ressemblances avec l’analyse de Morin. Dans son ouvrage Un nouveau para digme. Pour comprendre le monde d’aujourd’hui Touraine affirme que « notre type de vie sociale est envahie par des forces non-sociales »6. Ainsi assiste-on, selon lui, au déclin du paradigme social, qui a servi à décrire la société issue de l’avènement du capitalisme. On constate que, tout au long du dernier quart du 20e siècle, l’État interventionniste a été presque partout (et presque complètement) remplacé à la fois par un État qui cherche avant tout à attirer les investissements étrangers et à faciliter les exportations nationales, et par des entreprises qui s’intègrent de plus en plus dans des ensembles transnationaux et sont associées à des réseaux financiers. Selon Touraine, la mondialisation a dissocié l’économie de la société. On constate la perte des repères habituelles : Touraine met l’accent sur la décomposition sociale, qui est un phénomène parallèle à la montée des forces non-sociales, comme la guerre, le marché ou la violence, et sur la revendication des droits culturels (le droit de choisir sa langue, ses croyances, son identité sexuelle…). Ces analyses peuvent être mises en rapport avec des théories de la perversion issues de celle de Freud – ainsi pourra-t-on revenir au point de départ de ce bref parcours. Dominique Barbier affirme le suivant : à cause de la crise économique et du passage de la société au matriarcat, on constate plus de perversités dans les relations humaines. Le patriarcat entraînait le refoulement, l’adaptation au réel et son acceptation par l’effet de castration de la fonction paternelle. Le matriarcat, quant à lui, favorise une dépendance à la mère avec disqualification du père […] et l’on arrive de plus en plus souvent à l’âge adulte sans être sevrés7.
6 7
Alain Touraine, Un nouveau paradigme. Pour comprendre le monde d’aujourd’hui (Paris : Fayard, 2005), p. 11. Dominique Barbier, « La fabrique de l’homme pervers », Le Nouvel Observateur, 21 (Juillet 2009). , consulté le 31 aout 2012.
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La dépendance à la mère a comme effet une consommation agrandie. Ainsi la société contemporaine peut-elle être considérée comme une « société de l’avoir ». La frontière entre le moi et l’autre n’est pas clairement définie, la personne devient « addicte » de l’autre. Cette sorte de vampirisme montre une indifférence à la souffrance de l’autre, « la jouissance à perte de vue […] amène à l’individualisme par absence d’altérité ». On aurait sans doute pu citer d’autres auteurs et d’autres analyses, celles d’Ulrich Beck sur la modernité réflexive ou celles d’Alain Ehrenberg sur le « culte de la performance » ou la « fatigue d’être soi ». Les auteurs dont on a parlé ici ont tous esquissé les traits de caractère principaux de la société occidentale contemporaine, notre société post-industrielle : culture de masse jouissive, consommation, décomposition sociale, mondialisation, montée des forces non-sociales, guerre, violence, perversion – voilà les mots-clés des analyses. Ce bref parcours va nous permettre d’aborder les romans de Thierry Jonquet sous l’angle de la représentation qu’ils offrent de la société occidentale.
2. Les orpailleurs et Moloch Ces deux romans de Thierry Jonquet, parus en 1993 et 1998, constituent une mini-série et ont donné naissance à la série télévisée, Boulevard du Palais avec, jusqu’à ce jour, 14 saisons. La série télévisée reprend les personnages qui apparaissent dans les romans : une juge d’instruction, des procureurs et des policiers de la Brigade Criminelle. On constate ici une manifestation curieuse de la sérialité : ce récit multi-médiatique suppose non seulement un lecteur, mais un lecteur-spectateur sériel, parce que la série entamée avec les deux romans est reprise par un autre support. Par rapport à certains romans précédents de l’auteur, ces récits se caractérisent moins par les audaces narratives que par la représentation minutieuse de l’institution judiciaire. Il s’agit donc de récits plus classiques : une narration à la troisième personne du singulier, des chapitres constitués de brefs passages consacrés à différents personnages. Les orpailleurs, dont l’intrigue englobe une durée d’à peu près deux semaines, crée ainsi un univers autour les acteurs de l’institution judiciaire. Cette volonté se
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manifeste d’une manière claire dans la narration simultanéiste du chapitre neuf dans lequel l’histoire de chaque personnage est reprise. Le monde représenté justifie le tressage de plusieurs fils : autour de l’affaire centrale il y a plusieurs affaires « mineures » : celle d’une prostituée assassinée et une affaire d’inceste et de violence (un homme ayant sodomisé sa fille et tué sa femme). Cette affaire relève tout particulièrement d’un rapport pervers entre les personnages, le père semble agir en réponse à un sentiment d’infériorité. L’affaire centrale est constituée par une série de meurtres : la police découvre plusieurs cadavres de femme avec une main coupée. Cet acte répétitif est lié au même objet : il s’agit d’une bague qui va d’une main à une autre et qui s’adresse personnellement au personnage devenu criminel : « puis son regard, irrésistiblement, remonta vers la tache rouge qui irradiait de la main droite, cet œil vermillon, grand ouvert, qui semblait le fixer avec ironie »8. La reconstruction du trajet de la bague, de main en main, aboutit à un voyage dans le temps et dans l’espace, vers l’origine du drame, de la France à la Pologne, à Plowy, une petite ville près d’Auschwitz. Le tueur, un vieillard, apparaît déjà au début du récit (comme le lecteur pourra l’identifier plus tard en tant que tel) et le récit prend plusieurs fois son optique (dans les chapitres 10, 26 et 47). Ces passages éclairent le passé récent et lointain et contribuent à donner un statut particulier à la vérité : malgré le succès de l’enquête ce n’est pas la police qui l’énonce. Auschwitz devient ainsi le centre du récit. Dans son livre déjà cité, Elisabeth Roudinesco considère le nazisme comme « la métamorphose la plus abjecte qui soit de la perversion »9 qui nous confronte au problème suivant : comment rendre compte d’une forme nouvelle de la perversion dérivant tout autant d’une autodestruction de la raison que d’une métamorphose très particulière de la relation à la Loi qui avait autorisé des hommes apparemment ordinaires à commettre, au nom de l’obéissance à une norme, le crime le plus monstrueux de toute l’histoire du genre humaine ?10
8 Thierry Jonquet, Les orpailleurs (Paris : Gallimard, 1993), p. 96. 9 Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes…, p. 12. 10 Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes…, p. 159.
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En prenant Auschwitz comme l’origine du drame représenté, le récit de Jonquet pointe sur le fait qu’une perversion peut en engendrer d’autres : on n’arrive finalement pas à sortir du camp. Ici, l’expérience d’Auschwitz se manifeste à travers les traces qu’elle laisse, d’abord par un numéro tatoué à peine entraperçu, sur le bras d’un des personnages, Isy, ensuite par des objets appartenus jadis aux victimes juives : le récit de Jonquet est fondé sur la mobilité de ces objets. C’est un piano (volé par le Gestapo français) qui mène à la rupture d’un des personnages, Nadia, juge d’instruction, avec son père ; ce sont les objets enfouis par les Juifs autour du camp que les habitants des villages aux alentours cherchent et retrouvent (c’est à cette pratique que le titre du roman fait référence). L’itinéraire du tueur, Maurice Rosenberg s’éclaire également au camp (parce qu’il y est lié) : c’est ici, en y faisant son retour malgré lui, qu’Isy raconte à Nadia l’histoire de son ami. Rosenberg s’accuse, il ne réussit pas à admettre la mort de son amie. Le traumatisme du personnage, dont la famille a été exterminée à Auschwitz, se ravive en apercevant la bague sur le doigt d’une autre femme, un objet hérité de sa mère et qui a fonctionné autrefois comme un gage d’amour. L’intolérance à la frustration déclenche des mécanismes à la fois contrôlés et impulsifs conduisant finalement le personnage à trouver du plaisir dans l’acte de tuer. Par rapport à ce récit, le roman suivant, Moloch, paru en 1998, ne met pas au centre une seule affaire mais tisse des rapports subtils entre plusieurs. Comme ce roman suppose un lecteur sériel qui connaît, en principe, le roman précédent, auquel il fait plusieurs fois référence, ce récit ne s’intéresse pas tellement aux personnages une fois mis en scène mais plutôt aux affaires elles-mêmes. L’intrigue du roman se déroule en un printemps, pendant douze jours, d’un jeudi à un lundi : les douze chapitres portent, comme titre, le nom du jour, attirant ainsi l’attention du lecteur à l’importance du passage du temps. C’est le premier chapitre qui est, de loin, le plus long (147 pages sur un total de 428), il met en scène les trois fils de l’intrigue qui se révèlent être liés entre eux : la maltraitance des enfants, le syndrome de Munchausen et une affaire de revanche accomplie par un jeune homme souffrant dans le trouble de stress post-traumatique. Le récit met en évidence que c’est la souffrance imposée aux enfants qui relient les affaires : d’une part, le titre fait référence à un dieu cruel qui exige le sacrifice d’enfants, d’autre part, dans chaque affaire, ce sont les enfants qui sont les victimes.
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Le récit, placé, comme on l’a vu, sous le signe d’un dieu cruel représente plusieurs types de perversion. L’une – dans plusieurs affaires – met en rapport les adultes et les enfants. Dans la société contemporaine la violence infligée aux enfants incarne la perversion majeure. Comme l’écrit Elisabeth Roudinesco : « Qu’il soit abusé, négligé, battu, haï, abandonné, séduit par un adulte qui lui est proche, l’enfant subit toujours un “meurtre d’âme” »11. Le récit de Jonquet offre la représentation d’une large variété de la violence infligée aux enfants, qui sont traités, d’une manière perverse, comme des objets. L’affaire principale, le meurtre des enfants, d’origine roumaine, victimes de l’abandon et de la pauvreté, exploités ensuite par les marchands d’hommes implique bien sûr une enquête de la police, mais il y a également une enquête parallèle menée par un jeune homme, Charlie, qui – à cause de son rôle dans la mort accidentelle de la petite Héléna, la seule rescapée des enfants massacrés – essaie de punir les malfaiteurs. Il s’agit là d’une enquête officielle qui piétine, tout se joue entre Charlie et les malfaiteurs (la rage de Charlie est doublée par le fait qu’il découvre que la petite fille a été soumise à des pratiques pédophiles). Le récit évoque une autre affaire qui fonctionne comme une sorte d’écho de la précédente : à la fin de la première journée de l’intrigue, Nadia doit procéder à une confrontation dans une affaire de pédophilie. La première scène du récit, en exploitant le procédé du retardement, met en scène l’insupportable : les policiers découvrent dans une maisonnette au fond d’un terrain vague à Paris le corps carbonisé de quatre petits enfants. En décrivant la réaction des enquêteurs, le lecteur est confronté, d’emblée, à l’horreur absolu. Un autre type de violence est mis en scène entre une mère (qui aime d’ailleurs son enfant) et sa fille : la mère présente les symptômes du syndrome de Munchausen, c’est-à-dire elle simule les signes de maladie, mais elle est également capable de déplacer la pathologie sur l’enfant. Elle fait du corps de son enfant un instrument qu’elle offre à la médecine et l’interaction dangereuse entre l’enfant et les médecins lui procure de la jouissance. L’enquête menée par la juge d’instruction trouve une explication à la conduite de la mère pour qui sa culpabilité paraît inexistant : comme elle a été la victime des désirs pervers de son propre père (qui est donc sans doute le père de la petite Valérie), tout en aimant sa fille, elle veut en même temps la tuer, pour effacer la honte. Cette clivage du moi
11 Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes…, p. 250.
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peut se manifester aisément à l’hôpital, parce que l’enfant hospitalisé est exposé aux agissements secrets de sa mère. Le deuxième type de perversion, étroitement lié, par la construction du récit, au précédent, est la souffrance imposée au corps (de soi ou d’autrui). Sur ce thème, le roman offre des variations qui créent des échos entre elles. Il s’agit, tout d’abord, de l’implantation d’un piercing à la lèvre, comme le fait le fils d’un des policiers, Dimeglio, provoquant l’explosion du colère du père. Ensuite, deux protagonistes visitent une exposition sur Le sexe de l’art : « Les multiples perversions, du voyeurisme au sadomasochisme, voire à la scatophilie y trouvait leur place »12. Ainsi une question épineuse se pose-t-elle dans le récit : où commence (ou finit) l’art, où sont les limites de la perversion ? En regardant une vidéo sur une performance, Nadia, la juge d’instruction se croit au travail. Avec Maximilien Haperman, un des personnages du roman, qui est présenté comme l’adepte des pratiques du body art (il a pratiqué sur lui-même des suspensions) le corps devient un objet d’art et, parallèlement, une marchandise. Haperman se révèle être le coupable principal, parce qu’il est un pervers diabolique, dont l’art dépasse les limites : en s’intéressant aux représentations de la douleur, c’est lui qui a commandé les petits enfants pour les exposer à la souffrance et mettre sur toile cette souffrance. Haperman est obsédé par le sang et la souffrance, il a été traumatisé par la mort de sa sœur. En ce qui concerne le troisième type de perversion, le roman rejoint le récit précédent : ici comme là, il est question de génocide. À travers le destin de Charlie, le vengeur solitaire, le récit évoque, par l’histoire racontée par un médecin-major, le génocide rwandais et ses conséquences sur les soldats qui étaient les témoins de cette horreur. Le caporal Charlie Grésard a servi durant l’opération humanitaire Turquoise en 1994. Selon l’expression du médecin-major, le séjour à Goma a « cassé » le jeune homme : « Les soldats du 45e bataillon du Génie, dont Grésard, vont devoir, des jours durant, creuser des fosses pour ensevelir une masse de corps considérable. La pelle de leurs bulldozers en charrie littéralement à la tonne »13. Le jeune homme qui suit, pendant un certain temps, un traitement psychiatrique, disparaît et lutte seul avec ses cauchemars. C’est en protégeant
12 Thierry Jonquet, Moloch (Paris : Gallimard, 1998), p. 183. 13 Thierry Jonquet, Moloch…, p. 260.
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et ensuite en vengeant la petite Héléna qu’il a voulu redonner un sens à sa vie. Il est une victime innocente traumatisée qui devient criminel : les personnages du roman jugent d’une manière bien partagée l’action accomplie par le jeune homme.
3. Mémoire en cage et Mygale Au début de sa carrière, Jonquet procède dans ses récits à différentes expérimentations narratives : tout particulièrement dans Mygale et La Bête et la Belle, l’énigme n’est pas uniquement liée à l’histoire racontée, mais aussi à la construction du récit. Tout comme Jean-Patrick Manchette, Jonquet aussi pratique le roman noir au second degré, ce qui lui permet non seulement de raconter son époque mais aussi de le penser à travers l’écriture. Mémoire en cage (1982) et Mygale (1984) sont des récits brefs mettant en scène peu de personnages : cette construction attire l’attention du lecteur avant tout aux structures formées par les relations interpersonnelles. Mémoire en cage est construit en quatre parties (les titres des parties font référence aux questions du roman policier classique : Qui ?, Pourquoi ?, Comment ?, la dernière partie qui présente l’aboutissement de l’enquête porte le titre de Qui, pourquoi, comment). L’action se déroule en 1981, du 3 juillet au 15 octobre (les crimes ont lieu le 12 juillet), mais le récit est ponctués d’analepses qui évoquent les événements d’un passé plus lointain, tandis que le 3e chapitre de la 2e partie introduit une prolepse avec l’apparition du personnage de Gabelou, le policier : l’enquête constitue, dès ce moment, le présent de l’intrigue, le crime sera situé dans le passé. Au bout d’une enquête compliquée, l’affaire se clôt sans que l’ordre soit pour autant rétabli : même si tout semble rentrer dans l’ordre, le lecteur sait que la révélation finale n’est que le résultat d’un malentendu : un des personnages, Alain avoue son crime à la suite d’une méprise, mais personne ne le croit. Le récit offre ainsi une mise en abîme retorse, le code de lecture des personnages et celui du lecteur entrent en conflit, ce qui contribue au malaise ressenti par le lecteur à cause de la violence de l’intrigue. Ce malaise est renforcé par un autre procédé du récit : à part un narrateur
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qui s’énonce à la troisième personne du singulier, trois personnages deviennent narrateurs intradiégétiques, s’énonçant à la première personne (ces passages se trouvent en italiques) : Cynthia, Morier et Alain. Donc ceux qui accèdent au statut de narrateur sont soit des coupables (le docteur Morier ayant déjà fait un écart déontologique), soit des coupables potentiels (Cynthia et Alain) : cette construction met en évidence le fait que la vérité se trouve dans une position incertaine. En progressant dans le récit, le lecteur peut percevoir une inversion : Alain, personnage troublé, se révèle être un malade mental, tandis que Cynthia, considérée comme folle, n’est en fait qu’une simulatrice. Le crime en cache un autre : il s’agit en vérité de deux crimes qui se superposent (c’est ce qui mène à la déroute de l’enquête, parce qu’on pense qu’il n’y a qu’un seul crime) : le docteur Morier tue Grésard, le beau-père de Cynthia, devant Cynthia ; Cynthia se débarrasse de Morier par Alain. Dans la conception des auteurs de crime il s’agirait finalement d’une même mise en scène : faire penser à un suicide qui consiste à s’être immolé devant la gamine, Cynthia, véritable incarnation du remord. Les mises en scène qui se révèlent identiques (précédées par une évocation, également parallèle, de ce qui s’est passé), rapproche les deux personnages antagonistes, Morier et Cynthia. Ce fait éclaire également l’importance des structures constituées par les personnages, fondées sur la vengeance, la violence et la haine. On y a déjà fait une allusion rapide, le récit oppose d’une part la malade et le médecin, Cynthia et Morier. C’est à cause de la faute du docteur Morier que l’opération de Cynthia avait mal tourné et qu’elle avait dû être installée dans un Institut de Réadaptation. La jeune fille qui a dû subir un changement radical dans son existence n’a que son corps de plus en plus difforme pour communiquer, pour se venger : elle veut punir ceux qui ont été les bénéficiaires de l’opération, ceux qui sont liés par un contrat (le médecin, pour les persuader de ne pas porter plainte, offre de l’argent à la mère de Cynthia et au compagnon de celle-ci). Cynthia trouve un plaisir pervers à les salir, au sens figuré et concret du mot : salir le costume du docteur avec du chocolat ou gâcher la fête de sa mère en s’exposant devant les invités et barbouiller tout avec de la merde et du sang de mens truation. Cette jouissance dans le mal ne peut s’accomplir que dans une vengeance totale qui supprime la jeune fille. Cynthia, qui simule la débili té, s’ancre volontairement dans la souillure. À la manière d’un martyr du
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Moyen-Âge14, Cynthia s’expose à toute abjection, mais elle n’a aucune espérance d’atteindre le sublime. La relation entre Cynthia et le jeune garde de nuit, Alain démontre, d’autre part, l’exposition d’une personne infirme aux perversions. Alain est un « étudiant en lettres, en année de licence »15 qui a pas mal traîné. Son père est presque tout à fait absent de son monologue intérieur, et ce fait laisse supposer qu’il vit sous la dépendance de sa mère, qui – comme son mari a fait fortune – ne travaille plus et mène une vie oisive. Alain est tout à fait désorienté, il devrait obéir à des ordres mutuellement contradictoires : « Elle [sa mère] m’a demandé si le travail [imposé par le père] n’était pas trop dur, à l’Institut. Je l’ai rassurée. Elle m’a proposé de me donner de l’argent en cachette et d’arrêter de travailler »16. Alain a peur des femmes : son imagination n’arrive pas à rejoindre la réalité, il est incapable de jouir. La trouble de la personnalité se manifeste, d’une part, dans un écart déontologique : en tant que garde de nuit, il viole plusieurs fois Cynthia ; d’autre part, dans le harcèlement : il donne des coups de fil à Isabelle, une amie de sa mère, plus âgée que lui. Tandis que Cynthia renverse la situation, parce qu’elle tient Alain et fait de lui l’instrument de sa vengeance, Alain, lors de l’enquête, se déclare l’amant d’Isabelle et ce faux témoignage précipite la femme dans la folie. Toutefois, la relation ambiguë entre Cynthia et Alain introduit une tout autre tonalité dans le récit : malgré tout ce qui se passe, elle trouve un complice en Alain, tous les deux éprouvent – pour la première fois dans leur vie – une sorte de bonheur. Le récit intitulé Mygale présente, lui aussi, une structure minutieusement élaborée. Le roman est divisé en trois parties qui portent les titres suivants : L’Araignée, Le Venin, La Proie. Ces métaphores qui indiquent l’animalisation des rapports interpersonnels et soulignent aussi la violence fondamentale de ces rapports. Le présent de l’intrigue couvre une période de quelques semaines, mais les analepses remontent à une période plus ancienne. Cette fois, le récit tisse ensemble deux types de narration : l’une à la troisième personne du singulier, une narration behavioriste à la manière des romans de Hammett ou de Manchette, l’autre à la deuxième personne du singulier.
14 Elisabeth Roudinesco, La part obscure de nous-mêmes…, pp. 19-20. 15 Thierry Jonquet, Mémoire en cage (Paris : Gallimard, 1995), p. 35. 16 Thierry Jonquet, Mémoire en cage…, p. 57.
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Il est important de noter que la police est absente du récit qui met en scène les conséquences de crimes commis : Alex Barny, ayant tué un policier lors d’un hold-up, doit se cacher ; le même Alex a violé, avec son ami, Vincent, une fille, ce qui aboutit à la vengeance du père. Comme dans Mémoire en cage, ici aussi ce sont les relations interpersonnelles qui sont mises en avant, le récit suggère qu’un crime pervers mène, inévitablement, à un autre (crime ? – on peut se le demander), plus pervers. Au centre du drame se trouve deux personnages : Richard Lafargue, spécialiste en chirurgie plastique et Ève, une jeune femme. Il s’agit d’un rapport déterminé par la haine. Le premier chapitre du roman esquisse ce rapport étrange : la jeune femme doit vivre dans un appartement bloqué de l’extérieur, elle est assommée chaque soir par la drogue, exposée sans cesse aux hurlements de Lafargue transmis par l’interphone. Par haine, il prostitue la femme, qui doit contenter les désirs sexuels des hommes dans un studio loué pour cette occasion à Paris par le docteur qui les o bserve du studio d’à côté. Le dégoût de la femme augmente sa jouissance. La femme, de son côté, pratique la peinture, qui lui permet de représenter sa propre expérience et inverser aussi la situation dans laquelle elle se trouve d’une manière imaginaire : peindre Lafargue déguisé en femme. C’est une histoire de Pygmalion retorse, il s’agit d’une femme façonnée par l’homme, au sens propre et figuré. L’esclave, qui invente le nom de Mygale pour désigner celui qui le torture, semble accepter sa position et ce fait contribue progressivement à l’inversion du rapport : la pitié ressentie par Lafargue brise sa haine. La narration à la deuxième personne éclaire cette relation particulière et renvoie au dédoublement du narrateur – on ne sait pas exactement qui parle. C’est le récit d’une captivité qui dure pendant plusieurs années, dans une cave et dit l’expérience d’un corps surveillé, modelé, voire transformé : le jeune homme captif meurt mais en même temps c’est le moment de la naissance d’un fantôme, Ève (nouvelle) – on comprend que le discours vise à saisir une expérience indicible, non seulement la transformation du corps, mais aussi celle du sexe. Il s’agit là d’une castration qui vise à frapper « l’instrument » du crime. Vincent doit se rendre compte du fait qu’il n’a plus rien, qu’il est rien, n’ayant qu’un « trou »17, c’est-à-dire rien, entre ses cuisses. Et ce rien se dédouble, parce qu’il ne voit, pour la
17 Thierry Jonquet, Mygale (Paris : Gallimard, 1995), p. 142.
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première fois, son nouveau sexe qu’à travers un miroir, tout comme il/elle ne comprend ce qui se passe avec lui/elle qu’en regardant un film sur une opération semblable à la sienne. Ainsi c’est le langage scientifique qui décrit d’une manière précise et froide tout ce qui s’est passé avec lui – une voix surgit dans sa narration, qui indique qu’il/elle est devenu(e) étranger/ étrangère à lui/elle-même. La vengeance démesurée de Lafargue, parce qu’il n’éprouve aucun sentiment de culpabilité, constitue un cas d’écart déontologique, mais en même temps l’opération peut être considérée, du point de vue du « résultat », comme une réussite professionnelle spectaculaire. Cet acte terrible, qui lie à jamais le maître et son esclave, trouve son origine dans un autre acte pervers qui est évoqué, à la fin, dans le discours à la deuxième personne. Vincent et son ami, Alex, qui vivent dans un petit village, violent ensemble des filles : c’est le premier qui les séduit, c’est le deuxième, plus brutal, qui arrive en deuxième et pénètre les victimes par derrière. Viviane, la fille du médecin devient, à la suite du viol et de ses conséquences, folle et doit être internée : c’est de ses crises que dépend la torture infligée à la jeune femme.
Conclusion Même si l’analyse de quelques romans de Jonquet ne permet pas de tirer des conclusions générales sur son œuvre, il nous semble qu’on peut constater un changement : les premiers récits, souvent brefs, se caractérisent par une étude approfondie de quelques relations interpersonnelles et par des procédés narratifs audacieux ; ensuite les romans reviennent à une narration plus traditionnelle et offrent un tableau plus large de la société. Cela ne revient pas à dire que les premiers romans ne fournissent pas d’indices du contexte social. Mygale et Mémoire en cage représentent, chacun, deux classes sociales qui peuvent entrer en collision et à l’intérieur desquelles ou entre lesquelles la mobilité est possible. Ainsi Mygale met-il en scène l’univers fermé du docteur Lafargue avec tous les signes d’un style de vie : maison somptueuse, voiture de luxe et servants et la société rurale, incarnée par Alex qui – pour pouvoir épater le village (selon l’une des injonctions de la société de consommation) – fait un hold-up pour avoir assez d’argent.
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Cynthia, de sa part, est originaire d’un petit village près d’Amiens : « À Attencourt, on travaillait soit comme ouvrier agricole dans une des deux grosses fermes, soit à l’usine de robinetterie »18. Il est bien compréhensible que son beau-père ne veuille pas retourner à l’usine et veut, à tout prix (y compris le chantage), sauver son auberge ruiné par sa mauvaise gestion. Alain, quant à lui, vient d’une famille qui a accédé à la haute société, c’est d’une part cette situation qui explique sa désorientation. Morier, le médecin incarne l’ambition, la volonté de succès. Les récits représentent l’espace familial. On constate que les familles sont souvent tronquées : Cynthia, tout comme Vincent, n’a pas de père, Lafargue a perdu sa femme dans un accident. L’espace familial se caractérise par les tensions : Nadia refuse de voir son père, parce qu’elle a découvert un secret enfoui, Morier est en train de divorcer, Alain devrait obéir à des ordres contradictoires. Les personnages des romans de Jonquet se trouvent seuls, souvent obsédés par une idée fixe (il faut voir sur ce point Lafargue ou Cynthia, mais aussi Charlie ou le vieux meur trier des Orpailleurs). Les récits publiés dans les années 1990 mettent en scène une société de plus en plus globalisée, il arrive que le crime quitte le territoire national : c’est le cas du transport des viandes pourris entre la Pologne et la France (Les Orpailleurs) ou l’organisation transnationale des marchands d’enfants (Moloch). Les roman attirent également l’attention sur la crise de la société de surveillance : pour que cette société puisse fonctionner il faut un ordre symbolique, qui impose à tous la loi pour bloquer la circulation infinie des rumeurs, des maladies ou de la violence. Le grand propos du roman noir, la violence, se manifeste comme une sorte de résistance ou comme le surgissement d’un instinct qu’aucune loi ne peut bloquer d’une manière définitive. Les romans fondent leur intrigue sur des crimes ignorés (voir les écarts déontologiques de Lafargue, d’Alain ou de Morier). Il arrive que la police n’apparaît même pas dans le récit (Mygale), que l’enquête ne réussit pas à établir la vérité (Mémoire en cage) ou que la police se contente de courir après un justicier (Moloch). Dans ce contexte il n’est sans doute pas surprenant que deux romans (Mygale et Moloch) placent leurs intrigues sous le signe d’un dieu cruel.
18 Thierry Jonquet, Mémoire en cage…, p. 48.
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Genre typique de la culture médiatique, le roman noir reste, comme dit Jonquet, « le fidèle compagnon de la barbarie »19. Dans ses récits c’est, avant tout, la vérité qui se trouve problématisée. Mais ce problème de la vérité ne peut pas être posée sans réfléchir, en même temps, sur le rôle et les possibilités de l’écriture.
19 Maya Szymanowska, « Entretien avec Thierry Jonquet : Vers un polar social ? ». 8 Mars 2010, .
The use of immigration in the debate on identity in Catalonia during the course of resumption of democracy Mariona Lladonosa Universitat de Lleida
1. Summary and work hypothesis Different political traditions in Catalonia have recreated different narratives about identity since the end of the 19th Century until today. Narratives start from two different conceptual frameworks, one conservative the other liberal. The different traditions that have developed at different stages since the 19th Century until today will derive from these two great narratives. However, during the period of the resumption of democracy and reconstruction of the national institutions, new relations of narrative and identity construction will be created. In our view, the right wing political discourse of the 1970s was predominantly fed from the liberal conceptual framework that endorses the narrative of Nation in terms of voluntary ties, the Gemeinschaft’s social ties. Thus, while the narrative of the community – Gemeinschaft –, will continue on the basis of sustained solidarity of its members around elements such as the language, traditions or the territory, it will be put forward in terms of integration, as opposed to assimilation, and will leave behind the discursive essentialism for a communitarian narrative of hegemonic desire. In liberal States, the assimilationist and integrationist models respond to the Nation-State’s objectives of constructing a homogeneous nation that fosters organic internal solidarities, in the lines of Durkheim’s concept. Nevertheless, debates on contemporary political philosophy with a communitarian trend discuss this matter1 and the multiculturalist model 1
Michael Walzer, Pluralism, justice and equality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the limits of justice (Cambridge: Cambridge
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of the 1980s – or the so-called right to difference in the 1990s – will appear as an attempt to break up and criticise the assimilationist model that we will discuss later in the Catalan case. The ideal of citizenship reproduced in each one of the three models mentioned – assimilationism, integrationism and multiculturalism – varies: in the assimilationist model it responds to an ethnical conception in which belonging is defined in terms of ethnic elements; in the integrationist model, which has a republican basis, belonging is defined on the basis of a political community; in the multiculturalist model belonging is defined on the basis of a political community that allows the emergence of ethnic communities within it2. The resumption of democracy in Catalonia and Spain at the end of the 1970s, with the legalisation of the political parties and the recovery of the national autonomic institutions will bring a new scenario for the reconceptualisation of the Catalan national identity at the end of the 20th Century and on into the 21st Century Through the political praxis of the party system and their discourse patterns, and through the implementation of new public policies, a new public projection of the Nation that recovers the proactive and civic model, oriented to a culturalist definition of Catalonia is progressively defined. This civic and cultural projection of the nation does not only come from Convergència i Unió, but we also find it in the discourse of the opposing parties, and it will give rise to intense debates focused on the cultural question, gradually leaving aside the question of class as political axis. It is in the 1980s when the thesis and the fears of a bicultural social fragmentation, or a neo-Lerrouxist discourse appear, and a special emphasis is placed on the role of language, the media and education as vehicles of the identity model that may emerge. This paper focuses on the debates of identity and the political use of immigration during the period 1970-1990. However, it is on the media and the political debate during the 1980s that the two big political tendencies with a hegemonic ambition will come into conflict with one another publicly. These two tendencies are nationalism, on the one hand, with a traditional basis, reinterpreted with a communitarian vocation,
2
University Press, 1998); Will Kymlicka, Ciutadania multicultural una teoria liberal dels drets de les minories (Barcelona: Proa, 1999). Stephen Castles, Mark Miller, The Age of Migration (Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009).
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European perspective and recreating the rural culture combined with the spirit of Noucentisme of urban progress in cities, represented by CiU. On the other hand, we have the other great model, PSC, with a cosmopolitan spirit, also from a Noucentisme approach in the strict sense of modernisation, with a wish for social cohesion, avoiding nationalist references in order to project itself within the scenario of the Spanish national project. One of the tendencies identified during this period is the social construction of immigration and its use according to the political interests of the new democratic parties. Our work hypothesis is based on the idea that the use of immigration will become a major political element in appealing to national and electoral sentiments in the 1980s and 1990s, and this fact will be a determinant in the discourse of construction of the national identity at the end of the 20th Century. There is an underlying issue in this social construction of immigration: the repeated determinist wish to define who shapes the collective personality of Catalonia and which elements configure it. Therefore, we understand that Spanish immigration has been one of the structuring and codifying axis of Catalan identity in the 20th Century, and an element of the symbolic fight for domination and to obtain the hegemony and control of the contemporary narrative of power. Here we outline the main lines of reasoning that point at migration as an argument in the conflicts of political identity in the resumption of institutional normality in Catalonia. First, we will put into context the migration in the second half of the 20th Century, and we will take into consideration the first theoretical political contributions about immigration in Catalonia. Second, we will observe the evolution of the assimilationist lines into the new postmodern language of integrations, and later multiculturalism. And third, we will follow the fading of the great ideological narratives, especially that of classical socialism into capitalist and post-modern logics. Postmodernity is of utmost importance in understanding the evolution of the class discourse into new positions of cultural debate and redefinition of the national identity. The political agents of that time and their narrative are the backbone of this change, and they recreate it through a monolithic migrating imaginary. Finally, grasping the factors that we develop below allows us to generate some reflections that can be linked to the migrations of the 21st Century and to the pathways into today’s Nation.
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2. Spanish immigration in Catalonia in the second half of the 20th Century Immigration configures the basis of the reproductive system in Catalonia during the 20th Century, as Anna Cabré explains in her famous thesis El sistema català de reproducció (“The Catalan system of reproduction”)3. Cabré explains the dynamics of low fertility and the endogenous character of the population and the internal migrating flows – apart from the significant experience of the period 1916-1930 –, until the exogenous transformation of the demographic system with the waves of immigration during the period 1950-1970. Between 1951 and 1981 the migratory balance in Catalonia was 1,461,000 people, of which more than half arrived during the 1960s. This meant that the newcomers during the 1970s made up for 37.69% of the population4. In this sense, Cabré points out that 60% of the population living in Catalonia in 1980 was a direct or indirect result of immigration. Other social researchers studied the migrations in the 1960s from a demographic and sociological perspective. Joaquim Maluquer’s Població i societat a l’àrea catalana (“Population and society in the Catalan area”)5 is an interesting analysis of the population that describes the migration flows from the “impoverished rural Spain to developed areas” – our quotation marks –. According to Maluquer, population movements take place in face of the danger of unemployment. These are mainly composed of uneducated young males trained for manual work that move from the agricultural to the industrial sector, and follow a fixed pattern of movement: a family member gets a job in an industrial area; once settled and getting steady wages, he brings his relatives for whom he has found a job and accommodation. But the arrival of these groups of population will entail, on the one hand, a rejuvenation of the population and an increase in the birth rates. On the other hand, according to Maluquer, a repeated dynamic will be the concentration of immigrants 3 4
5
Anna Cabré, El sistema català de reproducció (Barcelona: Proa, 1999). Josep Termes, “La immigració a Catalunya: Política i cultura”, Reflexions crítiques sobre la cultura catalana (Barcelona: Departament de Cultura de la Generalitat de Catalunya, 1983). Joaquim Maluquer, Població i societat a l’àrea catalana (Barcelona: Editorial A.C., 1965).
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and massive movements from a town or village to the same area of immigration. These mass population movements facilitate the reconstruction of the original environment (relations, customs, celebrations, etc.) and soften the arrival shock for the immigrants, but make their full assimilation difficult6. We cannot forget that the Spanish immigration during this period is fostered by an important sector of civil servants and business people who were close to Franco’s regime, which do not conform to the demographic profile described by Maluquer, but play a determinant role in the power relations established between immigration and national identity. During the 1960s, economic immigration flows and the extreme poverty conditions of the working class were revealed through the phenomenon of shanty towns, the precarity of housing and suburban ghettoization – especially crude in greater urban areas such as Barcelona –. Such large migration contingents under Franco’s regime meant the total incapacity to provide an institutional response to the population’s poor living conditions. In Catalonia, besides issues related to dignity and social justice, there is concern about the effects of immigration on identity and Catalanness. Catalan historiography has highlighted the use of immigration by Franco’s regime to fragment the Catalanist working movement from the social basis of the population7. However, this idea has been nuanced by some migration stories such as the one from “the Other Andalusians”. This group underlines the incapacity of immigrant workers in the 1960s to erode Catalanism. They are weary of the folklorisation of immigration and the forceful use of the Spanish language by the regime in order to advance the cultural Catalan genocide, rather than the possible threat of a vulnerable population with poor socioeconomic conditions. In fact, concerns of a nationalistic and identitarian nature during this period focus not only on Francoism, but also on the living conditions of a country with such high immigration rates.
6 7
Joaquim Maluquer, Població i societat..., p. 139. Albert Balcells, Història del nacionalisme català. Dels orígens al nostre temps (Barcelona: Generalitat de Catalunya, 1992), p. 185.
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3. The first reflections on immigration in Catalonia The first reflections on immigration in Catalonia emerged in the 1930s with the demographic hypotheses by the polemic Josep Antoni Vandellós and his Catalunya poble decadent (“Catalonia, decadent country”)8 and La immigració a Catalunya (“Immigration in Catalonia”)9, where the dangers of the denaturalisation of Catalonia caused by the lack of fertility and the great immigration flows are reflected on for the first time. There will not be another notorious published reflection about the subject until 1958 with the political reflections of Jordi Pujol in his La immigració, pro blema i esperança de Catalunya, (“Immigration, Catalonia’s problem and hope”)10 republished in 197611. Pujol’s first global reflection towards the national reconstruction takes shape upon his release from prison with the book Construir Catalunya (“Building Catalonia”) which contains Pujol’s vision of generating a “central ground” of Catalanism that gathers all the proposals that may foster the country’s recovery. Immigration is part of that “central ground”. But one of Pujol’s most celebrated ideas is the wellknown expression “a Catalan is whoever lives and works in Catalonia”, a notion that goes beyond its own author and has become a constitutional part of the symbolic framework of Catalanness during the last third of the 20th Century. Pujol’s first writings depart from the perspective that the socio-political situation during Franco’s regime erodes the future Catalan personality. The model proposed by Pujol is an effective institutional and cultural action in four axes: politics, economy, culture and population to foster social rooting. Pujol’s discourse responds to a model of interpretation which is traditionalist, communitarian and remarkably culturalist, but from our viewpoint it wouldn’t share the essentialism of the conservative
8 9
Josep Antoni Vandellòs, Catalunya poble decadent (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1985). Josep Antoni Vandellòs, La immigració a Catalunya (Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 1935). 10 Jordi Pujol, La immigració. Problema i esperança de Catalunya (Barcelona: Nova terra, 1976). 11 This book and one of its fragments have been mentioned in the 2012 electoral campaign by the political party Ciutadans (C’s), self-defined as centre-left primarily Catalan anti-nationalist, founded in 2005, who appeared in the political arena in 2006 and has clearly got the discourse model and tone of PSA.
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Catalanism that we perceived from Torres i Bages – influenced by De Maistre, de De Bonald and Taine’s French traditionalism –. His discourse is a bid to modernise the country on the basis of cohesive elements taken from historical experience: […] El poble, que en el nostre cas vol dir la comunitat nacional, és un instrument essencial, en l’ordre col·lectiu el més essencial de tots, de formació i definició dels homes, d’educació en el sentit d’imprimir uns hàbits, de fer arrelar unes conviccions de donar una mentalitat, és a dir, d’ajudar l’home a adquirir la seva personalitat bàsica, a fer la conquesta en profunditat de la seva identitat i de fer tot això no d’una manera aïllada i individual, elitista i aristocraticista, sinó d’una manera popular, d’una manera massiva. […] el que ens dóna personalitat és la possessió d’una mentalitat definida […]. doni els elements culturals, lingüístics, de lligams socials, de consciència històrica, de mentalitat col·lectiva necessaris per a dur a terme la seva tasca educativa. […] The people, in our case this is the national community, are an essential instrument; the most essential within the collective order for shaping and defining men, for educating in the sense of conferring habits, of rooting beliefs, giving a mentality, that is, helping people to acquire their basic personality, to conquer their identity in depth and not an isolated, individual, elitist, aristocratic manner, but in a popular, massive manner. [...] having a defined mentality gives us personality [...] it gives us the necessary cultural, linguistic elements, the social ties and historical collective awareness necessary to carry out this educational task12.
Although Pujol in his book La immigració, problema i esperança de Catalunya expresses his rejection of the assimilationist model where the culture of the receiving society is fully accepted without any input from the immigration, he puts forward important contradictions such as the polemic statements about the character of Andalusian immigration used by C’s in the 2012 electoral campaign, -and who were recalled by other people such as Antonio Perez in 1968, and were also part of a polemic debate in the press in 197713. Pujol stated: 12 Jordi Pujol, Una política per a Catalunya (Barcelona: Nova Terra, 1976), p. 38. 13 See the debate on this issue stirred by José Acosta’s answer to Jordi Pujol’s book and the comments recorded by the text. Acosta accuses Pujol of reducing the great majority of Catalan immigrants into “Spain’s scum” and of spreading a partial and classist conception of the notion of mental and spiritual misery. According to Acosta, Pujol’s words call into question the concept of integration and he defends the right of immigrants to preserve their identity (José Acosta, “En torno al problema de la inmigración en Cataluña”, La Vanguardia (22 February 1977), p. 6). Pujol’s
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L’home andalús no és un home coherent, és un home anàrquic, és un home destruït, és generalment un home poc fet. Un home que viu en un estat d’ignorància i de misèria cultural, mental i espiritual. Si per la força del nombre arribés a dominar, sense haver superat la seva pròpia perplexitat, l’andalús destruiria Catalunya. The Andalusian is not a coherent man; he’s anarchic, destroyed and often not fully built. He’s a man who lives in a state of cultural misery and mental and spiritual ignorance. If by the force of numbers he dominated, without having overcome his own perplexity, he would destroy Catalonia14.
However, Pujol’s theses are complex because while immigration is seen as an ethicised population contingent, he focused on the development of a language integration model on a social-communitarian basis, that would avoid spaces of cultural breach. The discourse of Convergència Democràtica, which we will analyse below, is something different. In any case Pujol’s books gather a vast reflection on what’s in all probability the most important explanatory question of the Catalan national identity: the language. Pujol’s arguments revolve around the culturalist concept of incorporating immigration on the basis of Catalan culture and the social use of the Catalan language, a concept shared by a large part of the 20th Century Catalanism, which we will use as analytical element in the conclusions of this paper. In that context, in the 1970s Pujol draws the first outlines of the management of migration that he calls “population policy”. This is a policy oriented to improve social management, economic stimulus, housing, industrial distribution and culture, envisaging to promote answer will be published a few days after with a strong defence of his book and his concept of immigration as the hope for a renovated Catalonia (Jordi Pujol, “La inmigración, problema y esperanza de Cataluña”, La Vanguardia (1 March 1977), p. 5). It is necessary to mention that later on in 1977 Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya would incorporate Acosta as number 7 on their voting list for Barcelona, a decision condemned by PSA’s assembly. In response to Pujol’s book, three public statements were issued, like that of Pedro Penalva (later on one of the signatories of the Manifesto of the 2.300), but also institutionally, like the one from Santa Coloma de Gramanet’s Town Council, who passed a motion in protest against Pujol’s book. See: Paco Penalva, “Los inmigrantes en Cataluña” (“Immigrants in Catalonia”, translator note), La Vanguardia (8 March 1977), p. 8; Paco Penalva, “El Ayuntamiento de Santa Coloma de Gramanet protesta por un libro de Jordi Pujol” (“Santa Coloma de Gramanet’s Town Council protest against a book by Jordi Pujol”, translator note), La Vanguardia (26 February 1977), p. 21. 14 Jordi Pujol, Una política per a Catalunya..., p. 65.
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confidence towards Catalonia. He calls it a public, integrating action seeking equality and patriotism, understood as solidary for the welfare of the community15. Left wing groups such as the socialist and the PSUC and the national left, such as FNC are to be particularly critical with Pujol’s ideas; they argue that his ideas are not critical with the class division, which is foremost in the management of migration. In the 1970s, the class question will continue to feed the discourse of the left wing. The other great reflection on immigration as part of the Catalan narration was that of Francesc Candel’s. In 1964 the book Els altres catalans16 (“The other Catalans”) is published. This is his reference book, and an extension of a previous article written by the same author on immigration in Catalonia, published in the magazine La Jirafa in 1958. Pujol encouraged Candel in publishing this book, a chronicle of the life conditions of immigrants and a claim for equality and social rights for the whole of the society: És en aquest aspecte que jo crec que formen més societat al marge els immigrants, una gran majoria dels immigrants, els seus genuïns representants: en la seva misèria i en la seva injustícia més que no en la seva catalanitat o manera de catalanitat; en el fet de donar-los pa o certificats de bona conducta per a fer-los callar i treure-se’ls del damunt, o de crear un món a part amb el seu pintoresquisme, el seu perniciós pintoresquisme, o de creure que són així i han d’ésser així. In this sense, I believe immigrants make up a society in the margin, a great majority of them, their genuine representatives: in their destitution and injustice, rather than their Catalanness or their way of being Catalan; in giving them bread or certificates of good conduct in order to keep them quiet and shake them off, or creating a different world with their picturesque character, their harmful picturesque character, or believing that’s how they are and how they have to be17.
Candel clearly wishes to promote a positive portrait of immigration. He generates a new perspective on the question of identity with the aim of incorporating the values of migrating experiences into the Catalan reality and therefore, extending the ways of Catalanness. In La construcció
15 Jordi Pujol, La immigració. Problema i esperança de Catalunya (Barcelona: Nova Terra, 1976). 16 Paco Candel, Els altres catalans (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 2008). 17 Paco Candel, Els altres catalans..., p. 296.
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de la catalanitat18 (“The construction of Catalanity”) I said that Candel’s book stirred a great deal of interpretations and comments from different sectors. On the one hand Jordi Pujol recognises Candel’s role and effort in conceptualising an inclusive identity; on the other hand, Manuel Cruells wrote an important piece of criticism about Candel in his Els no catalans i nosaltres19 (“The non-Catalans and us”) claiming that it was not possible to give the language a diminished value or to accept an immigration that did not take root in Catalonia, which he understood to be Candel’s stand. Last, Antoni Pérez, from a Christian, working ideology, also thought that the class struggle and the collective promotion was prior to the vindication of the national cause, and the Catalan language was no determinant factor in the social incorporation of immigrants, it was only an individual promotion towards cultural integration20. He considered the idea of integration as the acceptance of the capitalist Catalan society by the working class, an idea that again, we find reproduces an association of Catalanism to bourgeoisie, and that would shortly after be expressed in Solé Tura’s pages. It is interesting to note the idea introduced by Balcells, that when commonly resorting to the association between bourgeoisie and Catalanism it is forgotten that Catalan bourgeoisie as class, cared very little about the immigrant’s cultural integration21.
4. From assimilation to integration, 1960-1970 The first public debates on immigration towards the end of the 1960s and much more in the 1970s show that national incorporation is mainly understood as tied to social progress. We can see this in the collective book La immigració a Catalunya22 (“Immigration in Catalonia”) (1968) where
18 Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat. Evolució de la concepció d’Identitat Nacional a Catalunya 1860-1990 (Lleida: Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Lleida, 2013). 19 Manuel Cruells, Els no catalans i nosaltres (Barcelona: Aportació catalana, 1965). 20 Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat..., p. 107. 21 Albert Balcells, Història del nacionalisme català..., p. 187. 22 Antoni Jutglar, La immigració a Catalunya (Barcelona: De Materials, 1968).
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three interpretation lines are suggested, in line with the logic of that time: Identifying the Catalan society with the Catalan culture and, therefore, taking cultural integration as a condition for social integration. Thus, priority is given to the immigrant’s social promotion, with Catalanisation being the result. And last, the belief that the continuous flow of immigrants will shrink the Catalan language and culture and dissolve the political question derived from it. The concepts of assimilation and integration are frequent in the three conceptual lines. According to our work hypothesis, during the years of the resumption of democracy in Catalonia, the symbolic implications of the assimilationist model was too big a reminder of the experience with Franco. The integrationist notion quickly set into the public discourse as it was presented as a bet for social and cultural incorporation; furthermore, the migrating experience in the 1930s confirmed positively this pathway of incorporation. This model of incorporation gathers the philosophy of political Catalanism from Prat de la Riba to Macià23. However, the social belief of Catalanism entailed an adaptive interpretation of the immigrant into the culture of destination. This fact takes us to the second tendency that we mentioned: In Catalonia the integrationist model in the 1960s-70s was ethnic-culturalist and voluntarist24. A belief that we can find beyond Pujol’s formulations, in the political discourse of l’Assemblea de Catalunya, an example of the National left wing: No hi ha uns “altres catalans”, només hi ha uns catalans. Tant si han nascut aquí, ara o abans, tant si són acabats d’arribar. No som ni discriminacionistes ni racistes. Admetem tothom en aquesta situació de catalans mentre es comportin com a catalans. I aquest comportament significa evidentment una dedicació, un entusiasme, una fidelitat, al que és fonamental per a Catalunya. Aquesta categoria neutra “els altres catalans” és una invenció de Candel per justificar precisament 23 Josep Benet, Desfeta i redreçament de Catalunya (Barcelona: Crítica, 1978); Josep Termes, “La immigració a Catalunya: Política i cultura...”. 24 See: Josep Termes “La immigració a Catalunya…” a synthesis of a group of texts and theoretical arguments about the subject of identity since the beginning of the 19th Century, and the repercussions of immigration in the 1930s and the 1950s and 1960s. See also: Pierre Vilar, Catalunya dins l’Espanya moderna (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1964-1968); Josep Ferrer, Per l’alliberament nacional i de classe (Barcelona: Avançada, 1978); Josep M. Ainaud, Immigració i reconstrucció nacional a Catalunya (Barcelona: Blume-Fundació Jaume Bofill, 1980); and a synthesis of the mentioned texts in: Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat...
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aquesta manca de dedicació, d’entusiasme i de fidelitat dels qui fa anys que són aquí, o que ja hi han nascut. There aren’t any “other Catalans”, there are only the ones. Whether they were born here, now or earlier, or they have just arrived. We are not discriminative or racist. We admit as Catalans everyone in this situation, as long as they behave as Catalans. And this behaviour means of course a dedication, enthusiasm and loyalty to what’s essential to Catalonia. This neutral category “the other Catalans” is an invention of Candel to justify this lack of dedication, enthusiasm and loyalty shared by those here a long time or born here25.
Going back to Pujol’s concept of the “central ground” explained above, we find ourselves in a historical context where the wish for transformation of the Catalanist conservative and left wing sectors against Francoism share an integrationist wish from the culturalist line. The Catalan Institute of Immigration was set up in the 1960s by Pujol and a group of people sharing the objective of finding a central ground for national reconstruction. The Institute, which never published any written text because of the oppressive regime, wanted to become one of the central grounds of national recovery where transmitting the Catalan differential reality denied by Franco’s regime became an objective tied to immigration. According to Joaquim Ferrer, one of the Institute’s proponents, the Institute gathered and spread a certain mentality oriented to understanding and solving the problems that immigrants suffered (lack of housing and services) and to inform them about Catalonia, how it was repressed by the dictatorship and, through this relationship, contribute to being only one people. The mentality that Ferrer mentions was spread by teachers, social assistants and priests in many neighbourhoods that were receiving immigrants, as is portrayed by some experiences of neighbourhood leadership26. Experiences of community work, of opposition to the regime through the unions, through the neighbours’ movement, clandestine political action, and actions taken during the first years of resumption of democracy were the vital spaces where this model of integration, social vindication and cultural participation was transmitted. The historical task carried out by PSUC is a wellknown example of political action. 25 Manuel Cruells, Els no catalans i nosaltres..., p. 15. 26 Anna Ortiz, L’Elies de Can Tunis (Barcelona: Stonberg Editorial, 2012); Joan Carrera, Ara mateix (Barcelona: La Magrana, 2010).
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5. The culturalist debate and the paradigm shift, 1980-1990 The construction of self-government and the Statue during the period 1980-1989 and the normalisation and stagnation of the autonomy between 1989 and 1999 are the time span that determined, from our point of view, a paradigm shift in the issue of immigration and national identity. We put forward the idea that the paradigm shift is given by the fight for the control of the political hegemony of the new autonomous reality. This fact, together with the increase in population during the 1950s and 1980s of almost 1.500.000 people, made immigration an element of symbolic dominance. Another closely tied parallel phenomenon which explains this shift has to do with the class struggle as axis of the public discourse. This is part of the society’s postmodern transformation. The end of the socialist meta-narrative and its progressive replacement by the logic of social fragmentation, leads us to the second argument of our work hypothesis: the replacement of the class conflict by the cultural conflict and the derived ethinicisation. The European socioeconomic context of the 1970s – with the oil crises and the subsequent recessions – accelerated the social and policy stagnation of welfare states and the increase of social inequalities together with the conservative triumphalism of the end of the 1970s, drives a model of social and political capitalism that sets aside the class struggle and its emancipating discourses. This dynamic is present not only in the logic of political parties, but also in the area of associations, patent with the end of the central role of neighbourhood associations or working unions. This postmodern replacement places us in a new framework of interpretation that we will explain through three different experiences. The first one is the competition for the symbolic dominance of the Catalan space of representation by CiU and PSC as hegemonic parties; as well as through their different political satellites. The second is the confrontation arisen by the polarisation between Catalan nationalism and Spanish multiculturalism, or the discourse of dual-culture and the language debate that fed the neo-Lerrouxist fears. Last, the political mummification or stereotyping of the concept of immigrant. These three experiences, closely intertwined, take part in the public debate of the end of the 20th Century and determine the discourse of national identity in Catalonia. In this paper we will focus on observing the political arena and the role of the leaders and the
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political parties, which attract the new cultural and political approaches to their domain. In 1980 Jordi Pujol was elected president of the Catalan Government. Pujol’s election marks the beginning of the continuing quest for the symbolic dominance of the national discourse and the resumption of the institutions by Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (CiU). CiU develops a continuing strategy of association of Pujol with the concept of country. This is a mental framework produced from Pujol’s own political discourse with his constant and popular slogans fer país (“to build the country”), his intense activity and territorial visits, and the will to maintain a division between Catalanism and socialism, as opposed to conservative Catalanism and left wing Catalanism. The left wing was at an impasse at that moment. ERC played a marginal role during this period caused by the exile and leadership of Heribert Barrera, who was supportive of Convergència. The PSUC was the third political force in parliament with noteworthy activity and a leading role in the social mobilizations, although in 1984 their progressive decline was constant and led to disintegration. The independentist left wing made up of FNC and PSAN are only token in the political scenario with no political representation in parliament. Finally, PSC was the main opposition party and has portrayed itself as the alternative to CiU up to the present time. But Convergència’s victory in 1980 was a surprise to many. For the socialist it meant a scenario of internal confusion. According to Jaume Lorés27, the decrease of left wing values and the retreat of ethics and culture into Catalonia’s hinterland progressively lead to more conservative interpretations of reality, and the cause of Convergència’s success. The gradual withdrawal from a socialist ideology to a new social cosmopolitism, together with the influence of PSOE – which grew when it came into power in 198228 – determined the socialist situation and the replacement, also gradual, of the social discourse by the cultural discourse. Convergència executes the nationalist-communitarian programme according to the institutional pact policy with the Spanish government. Within this political context, PSC intellectual wing recreates a position 27 Jaume Lorés, La transició a Catalunya (1977-1984). El pujolisme i els altres (Barcelona: Empúries Editorial, 1985). 28 Later on, the entry of the capitans (captains) into the party’s ruling elite during the congress at Sitges in 1994 will be determining in PSC’s change of discourse.
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of culturalist discourse polarization known by the debate of the models cultura i cultureta29 (“culture and little culture”) that recreates CiU’s bourgeois Catalanism with a traditionalist and essentialist basis versus PSC’s revisionist model of cultural modernisation. This narrative is countered by CiU through a continuing contempt of socialist Catalanism subordinated to the interests of PSOE in Catalonia and the already-mentioned strategy of associating the values of Convergència with the idea of the Catalan people. The mutual and hegemonic caricaturing of both parties has become a first order political argument until this day, still taking place in the present independentist debates. The polarised competence for the symbolic dominance of the space of the country’s political representation extends to all the areas of political debate30. The identity question is especially important on three fronts: the language question and the normalisation act from 1983, the educational system and school model, and the social cohesion and fear of cultural fracture. Here are some discourse examples of this wish for symbolic dominance: Com a catalans hem de votar un partit català. Els problemes que existeixen a Catalunya, han de solucionar-se, en primer lloc, pels catalans [...] no és el moment d’experiències perilloses ni de continuismes estèrils: és el moment d’esforçar-nos tots i construir, entre tots, un país per a tots. No el d’una classe, d’un bàndol o d’un partit únic: un país per a tots. Però un país no es construeix amb protestes, vagues o partidismes. Un país es construeix amb esforç i amb il·lusió. Són els ideals els que mouen als homes i als països; només amb el materialisme no s’aixeca Catalunya. Necessitem un ideal que ens uneixi i que no ens separi, que aconsegueixi sumar i no dividir. El nacionalisme, avui i aquí és un ideal positiu que tendeix a construir, a aixecar, a unir. És per davant de tot una afirmació: ser. És sobretot, un ideal per al futur [...] Catalans de família i catalans d’adopció, vinguin d’on vinguin ens uneix un destí comú. No vam fer junts gran part de la nostra història però avui estem cridats a un destí comú solidari. Hem sigut capaços de construir una Catalunya nova, basada en els ciments mil·lenaris de la Catalunya eterna. 29 With expressions such as el terreny de la cultureta, de l’autocontemplació, del barretinisme (the field of the little culture, self-contemplation and barretinisme) (“Barretina” is the hat of the typical Catalan costume, translator note). See: Pep Subirós, Mites i raons de la modernitat (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1984). Or the conception that Catalanism is a product of the Catalan bourgeoisie: Josep Lluís Marfany, La cultura del catalanisme (Barcelona: Empúries Editorial, 1995). 30 See for instance the space that La Vanguardia newspaper devoted to immigration during 1977 with the tribune los partidos políticos y la inmigración (“political parties and immigration”) where political leaders gave their opinions on the matter weekly.
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As Catalans we need to vote for a Catalan party. The problems in Catalonia need to be solved by Catalans first, […] the time is not right for dangerous experiments or sterile continuity: the time has come for everyone to make a joint effort and build a country together for all. Not the country of a class, a side or a political party: a country for all. A country is not built with protests, strikes or partisanship. A country is built with effort and enthusiasm. These are the ideals that move people and countries; with materialism only we will not lift up Catalonia. We need an ideal that gathers us all together and does not separate us, that allows us to bond and doesn’t divide. Nationalism, here and now is a positive ideal that tends to construct, to rise up, to unite. It is an affirmation: to be. It is an ideal for the future […] Catalan by family and by adoption, wherever you come from, a common destination unites us. A great part of our history we did not live out together, but today we are called by a common solidary destiny. We have been able to build a new Catalonia, based on the thousandyear-old foundations of the eternal Catalonia31. L’única manera de fer front a aquest perill i de conjurar-lo és dissenyar un procés que apunti clarament a una realitat nova de futur, des de la seva diversitat cultural (cultura catalana i modalitats culturals immigrades), tot encaminant-nos cap a allò que els socialistes en diem la Catalunya Nova i que només el mateix poble, a partir del principi de la preservació del dret de tothom pot dir com s’ha d’anar afaiçonant. The only way to confront this danger and to repel it is to design a process that clearly points at a new future from the standpoint of cultural diversity (Catalan culture and immigrated cultural modalities), taking the path to what socialists call the New Catalonia, that can only be built by the people from the principle of the preservation of the right of everyone32.
The fronts of the political struggle were obviously not monopolised by CiU-PSC. In fact, the most polemic declarations came from Alianza Popular (AP). AP appeared in 1976 as a party that made possible the transition from Franco’s right wing and the new conservative forces in Spain to the new democratic system -in 1989 AP became the present day Partido Popular (PP). AP was the first political party, in the transition and before the recovery of Generalitat, who will actively exploit the phenomenon of migration to feed the discrimination and the fragmentation and breach of coexistence. Through the regional cultural associations, close to the party and remaining from Franco’s structures, the notion of confrontation between “bourgeois” Catalanism and the conflicting interests of immigrants was stirred. That was a very polemic discourse strategy during the times 31 Jordi Pujol, “Catalunya: Trabajo y libertad”, La Vanguardia (18 March 1980). 32 Miguel Fernández, Fabricar l’immigrant (Lleida: Pagès Editors, 2009), p. 93.
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of the transition when the consensus on the process of national recovery wanted to avoid such neo-Lerrouxist outbreaks33. Alianza Popular maintained this strategy, which was active during the 1980s and 1990s with a special emphasis through the figure of Vidal Quadras and his notion of la balcanització del conflicte (“the balkanisation of the conflict”). On the other hand, in the 1980 elections, the Andalusian Socialist Party (PSA) stood for the first time for the parliamentary elections obtaining two MPs – although the party had a short life within the parliament –. PSA sought the mobilisation of a clearly ethnical vote from immigrants; it concentrated its discourse in the defence of the rights of Andalusian people in Catalonia according to their interpretation of Pujol’s famous sentence és català qui viu i treballa a Catalunya (“Catalan is that who lives and works in Catalonia”) into catalán es todo aquel que quiera serlo, resida o no en Cataluña (“Catalan is whoever wants to be, whether or not they live in Catalonia”) under this conception: Creemos que aquellos andaluces tienen derecho a elegir sus representantes entre ellos mismos, y esto sólo es posible con partidos de obediencia andaluza. Esta es, por otra parte, la última esperanza que estos hombres tienen de retornar a su pueblo algún día. We believe that those Andalusians have the right to elect their representatives from among themselves, and this is only possible with Andalusian parties. This is the last chance these people have to get back to their homelands some time34.
This ethnicist, political and cultural Andalusian nationalism is proposed under the demand of the right to exteriorise the ethnicity as an identity symbol, according to the idea that the lifestyle of immigrants is substantially different from the rest. According to this perspective, political Catalanism puts forward an essentialist culturalist excluding discourse as it is demonstrated, they argue, by the lack of juridical acknowledgement
33 For a follow-up of the political discourses about immigration between 1977 and 2007 it is essential to read the book Fabricar l’immigrant. Aprofitaments polítics de la immigració a Catalunya (“Manufacturing the immigrant. Political use of immigration in Catalonia”) which contains plenty of transcripts of the public messages from all political actors at the time. 34 Andalucía Libre, 5. February 1977.
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of the existence of ethnic minorities in Catalonia35. According to this idea, we cannot speak of Catalans of Andalusian origin, but Andalusians from Catalonia. The process of symbolic production of bi-culturalism and the neo-Lerrouxism takes form when it becomes a political argument. It is extended with the appropriation, from all political forces, of the discourse of the management of coexistence between two communities supposedly made up of native Catalans, on the one hand, and immigrants and their descendants on the other. This appropriation will be evident in the slogans and discourses from all political forces in the following electoral processes, especially in 1984, 1988 and 1992. In this symbolic production of bi-culturalism the written Spanish press plays a determining role in creating intense debates about Catalan nationalism and fitting into Spain36. It also puts forward the thesis of fragmentation and the community conflict through the production of the image of a supposed “eternal immigrant” of invariable identity politically manipulated by the hegemonic political discourse. As it is pointed out in Fabricar l’immigrant (“Manufacturing the immigrant”) the immigrants that lived in peripheral socioeconomic conditions as “purified communities”37 in Catalonia responded to a reality of urban and economic segregation. This fact was presented as a supposed cultural problematic where mechanisms of conservation and transmission of the supposed specific symbolic universes of each identity would be transmitted. We will talk later about the cultural recreation of immigration, but first we need to mention the language debate of the 1980s. AP and PSA had belligerent attitudes to the language issue, in the drawing up of the Statute and the Act of Normalisation. The rest of political forces shared the perspective of the importance of the language acknowledgement and the role of the language as element of primary articulation. The PSA, who put itself forward as a clearly ethnicist party, generated an important debate regarding the new Statute, but also with 35 Francisco García, El Ideal de Blas Infante en Cataluña, propuestas para una historia del andalucismo en la emigración (Granada: Centro de Estudios históricos de Andalucía, 2007), p. 272. 36 Salvador Cardús, Política de Paper. Premsa i poder a Catalunya 1981-1992 (Barcelona: La Campana, 1995). 37 Richard Sennet, The Uses of Disorder: Personal Identity and City Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970).
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the Andalusian Statute, for its inability to acknowledge and preserve Andalusian citizenship of immigrants. They argued against the Catalan Statute with regard to the lack of recognition of the right of language and culture of immigrants and the assurance of the right to return, under the principles that not everyone who administratively live in Catalonia had to be Catalan. In 1979 the PSA of Aragon made a public appearance. They never joined together with the Andalusian PSA, although they shared political arguments38. The person at the head of the PSA in Aragon is Jiménez Losantos. And it was Jiménez Losantos, Amando de Miguel and a group of people linked to the administration in Catalonia who, in 1981 made a conflict of the language issue through the drawing up of the “Manifesto of the 2.300”39, with the support of the Spanish media and a systematic anti-Catalan and anti-nationalist campaign. That manifesto describes the Generalitat policy as a language imposition, arguing the supposed cultural marginalisation of three million people in Catalonia, a figure recreated in different scenarios as a symbol of the perfect bi-cultural arithmetic of the country. The language manifestos will be repeated in 1994 with a similar document En castellano también, por favor. Manifiesto por la tolerancia lingüística en Cataluña40 (“In Spanish too, please. Manifesto for language tolerance in Catalonia”) and the Manifiesto por la lengua común41 (“Manifesto for the common language”) bolstered by Fernando Savater in 2008. The Coordinadora de Afectados en defensa de la Lengua Castellana (“Coordinating committee in defence of the Castilian language”) (CADECA), and later the Foro Babel (“Babel Forum”) and the Asociación por la Tolerancia (“Association for tolerance”), platforms of the Spanish neo nationalism in Catalonia will become forums of this 38 PSA will not be the sole expression of Andalusist parties in Catalonia. The Frente Andaluz de Liberación (FAL) (“Andalusian Front of Liberation”) had a nationalist character, -reorganised in 1990 into Nación Andaluza (NA) (“Andalusian Nation”) or Liberación Andaluza (LA) (“Andalusian Liberation”). These groups kept broad cooperation ties with the independentist Catalan left wing, especially the PSAN. 39 Asociación por la tolerancia, “Manifiesto de los 2.300”. 10 October 2012 40 Asociación por la tolerancia, “En castellano también, por favor”, Manifiesto por la tolerancia lingüística en Cataluña. 10 October 2012 . 41 Asociación por la tolerancia, “Manifiesto por la lengua comun”. 10 October 2012 .
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discourse that reduces the cultural debate to the language; like the party Ciudadanos-Partit de la Ciutadania in 2005. The debate however, goes from the language issue to the model of cultural promotion which the Generalitat is undertaking42, and what type of cultural expressions become dominant under the nationalist paradigm, – another example of the tendency to turn the culture into an imagined element of dividing social structure. What’s more, from Catalan anti-nationalism there is a constant reductionist process based on a personalisation of the Nation in CiU and Pujol; while defending the idea of the existence of a clear cultural duality: the essentialist, traditionalist Catalan culture, which had to be confronted from the position of promoting an urban, cosmopolitan pan European non nationalist model. The bi-culturalist argument of cultural fragmentation cannot be imagined without a bulk of population that gives sense to the symbolic recreation of a cultural apartheid in Catalonia. In line with this idea we put forward the third explanatory element of our work hypothesis: immigration has been thought of politically as a mummified identitarian body – and multiculturalism will be the expression of this concept – which is useful to build the discourse of fragmentation. We call this the image of the eternal immigrant, as someone alien to the new reality, who systematically will reproduce the cultural patterns of their place of origin, permanently differentiated for a cultural reason.
6. The production of a notion of monolithic immigration The projection or “manufacturing” of the immigrant is a subject studied in sociological and anthropological studies about migration43. As we 42 For an approximation to the debates on the language and culture, see: Salvador Giner, La cultura catalana: el sagrat i el profà (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1996); Salvador Cardús, “Política de paper...”; Josep Santesmases, Els processos migratoris a les terres de parla catalana. De l’època medieval a l’actualitat. Actes del VII Congrés de la CCEPC (València 16, 17 i 18 d’octubre de 2008) (Valls: Cossetània, 2009); Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat... 43 John Rex, Ethnic mobilisation in a multicultural Europe (Aldershot: Avebury, 1994); Manuel Delgado, Ciutat i immigració (Barcelona: Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona, 1997); Teun Van Dijk, Racismo y análisis crítico de los medios
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mentioned before, during the second half of the 20th Century Jordi Pujol would be the first person in Catalonia to open the way for the public production of the notion of immigrant. We have attempted to synthesise how in the period of resumption of democracy and consolidation of the self government the public discourses of the political parties include the migration issue through culturalist discourses, as a reflection of their political framework of reference: immigration is the mirror of national self-understanding, of re-conceptualisation and re-definition of whom we think the national community is made of. Therefore, immigration is a direct enquiry on how we define our national identity: in reference to Spain or through the understanding of the Catalan differential reality. Thus, the use of immigration by the dominating ideological apparel is a resort to symbolic violence to generate discourses of power. The moment we explain the immigrant as a static body, this social production of the immigrant helps us or stops us from producing the political framework of reference, whichever one it is. During the 1980s and 1990s, CiU uses and reproduces the direct association of suburban population with Andalusianism, and the latter with working class, in its political discourse. But the production of this image of immigration is equally exploited by PSC and so is the idea that origin determines the cultural identity44. The collective Crisol (promoted by Francisco Hidalgo former member of PSA and Josep Maria Sala from PSC)45, according to its agenda, was a group born within the socialist party with the wish to generate spaces of exchange in the relationships between cultures to avoid the risk of cultural conflict. The group Els altres andalusos (“The other Andalusians”) have highlighted on various occasions the contradiction of the socialist discourse46. If on the one hand, the (Barcelona: Paidos, 2003); Verena Stolcke, “Cuando el racismo se convierte en pantalla de la explotación”, S.O.S. Racismo, Informe Anual 2000 sobre el racisme a l’Estat espanyol (Barcelona: Icaria, 2000); Stephen Castles, Alastair Davidson, Citizenship and migration: globalization and the politics of belonging (New York: Routledge, 2000). 44 Miguel Fernández, Fabricar l’immigrant..., p. 95. 45 Just like PSC commissioned Josep Maria Sala the relationship with immigrants, his counterpart in CiU was Antoni Comas. Nowadays Angel Colom is the person in charge of Immigration in the latter political party. 46 About the role played by the collective Crisol: D’una banda, quan parla de cultura catalana planteja un descrèdit envers l’essencialisme, critica una visió reductora i retrògrada de la cultura i assenyala que allò que confereix catalanitat a la cultura
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wish of Crisol and the political discourse of PSC was to break away from the image of conflict, talking about “risks” turned out not to be the best way to convey this message. Moreover, if the wish was to break away from the projection of Catalanness defined by a very determined set of cultural elements, the continuous reference to the need or to the right to reproduce the immigrants’ culture of origin ended up portraying it as monolithic. Catalan essentialism was criticised, but the ties to the immigrants’ territorial and cultural origin were portrayed as organic; for the following generation also. Another space of culturalist reproduction in the same terms are the regional cultural houses and their managing organism, the Federation of Andalusian Cultural Institutions in Catalonia (FECAC) created in 1982 and known for being the organising federation of Feria d’Abril in Barcelona. Both CiU and PSC care about keeping and financing cultural institutions based on origin, with the idea that they contain an ethnic and cultural vote that turns folklore into a political issue. In this case the collective Els altres andalusos (“The other Andalusians”) make a strong criticism of the existence of such manipulated platforms, product of a dumbing-down logic of being Andalusian following the wish of the PSA of generating an axis Andalusia-Catalonia47. We share their reflections, as Franco’s regime used Andalusian folklore to uniform the whole of Spanish popular cultures. The model of cultural reproduction of these institutions – and of expressions such as Feria d’Abril, which seek to visualise an aesthetic and symbolic polarisation – end up recreating the same Francoist imaginary through the sieve of the model of mass culture that promotes the most superficial side of culture, and és el present i no el passat, la ciutadania i no el territori. De l’altra, però, emfatitza el vincle de la cultura de població immigrada amb un territori i un passat, i ignora quan convé que les manifestacions culturals anomenades foranes no han estat màgicament transportades en l’espai i el temps, sinó reelaborades en un medi social i cultural concret (“On the one hand, when speaking about Catalan culture he places a disrepute towards essentialism, criticises a reductionist and retrograde vision of culture and points out that what gives Catalanness to culture is the present, not the past, it is citizenship, not the territory. On the other hand, it puts emphasis on the bond of immigrant people’s culture with a territory and a past, and conveniently ignores that cultural manifestation called outsider have not been magically transported through space and time, but re-elaborated in a particular social and cultural environment”). Miguel Fernández, “Fabricar l’immigrant...”, p. 99. 47 Lluís Cabrera, Catalunya serà impura o no serà (Barcelona: Pòrtic, 2010).
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projects the existence of Andalusians in Catalonia or the mummification of the Andalusians who came in the 1950s, and are living in Catalonia in 2012. The multi culturalist and postmodern argument will be reflected in the institutional policies promoting stagnant cultural artefacts that wipe out more important identity and social issues from the public sphere through cultural leisure and theme-parking. A last significant example related to Feria d’Abril and FECAC: The Federation, symbolically, has reproduced through the years the idea that 3 million people attend the Feria, a significant figure to feed the imaginary of half of the Catalan population, and the recreated polarisation from different spheres as we saw from different examples. In 1983 even the FECAC threatened to collect one million signatures to write off the act of Language Normalisation; however, since 1982 until today the political class has not ceased to finance these types of expressions that generate the portrait of support to “Andalusianness”, although resorting to the cultural and territorial origin has been used according to the political convenience and the electoral moment. The cultural ethnification or culturalist reductionism, as we have tried to explain, has not taken place from a unique position or in a unitary sense. The ideological apparel of Spain through the press, their keen intellectuals and the Spanish political class have equally reproduced a monolithic image of immigration under a closed idea of Spanishness and excluding identities. This ethnicist conception has been reproduced until today, for example, with the declarations by Javier Arenas on language normalization in January 2011 where he said: Seremos beligerantes si a un niño andaluz se le intenta obligar a estudiar en otra lengua distinta a lasuya o si algún andaluz no puede acceder a un empleo por estar formado en castellano, o sea, en español. Seremos beligerantes, sin duda ninguna. We will be belligerent if an Andalusian child is forced to study in a language different from their own, or if an Andalusian does not get a job because he has been educated in Castilian, that is, Spanish. We will be belligerent, for sure48.
Cultural reductionism not only happened in one direction, it was used when referring to the cultures of origin of immigrants but also in the symbolic representation of Catalanism. The concept of cultureta (“little 48 Mariano Rajoy: “España tiene sed de urnas”, La Vanguardia (24 January 2011), p. 10. (“Spain is thirsty for ballot boxes”).
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culture”) that we mentioned before is an example, and also the desire to explain Catalanness according to a series of very folklorised conservative values. Intellectuals close to the Spanish nationalist apparatus reproduced in a significant manner the argument of contempt of Catalanism. We can find significant writings by Pep Subirós, Félix de Azúa, Xavier Pericay or Miquel Porta Perales49. On a different level, Jaume Lorés states that the PSC inflamed the rhetoric in the meetings in areas with a high presence of immigrants using a clash between the nationalist Catalanism and their option guaranteeing social plurality. These are just various expressions at different intensities of the same determinist production of cultural based identities.
7. The culturalist pathway at a deadlock? Some conclusions for the present The field of national identities is not an easy one to work in. Within the national identity there are multiple identitarian journeys or simultaneous identities at crossroads between cultural, educational, language, territorial and economic aspects; local, national and transnational ways of life, etc. in the context of today’s globalised reality. This group of factors, and many others, determine the symbolic aspects of our identities with a narrative character. In a post modern understanding identity in individual or personal terms is the possibility of articulating and changing our own identity coordinates. But the dialogic dimension of identities is often forgotten, that is, the identity that is exclusively recreated in relation to the other significances and the spaces of domination and power. Today’s philosophical debates about individual and collective rights and duties fully incorporate these issues. A series of challenges are posed for social cohesion in order to ensure the protection of the rights of individuals and the promotion of an undiscriminating equality. The institutional management and accommodation of these issues has taken different names; today this is known
49
Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat..., p. 127.
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as policies of acknowledgement50. But the truth is that the lack of cultural neutrality of the States and their institutions is reproduced through a constant action of symbolic violence51, in our case this takes place through the 50 In order to understand the concept of “Politics of Recognition” we need to revise the theoretical contribution of: Honneth Axel, Crítica del poder: fases en la reflexión de una teoría crítica de la sociedad (Madrid: Machado Libros, 2009); Charles Taylor, El Multiculturalismo y “la política del reconocimiento” (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2009); Nancy Fraser, ¿Redistribución o reconocimiento?: un debate político-filosófico (Madrid: Morata, 2006); Iris Young, La justicia y la política de la diferencia (Madrid: Cátedra, 1990), among others. According to the argumentative line explained in this paper, the move of the class struggle into the field of identities and culture entails a new analytical paradigm of inequalities. The policies of acknowledgement, following this premise, deal with the analysis and intervention in conflicts of cultural domination. In our view this new paradigm is fully compatible with the redistributive paradigm and therefore, the social practices that we analyse need to be approached in relation to the economic and the cultural arenas (also called the difference). Post-modernity has increased the importance of the symbolic factors and this makes social conflicts more complex due to the crossed dynamics that take place inside them. The politics of difference seek the defence of individual equality from the acknowledgement of the group logics ad dimension. It is a policy of acknowledgement of the difference that offers equal opportunities in the logic of representation and access to the public space. As Kymlicka says, these are not sufficient for the equitable representation of the differences of the rights of individuals (Will Kymlicka, Ciutadania multicultural una teoria liberal dels drets de les minories (Barcelona: Proa, 1999). 51 According to Bourdieu, symbolic violence “constitutes the main mechanism of social reproduction and the most powerful means to maintain social order” (Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 45). From various institutional arenas and effective social actions, the legitimate dominant culture is imposed and this takes place through different strategies of domination: un efecte del que jo anomeno violència simbòlica, violència suau, insensible i invisible per a les mateixes víctimes, la qual és exercida, essencialment, per les vies purament simbòliques de la comunicació i el coneixement o, en última instància, el sentiment. Aquesta relació social extraordinàriament ordinària ofereix, doncs, una ocasió privilegiada de copsar la lògica de la dominació exercida en nom d’un principi simbòlic conegut i reconegut tant pel dominant com pel dominat, una llengua (o una pronuncia) i, més en general, una característica distintiva – emblema o estigma – (“an effect of what I call symbolic violence, soft violence, insensitive and invisible for the victims themselves, exerted essentially through the purely symbolic means of communication and knowledge or, ultimately, the emotions. This extremely ordinary relationship offers thus a privileged chance of grasping the logic of domination exerted in the name of a symbolic principle known and recognised by the
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relationship between politics and culture: this is, from our point of view the politicisation of cultural realities and the culturalisation of politics. Going back to the hypothesis proposed at the beginning, we have considered that Spanish immigration has been one of the articulating and codifying axis of the reality of Catalan identity in the 20th Century, and an element of the symbolic struggle for dominating the hegemony and control of the contemporary narratives of power. Immigration has been thought of as a codifier of a cultural conflict that, in our point of view, is a political conflict. The culturalist importance in the debate on identities makes sense in Catalonia because the country does not have instruments of national construction, and this takes the action to the culturalist arena, to the point of overloading it. The moment we put the emotional and sentimental mechanisms at a stake, the conflict’s transcendence is less latent and more intensified because it becomes personal. The ethno symbolic components of identity – that at the same time are the emotional ones, as they are the issues with which we categorise ourselves – concentrate the public debates: language, values, myths, signs, symbols, tastes, customs, etc. Our first conclusion is that this phenomenon is the one that persuaded us so far that the pathway of incorporation into the Nation, the elements that make possible the national identification, are culturalist elements; the “myth of the language pathway and the culturalist approach”52 characteristic of the Catalan imaginary. Thus, for example, the national project is dominator as by the dominated, a language (or a pronunciation) and, more generally speaking, a distinctive characteristic – emblem or stigma –”). Jordi Busquet, Pierre Bourdieu, la vida com a combat (Barcelona: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 2011), p. 85. Symbolic violence is exerted through a continuous process of socialisation with a world of significances, a symbolic world where the dominated voluntarily reproduce the themes of their domination: li imposa una coerció que s’institueix per mitjà del reconeixement extorsionat que el dominat no pot deixar de prestar al dominant ja que no disposa, per pensar-lo i pensar-se, més que d’instruments de coneixement que té en comú amb ell i que no són cap altra cosa que la forma incorporada de la relació de domini (“imposes a coercion instituted through the distorted acknowledgement that the dominated cannot stop giving the dominator as he does not have any other instruments of knowledge that those in common, and these are the incorporated form of the domination relationship”). Pierre Bourdieu, La dominación masculina (Barcelona: Anagrama, 1998), p. 54. 52 Antoni Estradé, Montserrat Treserra, Catalunya independent? Anàlisi de l’enquesta sobre la identitat nacional i la voluntat d’independència dels catalans (Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill, 1990).
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fully identified with the linguistic project to this day, and this, although it may be a myth, is still a political argument in force and therefore, real. Regarding the question of the pathways of national incorporation by immigration, our view is that the fundamental explanatory element is social mobilisation. In Catalonia this has been made possible through two realities: the existence of numerous mixed marriages and the system’s capacity to generate mobility, known as the social ladder53. This consideration is not new or a mere intuition. Already in 1988 a survey on national identity and the wish for independence of Catalan people was carried out. Estradé and Treserra, authors of the survey, pointed out that cultural integration, which was obviously necessary, was in fact the last step towards a national sense of belonging and that a truly effective model necessarily encompassed a political pathway that, far from recreating aesthetic, historical or folklorical sentiments, would create practical effective and affective sense of belonging. That is, by promoting democratic, welfare, freedom and justice measures. In short, measures for practical everyday life and for the whole population, regardless of their origin54. The process of identification with an emotional community in Catalonia has clearly got these characteristics through the political events in recent years: the relationships with Spain in recent years with the amendments to the New Statute by the Constitutional Court – which has become a deadlock for the relationship with Spain –, and the perception of a highly aggressive discourse from the Spanish media and the growing awareness of the fiscal plundering. These elements have stirred the current growing wish for independence. The wish for independence does not respond to strictly culturalist motivations any more, it is now extended to more diverse sectors of the population. For instance, Catalans from a 53 The study Educació i mobilitat social a Catalunya (Education and social mobility in Catalonia) by the Bofill Foundation points out that until the end of 2005 there have been three positive tendencies within the system of social stratification in Catalonia: high absolute mobility, social and meritocratic fluidity in the distribution of equal opportunities through education as the main criterion of stratification and a levelling effect of the stratification thanks to the existence of middle classes that add up to 48% of the social destination of social ascent from working class, farming and immigrant origins (Xavier Martínez, Antoni Marin, Educació i mobilitat social a Catalunya (Barcelona: Fundació Bofill, 2010), p. 218). See also the explanation of the social ascent with restrictions at both ends. 54 Mariona Lladonosa, La construcció de la catalanitat..., p. 129.
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Spanish origin who perceive continuous aggressions in the central government discourses and actions against their personal effort to achieve welfare, work and economy, through their experience of social mobility on the social ladder, are aware of their own fiscal plundering. This group of transforming factors does not mean that the classical elements of national identification such as language, territory, cultural expressions or values are not equally important for their binding capacity. The production of a symbolic shared space is also basic but changing; mass culture and the communication space play a central role in this 21st Century in the incorporation and transmission of new values, adding a glocalist component to the national identities in this game of personalisation55. The importance of generating a common symbolic space is precisely why we need to turn immigration into a place for the memory of Catalanism56. The present paper has followed up the way in which immigration has become one of the fundamental structuring vertebrae of the reality of identity; we have seen how the electoral use of this reality has taken us to a biased narrative of immigration. We now have the challenge of generating a differential narrative with the 21st Century immigration, which has not been exploited for the little electoral yield that they represent yet; although unfortunately, we find too many examples of discursive racism related to this contingent with differentiated characteristics from the case explained. To speak about it would demand a paper of its own. But communitarian and extra-communitarian immigration – which at its peak moment represented nearly 18% of the Catalan population – raises a transcendental question for the future of the country: experience shows us how the national incorporation depends on the possibility of experiencing social mobility. If we take into account the country’s political, cultural and institutional history, together with the fact that there has not been an investment in social and redistribution policies comparable to other European countries, this makes social fluidity hard to explain in 55 Joaquim Capdevila, “Communitas i catalanisme. La substitució de la ‘communitas’ en la tradició del catalanisme: del llibre a internet”, Projectes nacionals, identitats i relacions Catalunya-Espanya, Ramon Arnabat, Antonio C. Gavaldà, eds. (Catarroja: Afers, 2012), pp. 101-114, 56 Salvador Cardús, “La immigració com a lloc de memòria nacional”, Ausa, 23/159 (2007), p. 7-13; Salvador Cardús, Tres metàfores per pensar un país amb futur (Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 2009).
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our case through the conventional tools of analysis of social dynamics. However, in a situation of economic crisis and chronic unemployment like the one we have undergone since 2008, what are the possibilities of climbing the social ladder within our society? What will be the effects in the reproduction of the Catalan pathway of incorporation into the Nation? The question of the class struggle will probably be given a central role in the political objectives for the national construction of the country that’s coming into view.
Hashtag Identity: Semiotics of The Spanish 15M Protest Laura Menna Universitat de Barcelona
Introduction “The electronic medium […] presents us with a channel which facilitates and constraints our ability to communicate in ways that are fundamentally different from those found in other semiotic situations”1. We believe that the description and analysis of these ways and means are an increasingly urgent task to which linguists are called. Therefore, it is justified a study on the Twitter resources within the CMC (Computer-Mediated Communication). Twitter recycles existing resources and generates new ones, within the latter, the most relevant and peculiar due to its semantic and pragmatic burden, its communicative potential, its formal and innovative functional features is the hashtag. As an example for the analysis, there are taken the hashtags used by the movement called 15M extracted from a corpus made for the occasion. The social role of the movement throughout the last two years in Spain, its international diffusion via the Internet (which achieved virality) and the strategic use of social networks like Twitter, seem good reasons for choosing these users as good examples of a particular use and of an increasingly widespread Twitter: the citizen journalism. The description is intended to show how this semiotic element “#”, icon of the virtual organization of the 15M discourse, has been converted into a metaphor of the global and social organization that proclaims the movement. Hashtags are a dual organizational and ideological tool, which the 15M has taken – following the Arab Spring school – as a symbol of identity of the denunciation and debate, and has been able to exploit their communicative possibilities.
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David Crystal, Language and the Internet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 5.
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The theoretical basis of the analysis is primarily framed in studies on Computer-Mediated Communication, CMC2, to define the communicative framework. Ideas and concepts will be taken from the field of Pragmatics3, and more specifically from its specialization known as cyberpragmatics4 or what could be called analysis of the electronic discourse, or what Herring defines as “Computer-Mediated Discourse”5. As for the general framework some key ideas of Sociology of Communication and Technology will be taken6. This is the last theoretical framework of the
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3
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David Crystal, Language and the Internet…; David Crystal, Txtng: The Gr8 Db8 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Susan C. Herring, Computer-Mediated Communication: Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Pragmatics and Beyond series (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1996); Susan C. Herring, “Computermediated discourse”, The handbook of discourse analyses, Deborah Tannen, Deborah Schiffrin, Heidi Hamilton, eds. (Oxford: Blackwell. 2001); Mar Cruz Piñol, “Un nuevo medio de comunicación: la Internet. Su utilidad en el mundo de las lenguas”, La lengua y los medios de comunicación: actas del Congreso Internacional celebrado en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid en 1996, Joaquín Cesar Garrido, coord. (Madrid: Servicio de Comunicaciones de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1999), vol. 2, pp. 558-564; Mar Cruz Piñol, “‘El Portfolio Europeo’. Recursos en Internet para la elaboración de actividades”, Carabela, 60 (2007), pp. 99-108; Maria Helena Araújo, Silvia Melo, “Del caos a la creatividad: los chats entre lingüistas y didactas”, Nuevos géneros discursivos: Los textos electrónicos, Covadonga López, Arlette Séré, eds. (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2003), pp. 45-62. Dan Sperber, Deirdre Wilson, La relevancia. Comunicación y procesos cognitivos (Madrid: Visor, 1994); Jean-Claude Anscombre, Oswald Ducrot, La argumentación en la lengua (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1994); Diana Bravo, Antonio Briz Gómez, Pragmática sociocultural: estudios sobre el discurso de cortesía en español (Madrid: Ariel, 2004). Francisco Yus, Ciberpragmática 2.0: Nuevos usos del lenguaje en Internet (Madrid: Ariel, 2010); Francisco Yus, Cyberpragmatics: Internet-Mediated Communication in Context (Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011). Susan C. Herring, “Computer-mediated discourse”, The handbook of discourse …, p. 1. Trevor J. Pinch, Wiebe E. Bijker, “The social construction of facts and artefacts: Or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other”, Social studies of science (London: Sage, 1984); Manuel Castells, The Information Age. Economy, Society and Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); Teun A. Van Dijk, Ideología. Una aproximación multidisciplinaria (Barcelona-Buenos Aires: Gedisa, 1999); Joan Mayans, “La política de los nombres en la cibersociedad. Dimensiones analíticas, políticas y sociales del concepto de ciberespacio”, Cultura digital y movimientos sociales, Igor Sábada, Ángel Gordo, coords. (Madrid: Los libros de la Catarata, 2008).
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present research since it permits to consider the use of the new Information and Communication Technologies as a mechanism of social organization. Technological structures are neither an isolated event nor property of technocratic elite, but evolve together with social structures as they are transformed at the same time, responding to their needs while they suggest and modify their ways of expression.
1. Network Society as Framework of Possibilities During the decade of the 90’s, leading researchers in the field of sociology and communication sciences began to theorize on the changes in the (infra)structure of information and its relation to the social changes of the global village at the beginning of the XXI century. The “network society” concept was popularized by the great sociologist Manuel Castells in 1996. His researches coincide with the Dutchman Jan AGM van Dijk. According to the latter author, network societies are those modern and developed societies marked by a high level of exchange of information and by the use of ICT’s. The infrastructure of the network society is made up of the relationship between social, technological and media networks. For van Dijk, as well as for Castells, the distinctive feature of the network society is the exchange of information whose common denominator is a certain degree of autonomy: “The common denominator of the changes produced by the increasing information intensity of all activities is the semi-autonomous character of information processing”7. In a talk entitled Communication, Power and Democracy, Castells analyzed the current political situation in relation to the performance of the 15M movement, taking up again the ideas of his work of 2009 Communication Power. The relationship of these two elements is on the basis of the social dynamics power – counterpower, domination – resistance: “the control of communication and information has always been the fundamental form of exercising power”8. From this statement, he defines current politics as 7 8
Jan Van Dijk, The network society (London: Sage, 2006), p. 19. Manuel Castells, “Comunicación, poder y democracia”, YouTube, 06 May 2011, Public Lecture in Catalonia Square. 11 May 2011, .
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media politics that controls the discourse of mass media (radio, press, television…), thus what is shown in them is what exists and what does not, alternative discourses are made imperceptible. This situation has begun to change according to Castells, since changes in the structure of communication are taking place: to the extent that there is a change (organizational, technological…) in the communication environment, communication processes change and therefore, power structures change. The current communicative change represents, in the words of Castells, the passage of a system of mass media towards a system of mass self-communication across Internet and mobile networks, a system that he defines as the ability of people to send and select messages that are exchanged besides the possibility of organizing their own networks in an environment – Internet – in which contents, behavior and participants are determined autonomously. Following the ideas of these sociologists, it can be outlined the concept of “network society” according to three defining features: the (semi)autonomous exchange of information, the technological changes thanks to which that exchange occurs and the changes in the power structures resulting from it. Regarding the representative technological changes of the network society, there is the emergence of the “Web 2.0” or “participative web”, where technologies like Twitter are included. The participative web is that web in which, every day, thousands of people contribute online to the creation of public content. An anonymous Internet community that decides and edits what is seen on channels like YouTube, Wiki platforms and, blogs and microblogs that function as social networks. This profile of users facilitates and fosters active participation by creating and evaluating content, a fact that has emerged as a new feature of the society and the economy, as defined by the OECD. The most prominent concept to describe this evolution which uses the Internet’s inherent capabilities more extensively is called “participative web”. It represents an Internet increasingly influenced by intelligent web services based on new technologies empowering the user to be an increasing contributor to developing, rating, collaborating and distributing Internet content and developing and customising Internet applications9.
In essence, the novelty that the participative web introduces regarding message transmission is precisely the idea of user, a concept that was 9
Organisation For Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Participative Web: User-generated Content, Annual Report compiled by the OECD Committee for Information, Computer and Communications (Policy, 2007), p. 8. .
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displacing the idea of viewer or audience that traditional media (television, movies…) involved and that connoted certain passivity in its role against the transmission of information. 1.1. The Practicable Space When defining rigorously the concept of cyberspace, and to do so outside preconceptions that divert the debate to unproductive fields, results particularly relevant the reflections of Joan Mayans i Planells, a researcher of the Spanish Observatory for Cybersociety, about the terminology used to refer to the Internet world and its participants. The author discusses the conceptual dangers that entail certain customary nomenclatures in this field. Mayans intends to alert that technocentrism, in the conceptualization of the network society and its elements, is not representative of the social reality of the phenomenon: […] los diversos conceptos que usamos en las ciencias sociales están llenos de refe rencias y significados tecnocéntricos. Así, al utilizar palabras como Internet, (nuevas) tecnologías de la información (y de la comunicación)(TIC), o “comunicación mediada por ordenador” estamos dándole a la dimensión tecnológica un rol de protagonista principal en la enunciación y, por tanto, en la construcción del fenómeno (social)10. […] the different concepts that we use in social sciences are full of technocentric references and meanings. Therefore, in using words such as Internet, (new) Information (and Communication) Technologies) ICT), or ‘Computer Mediated Communication’, we are giving a leading role to the technological dimension and, thus, to the construction on the (social) phenomenon in the enunciation.
He also considers important to note that the adjective “virtual” added to expressions of the Internet-user field, entails the mistake of countering it to its conceptual antonym “real” which operates in the collective imaginary. Through this cognitive process, virtual is understood as unreal and it is provided with negative connotations. The author does not consider appropriate to talk about “cyberculture” for that very reason and because it places the relationship between technology and social practice at a lower level or, at least, 10 Joan Mayans, “La política de los nombres en la cibersociedad. Dimensiones analíticas, políticas y sociales del concepto de ciberespacio”, Cultura digital y movimientos sociales, Igor Sábada, Ángel Gordo, coords. (Madrid: Los Libros de la Catarata, 2008), p. 104.
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secondary and alternative; a subculture connotating less practice or belonging to a minority group. So, in view of the notion of cyberculture and cybersociety, he proposes the notion of “cyberspace” that would include social relations that occur online and offline. Examples of cyberspaces would be a chat, the mobile phone network, the GPS satellite network, video games, etc., where the main feature is not technology but the non-materiality and practicability, which are better suitable dimensions for sociological analysis: […] la noción de ciberespacio se fundamenta analíticamente a partir de dos características definitorias: su no materialidad física y su condición de espacio practicado…concepción de la realidad como híbrida y protagonizada por diversas categorías ontológicas de agentes (máquinas, personas, vínculos, espacios digitales, etc.) […] empuja a un tipo de análisis sociocéntrico11. […] the notion of cyberspace is analytically based on two defining features: its non physical materiality and its condition of practicable space […] conception of reality as hybrid and starred by various ontological categories of agents (machines, people, links, digital spaces, etc.) […] pushing towards a sociocentric type of analysis.
It is believed that the so-defined cyberspace coincides with the ideal space in which is developed the network society, since both concepts focus on the social dimension of technological phenomena within a set of changes. The use of 2.0 technologies, like the one here analyzed, is framed in this space whose defining features are therefore its non physical materiality, the fact of being socially practiced and the necessary sociocentric focus that Mayans claims. It is in this space where the social practice is developed by users of the participative web: an exchange of contents that are created, edited, selected and evaluated by their own consumers. The participative web, therefore, is starred by its users which become the creators and publishers of contents flowing through collaborative platforms. Such contents with personal, creative and amateur slant are known as UGC (User-Generated Contents) or UCC (User-Created Contents). Users also become promoters and evaluators of UGC’s as the OECD study points out: “The rise of usercreated content (UCC) or the so-called ‘rise of the amateur creator’ is one of the main features of the so-called participative web […] A central aspect is also that users recommend and rate content”12. 11 Joan Mayans, “La política de los nombres en la cibersociedad…”, p. 113. 12 Organisation For Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Participative Web…, p. 8.
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UGC can be characterized depending on three defining marks defined by the OECD, despite the complex and broad concept and considering that these features make a spectrum of possibilities and not a closed definition. Firstly, request of its publication in an accessible website, social network or other digital site. Secondly, its creative imprint and finally, its creation outside routines and professional practices, that is, UGC’s are born in another social sphere of the user that is not exactly the labor-professional one, although they end up being related to it. The emergence of UGC’s is motivated by a number of factors of different nature (social, economic, legal, institutional and technological) from which it can be contextualized the use and success of Twitter. As it was said, the technology is not the only thing that determines a change in communication but, above all, communication is what is transformed according to other transformations within the social, economic and cultural order. Advances in technology allow the development of transformations either parallel or uneven. Thus, for example, the technological increase of the bandwidth went hand in hand with an every time more economic cost of the Internet connection, yet facilitating the access. Among social factors, the OECD indicates the growth in the young population towards a will for self-expression and creativity in media providing more interactivity than the traditional ones. Furthermore the idea of community and collaborative projects in society shaped the social scene for the emergence of the participative web and its contents.
2. The Values Added Socially In the same sociological line of understanding technology within the dimension of its social and cultural implications, it is necessary to redefine the notion of “artefact” as an ontological category. The concept of technological artefact comes from the model of the Social Construction of Technology (SCT). An important contribution to this model is the work presented by Bijker & Pinch which, in understanding by artefact the material products as well as their process of production, states the following thesis: “Technological innovation are socially constructed, that is, we claim
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that the ‘evolution’ of the technological artefacts depends on the shifts in meanings attached to them by social groups that developed and interact”13. For authors, the meaning added to artefacts by the different social groups has a central role in the technological development and allows understanding it as a process of variation and selection of problems and solutions. As a result, the central features of a conceptual framework intended for explaining the social factors involved in technological development, from a social perspective, are: the artefacts, the meanings attached to them by various social groups involved in its development and the social relationships between these social groups. The interesting thing about these bonds is that the social interpretation of artefacts determines their evolution and that interpretation is born from the relationships that exist between human groups involved, as explained: […] el vector causal va de la sociedad a la tecnología pero no viceversa: la dirección específica de una innovación determinada es la consecuencia de los significados atribuidos a las distintas alternativas de acción, y estos últimos son el resultado de los procesos sociales entre las distintas personas ligadas al destino de la innovación en cuestión […] no sólo los procesos sociales ejercen influencia en el desarrollo tecnológico, sino que este último también tiene efectos en el devenir de las relaciones entre los seres humanos14. [...] the causal vector goes from the society to the technology, but not vice versa: the specific address of a particular innovation is the result of the meanings attributed to the various options for action, and the latter are the result of social processes between different people linked to the fate of the innovation in question [...] not only the social processes influence in technological development, but the latter also has an impact on the future of relations between human beings.
It is totally relevant, for the present study, the idea of meaning added socially to technology that decides the future of its progress, that r einforces the previously said about parallel progresses between s ocial structures and communication; supports the idea of ownership and redefinition of the hashtags as the symbol of the 15M and vehicle of its political discourse, and completes the non-material landscape of cyberspace.
13 Trevor J. Pinch, Wiebe E. Bijker, “The social construction of facts and artefacts: Or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other”, Social studies of science (London: Sage, 1984), pp. 399-441. 14 Pablo Boczkowski, “Acerca de las relaciones entre la(s) sociología(s) de la ciencia y de la tecnología: pasos hacia dinámica de mutuo beneficio”, Redes, 8 (1996), p. 202.
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The technological evolution of Twitter is a good example of a social redesign of the technology. In late 2009, the characteristic question in Twitter’s interface What are you doing? changed to What’s happening?, as a consequence of a use of Twitter not designed by its creators but by its own users who began to use the network beyond the personal sphere. As Yus mentions it is “…a typical phenomenon of ICT’s: that they are re-designed by users according to patterns and needs that were not predicted by the original designers of these technologies”15. During the controversial elections in Iran in 2008, citizens of the country used Twitter as a channel for the dissemination of what happened outside the mainstream media. Twitter was becoming a large-scale channel of communication and expansion of news. It was born then one of the most interesting uses of Twitter: the citizen journalism, mixture of news, opinion, subjectivity and objectivity. It was defined by the OECD as “Journalistic reporting on current events done by ordinary citizens. Such citizens write news stories, blog posts, and take photos or videos of current events and post them online”16. Since then, various social groups began to reinterpret Twitter as a powerful tool for mass organization and communication. The 15M as well as the insurgency movements in recent years around the world, whose pioneers are in the Arab World, are clear cases of social groups organized around cyberspace that redesign 2.0 technologies as political artefacts; that is to say, adding values related to citizen representation and participation, protest, the transmission of collective messages, thus achieving the creation of alternative identities and the emancipation of the official media.
3. Semiotics of The Protest In 2009, as a writing style of Twitter itself, the tag began to be used for topics of international significance with the Iranian election protests. Since then, Twitter designers started to transform hashtags into hyperlinks that 15 Francisco Yus, Cyberpragmatics: Internet-Mediated Communication in Context (Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011), p. 136. 16 Organisation For Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Participative Web…, p. 15.
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rescued recent tweets tagged as so. Therefore, hashtags of the new generation are born, they are no longer a simple classifier but they become the new headlines of citizen journalism. The values and nuances that Twitter users have assigned to hashtags have made these to transcend the category of metadata to become a semiotic category that meets more complex functions. The evolution of the hashtags on Twitter has allowed, among other things, to follow the pace of the social events reported by the citizens that star them, that organize information, connect users, tweets and other topics by means of other hashtags. They are now a symbol of the network organization, “…a sign that favours collective action on the Net”17. Moreover they have also become a mini space for creativity, inventiveness, humor and direct speech that, in the case of the 15M, has been used to condense ideology, transmit political discourse, trigger debate and guide the protest. 3.1. Observation Through The Corpus The corpus tries to show how the discourse of the Spanish plazas has condensed in hashtags for a period of three days: from May 12th to May 15th 2012, date of the first anniversary of the movement. By making a software programmed in Java18, it was searched the material within the corpus as follows: selection of tweets of the user @democraciareal within days 5/12-15/2012 (a total of 812 tweets); once obtained, there were e xtracted all user names appearing in them, either because they are mentioned or because their messages were retweeted (figure 1). From the list o btained, there were chosen the 12 users that had the highest frequency of occurrence and there were extracted the tweets within the same period of time of each of them. The corpus is made up of a total of 4315 tweets, of which all hashtags have been extracted totaling 524 (figure 2). Through this, it was managed to capture a small network, within the larger network of the 15M in this media that was a representative sample of the functioning of hashtags, as well as the organization of the information of the movement and its followers. It is believed that these data are sufficient to set up a small relational database that illustrates the communicative concepts analyzed.
17 Francisco Yus, Cyberpragmatics…, p. 143. 18 Programmed and designed by Victor Viña, Interaction Designer.
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Figure 1.
Figure 2.
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3.1.1. The Stating Level The hashtags work within the chain of tweets that string together as communicative nodes, as discourse markers, organizing news, channeling the flow of tweets, triggering debates, encouraging opinions, creativity and the movement propaganda. Within this level, a tag cannot be subjected to a simple decoding process which would be insufficient for its full interpretation. As relevant elements within the discourse of the 15M in Twitter, the hashtags require to undergo an inferential process, according to the steps that Yus points out following the pragmatic model of Sperber & Wilson: assignment of referents, disambiguation, conceptual adjustment, assignation of an attitude to the author and free enrichment. The polysemy, irony and humor of a tag as # YesWeCamp claims an active attitude of the interlocutor that is often translated into the virality of the tag as a product of the ideological empathy. Some of the organizational and ideological values that carry out the hashtags of the present corpus can be seen in the following table: VALUES
EXAMPLES
Bridges between cyberspace and urban space
#abretuwifi
Organization of the protest
#12Mbcn, #12MMad, #12MGlobal, #marchanorte, #salamanca, #tenerife,
Political slogans
#nosvanaoir #yonopago #notenemosmiedo #sisepuede #12MYovoy
Political claims
#puigdimision #niuneuromas #lauralibertad #dacionpagoya
Citizen calls
#tomalacacerola #cierratucuenta #hagamoscomoislandia
Denunciations
#represion #precariedad #verguenza #poblacionindignada
Reports
#deslojosol #volvemosalas5 #cosasdeplaza
Humor
#SomosMuchoMasDivertidosQueDeGuindos
3.1.2. The Statement Level Inside the tweet, hashtags function as syntactic elements embedded in the statement. They present a high level of lexicalization/grammaticalization
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making them independent units of meaning and, in turn, their formal flexibility allows them moving within the statement with a multifunctional level of insertion. Hashtags can go beyond the level of the word even beyond the purely linguistic level, definable only as a new hybrid category semantically and pragmatically relevant. FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLES
Phrase embedded in the sentence as part of a larger one
Crónica del #desalojosol
Subordinate clause
esto merece que #volvamosalas5
Full unit of meaning (tweet)
#12M15M
Syntax composed of hashtags
#14Msisepuede juzgar a #politíticos y #banqueros
Sentence composed by hashtags
# 12Mmani # 12Mglobal # feliz12M
Conclusions Over ten years ago, intuition allowed David Crystal to raise questions on what is now shown as a field of fruitful studies, some of which find an important echo in what it was tried to be answered in this paper: “What happens, linguistically, when the members of the human race use a technology enabling any of them to be in routine contact with anyone else?”19. Far from covering the answer, it has been seen how a particular community establishes that contact by means of a particular technology; through the creation of a new semiotic resource: hashtags. The results of the observation of the corpus allow reaffirming the ideas of the thesis here presented: as a consequence of the social redesign realized by certain social groups, Twitter becomes a political artefact. Within this practice, hashtags go from being simple metadata to hallmarks of different social protest discourses as the Spanish 15M. Citizen journalism is the discursive genre to which these movements are circumscribed in their 19 David Crystal, Language…, p. 17.
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actions in the cyberspace and through 2.0 tools. Hashtags then become semiotic units of relevant pragmatic information presenting formal and semantic innovations that, together with the values added socially, acquire syntactic and discursive autonomy. So, considered as a fact, the appropriation of Twitter on behalf of the 15M movement is lucidly defined in the following quote: El lenguaje de los ordenadores es radicalmente diferencial porque no ha sido una apropiación lúdica […] atestigua la propia convicción del movimiento: la organización horizontal, el mundo interconectado, la participación inmediata, la transparencia del código abierto […] la libre circulación de la información20. Computer language is radically different because it was not a festive appropriation […] it proves the movement’s own conviction: horizontal organization, interconnected world, immediate participation, transparency of the open code […] free flow of information.
20 Raúl Minchinela, Realismo Sucio: Lemas y consignas en el movimiento 15M, Lecture in Contemporary Culture Center of Barcelona. July, 15th 2011, < http://vimeo. com/27147951>.
Front Pages of the Spanish and Catalan Press on the Demonstration of September 11th, 2012: Illustrating a National Identity or a Nationalist Farce? Mariona Visa Universitat de Lleida
Introduction The demonstration “Catalonia, new state of Europe” organized by the National Assembly of Catalonia on the Catalan National Day of 2012 brought together a huge number of Catalans. As it often happens in large demonstrations, it is difficult to know the precise number of demonstrators. Figures vary considerably according to the source that provides the data, being one and a half million according to the Catalan police and 600,000 according to the government delegation. What is clear is that it was one of the largest ones that have taken place in our country. The other really large demonstrations in recent Catalan history were the demonstration for the Statute of 1977 (1.2 million) and the demonstration “We are a nation. We decide” in 2010 (1.1 million according to the police). The perception that the treatment Catalonia receives from the central government in Madrid is unjust caused masses to take to the streets. The tax grievance has greatly increased the number of separatists in Catalonia. The Sunday after the demonstration, Madrid newspapers published in their Sunday supplements surveys that proved that the pro-independence sentiment is shared by the majority of Catalans. The largest survey, of 2,000 Catalans, was carried out by GESOP for Telecinco, with the following results: 76% would accept a self-determination referendum, of which 50.9% would vote in favor of the independence and only 18.6% would vote against. Another survey of 750 people in a NC Report published by La Razón, also predicted a large majority for an independent state in the next Parliament. The elections of November 25th 2012 confirmed what the sentiment of the Catalan people was. And although a nationalist majority won, it was
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not as large as the Catalan press had anticipated from the demonstration of the National Day of Catalonia. The day after, the front pages and editorials of all the newspapers highlighted that the demonstration carried a clear will for independence. Following the speech of the ruling party at the time (CiU), the Catalan newspapers described the event as a before and after, as the beginning of a new path. However, the press in Madrid, despite realizing the symbolic magnitude of the demonstration, minimized the possibilities and advantages of a potential independence. In this paper we will see which journalism tools were used to do so.
1. Theoretical Framework One of the aims of this study is to demonstrate how the media use headlines and pictures to convey their ideological message. This idea is closely related to the concept of “agenda setting”, by which the media decide the topics we talk about and how we talk about them. The media act as a filter of reality. Many people know and learn about political situations from what they read in the media. The media agenda largely sets the public agenda. The first ones to investigate this were McCombs and Shaw in 1972 when they analyzed the coverage of the 1968 elections in Chapel Hill (North Carolina) in nine media1. Citizens were asked what the most important problem faced by the country was, and the study showed that there was a correlation between the importance the media granted to certain issues and what the majority of society considered important. They thus concluded that the media set the public agenda. In a later study by McCombs and Shaw they tried to determine what the direction of this agenda was, whether it was the media that influenced the public or the public agenda that was setting the topics the media dealt with. The conclusion was that the media influence social opinions more than a group’s opinions influence media content. They later showed that the media not only thematically shape the public opinion, but also give certain attributes
1
Maxwell McCombs, Estableciendo la agenda. El impacto de los medios en la opinión pública y en el conocimiento (Barcelona: Paidós, 2006).
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to the topics. This means that the media hide or highlight particular aspects of the issues they deal with, with the resulting effect on the public agenda. The demonstration of September 11th was on the agenda, it was announced. But such a massive outbreak of nationalist sentiment had not been foreseen. In a time of economic crisis there are many other topics that should be on the media agenda. But on September 12th, listening to the voice of the people who demonstrated and in line with the speeches of the political parties, newspapers placed separatism as a central point in their agendas. As for the photos, Jamieson and Waldman point out in The Press Effect2, that the choice by the media of some photos over others has to do with the desire to offer a narrative, and that images which metaphorically “close” a topic, abound. The demonstration of September 11th placed on the front pages images that “open” topics, images of the beginning of a stage, like in the case of Avui which even reinforced that with the headline “Independence, first act”.
2. Methodology The study examines various newspapers in Spain in order to see the tools they use to convey the ideological message more akin to them. The newspapers analyzed are: El País, La Vanguardia, La Razón, El Mundo and ABC at a state level, and El Periódico, El Punt and Ara at a Catalan level. The selection is sufficient to reach valid conclusions because they represent the different editorial profiles that we find today in the Spanish press. The main objective is to classify and describe the front pages used by the press and to see the contribution these make to the news story. In order to carry out this inventory, an analysis grid has been created, providing the most relevant data on images, headlines and front pages in general. For some time now it has been shown that the headlines are the only text sequences read by most newspaper readers3. The data has been classified according to informative, compositional, descriptive and technological criteria, gathering information such as the presence of the Estelada image, 2 3
Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Paul Waldman, The Press Effect. Politicians, Journalists, and the Stories that Shape the Political World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). Mario R. García, Pegie Stark, Eyes on the News (St. Petersburg: The Poynter Institute, 1991).
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the presence of the word “Catalonia” in the headlines, the overall design of the front page, the text caption, the source of the images, and composition elements such as the framing, the point of view and the location shown. It also incorporates the “frame” variable adopted by Neuman, Just and Cringler4, which typifies 5 frames that may appear in any news story: conflict, human interest, economic consequences, moral judgment and attribution of responsibility.
3. Analysis of the Front Pages 3.1. ABC: CiU agita un polvorín (“CiU ignites a powder keg”)
4
Rusell Neuman, Marion R. Just, Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
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The ABC is the only newspaper that does not use a picture to illustrate the news story. The story is instead relegated to the bottom of the front page below news of the victory of the Spanish football team against Georgia. The news story itself is illustrated with a picture of the players with very visible Spanish selection gear celebrating a goal as a player from the opposite team is looking downcast, on his knees. The headline of this news story España sigue firme (“Spain is still firm”) with a font size slightly larger than the news at hand, eventually becomes an involuntary headline of the information below, that of the demonstration. The headline is expressive and attributes responsibilities: CiU agita un polvorín (“CiU ignites a powder keg”) where the subject of the action, the “culprit” is CiU. The subtitle is Manifestación independentista en Barcelona (“Proindependence demonstration in Barcelona”) and Respuesta multitudinaria a la marcha promovida por el aparato de poder nacionalista (“Mass response to the demonstration promoted by the nationalist apparatus of power”). The word “independence” is delegated to the forefront title, but it is visible because it is in uppercase. The newspaper does not give any figures, but describes the demonstration as “mass”. The text of the news story included on the front page is devoted to reviewing the downside, with a Lo que no se dijo en la Diada… (“What was not said at the Diada …”), referring to the fact that Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia, the exit from the EU if independence was proclaimed, and the risk premium situation. The front page is completed with a photo of Albert Boadella wrapped in the Spanish flag, answering a full interview which can be read inside the paper under the title Espero que me den el titulo de traidor nacional de Cataluña (“I hope to be given the title of Catalonia’s national traitor”). A few days later, when Mas and Rajoy met, ABC’s front page photo also stood out from a compositional point of view as it showed Mas climbing the stairs of La Moncloa while Rajoy was already there, watching from the top. 3.2. El Mundo: El juego independentista se le va a Mas de las manos (“The independence game gets out of hand for Mas”) The headline is also expressive and attributes responsibilities, just like that of ABC. Here the subject is Mas, although the subtitle refers to the fact
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that some PSC leaders also attended the demonstration. El juego independentista se le va a Mas de las manos (“The independence game gets out of hand for Mas”).
The word “independence” does not appear as a noun neither in the headline text nor in the subtitle text, but as an adjective: “The pro-independence game” or “secessionist tide”. It’s a way of adding a value judgment to the demonstration. The figure given is cientos de miles (“hundreds of thousands”). El Mundo uses a photo showing a section of a street crowded with people and Estelada flags, and a banner saying no to a tax deal and yes to independence. But it’s a non-contextualized picture which does not describe an identifiable location like Passeig de Gràcia or Via Laietana (which, if shown in full, would help the reader get an idea of attendance). This is a
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section whose location we cannot identify. The point of view is slightly overhead, but it does not help to see the extent of the attendance. The photo is placed before the text and it’s horizontal. It’s the only one on the front page, although there are other very small ones in the brief sections at the top. 3.3. La Razón: Desafío independentista (“Pro-independence defiance”)
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La Razón called the news story on its front page Desafío independentista (“Pro-independence defiance”) and illustrated it with a picture of the march in front of the Government’s Delegation Office, where a banner reads, in Catalan, ambaixada espanyola (“Spanish Embassy”). The photo, which is frontally framed and shot with a long lens, shows very few attendees. It takes up two thirds of the front page and is the only one on it, except for the face of Albert Boadella, quite small at the top, answering a question used as a title: Por fin seré español en Cataluña (“At last I will be Spanish in Catalonia”). There are more stories, but without images. The headline is expressive and morally judgmental because the issue is defined as a problem of moral prescriptions. By not having a verb, even implicit (as it sometimes happens in news headlines), it gives the headline an argumentative character. Two words cannot sum up the full news story. We will see how Catalan papers also do it when headlining with the single word “independence”. In the subtitles we also find attribution of responsibility since the newspaper highlights that Nueve de los once consejeros de la Generalitat acuden a la marcha de la Diada tras pedir un rescate de más de 5.000 millones al estado (“Nine out of eleven counselors attended the demonstration after having asked the state for a rescue package of over 5,000 million euros”). It does not give any figures, but it refers to the existing war of figures, ranging from 1.500,000 according to the Catalan police and 600,000 according to the Government’s Delegation Office. The headline does not stand out as it has not been placed on a white background, but has been integrated into the photo instead. In this way, the banner that reads ambaixada espanyola (“Spanish Embassy”) hanging from the Government’s Delegation Office stands out more. The meeting between Mas and Rajoy days after also contained a photo tinkering with the composition, which shows a blurry close-up of Mas in front of an “Emergency exit”, sign and under the title No hay salida (“There is no exit”). 3.4. El País: El independentismo catalán logra una histórica exhibición de fuerza (“Catalan pro-independence achieves a historical display of strength”) The headline of El País is more neutral and informative rather than expressive. There is no attribution of responsibility or personal subject
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in the headline. It mentions Independentismo catalán (“Catalan pro-independence”) and its attendee count is cientos de miles (“hundreds of thousands”).
The picture, horizontal and above the headline, takes up a third of the page and it’s the only one in the central space, along with an ad. It’s a wide shot, slightly overhead, showing mainly the Estelades; there aren’t any faces but symbols. The location is not identifiable. The caption reinforces this idea: Miles de banderas independentistas catalanas recorrieron ayer las calles de Barcelona durante la manifestación con motivo de la fiesta del 11 de septiembre (“Thousands of Catalan independence flags went through the streets of Barcelona yesterday during the demonstration motivated by the September 11th Catalan National Day”). The subject, “thousands of flags” depersonalizes the news story and turns it into a symbolic and political issue without bringing in the human interest.
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3.5. El Periódico: La Diada de la Independencia (“Independence Day”)
El Periódico published its issue of September 12th with an enveloping double-page cover. Very similar to the “Souvenir Editions” that The Times released during the London Olympics last summer, turning the paper’s front page almost into a collector’s object to be saved. It goes for the large format image with almost no text, granting significance to the event. What little text there is refers to the fact that the topic will be covered from page 1 to 13, announcing that text and thoughts will be inside. The cover is all about the image. Cientos de miles de catalanes salen a la calle con la Estelada como símbolo (“Hundreds of thousands of Catalans take to the streets with the Estelada as a symbol”), is added below the headline. ¿ Y ahora, qué? (“¿And now, what?”) reads the title of the editorial piece that will be dealt with inside. The presence of opinion and editorial pieces on the front page of the newspaper is typical of days when major events occur. Like with the announcement of ETA’s ceasefire, the 11-M (Madrid train bombings), or the fall of the twin towers also on September 11th, but of 2001. The headline, an epithet, is more argumentative than descriptive. It clearly names “independence”. The photo clearly shows Passeig de Gràcia and Gran Via. The overhead shot provides the readers with an image showing the large number of
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people. On the same day of the demonstration, El Periódico took a stance for independence and it’s one of the newspapers that exemplify how the Catalan media took sides and made citizens believe that it was possible. And the day of the meeting between Mas and Rajoy, it composed a front page with two images: one of the 1977 meeting between Suárez and Tarradellas (as a result of which the Generalitat came to be) and a current one of the meeting the day before. The headline Fin de ciclo (“The end of an era”) implies that now there is no understanding whatsoever.
This paper takes a long position in favor of independence and points at the Catalan National Day as a historic moment. 3.6. La Vanguardia: Catalunya dice basta (“Catalonia says enough”) La Vanguardia devotes its full front page to the issue without any other photos or headlines that can take away from it. However, it does not change its usual design.The headline Cataluña dice basta (“Catalonia says enough”) is expressive and shows a framework of conflict, signaling a new step taken by one of the parties involved: Catalonia. One of the subtitles refers to the attendance: Un millón y medio de personas clama por la independencia en la mayor manifestación de la historia (“A million and a half people cry for independence in the largest demonstration in history”) and the other one announces that this is only a first step: La marcha, masiva y cívica, marcará el futuro de la relación de Catalunya y España (“The march, massive and civil, will mark the future relations between Catalonia and Spain”).
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It also announces articles by Jordi Barbeta, Enric Juliana, Sergi Pàmies and Quim Monzó, amongst others. Just as El Periódico and El Punt-Avui, the announcement on the cover of the names that will give their opinions inside the newspaper is typical of transcendental days. The photo shows Via Laietana packed with people and flags. Using a recognizable location helps contextualize the large number of attendees. La Vanguardia also included in its digital edition a 360º photo inviting readers to find themselves. The search for oneself in the picture, the “I was there” idea makes individuals feel like part of this historic event. As Jordi Balló says: El permitir buscarnos entre una masa nos da la clave de otro relato, que la singularidad es reconocida como valor (“The possibility of finding ourselves amongst the mass gives us the key to another story in which individuality is a value5”). 5
Jordi Balló, “Jo sóc aquí, entre tots”, La Vanguardia (3 October 2012), p. 24.
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In this way, La Vanguardia brings individuals closer to this moment, making them feel part of it and taking for granted the pro-independence sentiment of the majority of its readers. 3.7. Ara. Independència (Primer Acte) (“Independence (First Act)”)
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The Catalan newspaper Ara also designs its front page with the demonstration as the only news story and with a full-page image. The intention is similar to that of El Periódico because the photo is striking; it also shows an aerial view of Passeig de Gràcia and Gran Via, leaving little to say with words The headline, yellow like the flag, simply shows the word Independència (“Independence”), and the subtitle (Primer Acte) – ”(First Act)” – marks the event as the beginning of a journey that will not end here. This front page, along with the one from El Periódico is far from the small magnitude that newspapers in Madrid give the news story. 3.8. El Punt Avui: Via lliure (“Free way”)
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The front page is fully dedicated to covering the news story with a large full-page photo including text within it. The location is not identified and we can’t see many people (here the subtitle does refer to Més d’un milió i mig de ciutadans (“More than a million and a half citizens”) and to el poble català (“the Catalan people”). The aim is the symbolic effect, playing with composition rather than illustrating it with a descriptive photo. The picture here is symbolic: it shows a green traffic light with the blurry background of people waving Estelada flags. The headline, which carries human interest and conflict, is also an epithet: “Free way.” On the cover there is also an excerpt from the editorial piece. E Punt-Avui was another newspaper that on the day opened with an edition devoted entirely to the issue, with the four bars (of the Catalan flag) in the background and a Som-hi! (“Let’s go!”) as a headline. 3.9. International Press The international newspapers also covered the news story. The British newspaper The Guardian did so with a news story covered by the Barcelona-based reporter Stephen Burgen and described the day as a landmark for the independence movement. They even published a selection of photos and Twitter comments from some of the demonstrators. The BBC reported on the demonstration on its website, and it was the most read story of the international section. The French newspaper Le Monde described the attendance as une marée humaine (“a human tide”) and highlighted the economic conflict as the main cause for the pro-independence rise. The Independant notes, like some other Catalan papers previously analyzed here, that the demonstration will mark a before and an after. In the U.S., the New York Times reported on the demonstration on its website, and The Wall Street Journal illustrated the demonstration with a photo-reportage under the title “Photo of the day”. In contrast with its presence in the international press, the Spanish public broadcaster in its news affairs program “Telediario 2” of its main channel, made it the fifth news story, after the visit from Finland’s Prime Minister, the anniversary of the terrorist attack on New York, the moratorium given by Brussels to Portugal to comply with their deficit goals, and the case of the two children allegedly murdered by their father. Only
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after twenty minutes it mentioned the demonstration. The members of the Advisory Council of RTVE (CARTVE) in Catalonia, with the PP counselors’ vote against, issued a complaint to TVE’s news affairs management in Madrid for “disdain” in their treatment of the news story. Days later, the editor of Telediario 2, Cristina Almandós, was dismissed.
Conclusions We’ve seen how the front pages of the day after the September 11th demonstration expose the facts in opposite ways depending on whether they are based in Madrid or in Barcelona. The priority journalistic value seems to be therefore that which enhances conflict and controversy. ABC, El Mundo and La Razón talk about “pro-independence defiance” while El País, El Periódico, La Vanguardia, Ara and Avui praise it as “a historic display of strength”, or straightforwardly, “Independence Day”. Some newspapers like El Periódico and Ara even altered their usual design, creating a single reading of the text and the photo. In addition, the fact that they don’t use a white background for the headlines but the picture underneath instead, an option also shared by El Punt-Avui and La Razón, makes the text not stand out as much, and so the image shines on its own. In the case of La Razón, though, it’s for another reason: to make the banner that reads “Spanish Embassy” placed by someone on the facade of the Government’s Delegation Office stand out more. As the German designer Reinhard Gäde says: El blanco es un elemento configurativo y ordenador, no existe mejor recurso que él para guiar el ojo del lector sin limitaciones (“White is a prime element for arranging and organizing; there is no better resource to guide the reader’s eye without limitations6”). In its absence, then, what catches our attention is some other element, like the one explained above in the case of La Razón, or the masses in the case of other newspapers. The location where the photo is taken and the point of view are also essential when interpreting the news story, as they convey a lot of information
6
Reinhard Gäde, Diseño de periódicos. Sistema y método (Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 2002), p. 49.
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to the readers. A mob occupying a recognizable area of the city will give a more accurate idea of the number of attendees than a photo of the same people placed in a non-identifiable location. In the following table we can see how the Spanish newspapers used more non-identifiable locations than the Catalan ones, precisely to generate this vagueness regarding attendance. Government’s Absence NonDelegation of photo identifiable
1
Ara El Mundo
1
El País
1 1
El Periodico 1
Punt-avui 1
1
La Vanguardia Grand total
Via Laietana
1
ABC
La Razón
Passeig de Gràcia
1
1
3
2
1
The point of view from which the photo has been taken can also convey more or less objective information about attendance. In this way, an overhead shot will give a better idea of people gathered than a frontal shot, which only allows us to see the people in the front rows. Normal POV ABC
1
Ara El Mundo
1
El País
1 1
El Periódico Punt-Avui
1
La Razón
1 1
La Vanguardia Grand total
Overhead POV
4
3
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Note that the same thing mentioned in the above table is happening here: newspapers in Barcelona use more overhead shots than the ones in Madrid. The widespread use of epithets and expressive headlines (only the one from El País could be considered strictly informative) indicates a desire to convey an ideological value. Such headlines are typical of the tabloid press because they do not convey information (due to shortage of words), but instead give names and adjectives to facts. They quickly catch the reader’s attention and they have a high impact because they highlight the most shocking aspect of the fact instead of that which is most newsworthy. The analysis of the headline’s subject is also very important because it helps give human interest to the story. Madrid newspapers personalized in Catalonia, Mas or CiU the need to demonstrate, whereas the Catalan press speaks to the Catalan people as a subject. El Punt-Avui talks about “the Catalan people”, and La Vanguardia about “Catalonia”. La Razón simply doesn’t personalize and only talks about the swinging figures. The presence of editorial and opinion pieces (or the announcement thereof) in the cover of Catalan newspapers (all of them except Ara) also shows the will to give importance to the news story. Newspapers in Madrid, in not doing so, minimize it. Therefore, this analysis of the front pages of the press the day after the Catalan National Day of September 11th 2012 shows how each media use stylistic and rhetorical tools based on the message they want to convey. Unfortunately, all the newspapers follow the approach defended by one political party or another after the demonstration and none of them contribute their own discourse.
Cultural nationalism: How are cultural practices involved in the nation-building process? Pablo Giori Universitat de Girona
“I would emphasize the elements of artifact, invention and social engineering involved in nation-building”1
1. Nation-building: a project and an experience2 We usually read articles and books about nationalism as a political project produced and developed by governmental institutions. This is what we call the top-down perspective which only explains what institutions want people to do. This hegemonic standpoint, based on the disciplinary methods of history and sociology, has been questioned in recent years from the contributions of anthropology and psychology. These new proposals also try to understand nation-building processes from the bottom-up standpoint, what people really do beyond institutions and their desires. This perspective considers the experience and everyday life of citizens as something important to understand nation-building processes3. We believe that both proposals are not opposed but complementary; they have to be part of the
1 2
3
Eric Hobsbawm, Naciones y Nacionalismo desde 1780 (Barcelona: Crítica, 1998), p. 17. This research was supported by the University Teacher’s Training Program (FPU) of the Ministry of Economy, Culture and Sports (MECD) from the Government of Spain. The researcher participates in the project: HAR2012-35322. Eric Hobsbawm, Naciones y Nacionalismo…; For the Catalan case, see, amongst others: Xosé Manuel Núñez, Los Nacionalismos en la España contemporánea: siglos XIX y XX (Barcelona: Hipótesis, 1999); Molina Aparicio, “La nación desde abajo. Nacionalización, individuo e identidad nacional”, Ayer, 90 (2013), pp. 13-16.
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same research because they allow us to understand the process as a whole, nationalism as a project and as an experience. This proposal helps us recognize the limits of the institutions attempts to change everyday life, national feelings or popular traditions. We can also put into perspective how spontaneous is the emergence of national belonging from civil society and how planned it is from some institutions at a national or subnational level. To do that, we have to consider the political and cultural aspects of nation-building processes4. Since the 19th century, nationalism has been one of the most important powers in creating a framework for interpreting the world, the nation-state, and also in transforming the reality in which we live. In the case of Spain and Catalonia throughout the 20th century, nationalism has been one of the projects that had a stronger impact on their historical development and territorial organization. In this paper we will expose this theoretical proposal on the base of the study of the Catalan and Spanish case to better understand how national belonging can be modified in a context of nationalistic conflict.
2. Political and cultural nationalism In this proposal, we focus on the cultural aspects without setting aside the political ones because we are convinced that if we study nation-building processes as historical facts we also have to see how they change culture, experience and the way people do things. We cannot just study the texts created by politicians to scatter their beliefs or how the institutions attempt to make this speech a reality; we have to study if this does in fact become real in the life of common people, if this institutional proposal changes their life in some way. If people successfully resist the intrusion of the institutions into their everyday lives, then top-down nationalism has not been effective; when this government or institutional project ends, people start doing all over again what they were used to doing at home when they
4
Josep Termes, Les arrels populars del catalanisme (Barcelona: Empúries, 1999), p. 58.
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where kids5. Because of that, we say that the army cannot modify an idea; cultural change has to transform ideas by promising something new and valuable. For this reason we say that we have to study the cultural conditions of political change and, in this specific case, how the creation of an indubitable national conscience can enable the political independence of Catalonia. It is at this point that we have to speak about Antonio Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, because the concept of hegemony and the strategies it creates lie in its ability to elaborately explain relations not from a perspective of domination but from one of conviction. Thus, cultural hegemony doesn’t work openly but covertly; as with cultural machinery, like Bourdieu used to say, hegemony is “within us”, inside us, part of who we are and what we do. This conceptualization helps us understand how cultural practices are coherent with experiential, contextual, political and material aspects of our environment as well as with experiences of our daily life. This coherence is taken for granted but it does not really exist; we need to believe in and live according to this coherence in order to not perceive its incoherence6. To study cultural and political nationalisms we have to first understand that they differ in the manner and rhythm of their work: one is slower yet constant and deep, while the other is accelerated, abrupt and superficial. Although they have different strategies, durations and objectives, they can work together and this is the most effective way of working, creating synergies and feedbacks. We can also say that cultural nationalism can work easily with emotional aspects and organized civil societies, whereas political nationalism has to do it with rational arguments and institutions. This shows us the limitations of a political nationalization model that does not take cultural aspects into account. This was the main limitation of the Francoist project: an excessive institutionalization and a blind trust in the State’s ability to change reality that generated a relative modification of the daily life of individuals despite the 40 years of dictatorship. The resistance processes of nationalization were operating in the material, cultural and experiential aspects of those individuals and groups who suffered the stigma of having lost the war (the republicans, the Catalans, the Basques, 5 6
Pablo Giori, Hacer castells, construir nación. Castells, modelo festivo y catalanismo (Girona: Universitat de Girona, 2012), p. 107. Pablo Giori, Hacer castells, construir nación…, p. 162.
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etc.). Although they were in a strong context of an opposite re-nationalization, it could not reach them effectively because resistance tends to be conservative and, also, they wanted to recover the lost world that gave meaning to their lives7. When we live in a context of confronted nation-building processes, as with Spain and Catalonia in the 20th century, we have to understand that socialization is also a form of nationalization. When there are two national cultures, the culture in which you are nationalized is the one that marks you as belonging to one nation or another. The assumption of one national culture determines how we think, what we do and what we experience; it creates our horizon of perspective and expectation, gives us a national history, a national territory and a national group to belong to. It also configures the places, times and ways of doing things in which we feel comfortable in our everyday reality. When we talk about socialization we are not just talking about the primary one that comes from our family and our own context, but also about the socialization practices that we carry out during the course of our lives and that create and sustain the groups and the background of our way of feeling, thinking and acting. We change our minds – the way we experience our reality, do things and modify the world – so slowly that we do not notice; because of that, socialization is also fundamental for understanding the nation-building processes and the necessary construction of a daily coherence.
3. The national feeling of belonging: a naturalized cultural aspect From this standpoint, we believe that emotional, cultural, experiential and material aspects can be slowly created or changed over the basis of something real to which the changes can anchor. We are born unto an interpreted world, we are born into a national culture, we are socialized in national contexts, but the idea of what our nation is can vary historically, so much
7
Carolyn Boyd, Historia Patria: política, historia e identidad nacional en España 1875-1975 (Barcelona: Pomares-Corredor, 2000), p. 261.
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that we can be renationalized into another national culture (as the cases of national struggle, immigration or the creation of new states can illustrate). We assume that belonging is something that we embody as part of our socialization but that can be challenged and modified. Why does it look like something natural, specific and unquestionable? Because it is a naturalized cultural aspect, something cultural, historical and relative but that nationalism makes us perceive as natural. Although it’s true that the State provides us with a framework to make sense of the world we live in, it is also true that for a large percentage of the world, the State only became real as a result of the World Wars, and a large part of this population has changed its state or nation throughout the 20th century due to wars, immigration or the creation of new states. That means that we can change our national feeling of belonging, radically or little by little, but we can modify it. We have to recognize that it is part of what we are and to change it we have to deeply transform what we are. Belonging to a nation does not concern only our feelings, but also what we believe, what we think and how we do things. To be a national subject has to do with identity and cultural practices that we carry out in group and as individuals; it has to do with our personal and institutional routines, but also with the times, places and forms in which we do and perceive things. There is certainly a need to belong, but not necessarily to belong to a nation; there is more probably a need to belong to a family, a group, a region, etcetera8. In the case that currently concerns us, the Catalan case, it is really important to see how Catalanism has changed the ideas of belonging and identity throughout the last century: from belonging to a region and a nation – the double belonging both to the Spanish state and the Catalan nation as something complementary until the transition to democracy – to the newest proposal of Catalanism that sustains that the nation and the state has to be the same, a Catalan state for a Catalan nation; the Spanish and the Catalan are no longer complementary but opposite, and ones denies the other9. From Francoism until our current times, Catalanism has passed from a regionalist standpoint to a separatist one, basically based on the solidification of the idea of a Catalan nation and the positive value of what is Catalan. But to do that Catalonia had to change in 8 9
For the Quebec case in the seventies, see the documentary of: Pierre Perrault, Un pays sans bon sens! . Andrew Dowling, La reconstrucció nacional de Catalunya: 1939-2012 (Barcelona: Pasado & Presente, 2013), p. 23.
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30 years the idea of Catalonia and the idea of national belonging to Spain that a large part of the population had; it had to create a new culture and feelings and then it had to make it real, shared, hegemonic10.
4. How to study cultural nationalism? To answer this question, we have to admit that there is something else to study that is not being studied, that there is something else to see. The first thing to do is admit that our definition of culture has hitherto been restrictive, not inclusive; we need an anthropological conception and an interpretative theoretical perspective, not a positivist one. With these basic ideas, we can see that institutional research on nation-building (school, army, institutions and mass media) is limited but complementary with what Hobsbawm proposed as a bottom-up perspective: to think what normal people think, do and feel. If we continue this proposal we have to accept the need to study not just the role of symbols and rituals, but also the cultural practices involved in nation-building processes11. When we talk about culture from an anthropological standpoint we talk about the everyday life of common people; we talk about the material (economic, material and social practices), experiential (the feelings and daily life) and cultural (the practices, ideas and standpoint that they have of their own world and of others) aspects of their life12. To study cultural nationalism we do not have to study the products (the newspapers, cinema, pamphlets and discourses) but the cultural processes of socialization in general, the construction process of what they perceive as their own world. Because of that, we specifically focus our studies within a wide range of cultural practices that are related to the expansion and reproduction of some kind of nationalism. For example, in Catalonia13 we work with 10 11 12 13
Andrew Dowling, La reconstrucció nacional de Catalunya…, p. 187. Alejandro Quiroga, Ferrán Archilés, “Presentación”, Ayer, 90 (2013), p. 10. Pablo Giori, Hacer castells, construir nación…, p. 58. For a general perspective on Catalan cultural activities see: Avelli Artís-Gener, Bienve Moya, Festes populars a Catalunya (Barcelona: Hmb, 1980); Joan Soler, Cultura popular i tradicional (Barcelona: Pòrtic, 2001).
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the relation of sardanes (a traditional dance) with ethnical Catalanism14; castells (human towers) with modern civic Catalanism15; and bullfighting with Spanish nationalism16 to see how political nationalism is related with cultural practices and their socialization. Of course, there is a reciprocal relationship between political nationalism and cultural practices but it is not a direct one; it occurs through the national celebration model chosen to be developed, i.e., a means of cultural organization that is consistent with national interests while developing the necessary conditions for the possibility of nationalism. Ultimately, we can say that nationalisms’ disputes in the cultural field are disputes over the implementation of a national celebration model. Cultural practices selected within each of these models end up being cooperative, part of the same force, they all celebrate the nation (albeit not in the same way). We think, and this article is an attempt to answer this matter, that through the development of certain cultural practices, nationalism has brought new individuals closer to their ideas, emotions and experiences. An emotional anchor could be used as a vehicle for the consolidation and reproduction of ideas. As has been mentioned, there is a close coherence relation, unreal yet perceived as real, between the three basic aspects of our reality, according to our theoretic proposal: the material (social practice, context and relationships, production methods, actions), the cultural (ideas, common sense, values, standpoints, thoughts) and the experiential (subjectivity, habitus, emotions, feelings). Furthermore, we feel obliged to contradict those academics who believe in the predominance of rational thinking, for the body can learn through any of these three aspects. These elements are not disconnected: they are interrelated and in constant dialogue, creating contradictions and coherences17. When we become thrilled about something in which we don’t rationally believe we have the ability within us to modify our opinion: practical knowledge is reinforced or discouraged by rational knowledge.
14 Josep Mas, La Sardana, dansa nacional de Catalunya (Barcelona: Editorial 62, 1993). 15 Pere Català, Món casteller (Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, 1981). 16 Adrian Shubert, A las cinco de la tarde: una historia social del toreo (Madrid: Turner, 2002). 17 Pablo Giori, “El prejuicio y los medios masivos en el aboradje de la juventud”, Derivas contempráneas. Practicas y usos de la cultura de masas, María Laura de Arriba, ed. (Tucumán: Sectretaría de Ciencia y Técnica Universidad Nacional de Tucuman, 2011), p. 545.
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5. Which is the role of cultural practices in the nation-building process? We cannot continue believing that nationalism is only practiced by institutions or states; it is widely produced and reproduced, deliberately or unintentionally, by our current society, and therefore we should say that our society is a national one. Culture and society are organized with a national perspective and with the nation as a limit (a matter that sociology and anthropology should recognize and denounce yet they do not do). Nationalism is not only reproduced as an idea, that is, one person telling another the benefits of believing in the nation, but first and foremost as a culture and as an experience, for instance in the form of a cultural practice that we carry out with other people. When we talk about processes of cultural nationalization we are referring to a series of cultural processes that make political change possible and that, depending on the moment in history, are more or less decisive in a society’s future. It has therefore become clear that in some way building human towers, dancing sardanes or going to a bullfight are ways of making a nation, without explicitly entering partisan discussions, whether nationalist or pro-independence; it is about generating the cultural conditions for political change. If we work with the institutionalist proposal we will not go forward with the idea of internalization, i.e., the power of institutions to make someone believe something. This powerful idea, implicit in a great part of the traditional bibliography, downplays the role of the subjects, that of coproducing or resisting the changes in their everyday lives; a subject that lives and contributes to make the nation every day, by will or necessity and not by imposition. This proposal in Spain is at the base of the prevailing theory of weak nationalization18, according to which, if the Spanish State had been stronger during its formation it would not currently have the problem of containing several nations within the state; in this theory, strong means effective and effective means an assimilation of the other nations into the Castilian one. In contrast with this perspective, we believe that the role of the State in nation-building processes is much smaller than what this theory believes and that the role of civil society is crucial. This is an area that is often neglected and that we consider essential to support or contradict the task of the state. 18 Alejandro Quiroga, Ferrán Archilés, “Presentación”, Ayer, 90 (2013), p. 5.
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If we see this from the Catalan experience it is made clearer: Catalanism, excepting certain specific historical periods, has been powered by a network of cultural, political and economic organizations of civil society, sometimes distant from the regional or national institution in power19. We are convinced that civil society is the one that has the real power to make the national discourse local and tangible and to bestow it with sense; the centralized State cannot act alone in the marathonic task of nationalizing millions of citizens in such a vast territory20. The state requires other small and malleable institutions that help in the creation, or in the negation, of the everyday reality of the nation. To do that, these organizations work with national culture, experience and belonging: they adapt it, hide it and put it everywhere, making it normal, redundant and hegemonic, until eventually it becomes necessary to the citizen’s feeling of belonging. We could say that the State imposes a national curriculum, but that it (the State) is ultimately the teacher (through the citizen’s daily lives and their social reality) who suggests it as something natural or imposed, who gives it the tone of something valuable. This, clearly exemplified by schools, happens every day in every social contact, with all the people, groups and institutions that we meet daily and that can help to support or to deny the national discourse, for instance, in benefit of a subnational conception. To avoid fissures and to believe in the nation as unquestionable, it has to be in everything that we are, in our daily life, in the media, in the churches, in the soccer fields, in schools, as well as in theaters, queues in the supermarket and at ATMs. Here the concept of coherence is essential: to make the nation something powerful and natural, it has to be coherent with a large part of the discourses, practices, values and organizations that sustain and reproduce it in an important part of the world in which we live. If this coherence does not exist, the subject immediately doubts rationally or feels unease, something is not right, there is something that is not natural and that can be questioned and changed. The main task of nationalism is to become quotidian, and that means to be coherent with the world of the people it wants to nationalize; if not, it will never be effective. It also has to become real in the thoughts, feelings and actions of the people. If there is not coherence, we can doubt, and if we doubt, we can transform it: when we feel that discrimination is 19 Josep Termes, Les arrels populars del catalanisme (Barcelona: Empúries, 1999), p. 234. 20 Daniele Conversi, “Nación, estado y cultura: por una historia política y social de la homogeneización cultural”, Historia Contemporánea, 45 (2012), p. 437.
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bad, although we still believe that we are superior, the first seed of change has been planted, the fracture in the coherence has begun21.
6. Catalanism and a quest for the nation The role of cultural practices and civil society is central, as we have seen, in the creation of a cultural machine able to develop, reproduce and change the feelings, thoughts and ways of doing things of the common people. This machine can be an accomplice or a foe of the nationalization project of the State; as we stated above, a top-down machine necessarily needs a bottom-up to be effective. In the Catalan case, although it may only be partially generalized, the relation between cultural and political nationalism can be plainly traced throughout the 19th and 20th century. Disputes between Spanish and Catalan nationalism have always existed in this period, sometimes more clearly, others more covertly22. With the Renaixença (a Catalan cultural revival in the mid-19th century), Catalanism presented a new energy: the energy of developed social strengths, spearheaded by industrialization, and of a new rising bourgeois culture23. The cultural nationalism set up by Catalanism during this period generates in the beginning of the 20th century a political project: the Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914). This political and cultural project was really interested in literacy and in the creation of a modern education system, but was cut by Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, which again imposed a Spanish n ationalism with a centralized state. The Second Spanish Republic was an attempt to work with the plurinational reality of Spain and to accept that every nation of the federation could develop as it wanted. The internal and external problems, the rise
21 We believe that this can be a good hypothesis to work in an alternative way the problem of nationalization. We have to consider the important role of civil society in the reproduction or challenge of the national discourse of the State, based on every territory and historical period. If we do that, we will find unexpected things. 22 Borja de Riquer, Jordi Maluquer, La Catalunya autonòmica: 1975-2003 (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 2004). 23 Joan-Lluis Marfany, La cultura del catalanisme. El nacionalisme català en els seus inicis (Barcelona: Editorial Empúries, 1996), p. 220.
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of Communism and nationalism, produced the Civil War, which ended with all the alternative proposals: Franco’s dictatorship was there to impose its own Spain, “unified, great and free”24. In the sixties, in a context of cultural and material genocide carried out by the state, an opposition and resistance movement started to act, and because they could not act politically, they acted culturally: they started to reconstruct Catalonia, fer país. With the arrival of the transition to democracy, these cultural projects fed the political processes and in Catalonia a nationalist party won the elections in 1980. In this brief itinerary we see the relationship between the cultural and the political projects of nationalism, sometimes carried out by the political institutions and sometimes by civil society. The idea of nationalism also changed due to Francoism; the national idea of the Second Republic was ethnic and regionalist, not separatist, it wanted to change and to modernize Spain. With Francoism, Catalanism became a civic movement in defense of the Catalan language and culture; this new civic nationalism used a democratic discourse as a means of legitimization25. In the fifties, with renovated nationalism, its civil nature became unquestionable, notably after the following decade’s important migratory processes. At the end of Francoism, after 40 years of dictatorial attrition and a decline of the 20th century, the possibility of outlawing or defeating the adversary by armed force became increasingly unthinkable; it was the time of culture26. The strategies used by Catalanists during the last period of Francoism and the ensuing democracy were similar to those used by the Renaixença: culture and hegemony. In the 19th century, they operated by spreading the Catalan language and literature, searching for their traditional roots and developing a new sense of pride towards all things considered Catalan. This project spanned over 50 years in a context of social and economic growth for Catalonia due to the Industrial Revolution27. Many scholars suggest that, in fact, these activities were aimed at the bourgeoisie and it
24 Ismael Saz, España contra España: los nacionalismos franquistas (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2003), p. 16. 25 Michael Keating, Nations against the state: the new politics of nationalism Quebec, Catalonia and Scotland (Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1996), p.691. 26 Montserrat Guibernau, Catalan nationalism: Francoism, transition and democracy (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 6. 27 Albert Balcells, Història del nacionalisme català: dels orígens al nostre temps (Barcelona: Generalitat de Catalunya, 1992).
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is because of this that the Renaixença focused above all on language and symbols. Based on these premises, what has mostly been studied has been the movement’s literary and intellectual side, but we can now assure that it was composed of much more than just intellectuals28. While the Renaixença was interested in culture as content, ideas, text and rationalism, the new anti-Francoist Catalanism attempts to venture into more experiential and emotional aspects. That means not just to create a national poetry but also a national feeling of belonging, clearly distinct from the Spanish one. The battle of ideas was read again in an emotional key: the culture of democratic Catalanism won’t be a literary culture but a culture of passion, one that is lived and felt. For that reason, we are certain that we have to study civil society, cultural practices and culture as something quotidian to better understand how these cultural machines generate the ideas and experiences of a nation. We suggest that there is a close relation between cultural practices (mainly sardanes, human towers and bullfighting) and nationalistic processes. This relation can explain how Catalonia passed from a stage of cultural resistance during Franco’s dictatorship to one of national reconstruction in Spanish democracy… and to one of state-building in 201029.
Conclusions After 150 years of nation-building processes carried out by Catalanism, in cultural and political projects, we can now see that a new moment is coming: the consolidated Catalan nation asks for the creation of an independent state. There is no logical relation between nation and state, Switzerland is the classic example. But in this case, the creation of an indubitable feeling of belonging to a nation, the creation of an intellectual
28 Joan-Lluis Marfany, La cultura del catalanisme. El nacionalisme català en els seus inicis (Barcelona: Editorial Empúries, 1996), p. 379. 29 We believe that Francoism cannot be fully understood without taking into account the history of bullfighting, the anti-Francoist Catalanism without sardanes and the democratic Catalonia without castells. See: Pablo Giori, Hacer castells, construir nación…, pp. 18-32; Pablo Giori, “Castells, sardanes i toros. Les disputes culturals dels nacionalismes durant el franquisme”, Segle XX (forthcoming).
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community and of a new dignity has created the conditions of possibility for this new proposal. This is the relation between culture and politics: one depends on and makes possible the other, even though they are not cause and consequence. The new solidified national Catalan culture, the problems arising from the economic and political crisis represented by the political parties in Spain and the idea that Catalans could manage these problems better, are some of the reasons mentioned. The work carried out by civil society, parallel to political proposals, was fundamental for achieving the current situation. During Francoism, the Catalan nation did not exist; it was just a regional difference, an exception in the unified Spain of Franco. With the Transition and the arrival of democracy, the idea of Catalonia, now one of the seventeen Autonomous Communities of Spain, has been changing until it became what is generally believed today, that Catalonia is a nation. This long process – it took more than 40 years of nation-building processes – makes the people that live in this territory today strongly believe that the Catalan nation is a reality. In the last few years, Catalonia has been demanding to participate in the mechanisms of decision-making in Spain, but the centralized state and the bipolar party system does not allow it to make its proposals a reality. When Catalonia has the dignity of a nation and it feels that nothing can be done to change Spain, it considers that its belonging to this state has finished. This is the moment of a new Catalanist project: the Catalan nation needs to create its own state to survive and to develop (as Catalanists say). To do that, it needs to transform the Spanish national feeling of belonging of the people living in Catalonia and that can be done only through cultural processes. No volem ser, Una regió d’Espanya. No volem ser, Un país ocupat. Volem, volem, volem, Volem independència. Volem, volem, volem Països Catalans 30.
30
We don’t want to be, A Spanish region. We don’t want to be, An occupied country. We want, we want, we want, We want independence. We want, we want, we want, Catalans countries.
A song heard in the demonstration on September 11, 2013, National Day of Catalonia.
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Annexe Bibliography Joan Amades, Costumari Català: el curs de l’any (Barcelona: Salvat, 1982). Benedict Anderson, Comunitats imaginades: reflexions sobre l’origen i la propagació del nacionalisme (Catarroja: Afers, 2005). Pere Anguera, La nacionalització de la sardana (Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, 2010). Ferrán Archilés, Ismael Saz, La nación de los españoles: discursos y prácticas del nacionalismo español en la época contemporánea (Valencia: Universitat de València, 2012). Ferrán Archilés, Marta García, “En la sombra del estado. Esfera pública nacional y homogeneización cultural en la España de la restauración”, Revista Historia Contemporánea, 45 (2012), pp. 483-518. Avel·lí Artís-Gener, Bienve Moya, Festes populars a Catalunya (Barcelona: Hmb, 1980). Albert Balcells, Història del nacionalisme català: dels orígens al nostre temps (Barcelona: Generalitat de Catalunya, 1992). Josep Benet, L’intent franquista de genocidi cultural contra Catalunya (Barcelona: Abadía de Montserrat, 1995). Carolyn Boyd, Historia Patria: política, historia e identidad nacional en España 1875-1975 (Barcelona: Pomares-Corredor, 2000). Michael Billig, Nacionalisme banal (Valencia: Universitat de València, 2006). Pere Català, Món casteller (Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, 1981). Paola Lo Cascio, Nacionalisme i autogovern: Catalunya, 1980-2003 (Catarroja: Afers, 2008). Daniele Conversi, “Nación, estado y cultura: por una historia política y social de la homogeneización cultural”, Historia Contemporánea, 45 (2012), pp. 437-481. Andrew Dowling, La reconstrucció nacional de Catalunya: 1939-2012 (Barcelona: Pasado & Presente, 2013). Ernest Gellner, Nacionalisme (Catarroja: Afers, 1998). Pablo Giori, Hacer castells, construir nación. Castells, modelo festivo y catalanismo (Girona: Universitat de Girona, 2012). Pablo Giori, “Castells, sardanes i toros. Les disputes culturals dels nacionalismes durant el franquisme”, Segle XX (forthcoming).
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Montserrat Guibernau, Catalan nationalism: Francoism, transition and democracy (London: Routledge, 2004). Montserrat Guibernau, “National identity, devolution and secession in Canada, Britain and Spain”, Nations and Nationalism, 12 (2006), pp 51-76. Eric Hobsbawm, Naciones y Nacionalismo desde 1780 (Barcelona: Crítica, 1998). Eric Hobsbawm, Terence Ranger, La invención de la tradición (Barcelona: Crítica, 2002). Michael Keating, Nations against the state: the new politics of nationalism Quebec, Catalonia and Scotland (Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1996). Xosé Manuel Núñez, Los Nacionalismos en la España contemporánea: siglos XIX y XX (Barcelona: Hipótesis, 1999). Joan-Lluis Marfany, La cultura del catalanisme. El nacionalisme català en els seus inicis (Barcelona: Editorial Empúries, 1996). Josep Mas, La Sardana, dansa nacional de Catalunya (Barcelona: Editorial 62, 1993). Alejandro Quiroga, Haciendo españoles: la nacionalización de las masas en la dictadura de Primo de Rivera (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 2008). Alejandro Quiroga, Ferrán Archilés, “Presentación”, Ayer, 90 (2013), pp. 1-16. Borja de Riquer, Jordi Maluquer, La Catalunya autonòmica: 1975-2003 (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 2004). Ismael Saz, España contra España: los nacionalismos franquistas (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2003). Adrian Shubert, A las cinco de la tarde: una historia social del toreo (Madrid: Turner, 2002). Joan Soler, Cultura popular i tradicional (Barcelona: Pòrtic, 2001). Josep Termes, Les arrels populars del catalanisme (Barcelona: Empúries, 1999). Anne-Marie Thiesse, La Création des identités nationales: Europe XVIIIeXXe siècle, (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1999). Javier Tusell, Dictadura franquista y democracia, 1939-2004 (Barcelona: Crítica, 2005). William Washabaugh, Flamenco: pasión, política y cultura popular (Barcelona: Paidós, 2005).
El morfema género en el pensamiento de la Real Academia Española: ¿Cuestión que va más allá de la teoría gramatical? María Ángeles Calero Universitat de Lleida
1. Visión sesgada en la teoría gramatical Los primeros días de marzo de 2012 se produjo un punto de inflexión en la larga controversia sobre la naturaleza y el uso del género gramatical y sus posibles consecuencias sociales, en concreto su eventual contribución a una desigual exposición de los varones y de las mujeres en la lengua cuando hablamos de unos y de otras. En el pleno celebrado el 1 de marzo de ese año, la Real Academia Española suscribió un informe redactado por uno de sus miembros, que, a su vez, había sido el ponente de la nueva gramática académica publicada en 2009; dicho informe entraba a valorar algunos aspectos defendidos en nueve guías de lenguaje inclusivo seleccionadas para tal fin sin un criterio manifiesto y como muestra, según el autor, del “extenso catálogo” de obras similares1. Este informe sirvió para inaugurar una publicación electrónica de la Corporación, el BILRAE (Boletín de información lingüística de la Real Academia Española), accesible a través de la web de esta institución, y provocó un verdadero terremoto tanto en el ámbito social y político como en el ámbito científico (de teoría del lenguaje y de teoría gramatical). La proximidad con la celebración internacional del 8 de marzo, de carácter reivindicativo para la consecución de la igualdad real entre mujeres y varones, magnificó el eco de la polémica. Los primeros textos que recogen recomendaciones para evitar un lenguaje no inclusivo en España son de finales de los años ochenta del pasado 1
Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer”, Boletín de Información Lingüística de la Real Academia Española, Marzo 2012, Real Academia Española. 17 Abril 2013, p. 1 .
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siglo, y responden a una corriente que no es exclusiva de nuestro país y que alcanza organizaciones internacionales. En 1991, la UNESCO publicaba sus Guidelines on non-sexist language de resultas de la Resolución 14.1, aprobada por la Conferencia General de dicha institución en 1987, y de la Resolución 109, aprobada por la misma Conferencia en 1989. Estas directrices2 fueron utilizadas en primera instancia para el inglés y el francés, y traducidas y adaptadas inmediatamente a otras lenguas: la versión española aparece el mismo año y la catalana, el año siguiente. Demostración de que las instituciones internacionales han seguido preocupadas por este asunto es que todavía el 13 de febrero de 2008, el Parlamento Europeo, a través de su Grupo de Alto Nivel sobre Igualdad de Género y Diversidad, aprobaba un informe sobre el lenguaje sexista en el que incluía recomendaciones de uso inclusivo atendiendo a la diversidad lingüística de la Unión Europea. Así, tras 25 años de numerosas publicaciones nacionales y extranjeras dedicadas a afrontar un uso de la lengua que no menoscabe el papel social de la mujer, la Real Academia se decidió a manifestar su punto de vista desde una posición normativa. No sabemos si su repentina decisión se debió a la resonancia mediática —por pequeña que fuera— que tuvo, en enero de 2012, la reacción negativa del Departamento de Lengua Española y Lingüística General de la Universidad de Murcia a la publicación en esa misma universidad de una guía para un uso no sexista del lenguaje (¿estaríamos ante la gota que colmó el vaso?). No lo sabemos, pero lo cierto es que, a través de su perfil de Twitter @RAE, la Real Academia Española compartió el artículo que el diario murciano La Opinión3 había dedicado al suceso el 13 de enero; y también es cierto que un académico, el cartagenero Arturo Pérez-Reverte, apoyó públicamente el rechazo a dicha guía, y que el propio informe aprobado por la Real Academia Española el 1 de marzo de 2012 se hace eco del incidente. Tampoco sabemos si la repentina decisión de la Corporación se debió, en cambio o además, a
2
3
Interesante el uso del término “guidelines”, que supone instrucciones o normas que han de ejecutarse, por consiguiente, que la UNESCO está adoptando un papel de autoridad. Interesante también la traducción del título en las versiones española y catalana, en donde “directrices” —traducción literal del original inglés— es sustituida por “recomendaciones/recomanacions”, voz que pierde este carácter de requerimiento para convertirse en una exhortación. Dicho artículo puede consultarse en .
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la aparición a finales de 2011 de los dos volúmenes de El dardo en la Academia. Esencia y vigencia de las academias de la lengua española, editados por Silvia Senz y Montserrat Alberte, que recoge 15 trabajos de especialistas en lingüística y filología en los que se disecciona de manera muy crítica el hacer académico (¿estaríamos, entonces, ante una pantalla de humo lanzada por la Real Academia para neutralizar los efectos de tal publicación?). En todo caso, el citado informe, redactado por Ignacio Bosque y suscrito —como he mencionado— por la Real Academia, lleva por título Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer4 y se centra básicamente en el tratamiento que se da al género gramatical, si bien las guías que analiza plantean más cuestiones que la conveniencia o inconveniencia de usar el masculino con una función genérica, por mucho que la principal estrategia que postulen sea rehuir este uso genérico. El título del informe académico promete más de lo que da al circunscribir el sexismo lingüístico a la controversia en torno al sentido del morfema género y a las funciones del masculino y del femenino. Sin saberlo —o sabiéndolo—, este documento contribuye a enmascarar otros aspectos esenciales de la ocultación o de la visión sesgada de las mujeres en la lengua. La lengua inglesa, por ejemplo, carece de género gramatical (más bien, ha perdido ese morfema, solo conservado en los pronombres personales); no obstante, atesora ejemplos de designación inadecuada de las mujeres, como lo hace también el español. No puede ser de otro modo en productos culturales —como son las lenguas— de sociedades androcéntricas y patriarcales. Por ejemplo, la distinción en español entre “señora y señorita”, muestra, para empezar, una asimetría con respecto a la alusión a los varones, entre los que no se establece tal dicotomía léxico-semántica; pero también revela que, en el caso de las mujeres, resulta relevante etiquetar el estatus marital (soltera o casada) y la edad (joven o entrada en años), siendo, en cambio, indiferente al hablar de los varones. Por ejemplo, que “puta” sea el insulto universal destinado a una mujer5 y “maricón” sea el insulto universal que se lanza a un varón muestran, de nuevo, una asimetría a la hora de nombrar a mujeres y varones, pero también que el comportamiento sexual que se pone
4 5
Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer…”. O “hijo/a de puta” para varones y mujeres.
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en entredicho a través del insulto, por lo tanto, el que es esperable en una mujer o en un varón, no es el mismo. Son muchos los recovecos de la lengua española en los que se esconde una manera desigual de nombrar a las mujeres o una manera despectiva de hacerlo sin parangón en las designaciones masculinas. Las más de las veces, se percibe con solo aplicar una mirada nueva a la lengua, como sucede cuando cualquiera se decide a desgranar con cuidado la diferente manera de insultar a mujeres y a varones más allá del ejemplo que acabo de dar, o las expresiones valorativas que utilizan metáforas del sexo masculino frente a las expresiones peyorativas que utilizan metáforas del sexo femenino, o el vocabulario relativo al cuerpo, a las relaciones sexuales y a la identidad sexual (especialmente si es léxico tabú), o la misoginia en el refranero, o los desequilibrios semánticos que se dan en los nombres de oficios y profesiones (ergónimos), o simplemente cuando nos planteamos descubrir, en general, los vacíos léxicos en las designaciones de mujeres y varones y el valor asociativo de las que sí existen. Otras veces, en cambio, se requiere una cierta formación lingüística para poder identificar los desequilibrios designativos de mujeres y varones; así sucede cuando hay que escarbar un poco en la historia de las palabras para descubrir, en el origen o en la evolución de las mismas, ese sesgo androcéntrico, patriarcal o sexista de la lengua española, como sucede en el vocabulario del matrimonio o de la familia, o como pasa en la antroponimia. De todo ello he hablado en varias publicaciones en las que he anali zado diferentes ámbitos del vocabulario español6 y ha sido señalado por
6
María Ángeles Calero, La imagen de la mujer a través de la tradición paremiológica española (lengua y cultura) (Barcelona: Publicacions de la Universitat de Barcelona, 1991); María Ángeles Calero, “Los sexos y el sexo en los tacos: una cuestión etnolingüística”, Actas de las VIII Jornadas de Investigación Interdisciplinaria. Los estudios sobre la mujer: De la investigación a la docencia, Cristina Bernis, Violeta Demonte, Elisa Garrido, Teresa G. Calbet, Isabel de la Torre eds. (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1991), pp. 377-385; María Ángeles Calero, “Nombres parlantes femeninos en la onomástica paremiológica española”, Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española (Madrid: Pabellón de España, 1992), vol. 2, pp. 907-917; María Ángeles Calero, “Términos y expresiones sexistas en español: los ‘duales aparentes’ y los tacos”, Actas do XIX Congreso Internacional de Lingüística e Filoloxía Románicas, Ramón Lorenzo, ed. (A Coruña: Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza-Conde de Fenosa, 1992), vol. 3, pp. 371-380; María Ángeles Calero, “El mundo de la prostitución en el Refranero español”, Paremia, 2 (1993),
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otras autoras y autores, entre los que hay que destacar a García Meseguer7 no sólo por ser el primero en reflexionar sobre esta cuestión de manera sistemática en la lengua española, sino especialmente por haber conceptualizado y etiquetado dos fenómenos básicos en el sexismo lingüístico, uno morfológico (los duales aparentes)8 y otro sintáctico-semántico (el salto semántico)9, aunque dichas etiquetas no sean, tal vez, las más transparentes o las más conformes a la terminología lingüística tradicional10. pp. 245-256; María Ángeles Calero, “Sobre los oficios femeninos en el refranero español: la mujer y la costura”, Paremia, 7 (1998), pp. 43-52; María Ángeles Calero, “Los estereotipos sexuales en el léxico de la familia y en los nombres propios”, El sexismo en el lenguaje, María Dolores Fernández, Antonia María Medina, Lidia Taillefer, eds. (Málaga: Diputación de Málaga, Biblioteca de Estudios sobre la Mujer, 1999), vol. 1, pp. 17-50; María Ángeles Calero, Sexismo lingüístico. Análisis y propuestas ante la discriminación sexual en el lenguaje (Madrid: Narcea, 1999); María Ángeles Calero, “Vestigios de diferencias de género en el léxico español del matrimonio”, En femenino y en masculino (Madrid: Instituto de la Mujer, 1999), pp. 5059; Eulàlia Lledó, María Ángeles Calero, Esther Forgas, De mujeres y diccionarios. Evolución de lo femenino en la vigésima segunda edición del DRAE, Eulàlia Lledó, coord. (Madrid: Instituto de la Mujer, 2004). 7 Álvaro García, Lenguaje y discriminación sexual (Barcelona: Montesinos, 1977) [Cito a partir de la tercera edición, de 1988]. 8 “Hay expresiones en nuestra lengua que, siendo idénticas de forma, adoptan significados diferentes, según se empleen en masculino o en femenino, es decir, según se apliquen a varón o a mujer. Llamaremos a estas expresiones duales aparentes” (Álvaro García, Lenguaje y discriminación…, p. 113). 9 Se produce salto semántico cuando un masculino que supuestamente está funcionando como genérico, se manifiesta como específico a medida que la frase o el párrafo avanzan, puesto que el contenido del texto evidencia que, en realidad, se está hablando exclusivamente de varones; por ejemplo, “Los egipcios permitían a las mujeres tener criados propios” (Álvaro García, Lenguaje y discriminación…, p. 165). Vendría a ser un anacoluto. 10 El término dual tiene ya un uso en morfología para referirse a una de las formas que adquiere el morfema número en algunas lenguas como el griego antiguo o el indoeuropeo; por tal razón, Quintillà (María Teresa Quintillà, El concepte ‘dona’ a la llengua llatina. Descripció lèxica i interpretació etnolingüística (Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona, 2001) propone en catalán la alternativa falsos parions, esto es, “falsas parejas”. La razón por la cual García Meseguer decidió utilizar este vocablo para referirse a las falsas parejas es el empleo que tiene dual en el lenguaje matemático, en donde es de uso común en la acepción “pareja, correlato”; no se olvide que García Meseguer procede de la ingeniería de caminos. Por su parte, salto semántico, resulta opaco, no permite saber qué fenómeno relativo al significado es el que se produce; tal vez, sería más apropiado cambio de referente sexual.
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Así pues, la cuestión de si la lengua, tal y como es ahora, nombra de manera adecuada la realidad social, esto es, en el tema que nos ocupa, si la lengua discrimina a las mujeres o las trata de manera desigual, no puede reducirse a si el masculino plural (“los niños, los profesores, los médicos”) o el propio masculino singular en sustantivos con moción de género (“El juez debe ser imparcial”), incluso los heterónimos masculinos (“los derechos del hombre”), incluyen o no a las mujeres. Hacer dicha reducción delata o un desconocimiento de la lengua y de la gramática, o un claro posicionamiento ideológico, o ambas cosas a la vez. La ciencia no es objetiva ni aséptica. El desarrollo del pensamiento científico debe mucho a la estructura de la lengua en la que este se ha gestado o/y en la estructura de la lengua de la que proceden los primeros conceptos en los que se basa dicho pensamiento. Benveniste demostró que Aristóteles había elaborado las categorías lógicas sobre las que hoy se sustenta el pensamiento filosófico occidental por analogía con las categorías gramaticales de la lengua griega, que era la suya11. Dado que el griego, como cualquier otra lengua, tiene una gramática particular, la filosofía occidental no hubiera sido la misma de haberse construido sobre otras categorías lógicas o sobre la estructura gramatical de otra lengua diferente al griego. Igualmente, se puede postular que la teoría de la relatividad de Albert Einstein basada en la relación biunívoca espacio-tiempo, relación que revolucionó la física, se pudo gestar en la mente de un alemán12 porque en las lenguas indoeuropeas es posible concebir el tiempo y el espacio como algo semejante toda vez que se emplean algunos elementos para
11 Émile Benveniste, “Categorías de pensamiento y categorías de lengua”, Problemas de Lingüística General I (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1986), pp. 63-74. 12 O en la mente de una serbia, si no olvidamos que Mileva Marić, primera esposa de Albert Eisntein, nacida en Titel (actual Serbia), brillante matemática y buena física, es, según diversas publicaciones, a la que debemos la fundamentación matemática de las teorías físicas de Einstein publicadas en 1905 y en 1915 referentes a la relatividad especial y a la relatividad general, respectivamente, por las cuales recibió el Premio Nobel, que no compartió con Marić, aunque sí le entregara el dinero que con él recibió. Para conocer el modo en que se produjo dicha intervención científica en las teorías de Einstein y el modo en que fue sistemáticamente ocultada, puede leerse Rubio (Esther Rubio, Mileva Einstein-Maric. ¿Por qué en la sombra? (Madrid: Envida, 2006) o Djurdjevic (Maria Djurdjevic, “Mileva Einstein-Marić (1875-1948): Hacia la recuperación de la memoria científica”, Brocar Cuadernos de Investigación Histórica, 32 (2008), pp. 253-274).
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e xpresar por igual ambos conceptos: sucede con las preposiciones alemanas que tienen el doble uso temporal-locativo (ab, aus, bei, bis, gegen, hach, in, um, von, zu, auβerhalb, innerhalb; y sucedía, por ejemplo, en latín con las preposiciones temporales-locativas ab, de, ex, in o en adverbios como hic, ibi, istinc, post, supra, que expresan tanto tiempo como espacio según el contexto13, algo que han heredado también las lenguas romances. En consecuencia, hay que plantear que los sistemas conceptuales son todos relativos, porque las lenguas en las que se han gestado son relativas. Cada comunidad construye un instrumento para comunicar aquello que precisa y que le interesa; así, el producto resultante (la lengua) ofrece sólo las parcelas del mundo físico y psíquico que han sido convenidas por el grupo y, de momento, nada más que esas. Puesto que la lengua es el principal canal por el que descubrimos el mundo y la que nos permite conceptualizar, el conocimiento que tengamos de ese mundo y la forma en que conceptualicemos serán inevitablemente restringidas. Naturalmente, eso no impide que nuestra mente pueda ampliarse hacia otras formas de ver la realidad y a desarrollar otras conceptualizaciones posibles, pero eso suele darse cuando se producen contactos con otros pueblos que tienen perspectivas diferentes del universo —del mismo modo que tienen una lengua y una cultura diferentes—, o cuando la creatividad de la comunidad lingüística conduce a nuevos mundos posibles. Veremos, más adelante, cómo esto afecta a la teorización del género gramatical. Estamos, pues, ante una primera barrera que nos ha de hacer pensar en lo poco objetiva que es la ciencia si el instrumento con el que se aproxi ma a la realidad y la analiza, esto es, la lengua, está ya sesgado. Pero más preocupante es, por lo que de intervención voluntaria de las personas tiene y, en consecuencia, por lo evitable que puede ser, el hecho de que todas y cada una de las elecciones que hemos de hacer en el desarrollo de cualquier investigación (la elección del tema, la hipótesis de partida, el enfoque, las fuentes que se emplean, el método que se utiliza para recoger datos y para tratarlos, la interpretación que se concede a esos datos obtenidos y tratados) las hacemos no sólo desde la corriente teórica en la que nos inscribimos (rara vez se parte de la nada y siempre hay otras corrientes 13 Agradezco a Matías López López, Catedrático de Filología Latina de la Universitat de Lleida (UdL), y a Teresa Quintillà Zanuy, Catedrática de Latín del IES Guindàvols de Lleida, la resolución de algunas dudas suscitadas en la interpretación de algunos aspectos de la lengua latina.
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posibles), sino también desde la individualidad de nuestro propio ser —el de la persona que investiga o teoriza—, que es como es por un cúmulo de accidentes que se cruzan, entre los que entran la clase (en términos marxistas), el género (en términos feministas), la religión, la etnia o la raza, la edad. No obstante, en el mundo académico existe una profunda convicción en la objetividad del trabajo que se realiza en él, y no siempre se tiene la honestidad científica de reconocer que hemos llegado a tal conclusión en función del punto de partida que hemos adoptado y del proceso metodológico que hemos seguido.
2. El género gramatical en el DRAE En el caso que nos ocupa —el morfema género—, podemos observar esta parcialidad de la actividad científica, por ejemplo, en la lexicografía. Así podemos ver la inconsistencia de los criterios que utiliza la Real Academia Española para establecer en su Diccionario de la Lengua Española (DRAE) cuál es el femenino de los sustantivos referidos a seres animados susceptibles de moción de género que no han tenido hasta ahora un femenino o cuyo femenino tiene significados distintos al masculino. Esta cuestión —si se acepta o no un femenino para hablar de las mujeres y con qué forma se acepta— es de elevada importancia, dado el carácter normativo que tiene dicho diccionario así como el prestigio de esta corporación entre los especialistas, pero también entre las instituciones, las personas que aprenden español y la población hispanohablante en general. Por otra parte, la sintonía o falta de sintonía entre la actuación lexicográfica (sus diccionarios) y la actuación gramatical (sus gramáticas) de la propia Real Academia Española es un termómetro que nos mide el grado de arbitrariedad que pueda estar alcanzando la actividad científica académica en torno al género gramatical. En las explicaciones que la Real Academia Española da sobre cómo se ha actualizado la última versión impresa de su diccionario normativo14, se indica que se ha hecho un gran esfuerzo por registrar en masculino
14 Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española (DRAE) (Madrid: Espasa, 2001; 22ª edición), pp. XXVII-XXXI.
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y femenino determinados nombres de profesiones, oficios y actividades hoy vigentes, y que ha sido la documentación la que ha fundamentado la decisión tanto de poner en el lema ambos géneros como de señalar en comentario adicional el empleo del masculino para hablar de las mujeres15. Y más adelante, al hablar de la revisión que han tenido las formas complejas dentro de los artículos del diccionario, se insiste en el apoyo de la documentación para decantarse en la decisión de presentar o no la forma femenina16. Es absolutamente cierto que la Real Academia Española utiliza su propio banco de datos (Corpes XXI, CREA y CORDE17) para comprobar el uso semántico y gramatical de las palabras, pero no siempre lo hace con la misma convicción, de manera que, en ocasiones, aun existiendo 15 La cita, en concreto, dice así: “Cuando el uso, especialmente el bien documentado, así lo recomienda, esas palabras se recogen en los dos géneros (p. ej., médico, ca), aunque se registre la posibilidad, si también lo propicia el empleo real, de utilizar solo el masculino (“Julia es médico”) para ambos. En el momento en que la costumbre ya no dé por bueno este último recurso, como sucede en la actualidad con otras denominaciones (p. ej., maestro, tra, o, desde hace menos tiempo, catedrático, ca), así se recogerá en el Diccionario, buen testigo del uso lingüístico vivo.” (Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española…, p. XXIX. Obsérvese la indicación de que lo que recomienda o no cómo actuar en el diccionario es especialmente “el uso bien documentado”. ¿Cuál es la medida de lo bien documentado?, cabe preguntarse. 16 El texto dice: “El banco de datos ha sido la fuente de información empleada para documentar la variación de género en aquellos lemas de formas complejas que, al adoptar ahora marcas gramaticales antes inexistentes, la necesitaban (p. ej., abogado de oficio-abogada de oficio, documentado en masculino y femenino, frente a abogado de secano, documentado exclusivamente en masculino).” (Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española…, p. XXIX). 17 Se trata del Corpus del Español del Siglo XXI (CORPES XXI), con documentos a partir de 2001, del Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual (CREA), con documentos desde 1976 hasta 2004, y el Corpus Diacrónico del Español (CORDE), con documentos desde los inicios del idioma hasta 1975, a los que se puede acceder de manera casi ilimitada a través de la web de la RAE. Así en para el CORPES XXI, en para el CREA y en para el CORDE, se entra en un buscador en el que se puede escribir la palabra o expresión que se anda buscando y se obtienen todas las ocurrencias que se encuentran en la base de datos y se ofrecen varias líneas del texto en el que aparecen para facilitar así la contextualización. Puede limitarse la búsqueda a un autor o autora, a una obra, a una época, a un medio (libro, periódico, oral…), a un tema o a un país concreto de habla hispana.
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d ocumentación de un uso lingüístico concreto en sus propios corpora, tal cosa no basta para que dicho uso lingüístico sea aceptado entre las páginas del DRAE. ¿Tiene que ver con la cantidad de ocurrencias que se encuentran de dicha palabra o acepción?, ¿tiene que ver con la “calidad” de los textos en los que aparecen los ejemplos? Difícil saberlo, pues la Real Academia no declara los criterios que utiliza para decidir cuándo la documentación es válida y cuándo no. Por otra parte, este hecho pone en entredicho su autodefinición de “testigo del uso lingüístico vivo”, porque parece ser testigo, en unos casos, y, en otros, estar ciega. En la primavera del año 2000, Víctor García de la Concha, entonces director de la Real Academia Española, me encargó la revisión del lenguaje sexista para la vigésima segunda edición del DRAE, que tenía que aparecer al año siguiente. A la ingente tarea (el DRAE contiene más de 100.000 entradas) nos consagramos tres investigadoras, Esther Forgas, Eulàlia Lledó y yo misma, todas con experiencia en el análisis de la ideología en los diccionarios y/o en el estudio de la huella del androcentrismo y del patriarcado en la lengua. La primera labor que se nos encomendó fue proponer nuevos lemas o nuevas acepciones a lemas existentes. Así fue como propusimos, por ejemplo, las entradas “androcentrismo, homofobia, felación, cunnilingus, monoparental, ginocrítica, clitoridectomía”, o nuevas formas complejas como “acoso sexual, violencia doméstica”18, o nuevas acepciones para lemas existentes como “género” o “paridad”, entre otros. Pues bien, no siempre las propuestas que presentábamos con más testimonios eran las aceptadas, ni siempre tenían menos peso las que estaban documentadas sobre todo en textos periodísticos. Lo cierto es que algunas fueron admitidas, como “androcentrismo, homofobia, felación, cunnilingus o acoso sexual, y otras no, como ginocrítica, clitoridectomía o violencia doméstica”, o las nuevas acepciones de “género”19 o “paridad”. Alguna, como “monoparental” se descartó entonces pero se incluirá como artículo nuevo en la vigésima tercera edición, como declara la versión en red del DRAE20.
18 Hoy se prefiere la expresión “violencia de género”. Téngase en cuenta que las propuestas se hicieron hace más de 10 años. 19 Si se consultan en el CREA las siguientes formas complejas “violencia de género, perspectiva de género, estudios de género e impacto de género”, se obtendrán numerosos ejemplos, que van de más cuantiosos a menos en el mismo orden en que aquí recojo estas formas complejas. 20 Consultable en .
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La revisión siguiente que hicimos las tres investigadoras mencionadas tuvo en cuenta tanto la forma que adoptaban los lemas como el modo en que estaban redactadas las definiciones, la presentación de las etimologías o el contenido de los ejemplos (muy pocos) que sirven para ilustrar el significado o el uso de algún lema o forma compleja. Durante más de un año llegamos a redactar 16 informes que llenaron unas 4.000 páginas entre análisis de casos, propuestas de modificación, argumentaciones y documentación, sin llegar a culminar el análisis de todo el diccionario antes de que se publicara la nueva edición. Resulta evidente que la cuestión que se nos había confiado no se circunscribía a si los lemas sobre oficios, profesiones, cargos y dignidades recogen o no un femenino existente en la lengua hablada. En ese caso, también hicimos propuestas que no siempre se aceptaron: todavía hoy, por ejemplo, “dramaturgo” sigue apareciendo exclusivamente en masculino y con la marca m., a pesar de contar con diversos testimonios en la propia base de datos de la Real Academia y de no haber ningún impedimento formal para ello (este sustantivo se puede tratar como cualquier otro con moción de género cuyo masculino acaba en –o). Por otra parte, se modificaron algunas de las definiciones que proponíamos a artículos nuevos o a acepciones no bien resueltas, y con un resultado final que delata un tremendo sesgo en la labor lexicográfica. Para ilustrarlo mejor, pondré dos ejemplos de diferente índole. –
derecho de pernada (s.v. derecho) se definía, en la edición de 1992 (la vigésima primera), como “Ceremonia de algunos feudos, que consistía en poner el señor o su delegado una pierna sobre el lecho de los vasallos el día en que se casaban.” La inadecuación de dicha definición para el sentido general que se tiene de la locución es evidente. Nuestra propuesta fue la siguiente: Derecho feudal que obligaba a la recién desposada a pasar la noche de boda con su señor. Hoy se usa figurada e irónicamente para expresar el atropello que se comete con abuso de autoridad contra una persona o grupo de personas.
Con esta definición buscábamos dos cosas: 1) actualizar la acepción, añadiendo, además, un valor figurado extendido hoy en día, y 2) dar el protagonismo a las mujeres. La definición que aparece en la edición siguiente, la de 2001, reza:
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1. m. derecho que se ha atribuido al señor feudal, por el que este yacía con la esposa del vasallo recién casada. 2. m. coloq. Ejercicio abusivo del poder o de la autoridad.
en donde vemos 1) que se ha sustituido la acepción anterior por los dos sentidos que proponíamos, 2) que la segunda acepción, de nueva acuñación, responde a una síntesis abreviada de la segunda parte de nuestra propuesta, 3) que la modificación de la primera acepción no responde a ese mismo criterio (la síntesis), pues contiene más palabras que nuestra propuesta y no es un resumen de la idea sino una reinterpretación en la que las mujeres ya no son el sujeto sino el objeto de la acción, y 4) que se sustituye un eufemismo “pasar la noche de boda” por otro, “yacer” cuanto menos, confuso, y cuanto más, bastante rancio. – Las palabras “felación” y “cunnilingus”, como ya hemos dicho, no formaron parte del lemario del DRAE hasta la edición de 2001. Nuestra propuesta de incorporación tuvo éxito, aunque no las definiciones que ofrecimos. Las redactamos siguiendo la misma estructura con la única diferencia que exigía estar hablando de cuerpos diferentes, el de un varón y el de una mujer, respectivamente. La sorpresa fue mayúscula cuando pudimos percatarnos de que “felación” había dejado de ser una “práctica sexual” y que cunnilingus no constituía ninguna acción dinámica ni suponía ninguna estimulación21. Está claro que nosotras, por un lado, y la Real Academia Española, por otro, partíamos de puntos de vista diferentes, y la consecuencia de tal circunstancia fue la obtención de dos productos lexicográficos distintos. Está claro, también, que las definiciones de la vigésima segunda edición del 21 Para más datos sobre esta comparación entre nuestra propuesta y la definición final de “felación” y cunnilingus recogida en la vigésima segunda edición del DRAE, consúltese Calero (María Ángeles Calero, “Diccionario y subjetividad: el tratamiento lexicográfico del vocabulario sexual”, VI Jornadas de Lingüística, Miguel Casas dir., Luis Escoriza, ed. (Cádiz: Universidad de Cádiz, 2002), pp. 41-43), donde se analizan otros muchos ejemplos del grado de aceptación de nuestras propuestas relativas al vocabulario sexual y los implícitos ideológicos que hay en ello. Igualmente se puede consultar Lledó-Calero-Forgas (Eulàlia Lledó, María Ángeles Calero, Esther Forgas, De mujeres y diccionarios… donde se revisa con detalle el DRAE-2001.
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diccionario académico para los lemas y expresiones que acabamos de repasar son menos transparentes que las nuestras, rehúyen ciertos temas y son androcéntricas. Por tanto, no es solo que la Real Academia Española se negara a aceptar femeninos documentados incluso en su propia base de datos o que decidiera añadir de vez en cuando la apostilla de “úsase también en masculino”, sino que el DRAE sigue sin ser riguroso y sistemático, y deja entrever claramente lo poco aséptica que puede llegar a ser la ciencia, en este caso, la ciencia lexicográfica. Estos ejemplos nos ayudan a estar alertas sobre cómo la construcción teórica de la realidad, en nuestro caso gramatical, responde a algo más que a lo supuestamente objetivo. Con esta mirada cautelosa hemos de afrontar los textos académicos relativos al morfema género, partiendo de la base de que la lengua organiza el pensamiento y contribuye, junto a otros ele mentos culturales, a conformar la identidad. Hablamos en este libro de “identidades perversas”: el análisis del género gramatical nos ejemplifica una construcción perversa de la identidad masculina que se convierte en el centro nuclear sobre el que se toma la medida de las cosas, y una cons trucción perversa de la identidad femenina que parece estar conformada por dos naturalezas, la propia y la ajena.
3. Tratamiento del morfema género en los textos académicos La explicación y la clasificación del morfema género han ido mudando en la larga tradición gramatical que arranca de la Grecia clásica, una mudanza que no siempre ha respondido a un avance hacia nuevos enfoques teóricos sino, todo lo contrario, a un retroceso que olvida aproximaciones más acertadas al hecho lingüístico. En otro lugar22, luego de haber indagado la forma, función y motivación del morfema género en los orígenes indoeuropeos y en su evolución al latín y al español, revisé las gramáticas latinas y algunos precedentes griegos en búsqueda 22 María Ángeles Calero, “La relación género gramatical-sexo biológico desde Nebrija hasta 1771”, Nebrija V Centenario. Actas del Congreso Internacional de Historiografía Lingüística, Ricardo Escavy, Miguel Hernández, Antonio Roldán, eds. (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 1994), vol. 3, pp. 121-140.
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de los fundamentos teóricos de esta categoría gramatical tal y como fue formulada en la primera gramática castellana, la de Nebrija23, que tanta repercusión tuvo en obras posteriores, incluidas las académicas. También me ocupé allí de analizar otras gramáticas de los siglos XVI y XVII para comparar el uso de las fuentes clásicas y observar cuál había sido la postura mayoritaria en el tratamiento del morfema género. Años más tarde24, retomé esa cuestión convencida de que las circunstancias en las que se habían elaborado dichas gramáticas y otras actuales (en concreto, si iban destinadas a un público no nativo, por tanto, enfrentado a una lengua extranjera) habían facilitado un acercamiento más adecuado a este accidente gramatical. Lo que se demostraba en esos dos trabajos es que había gramáticas que mostraban un arraigo falto de crítica a descripciones gramaticales anteriores, o que intentaban explicar desde una perspectiva sincrónica un elemento de la lengua que es como es por los vaivenes de su propia historia, mientras que otras gramáticas —y no las menos—, especialmente las que intentaban ser de ayuda a quienes aprenden una segunda lengua, daban noticias más certeras sobre el accidente gramatical que estamos aquí analizando. En esta ocasión, lo que presento es un análisis comparado de las tres gramáticas de cuño académico, por tanto, la Gramática de la lengua caste llana,25 el Esbozo de una nueva gramática de la lengua española26 y la Nueva gramática de la lengua española27 (NGLE), así como los puntos que esta última presenta en común con el informe Sexismo lingüístico y 23 Antonio de Nebrija, Gramática de la lengua castellana (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1980 [1492]) [Edición facsimilar preparada por Antonio Quilis]. 24 María Ángeles Calero, “Visión histórica de la teorización del género gramatical y consecuencias en su aplicación a la enseñanza de ELE”, Discurso de género y didáctica. Relato de una inquietud, Félix San Vicente, María Luisa Calero, coords. (Bologna-Córdoba: Cooperativa Libraria Universitaria Editrice Bologna-Universidad de Córdoba, 2012), pp. 17-34. 25 Real Academia Española, Gramática de la lengua castellana (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1984). Edición facsimilar que reproduce la de 1771 (Madrid: Joaquín Ibarra). 26 Real Academia Española, Esbozo de una nueva gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1973). Esta gramática fue encargada por la Real Academia Española a Salvador Fernández Ramírez (académico desde 1959) y a Samuel Gili Gaya (académico desde 1961), y se redactó con el apoyo de Rafael Lapesa (académico desde 1954). 27 Para su redacción se han tenido en cuenta las variedades del español americano y se ha pretendido mantener un equilibrio entre descripción y prescripción, entre tradición
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visibilidad de la mujer28. Dos son los elementos esenciales que vamos a tratar aquí, a saber, 1) la naturaleza del morfema género, por consiguiente, si ha de describirse formalmente y/o semánticamente y qué rasgos son los que permiten identificar sus variantes, y 2) el valor no marcado del género masculino, en consecuencia, si el masculino puede incluir el femenino en ciertos contextos. En la Tabla 1, que aparece al final de este trabajo, muestro comparativamente la información que las gramáticas académicas presentan sobre estas dos cuestiones. En este cotejo de la teoría gramatical académica manifestada en dife rentes obras, he incluido la gramática de Emilio Alarcos29 aunque finalmente no fuera asumida como propia por la Real Academia Española30, y lo he hecho para evidenciar que existen otras aproximaciones a los fenómenos gramaticales hechas desde otras perspectivas, incluso que han partido de miembros de la propia Academia. Ello significa que lo que manifiesta la Corporación no necesariamente es compartido por la totalidad de sus miembros, sean o no especialistas en gramática o lexicografía. Pero también denota que, cuando la Real Academia Española sanciona un documento, como lo ha hecho con el citado informe redactado por Ignacio Bosque31, en realidad lo convierte en propio, como sucedió con el Esbozo o con la NGLE, razón por la cual Moreno Cabrera32 considera este informe como un documento institucional, cuyas opiniones gramaticales tienen un impacto social mucho mayor que si fueran las personales de un gramático, por lo que entiende que las críticas vertidas
28 29 30
31 32
y novedad, entre especialización y divulgación, entre exhaustividad y contención, al menos es lo que se manifiesta en su Prólogo. Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer…”. Emilio Alarcos, Gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe-Real Academia Española, 1994). La Real Academia Española confió a Emilio Alarcos Llorach (académico desde 1973) la redacción definitiva de la nueva gramática, puesto que el Esbozo —como su título indicaba— no había podido llegar a esa categoría, pero el documento resultante no fue aceptado por la Corporación por no compartir ciertas conceptualizaciones y designaciones novedosas que defendía el ponente. Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer…”. Juan Carlos Moreno, “Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas en la sociedad. Reflexiones críticas”, Scribd, 17 Abril 2013, .
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contra dicho texto no van destinadas a Bosque, mero redactor, a pesar de que el manifiesto publicado en apoyo a este gramático declare lo contrario33. Es importante insistir en este detalle porque tanto la NGLE como el informe académico sobre sexismo lingüístico, en primer lugar, dan a entender que las propuestas de un tratamiento del morfema género distinto al mantenido por la Real Academia34 no proceden de especialistas, lo cual genera, de inmediato y automáticamente, un descrédito de esas otras formulaciones gramaticales que estos dos trabajos discuten; y, en segundo lugar, sostienen que los usos lingüísticos de los que se habla en tales propuestas (empleo sistemático del femenino acompañando al masculino, sustitución del masculino genérico por colectivos y epicenos…) se circunscriben a un grupo muy reducido de personas, lo cual devalúa, de inmediato y automáticamente, el eco social que tiene este comportamiento lingüístico en la comunidad hispanohablante. Ambas afirmaciones son falsas. Existe ya abundante literatura redactada por lingüistas que replantea la teoría gramatical sobre este accidente del nombre, y muchas guías de lenguaje no sexista han sido redactadas por lingüistas o construidas a modelo y semejanza de otras redactadas por lingüistas. Por otra parte, tras 25 años de difusión de las estrategias que se presentan como alternativa al uso del masculino genérico por parte de instituciones, de ciertos estamentos profesionales y de especialistas, no es nada desdeñable el colectivo de usuarias y usuarios de tales fórmulas (en el ámbito educativo, en la administración, en la política, en ciertos contextos sociales…). Volviendo al análisis comparado del tratamiento del género gramatical por los tratados académicos, se observa, en la Tabla 1, que la NGLE retrocede a la formulación semántica que se hizo en la gramática de 1771, mientras que el Esbozo y la gramática de Alarcos35 preferían una explicación sintagmática, referida a la concordancia, por mucho que reconocieran
33 Antonio Fábregas, María Carmen Horno, Silvia Gumiel, Luisa Martí, “Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas en la sociedad: manifiesto de apoyo a D. Ignacio Bosque”, Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas, 6 Marzo 2012, , 17 Abril 2013. Sin duda, induce a error, esto es, a creer que es una propuesta teórica particular y no institucional, el hecho de que el informe está redactado con un estilo poco académico, en primera persona y narrando anécdotas personales. 34 Cuidado: distinto al mantenido en ciertas obras académicas, porque el pensamiento académico no siempre ha sido el mismo, como se verá. 35 Emilio Alarcos Llorach, Gramática de la lengua española…
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ciertos valores semánticos en este morfema36. Esta cuestión es primordial porque, si la gramática de una institución como la Real Academia Española fortalece la percepción que tiene la comunidad lingüística de que el morfema género sirve para distinguir entre sí las designaciones de varones y de mujeres, aumenta la capacidad que pueda tener el género gramatical en los sustantivos animados para construir la identidad de género social. Tal vez, este retrotraerse a formulaciones antiguas, desestimando otras más recientes y elaboradas por gramáticos de reconocido prestigio y con sillón en la Real Academia, tenga que ver con la evidencia de que el vocabulario referido a los seres humanos se está feminizando a un ritmo vertiginoso, es decir, que se están creando formas femeninas antes inexistentes y se están modificando semánticamente otras que tenían unos usos que ya no parecen acordes con la sociedad actual para adaptarse a las nuevas necesidades designativas de la comunidad hispanohablante. Asimismo, el cambio que muestra la NGLE puede resultar de la incorporación, declarada y pretendida en esta obra académica, de la diversidad dialectal de la lengua española, puesto que en este particular se registra una diferencia notable entre España y América en el volumen y la naturaleza de las nuevas formas femeninas, siendo las hablas hispanoamericanas las que están más adelantadas en este proceso de feminización léxica. Por lo que se refiere a los valores o funciones del masculino, esto es, si este género gramatical aúna o no un valor específico y otro genérico, resulta interesante destacar que en la primera edición de la gramática académica, la de 1771, el uso genérico del masculino se plantea, no en los sustantivos, sino en los adjetivos (por eso tampoco hay mención de este fenómeno en los heterónimos, como sí se hace en las otras tres gramáticas analizadas aquí), y se concibe como resultado de las exigencias de 36 No solo hay una vuelta atrás en la explicación de la naturaleza del morfema género, sino que la NGLE delega la identificación del género que tiene el sustantivo a las terminaciones —como se hacía en parte de la tradición gramatical grecolatina—, y al campo léxico-semántico en los sustantivos no animados. En cambio, tanto las gramáticas académicas anteriores (la de 1771 y el Esbozo) como la gramática de Alarcos aseguran que el género del sustantivo se reconoce básicamente a través del artículo que lo acompaña, si bien algunas terminaciones son asociadas a uno u otro género por el Esbozo y Alarcos, consignándose la existencia de excepciones y la no universalidad de las reglas. Precisamente las abundantes excepciones y lo prolijo de las terminaciones posibles es lo que disuade a la gramática de 1771 para tenerlas en cuenta en un eventual procedimiento de identificación del género gramatical que tiene un sustantivo concreto (ver Tabla 1).
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la concordancia entre el adjetivo y el sustantivo. Mientras que, desde el Esbozo, las gramáticas académicas hablan del masculino como elemento “no marcado” que, por consiguiente, engloba el femenino —lo que justificaría que “los padres” pueda significar “los padres y las madres” y que el adjetivo que acompañe a la combinación “los alumnos y alumnas” vaya solamente en masculino—, la gramática de 1771 presenta, en cambio, otra realidad lingüística y gramatical, que ya existía en latín, y, muy probablemente, esté documentando que, al menos en el siglo XVIII, se estaba todavía dando ese uso en el español, a saber, que el adjetivo concuerda en género con el sustantivo más próximo (si todos están en plural) o con el sustantivo que está en plural (si la relación de sustantivos a los que acompaña combina singulares y plurales). Esta cuestión también es crucial. La NGLE y el informe Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer insisten en que el uso que hace la comunidad hispanohablante es el que está sustentando la concepción de una función genérica del masculino, y que sostener que el masculino no es el elemento no marcado, en una supuesta oposición entre el masculino y el femenino, es ir en contra de la raíz misma del idioma. Pues bien, si esa raíz del idioma existe, la que plantean estos dos trabajos no se hunde en los orígenes del español, pues ya he comentado que el latín no daba automáticamente preponderancia al masculino y la gramática de 1771 tampoco lo recoge en su teoría morfológica, por lo tanto, no estamos ante unas raíces tan profundas. Lo demuestra el propio hecho de la feminización de los nombres de profesiones, oficios, cargos y dignidades. Si el masculino se percibiera como genérico, la comunidad hablante no necesitaría crear formas como “jueza, abogada, pintora, carpintera, ministra”, porque el correspondiente masculino expresaría “persona que realiza tal cosa o tiene tal cargo”, sin especificar el sexo. Pero no es así: se crean constantemente femeninos de masculinos, incluso con terminaciones que en el adjetivo se perciben como invariables (“triste, alegre, dulce”), de modo que tenemos “jefa, dependienta, asistenta, tenienta, gerenta, conserja37”; más aún, se 37 Esta preocupación por crear femeninos a partir de masculinos para nombrar a las mujeres no solo se documenta en español ni es contemporánea. La humanista italiana Laura Cereta (1469-1499) feminizó el latín en sus escritos utilizando la terminación – trix para formar sustantivos y adjetivos que en latín tenían únicamente moción masculina. Y la humanista española Juana de Contreras, hacia 1504, debatió epistolarmente con su maestro Lucio Marineo Sículo la voluntad de eludir la forma clásica herois para
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crean masculinos de femeninos, como “enfermero, azafato”, y así ha sido siempre (“tío” o “viudo” están documentados en el español mucho más tarde que “tía” y “viuda”). Si la comunidad lingüística ve la necesidad de nombrar en femenino es porque el masculino no nombra a las mujeres. La tan cacareada economía lingüística, utilizada hasta la saciedad como argumento contra la utilización de fórmulas como “las niñas y los niños”, concebidas como duplicación innecesaria, paralizaría este comportamiento lingüístico si fuera cierto que el masculino se siente como inclusivo38. No lo hace. No se produce este freno. Hay un impulso irreprimible y arrollador en la comunidad lingüística. Por otra parte, parece poco consistente admitir que la lengua acepte sin problemas unidades que tienen más de una función sin que tal cosa genere ambigüedades. Precisamente el cambio lingüístico tiende a producirse en aquellos lugares donde la designación no es clara, donde las oposiciones son débiles. La NGLE defiende el valor genérico del masculino —plural y singular—, por lo que considera innecesaria la doble mención, a pesar de que reconoce que a veces no se puede interpretar qué función concreta tiene el masculino más que por el contexto o por ciertas inferencias —como es el conocimiento del mundo, el saber compartido u otras cuestiones poco explicitadas en el texto académico—. Por la misma hablar de sí misma y sustituirla por una nueva forma femenina, heroina, declinada por la primera (Ana Vargas, “La diferencia sexual y su representación en el Diccionario de la Lengua Española”, Lo femenino y lo masculino en el Diccionario de la Lengua de la Real Academia Española, Ana Vargas, Esther Lledó, Marcia Bengoechea, Mercedes Mediavila, Isabel Rubio, Aurora Marco, Carmen Alario, eds. (Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales-Instituto de la Mujer, 1998), p. 11). 38 En un estudio sociolingüístico que realicé sobre creencias lingüísticas en torno al género masculino (María Ángeles Calero, “Creencias y actitudes lingüísticas en torno al género gramatical en español”, Estudios sobre lengua, literatura y mujer, María Isabel Sancho, Lourdes Ruiz, Francisco Gutiérrez, eds. (Jaén: Universidad de Jaén, 2006), pp. 235-284) pude comprobar este desafecto al valor no marcado del masculino defendido por diversas gramáticas, entre ellas las académicas desde el Esbozo y en el informe académico sobre sexismo lingüístico. Los resultados estadísticos demostraban que la probabilidad de que el público interpretara como genérico un sustantivo masculino emitido con la intención de incluir a las mujeres, era baja en numerosos contextos y que dependía de factores sociales, esto es, del sexo, edad y nivel de estudios de la persona que escuchaba o leía el mensaje. El contexto familiar y el educativo eran los que favorecían una posible interpretación inclusiva del masculino; el profesional, el deportivo, el social, no.
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razón, y por considerar que no son equivalentes, la NGLE es contraria a la sustitución por colectivos o sustantivos abstractos o epicenos. La Real Academia Española, reconoce, pues, aunque no lo diga explícitamente, que el masculino es ambiguo si en ocasiones es difícil su interpretación. El principio de cooperación de Grice, que explica las reglas tácitas por las que se rigen las personas que intervienen en una interacción para que la comunicación tenga éxito, incluye la “máxima de modalidad”, esto es, entre otras cosas —incluida la brevedad—, “Evite las expresiones oscuras” y “Evite la ambigüedad”. Cumplir estas dos premisas conversacionales es lo que explica el punto de partida de las propuestas de las guías de lenguaje inclusivo que critica el informe académico. Pues bien, esta postura de defensa a ultranza de un masculino genérico que convierte en innecesario cualquier otro tipo de designación —defensa que a veces se formula como recomendación y a veces como requerimiento obligatorio— sólo podría sostenerse si intermediara un estudio cuantitativo fiable. Mientras tanto, no. El informe académico39 se mueve en las impresiones (“mis alumnas de sintaxis”, “ninguna de estas mujeres”40), y estas impresiones son resultado de la experiencia vital de quien ha escrito ese texto y de quienes lo han suscrito. Yo podría oponer a esto mi propia experiencia vital y, con la misma imprecisión que practica el informe, la experiencia de otras muchas colegas que no se sienten identificadas en una designación en masculino y que emplean distintos recursos que proponen las guías para que no haya ningún resquicio de duda y para que sea ú nicamente la mente de la persona que escucha o lee la que masculinice el mensaje, esto es, no vea a las mujeres en aquello de lo que se está hablando, por tanto, que no sea la lengua la que provoque esa masculinización con su falta de precisión. Piénsese que, cuando un elemento lingüístico funciona para más de una cosa, en caso de duda, triunfa la función primigenia que tenía o la más usual. Si el masculino de los sustantivos animados con moción de género tiene como función original y básica nombrar a los varones, en caso de duda, la interpretación que triunfará es la específica, no la genérica, que es lo que demostró mi estudio sociolingüístico de las creencias en torno al género masculino41. 39 Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer…”. 40 Se refiere a Soledad Puértolas, Maruja Torres, Ángeles Caso, Carmen Posadas, Rosa Montero, Almudena Grandes, Soledad Gallego-Díaz, Ángeles Mastretta, Carmen Iglesias y Margarita Salas. 41 María Ángeles Calero, “Creencias y actitudes lingüísticas en torno al género…”.
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Ya he señalado que la NGLE dedica varios párrafos (en concreto, desde 2.2c a 2.2h) a reconocer que, para interpretar adecuadamente el masculino como incluyente (genérico) o excluyente (específico), hay que recurrir en ocasiones al contexto, al tema del que se habla o a otros elementos extralingüísticos, y no se muestra siempre beligerante en la imposición del masculino plural genérico, como sí hace el informe sobre sexismo lingüístico. Sin embargo, la NGLE comparte con dicho informe formulaciones imprecisas como cuando sostiene que “algunos” niegan que el masculino plural tenga un uso genérico asentado en el idioma y sugieren sustituirlo por colectivos y abstractos, mientras que “son más los que” han señalado que estas sustituciones son imperfectas, inadecuadas y empobrecedoras.
Conclusiones En conclusión, la teoría gramatical académica en torno al morfema género está actualmente enrocada, sin que los nuevos datos que recoge en el diccionario, en sus bases de datos y en las variedades dialectales contempladas para la redacción de sus obras, ni tampoco los trabajos científicos que han discutido la postura de la Real Academia Española sobre el particular, hayan hecho mella alguna en su marcada defensa de una función genérica del masculino, que le lleva, cuanto menos, a discutir, cuanto más, a reprochar o rechazar, la utilización de recursos lingüísticos para hacer evidente la designación de las mujeres. En lo referente al efecto que llega a tener esta teorización del morfema género sobre la construcción de la identidad, las mujeres nos construimos sobre una base esquizofrénica: unas veces somos mujeres, otras salimos de nuestro colectivo para entrar en otro, de modo que, por ejemplo, unas veces nos llaman “ciudadanas” y otras, “ciudadanos”; en cambio, la lengua ayuda a construir una identidad más definida en los varones, puesto que ellos nunca dejan de ser nombrados como varones: ellos siempre son y serán “ciudadanos”. Y eso, por no entrar en la jerarquía mental que supone una designación no marcada sobre una marcada. Eso queda para otra ocasión.
GLE de la RAE1771
Esbozo de una NGLE1973 SÍ NO • Y añade: “Estos son los • Pero acepta que en los primitivos, y verdadersustantivos apelativos de os nombres de género persona “se acerca basmasculino, y femenino, tante a la verdad” la idea porque su significacion de que el f. designa a distingue los dos sexôs.” mujeres y el m. a varones Definición • Señala que la distribu(2.2.4). semántica ción de los sustantivos • También afirma que la de referente no sexuado atribución de significado entre masculinos y feal género gramatical en meninos se debe al uso. los nombres de cosa “es casi siempre problemática y de ningún modo constante y regular” (2.2.5). NO SÍ • árbol / fruto, Otros significa• individual / colectivo, dos del género • pequeño / grande(además del implícito varón / mujer).
Table 1. NGLE de la RAE2009
SÍ • dimensión y forma, • usuario / instrumento, • árbol / fruto • indeterminable: corte, orden, cólera, coma, parte…
NO
NO SÍ • Si bien el género no tiene • Parte de una concepción significado sexual, existe sintáctica –su efecto en dicha creencia, que explica la concordancia– pero que se formen femeninos dedica muchas páginas al a partir de masculinos significado. para hablar de mujeres, y • Afirma que aporta signifiviceversa, aunque en menor cado en los sustantivos que medida. designan seres animados, ya que suele diferenciar el sexo. No obstante, señala diversas excepciones.
GLE de Alarcos1994
468 María Ángeles Calero
• Por el artículo. • Por la terminación del • En el caso de el+agua, artículo y de pronombres el+alma, por el adjetianafóricos o catafóricos. vo, y, si el adjetivo es de Cómo se reconuna sola terminación, oce el género por la mudanza del sustantivo al plural (esta última es la única regla sin excepción). NO SÍ • Se consideran prolijas y • Enumera sufijos asociallenas de excepciones. dos a uno u otro género. • Trata separadamente los nombres comunes de persona y los nombres de cosa. Uso de las • Anota excepciones a terminaciones algunas reglas. • Presenta la diversa evolución de algunas terminaciones por vía culta o popular. SÍ • Menciona la existencia de algunas terminaciones susceptibles de informar del género de la palabra. • No son de carácter universal.
SÍ • Cataloga algunas terminaciones según estén ligadas a uno de los dos géneros o a los dos, así como parejas de terminaciones masculino / femenino. Anota excepciones. • Describe la situación de los sustantivos comunes (o de género común, en términos lexicográficos) y de su variabilidad dialectal.
• Por el artículo o por la • Por las terminaciones. terminación del adjetivo. •E n los sustantivos no • Menciona el caso de animados, a través de los el+agua, añade el+hacha y hiperónimos y de los camdice que sucede lo mismo pos léxicos y semánticos. con los demostrativos. • En los sustantivos comunes, por la concordancia con adj. y determinantes.
El morfema género en el pensamiento de la Real Academia Española
469
41 42
SÍ • El género únicamente se manifiesta de forma explícita cuando el sustantivo va acompañado del artículo. • Considera el artículo como el tercer accidente del sustantivo41.
GLE de Alarcos1994
NO SÍ SÍ • Cuando los sustantivos de • Se hace explícita la • Dice del masculino género distinto están en plural, asimetría, consideránque “es el de mayor el adjetivo concuerda con el más dose “inherente” la extensión”42, frente al próximo. función genérica del femenino, que es “el de • Cuando los sustantivos de género masculino. menor extensión”. distinto están en singular, concu- • Se manifiesta en el • Se extiende el valor erda en masculino plural. masculino plural y, en genérico a los heteróni• Cuando uno de los sustantivos muy menor medida, en mos masculinos. de género distinto está en plural el singular. y el otro en singular, el adjetivo • Se oponen los conceptos concuerda en género con el que negativo, extenso o no está en plural, aunque es preferible marcado (aplicado al usar un adjetivo invariable o cada masculino) frente sustantivo con su adjetivo.
SÍ • También uso de los pronombres que se refieren a dichos sustantivos en el mismo discurso.
Esbozo de una NGLE1973
Emilio Alarcos, Gramática de la lengua española…, pp. 69, 79. Emilio Alarcos, Gramática de la lengua española…, p. 74.
Valor genérico del masculino
Uso del artículo como identificador del género
SÍ
GLE de la RAE1771
SÍ • Se refiere también a los heterónimos aunque no los mencione, como se desprende de los ejemplos; pero señala la dificultad del uso genérico de ciertos heterónimos (marido). • Se muestra contraria a la sustitución del masculino con valor genérico por colectivos o abstractos.
NO
NGLE de la RAE2009
470 María Ángeles Calero
43
a positivo, intenso o • Hace descansar la marcado (aplicado al interpretación correcta femenino). del masculino genérico • Se extiende el valor en el contexto, en el genérico a los heterónitema o en razones mos masculinos. extralingüísticas. SÍ NO SÍ • Se recoge una serie de • “La variedad de designa- • Dedica un apartado comentarios alusivos a ciones a que aluden los específico (el 2.6) masculinos que nombran dos géneros y la arbitrarie- al vocabulario de a mujeres, a femeninos dad en muchos casos de la profesiones, títulos y que nombran a varones, asignación de masculino o actividades en donde, a sustantivos con moción femenino a los signifide nuevo, describe la cuyo m. y f. tienen cados de los sustantivos variación dialectal y significados diferentes, impiden determinar con social del uso lingüístia los usos metafóriexactitud lo que significa co, la concordancia ad cos y, finalmente, a la realmente el género. Es sensum (por el referente evolución de la lengua preferible considerarlo y no por el género del (se feminiza más el como un accidente que núcleo nominal) y la vocabulario que al revés, clasifica los sustantivos en dificultad de emplear es decir, rara vez se crea dos categorías combinaciertos femeninos por un masculino de un torias diferentes, sin que estar ocupados ya con femenino previo). los términos masculino otros significados. o femenino prejuzguen ningún tipo de sentido concreto”43.
Emilio Alarcos, Gramática de la lengua española…, p. 73.
Otros usos sociales
NO
• No se mencionan los heterónimos.
El morfema género en el pensamiento de la Real Academia Española
471
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Anexo Bibliografía Emilio Alarcos, Gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa- Calpe-Real Academia Española, 1994). Émile Benveniste, “Categorías de pensamiento y categorías de lengua”, Problemas de Lingüística General I (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1986), pp. 63-74. María Ángeles Calero, La imagen de la mujer a través de la tradición paremiológica española (lengua y cultura) (Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona, Col·lecció de Tesis Doctorals Microfitxades núm. 1027, 1991). María Ángeles Calero, “Los sexos y el sexo en los tacos: una cuestión etnolingüística”, Actas de las VIII Jornadas de Investigación Interdisciplinaria. Los estudios sobre la mujer: De la investigación a la docencia, Cristina Bernis, Violeta Demonte, Elisa Garrido, Teresa G. Calbet, Isabel de la Torre, eds. (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1991), pp. 377-385. María Ángeles Calero, “Nombres parlantes femeninos en la onomástica paremiológica española”, Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española (Madrid: Pabellón de España, 1992), vol. 2, pp. 907-917. María Ángeles Calero, “Términos y expresiones sexistas en español: los duales aparentes y los tacos”, Actas do XIX Congreso Internacional de Lingüística e Filoloxía Románicas, Ramón Lorenzo, ed. (A Coruña: Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza-Conde de Fenosa, 1992), vol. 3, pp. 371-380. María Ángeles Calero, “El mundo de la prostitución en el Refranero español”, Paremia, 2 (1993), pp. 245-256. María Ángeles Calero, “La relación género gramatical-sexo biológico desde Nebrija hasta 1771”, Nebrija V Centenario. Actas del Congreso Internacional de Historiografía Lingüística, Ricardo Escavy, Miguel Hernández, Antonio Roldán, eds. (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 1994), vol. 3, pp. 121-140. María Ángeles Calero, “Sobre los oficios femeninos en el refranero español: la mujer y la costura”, Paremia, 7 (1998), pp. 43-52. María Ángeles Calero, “Los estereotipos sexuales en el léxico de la familia y en los nombres propios”, El sexismo en el lenguaje, María Dolores Fernández, Antonia María Medina, Lidia Taillefer, eds. (Málaga:
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Diputación de Málaga-Biblioteca de Estudios sobre la Mujer, 1999), pp. 17-50. María Ángeles Calero, Sexismo lingüístico. Análisis y propuestas ante la discriminación sexual en el lenguaje (Madrid: Narcea, 1999). María Ángeles Calero, “Vestigios de diferencias de género en el léxico español del matrimonio”, En femenino y en masculino (Madrid: Instituto de la Mujer, 1999), pp. 50-59. María Ángeles Calero, “Diccionario y subjetividad: el tratamiento lexicográfico del vocabulario sexual”, VI Jornadas de Lingüística, Miguel Casas, dir., Luis Escoriza, ed. (Cádiz: Universidad de Cádiz, 2002), pp. 13-64. María Ángeles Calero, “Creencias y actitudes lingüísticas en torno al género gramatical en español”, Estudios sobre lengua, literatura y mujer, Mª Isabel Sancho, Lourdes Ruiz, Francisco Gutiérrez eds. (Jaen: Universidad de Jaén, 2006), pp. 235-284. María Ángeles Calero, “Visión histórica de la teorización del género gramatical y consecuencias en su aplicación a la enseñanza de ELE”, Discurso de género y didáctica. Relato de una inquietud, Félix San Vicente, María Luisa Calero, coords. (Bologna-Córdoba: Cooperativa Libraria Universitaria Editrice Bologna y Universidad de Córdoba, 2012), pp. 17-34. Maria Djurdjevic, “Mileva Einstein-Marić (1875-1948): Hacia la recuperación de la memoria científica”, Brocar. Cuadernos de Investigación Histórica, 32 (2008), pp. 253-274. Álvaro García, Lenguaje y discriminación sexual (Barcelona: Montesinos, 1977) [Cito a partir de la tercera edición, de 1988]. Eulàlia Lledó, María Ángeles Calero, Esther Forgas, De mujeres y diccionarios. Evolución de lo femenino en la vigésima segunda edición del DRAE (Madrid: Instituto de la Mujer, 2004). Antonio de Nebrija, Gramática de la lengua castellana (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1980 [1492]). Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española (DRAE) (Madrid: Espasa, 2001). Real Academia Española, Gramática de la lengua castellana (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1984) [Edición facsimilar que reproduce la de 1771 (Madrid: Joaquín Ibarra)], [Consultable en para la edición facsimilar, y en: para la transcripción, 17 Abril 2013].
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Real Academia Española, Esbozo de una nueva gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1973). Real Academia Española-Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, Nueva gramática de la lengua española: vol. I. Morfología. Sintaxis I y vol. II. Sintaxis II (Madrid: Espasa Libros, 2009). Esther Rubio, Mileva Einstein-Maric. ¿Por qué en la sombra? (Madrid: Envida, 2006). Silvia Senz, Montserrat Alberte, El dardo en la Academia. Esencia y vigencia de las academias de la lengua española (Barcelona: Melusina, 2011). María Teresa Quintillà, El concepte ‘dona’ a la llengua llatina. Descripció lèxica i interpretació etnolingüística (Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona, 2001). Ana Vargas, “La diferencia sexual y su representación en el Diccionario de la Lengua Española”, Lo femenino y lo masculino en el Diccionario de la Lengua de la Real Academia Española, Ana Vargas, Eulàlia Lledó, Mercedes Bengoechea, Mercedes Mediavila, Isabel Rubio, Aurora Marco, Carmen Alario, eds. (Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales-Instituto de la Mujer, 1998), pp. 7-34. Webgrafía Ignacio Bosque, “Sexismo lingüístico y visibilidad de la mujer”, Boletín de Información Lingüística de la Real Academia Española, marzo 2012, Real Academia Española. 17 Abril 2013, . Antonio Fábregas, María Carmen Horno, Silvia Gumiel, Luisa Martí, “Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas en la sociedad: manifiesto de apoyo a D. Ignacio Bosque”, Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas, 6 Marzo 2012. 17 Abril 2013, . Juan Carlos Moreno, “Acerca de la discriminación de la mujer y de los lingüistas en la sociedad. Reflexiones críticas”, Scribd, 17 Abril 2013. .
La royauté joola-ajamaat : constructions sémantiques et représentations autour du genre Mónica Labonia Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis
Nous explorerons la royauté joola-ajamaat de Youtou (Sénégal) à partir du lien étroit qui existe entre le pouvoir politique et le pouvoir religieux. Le cas emblématique est celui de l’ayi (roi-prêtre), lequel symbolise ce double caractère royal et sacerdotal. D’un côté, « […] le roi est incontestablement le chef suprême du pouvoir religieux »1. De l’autre, il dispose d’un pouvoir temporel qui se manifeste dans le cadre d’une organisation politique « monocratique »2. Cette organisation peut se décliner au travers de proverbes relatifs à la royauté3. Nous avons donc choisi d’analyser certains d’entre eux, ce qui nous permettra de dévoiler les représentations du genre dans cette société.
1. Les traits saillants de la royauté joola-ajamaat de Youtou La « royauté sacrée »4 joola-ajamaat de Youtou est une organisation politico-religieuse représentée par son arambeu ou chef des cultes, et par le roi-prêtre bissau-guinéen de Kerouhey (ayi). D’une part, cette institution synthétise à la fois le pouvoir religieux et le pouvoir 1
Ernest Sambou, Rencontre et altérité. Enjeu d’une christianisation en milieu joola (Toulouse : Institut Catholique de Toulouse, Thèse doctorale, 1983), p. 165. 2 Annie Dorsifang-Smets, « Gouvernés et gouvernants dans les civilisations archaïques », Recueils de la société Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des institutions, 22 (1969), pp. 141-152. 3 Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola de Casamance (Paris : Karthala, 1998). 4 Alfred Adler, Le pouvoir et l’interdit. Royauté et religion en Afrique noire : essais d’ethnologie comparative (Paris : Albin Michel, 2000).
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p olitique. D’autre part, elle concerne uniquement le « […] « genre », (qui) se réfère à la classification sociale au « masculin »5. Bien que dans cette société, les femmes d’un âge avancé soient assimilées à des agnats et participent aux décisions des hommes, elles ne disposent pas du pouvoir politique puisque le culte royal (Këyëku) est « détenu par un homme exclusivement »6. De nombreux auteurs (Thomas7, 1959, Girard8, 1969, Linares9, 1992) ont affirmé que la royauté peut appartenir aux deux sexes. Toutefois, à Youtou, il n’y a encore jamais eu de reine (ayi anare). Contrairement aux affirmations de Palmeri (1995), l’exercice de ce pouvoir politique n’est pas généralisée à tous les prêtres ni à tous les cultes (ukin). Bien au contraire, il existe une spécialisation et dans certains cas, une superposition de fonctions. D’ailleurs, l’ayi de Sambujat (Sénégal) et son homologue Bissau-guinéen de Bulol10 contrôlent le culte de l’initiation masculine (kareng batyn). Au-delà de cette diversité empirique, sur le plan symbolique, dans le discours des villageois, un arambeu titulaire est appelé ayi au village, de la même manière que l’ayi de Kerouhey. Ce qui souligne la similitude entre des fonctions royales d’un côté, et les deux royautés transfrontalières, de l’autre. Quelles sont les particularités de ce pouvoir politique ? En premier lieu, le pouvoir politique de l’ayi est strictement codifié. C’est d’ailleurs ce qui fait sa spécificité et ses limites. Bien que la faculté de gouverner de l’ayi soit associée à une capacité particulière, le « […] caractère « exceptionnel » du chef sacré est totalement, artificiel, fabriqué,
5 6
Ann Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (London : Temple Smith, 1985). Odile Journet, “Le harpon et le bâton (‘Joola-Felup’, Guinée-Bissau)”, Systèmes de Pensée en Afrique Noire Cahier, 12 (1993), p. 29. 7 Louis-Vincent Thomas, Les Diola, essai d’analyse fonctionnelle sur une population de Basse-Casamance (Dakar : Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire, 1959). 8 Jean Girard, Genèse du pouvoir charismatique en Basse-Casamance (Sénégal) (Dakar : Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, 1969). 9 Olga Linares, Power, Prayer and Production. The Jola of Casamance, Senegal (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1992). 10 Jordi Tomàs, « ¿Por qué un rey joola cruza la frontera y el otro no ? Pinceladas sobre una investigación en curso en la frontera entre Guinea-Bissau y Senegal », Trabajo presentado en Actas del congreso CIEA7, ISCTE-IUL (Lisboa : Centro de Estudios Africanos, 2010), p. 4.
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477
entièrement culturel, il ne doit rien à des qualités personnelles »11. Son pouvoir politique est intimement lié aux circonstances12, mouvant, mais pourtant bien en place. En tant que gouvernant, il dirige le groupe socio-politique, exerce le pouvoir et prend les décisions. Ce pouvoir est le fruit d’un consensus populaire13, mais aussi l’expression de privilèges (polygamie, travail collectif des rizières royales, etc.). Ce p ouvoir consensuel s’accompagne toutefois d’une coercition exercée par la royauté de Kerouhey et son pouvoir de commandement, sans que celui-ci ne se traduise par des sanctions sociales. Comme le roi écoute et concilie, il s’avère difficile de reconnaître sa domination. Son autorité se manifeste autant par une autorité morale que politique. En second lieu, l’étendue de son pouvoir politique peut aussi bien concerner un seul village que plusieurs d’entre eux14. En effet, le roi de Kerouhey réside dans le village du même nom. Il exerce l’autorité suprême sur tous les villages kujamaat15 qu’ils soient situés sur le territoire sénégalais, ou bissau-guinéen. Cette royauté se compose de plus de trente villages. Quant à son pouvoir spirituel, il repose sur le sacré, notamment par les ukin royaux këyëku et jiremb qui placent cette royauté au sommet de tous les cultes et, par extension, de toutes les autres royautés. Qu’il s’agisse de celle des blis-karon, sur la rive droite du fleuve Casamance ou celles de Kerouhey, d’Oussouye, de Kalobone, d’Essaout, de Mlomp, de Cadjinol-Kafone, de Youtou et d’Effok sur la rive gauche.Le sacré devient l’une des dimensions du politique. Ainsi, le roi fait des prières et des « libaciones por petición de la población como por iniciativa propia »16. Il assure le déroulement des cérémonies telles que celles de l’initiation, de la lutte et de la fête royale (ewagen). Parallèlement à ces fonctions 11 Luc de Heusch, « Charisme et royauté », Société d’Ethnologie, Conférence Eugène Fleischmann II (Nanterre : Société d’ethnologie, 2003), p. 10. 12 Dominique Darbon, La pénétration administrative en Milieu rural : l’exemple de la Casamance (Sénégal) (Bordeaux : Université Bordeaux I, Thèse doctorale, 1984). 13 Ernest Sambou, La Casamance (Sénégal) et les forces du mal (Paris : Université Paris, 1984). 14 Jordi Tomàs, La identitat ètnica entre els joola d’Oussouye (Húluuf, Bubajum áai) (Bellaterra : Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Tesi doctoral, 2005). 15 Pluriel d’ajamaat. 16 Jordi Tomàs, « ¿Un Rey Sagrado en el Siglo XXI ? La realeza joola de Oussouye revisitada », Cadernos de Estudos africanos, 16/17 (2008), p. 5 .
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liturgiques, il est investi de fonctions cosmologiques cruciales (Thomas17, 1959; Girard18, 1969; Roche19, 1985; Iniesta20, 1992). En effet, le roi implore la venue de la pluie en hivernage à travers ses ukin, en collaboration avec tous les anciens des villages détenteurs des ukin alliés à ceux de la royauté. Il est le facilitateur de « […] la séparation des saisons sèche et pluvieuse »21. Cependant, au-delà de ses fonctions hiératiques, il investit totalement la sphère séculière, en embrassant divers aspects de la vie communautaire par ses pouvoirs surnaturels. Par conséquent, la charge politico-rituelle de l’ayi et de l’arambeu s’étend à la fois au domaine économique, foncier et judiciaire. Sur le plan économique, le roi distribue « à travers un messager »22, des biens, spécialement du riz, provenant tout droit de ses greniers royaux, à ses sujets. Il montre ainsi sa générosité. Le fait que la population travaille ses rizières et lui offre des présents23, introduit deux extrêmes, des « rois très riches »24 et des « rois pauvres »25. En effet, d’autres rois-prêtres comme ceux de Calobone, Essukujak et Bulol peuvent travailler leurs champs eux-mêmes26 tout comme l’arambeu de Youtou. Sur le plan foncier, il attribue des terres (rizières, espaces de plantation et récolte de vin de palme), appuyé par un conseil d’anciens et
17 Louis-Vincent Thomas, Les Diola, essai d’analyse fonctionnelle sur une population … 18 Jean Girard, Genèse du pouvoir charismatique … 19 Roche Christian, Histoire de la Casamance. Conquête et résistance (1850-1920) (Paris : Karthala, 1985). 20 Ferran Iniesta, El planeta negro. Aproximación a las culturas africanas (Madrid : Los Libros de la Catarata, 1992). 21 Odile Journet, Pratiques magiques de la vie quotidienne en milieu urbain islamisé (Dakar) et en milieu rural « animiste » (Joola-felup du nord de la Guinée-Bissau) (Lyon : Maison Rhône-Alpes des Sciences de l’Homme-Groupe Lyonnais de Sociolo gie Industrielle, 1994), p. 53. 22 Louis-Vincent Thomas, Les Diola, essai d’analyse fonctionnelle sur une population …, p. 273. 23 Sylvie Pouilly -Treca, De l’assignation ethnique à la revendication d’ethnicité : le cas des Diola de Casamance (Sénégal) (Paris : Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1996), p. 230. 24 Louis-Vincent Thomas, « Esquisse sur les mouvements de population et les contacts socio-culturels en pays diola (Basse-Casamance) », Bulletin de l’Institut français d’Afrique noire, 22/B/3-4 (1960), p. 203. 25 Olga Linares, Power, Prayer and Production …, p. 41. 26 Jordi Tomàs, « ¿Por qué un rey joola cruza la frontera y el otro no ? … », p. 4.
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par des adultes responsables. Les champs et les terres sont rattachés exclusivement à l’homme (vir). Les terres sont attachées au patrilignage et se transmettent en ligne agnatique. Toutefois, lorsqu’une femme revient dans son patrilignage, ses agnats doivent lui donner une parcelle à cultiver. La fonction judiciaire du roi provient de son rôle de gouvernant. Il est responsable moralement et civiquement de la population qui dépend de son autorité. Il est le juge, l’arbitre et le conseiller dans les situations d’importance majeure pour toute la zone joola. Il est à la fois le pacificateur et le médiateur en cas de litiges entre les différents quartiers et villages, mais il peut aussi déclarer la guerre s’il le juge nécessaire. Toutefois, sa fonction guerrière est à nuancer. Même s’il est le chef suprême des hommes qu’il mène au combat, il semble que les rois aient rarement fait usage de cette prérogative. Plus particulièrement, l’arambeu de Youtou, est seulement chargé d’assurer l’ordre social et la paix dans le territoire délimité de son village. Ainsi, il règle les conflits entre les villageois, car sa parole est sacrée. En effet, « Le roi est au-dessus de tous […] Ce qu’il décide est ce qui doit être »27. Lorsque l’arambeu invoque le batyin (puissance surhumaine entre Dieu et l’homme) jiremb par l’intermédiaire d’un sacrifice animal, c’est pour obtenir une bonne récolte, faire tomber la pluie, éradiquer une maladie, une « calamité »28 ou sortir d’une situation de violence. L’arambeu est le représentant du roi dans un village. Le batyn këyëku désigne aussi la forêt royale où se déroulent les rituels importants. Cette forêt abrite parfois la résidence du roi. Cette suprématie se traduit par les fonctions mentionnées précédemment. Quant à la population, la souveraineté traditionnelle suscite parmi elle des sentiments antinomiques : distance et vénération, répulsion et attraction du fait que le souverain est situé dans la zone du « fascinant »29. Nous énumérons ci-dessous certains interdits appliqués au personnage royal.
27 Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola de Casamance (Paris : Karthala, 1998), p. 352. 28 Nazaire Diatta, « Anthropologie et herméneutique des rites joola (Funérailles, initia tions) » (Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, thèse doctorale, 1982), pp. 49-50. 29 Rudolf Otto, Le sacré, L’élément non rationnel dans l’idée du divin et sa relation avec le rationnel (Paris : Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 2004), p. 70.
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2. Les prohibitions royales Les interdits concernant les activités de l’ayi comme celles relatives à son corps, ont été soulignées par divers auteurs (Thomas30, 1959 ; Girard31, 1969 ; Diatta32, 1982 ; Sambou33, 1983 ; Camara34, 1986 ; Baum35, 1986 ; Linares36, 1992, Journet37, 1993, Palmeri38, 1995 ; Pouilly-Treca39, 1996, Tomàs40, 2005). L’ayi est un être sacré et secret. Son intronisation fait de lui un « fétiche vivant »41, un « corps fétiche et non à proprement parler une divinité »42. Désormais, il lui est interdit de traverser des marigots, de se déplacer dans d’autres villages lors de cérémonies en dehors de celles de la royauté (initiation à la royauté) et des rites de saison. Il ne peut pas se rendre dans les cases des citoyens de son royaume, sauf chez quelques-uns, qui incarnent son pouvoir sacré (les ukin royaux) dans les différents villages. En effet, le roi de Kerouhey visite les rois subordonnés43. Le fait que « […] sa liberté de mouvement est le plus souvent soigneusement contrôlée… »44 est un un aspect distinctif des royautés sacrées africaines.
30 Louis-Vincent Thomas, Les Diola, essai d’analyse fonctionnelle … 31 Jean Girard, Genèse du pouvoir … 32 Nazaire Diatta, Anthropologie et herméneutique des rites joola (Funérailles, initiations) (Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, thèse doctorale, 1982). 33 Ernest Sambou, « Rencontre et altérité … ». 34 Diagne Camara, Conflits sociaux en Basse Casamance. L’exemple des émeutes de Ziguinchor (Dakar : Université de Dakar, Mémoire de Maîtrisse, 1985-1986). 35 Robert Baum, A religious and social history of the Diola-Esulalu in Pre-colonial Senegambia (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1986). 36 Olga Linares, Power, Prayer and Production … 37 Odile Journet, « Le harpon et le bâton … ». 38 Paolo Palmeri, Retour dans un village diola de Casamance (Paris : Le Harmattan, 1995). 39 Sylvie Pouilly-Treca, De l’assignation ethnique … 40 Jordi Tomàs, « La identitat ètnica … ». 41 Paolo Palmeri, Retour dans un village diola de Casamance (Paris : Le Harmattan, 1995), p. 286. 42 Luc De Heusch, « Charisme et royauté … », p. 12. 43 Sylvie Poully-Treca, De l’assignation ethnique … 44 Luc De Heusch, Le roi de Kongo et les monstres sacrés. Mythes et rites bantous III (Paris : Gallimard, 2000), p. 28.
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La condamnation de toute activité physique (chasse, pêche, cueillette de vin de palme) s’étend jusqu’à l’interdiction de sculpter du bois en dehors de son village. Cette dernière interdiction est-elle de même nature que les autres ? Nous y reviendrons plus tard, mais retenons pour l’instant un détail qui peut être la clé d’une interprétation ultérieure : le roi est obligé d’apporter continuellement son tabouret avec lui. Ainsi, « L’efendyen devient un objet quasi sacré attaché définitivement à son propriétaire »45. Il doit ne doit exercer aucune activité lucrative et n’est pas non plus autorisé à participer à la politique nationale. Il ne peut se nourrir ni dormir en public. La plupart du temps, il ne doit pas être vu. Par exemple, il ne doit pas prendre son bain en public , sauf « devant ceux qui sont ses collaborateurs immédiats : les conseillers royaux, initiés aux secrets royaux »46. De la même manière, on ne voit jamais le roi faire de sacrifices. Cela ne reste accessible qu’aux initiés. Comment isoler des aspects communs à toutes ces interdictions ? Le roi ne peut se livrer à aucune activité masculine. Il en est totalement exclu. Ici, l’aspect social de l’homme est anéanti, ses fonctions « naturelles », effacées, niées. Il est « déshumanisé », placé à l’écart de la vie humaine. Seuls les initiés aux mystères de la royauté ont accès à sa vie privée. Concernant le protocole, pour rendre visite au roi, une audience doit être demandée au préalable. On ne peut pénétrer dans le bois sacré qu’en étant accompagné d’un homme déjà initié aux rites royaux, ce qui introduit l’idée d’une approche graduelle de la personne royale. Approcher le roi exige la présence d’intermédiaires. Le roi devient un être, morcelé. Lors des audiences, il s’exprime par le biais d’une autre personne, son adjoint par exemple. Cela traduit à nouveau le prolongement de la personne du roi à travers ses conseillers, l’extension mais aussi la médiation de la communication avec lui. La communication est en quelque sorte arbitrée ou différée. Pour quelle raison ? Sa parole étant sacrée, il est nécessaire d’instaurer une séparation entre elle et la salive, considérée comme une substance corporelle nuisible. Le roi ne peut pas non plus serrer la main d’une femme qui a ses règles. Parallèlement, les épouses du roi ou leurs filles, c’est-à-dire son 45 Louis-Vincent Thomas, « Note sur les sièges diola », Notes Africaines, 112 (1966), p. 137. 46 Ernest Sambou, « Rencontre et altérité…», p. 166.
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entourage féminin qui n’est pas en période de menstrues, peuvent s’asseoir sur le tabouret de l’ayi ou de l’arambeu. Notre propos n’est pas d’aborder la fonction symbolique de ces femmes singulières, rappelons seulement qu’elles n’ont pas de pouvoir politique réel. Les tabous liés au cycle féminin sont observés à tous les niveaux de ces sociétés, sans distinction de stratification sociale. Quelle signification revêtent ces deux éléments : menstrues et tabouret ? Quelles sont leurs particularités ? Comme nous l’avons vu précédemment, le roi est un être disloqué, élastique, flexible, tout en étant ouvert à la communauté. Cependant, dans ses rapports avec les femmes, déterminés directement par les d ifférences physiologiques entre les deux sexes, le roi apparaît comme un être rigide, fermé. Le liquide « souillé » qui s’échappe chaque mois du corps de la femme, rejaillit sur le comportement de tout l’entourage royal, hommes et femmes confondus. C’est pourquoi le roi finit par ne plus faire qu’un avec son entourage direct, dans le seul but de se protéger de cette « souillure » féminine. Les menstrues sont a priori un phénomène non visible mais pourtant dévoilé. À l’inverse, les sécrétions du roi restent confidentielles. De par les nombreux interdits rituels dont il est objet, le roi devient un être dépourvu de corps. Il est immatériel puisqu’il n’a pas de besoins physiologiques. Il est presque plus proche d’un esprit que d’un être humain, alors que la femme est manifestation exacerbée de son corps. Elle incarne l’intérieur, le désordre naturel qui l’envahit à mesure qu’elle traverse la puberté, la grossesse, l’allaitement et la ménopause. Le roi représente l’extérieur, l’ordre social par opposition à la nature, il est celui qui agit sur le monde physique puisqu’il est capable d’exercer une action sur les liquides internes (salivation, menstrues, bile, excrétion, humeur, transpiration) afin d’échanger avec les forces invisibles. De ce fait, il est censé manipuler, dans les contextes sacrificiels, des substances non corporelles (vin de palme, eau et sang animal) afin de garantir le déroulement des cycles (saison sèche-saison pluvieuse, paix-guerre, chaud-froid). Ainsi, le roi contrôle les cycles, et les femmes acceptent la régularité des phénomènes physiologiques innés auxquels elles sont soumises tout au long de leur existence. Le cycle des règles, la présence de substances corporelles dont le sang et le lait maternel, font de la femme une spectatrice de ces phases et un être en transition, en transformation chronique. Tout ce qui relève de le vie, de la mort, de la maladie, fait partie de la nature humaine, mais le roi en est exclu par obligation. Il est au-delà de la vie et de la mort, d’ailleurs,
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il ne meurt pas, il « disparaît » : « awi dadjimejin ». Ainsi, « La perpétuité de la tête du royaume et le concept d’un rex qui nunquam moritur, « un roi qui ne meurt jamais … »47 peuvent être appréhendés à travers l’immortalité et la continuité. Ce sont des éléments communs à diverses royautés. Pourquoi le genre féminin est-il exclu du pouvoir politique ? Peut-être parce que les femmes n’ont pas le droit de s’asseoir sur le mortier. Revenons donc sur le devoir de sculpter dans le village (localisation du pouvoir) et de s’asseoir sur l’efendyen (positionnement), puisque ces deux actions semblent être connectées. Sculpter, c’est fabriquer l’assise de son pouvoir, ce qui ne signifie pas reproduire le pouvoir en tout lieu, mais le limiter dans l’espace (village), même s’il ne l’est pas dans le temps. D’ailleurs, le régicide doit être interprété comme une coupure forcée dans la durée du mandat royal, afin d’éviter les effets de la vieillesse, ou en cas de succession de calamités telles que la sécheresse, la famine, d’empêcher l’intensification des phénomènes négatifs afin d’assurer l’ordre social et cosmique. Le régicide vise donc à la perpétuation du pouvoir, à sa reconduction. S’asseoir sur le tabouret, c’est régner. C’est prendre position pour y rester. Cette signification mérite d’être analysée simultanément avec l’allégorie du mortier et de la femme. Si le mortier est la métaphore de la femme et de la vie, c’est parce que dans ce récipient on pile, on broie des grains, des aliments et des substances (des contenus) indispensables à la subsistance. C’est le rôle nourricier et l’affinité morphologique avec l’utérus de la femme, le contenant de la vie, qui est souligné dans la notion de mortier. Néanmoins, pour s’asseoir sur le mortier il faut le renverser, ce qui implique un détournement de son utilisation initiale. Dans cette position, il ne sera plus possible de le remplir. Aucun liquide n’y pénétrera. Il est ainsi neutralisé. L’absence de chaleur ne permet pas de cuire ni de préparer des aliments dedans. Pourquoi le roi peut-il s’asseoir sur un mortier en cas d’oubli de son efendyen ? On peut penser que c’est du fait du parallélisme établi entre le mortier (qui a pour fonction la préparation et la cuisson à chaud) et le mortier inversé incapable de cuisiner et de refroidir. Le roi, symbolisé par la couleur rouge, possède un type de sang spécial puisqu’il s’agit du sang sacrificiel, maîtrisé, dominé par opposition au sang pollué (menstrues) non contrôlé. « Le sang est du domaine du
47 Ernst Kantorowicz, Les deux corps du roi. Essai sur la théologie politique au Moyen Âge (Paris : Gallimard, 1989), p. 230.
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chaud »48 ce qui implique une attention particulière vis-à-vis des sensations. Seul le roi peut être en contact avec ce mortier, sans risque de la surchauffer (femme en règles). Il est le seul capable de refroidir le sang, et par extension d’équilibrer les conditions atmosphériques. C’est par la propriété de son sang et par la maîtrise de celui-ci ainsi que d’autres substances que le roi est destiné à s’asseoir sur le mortier, pour régner. Des forces dangereuses sont véhiculées par le sang versé, donc il convient de savoir maitriser ces forces. Le sang pur, symbolisé par le roi, n’est d’ailleurs pas destiné à être retenu, mais à être répandu sur la terre. C’est pourquoi le sang est de deux natures distinctes. L’un est un sang humain impur qui coule (menstrues) et l’autre est un sang animal pur qui est versé (sacrifice). C’est un mouvement de l’intérieur vers l’extérieur, instinctif d’un côté, intentionnel de l’autre. Néanmoins, s’il existe bien une distance entre le féminin et le masculin, on assiste tout de même à un rapprochement symbolique, marqué par les coutumes. Il est à noter que ces dernières interdictions s’appliquent à d’autres royautés africaines, et sont propres à « l’invisibilité du roi »49. 2.1. Esquisses de causalité Le roi sacré relève à la fois de la contradiction, de la dualité, de l’unicité, de la synthèse, mais également de la complémentarité, de la continuité et de la discontinuité. En effet, il est à la fois protecteur et destructeur. Protecteur dans la mesure où le bonheur de sa communauté dépend de sa vitalité, qui fait corps avec son pouvoir. La notion de vitalité est-elle compatible avec l’absence de corps ? Son dynamisme provient plutôt de son esprit que de sa matière. C’est l’esprit, la puissance (batyn) qui est le corps du roi. Le pouvoir visible du roi n’est pas complétement l’incarnation de cette puissance. En tant que « magicien », il est censé agir sur les conditions atmosphériques, et en tant que prêtre et sacrificateur, il doit répondre aux attentes de son peuple. C’est la visibilité de son pouvoir qui 48 Françoise Héritier, Masculin/Féminin I. La pensée de la différence (Paris : Odile Jacob, 1996), p. 80. 49 José Carlos Gomes Da Silva, L’identité volée (Bruxelles : Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 1989).
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s’exprime sur les éléments de la nature, tels que la pluie et la sécheresse50. Néanmoins, son rôle ne se limite pas à celui du « maître et responsable de la pluie »51. Le fait qu’il garantisse « la pluie assurant la fécondité des rizières et la paix permettant une existence harmonieuse .… »52 montre son action providentielle. En effet, « Le bien commun, c’est essentiellement la pluie, la concorde, l’absence de malheur »53. C’est un pouvoir naturel-visible et un pouvoir social-invisible, qui renvoie à une corrélation : pluie = paix. L’eau et le sang sont deux éléments a priori incompatibles, inconciliables. Le premier est censé laver le sang versé. Paradoxalement, le sang versé empêche l’arrivée de la pluie. « On n’oublie pas que la guerre est en relation directe avec la pluie. Le sang qui coule est, en réalité, conçu comme une amorce de pluie »54. D’ailleurs, l’utilisation de l’eau dans les libations est rare, tandis que le vin de palme et le sang des animaux sacrifiés composent la plupart des offrandes. Il est interdit de mélanger l’eau et le vin de palme55. D’ailleurs, dans les sacrifices courants, ces deux éléments (eau et sang) ne se mélangent pas, sauf dans les sacrifices royaux. Par exemple, lors de l’intronisation du roi, l’élu est couché à plat ventre, et on verse en même temps sur sa tête, du vin de palme et le sang d’une chèvre égorgée. Le roi est aussi « destructeur », de par le pouvoir qu’il détient sur les sanctuaires (kayi), qu’il commande en partie, et qui peuvent aussi contribuer à la propagation des épidémies, à la stérilité des femmes ou des troupeaux, à la pauvreté des récoltes, aux malheurs ou à la guerre. Loin de maîtriser ses puissances, il est davantage une victime, un prisonnier56 ou un « captif étranger »57. C’est dans ce sens que les youtois parlent de « vulnérabilité 50 Paul Diedhiou, « Le processus de construction de l’identité joola. Analyse socio- anthropologique des conflits en milieu ajamat (Casamance, Sénégal) » (Besançon : Université de Franche-Comté, Thèse doctorale, 2002). 51 Alfred Adler, Andras Zempléni, Le bâton de l’aveugle. Divination maladie et pouvoir chez les Moundang du Tchad (Paris : Hermann, 1972), p. 77. 52 Diagne Camara, « Conflits sociaux … », p. 25. 53 Françoise Héritier, Michel Izard, « La paix et la pluie. Rapports d’autorité et rapport au sacré chez les Samo », L’Homme, 13/3 (1973), p. 127. 54 Nazaire Diatta, « La femme joola à travers proverbes et rites liturgiques », Telema, 1/87/49 (1986), pp. 47-71. 55 Odile Journet, « Le harpon et le bâton … », p. 33. 56 Diagne Camara, Conflits sociaux en Basse Casamance … 57 Jean Girard, Genèse du pouvoir charismatique …
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du roi » dès qu’il est au pouvoir. Désormais, il n’est pas à l’écart d’une attaque causée par des ukin. Il est le seul à assumer la responsabilité collective du village devant les ukin, il est un « bouc-émissaire »58. Si la royauté renvoie à la dualité, elle renvoie aussi à l’unicité, puisque « Les deux Corps du roi forment une unité indivisible, chacun étant entièrement contenu dans l’autre »59. Il y a d’une part son corps humain, bien que ses manifestations soient notablement atténuées, et de l’autre le corps de gouvernement composé par ses subordonnés. La royauté s’érige comme une totalité mais elle est aussi une discontinuité sociale (effacement d’identité sociale). L’intronisation rend possible la continuité cosmique (perpétuation de cycles saisonniers) et collective. Le roi est un être métamorphosé, hors du commun, c’est un mécanisme d’équilibre vivant. Il est le principe d’harmonie sur terre puisqu’« […] il est, si l’on peut dire, le desservant d’un culte dont, pour une part, il incarne lui-même l’objet »60. Les interdits dont le roi fait l’objet, ont pour but de restreindre sa sociabilité, de rendre son humanité uniquement visible à un nombre limité d’initiés, de limiter le cumul des statuts (guerrier, notable, dignitaire) et d’autre part, d’accroître son pouvoir céleste. L’ayi fait donc le lien entre la nature et la société. Cette complexité s’exprime au travers de proverbes.
3. Les proverbes La tradition orale exprimée en langue vernaculaire aide à caractériser la royauté. L’ayi est un souverain apparenté à Dieu, il est donc « auguste »61 et il exige le respect, d’où l’expression Emit aai62 qui signifie Dieu est roi. Le pouvoir cosmologique du roi souligne sa force absolue (sembe), son dynamisme, sa capacité d’intégration, de compréhension v itale et d’unité cosmique (har58 Diagne Camara, Conflits sociaux en Basse Casamance …, p. 47. 59 Ernst Kantorowicz, Les deux corps du roi …, p. 23. 60 Alfred Adler, « Le dédoublement rituel de la personne du roi », La fonction symbolique, Michel Izard, Pierre Smith, eds. (Paris : Gallimard, 1974), p. 194. 61 Rudolf Otto, Le sacré, L’élément …, p. 102. 62 Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 83.
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monie du village et maintien de l’équilibre cosmique). Selon le proverbe « Naane loe di jáii »63, « tout ce qui tourne autour de la royauté est sacré ». Tandis que les chiffres joola sont en base 5 (hutok) la poignée, 10 (kughen) les mains, 15 (kat) les pieds, le chiffre vingt n’existe pas dans le corps humain. Le chiffre vingt n’a pas de parallèle dans le corps humain. Un homme mutilé ne peut pas être roi. Il doit être un homme complet. En effet, ce chiffre vingt est symbolisé par le roi. C’est pourquoi le roi est au-delà de la nature humaine. L’ayi symbolise la totalité, la perfection (Diamacoune cité par Pouilly-Treca64). Bien que le chiffre vingt renvoie à une quantité, l’ayi est incommensurable. Le fait que le nom ayi soit employé dans la vie courante peut s’expliquer comme un rapprochement entre la royauté et la vie profane. Comme dans la semaine, le sixième jour, Hiyëy est le jour du repos ou jour du roi pour le reste de la population. C’est le jour où le roi se rend dans la forêt et procède aux sacrifices. Cela instaure une temporalité sacrée dans le calendrier profane. Néanmoins, au-delà de ces expressions solennelles, certains proverbes soulignent le parallèle entre le roi et la femme. Ces rapprochements sont déconcertants comparés à l’ensemble des interdits respectés. Non seulement Dieu est roi mais la femme est reine, anaale aai. Cela signifie qu’elle réussit plus facilement que l’homme, car elle est aidée dans plusieurs activités. Par extension, le roi reçoit de l’aide de son peuple. Le peuple cultive ses rizières, exécute des travaux collectifs, confisque le bétail pour les sacrifices destinés à l’intronisation du roi. La richesse du peuple passe dans les mains des membres de la royauté. Égaler le roi, représente pour la femme, une forme de « reconnaissance sociale »65. Un autre proverbe évoque le caractère sacré de la femme : anaale huben66, la femme est sacrée. Elle mérite le même respect, les mêmes faveurs que le roi. C’est le caractère sacré du roi qui est à l’origine de comportements généreux de la part de tous, envers les femmes. De plus, le lieu touché ou habité par une femme devient nyie nyie (sacré), tout comme les choses touchées par le roi. De la même manière, le proverbe inje aai asek signifie 63 Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 353. 64 Sylvie Pouilly-Treca, De l’assignation ethnique …, p. 229. 65 Marta Teixeira, « Dynamique des pouvoirs magico-religieux des femmes Manjak de Canchungo (Guinée-Bissau) émigrées à Ziguinchor (Sénégal) », Soronda Revista de estudos guineenses, 1 (1997), p. 153. 66 Diatta Nazaire, Proverbes jóola …, p. 180.
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que c’est le roi qui rassemble et qui féconde. Si la femme est synonyme de fertilité, le roi est synonyme de fécondité. C’est une allusion au rôle féminin du roi de par la création et recréation de la communauté. C’est la duplicité de la royauté qui revient puisque la souveraineté est divisée à l’intérieur d’elle-même : par son côté magique, le roi est un roi maternel, lié à la nature et agissant sur elle. Il est commencement, pouvoir créateur ou destructeur ; il est aussi « roi-père »67, support de l’ordre social, dans la mesure où il est une puissance qui oblige en invoquant les normes. En tant que roi-maternel, il est le créateur de vie qui permet sa multiplication de par son sang (symbolisé par son habillement rouge) et par le partage de sa richesse. En tant que roi-paternel, « le roi est conçu comme le père « ba-baadyum oeyi », « les fils du roi »68. Le pouvoir politique est doté des attributs caractéristiques de la masculinité dont la paternité, l’exercice de l’ordre, le respect et l’obéissance. Le roi en tant qu’homme (vir) est celui qui arbitre les conflits, celui qui garantit l’ordre. D’autres éléments qui rapprochent le roi de la condition féminine sont entre autres la couleur de la royauté, le rouge. En effet, « le bonnet rouge »69 et l’habillement du roi sont de couleur rouge intense. Le sang menstruel (huña), de couleur rouge, est symbole de la force et de la puissance de la même manière que la couleur rouge royale. Le proverbe Bágum uŋjonjooraalool kamat áai70 signifie que le varan terrestre est très convoité, car sa couleur rouge est un signe de royauté. Mais il est interdit de le chasser et de le tuer. De la même manière, les oiseaux áuun et álund, sont de couleur rougeâtre et symbolisent l’acte sexuel et la femme en règles. « …Ces oiseaux symbolisent l’homme ou la femme, dans le fait qu’ils sont le sang »71. En somme, la couleur rouge est associée à des actes vitaux. Pourquoi la royauté est sang ? Le sang est l’un des fluides communs entre les hommes, les femmes et les animaux. Le roi ne peut être qu’une seule substance, celle de la vie animée mais purifiée. Principalement, il est le sang versé dans les sacrifices auprès du batyn. 67 68
69 70 71
Alfred Adler, Andras Zempléni, Le bâton de l’aveugle. Divination maladie et pouvoir chez les Moundang du Tchad …, p. 298. Nazaire Diatta, Le taureau symbole de mort et de vie dans l’initiation de la circoncision chez les Diola (Sénégal) (Paris : Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1979), p. 143. Louis-Vincent Thomas, « Note sur les sièges diola », Notes Africaines, 112 (1966), pp. 136-141. Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 277. Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 207.
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Bien que ces proverbes aient souligné l’analogie entre le roi et la femme, les personnages évoques sont à l’origine de comportements antithétiques. En effet, le statut du roi rejoint celui de l’homme stable et fixe en opposition à la femme libre, instable et mouvante comme dans le proverbe : anaare étaamintaam72, le kapok (fibre végétale issue des fruits du kapokier) représente la femme. La femme est le kapok qui est amené à se déplacer avec le vent en apportant la graine d’un fromager. La vie surgit ailleurs grâce à l’instabilité de la femme. Grâce au détachement territorial, nous retrouvons la liberté de choix et l’extension de la femme. Dans le proverbe, Anaale katuk73 la femme est calebasse cultivée. Telle cette plante, la femme donne des fruits là où elle choisit de s’installer. Elle possède une fonction procréatrice et de germination urbi et orbi. Détachement, germination, et expansion représentent les traits de la femme. Tandis que la royauté est assujettissement, constriction, limitation. Dans le domaine des interdits royaux, l’analogie entre femme et roi est tangible. Le roi rejoint ainsi la condition d’une fille en règles. Le proverbe Asúngute ahaasumu hútuu ákoliut ániine : « …la fille qui a demeuré dans le coin débarras du vestibule ne craint pas l’homme »74 signale que c’est dans l’antichambre hutuuñ que la femme se couche pendant ses règles. C’est « … lors de la grossesse, de la naissance, que se situent les événements majeurs de pollution et de danger, en liaison avec le sang retenu ou perdu »75. C’est pour cela qu’à partir du jour où une fille a ses règles, elle peut partager certaines activités de l’homme, telles que boire du vin de palme destiné aux libations à l’autel de guerre, s’asseoir avec les hommes, manger la viande de taureau sacrifié à cet autel, et manger les produits de la chasse traditionnelle76, ce qu’elle ne peut pas faire pendant les règles. Elle est donc isolée de l’homme. Tout comme la femme en règles, le roi est confiné et reclus pour éviter le contact avec les lieux familiaux ou communautaires. Néanmoins, le sang des menstrues qui écarte femmes des hommes (dissociation) est aussi lié à la rencontre (association) et à la fécondité. 72 73 74 75
Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 186. Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 189. Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola …, p. 141. Françoise Héritier, Masculin/Féminin II. Dissoudre la hiérachie (Paris : Odile Jacob, 1996), p. 54. 76 Nazaire Diatta, « La femme joola à travers proverbes et rites liturgiques … ».
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Nous avons systématisé ci-dessous, les analogies et les oppositions entre la femme et le roi à partir de deux aspects. Le premier est le sang (élément naturel) et le second est le sacre (élément artificiel). Tableau 1 : Le cycle féminin. Caractéristiques associées au sang des menstrues
Caractéristiques associées au sang de l’accouchement
Caractéristiques associées à la disparition de sang
Puberté
Maternité
Ménopause (climatère)
Ménorragie
Enfantement
Aménorrhée
Perte de sang
Création. Evacuation.
Rétention. Sécheresse.
Pur liquide en transformation
Liquide + matière transformée
Absence de liquide et de matière
Involontaire
Obligatoire
Involontaire
Isolation
Enfermement
Groupement
Imperceptibilité
Visibilité
Visibilité
Esquisse
Matérialisation (tête rasée)
Carence
Passivité (fécondité potentielle)
Activité (prolifique, richesse, abondance)
Activité liturgique
Instabilité
Instabilité
Instabilité
Impossibilité d’ingestion de vin de palme
Ingestion de l’eau (identité féminine acquise)
Consommation de viande + vin de palme (identité masculine par annexion)
Rouge
Rouge et blanc
Sans couleur
Évidence (sang impur)
Évidence (sang impur)
Évidence (inexistence de sang) Hors danger
Froideur
Chaleur
Chaleur
Évitement du rapprochement
Évitement de rapprochement
Rapprochement
Sacrée
Sacrée
Profane
Commencement du cycle
Aboutissement du cycle
Arrêt du cycle
Orbi
Orbi
Orbi
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La royauté joola-ajamaat Tableau 2: Le cycle d’apparition du roi « kaiyen ». Caractéristiques associées à l’élection royale
Caractéristiques associées à l’intronisation
Caractéristiques associées au régicide
Involontaire
Arrachement forcé
Forcé
Secrète
Secrète (exposition dans la forêt royale 1 jour). Transition
Secret
Imprévisible
Imprévisible
Imprévisible
Invisible
Invisible (réclusion). Petit bosquet
Invisible
Temporalité incertaine
Temporalité hebdomadaire
Eternité
Discrétion
Richesse et pauvreté
Suspension
Indigence
Abondance
Interruption
Rapt forcé (debout)
Couché à plat ventre et assis (stable)
Assis (stable)
Violence
Pouvoir métamorphosé
Absence de pouvoir
Perte d’identité
Identité (tête rasée)
Perte d’identité
Rouge (bande d’étoffe rouge + chéchia rouge)
Rouge (courage)
Rouge
Matérialisation en cours : 2 signes
Matérialisation : 3 signes
1 signe : pagnes
Interdiction de comportement masculin
Interdiction comportement masculin
Sans comportement
Localisée
Localisée. Vie solitaire
Localisé
Ingestion
Versement vin + sang. Sacrifice. Couché à plat ventre
Ingestion
Agonie
Funérailles
Mis à mort
Terre = ciel = pierres = feu = foudre (non humain) Sang impur
Sang pur = vie
Inexistence
Sacrée
Sacrée. Nouveau nom
Sacré
Membres du conseil
Membres du conseil + rois
Membres du conseil
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Ces deux cycles, l’un naturel et l’autre artificiel visent à modifier les conditions des personnes. Sur la femme, c’est l’action de la nature qui est exercée sur la matière (le corps interne et externe), tandis que sur le roi c’est l’action de la culture, notamment rituelle qui a des effets principalement sur son âme, mais aussi sur son corps externe. Cette mutation s’effectue soit sur le corps, soit de manière purement symbolique. Tandis que le cycle féminin accompagne la puberté, la grossesse, l’allaitement et la ménopause, le cycle d’apparition royal se produit une seule fois dans la vie à l’âge adulte. L’identité sexuelle du roi n’est pas en cause dans les rituels liés à la royauté. Si certains regalia de la royauté sont des attributs de la masculinité (la chéchia rouge, le sceptre royal (ullasaw) et l’efendyen), d’autres objets comme le mortier sur lequel peut s’asseoir le roi et la calebasse (tuk) où il boit se rapportent à la femme. La calebasse est utilisée par les femmes dans les danses funéraires comme instrument de musique. La calebasse pourrait symboliser le ventre de la femme comme lieu de transit pour la vie. D’après les représentations que nous avons explorées, nous pouvons nous demander si le roi joola est un roi féminisé. Certes, il exprime une ambivalence de par son comportement d’évitement, de par sa tenue rouge et son rôle maternel envers son peuple. Même si une certaine « féminisation »77 de sa personne découle directement de son ordination, il conserve l’expression d’un comportement protecteur et paternel.
Conclusion L’importance de ces proverbes réside dans le fait que ces représentations sociales introduisent le caractère de la royauté, où les identités sexuelles se juxtaposent. En effet, le symbolisme sexuel qui s’attache à la personne du roi rappelle plutôt une complémentarité des sexes. Il y a donc dualité avec 77 Adler Alfred, « Initiation, royauté et féminité en Afrique noire. En deçà ou au-delà de la différence des sexes : logique politique ou logique initiatique ? » , L’Homme, 183 (2007), pp. 77-115. .
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la femme dans la mesure où ses capacités d’enfantement sont symétriques aux principes royaux de prospérité et de paix. Nous avons observé ces codes, dans la réalisation des sacrifices dans le bois sacré (spatialisation secrète), dans les prières en place publique (spatialisation commune), à travers l’utilisation des vêtements rouges (couleur), dans l’emploi des calebasses (objets rituels), mais aussi dans les références aux substances, par le biais du sang des animaux sacrifiés et du vin de palme. À quel liquide organique le vin de palme renvoie-t-il ? Lait maternel ou sperme ? Il est difficile de répondre à cette question tant les usages du vin de palme sont divers. Le vin est considéré comme un catalyseur de relation, un moyen d’entrer en rapport avec l’autre, visible ou invisible. Tous ces comportements manifestent la transmission des oppositions binaires entre masculin et féminin. Ils sont aussi des métaphores de la reproduction hétérosexuelle. Si cela rappelle la condition humaine, il est à noter que l’effacement des besoins physiologiques et des liens sociaux suggère un dépassement, une forme d’abstraction de l’identité sexuelle. C’est pour cela que le personnage royal est un être en pénitence.
Annexe Bibliographie Alfred Adler, Andras Zempléni, Le bâton de l’aveugle. Divination mala die et pouvoir chez les Moundang du Tchad (Paris : Hermann, 1972). Alfred Adler, « Le dédoublement rituel de la personne du roi », La fonction symbolique, Michel Izard, Pierre Smith, éds. (Paris : Gallimard, 1974), pp. 193-207. Alfred Adler, Le pouvoir et l’interdit. Royauté et religion en Afrique noire : essais d’ethnologie comparative (Paris : Albin Michel, 2000). Alfred Adler, « ‘Initiation, royauté et féminité en Afrique noire’. En deçà ou au-delà de la différence des sexes : logique politique ou logique initiatique? », L’Homme, 3/183 (2007), pp. 77-115. Robert Baum, A religious and social history of the Diola-Esulalu in Precolonial Senegambia (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1986).
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A. D. Camara, Conflits sociaux en Basse Casamance l’exemple des émeutes de Ziguinchor, Mémoire de Maîtrise (Dakar : Université de Dakar, 1985-1986). Dominique Darbon, La pénétration administrative en Milieu rural : l’exemple de la Casamance (Sénégal), Thèse de doctorat (Paris : Études Africaines, 1984). Luc de Heusch, « Charisme et royauté », Société d’Ethnologie, Conférence Eugène Fleischmann II (Nanterre : Société d’Ethnologie, 2003). Luc de Heusch, Le roi de Kongo et les monstres sacrés. Mythes et rites bantous III (Paris : Gallimard, 2000). Paul Diedhiou, « Le processus de construction de l’identité joola. Analyse socio-anthropologique des conflits en milieu ajamat (Casamance, Sénégal) », Thèse de doctorat (Besançon : Université de FrancheComté, 2002). Nazaire Diatta, Le taureau symbole de mort et de vie dans l’initiation de la circoncision chez les Diola (Sénégal) (Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1979). Nazaire Diatta, Anthropologie et herméneutique des rites joola (Funérailles, initiations), Thèse de doctorat (Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1982). Nazaire Diatta, Proverbes jóola de Casamance (Paris : Karthala, 1998). Annie Dorsifang-Smets, « Gouvernés et gouvernants dans les civilisations archaïques », Recueils de la société Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des institutions, 22 (1969), pp. 141-152. Jean Girard, Genèse du pouvoir charismatique en Basse-Casamance (Sénégal) (Dakar : IFAN, 1969). José Carlos Gomes Da Silva, L’identité volée (Bruxelles : Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 1989). Françoise Héritier, Masculin/Féminin I. La pensée de la différence (Paris : Éditions Odile Jacob, 1996). Françoise Héritier, Masculin/Féminin II. Dissoudre la hiérarchie (Paris : Éditions Odile Jacob, 1996). Françoise Héritier, Michel Izard, « La paix et la pluie. Rapports d’autorité et rapport au sacré chez les Samo », L’Homme, 13/3 (1973), pp. 121-138. Ferran Iniesta, El planeta negro. Aproximación a las culturas africanas (Madrid : Los Libros de la Catarata, 1992). Odile Journet, « Le harpon et le bâton (Joola-Felup, Guinée-Bissau) », Systèmes de Pensée en Afrique Noire, 12 (1993), pp. 17-38.
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Odile Journet, Pratiques magiques de la vie quotidienne en milieu urbain islamisé (Dakar) et en milieu rural « animiste » (Joola-felup du nord de la Guinée-Bissau) (Lyon : Maison Rhône-Alpes des Sciences de l’Homme-Groupe lyonnais de sociologie industrielle, 1994). Ernst Kantorowicz, Les deux corps du roi. Essai sur la théologie politique au Moyen Âge (Paris : Gallimard, 1989). Olga Linares, Power, Prayer and Production. The Jola of Casamance, Senegal (Cambridge (UK) : Cambridge University Press, 1992). Ann Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (Aldershot : Gower, 1972) [Revised edition: Sex, Gender and Society (London : Temple Smith, 1985)]. Rudolf Otto, Le sacré, L’élément non rationnel dans l’idée du divin et sa relation avec le rationnel (Paris : Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 2004). Paolo Palmeri, Retour dans un village diola de Casamance (Paris : L’Harmattan, 1995). Sylvie Pouilly-Treca, De l’assignation ethnique à la revendication d’ethnicité : le cas des Diola de Casamance (Sénégal) (Paris : École des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1996). Christian Roche, Histoire de la Casamance. Conquête et résistance (1850-1920) (Paris : Karthala, 1985). Ernest Sambou, « Rencontre et altérité. Enjeu d’une christianisation en milieu joola », Thèse en Théologie, Toulouse, 1983. Ernest Sambou, La Casamance (Sénégal) et les forces du mal (Paris : Presses de l’Université Paris I, 1984). Marta Teixeira, « Dynamique des pouvoirs magico-religieux des femmes Manjak de Canchungo (Guinée-Bissau) émigrées à Ziguinchor (Sénégal) », Soronda Revista de estudos guineenses, 1 (1997), pp. 121-157. Louis-Vincent Thomas, Les Diola, essai d’analyse fonctionnelle sur une population de Basse-Casamance (Dakar : IFAN, 1959). Louis-Vincent Thomas, « Esquisse sur les mouvements de population et les contacts socio-culturels en pays diola (Basse-Casamance) », Bulletin de l’I.F.A.N., 22/3-4 (1960). Louis-Vincent Thomas, « Note sur les sièges diola », Notes Africaines, 112 (1966), pp. 136-141. Jordi Tomàs, « La identitat ètnica entre els joola d’Oussouye (Húluuf, Bubajum áai) », Tesi de Doctorat (Barcelone : Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2005). Jordi Tomàs, « ¿Por qué un rey joola cruza la frontera y el otro no? Pinceladas sobre una investigación en curso en la frontera entre
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Guinea-Bissau y Senegal », Actas del congreso CIEA7-ISCTE-IUL (Lisboa : Centro de Estudos Africanos, 2010). Jordi Tomàs, « ¿Un Rey Sagrado en el Siglo XXI? La realeza joola de Oussouye revisitada », Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, 16/17 (2008), 21 octobre 2011, , 28 février 2013.
Immigration subsaharienne et altérité : une approche sociobiographique à la perception de la différence Montse Solsona Universitat de Lleida
1. Antécedént Les précédents de ce travail ont commencé il y a un an quand j’ai voyagé au Cameroun pour une question d’études. Une fois au Cameroun j’ai vécu un fort choc culturel et bien que je me pouvais communiquer avec les gens en français (l’une des deux langues officielles) toutefois je ne comprenait pas beaucoup les comportements. À la suite de ça je pensais que il était très difficile pour les nouveaux arrivants à s’adapter à leur nouvel environnement et particulièrement considérant que la plupart ne viennent pas avec les bonnes conditions avec lesquelles j’avais voyagé au Cameroun, et n’ont pas l’accueil que j’avais. De cette expérience, j’ai fait un document de recherche intitulé El miratge del Dorado. Balanç migratori de tres immigrants subsaharians, l’objectif de cette recherche était de découvrir quelle a été le degré de satisfaction des immigrants sub-sahariens qui ont été interrogés afin d’évaluer leur situation actuelle par rapport au projet migratoire initial. Clairement les changements sociaux et économiques qui ont eu lieu dans notre pays depuis quelques années ont impliqué aussi des changements dans les valeurs et les façon de voir le monde. Aujourd’hui, nous sommes confrontés à une nouvelle réalité multiculturelle, nous vivons dans une société diversifiée et nous devons comprendre et accepter et cela comprend non seulement affronter difficultés de communication linguistiques mais aussi des difficultés culturelles. Les gens qui abandonnent leur culture d’origine doivent s’adapter au nouveau contexte culturel, ce processus implique des aspects aussi importants comme l’adaptation psychologique, l’apprentissage culturel et les
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compétences sociales et d’un comportement approprié pour résoudre avec succès des tâches sociales1. En outre, la distance culturelle entre le pays d’origine et la culture d’accueil est un facteur à considérer, car elle affecte les processus d’acculturation, si on a une plus grande proximité culturelle il y a moins difficulté d’adaptation2.
2. Cadre Théorique Cette section a pour objectif d’examiner l’état de la question et voir comment il a traité de le phénomène de l’immigration à partir d’un point de vue psychosocial. La vision la société vers le phénomène de la migration a changé depuis un certain temps dans un passé récent a été perçue comme un phénomène, individuelle ou collective, mais non comme un processus vital avec tout ce que compote de changement psychosocial aspect qui, pendant des décennies, a commencé à être abordée par les sciences sociales et leurs différentes disciplines. Aujourd’hui, contrairement à il y a quelques années, on considéré que les aspects psychosociaux tels que le déracinement, la nostalgie, l’adaptation personnelle et familiale, les sentiments, etc également partie de l’acte d’émigration, et affecter l’individu et sa famille. Le terme psychosocial se réfère a la interacció entre lo individual y lo social como un modelo indisociable de comprensión y acción sobre el mundo3 (« à l’interaction entre ce qui est individuel et ce qui est social comme un modèle indissociable de compréhension et d’action sur le monde »).
1 2
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Charles G. Morris, Albert A. Maisto, Introducción a la psicología (México : Pearson Educación, 2005), p. 306. Nekane Basabe, Darío Páez, Anna Zlobina, Integración socio-cultural y adaptación psicológica de los inmigrantes extranjeros (Donostia : Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco, 2004), pp. 46-47. Notión prise de l’article Intervención psicosocial, emergencias y catástrofes, d’Ángel Luis Arrecivita. Cité par Javier Escartín, Manuel Pinos Quílez a Encuentros en el espejo.
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L’intérêt pour le phénomène de la migration a fait que la société et les différentes disciplines, on se posent l’étude à partir de cette nouvelle pers pective. Par conséquent, ces dernières décennies, on a approfondi dans l’approche les aspects psychologiques liés à la situation sociale de l’immigré également partie du processus de migration. À l’heure actuelle, pour mieux comprendre la question de la migration sont intégrés a leur étude à partir d’une perspective transdisciplinaire domaines aussi importants comme la psychologie, la psychiatrie et le travail social, l’anthropologie, la sociologie, la démographie et l’histoire… ; avec l’intention de rechercher la transversalité et l’intégration d’autres connaissances liées aux processus de migration. En ce sens, la recherche a été de se concentrer sur les aspects qui, à un degré plus ou moins élevé, sont communs à toutes les personnes intéressées à émigrer, mais nous analysons les aspects psycho-sociaux contenus et ne je me suis appuyé selon les mots de l’acteur social. Quelques-uns des éléments qui nous rapprochent de la réalité des migrations sont le stress, bien-être subjectif et de l’identité culturelle. 2.1. Le stress La migration génère sur l’individu stress comme conséquence de la pression externe pour s’adapter à de nouvelles coutumes du pays d’accueil. Ce stress se produit dans les deux cultures parce que ont à dû s’adapter simultanément et, dans le cas des immigrants sub-sahariens sont assez éloignées. S’adapter à de nouvelles coutumes et la langue (espagnol et catalan au début et puis en intégrant l’élément) n’est pas une option mais une nécessitée pour qui se pose la possibilité de trouver un emploi, d’être compris et accepté. A l’inverse, un niveau bas d’acculturation, provoquer un déséquilibre psychologique, l’anxiété, de la confusion et de l’isolement. Du point de vue de la santé psychologique des immigrants jusqu’à le moment que ne se produit pas le bien-être il faut parler d’un processus de deuil du quel parle Joseba Achotegui : la inmigración es un acontecimiento en la vida que influye profundamente sobre la psique de los seres humanos. Los conjuntos de beneficios, riesgos y pérdidas psicológicas que ocasiona la inmigración, suponen un tipo de duelo o estrés migratorio que desemboca
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en un complejo proceso de reorganización personal y un gran esfuerzo psicológico de adaptación a los cambios. La tierra, la familia y amigos, la lengua y cultura, el paisaje, el estatus social y el contacto con el grupo étnico o nacional son algunos de ellos4. l’immigration est un événement dans la vie qui a une profonde influence sur l’âme des êtres humains. Les ensembles des bénéfices, des risques et des pertes psychologiques occasionnés par l’immigration, impliquent un type de duel ou de stress migratoire qui aboutit à un processus complexe de réorganisation personnelle et à un grand effort psychologique d’adaptation aux changements. La terre, la famille et les amis, la langue et la culture, le paysage, le statut social et le contact avec le groupe ethnique ou national en sont quelques-uns.
En 2002, le Dr Achotegui a écrit un travail où, par la première fois, il a parlé de le « Syndrome d’Ulysse » en référence au héros grec qui a subi de multiples épreuves et des dangers, loin de leurs proches. Il l’avait définie comme la pathologie de la famille de stress chronique qui affecte les immigrants illégaux dans des situations extrêmes. Leurs observations lui ont permis de conclure l’importante relation entre le stress social auquel il est soumis immigrants et de leur impact sur les symptômes psychopathologiques. Pour l’auteur, le Syndrome d’Ulysse est caractérisé par la souffrance et le deuil de l’émergence de toute une gamme de symptômes psychologiques et somatiques communs à la région de la santé mentale5. Étant donné que les personnes qui émigrent sont généralement des gens avec une plus grande capacité d’initiative, avec de la confiance a euxmêmes, généralement en bonne santé et qui ont une forte motivation pour survivre. Être un immigrant est une condition temporaire que la personne vie, en aucun cas doit être considéré comme un problème ou une maladie. Mais les conditions difficiles qu’a trouvé à l’arrivée à leur objectif et qui est définie par un certain nombre de stresseurs comme la solitude, l’échec si on ne peut pas atteindre l’objectif pour lequel il a émigre ou la lutte pour la survie qu’implique peur, rejet et souvent des attitudes racistes.
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Joseba Achótegui, La depresión en los inmigrantes. Una perspectiva transcultural (Barcelona : Mayo, 2002), p. 25. Joseba Achotegui, « Los duelos de la migración : una perspectiva psicopatológica y psicosocial », Medicina y cultura : Estudios entre la antropologia y la medicina, Enrique Perdiguero, Josep M. Comelles, eds. (Barcelona : Edicions Bellaterra, 2000), pp. 88-100.
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Ainsi, tout immigrant, irrégulier ou non, vit une série de pertes qui lui produit deuils multiples. Joseba Achotegui dit que le deuil de l’immigration et leurs stades de développement migratoires affectent avec des différents niveaux et différentes nuances à tous les immigrants et en fonction de leur intensité il les classifie en deuil simple et complexe, et celui-ci présent les étapes suivantes : – Le deuil de la famille et les amis : causée par la séparation de ses proches et d’avoir laissé les relations personnelles et familiales. – Le deuil de la langue : le fait d’être dans un nouvel environnement et ne comprennent pas la langue est encore plus compliqué quand l’individu présente des lacunes dans leurs compétences linguistiques et les difficultés dans l’apprentissage de nouvelles langues. – Le deuil culture : il se réfère a les difficultés que l’immigrant a en raison du conflit qui se produit entre leurs propres valeurs, leurs habi tudes alimentaires, leurs vêtements, leurs coutumes et ceux de la destination. – Le deuil pour la terre : la terre représente symboliquement les ancêtres. Parfois, le fait de ne pas vouloir être dans un endroit provoque une idéalisation de la patrie. Ceci, ajouté au désir de faire partie d’une société nouvelle provoque anxiété et confusion, c’est une sorte d’amour-haine. – Le deuil pour le statut social : quand une personne qui émigre est, entre autres raisons, afin d’améliorer leur statut social ou personnel. La réalité est très différente, et souvent les gens avec une préparation académique ou professionnelle sont obligés de faire un travail en dessous de leur préparation. Dans ces cas, il y a une perte de statut social et si la situation ne s’améliore pas, la personne est démoralisée et, au fil du temps, a tendance à souffrir d’une crise. – Le deuil par le contact avec le groupe ethnique : tout le monde s’identifie à un groupe d’appartenance avec des caractéristiques communes, la perte de contact avec l’identité du groupe est un procès douloureux pour la personne qui émigre et si, par ailleurs, est souffrent des attitudes de rejet et de l’intégration mélanger avec les gens du pays est difficile. – Le deuil les risques physiques : souvent quand une personne est exposée à des risques pour la sécurité migrer physiques, en particulier pendant le voyage, ainsi que des risques pour la santé (maladie) et les
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aspects sociaux de divers types. Cela peut créer une situation de peur permanente par l’individu. Joseba Achotegui indique les étapes typiques dans le développement du deuil migratoire et qu’il devrait être pris en compte pour comprendre les processus psycho-sociaux vécus par les immigrants : – Négation : ne pas accepter le changement, ne veulent pas voir la réali té. Cette phase est plus intense et plus longue pour les hommes que par les femmes qui font un deuil différent. – Résistance : réclamation et plainte pour l’effort de s’adapter à la nouvelle réalité et a le nouveau genre de vie. – Acceptation : arrangement et accommodation à la situation du pays d’accueil, accepter la nouvelle situation avec leurs avantages et inconvénients. – Restitution : réconciliation émotionnel avec le passé et le présent (lieu d’origine ou lieu de destination). Ces étapes, dit Achotegui, sont graduels et doivent être surmontés si on veut avoir une bonne élaboration du deuil de migration. Ainsi, dans un sens général, nous pouvons parler de l’immigration au lieu de Syndrome d’Ulysse, qui est limité aux situations les plus extrêmes de ce deuil et connexe avec la santé mentale des immigrants. 2.2. Bien-être subjectif L’acculturation peut être liée au bien-être subjectif et à les compétences et les capacités de chaque individu, mais aussi de facteurs externes qui sont indépendants de la volonté de chaque individu. Implique un changement de culture des deux façons : désapprendre éléments symboliques de la culture d’origine et ajouter des nouveaux traits (valeurs, codes linguistiques, habitudes…;) de la nouvelle société. Les premières études sur le bien-être subjectif perçue par l’individu, ils se sont concentrés seulement dans l’évaluation des aspects externes telles que les conditions, la qualité et le niveau de vie.
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Aujourd’hui, la situation a changé et il a été un concept beaucoup plus large, influencé par des facteurs tels que la santé physique du sujet, son état psychologique, son niveau d’indépendance, ses relations sociales et de leur relation avec l’environnement. Considérant ces aspects, l’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS) (1992) définit la qualité de vie comme la percepción que un individu tiene de su lugar en la existencia, en el contexto de la cultura y del sistema de valores en que vive y en relación con sus objectivos, sus expectativas, sus normas e inquietudes6. Le concept de bien-être psychologique est né aux États-Unis et il était précisé à partir du développement des sociétés industrialisées et de l’intérêt par les conditions de vie et pour répondre à questions telles comme pourquoi certaines personnes se sentent plus satisfaits que les autre de leur vie et les facteurs liés au bien-être psychologique. En ce sens, les sociétés les plus développées en matière de revenu économique ne sont plus développés en aspect humain ( indicateurs de la qualité de la vie : la longévité, la mobilité sociale, l’éducation…) ni en bonheur subjectif. Initialement, s’est associé le fait de se sentir bien sur l’apparence physique, l’intelligence ou de l’argent, mais maintenant, en raison de diverses enquêtes sur le terrain, il est connu que le bien-être psychologique n’est pas seulement liée a ces variables, mais encore a la subjectivité personnelle. Veenhoven7 définit le bien-être subjectif comme le degré dans lequel un individu considère sa vie en termes positifs, c’est à dire, dans quelle mesure une personne est à l’aise avec la vie que vous menez. Selon cet auteur, l’individu utilise deux composants pour réaliser cette évaluation : leurs pensées et leurs sentiments. La composante cognitive, – la satisfaction de vie –, représente la divergence perçu entre leurs aspirations et leurs réalisations et leur rang varie d’un sentiment d’accomplissement personnel à l’expérience vital d’échec.
6
7
Ubaldo González, « El concepto de calidad de vida y la evolución de los paradigmas de las ciencias de la salud », Biblioteca virtual en salud, Rev. Cubana Salud Pública, 28 (2002) . Ruut Veenhoven, « Is Happiness Relative? », Social Indicators Research, 24/1 (1991), pp. 1-34.
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Andrews et Withey8 défini dans le bien-être subjectif, en tenant compte des aspects cognitif et affectif. La composante affective comprend le plan hédoniste, c’est à dire, le plaisir éprouvé par une personne avec leurs sentiments, émotions et les humeurs plus fréquents. Les deux composants sont liés entre eux, une personne avec d’agréables expériences émotionnelles est plus susceptibles de percevoir leur vie comme positive et souhaitable. Aussi les personnes qui ont le bien-être élevé sont ceux qui connaissent la satisfaction de vivre dans une vision éminemment positif de leurs conditions de vie, souvent son humeur est bonne, et seulement occasionnellement éprouve des sentiments de tristesse. Au lieu de cela, le sujet « malheureux » seraient ceux qui apprécient la plupart des événements de leur vie comme nuisible et négatif 9. D’un point de vue psychologique, l’immigration est une perte, parce que les immigrants sont séparés de toutes ses relations antérieures de la vie de famille, des amitiés, et les traditions de leur culture, leur langue et la religion sont une source de stress. L’adaptation psychologique à l’immigration est réalisée lorsque l’individu obtient une satisfaction personnelle dans le nouveau contexte qui se produit lorsque l’immigrant résout l’angoisse causée par la colonisation. Cet état de bien-être psychologique découle du sentiment d’être inclus dans une structure sociale et un sentiment de se sentir chez soi est une indication que ne vivent déjà à l’environnement hostile de l’établissement. En outre, la maîtrise de la langue, une situation régularisée et les réseaux sociaux sont des éléments qui assurent la sécurité et l’auto-estime de l’individu. 2.2.1. Le bien-être psychologique et sa relation avec le contexte social En ce qui concerne le contexte, il y a eu des enquêtes10 sur laquelle contexte favorise le bien-être et augmente la qualité de la vie. Les recherches menées dans cette perspective révèle qu’il n’existe pas des différences 8
Frank Andrews, Stephen Withey, Social Indicators of Well-Being : Americas´ Perceptions of Life Quality (New York : Plenum, 1976). 9 Ruut Veenhoven, « Is Happiness Relative?… », pp. 1-34 ; Ed Diener, « Assessing Subjective Well-Being : Progress and Opportunities », Social Indicators Research, 31 (1994), pp. 103-157. 10 María Martina Casullo, Alejandro Castro, « Evaluación del Bienestar Psicológico », Revista de Psicología, 18/2 (2000), pp. 37-68.
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entre le bien-être subjectif des individus qui vivent avec des conditions sociales acceptables et les personnes qui vivent dans des pays moins développés. Ces résultats indiquent que une fois les besoins de base ont été satisfaites, il n’existe pas de différences dans les niveaux de satisfaction entre les différents groupes sociaux11. 2.2.2. Le bien-être psychologique et leur relation à la personnalité Différentes études soulignent que les individus plus heureus et satisfaits souffrent moins d’inconfort, ses évaluations personnelles sont plus quali fiés et ils ont des compétences pour gérer l’environnement physique et social. Veenhoven12 a caractérisé le bonheur et le bien-être psychologique comme des dispositions bio-psychologiques naturels. Également on a trouvé une association entre l’auto-estime et le bien-être subjectif, cette association doit être considérée bidirectionnelle, lorsque l’auto diminue quand l’individu traverse des situations vitales malheureuses et vice versa. D’autre part, dans les pays où l’individualisme est très forte, l’estime de soi-même est plus élevé, c’est a dire que l’estime de soi-même est influencée par des facteurs culturels13. Pour tant, le bien-être psychologique dépend de la congruence entre les aspirations d’un individu, de la perception qu’il a de lui-même et de son environnement et la possibilité de changer ou de faire une action positive dans leurs circonstances de vie. 2.3. Identité culturelle Pour aborder cette section on va définir les concepts de culture et de société car ils seront importants pour voir, de comprendre et évaluer le processus d’immigration.
11
Ed Diener, Michelle Diener, « Cross-cultural Correlates of Life Satisfaction and Selfesteem » Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (1995), pp. 120-129. 12 Ruut Veenhoven, « Developments in Satisfaction Research », Social Indicators Research, 37 (1995), pp. 37-46. 13 Ed Diener, « Subjective Well-Being and Personality », Advanced Personality : The Plenum Series in Social/Clinical Psychology, David F. Barone, Michel Hersen, eds. (New York : Plenum Press, 1998), pp. 311-334.
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Dolors Mayoral et Mercedes Tor dans son livre Cultures en interacció. La vida quotidiana14 définissent : – La société comme toutes les formes de coexistence ordonnées, structurés et stables dans son ensemble façons de vivre ordonnée, structurée et stable qui se produisent dans un domaine spécifique où, pour vivre et se reproduire est nécessaire garder une coopération sociale stable, être ordonnée à répondre aux besoins individuels et collectifs, établir des relations d’échange avec l’environnement et des nstitutions garantissent des fonctions sociales basiques. – La culture comme les valeurs, les normes et les connaissances qui se base à la religion, l’éthique et l’idéologie qui régit la vie quotidienne d’une culture. Mais la culture n’est pas unique parce que les réponses peuvent varier en fonction des accords locaux et de la coexistence de chaque pays…; Geertz Clifford à La interpretaci-on de las Culturas15 recommande d’analy ser l’homme, selon divers facteurs : les biologiques, les psychologiques et les culturelles, parce que la culture favorise les systèmes mentales qui permettent ordonner, classer et structurer le monde pour fonctionner efficacement et, en outre, l’homme dépend de ces « programmes culturels » pour ordonner leur comportement. Le fait de vivre dans une culture particulière veux dire acquérir certains types d’apprentissage et appréhender et mettre en place certains systèmes de signification symbolique par conséquent, les idées, les valeurs, les actions, les émotions sont encore produits. Ainsi, même si, individuellement, les gens sont différents, ils chercher des similitudes et à l’approbation du groupe social, cette relation n’est pas exempte du conflit. Certaines difficultées de cette relation sont exposées par Schutz au El Forastero (1964)16, selon cet auteur, il y a deux points de vue lors de l’analyse des règles culturelles que régit la vie quotidienne du groupe, ce lui de l’étranger et ce là de les populations autochtones. 14 Dolors Mayoral, Mercedes Tor, Cultures en interacció. La vida quotidiana (Barcelona : Edicions 62, 2009), pp. 30-31. 15 Clifford Geertz, La interpretación de las Culturas (Barcelona : Gedisa, 1996), pp. 43-56. 16 Dolors Mayoral, Mercedes Tor, Cultures en interacció…, pp. 40-48.
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La différence entre les deux est que, alors que l’étranger analyse dans sa pensée le modèle culturel (événements, actions,…) le natif agit comme est indiqué et il ne met pas en doute la cohérence de leur comportement. L’acteur (l’étranger) organise les connaissances d’accord a les actions qui ont un sens dans ce monde, mais la connaissance que l’acteur seulement sont une petite partie de toute connaissance possible. Ainsi, la relation entre la connaissance culturelles du propre de l’acteur et la connaissance de l’autre société produit des contradictions. D’autre part, l’étranger commence à interpréter les nouvelles lignes directrices fondées sur leur pensée habituelle, mais se reconnaîtra que c’est une procédure inapproprié parce que : – Il a besoin de réfléchir les normes culturelles et doit donc maîtriser les recettes de le faire. – Tous les concepts qui possède de leur propre culture ne sont pas appropriées à moins que se reformulent. – L’effort pour comprendre et interpréter les schémas groupe étranger n’implique pas un changement dans les connaissances a le nouveau groupe sur lui-même. Selon Schustz le visiter (l’étranger) se rend compte que le modèle culturel du nouveau groupe est très différent de ce que cela signifiait dans son lieu d’origine, doit donc être ré-localisé et savoir comment il est représenté dans le nouveau groupe. Mais, comme il n’a aucun statut, ne peut pas trouver un endroit approprié pour interpréter son modèle culturel, ce fait produit une dissociation et l’étranger ne peut pas supposer que l’interprétation du nouveau schéma culturel correspond à celui des membres du groupe et a l’inverse, le groupe ne comprend pas exactement l’étranger. Ainsi, la distance culturelle entre les pays d’origine et les pays d’accueil est un facteur qui influe sur les processus d’adaptation de sorte que une plus grande proximité culturelle encore plus exige moins d’effort d’adaptation, favorise une meilleure communication et, de plus, l’anxiété et l’incertitude sont mineurs. Autrement, les individus en provenance des sociétés culturellement éloignés ont besoin d’acquérir plus connaissances et compétences pour se développer avec succès dans le pays d’accueil. Les histoires de vie on montré que la langue est un des aspect qui entrave ou facilite l’adaptation des étrangers, mais aussi les différences entre les deux cultures.
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Le concept de culture est donc essentiel pour comprendre les différences entre les gens de différents pays et les difficultés résultants du procès d’adaptation au nouvel environnement. En ce sens Pujadas17 soulève la nécessité d’un nouveau cadre théorique de la culture et la structure sociale, afin de comprendre l’identité ethnique ; de cette façon révise et résume les contributions sur le thème de l’identité en provenance de l’Anthropologie sociale, la Sociologie et la Psychologie sociale, lesquelles regroupe essentiellement autour des avancées théoriques de Barth et Epstein, Barth18 souligne que la définition de ethnicité suppose certaines différences culturelles, mais certains facteurs à prendre en compte ne peuvent pas être simplement la somme de différences objectives, mais seulement ceux que les acteurs considèrent significative eux-mêmes. En ce qui concerne Epstein, dit qu’il y a une composante affective par la quelle le groupe éthique contrôle l’action des agents individuels, dans cette charge émotionnelle est implicite le sentiment d’appartenance et de loyauté envers le groupe, ce qui explique l’appel de nombreux dirigeants ethniques par lesquels les membres du groupe doivent défendre activement les intérêts. Pour Pujadas est plus important encore répondre à la question de l’identité que l’individu pose car il contient tout ce que collectivement impliquent identité. No hay teoría de la identidad étnica o social posible, si no somos capaces de dar cuenta de los mecanismos de reproducción y transformación de la identidad de los individuos implicados en los procesos analizados19. Il n’y a pas de théorie de l’identité ethnique ou sociale possible, si nous ne sommes pas capables de rendre compte des mécanismes de reproduction et de transformation de l’identité des individus impliqués dans les processus analysés.
Pujadas présente douze aspects qu’il appelle « thèse de l’identité appliquée aux phénomènes d’ethnicité », le centre de ces déclarations est que l’identité est essentiellement de trouver l’idée de la continuité des groupes sociaux
17 Joan Josep Pujadas, Etnicidad. Identidad cultural de los pueblos (Madrid : Eudema, 1993), pp. 47-65. 18 Fredrik Barth, Los grupos étnicos y sus fronteras- La organización social de las diferentes culturas (Mèxico : Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1976), pp. 96-110. 19 Joan Josep Pujadas, Etnicidad. Identidad cultural…, p. 48.
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à travers les discontinuités, les croisements et les changements de direction, comme une confrontation dialectique constante entre le bagage socio-symbolique identifié par véritable groupe et les circonstances globales « objectives », qui encadrent, contraint ou limitent la reproduction de leur propre groupe. Cette confrontation dialectique c’est qui marque la rénovation cons tante que le groupe social fait de sa propre image. Également, un des élément clé dans les relations individuelles avec des sujets de différents groupes est la capacité des individus à décoder les symboles, les attitudes et les comportements des autres, ce qui sont obtenues à travers les classements stéréotypes. En plus, le marquage social, ne doit pas être comprise comme une position rigide, mais comme un critère redéfinition constantes des propres critères pour le classement des différences sociales. Pujadas soutient que, bien que théorie anthropologique n’a pas réussi à expliquer les processus d’identité cohésive et l’unité de groupe s’il a montré à travers quels mécanismes un groupe social prétend être le continuateur quelconque groupe historiquement différenciées Ainsi, nous comprenons l’identité culturelle comme un équivalent de la « culture » d’un groupe, c’est à dire les éléments qui seraient un groupe pratique dans la vie quotidienne qui servent à agir sur l’environnement et ordonner la vie des autres. Il est nécessaire noter que les traits qui identifient une culture au fil du temps peut être modifiée, ce qui peut provoquer la nostalgie éléments perdus. En ce qui concerne a l’identité ethnique se réfère à des communautés ou des groupes minoritaires qui vivent dans une société où un groupe majori taire qui considérée comme différent, c’est à dire, serait l’auto-identification des groupes (majorité et minorité) devant d’autres groupes « différents ». 2.4. Etapes du développement psychologique humain vs. bien-être psychologique Dans cette recherche, nous voulons analyser le point de vue des immigrants interrogés lesquels, mis à part les pertes que implique un déplacement forcé ils éprouvent aussi pertes émotionnelles que tout en impliquant un certain nombre de conséquences au niveau social, familier et même de santé, exige mettre en jeu les structures psychologiques individuelles avant, pendant et après le procès d’immigration.
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À cet égard, il faut faire allusion a la théorie de l’identité d’Erik Erikson20 qui, soulève huit étapes dans le développement psychologique de l’homme, et non cinq comme il le faisait Freud. Dans cet article, on va considéré le stade VI stade de jeunes adulte qui va des 18 à 30 ans approximativement, que c’est l’âge des acteurs sociaux protagonistes de cette recherche. Selon Erikson dans cette étape la principale tâche est obtenir un certain degré d’intimité, attitude opposée à l’isolement. L’intimité est la capacité d’être près de l’autre comme amis, comme amants et en tant qu’individus sociaux. Durant cette période, l’individu a le sentiment de savoir qui il est et qu’il a surmontés les doutes d’identité à l’adolescence. Étant donné que Erikson postule que l’évolution psychologique, à part continuer tout au long de la vie, ceci est déterminé par la société et le moment historique dans lequel nous vivons, nous pouvons prévoir qu’un immigrant présentera une confusion des rôles, augmenté par plusieurs circonstances extérieures indépendantes de leur volonté. Un exemple de ce ci peut être vu sur la notion du temps qui ont à l’origine et la destination. Dans la culture africaine, comme ici, il y a quelques années, les femmes se marient très jeunes et doivent jouer le rôle de mère presque obligatoire. Aujourd’hui, dans notre société, le mariage arrive autour des trente ans et souvent on a qu’un seul fils avant l’âge de quarante ans. Également veulent profiter des années de retraite lorsque, à d’autres moments historiques la retraite était inconnue. Des faits comme ceux-ci montrent que l’immigration entraîne une rupture avec les étapes de l’évolution décrite par Erikson parce que le nouveau cadre social met l’accent sur les différents aspects à lesquels l’individu doit s’adapter. Par conséquent, la personne qui a émigré et que en origine avait passé l’étape précédente, de l’adolescence (l’amour et la dévotion) versus infériorité (caractérisée par la recherche de l’identité) doit reconstruire, selon la nouvelle ordre social, le processus d’adaptation des stades qui avait déjà passé. Erikson décrit la tendance mal adaptative de cette scène et il l’a appelé la promiscuité, en se référant au fait d’être trop ouverte et fixer des rapports d’amitiés avec des voisins, des collègues ou des partenaires rapide et peu profonde. L’exclusion est la tendance maligne de l’isolement, la personne 20 Erik Erikson, « Psicología del desarrollo : edad adulta, teorías de crisis normativa », Estudio del Psicoanálisis y psicología .
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est isolée de ses proches ou de ses partenaires, amis et voisins développant à titre de compensation un sentiment de colère ou d’irritabilité constante. Le dépassement de cette étape, acquis la vertu ou force psychosociale que Erikson appelle amour. Dans ce contexte théorique, l’amour se réfère à la capacité de déplacer les différences et les antagonismes et n’affecte pas seulement l’amour du mariage, mais également l’amour entre amis, voisins, collègues de travail et compatriotes.
3. Méthodologie L’objectif de la recherche était de découvrir la satisfaction des immigrants sub-sahariens quand ils évaluent leur situation actuelle par rapport au projet migratoire initial, comprendre une réalité collective sur une période de temps à partir des différentes expériences migratoires et les singulari tés des récits des personnes interrogés et avoir une vue d’ensemble du phénomène, vu du point de vue des immigrants. En ce qui concerne la question de recherche était savoir quel est le niveau de satisfaction à l’égard des immigrants subsahariens interrogés quand ils évaluent leur situation actuelle comparé avec le projet migratoire initial. Comme le but de cette recherche est de comprendre et d’interpréter le comportement de ce que les personnes objet de l’étude faisant, j’ai opté pour la méthode qualitative basée sur la méthode de l’histoire de vie et plus spécifiquement le type de récit de vie. Pujadas, dans son livre El método biográfico : el uso de las historias de vida en ciencias sociales (1992), il établit une distinction méthodo logique dans laquelle les documents biographiques obtenus par sondage il fait différences entre les histoires de vie et récit de vie. Historias de vida es el estudio de caso referido a una persona dada comprendiendo no sólo el relato biográfico obtenido por el investigador mediante sucesivas entrevis tas, sino todo tipo de información i documentación adicional que permita la cons trucción de dicha biografía de la forma más exhaustiva i objetiva posible21.
21 Joan Josep Pujadas, El método biográfico : el uso de las historias de vida en ciencias sociales (Madrid : Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 1992), p. 13.
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Histoires de vie est l’étude de cas relative à une personne donnée comprenant non seulement le récit biographique obtenu par le chercheur au moyen d’entretiens successifs, mais tout type d’information et de documentation additionnelle qui permette la construction de ladite biographie de la manière la plus exhaustive et la plus objective possible.
Les récits de vie pour Pujadas, c’est l’histoire d’une vie que la personne a vécu et expose a l’intervieweur au moment de l’entrevue et, dans la technique des récits biographiques, il fait une distinction entre les histoires de vie parallèles et récits de vie croisés. Les histoires parallèles de la vie, qui est la technique utilisée dans cette enquête consiste en l’accumulation d’histoires du même secteur de la population, dans notre cas immigrants sub-sahariens. L’accumulation d’un échantillon d’histoires biographiques offre la possibilité d’établir comparaisons et hypothèses plus généralisé que dans l’étude de cas. Cette technique, recherche la saturation en comparant les récits et cherchant des éléments coïncidents. Le travail finit lorsque les histoires n’ajoute pas de nouveaux éléments. Avec cette recherche on à essayé d’approcher le phénomène de l’immigration du point de vue qualitatif et à travers l’histoire, l’expérience et l’expertise de trois subsahariennes qui ont émigré de différents pays d’Afrique, de contextes différents et avec des projets différents. La recherche il est destiné aussi a établir des lignes fait commun à émigrer, car cela peut permettre une meilleure compréhension des motivations, les causes, les problèmes, les clés adaptatifs et d’intégration dans la destination. Pour la sélection des informateurs a été en profitant de la proximité du contact et la connaissance directe des immigrants en provenance du réseau d’amis et de connaissances résultat de l’expérience personnelle et professionnelle de ces dernières années. Une fois faite la proposition a été expliqué aux informateurs, avec des mots clairs et compréhensibles, ce que nous voulons faire. Après a été présenté le sujet sur qui traitera cette recherche et pourquoi l’intéressé à leurs histoires. En outre, contre l’insécurité et le doute qui on manifesté certains, ont été rassurés en disant que ce serait tout à fait capable de répondre au projet de recherche proposé et que s’ils le voulaient, ils pourraient rester anonyme. Les critères pris en compte pour la sélection des répondants étaient les suivants :
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– Nationalité. Comme objet étude était l’immigration en provenance d’Afrique, et plus particulièrement en Afrique subsaharienne, on a cherché informateurs de cette zone et les nationalités ont été Gambie et la Guinée Conakry. – Sexe. Comme l’expérience de l’immigration est différente pour les hommes et les femmes d’ascendance africaine ont à voulu avoir en compte ces deux variables dans la sélection des informateurs pour recueillir des détails des deux groupes et de les voir dans analyse. A ce stade, il a présenté le premier obstacle. La femme qui avait été contacté et a accepté de faire l’entrevue a été retarder le moment de la réunion, voyant le temps qui avançait et le matériel obtenu dans d’autres interviews était suffisamment riche en informations mener à bien la recherche qu’on a proposé et on a choisi de laisser de côté cette interview et poursuivre l’enquête avec les trois autres informateurs. – Les années passées en Catalogne. On à pris en compte le fait que les informateurs ont été des gens installés dans et autour de Lleida avec un temps de séjour dans plus de cinq ans parce qu’il a été considéré que le temps était suffisamment a fin que les participants pourrait raconter leur propre histoire avec un minimum de perspective. – Les années passées en Catalogne. Prise en compte du fait que les informateurs étaient installés à Lleida et son autour, avec un temps de séjour supérieur a cinq ans, car il a été considéré que ce temps était approprié pour qu’ils racontent leur propre histoire avec un minimum de perspective. – Projets d’immigration. Les informateurs ont été choisis en tenant compte les différents projets d’immigration, ainsi étaient individuels ou familiaux et même s’ils avaient l’intention de retourner, comme s’ils prévoyaient un établissement plus ou moins définitif à Lleida. En définitive cette recherche a prétendu d’aborder la question de l’immigration à travers les histoires, les expériences et l’expertise des personnes sujet d’étude et évaluer l’importance relative des différents attributs d’identification, l’ethnicité, le genre, la religion…; dans le sentiment d’être discriminé par certains membres de la société d’accueil.
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4. Analyse des Résultats La vision idéalisée que les immigrés on en origine les amènes à jouer un double rôle d’identité. D’un côté, l’auto-définition que fait le propre individu de lui-même (homme/ femme, musulman, jeune, entreprenant, responsable tout le clan familial…;) et d’autre part l’hetero-définition que fait la société d’accueil (individu immigrante, pauvre, délinquant, trafiquant, fanatiques religieux, terroristes…;). Cette évaluation de par deux autres leur génère inconfort, frustration et désir de changement. Le degré d’identification des immigrés africains avec la société recevant c’est déterminée par deux choses, d’une part la capacité plus ou moins grande d’interaction de l’individu avec la société d’accueil et d’autre part la réduction des rapports avec ses compatriotes. Souvent, l’acculturation est le moyen que trouvent les acteurs sociaux pour être acceptés et intégrés dans la société d’accueil, le conflit survient, lorsque ils s’affrontent à deux mondes de sens différents : l’origine de la famille et leur identité individuelle renouvelée et adaptée aux pays d’accueil. Le choix n’est pas facile et n’est pas souvent un libre choix parce que la force des deux contextes poussent les individus à définir leur identité. Pour certains préserver leurs traits culturels est un indicateur de se sentir appartenant à une communauté tandis que d’autres croient que est mieux maintenir-les dans le secteur privé car ne crée pas de conflit en raison que cela se produit lorsque ils montrent leurs pratiques en dehors de la vie privée. Le fait de garder « cachées » les intérêts d’identité se produit dans les deux sens, avant les autochtones et avant les compatriotes. Les répondants croient que l’intégration ne suffisent pas d’avoir le minimum pour vivre ou en avoir où vivre mais il faut quelque chose d’autre, on a besoin d’une relation interculturel et, pour atteindre, il est nécessaire de renforcer le dialogue, la compréhension mutuelle et les interactions positives avec les gens du pays, en fin de compte, être e ntendu. Par conséquent, outre favorise la connaissance de l’autre culture, intervient au changement de mentalité, d’attitudes et de valeurs, changements qui doivent se produire en les deux parties qu’interagissent. Pour évaluer les différences culturelles doivent être prises en compte que quand une personne fait face à la société d’accueil. Derrière lui il y a un certain nombre de composants qui servent de points de référence tels
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que leur statut social, ses traditions culturelles, les croyances religieuses et le rôle qui est assigné comme sujet dans le pays d’origine et maintenant dans le pays de réception. Cela a comme conséquence que à plus distance culturelle entre les deux sociétés plus grand sera la difficulté d’adaptation. En général, par les personnes interrogées, l’un des aspects que leur ont produit plus de surprise et de choc cultural à l’arrivée est la perception de moins proximité en les relations familiales et sociales. Pour la société sub-saharienne, la notion de famille se réfère à une unité de parenté beaucoup plus large que la famille nucléaire propre du monde occidental : la famille étendue. Encore, à son avis, un des principaux facteurs que facilite l’intégration d’un étranger est l’acquisition d’un domaine de la langue telle que permette aux individus d’interagir-se socialement avec les gens du pays, mais avant ce moment, on peut dire que l’intégration est pratiquement nulle. En définitif, nous pouvons dire que le choc culturel ou la perception des différences entre le pays d’origine et le pays hôte affecte l’adaptation et l’intégration des immigrants. Le fait que les personnes interrogées proviennent des pays sub-sahariennes avec un contexte culturel plus communautaire, hiérarchisée et avec moins développement socio-économique que le pays hôte, explique la distance sociale perçue au début, lorsque l’on compare la société d’accueil et leurs pays respectifs. En outre, on considère deux facteurs principales au moment de s’intégrer d’une part, la langue parce qu’elle est le principal véhicule de socialisation entre les étrangers et la population locale et l’autre, la régularisation de leur statut de résidence dans le pays hôte. Un aspect qui a été soulevée dans les discussions de la recherche est le fait qu’au fil des ans avec l’acculturation des immigrants et il y avait des décalages et des affrontements avec le pays d’origine et en raison de les grandes attentes familières, de la dette contracte et de la conception social qu’il y a dans la société d’origine vers l’immigrant comme une personne argenté et riche. Par conséquent l’immigrant, souvent, quand il se communique avec le pays d’origine déforme la réalité éludant ces passages traumatiques de leur expérience migratoire, en partie pour ne pas décevoir et d’autre part pour ne pas inquiéter les leurs. Cette idéalisation de l’Europe considéré comme le « Dorado », cela fait que ceux qui restent dans le pays sentent admiration pour ceux qui ont eu le courage, la bravoure et la capacité à réaliser ce projet d’immigrations que tous rêvent et que en somme est un rêve collectif. Cette admiration implique le désir d’imiter ceux qui déjà ont l’atteint bien que, ils leur
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conseillent le contraire ou qu’ils leur parlent de la souffrance, les compatriotes en origine ne les croient pas. 4.1. L’adaptation psychologique Les problèmes d’adaptation sont le résultat d’affronter des situations de stress qui affectent le bien-être émotionnel et le degré de contrôle que les personnes ont de leur propre destin et leur satisfaction avec la vie. Ce facteur a à voir d’une part, avec caractéristiques personnelles de chaque individu et d’autre part, avec les circonstances dans laquelle se trouve l’immigrant. Le fait d’arriver avec succès au pays d’accueil après avoir connu des difficultés et après se situer, donne à la personne le sentiment d’être en mesure de diriger sa vie et en même temps ça lui provoque une sensation de tranquillité. De la même façon que le fait de perdre le statut qu’ils avaient dans le pays d’origine, la sensation de discrimination ou de rejet, ne pas trouver un emploi ou un logement décent peut affecter le sentiment de contrôle sur la vie et produire une détresse émotionnelle ou des problèmes de santé mentale. Aussi, le retour au pays d’origine soulève des différences dans l’expérience émotionnelle de l’immigration et ainsi, les immigrants qui sont retournés dans leur pays jamais ne se sont senti plus fier et plus calme, et moins de douleur que ceux qui n’ont pas jamais retourné. 4.2. Les dimensions d’intégration et de l’exclusion : variants dans le contexte réceptif Intégrer-se ou non ne dépend pas seulement des nouveaux arrivants mais comprend des aspects juridiques, économiques, sociales, culturels. La régularisation des documents marque un avant et un après dans la vie de l’immigrant, dans une société comme la nôtre qui divise les individus entre ceux qui sont intégrés et ceux qui sont exclus, avoir « papiers » est la porte qui s’ouvre la possible intégration au moyen du travail, par conséquent, on peut dire que la pierre angulaire sur laquelle s’établisse la normalisation de la personne étrangère. N’importe la raison pour laquelle une personne émigre à partir de leur pays d’origine, dans notre société, l’exclusion des « sans papier » est totale, être un immigré sans-papiers, c’est vivre avec la peur constante d’être découverts et se méfier de tout et de tous. Bien
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souvent, lorsqu’un immigrant est en situation irrégulière est condamnée a utilisé, pour survivre, pratiques illégales telles comme l’utilisation des fausses documents. Mais, malgré travailler avec ou sans papiers, des emplois qui peuvent sucer les immigrants et les salaires qu’ils reçoivent comparativement aux natifs ne sont pas les mêmes. Le moment de légaliser leur situation est considérée comme le véritable moment qu’ils se sentent totalement intégré, d’être des membres de la société espagnole, malgré ils ont un statut social inférieur par rapport au reste des citoyens espagnols. C’est aussi un moment dans laquelle, finalement, ils sont récompensés par l’investissement financier (ou la famille), par prêts et la dette contractée à l’origine. Les personnes interrogées ont décrit très bien le fait que l’intégration se passe pour avoir un emploi et bien que ce point c’est ce qui fait la différence entre ceux qui sont à l’intérieur du système et ceux qui en sont exclus n’est pas suffisant pour se sentir intégrée si l’environnement traite le nouveau venu comme un étranger. Le sentiment d’être ni ici ni là-bas est encore renforcée si l’on considère que le lien entre la personne et le pays d’origine leurs tiens attachés, dans de nombreux cas, à vie, parce que l’immigrant forme partie intégrante d’un projet plus vaste et d’un environnement différent. L’amélioration économique est liée à l’aspect migratoire de la plupart des immigrants bien soit comme un objectif déclaré dans l’origine ou une attente de retour. Cette économie a à voir avec la liaison affective et fami liale et souvent l’immigrant vit l’envoi d’argent comme un devoir moral qui peut être enrichissant ou autre ne peut supposer un sentiment d’obligation que lui empêche de s’adapter al contexte social avec naturalité puisque, parfois cela implique des situations de grand austérité et de précarité. Pour la grande majorité des immigrants sub-sahariens le premier objectif est maintenir la famille en origine et a fournir l’amélioration de l’écono mie qui leur va donner un meilleur statut social. Ici, les immigrants vivent et travaillent par économiser avec l’intention de réformer ou d’acheter une maison ou épargner de l’argent pour la retraite. Pour certains, la stratégie de l’épargne suppose vivre précairement à cause de l’envoi d’argent, ce qui impossibilite ou difficulté la relation et l’échange social de l’individu incapables de participer à certaines activités sociales et de divertissement. L’objectif de l’enquête était de déterminer le degré de satisfaction des immigrants sub-sahariens à évaluer leur situation actuelle par rapport au projet migratoire initial. À partir de les expériences des immigrants
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africains et leur récit singulier on s’était fait une approche à la réalité collective, l’immigration, mais vu du point de vue de le propre sujet et il a été prouvé que ce type d’étude est tout à fait pertinente À partir des données recueillies dans les récits de vie, nous pouvons conclure que la balance qui fait que les immigrants sub-sahariens interrogés est d’avoir un sentiment aigre-doux en vers ce projet d’immigration que un jour leur ont poussé de quitter leur pays d’origine. Approfondir dans cette route pleine de lumière et d’ombre, des moments générateurs des difficultés et de bien-être que l’immigrant expérimente quand il arrive à destination est ce qui a été tenté de refléter dans ce travail, afin de comprendre pourquoi, malgré les difficultés, ils continuent à dire que « ça valait le coup ». Il a été montré que l’une des causes qu’interviennent parce que les débuts soient l’une des étapes les plus difficiles du processus d’immigration a à voir avec le fait que avant d’arriver à la destination, dans son imaginaire symbolique, ils avaient déjà conçu de façon peu objective comme serait la société d’accueil pensant qu’il se ressemblait à un « paradis » auquel ils pourraient opter. Mais ils ne croyez pas que le Dorado avait une visage sombre. Cette idéalisation de la destination ne leur permet pas à voir, à l’origine, différentes difficultés, les découragements et les déceptions avec lesquelles ils se trouveront à l’arrivée. En ce sens, l’identité personnelle des immigrants doit s’adapter au contraste qu’ils perçoivent de la société d’accueil et peu à peu, son projet d’immigration initial se modifie et retravaille et il devient moins idéaliste alors conscience sa position réelle dans le nouveau contexte parce que il prétend conscience de sa position réelle dans le nouveau contexte. À ce stade, les personnes interrogées s’accordent à considérer la stabilité et le confort personnel, familial et économique que ils ont sur le lieu d’origine comme un élément plus positif, c’est pour cela qu’ils aperçoivent le changement comme un succès de stabilité par rapport à la réalité qui a laissé à l’origine. Dans sa vie personnelle, les personnes interrogées ont mis en é vidence un aspect important qui mérite réflexion, c’est le sentiment que passé un certain âge, quand ils sont rentrés dans leur pays et se sentent é tranges dans le lieu que, jusqu’alors, ils considéraient comme leur maison et dans ce moment ils se rendre compte que les véritables « compatriotes » devien nent ceux qui ont vécu l’expérience de l’immigration et également ont éprouvé le sentiment de n’être pas « ni ici, ni là-bas », laquelle partagent les immigrés de la première génération.
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L’immigration à part de comporte un déplacement obligé implique aussi des pertes importantes pour la personne de type physique et émotionnelle que, en même temps impliquent un certain nombre de conséquences à niveau social, familial et même de santé, car elle nécessite la mise en jeu les structures psychologiques individuelles avant, pendant et après le processus de migration. Pour faire face à la nouvelle situation et de s’adapter à un nouvel environnement, il faudra un processus d’acculturation, lequel variera en fonction de chaque individu et de la façon de réagir émotionnellement à des situations extrêmes tels que la stigmatisation, la discrimination et la marginalisation dans la destination, en raison de provenir des pays en développement, par les grandes différences culturelles, ethnique et de statut sociale. Cela va générer une augmentation de la méfiance, la frustration, incertitude, comme protection l’individu peut choisir pour « se fusionner » pour passer inaperçu et éviter ainsi le rejet pour part de la communauté d’accueil, par conséquent se faussent leurs capacités culturelles car le nouvel environnement n’exige des autres, que si sont prises en tant que tel, cela signifie la rupture définitive avec les propres réseaux sociaux et, par conséquent, entraîne la perte de l’identité culturelle et sociale, fondamentales pour la formation de l’identité personnelle des adolescents et des adultes, qui est menace dans cet nouvel environnement, et la santé mentale de ces sujets. Ces différences culturelles et démographiques de la population en position déplacement, difficultent encore plus leur adaptation à des environnements urbains auxquels arrivent sans moyens de subsistance et sans racines, générant un choc de cultures et des difficultés en l’accouplement à l’environnement récepteur faisant que le processus d’acculturation soit traumatisante et erratique. Dans ce processus d’acculturation, sont très importantes expériences antérieures, propres à chaque individu, ainsi que l’acte de violence qui génèrent des migrations forcées, les situations auxquels il faut faire face au cours de cette migration, mais aussi les conditions du site d’accueil, non seulement économiques, mais encore plus important, ces du secteur social (Par exemple, comment ils sont perçus par les résidents locaux et comment les personnes en situation de déplacement pensent que sont vus par les destinataires) Un autre aspect fondamental de l’acculturation, c’est le degré d’appropriation de la culture ou ethnique de l’individu,
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Cette étude montre que l’adaptation des étrangers à leur nouvel environnement a deux facettes interdépendants. Ajustement socio-culturel et l’adaptation psychologique. L’adaptation socio-culturelle (l’acquisition de nouvelles connaissances et compétences qui sont nécessaires pour débrouille bien dans la nouvelle société et à résoudre les tâches quoti diennes) est étroitement liée à la durée du séjour dans le pays hôte. L’ajustement socio-culturelle des immigrants comporte les étapes suivantes ou phases : dans un premier temps se produit une adaptation pratique, c’est-à-dire le degré de difficulté pour couvrir les besoins plus basiques comme le logement, le travail, la documentation ou l’assistance médicale. Dans la deuxième étape serait les problèmes liés à la maintenance des pratiques culturelles d’origine (la nourriture, les prières, les rituels, etc) et finalement difficultés qui naissent du contact interculturel comme comprendre les autres, comment interpréter leur comportement et se comporter selon les exigences de la nouvelle culture. Des facteurs tels que avoir un plus grand temps de résidence, plus support des natifs la possession de la documentation légale nécessaire (permis de résidence ou de citoyenneté) permettent un meilleur ajustement et d’adaptation. La discrimination perçue est un obstacle commun et le plus important pour une intégration socio-culturelle réussie (comme plus grande est la discrimination plus grandes sont les problèmes d’adaptation dans toutes les dimensions). En outre, l’expérience de la discrimination est associé en grand mesure des problèmes pratiques que d’autres aspects de l’adaptation socioculturelle. Dans les entrevues a été reflète que le contact avec les compatriotes n’est pas liée à l’adaptation socioculturelle c’est dire, il ne semble pas aider mais non plus entrave l’intégration des immigrants dans la société d’accueil. De même, les résultats des recherches montrent que l’impact de la distance culturelle perçue entre la culture d’origine et la société locale est limitée. La distance culturelle – contrairement à ce qu’on pourrait attendre – le seul facteur prédictif significatif pour l’adaptation pratique des immigrants. Peut-être, les différences dans le fonctionnement des institutions publiques et du système juridique en général économique constituent contester important d’apprentissage et d’ajustement pour les étrangers. En outre, la distance culturelle est associée à la discrimination perçue donc il peut produit un double effet, d’une part l’immigrant qui se sent discriminé,
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perçoit une plus grande la distance que sépare leur groupe d’origine de la société d’accueil et ces deux expériences lui produisent plus difficultés d’adaptation pratiques. Il a également été constaté que, les difficultés de contact interculturel (frottement, de l’incompréhension) sont moins élevés pour les jeunes (sont plus flexibles et il est plus facile pour ils d’apprendre de nouvelles façons de comportement) et qu’ont plus de contacts avec les populations autochtones étant celui-ci la source d’informations et de modèles à suivre. Un autre élément significatif pour l’ajustement culturel est la perception d’un environnement favorable a leur groupe ethno-culturel par les autochtones ou l’absence de préjudice vers le groupe de la source. Cet élément d’acceptation est important pour une communication interculturelle harmonieuse. Les problèmes d’adaptation psychologique sont le résultat de faire face aux situations stressantes qu’impactent l’affectivité ou bien-être émotionnel (équilibre entre les émotions positives et négatives), le degré de contrôle que les gens sentent qu’ils ont sur leur destination et leur satisfaction globale avec la vie. Entre les facteurs qui permettent de prédire l’émotionnel il y a le sentiment de contrôle lorsque cet atténuer ou neutraliser les émotions négatives (anxiété, angoisse, dépression) et favorise les sentiments positifs (joie, énergie, sécurité). Ce facteur est très important car il est s’explique d’une part, selon les caractéristiques personnelles et d’autre part, par les circonstances de la vie dans lesquelles se trouve l’immigrant. Après avoir réussi à arriver dans le pays d’accueil, après avoir connu des difficultés réussir à se situer dans le pays leur fait sentir que ils peuvent diriger leurs vies. Mais en même temps, la perte du statut qu’ils possédaient dans le pays d’origine, se sentent discriminés ou rejetés, ne trouver pas un emploi ou un logement décent peut affecter profondément le sentiment de contrôle sur la vie de l’individu et ainsi vous faire une détresse émotionnelle ou des problèmes de santé mentale. Le fait d’expérimenter des émotions négatives s’associées à la courte durée du séjour : les nouveaux arrivants vivent plus affects négatifs. Avec le passage du temps le degré de sentiments d’angoisse, de solitude ou de tristesse se réduisent. Autrement dire que, l’impact émotionnel est très fort au début de l’expérience migratoire.
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Les difficultés de l’ajustement socio-culturel est un autre facteur qui augmente les émotions négatives en réaction à des événements stressants. Ne trouver pas un logement ou un travail, l’incapacité d’accomplir leurs rites ou être mal compris ses intentions produit souffrance psychologique. Discrimination perçue est le facteur le plus important qui affecte profondément le bien-être émotionnel de l’immigrant. Être rejeté, humilié ou discriminé a beaucoup d’impact sur la santé mentale de toute personne, comprises les étrangers. Le contact avec le pays d’origine et les compatriotes qui ont séjourné augmente l’affectivité négative. Peut-être la connaissance des problèmes de leurs familles et être incapable d’aider provoquer des malaises. Cette relation serait plus prononcée pour ceux qui n’ont pas le regroupement familial lorsque leurs proches (enfants, mari, femme) ne peuvent pas être avec eux ; lors de la communication avec eux s’aggrave le sentiment de séparation, de deuil ou de perte. Par contrepartie, le fait de pouvoir se réunir avec les immigrants de son propre pays d’origine il sert d’appui et de source d’émotions positives à la personne étrangère. Le fait de partager le passé, les traditions ou les fêtes, se mettre à l’aise et se sentir compris sert de support et de référant pour ceux qui ont réalisé la migration. C’est pourquoi que les associations culturelles de pays d’origine des immigrants ont une travail importants de prévention et d’aide pour améliorer l’adaptation psychologique des personnes immigrantes. Finalement, la réalisation des pratiques culturelles de la culture hôte apporte un bien-être émotionnel. Les personnes qui intègrent dans sa vie quotidienne les coutumes, les célébrations ou de propres formes de conduite de la société d’accueil se trouvent meilleur psychologiquement. Possiblement cela leur produit la sensation d’une plus grande intégration et de se sentir moins marginaux dans un nouvel environnement.
Conclusions En résumant, on peut détacher les conditions les plus importantes pour l’intégration socioculturelle des immigrants et pour son bien-être
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psychologique : au cours du temps les personnes étrangères s’adaptent mieux, bien que cette tendance affecte surtout à l’adaptation et les aspects socioculturels ; spécialement l’appui des gens autochtones mitige les difficultés que l’immigration comporte ; la fait de se sentir valorisé et ne pas être victime de conduite ou d’attitudes hostiles, discriminatoires, c’est la condition la plus basique et importante pour que les personnes immigrantes vivent dignement et pour qu’ils soient intégrées par plénitude dans la société hôte. De la même manière la régularisation de la situation juridique et la stabilité de la dite régularisation est un élément clef que touche à la qualité de vie et à l’état émotionnel des personnes affectées. La distance culturelle et le choc culturel fait plus difficile l’adaptation des personnes immigrantes, mais de plus affecte à la communication entre immigrants et autochtones. Connaître ces sources de choc culturel peut aider à prévenir les conflits, ainsi que aider à les affronter d’une manière plus efficace.
Annexe Bibliographie Joseba Achotegui, « Los duelos de la migración : una perspectiva psicopatológica y psicosocial », Medicina y cultura : Estudios entre la antropologia y la medicina, Enrique Perdiguero, Josep M. Comelles, eds. (Barcelone : Edicions Bella Terra, 2000). Joseba Achotegui, La depresión en los inmigrantes. Una perspectiva transcultural (Barcelone : Mayo, 2002). Frank Andrews, Stephen Withey, Social Indicators of Well-Being : Americas´ Perceptions of Life Quality (New York : Plenum, 1976). Fredrik Barth, Los grupos étnicos y sus fronteras- La organización social de las diferentes culturas (México : Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1976). Nekane Basabe, Darío Páez, Anna Zlobina, Integración socio-cultural y adaptación psicológica de los inmigrantes extranjeros (Donostia : Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco, 2004).
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Colectivo Amani, Educación intercultural y resolución de conflictos (Madrid : Editorial Popular, 1994). Ed Diener, « Assessing Subjective Well-Being : Progress and Opportunities », Social Indicators Research, 31 (1994), pp. 103-157. Ed Diener, Michelle Diener, « Cross-cultural Correlates of Life Satisfaction and Self-esteem » Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (1995), pp. 120-129. Ed Diener, « Subjective Well-Being and Personality », Advanced Personality : The Plenum Series in Social/Clinical Psychology, David F. Barone, Michel Hersen, eds. (New York : Plenum Press, 1998), pp. 311-334. Javier Escartín, Manuel Pinos, Encuentro en el espejo. Inmigrantes y emigrantes en Aragón. Historias de vida (Saragosse : Fundación Seminario de Investigación para la Paz, 2005). Clifford Geertz, La interpretación de las Culturas (Barcelone : Gedisa, 1996). Ubaldo González, « El concepto de calidad de vida y la evolución de los paradigmas de las ciencias de la salud », Biblioteca virtual en salud, Rev. Cubana Salud Pública, 28 (2002). . María Martina Casullo, Alejandro Castro, « Evaluación del Bienestar Psicológic », Revista de Psicología, 18/2 (2000), pp. 37-68. Dolors Mayoral, Mercedes Tor, Cultures en interacció. La vida quotidiana (Barcelone : Edicions 62, 2009). Charles G. Morris, Albert A. Maisto, Introducción a la psicología (Mexico : Pearson Educación, 2005). Joan Josep Pujadas, El método biográfico : el uso de las historias de vida en ciencias sociales (Madrid : CIS, 1992). Joan Josep Pujadas, Etnicidad. Identidad cultural de los pueblos (Madrid : Eudema, 1993). Miquel Rodrigo Alsina, La comunicación intercultural (Barcelone : Editorial Anthropos, 1999). Alfred Schutz, « El foraster », Razas en conflicto. Prespectivas sociológicas, Eduardo Terrén, ed. (Barcelone : Anthropos, 2002), pp. 144-156. Ruut Veenhoven, « Is Happiness Relative? », Social Indicators Research, 24/1 (1991), pp. 1-34. Ruut Veenhoven, « Developments in Satisfaction Research », Social Indicators Research, vol. 37 (1995), pp. 37-46.
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Webgraphie Erik Erikson, « Psicología del desarrollo : edad adulta, teorías de crisis normativa », Estudio del Psicoanálisis y psicología. 15 Février 2012, . Charles G. Morris, Albert A. Maisto, Introducción a la psicología. 23 Février 2012, .
Cultural Bricolage on Minors who Migrate on Their Own Chabier Gimeno Universidad de Zaragoza
1. Minors who migrate on their own The administratively known in Spain as “unaccompanied foreign minors” are those youngsters and children who, in recent years, are migrating irregularly to Europe on their own without any family references. Youngsters that hold a double condition of minors (to be protected and hosted) and of foreigners (to be controlled, and expelled if in an irregular status). The Spanish and international child protection legislation states that every single child, whatever his nationality and means of access to any state territory, should be guarded by the administration until he reaches the adult age, because of their legally declared situation of helplessness. Hence, most of these teens are hosted by local public child protection bodies. Our research on these institutionally fostered minors in Aragon1 began back in 2006. During this period there was a significant increase of unaccompanied minors who illegally migrated to Spain, and new reception centres had to be created in many Autonomous Communities (first-level political and administrative division of Spain). From the qualitative analysis of our professional praxis at that first stage, focused on observation, we developed a research that has included interviews with
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“Like a bolisma. Minors who migrate on their own to Aragon”: this PhD Dissertation has been directed by Carlos Gómez Bahillo and Aurora López Azcona, from the University of Zaragoza. The author is a social worker and a sociologist, experienced in training projects aimed at immigrants, often in an irregular situation. Some of them are minors who have migrated on their own.
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technicians of the local public administration, with those in charge of private entities, with employees under the latter, with second actors such as forensics or national police, and with the children themselves as well. Having accessed the Database Information System of Aragon (SIMA), designed by the autonomous government, we have obtained a demographic and administrative information that covers up the period from 2000 to 2010, which has been treated statistically. Observation in host or training centres and in those urban spaces where these minors go to has completed our fieldwork. A brief description of the quantitative results allows us to speak of a group of teenagers, aged 15 to 17, from the Maghreb in a 78.5% and from West Africa in a 17.4%. Of them, hardly a 4.4% are girls. As for the qualitative results, these indicate that the Spanish Autonomous Communities have received explicit and implicit responsibilities in Spanish immigration policy. Explicitly they are urged to protect these teenagers, while implicitly they are becoming responsible for trying to avoid the pull effect that this hosting might suppose. Hence the autonomous governments have progressively deployed protocols on Social Work, “in the upper interest of the minor” who migrates alone, seeking to hinder his access to protection, considering that the best place to be for every minor is his family of origin. In such case, and as it occurs in other locations, it would be the prevention of illegal migration what really matters, in the interests of the host State. In our search for other ways to access to the knowledge of this migration we found actors and scenarios that escape Social Work, and that we believe it gives a better explanation about what is involved in an illegal migration such as this. Living with the unaccompanied minors in a virtual transnational space, conveyed by social networks in internet, we have developed the following text2, which addresses the subversion of his imaginary. An imaginary that the institutionalized Social Work can hardly assume as that of adolescents hosted within the Minors’ Protection System.
2
This has been possible thanks to the collaboration of the social worker and young researcher, Hind Bajouich, from the University of Zaragoza, who has been involved in much of the work examining the profiles of minors in social networks.
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2. New technologies: permeable borders The observation from the professional praxis of several social projects in Aragon, and the analysis of the reports about the phenomenon of child and adolescent migration, prompted us to raise, among others, the hypothesis that, from the beginning of the phenomenon of unaccompanied minors, there has been a progressive change in the shared definition of individual migration projects3. This evolution was taking place, we intuited, led by legislative changes, in one hand, and, in the other hand, by technological changes4. Although legislative border closure was being considered by numerous researches, the other determining factor in this new shared definition, the change introduced by the information and communication technologies or ICT5, had been barely developed as an academic discourse. The shared experience with other professionals involved in projects with unaccompanied minors showed us symptoms of that change. An unaccompanied minor guarded by the administration, breaking the mold of welfarism, could use a blog to show, graphically and easy his migration successes, that largely overpass access to public services (education, reception centres, etc.)6. He could likewise send photos from mobile to mobile with images that reflect residential resources he is in, and to where he calls others to be grouped in, migrated or expectant7. He could draw a safe
3
4
5 6
7
Ariadna Alonso, Carles Armengol, Violeta Quiroga, Rutas de pequeños sueños. Los menores migrantes no acompañados en Europa [Informe comparativo], Violeta Quiroga, ed. (Barcelona: Fundación Pere Tarres, 2005), p. 72. Chabier Gimeno, “Patera o camión. Móvil o blog”, X Congreso Español de Sociología (Pamplona-Iruña, 2010), . Proyecto Con Red, Actas del Seminario Europeo Menores Migrantes No Acompañados en Europa (Barcelona: Fundación Pere Tarres, 2004), p. 7. See some examples for Catalonia at . Suárez speaks of new own cultural productions of unaccompanied minors, something that is shared and outlined later on in this research (Liliana Suárez, “Un nuevo actor migratorio: jóvenes, rutas y ritos juveniles transnacionales” Menores tras la frontera. Otra inmigración que aguarda, Ángeles Arjona, Francisco Checa, Juan Carlos Checa, dirs. (Barcelona: Icaria, 2006), p. 22). Ariadna Alonso, Carles Armengol, Violeta Quiroga, Rutas de pequeños sueños…, p. 159.
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route with Google Maps, to cross the peninsula through the less troublesome spots and send it back to their friends beyond the border. They could ultimately revolutionize the prolegomena and the development of the institutional hosting which, increasingly, was no longer circumstancial8. While some young people we interviewed had no transnational use of ICT9, or did not know them prior to their migration10 or were limited to telephone contact with their families and equals in Europe, our research has really detected other minors who had used these technologies following the basic hypothesis. Thus, as shown in the following table, some minors who migrated on their own, through ICT, would influence decisively in the migration process of expectant minors, in three phases: planning11, decision12 and assessment. The planning with technological support, as a new tool of migration project, would be introduced as a counterweight to the uncertainty of previous migrations. With a greater use of ICT and a higher rate of planning, the perceived uncertainty would be lower13 and vice versa.
8
Chabier Gimeno, “Expectativas de acogida en el imaginario de los menores que migran solos”, REID, 9 (2013), pp. 142-158. There we have analyzed the change on the arrival of minors to Aragon, originally a transit place and a conscious destination later on. Especially how previous expectations about institutional hosting that social technicians linked to all the minors in care, were but one of the push options for this migration. And similar happens with ICT. The degree of the migration planning and of the previous use of ICT to inform this varies greatly depending on the minors’ geographical and social origins. 9 Just one recreational use: “Yes I used the internet, yes… it depends on the people, chat, it depends… In Berber … That lives here I do not know anyone. From Belgium or wherever, a little bit of French, a lot of chat, Facebook, Messenger” (M11). Henceforth, the texts from interviews with technicians and other professionals are reported as P1, P2, etc. Interviews with children, as M1, M2, etc. Research has sought to maintain the confidentiality of respondents, even at the risk of losing information on geographical origins (minors) or institutional affiliations (technicians) when broadening the results. Thus we respond to the desire of many respondents to contribute with their experiences without compromising their administrative status or employment status, respectively. 10 “Nothing, nothing, only here, the first time I saw it [the Internet] was here” (M2). 11 Liliana Suárez, “Un nuevo actor migratorio: jóvenes, rutas y ritos…”, p. 22. 12 Ariadna Alonso, Carles Armengol, Violeta Quiroga, Rutas de pequeños sueños…, p. 72. 13 “Friends, I have a few, they told me about the experience on Internet, Messenger, yes, that’s when I thought to come” (M10).
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More planning and presence of ICT would also imply a lower weight of the community of origin in taking the decision to migrate14. The community, therefore, may be forced to intervene later, once the process is underway. Meanwhile, less planning and less ICT, it would give these communities more opportunities to intervene before the migration process starts. ICTs would make possible, in the same way, a continuous assessment of the minors’ migration 15. Family and environment could, in parity levels of influence, value online the fostered minor’s blog, his grades on the website of his Secondary School, etc.; increasing support options on a successful migration process. On the contrary, the absence of ICTs would suppose a final assessement of migration, where family would accumulate and filter the information against origin environment, and the absence of transnational accompaniment would add another difficulty towards a possible failure of the project. Table 1: Planning and uncertainty.
14 “Messenger … that if you want to come, that they are right, because it is normal to be afraid, but when they tell you that they are ok … One that was already there for a year, the rest for six months, in flats, that they are good … If not, I am not going to come” (M10). 15 “With the people of my country I speak through Messenger, with microphone, it sounds good, sometimes also with my mother and my brothers … With camera … my mother, because I have to see them and they also have to see me” (M11).
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Minors who migrate on their own, in this case, show, with their evolution, that there is a conflict between ICT and frontiers16: a new community migration model, featuring now a group uprooted17 through the technology. A new phase, but not the last.
Figure 1: The Imaginarium door.
Although not representing a very heterogeneous group, this would a nswer, in part, to a new family model already theorized. Families that would now contemplate as something within their reach, the internationalization of the European Welfare State18, to which they send their descendants sup16 Proyecto Con Red, Actas del Seminario Europeo Menores Migrantes…, p. 9. According to Liliana Suárez, minors develop hybrid strategies against these frontiers, possible in a transnational environment of communications fluency and border devices permeability. 17 Liliana Suárez, “Un nuevo actor migratorio: jóvenes, rutas y ritos…”, p. 22. 18 Ariadna Alonso, Carles Armengol, Violeta Quiroga, Rutas de pequeños sueños…, pp. 73-77.
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ported by ICTs. Family and equals networks that ultimately are opting for a new way of assaulting the fortress of the EU and its southern border: “the Imaginarium door”19.
3. Transnational uses of social networks fe khartar al haraga20 (M12, in his blog).
In order to approach the knowledge of the specific value of Information and Communication Technology regarding autonomous juvenile migration we will focus on the uses and contents of existing tools on the Internet, leaving aside other communication channels. The greatest weight of telematics in our research is given out by the factor of change that this drives away with a capacity like an accelerant which other technologies have not reached. As well as minors have used at origin, and at destination21 too, the phone (mobile or landline) to contact on both sides of the European border; in the discourse of these, once on
19 Chabier Gimeno, “Menores extranjeros no acompañados: una cuestión compleja para las políticas públicas y sociales”, Revista de Derecho Migratorio y Extranjería, 25 (2010), pp. 55-72. This Aragonese company, worldwide implanted, gives access to their toyshops through two doors. One for adults, standardized: the one that is closed to immigration, the impossible. Another one for children, half the height: the new door, the possible. The one for unaccompanied minors. 20 “Dedicated to [illegal] migrants”. 21 In host centres for protected minors, these are given an allowance every week to buy phone cards, which they use in call centres. With them they contact their families at their hometowns. By phone or by Messenger. However, the mobile is a characteristic icon of protected migrant minors, as well as of any other cohort of that age, more linked to the imaginary of consumerism than to its communicative usefulness: “The mobile to have all the bells and whistles, photos, music” (P16); “All that has to do with mobiles, with music, they well know it. They use it as an MP4, on one hand, without earphones or anything. … That is indeed… the culture from here, but they have got it real quick” (P13).
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arrival, the World Wide Web prevails as a vehicle and as a container of their imaginary22. That is why we will start off analyzing how they have used the internet. There, to understand what they innovate Here when they multiply its uses. At origin minors verbalize they have had little well founded knowledge about telematics23. The Messenger program and its derivatives arise as a way to exchange text and voice in order to access to their relatives in Europe and at destination (Spain) as well as to get in touch with other similar minors (networks of equals), both at home and in Europe24. However, once they have arrived Here this tool falls into disuse, prioritizing social networks as a cyber environment25. When Messenger or others are used at the destination, they just respond then to a single use: communicating with the family, even watching each other on webcams, taking advantage of the incorporation of internet at their homes of origin, or at those of someone close in their community (extended family or neighbours)26.
22 Cornelius Castoriadis, La institución imaginaria de la sociedad. Volumen I. Marxismo y teoría revolucionaria (Barcelona: Tusquets Editores, 1983). We will use this term created by Castoriadis adapting it, although in our research we could have desecrate it on some occasions, trying to make it more flexible and closer to the “metastable worldview” of minors. For the French sociologist, the imaginary is something invented, either because is born as new, or because it assumed that there is a shift of meaning, in which some available symbols are invested with other meanings beyond “normal”. The symbolism, and therefore the symbols (or icons) as well of unaccompanied minors, presupposes an imaginary capacity, that is, to see a thing which is not. 23 “In Morocco I cannot do everything on internet, I’ve learned more here” (M11). However, other minors who have had access in schools or telecentres in their area of origin knew even some documentaries and other audiovisual files about migrant minors (author’s field notes, April 2010). 24 Paloma López-Reillo, Jóvenes de África reinventando su vida. Menores Extranjeros No Acompañados salvando fronteras (Tenerife: Observatorio de la Inmigración, 2011), p. 163. This researcher also places the use of ICT towards home and towards those who “know in this territory”. 25 For different reasons, of hypercompetition in global innovation on new tools, personal blogs are also down in use against the social networks profiles. In the research, we have used some of the former which are currently outdated for having moved the minors their activities to the mentioned networks. 26 “Evolution is very fast … and short. At the moment they have a need to talk to their … home … They go to a call centre, that they can do with camera … Depending
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However, the brunt of the communicative uses lies on two social networks to which minors have had access to, mostly, at destination. The knowledge about ICTs they have is that learnt at high school [Here]. They ended up using Tuenti with an amazing ease, and that’s it. They just play some of these online games and no more. When they open the Word, if they ever have to do some work, they’re too clumsy to get the hang of it” (P13)27. They used social networks a lot, especially to connect with families […] We go to CIPAJ [public youth centre] with them, it is almost free […] or with mates who were in other cities […] Tuenti, Facebook, MSN, the usual (P16)28.
On one side there is the social network Tuenti, with a deep profile on children and adolescents and which is used exclusively in and to the State of destination and towards a varied range of adolescents. Its implementation in the minors’ cyber habitus corresponds to those earlier stages, for it is common in younger protected minors. Age transit replaces this social network for that of the adults. The profiles that Tuenti connects with the minors who migrate on their own correspond to other equals, in a generational sense, and very rarely to adults29. This is undoubtedly because of the contents of the profiles
on how ICT work at home, especially where their parents live […] I think that those are the least” (P13). “They also use it to communicate with their relatives […] For example, the webcam […] I would have put individual walls […] As a call centre […] A phone call exhausts their cards in a blink, this is cheaper” (P23). 27 López-Reillo maintains a stand against, remarking that minors rapidly develop a digital literacy, which forces them to improve their language and personal skills. For what is disclosed later in this text, and for the observation in our professional praxis, we believe that the testimony of P13 is closer to our reality. (Paloma López-Reillo, Jóvenes de África reinventando su vida. Menores Extranjeros…, p. 164). 28 Here López-Reillo is closer indeed to our field observation, having realized the scarce supply of access to the Internet in accommodation centres, for fear of the professionals who manage them to becoming chronic its use or being this inadequate. (Paloma López-Reillo, Jóvenes de África reinventando su vida. Menores Extranjeros…, p. 164). 29 The research has started, in this section, from a profile of “teacher” created in Tuenti and another one in Facebook, with which the author has shared contents and has surfed in those of the minors. On many occasions this interaction was performed off line with the accompaniment of minors.
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that holds, with distinctly playful, emotional, hedonistic, etc., character nothing to do with the relationships with adults. The recipients of the communication are heterogeneous, but the research has grouped them into: a) Other minors who migrate on their own and are protected by the autonomous communities. b) Other non migrant minors they get to know in the same reception centres. c) Young men and women of their school environment or educational resources for disqualified (local lumpenproletariat, immigrants and gypsies). d) And young girls outside the protection system, who they set as their goals in their network interactions30. In the case of the social network Facebook, as the most universal agora31, there are some variations. Hardly used by these minors at their homeland, when they use it while living in Aragon, it means a maturational change in their position as post-adolescents. Thus, besides directing their messages in a multidirectional way32, the recipients of these messages will now be other minors of both sexes, regardless of their origin and place of residence: a) Other minor compatriots, at destination or at origin. b) Other minor compatriots in new destinations or previous destinations (migration route). c) And, as in Tuenti, young girls outside the protection system, either at origin or at destination.
30 “Here they have everything. They have lots of information about anything […] Yes, and girls […] To flirt with nationals” (P23). 31 Social networks, such as the case of Facebook, may be that no man’s land, without appropriations, without limits or rules where would appear the Us-Others, different from Us/Other that distinguishes and separates those different or enemies. See: José Ángel Bergua, “Nosotros y los otros. Una aproximación reflexiva”, Nómadas, 6 (2002), p. 15. 32 In particular, towards the own Autonomous Region, to other communities they have passed through during their migratory journey, to the place of origin and towards (possible) new destinations, the latter in a prospecting manner.
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4. An imaginary in the web As stated so far, it seems possible to say that social networks tools are developed as communicative and discursive tools once minors who migrate on their own reach the apparent destination: the standardized institutional foster or care. But research has also reached through these networks to contents that do not fit within the institutional building of “unaccompanied foreign minor” that the State protects and controls by Social Work33. Instead, retaking what has been expressed in other texts of ours about the overwhelming34, we have found new forms of resistance: the online expression of migrant minor refers to a desertion, an exodus that develops on the network the “right to escape”35. What images and discourses do the networks they use at destination carry then? Tuenti and Facebook display widely teen icons of Western consumerism, along with sports and entertainment icons, which alternate with 33 This section of our research has analyzed the profiles on virtual social networks of Moroccan and Algerian minors. The activity of other unaccompanied minors, such as sub-Saharan, is awaiting analysis at the time of this writing. 34 Chabier Gimeno, “El orden y la gente: los menores migrantes no acompañados”, Innovaciones en la sociedad del riesgo, Silvia Giménez, Almudena García, dirs. (Toledo: Asociación Castellano Manchega de Sociología, 2011), pp. 849-864. Here we have stated that although the State, spreading out its cognitive tools (Social Sciences) and techniques (Social Work), wants to make what happens in society predictable and controllable, minors are making unpredictable and uncontrollable what happens in socialities (the affective, the aesthetic). Or putting it in another way, the instituted, the Order, has established a symbolic structure of the adolescents’ migration as subjects to be under control (for being foreigners) and subjects to be under protection (for being minors). While the Disorder, minors who migrate illegally, is swimming in an imaginary, in a subversive magma that overflows that symbolic structure. This magma of the imaginary, as we have said, runs underneath the instituted representations as the recurring photographs and videos of minors who risk their lives in fragile pateras (small and rickety boats, rafts, etc.) or in the underside of a truck. But social networks show minors who, aware of their position as losers on the “educative” wrestling versus the child protection system, laugh at it again, in a speech on line which exhibits their desires, emotions and aesthetics, all marked by a hedonism, an immediatism, and a consumerism, incomprehensible by the protocols of the technicians that hold their guardianship. 35 Sandro Mezzadra, Derecho de fuga. Migraciones, ciudadanía y globalización (Madrid: Traficantes de Sueños, 2005), p. 76.
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their position in the market of sexual relationships based on their body image. Let’s see an explanatory table and break up its content afterwards. Table 2: Social Networks. Global contents.
These are all cases of a display, of a marking that allows their integration into the juvenile environment of the destination. In fact, most of these so made profiles are developed in Tuenti, a clear local network. While Facebook, closer to the global web browsing, has a less exhibitionist character, less teenager. The key is that the visibility of these contents towards the destination determines their existence on line, not off line. In fact, the letting aside of blogs might have been caused, in some cases, by the difficulty in filtering its access from the origin, with the consequent problems with the minor’s social and familiar environment There. One day I was in the CIPAJ [local youth centre, with cyberspace], I got a Messenger from a girl, I was chatting with her, she was from my village! She puts the camera on, I know her, got Skyblog?, and she distributed my blog throughout my village. I had
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a photo with my face painted for some activity held in the Old Town Youth Centre, […] Next day […] I called my father and he asked me ‘what have you done?’ Since then I don’t give any personal information away, I’ve even changed my nickname. I removed the photos and stopped using Skyblog (M13).
In the same way, we can talk of a double set of social networking profiles, depending on whether the minor uses it more or less towards the origin. Thus the scheme would vary, hiding or filtering part of the information, which can be reproduced in another parallel profile, to which others who are not part of the community or the family, that may negatively evaluate its contents, will be added. Table 3: Social Networks. Filtered Contents.
In the first case, the global or unfiltered visibility profiles cause a paradox: integration into the host society through the symbolic values of global adolescent consumerism is subversive compared to the symbolic structure of victimization that has been instituted for children who migrate on their own. Consumption of goods and adscription to global sporting icons are
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part of the imaginary of success to which it is needed to be linked to36 in order to multidirectionally launch an implicit message that the goal of the migration project has been achieved. If Here is monetarized, to consume is the road to integration into the symbolic structure that has been established for young nationals and that has been globalized37, unlike the symbolic structure of victimization and exclusion from consumption that the Order has designed for these minors38. The visual and discursive power around consumerism is reflected in the texts and images that exhibit, in most of the selected sample profiles, high-end cars (and bikes), as votive offerings…
Figure 2: Consumption. Automobiles39.
Or others’ vehicles (equals’, adult compatriots’, etc.) next to which they get photographed despite not having legal capacity (license) to drive them. The pictures of clothing of their own or downloaded from the web, marked with the consequent global logos are also common…
36 “The brands that are consumed, classify and order consumers, introduce them into equivalence classes and order classes […] the fiction that has to be maintained is the consumers’ identity […] before, we were equal because we were children of the same God, then because we were subjects under the same law, now because we consume the same products and brands”. (Jesús Ibáñez, “Publicidad: La tercera palabra de Dios”, Revista de Occidente, 92 (1989), p. 78). 37 Violeta Quiroga, Somnis de butxaca. Nois i noies menors migrants no acompanyats a Catalunya (Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill, 2009), p. 160. 38 What we will call later on Not-Here. 39 The source of the photographs in this text is in the minors’ profiles on the virtual social networks.
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Figure 3: Consumption. Clothing40.
In addition to photographs that show these young people dressed according to casual aesthetic and elegance patterns, like those of the desired economic levels. However, the use of the visualization of the money accumulated by the minor is, no doubt whatsoever, the climax of this type of the on line imaginary:
Figure 4: Consumption. Money41.
40 M5 tags the photo on the right “I want ones …” 41 In a similar photo (in M14’s profile), a comment says: “wach dyawlak Hadouk lfous ashbi” (is that money yours, my friend?).
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The transition between consumption and sports, as indicators of integration, is being marked by the multiple icons of the global sport that are shown. Especially those of the Spanish best known football teams, surrounded by numerous comments, taunts, challenges, etc. However, sports are also a link to the other branch of the imaginary: the body. The sport practiced at destination not only marks the youngster as a healthy young who is integrated into desirable socialization practi ces42, but it also establishes the exhibited body as an indicator of social strength: physical strength as an indicator of economic well-being and of migration success.
Figure 5: Body. Vigour. 42 The most mentioned and practiced sports are football and boxing.
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Beyond what fitness, beauty or proportion show in sportive or instituted fields, body exhibition is a significant that refers to very different meanings in the instituting. Speeches off line of young people who migrate on their own and online texts of other young people with whom they share profiles43, definitely refer to a meaning of sexual market position at destiny and to the possibility to associate aesthetic mobility and economic mobility.
Figure 6: Body. Sexual market.
In a group of men, mostly from Maghreb44, relationships with Spanish young girls are among the most important relational goals. Although there are emotional and sexual relationships with minors of different nationalities45, the native young or minor is the priority to whom the on line
43 Comment inserted below the photo by Spanish young girl (image 6) with a protected Moroccan minor: “you really are my handsome kiddy haha one kiss:)”. 44 According to the data processed by this research, a 95.6% of unaccompanied minors under public guardianship in Aragon are male. And 78% of the registered guardianship concerns minors from Maghreb (Morocco and Algeria). 45 To these we can add, in some cases of minors with a less dense social network, contacts with young Gypsy girls and from the lumpenproletariat.
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catalog that implicitly lies on the profiles, is addressed to46. The photos with Spanish couples and the texts about them are universal in the studied profiles47. This leads us to the social places and times in which these relationships arise. While the interviews indicate relations arising around reception centres and social networks of native, migrant or protected minors; the images on line reflect a preponderance of juvenile night-time leisure where relationships with Spanish girls and boys are built, with the company or not of equal ones (protected minors and former protected) or fellow compatriots (not protected). Thus the body branch is attached to that of consumer entertainment. The leisure with equals and other fellow compatriots (unprotected youngsters) that the web reflects, although being at night sometimes, is also based on daytime activities in urban and suburban areas: squares, close to host centres, the centres themselves, monuments, parks, natural areas, etc. In these, time is also shared with disqualified young people such as those already mentioned above. As the branches before, that of the entertainment finally relates to music. The range of musical preferences referenced to on line is very broad. Attached to leisure shared with native youth, the music of wide commercial distribution links to YouTube videos and attracts comments from young Spanish girls. Global or Francophone rap music (or hip-hop) refers to a less obvious meaning. On one hand, it is part of a kind of music of easy access and spread through adolescents’ cyber channels (Eminem, Akon, etc). But on the other hand, it gradually gets us to the There, to the roots of the tree that the imaginary on line represents, with content coming from or issued towards their place of origin.
46 One among them: “The people now what they look for if you have you can pick the girl you want there are girls who don’t think with the heart but with the pussy haha” (comment on the profile of M1). Text that can adapted as “The youngsters who have money can get the girl they want. There are girls who do not think with the heart, they think with the vagina”. 47 Josep Lluis Mateo, Salud y ritual en Marruecos (Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra, 2010), p. 147. The body concept of young Moroccan girls includes guidelines on virginity and “defilement” that, according to our analysis, in the case of native girls at destination would be subverted.
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The rap of European origin, often Francophone (Sefyu, La Fuine, etc.), may come from countries with a community of fellow compatriots capable of emitting speeches different than that of commercial rap. In this case, it would show part of the speech and of the modus vivendi to which the unaccompanied minors identified with off line48. Here the meaning is closer to the instituting, to its self-reference as Disorder. The same applies to the Arab rap or the rap in Arab. Emerged in Europe or in the Maghreb, it allows the imaginary to be nurtured from the There in the Here, making borders permeable once again. The contents that minors add at destination, once in the music field, are definitely immersed in the There through the ethnic music from their origin. This music49 shares space with the rest of the contents of or from the origin, reflecting the social and religious life of that origin. Thus we find photographs of children under protection at destination wearing clothes of their own ethnic group, typical dishes cooked now at destination too, the graphics concerning their particular identity within the State of origin50, the sporting and political life of There, the festivals longed for, everyday scenes in their neighbourhoods or villages and the Palestinian cause as a panarabic link. It is a mixed picture, accompanied in a few cases with references to Islam51. 48 “La vérité dans la vie et tout il ke to passe quelque chose kien et je suis dites qu’aki le des enfants de pute espernado …… fuck aux aux hommes politiques riches policiers et aux choses plus il vous allez à l’intérieur de saver à peu de temps et aver ke il passer goes!” (M14). This can be translated as “the truth always prevails and if anyone says otherwise here I stand … richmen or politicians or policemen … and I tell you that everything will be known with time.” 49 That is not necessarily just folk, but pop as well: photos and links to singers like Nancy Ajram are frequent. In this case it is juvenile pop music in Arab that sets a female beauty model to follow, and a prototype of what it is desirable by men. 50 Following the universal logic of the grouping of migrants in destination according to their origin, the Berber or Amazigh community is very important among Moroccan minors under protection in Aragon. The young M13 greets his community of origin this way: “salam ghifon ayait [name of town] maygan wave Amazigh, rbi adyawi oszar inchalah kan” (hello to all the people of [town] and all the Berbers, hope it rains, inchallah). 51 Rahma Bourqia, “Valores y cambio social en Marruecos”, Quaderns de la Mediterrània, 13 (2010), pp. 105-115. The link between religion and minors who migrate alone, from the point of view of the technicians interviewed, could be largely
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Figure 7: Origin. Social life.
Back now to the filtered contents by their visibility There (Table 3), we conclude that the profiles more global, less filtered, are linked to those in contents of and towards the origin. They are joined together, therefore, through the roots of the tree of the imaginary on line of unaccompanied minors. In some cases, existing parallel profiles, global and filtered, for a same young, we could speak of an imaginary that is reproduced as stolons. This is something that gives the intuition that, escaping from the instituted, the instituting, the Disorder that minors carry around, will continually seek new substrates in which to be develop from the heterogeneous, deserting the uniform52. The contents showing the integration, the success and the loyalty to roots at destination may also include, at times, references on consumption or sport. But its specificity is that the vine that climbs by its branches is instrumental, as self-assertion against the Guardianship Administration. A few cases of minors with daily religious practices and ethical behaviours related to these have been documented in our research. The social networks profiles of minors with more interest in religion are very scarce. This does not indicate an universalizability trend, but, based on what was observed during the professional practice, at least in the case of many young Moroccans, it could be argued that each situation suggests the convenience of using a type of values not making this contradictory. Thus the religious tradition would have a strategic value in the relationship of the unaccopanied minors with the hosting, as with other stages of their migration. This situation would not move far from the realities in origin, where ambivalent strategies feature the forms of contemporary juvenile religiosity. (Rahma Bourqia, Mohammed El Ayadi, Mokhtar El Narras, Hassan Rachik, Les jeunes et les valeurs religieuses (Casablanca: Eddif, 2000), p. 83). 52 To desert, not to confront. As we will analyze later when speaking of the Not-Here.
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denser and binds together more aspects of destination and origin. From the origin, the social, familiar and religious life is brought to these profiles. This is something which is common to the global profiles, as the references to the roots (regarding food, traditional music, clothing) and their transnational maintenance are. But family and employment branches acquire here unique dimensions and more characteristics. On one hand, minors with home-oriented profiles, insert more text and images related to their qualification process and employment at destination: educational spaces, first jobs, etc. They are significant to unequivocally convey prosperity or an approach to this.
Figure 8: Destination. Employment.
At the same time, they often include images of the nuclear and extended family, either at origin, as a tribute to the original nucleus; or in Spain, as a mockery of their instituted condition of “unaccompanied minors”; or in Europe, as a reflection of earlier stages in their migration53, or as a corroboration of the transnationality of their family.
53 As mentioned above when discussing host expectations, the minors may have reached Aragon not only from their home states or other communities, but directly
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In these cases, there appeared pictures of brothers, family weddings, parents, comments asking for respect towards the family54 or longing for it, etc. For its significance, we will highlight the photographs of relatives born after the start of the minors’ migration, as well as their names tattooed as an affective bonding ritual. If we continue seeing the minors’ imaginary as a tree with branches in destination and roots in origin, there is a substrate, a humus in which such subversive magma has been born: their status of fostered minors in the standardized itineraries of the minors’ protection system. The contents of social networks covered by state guardianship include images and texts related to the centres, the routes taken by the minors until they reach them and relationships with other disqualified people they have met after socioeducational interventions in such centres.
Figure 9: Centres55. from France (or Italy). This case is quite common, and has the support of the family on that side of the Pyrenees. 54 “Parents … Never lose respect for them:) ♥”(M6). 55 This photo is tagged as “our home in [city]” (M14).
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The images of rooms from the centres, of activities followed with other children or with educators (excursions, Feast of the Sacrifice, etc.), both inside and outside the centre, are a reflection of this non-family where the children have surfed, while the family remained on line or off line in origin. It is not a matter of family, therefore, but of homes and thus they express it: Hada centrode chi drari me dar barod [name]56 (M12).
The centres and the arrival to them have also given rise to artistic productions of the minors themselves, such as photographic compositions and drawings, common in many host establishments.
Figure 10: Migration representations57. 56 “This is the centre of a boy from “Barod house”, his name is [name]”. The text is a tag in a photo from another unaccompanied minor who is being fostered in his centre. The visits to other centres for fostered minors are a fundamental part of unaccopanied minors’ entertainment. 57 A drawing on the wall of a room in a centre: the truck in which the minor came to Zaragoza.
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Unaccompanied minors also try to overcome the geographical distance that the “bioselection” of the educational intervention means for young migrants58, who can be referred, transferred or escaped (as a passive deinstitutionalization). That is how they meet again in social networks, where the texts reflect their union beyond the centres walls: Hchoma al7awa dema tansawal 3lek sawal drare kefach cava 3lik thala fe rasek?59 (M12).
The extension of contacts beyond the host institution is therefore a constant in social networks and these, together with mobile, are the usual channels to maintain the networks of equals. Networks that harboured the beginning of the trip, that reported on the potential host, and that are maintained when government intervention changes or falls off. Marking routes on which much has been written60. Hows things man trying to spend the holiday and you what when you returning we already miss you I and Chino back from Basque Country we are waiting for you man (M1). How are you brother of mine fuck how lon’ two years a tak’ care much ah I am in Zaragoza (M1).
In the same way, these networks now include disqualified youngsters that they have met during training activities, while in reform centres, etc. With them, the set of relationships to which protection attaches them by its action is closed down. [Name] poofter come to Zuera [jailhouse]¡¡ a macho man told me wants to know you¡¡ hahaha and he lives in prison¡¡ haha (a disqualified local minor to a former protected unaccompanied minor).
58 Chabier Gimeno, “Menores que migran solos e infracción en Aragón”, Revista de Derecho Migratorio y Extranjería, 29 (2012), p. 273. 59 “I’m very sorry, brother, I always ask for you, ask the guys how are you? Take much care of yourself!”. 60 Violeta Quiroga, Rutas de pequeños sueños…, p. 160.
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5. Exodus and position ILA ZMAN gUEtSA YAN iLa ZMAN GuE YaLA YAN61 (M11).
From initial conversations, years ago, with unaccompanied minors we have met, thanks to our professional practice, our perception that there was another way of People’s confronting the Order has been consolidated62. As we have stated in previous texts, minors who migrate on their own have not practiced in Aragon any forms of alterity or resistance characteristic of Modernity. On the contrary, they have avoided them63. And the observation and experience of its on line imaginary reflects this disaffection. Against the standardized minor that the Order yearns for as a homogeneous result of its intervention from social and migratory policy and as a result of the studies of Social Sciences, the minor has had an exodus64. He has dropped out from a battle he felt he was not called for, and in which only one party has felt involved. The on line social networks shared in the research are plagued with this. This desertion of the modern conflict means to those who intervene with young migrants the need to apply for a different position to allow
61 “There are times when one laughs, and there are times when one cries”, rough translation from Berber. Text in a young former protected Moroccan’s profile. 62 Chabier Gimeno, “El orden y la gente: los menores migrantes no acompañados”, Innovaciones en la sociedad del riesgo, Silvia Giménez, Almudena García, coords. (Castilla la Mancha: Asociación Castellano Manchega de Siciología, 2011), p. 851. 63 The M6’s Facebook profile, which he himself translates, is a sign of disaffection towards the modern making: “Political Ideology: ydkom fih (I don’t give a damn)”. The quote is literal. 64 Paolo Virno, Gramática de la multitud. Para un análisis de las formas de vida contemporáneas (Madrid: Traficantes de Sueños, 2003), p. 72. Describing this exodus, Virno states that the “breeding ground of disobedience are social conflicts that manifest not only and not so much as a protest, but rather as defection […], not as voice, but as exit. […] The defection […] instead of tackling the problem by choosing one of the alternatives provided, changes the context in which the problem is inserted. The exit is an unprejudiced inversion that alters the game’s rules and makes the opponent’s compass go mad”. How does this defection reveal itself? According to Bergua “the resistance and the novelty production featured by people, the people, is done today from the imaginary.” (José Ángel Bergua, “Lo social instituyente y la imaginación”, Culturales, 1 (2005), p. 33).
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another “be in the social”65. For the position that often takes the politic or scientist can hardly let anything to be glimpsed. The instituting presents itself to them as something that has passed since the minors’ itineraries are neither predictable nor stabilizable. And yet, even being there ourselves and living that part of the non-classic knowledge we have had access as social professionals, we can only guess what remains off line in shadows. Networks profiles leave out much socius that perhaps we can glimpse in fleeting flashes. The social images66 that minors have of the Here cannot be thus disciplined by the Order, or by their tools (such as immigration policy and child protection). In contrast, the social imaginary of unaccompanied minors is hinted in the silences, the mockery or the cunning with which they resist against those policies called “social”, that have imposed instituted representations of victimization67. We insist that from the reading of the texts of researchers involved with minors in social programs, such as this text, it can be concluded that there are more socius than we perceive, that not everything is what it seems, and that the obvious is another form of knowledge.
65 About the ethics of research emerged among those who work in the social (educators, social workers, teachers, etc.) see what exposed by: Núria Empez, “The fieldworker as a social worker: dilemma’s in research with Moroccan Unaccompanied minors in Spain”, The Ethics of Migration Research Methodology. Dealing with Vulnerable Immigrants, Ilse van Liempt, Veronika Bilger, eds. (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2009), pp. 155-175. 66 José Ángel Bergua, “Lo social instituyente y la imaginación...”, p. 47. The richness of the on-line observation of the imaginary comes from the preponderancy of the visual against the linguistical, much often poor in relative value. The reflection and the logos are manifested by texts, while the magmas we perceive in social networks go beyond the symbolic order of the rational. 67 A victimization that if we put it in terms of the instituted, we could well identify with the tradition. A tradition whose legitimacy will not be questioned, since this possibility is considered psychologically impossible. While the instituting imaginary, as the one we feel here, gets far from the repetition, for it can do what it wants. See: Cornelius Castoriadis, El mundo fragmentado-Encrucijadas del laberinto III (Buenos Aires-Montevideo: Altamira y Nordan, 1993). The profiles show that the apparent victims can transform the constraints (the instituted imaginary) into creations, hybrid cultural forms that can be, at the same time, in and out. (José Ángel Bergua, “Lo social instituye la imaginación...”, p. 32).
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Figure 11: Reflections on migration . 68
The photos of minors consuming alcohol and hashish in many profiles, but at the same time demanding halal food in centres… The former protected young who came from a rural Moroccan region and shows himself as a night playboy at destination: “the world is Bigger than a neighbourhood” (M11)… These are images and texts impossible to fit in the policies of minor protection, but they are part of the common knowledge of networks (the obvious). Everything is overwhelmed by the youth who migrate on their own. Just as they live through it. Against the myth of migratory success or failure of the standardized minor, there is also a hybrid of pessimism, confusion or frustration. Something heterogeneous and difficult to standardize: 68 On the left, a youngster who arrived as a minor and was not detected or protected, showing his shared room now as a new adult with other illegal immigrants. On the right, hometown neighbourhood of a former protected minor. The tag in the photo says: “Derari taner. L3ID KBIRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR” (Boys from Tangier. The Feast of the Sacrifice). Is he contrasting his present situation with his migratory beginnings? The nostalgia for the place of origin is multiplied when the guardianship ceases: “viva khenifra” (comment to a Moroccan landscape photo on M5’s profile) or “me best land I look forward to returning and live there… Amazigh to death” (to M10).
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I have a roof. I have food. I have clothes. I have drinks. I have a phone (M6).
From these hybrids we get the flashes that illuminate a little the off line. That’s where “success” is questioned, especially when the hosting period ends up by age and can be compared to the situation at the beginning. Tagged as “Viva drari” (up the boys!) by M12, an old photograph showing a group of unaccompanied minors under guardianship at the door of a centre is discussed by two of them, now former protected, where they value in their texts their child migration “fuck how time flies eeeh [name] but don’t you laugh sucker for you have come just when little or even less hahaha”. The hybrids do not evade resignation or avoid expressing impotence or weakness as well. A loss of hope associated with the absence of horizon and that led in many cases to illegal emigration, l-hArg 69. The migration cost emerges: It’s the situation men. How’s things man ah I as usual I don’t feel like anything I am horrible man tak’ much care (M1).
Against this weakness, the imaginary carries on line texts that reinforce the inevitability of pain as part of the migration project. 5as bnadam y kon ahrach asahbe70 (to M5). Dima hrech71 (M12 to another protected unaccompanied minor).
And it even houses hybridizations that would seem impossible under established uniformity: young offenders that show us votive offerings and protection needs (religious) against uncertainty. Following Mateo72, these rituals on line would correspond to prophylaxis actions through amulets. The written text shown in the image below is one of these versions. So with globalization “traditional” behaviours would not vanish, but would be renewed73.
69 Stefania Pandolfo, “The burning: finitude and the politico-theological imagination of illegal migration”, Anthropological Theory, 3 (2007), pp. 329-363. 70 “The person has to be tough, be tough, my friend.” 71 “Always tough.” 72 Josep Lluis Mateo, Salud y ritual en Marruecos…, pp. 28, 227, 248. 73 Josep Lluis Mateo, Salud y ritual en Marruecos…, p. 248. Among the virtues of these amulets would also be the prevention of the evil eye and the removal of vice
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Figure 12: Protection . 74
And yet, we are still unable to know everything. What cannot be said or done: the undergoing through police stations and Detention Centres for Foreigners (now as former protected), the cult of weapons, the presence of drugs, the sex with adult women during guardianship, etc. Everything that Social Work should not know, but gets to social networks as a text or as an image among others more global and visibilizable. Among all these fleeing images, the rage stands out for its frequency: “La haine”75.
Figure 13: Rage . 76
(alcoholism, for example). They usually contain passages from the Koran, the recipient’s name or other texts, written on white or red paper. 74 On the left, “it is God” in the profile of a former protected minor offender. On the right, “God is the greatest; amine [amen] may God give us patience; if it is God’s will, [illegible]” in the profile of another former protected minor offender. 75 French film marked by M6 as one of his favourites: . 76 On the left, a former protected youngster (M12) tags this photo “Sadda” (saadda or “happiness”). On the centre, another former protected youngster labels “fucking shitty Police they only go against the foreignersssssss and nothing else” (M11).
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Minors who migrate on their own are an unstable material for any social intervention project that politicians and social workers might raise when trying to anticipate their becoming. They themselves conceive it this way, because of their position.
Figure 14: Evaluation among former protected minors77.
And on the right, no text accompanies the photograph of these scars. As Mateo states the self-mutilation allows the young Maghrebi release the guilt complex externalizing it. Sometimes the origin of this guilt comes from an external agent, such as ‘Aisha Qandisha. (Josep Lluís Mateo, Salud y ritual en Marruecos…, p. 243). 77 The photograph is tagged by M12 as “the first gangsters who have created [name of host centre]” and it shows several young men who have gone through the centre, doing the opposite of what the Order presents them as the result that is expected from them.
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The position determines, for this research, the access to the unaccompanied minors’ imaginary: placing us in the front door or in a blind spot. So the position of Social Work, acting this as a filter, is blind. It is a Not-Here in which the global imaginary (See: Table 4) is not visible, hidden by the established image, the image of the victim (the helpless minor). While this affects the Social Work (on line and off line) universally, and since we have admitted that the off line is only but intuited, we will finish off analyzing what we, having positioned ourselves out of this discipline78, do see: the imaginary on line. In it, there are at least another three positions. Here, where the child is an immigrant. There, where he is an emigrant, and Beyond, where he is not yet or has been already. It is not a matter of sealed spaces79, but of situations tied up by new technologies, that so deepen into the transnationality of minors who migrate on their own. Table 4: Position, minors and Social Work.
78 Just as the professional praxis has allowed us to place ourselves, next to the minor (Disorder), not in front (Order). 79 On the contrary, the positions reflect the permeability of the on and of the off line, in which these young people build their lives contradictorily, following the pattern of a cultural bricolage found throughout the globe. See: Mounia Bennani-Chraïbi, Soumis et rebelles, les jeunes au Maroc (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1998), p. 27.
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This is how Here and There are connected by a clear vector of mutual assessment. Those located on line at both positions observe each other, having the holidays There80 a high capacity of indicating the migratory success too.
Figure 15: Holidays.
And the Beyond (France, the Netherlands and elsewhere in Europe where minors have part of their network of equals or family) stands as a preliminary step for those who passed through it before coming to Aragon, or later on, for those who are expectant migrants, now as former protected and, perhaps, new clandestine migrants81.
Conclusion In summary, we realize that new technologies have allowed us access to other images and texts that do not fit for the social work within homogeneous insertion procedures in the host society82.
80 Or the first trip back having reached adulthood as well. 81 M14 says to another minor: “plop rwapa franc dial: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=9R-qFenjqw8, http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature= player_embedded&v=4Fyi_u25JuM” (look the rappers from France). They are the model and the icon. And another compatriot warns M1 “my precious [M1] belgiummmmm is waiting fooooor you”. Europe is always Beyond: “how’s everything, man??? I’ve returned from France last Sunday, so whenever you want we can meet;) ciao my friend =)” (M1). 82 According to Maffesoli, the hedonism, the carpe diem and other expressions of the current expansion of the existential, are contrary to the ideologies and actions in
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This symbolic magma questions the success, the relationship of inors with the consumer society, the interactions between these and othm er minors who cross by their standardized itinerary, etc83. These contents, that social networks show us on line, are but one more key to the desertion or exodus of these from immigration policies. In addition to the corroboration of Social Work not knowing or not wanting to know or not being able to know, and of that the migratory success, which some processes represent to the instituted, when viewed from the imaginary on line, does not correspond to a stabilizable status. This is something that the minors themselves dumped into their texts. Sometimes as a doubt, some other times as a mockery. The procedures are heterogeneous and the results, homogeneous, ultimately, a filtered image.
which politicians, social workers, and other public authorities still move around. And they show an “anthropological reticence towards all powers, that it does not cease to be expressed promptly with more or less success depending on time and place”. (Michel Maffesoli, El tiempo de las tribus (México: Siglo XXI, 2004), p. 109). 83 All symbolic system has consequences, whether or not known or beloved as such. That is, the symbolic universe that is intended to be moved to the hosted minors who migrated on their own, as all symbolisms, it has unforeseen consequences. The symbolism does not respond to a rational order, and it is full of gaps and degrees of freedom. See: Cornelius Castoriadis, La institución imaginaria de la sociedad. Volumen I. Marxismo y teoría revolucionaria…
Reconstruction of the identity in destination Teresa Torres Universitat de Lleida
Introduction: Aims and Hypothesis Those migrations that people realize are characterized by personal changes that produce emotional imbalances; if we consider the woman to be a protagonist of these processes1; there has to be highlighted that it is precisely in their feminine identity and in the configuration of that identity in which there will relapse the responsibility of developing skills that identify it with the new society. The binomial migration and identity seen from a psychological, anthropologic and sociological perspective from the place of origin and destination opens the doors for an analytical worry from social sciences in the study of those migrations and from a perspective of gender; because of that we emphasize three points: 1) The principal aim of our study, centres on the analysis of the reconstruction of the identity. The project identities the social actors (in our case the immigrant women) look for approval, acceptance and recognition in the societies of destination, based on the cultural materials they have, they construct a new identity that redefines their position
1
Colectivo IOÉ, Mujer, Inmigración y Trabajo (Madrid: Imserso, 2001), pp. 61-66; Sònia Parella, Mujer, inmigrante y trabajadora: la triple discriminación (Rubí: Anthropos, 2003), pp. 146-157; Amaia Pérez, Denise Paiewonsky, Mar García, Cruzando fronteras II: Migración y desarrollo desde una perspectiva de género (Madrid: Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones y Capacitación de las Naciones Unidas para la Promoción de la Mujer, 2008), pp. 34-37; Miguel Pajares, Inmigración y mercado de trabajo. Informe 2010 (Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo e InmigraciónSubdirección General de Información Administrativa y Publicaciones, 2010), pp. 67-68.
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in the new society and, on having done it, they look for the transformation of the whole social structure2. 2) Considering empirical studies that identify those labour activities that the immigrant women, specially the Latin-American women realize, this study reflects us that the migrant feminine identity has to adapt itself to the personal and labour needs as well as the social needs. 3) This investigation as a concept of reflection based on the feminine migrations of Latin-American origin uses the qualitative methodology as strategic necessary instrument in the construction and theoretical conceptualization. For our analysis we propose two hypotheses: 1. The crises and the emotional conflicts linked to a migratory decision and the adaption to the new schemes that provide sense of the personal, labour and social reality in the new culture, it is translated in a transformation and reconstruction of the identity of the person in the place of destination. 2. This transformation and reconstruction of the identity of those immigrant women is closely linked with the need of familiar and social recognition in the communities of origin as well as in the societies of destination.
1. Methodology This investigation is identified of qualitative character where there are associated those social external facts and the speeches3. In addition it helps to understand the complexity of the human conduct in terms of meanings4. 2 3 4
Manuel Castells, La Era de la Información. El poder de la Identidad (Madrid: Alianza, 2002), vol. 2, pp. 29-30. Luis Enrique Alonso, La mirada cualitativa en sociología (Madrid: Fundamentos, 1998), p. 37. Douglas Ezzy, Qualitative Analysis: Practice and Innovation (New South Wales: Allen & Unwin, 2002), p. 29.
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The qualitative dimension of the social reality resides in the speeches produced by the social subjects5. The methodological instruments of investigation that were applied were the interview in profundity and the life histories. On the other hand, considering for our study the human, social and cultural capital as factors that determine guidelines of behaviour as well as the capacity of response before the conflicts that they could present during the migratory course, the criterion that was in use for selecting the sample corresponds to the set of limits and theoretical bases that offer us for example Adam Smith, Shultz, Becker, or Ospina about the human capital as factor of economic growth, these authors conclude that the human capital constitutes an intangible set of skills and capacities that contribute to raising and preserving the productivity, the innovation and the occupy of a person or a community; understanding for occupy the possibility of the people to find an employment that pays their labour capacities; also they clarify that the human capital can increase or diminish and that it is formed by means of different influences and sources, including activities of learning organized through formal and informal education, or by means of the developed training in different working places of the organizations. Related to the human capital of the immigration and the selection of our sample, equally we resort to the empirical limit that6 do about this one particularly. These authors base on the studies reached by the immigrants and the labour experience to consider their human capital. They value the level of studies attending to the received and concluded educations for those who emigrated, taking in addition into consideration the years of education invested in these received educations; they describe the labour experience attending to the works realized by the immigrants before emigrating, in their respective native countries. As for the social capital of the sample it was considered to be the theory and studies of Coleman, Putman, Roll D. and Leal Castro, Márques Perales I.; among others; these authors gave us a powerful idea about the social capital, there being understood the same one in which the relations between people are a productive resource, to the effect that they allow to 5 6
Manuel García, Jesús Ibáñez, Francisco Alvira, El análisis de la realidad social. Métodos y técnicas de investigación (Madrid: Alianza, 2010), p. 46. Andrés Tornos, Rosa Aparicio, Mercedes Fernández, El capital humano de la inmigración (Madrid: Imserso, 2004), pp. 65-66.
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obtain individual and group materialized in procedure aims and, confidence, organization and channels of information that allow the social action. In this sense we use the criteria of the empirical investigations and we choose people who could present features of go-ahead and leadership such as to catalogue them as “immigrants enterprising and capable of developing social capital in destination”; in other words that the personal relations should contribute in their social and economic development in destination. In opposite part, the importance of choosing people who could possess the scanty human and social capital was also considered, like being able to compare those behaviours related to the reconstruction of the identity in the migratory way. The investigation presents the results of eight interviews in profundity and ten life histories, in total eighteen speeches of women from: Colombia (3), Venezuela (4), Ecuador (1), Peru (1), Bolivia (2), Brazil (1), Chile (2), Argentina (3), and Mexico (1).
2. Conceptual Frame 2.1. The identity As it emphasizes7, the term identity is one of the most complex, polysemic and confused terms with which we can meet in the social sciences. The Psychology, the Sociology, the Anthropology, the Psychiatry or the Psychoanalysis among others, they use it constantly and not always from the same basic suppositions nor with the same scientific aims. For this study we will highlight what8, it has compiled from some authors like Blumer, Jenkins or Mead: the human being is an active agent in the process of construction and reconstruction of his concept of himself. There exists many individual peculiarities that make the identities that we 7 8
Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración. Un estudio cualitativo con inmigrantes peruanos en Madrid (Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, 2001), p. 48. Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…, p. 54.
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can call social (gender, etnia, nationality…) alive of very different forms by a few subjects or by others though they belong to the same group. In this sense, “the identity is a socio-psychological construction that gathers and reflects the social influences through processes of imitation and of identification and an active autoconstruction and creation of what is important for themselves and for others. This active autoconstruction of aspects of identity is based on cognitive operations that they organize, they structure, construct and reconstruct the knowledge on themselves”9. It is because of this for the topic that compete us, we might say that the identity, though we should understand it as the individuation more different and essentially of the individual, is clearly a social phenomenon. For definition someone can only identify themselves, that is to say, establish relations of equality and difference, opposite to other people. The identity is a necessary requirement for the social life, and the social life is a requirement for the identity, therefore the identities are formed in different cultures. That is to say, in the culture the identity of people is constructed and reconstructed, because of this when people emigrate and they introduce in other cultures their identity, logically that has to be reconstructed. Understood in this way the concept of identity, it seems to be logical to affirm that the identity of those women who decide to change their biography by means of a migratory project, there is no doubt that their identity is touched and transformed supporting episodes of their past life and imagining “futures” for reaching, but crossing emotional crises that must be adjusted for certain ways facing a possible and creative future, where the meeting with new symbols, new spaces as well as their social, cultural and linguistic structures definitively will carry it to adapt to a new identity to be kept a float in the liquid modernity and in the place that they chose as destination. 2.2. The feminine migrations Numerous studies speak to us about the international migration as an increasing phenomenon and that has tended to be feminized as response, among other factors, to the incorporation of the women to 9
Gerald R. Adams, Sheila K. Marshall, “A developmental social psychology of identity understanding the person-in-context”, Journal of Adolescence, 19 (1996), pp. 429442; Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…
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the productive remunerated activity. Talking about Latin America as developing region, it is not difficult to imagine the difficulties of work absorption and the deterioration of the standards of living imposed by the neoliberal politician; in opposite part, the advances in the technologies of the communication, the information about distant opportunities, the major facilities of transport and the existence of communities of immigrants that weave networks between places of origin and those of destination, are stimulating an increasing number of Latin-American and Caribbean women to take a risk in search of new horizons beyond their borders. The receptor countries, specially the developed ones, not only possess enormous wage gaps in their favour, but also demand workers to support their productive processes and to fill the spaces that the local populations usually despise. It is precisely in this scene where our study is centred relative to the reconstruction of the identity on destination of the women that choose for a migratory project. The studies of10, among others, inform us about the segregation and the occupational segmentation that the immigrant women must accept. So we see that the relation between migration, identity and work market opens spaces of debate and worry. For our study, these factors are reviewed of great importance, since the inequality in access to the power and to the resources places the migrants women in a position of emotional and economic vulnerability that stimulates them to accept employments of minor prestige and remuneration, what confronts them immediately to a crisis of identity that has to be solved immediately, due to the fact that the economic thing does not wait; it is to say, decisions must be taken in most cases as paths that were not the dreamed ones and even less the planned ones; therefore it constitutes not only a identity change but also a change of obligatory role at the social level.
10
Laura Oso, La migración hacia España de mujeres jefas de hogar (Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales-Instituto de la Mujer, 1998), pp. 34-37; Colectivo IOÉ, Mujer, Inmigración…, pp. 110-118; Sònia Parella, Mujer, inmigrante y trabajadora…, pp. 298-310; Carlota Solé, Sònia Parella, “La inserción de los inmigrantes en el mercado de trabajo. El caso español”, El impacto de la inmigración en la economía y en la sociedad receptora, Carlota Solé, coord. (Barcelona: Anthropos, 2001), pp. 1151; Amaia Pérez, Denise Paiewonsky, Mar García, Cruzando fronteras II: Migración y desarrollo…, pp. 35-36.
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3. Analysis of the reconstruction of the identity 3.1. The roles According to the sociologists11 the identities are more strong sources of sense that the roles due to the process of autodefinition and of individualization that they suppose. In simple terms, the identities organize the sense, whereas the roles organize the functions. This means that the existence of a break between the function and the sense can provoke imbalances that are very difficult to compensate, unless that violent but necessary decisions were made at first for the own construction of the sense; in the speeches of the immigrant women this break between function and sense is common to find it. We find in some speeches that the role changes in a constant way in the same person, that is to say it is changing in different stages of the migratory project, depending on the instrumental needs of the individual. Other speeches reflect us personal frustration for the imbalances of the role. 3.2. To go out a float The identity is the most important creation of the modernity12. In uncertain Identities13 it makes allusion to Bauman emphasizing that this one talks about a floating identity that produces a double link. On one hand the liquid modernity orders to construct an identity as exigency to survive. On the other, to possess it of for life turns out to be an obstacle, a load that restricts the movement, a ballast of what is necessary to undo if it wants to be remained afloat. With relation to the identities of the immigrant women and Bauman’s expositions we think that these on having possessed already their floating identity of for themselves, and on having found each other between one 11 Anthony Giddens, Modernidad e identidad del yo (Barcelona: Península, 1995), p. 32; Manuel Castells, La Era de la Información…, p. 28. 12 Zygmunt Bauman, Identidad (Madrid: Editorial Losada, 2005), p. 124. 13 Helena Béjar, Identidades inciertas: Zygmunt Bauman (Barcelona: Editorial Herder, 2007), pp. 126-130.
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“here and there”, maybe because of familiar, economic or social links, these women have to survive, have to change, they cannot remain with the identity that they bring from origin, that would be an obstacle to continue, to adapt themselves, to join the society. The new identity an individualization that means a choice reclaim them, but that actually since Bauman annotates, is a destination. A new destination, a new life (better, worse or different), but definitively a new identity. 3.3. Historical materials From the limit of14 the identity of the immigrant women also has been formed with materials of the historical moment that they have had to live, of the geography from where they come, of the biology that as women in the end they have developed, of the productive and reproductive institutions, of the collective memory and the personal fantasies, of the devices of power and the religious revelations. In this sense we find in the statements of our interviewed ones, historical materials as the civil insecurity and the violence. We associate this factor with the collective memory that forms their identities as well as with a motivating factor to initiate a migratory project. 3.4. Crisis of identities Labrador Fernández, it indicates to us the expositions that Erikson (1980) does about the crisis of the identities15. The human beings are aware of their identity before situations that address to these identity and make an autodefinition necessary. Providing that the identity of an individual or group is questioned, it is because of a conflict, a change, or a differential meeting. In order that an autodefinition is produced there must be produced a tension element in which it is necessary to support a identifying position and to make it evident to others and to itself. The changes, the meetings with a different reality, the conflicts with the environment, in a word: the
14 Manuel Castells, La Era de la Información…, pp. 28-31. 15 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…, pp. 75-80.
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crises, they are those that provoke a conscience and a need of definition or redefinition of the identity. Labrador16 in his study emphasizes that any crisis is developed in the rhetoric of the identity in that the human being feels addressed in his representations of himself. The migratory phenomena are a clear example of this type of situations. The migration supposes a rapid change of references (symbols, situations, assigned roles, etc.) that define social different functions and eventually new identities. A syndrome called confusion of identity, characterizes the resultant disturbances of traumatic facts such as war, prison and emigration; but it also demonstrated to be a dominant feature in the disturbances of the development in the adolescence17. 3.5. The marriage: a bridge, a worry and a change of identity The marriage of an immigrant woman is placed in a level of institutional and juridical integration (rights of citizenship) and also provides her with the insertion in the studding of familiar and social relations of the pair, who also solves the economic situation of the woman. In this way it has obtained, three more difficult levels of incorporation for the migrants: the juridical one (the papers); the social one (relatives and friends); and the economic one (acquisitive capacity). Nevertheless, it is a question of an incorporation that it make the woman totally dependent on her pair and on her relation with this one18. On having realized an analysis of what means the marriage of an immigrant woman so as to obtain the institutional and juridical integration, we notice according to the statements of our interviewed ones, that this acceptance is not indifferent to the process of transformation of their identity. Since it annotates Labrador, the requirements of the new way make
16 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración… 17 Erik Erikson, Un modo de ver las cosas (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1994), p. 602; Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración… 18 Montserrat Bodoque, Marija Djurdjevich, Matrimonios Transnacionales. Nuevos retos en el análisis de una realidad migratoria particular (Tarragona: Informe del Departament d’Antropologia, Filosofia i Treball Social-Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 2008), p. 23.
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that it is necessary to change and to adopt new perspectives that enter often contradiction with the interpretive schemes of the reality that had given them their culture and their society of origin19. 3.6. The Project identities The Project identity that Castells proposes, indisputably brings us closely to the understanding of how the social actors, (in our analysis the immigrant women), being based on the cultural materials which they have, construct a new identity that re-defines their position in the new society, and on having done it they look for the transformation of the whole social structure20. For this transformation the presence of an element that develops in the place of destination and develops them of sense to this transformation is more and more necessary. We are speaking about the valuable social capital of which many immigrant know how to take advantage. The different social capital of the factors that we consider for this analysis, we find it in several of our interviewed ones that managed to develop and to activate this capital, this capital based on the relations between people reverberates in the search of a position as well as of their acceptance in destination, therefore there is demonstrated the reconstruction of their identity. 3.7. The stages of the project identities Castells’s Project identity does not come alone because there exists a labyrinth for which it is necessary to accede21. Labrador proposes a path of identity that draws it in ways with bifurcations, crossings, and therefore crisis. For the first section of the way it uses the term of Undifferentiation. Which refers like to the first moment in which the identity is little aroused, the conflict with the way has not been produced yet and, therefore, there is no difference conscience. 19 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…, p. 81. 20 Manuel Castells, La Era de la Información…, p. 30. 21 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…, pp. 81-87.
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The second section of the path of identity Labrador22 names it as the Differentiation. That is to say, that period in which the immigrant is taking in consideration their new situation identifying, and this process is started. The individuals are aware of their ethnic, cultural and personal differences on having lived through the limits that impose them in the new environment, limits with which they are limited and differing constantly. A first limit of the immigrant women is easy to identify in the possession of a correct citizenship. In other words, the possession or no of the pertinent documentation already establish a limit within the new society, therefore within their identity. This limit carry it to another barrier: the work. Without document, there is no job. The limits also become present by the ethnic and cultural differentiation. Already of for themselves in the imaginary social the immigrant woman is highly stigmatized and discriminated, let us think about the analysis of Erving Goffman23 In the damaged Identity when he emphasizes: “it is probable that on having been opposite to a stranger the first appearances they allow us to foresee in what category it is situated and which are his attributes, that is to say his “social identity”; the same thing happens when we find foreign women in our society: different ethnic features (indians, blacks, white, half-caste), different way of dressing, of speaking, of acting (that classify it into categories: poor, rich, polite, badly polite, vulgar, elegant, etc.); all elements that help to form a part of the limits that Fernández24 indicates Labrador in his study. 3.8. Ontological and instrumental function of the identity From an European perspective25, in his works it highlights that the identity of people has two principal functions, the ontological one and another instrumental one. The ontological function is the one that one entrusts of the classification of itself, classification that it has to see with their socializa22 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración… 23 Erving Goffman, Estigma: La identidad deteriorada (Buenos Aires: Amorrortu Editores, 2008), p. 14. 24 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración… 25 Carme Camilleri, “Identité et gestion de la disparité culturelle: esai d’une typologie”, Identidad e inmigración..., pp. 85-110.
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tion, their tradition, and, therefore, with those relations of major intimacy. The instrumental function is orientated to the relations by other one, to the most public social interactions, it is the most pragmatic and executive dimension of the identity. It is logical to think that the immigrant women before a social and cultural change, the first thing that they need to change have to see with this instrumental function of the identity. That is to say, the urgency of finding a reason of acceptance and approval in the social thing forces them to relate somehow, already be in minor or major way, but in the first moments of the accession it urges an immediate adaption. The third section of the study on the path of the identity, is found by us in the Conflict, in which the conscience of the different requirements coming front of this multiplicity of cultures and values and the search of a stable and worthy position in this new society is taken. The immigrant person meets before the task of making a negotiation and integration of their identity, where the requirements and limits adjust of his me and those of the environment where their I have to be adjusted to the requierments and limits. In this moment it is when there are started the different strategies of reconstruction of the identity26. According to Camilleri27, the person who has to adapt to a new culture has his own arrangement of himself, but on the other hand his instrumental resources must adapt and change imperiously. These new instrumental functions that will be rapidly built, it can be coherent or incoherent, the habitual thing when one is speaking about economic immigrants, in our case the immigrant women that there is great difference and incoherence between the ontological and instrumental function. If there is a lack of coherence between these two functions it is when the conflict arises. Conflict interpellate in many cases of this identity constructed in the society of item. In this game between these two functions it is where Camilleri28 raises that there arise the strategies that serve to support, to correct or to overcome the incoherence. We are before a personal and individualized effort to re-define the limits of the identity and to find a mutual adjustment between me and the environment. Such and since we
26 Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración…, p. 83. 27 Carme Camilleri, Identité et gestion de la disparité culturelle… 28 Carme Camilleri, Identité et gestion de la disparité culturelle…
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annotate more behind the human capital that the individual possesses it has great relation with the adjustment of the identity to the new destiny. The social minorities do not have any more remedy that to establish a series of answers or strategies, before the identity that assigns the majority group to them. The notion of strategy suggests, when it is applied to the social or psychological phenomena, the existence of a certain freedom of action of the actors in opposition to more determinists formulations. Which suggests Labrador, must not take us to the deception of thinking that these strategies are started in a conscious and deliberate way29. The individual is taking a series of decisions in his daily life that they bring near more to a few forms of renegotation of identity than to others. The actors are capable of acting on the definition of themselves. Taboada and Leonetti30 distinguish three general types of strategies of identity attending to the ends that they chase. Strategies of incorporation (assimilation), of reconstruction (readaptation of their structure of identity, without for it to have to conceal or push back what was constructing their identity of origin) and of rejection (they are the most defensive and reactivate in reaction to the confusion and requirements of the majority culture). The last section of the path of the identity that indicates Labrador in his study refers to the Resolution. It is the situation to which it comes near after the crisis, the identity of the individual is praised towards a situation of stability in which that can predominate over the satisfaction or the dissatisfaction depending on the experiences. The immigrant has found a place. The resolution is the final stage, in which this reconstruction has been achieved. A stabilization is produced in the satisfaction or in the conflict and the hostility towards the environment. There has produced an adjustment and accommodation of the conditions of the country of reception, satisfactory or not, but that gives certain stability in their way of living and of understanding themselves. 29 Isabelle Taboada, “Stratégies identitaires et minorités: le point de vues de sociologue”, Stratégies identitaires, Carme Camilleri, Joseph Kasterszten, Edmond Marc Lipiansky, Hanna Malewska-Peyre, Isabelle Taboada-Leonetti, Ana Vasquez, eds. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990), p. 49; Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración… 30 Isabel Taboada, Stratégies identitaires et minorités…
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Conclusions The speeches that our interviewed ones offered us took it for granted that the migratory project caused emotional conflicts and crises that had to resolve by means of the reconstruction of the identity and the readaptation of the role. If we analyze the speeches in a global way, they are few ones that contain positive limits referred to their personal, labour and social accession. We can conclude that these women had to adapt values and customs to the symbols of the new culture, to the requirements of the social, cultural and linguistic structures, to look for alternatives to obtain the citizenship, to find or to “accept” any work, all necessary elements to achieve “acceptance and recognition”, and to be kept afloat in the liquid modernity and in the place that they chose as destination. With relation to the factors of the human, social and cultural capital of our interviewed ones that we wanted to relate to the reconstruction of their identity, the investigation reveals us that those women who were possessing the human capital and an administrative correct situation, had fewer conflicts and emotional crises. Those women who were possessing and / or managed to develop their social capital in destination stood out with a migratory positive project. In counterpart, those women with the scanty human capital and administrative irregular situation had strong doses of crisis and emotional conflicts that had to face up until finding a renegotation of their identity with the new environment. Others on the other hand achieved a more prompt resolution, but in short sooner or later they all reconstructed their identity in destination.
Annexe Bibliography Gerald R. Adams, Sheila K. Marshall, “A developmental social psycho logy of identity understanding the person-in-context”, Journal of Adolescence, 19 (1996), pp. 429-442.
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José M. Aguirre, “Identidad humana y antropología. Somos los mismos, pero no somos lo mismo”, La Identidad en Sociedades Plurales, Bermejo Diego, ed. (Anthropos: Universidad de La Rioja, 2011). Luís E. Alonso, La mirada cualitativa en sociología (Madrid: Editorial Fundamentos, 1998). Zygmunt Bauman, “Liquid Modernity”, Identidades inciertas: Bauman Zygmunt. IV. Identidades pensantes, Béjar Helena, ed. (Barcelona: Editorial Herder, 2007). Zygmunt Bauman, “La sociedad individualizada”, Identidades inciertas: Zygmunt Bauman, Helena Béjar, ed. (Barcelona: Editorial Herder, 2007). Zygmunt Bauman, Identidad (Argentina: Editorial Losada, 2005). Gary Becker, El capital humano (Madrid: Alianza, 1987). Helena Béjar, Identidades inciertas: Zygmunt Bauman (Barcelona: Editorial Herder, 2007). José A. Bergua, Estilos de la investigación social. Técnicas, epistemología, algo de anarquía y una pizca de sociosofía (Zaragoza: Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, 2011). Herbert Blumer, El interaccionismo simbólico: perspectiva y método (Barcelona: Hora, 1982). Yolanda Bodoque, Montserrat Soronellas, Matrimonios Transnacionales. Nuevos retos en el análisis de una realidad migratoria particular. Informe del Departament d’Antropologia, Filosofia i Treball Social. (Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 2008). Gil Calvo, Nacidos para cambiar, cómo construimos nuestras biografías (Madrid: Tauros, 2001). Carme Camilleri, “Identité et gestion de la disparité culturelle: esai d’une typologie”, Identidad e inmigración. Un estudio cualitativo con inmigrantes peruanos en Madrid, Jesús Labrador (Madrid: Publicaciones de la Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, 2001). Natalia Cantó, Àngel Castiñeira, Anna Font, Les fonts del lideratge social (Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill, 2009). Manuel Castells, La Era de la Información. El poder de la Identidad (Madrid: Alianza, 2002), vol. 2. Nancy Chodorow, “El ejercicio de la maternidad. Psicoanálisis y sociología de la maternidad y paternidad en la crianza de los hijos”, Nacidos para cambiar, cómo construimos nuestras biografías, Gil Calvo, ed. (Madrid: Editorial Tauros, 2001).
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James Coleman, “Social capital in the creation of human capital”, The American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), pp. 95-120. Colectivo IOÉ, Mujer, Inmigración y Trabajo (Madrid: Imserso-Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales, 2001). Francisco Díaz, José M. González, “Comportamiento emprendedor e inmigración”, Revistas Redalyc, 15/2 (2005), p. 85-101. Duván Emilio, Capital humano como factor de crecimiento económico. Caso Colombia (Málaga: Juan Carlos Martínez Coll, 2007). Erik H. Erikson, Identidad. Juventud y crisis (Madrid: Taurus, 1980). Erik H. Erikson, “Un modo de ver las cosas”, Identidad e inmigración. Un estudio cualitativo con inmigrantes peruanos en Madrid, Jesús Labrador (Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, 2001). Douglas Ezzy, Qualitative Analysis: Practice and Innovation (New South Wales: Allen & Unwin, 2002). Anthony Giddens, Modernidad e identidad del yo (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1995). Carol Gilligan, “La moral y la teoría. Psicología del desarrollo femenino”, Nacidos para cambiar, cómo construimos nuestras biografías, Gil Calvo, ed. (Madrid: Editorial Taurus, 2001). Erving Goffman, Estigma: La identidad deteriorada (Buenos Aires: Amorrortu Editores, 2008). George Herbert, Mind, Self & Society. From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist (Chicago: The University Chicago Press, 1974). Jesús Ibáñez, Manuel García, Francisco Alvira, El análisis de la realidad social. Métodos y técnicas de investigación (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 2010). Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Informe anual 2011 (Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, 2012); Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Informe anual 2012 (Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, 2013). Richard Jenkins, Social Identity (London: Routledge, 1996). Jesús Labrador, Identidad e inmigración. Un estudio cualitativo con inmigrantes peruanos en Madrid (Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, 2001). Ildefonso Márques Perales, Génesis de la teoría social de Pierre Bourdieu (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 2008). Jorge Martínez, América Latina y el Caribe: migración internacional, derechos humanos y desarrollo (Santiago de Chile: Cepal, 2008).
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Dolors Mayoral, María Mercè Tor, Cultures en interacció. La vida quotidiana (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 2009). Laura Oso, La migración hacia España de mujeres jefas de hogar (Madrid: Instituto de la Mujer, 1998). Miguel Pajares, Inmigración y mercado de trabajo. Informe 2010 (Madrid: Observatorio Permanente de la Inmigración-Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración, 2010). Sònia Parella, Mujer, inmigrante y trabajadora: la triple discriminación (Rubí: Anthropos, 2003). Amaia Pérez, Denise Paiewonsky, Mar García, Cruzando fronteras II: Migración y desarrollo desde una perspectiva de género (República Dominicana: Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones y Capacitación de las Naciones Unidas para la Promoción de la Mujer, 2008). Jean S. Phinney, “Multiple Group Identities: Differentiation, Conflict and Integration”, Discussions on Ego Identity, Jane Kroger, ed. (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993), pp. 47-73. Robert Putman, Para que la democracia funcione. Tradiciones cívicas en la Italia moderna (Barcelona: Proa, 2000). David Roll, Diego Leal-Castro, “Migración, codesarrollo y capital social: lineamientos para una estrategia de integración de dos mundos”, Colombia Internacional. Redalyc, 72 (2010), pp. 87-108. Theodore Shultz, Invirtiendo en la Gente (Barcelona: Ariel, 1985). Adam Smith, La Riqueza de las Naciones (Madrid: Alianza, 2001). Carlota Solé, Sònia Parella, “La inserción de los inmigrantes en el mercado de trabajo. El caso español”, El impacto de la inmigración en la economía y en la sociedad receptora, Carlota Solé, coord. (Barcelona: Anthropos, 2001). Isabelle Taboada-Leonetti, “Stratégies identitaires et minorités: le point de vues de sociologue”, Stratégies identitaires, Carme Camilleri, Joseph Kasterszten, Edmond Marc Lipiansky, Hanna MalewskaPeyre, Isabelle Taboada-Leonetti, Ana Vasquez, eds. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990), pp. 43-78. Andrés Tornos, Rosa Aparicio, María Mercedes Fernández, El capital humano de la inmigración (Madrid: Imserso, 2004).
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Webgraphy Extranjeros Residentes en España con certificado de registro o tarjeta de residencia en vigor al 30 de junio de 2012 (Madrid: Observatorio Permanente de la Inmigración-Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social, Gobierno de España). . Las migraciones en un mundo interdependiente: nuevas orientaciones para actuar, Comisión Mundial sobre las Migraciones Internacionales, 2005. .
Leadership and Complex Identities in Associations of African Immigrants Fidel Molina, Dolors Mayoral, Paquita Sanvicén Universitat de Lleida
Today’s societies are societies characterised by immigration. Unlike in the past, today, immigrants do not always come with the intention of staying. Instead, some simply wish to broaden their experience, while others choose to discover cultures that are very different, or even virtually the opposite, from their own. Whatever the case, their visions of their host societies, or rather of how they are received by them, are very varied and all-encompassing. Far from being discrete, these immigrants manifest their presence and defend their singularities, without losing their awareness of the greater social context. This change has particularly been observed in the men and women who lead immigrant associations and who are willing to make themselves heard and understood and to highlight their own qualities and to adopt some of those of others. Unlike in earlier periods, rather than speaking of processes of acculturation or even of cultural pluralism, their foundations, objectives and expectations have changed, because they are able to combine their own beliefs with those of the societies that they pass through and this gives rise to processes of identity construction that are manifold and complex, particularly from the viewpoint of leadership. Furthermore, this is true for both men and women. The following text presents a study in which we describe and analyse leadership and the creation of identity in associations of African immigrants through their work objectives, themes, forms of leadership and ins titutional organisation and ways of differentiating between the identities of men and women. Our initial hypothesis was based on a belief that there are “strong” immigrant women (who are neither submissive nor ignorant), who have a capacity for leadership and who can be identified on the basis of their aims and how they lead their associations rather than on any other allegedly “female-specific” characteristics. According to our
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hypothesis, these women are characterised by processes of early (teenage) learning, educational success and a relatively high social status, which they tend to manifest through a certain rebellious nature and by clearly assuming positions of leadership. Even so, prior to our study, we assumed that there would be no relevant differences between male and female leadership or between ways of constructing identities. Even so, in both cases, it is likely that “charisma”, understood in the way defined by Graeber1 of the “strong heart”, could play an important role, with leaders having developed good interpersonal skills for convincing and persuading other people. The main questions underlying our hypotheses lead us to the origins of leadership: “is a leader born, or made?” In the case of women, “do women have natural, inborn qualities that favour the emergence of a particular type of leadership?” and, “how important are the processes of leadership construction with which identities are constructed?” Authors such as Cantó, Castiñeira and Font2 have already highlighted the importance of learning leadership; in other words, the biographical itineraries that lead some people to become catalysts for social change. Against personalised psychological focuses or psycho-sociological situationist positions, the authors present a theoretical-empirical model based on a series of triggering (personal: reflexivity, awareness, the search for meaning, the need to belong …) (contextual: critical incidents, influences and references, transforming experiences, and a previous decision process) factors through which civic commitment is acquired and which ultimately lead to social leadership. Based on an exhaustive exploitation of life histories, the authors have located a single moment in life, a decisive stage, an existential leap and a process of awakening of civic consciousness: during adolescence and young adulthood. However, given the demographic composition of the subjects in question, this moment has also coincided with other important elements in their life cycles (the construction of their personal identities) and with specific contexts or generational influences (the end of the Francoist period and the democratic transition). 1 2
David Graeber, En deuda (Barcelona: Ariel, 2012), pp. 192-194. Angel Castiñeira, Anna Font, Les fonts del lideratge social (Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill, 2009).
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In contrast, the study carried out by Martínez3, into indigenous associations of Ecuadorians, highlighted the emergence of a form of leadership based on five common elements: precocity in community work; factors related to the political prestige of the family of origin; bilingualism (speaking Spanish and their mother tongue) and an appropriate level of schooling; an appreciation of the indigenous culture; and an organizational discourse in which ethnic considerations receive more importance than those relating to gender. These women constructed their capacities to lead indigenous associations by overcoming obstacles associated with their new female roles (an overburdening of activities and socially designated stereotypes) and by using to their advantage the social changes generated by migration. In contrast to the traditional topic of “muted women”, they have managed to develop forms of discourse and capacities that have granted them legitimacy as efficient mobilisers of resources, allowing them to mediate in organisational conflicts and to activate their family networks of groups with social prestige. But we must ask ourselves whether these findings are conclusive with regard to gender identities. The questions posed are: is gender identity the variable that conditions two well-differentiated models of management and leadership?; and, how is social leadership constructed? While in the previous example, the success of female leadership owes more to a process of social learning under certain specific conditions of social change than to any supposed “natural” female talents, for other authors, such as Fisher4, in the present context, which is characterised by the erosion of patriarchal domination, it is perhaps possible to argue in favour of a series of “innate female skills” (verbal skills, empathy, the maternal impulse, and a preference for cooperation …) that would tend to facilitate a new type of leadership. These new “management” styles would not only help to reconcile work and family life, but would be particularly productive in a post-Fordist organizational context: one which is more flexible and open to the development of “collaborative cultures”, which is more 3
4
Alexandra Martínez, “Liderazgo, género e identidad étnica en Ecuador”, CV Gobernabilidad, 2011, Santiago de Chile, Comunidad Virtual de Desarrollo Humano e Institucional. 10 May 2013, . Helen Fisher, El primer sexo. Las capacidades innatas de las mujeres y cómo están cambiando el mundo (Madrid: Grupo Santillana, 2000).
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mobile, and which places greater emphasis on social networks and on new information and communication technologies. Along these lines, some authors, such as Chinchilla5, have advocated a more human model of business organisation based, among other requirements, on a style of leadership that combines both rationality and affectivity. In contrast to the male tendency to see the world in an impersonal way, based on logical and legal criteria, female managers would tend to balance this vision with doses of intuition, so that the final result would be a more human company and one which would be friendlier, more flexible and more efficient.
1. Methodology We worked with a total census of more than 300 associations from which we obtained 206 questionnaires which were completed by representatives of the different associations who were distributed according to the autonomous communities in which they resided. In the first phase of our research, having made an initial analysis of existing cases based on the scale and evolution of African immigration in the autonomous communities of Catalonia, Navarra and Valencia, we designed a brief questionnaire directed at the representatives of different immigrant associations that would allow us to define their general profile: name, year of creation, organizational structure, number of members, the type of activities that they organize, their territory of action, any existing acts of coordination and collaborations that they were involved in. The results would then allow us to construct a classification. The empirical work was carried out simultaneously in the three different autonomous communities. Of all the associations contacted in the research project, 10 cases were selected for this chapter based on a double individual criterion relating to leadership and a criterion relating to organisation. Along
5
Nuria Chinchilla, Consuelo León, La ambición femenina. Cómo reconciliar trabajo y familia (Madrid: Santillana, 2004).
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these lines, we selected associations “of ” immigrants and not associations “for” immigrants, as one of the fundamental aspects of qualitative methodology is to give a voice to the main protagonists and this proved key to achieving our research goal. Also, along these lines, one of the most individual criteria specifically focused on the fact that the person interviewed was of foreign origin, independently of whether he or she currently had Spanish nationality. The second and final individual criterion was that the person was not only a boss or a person with an official position in the organisation (headship), such as a president, treasurer, or member of the board of directors, but that they clearly carried out leadership functions (leadership), thereby reflecting that they had a charismatic personality and were attractive to their followers. A summary of the most relevant results allowed us to appreciate the fact that membership of associations amongst women is in the minority and is rather a recent phenomenon; this is evident from the dates when these associations were created. Probably the most noticeable difference, with regard to the dates of creation, relates to “women only” associations, most of which were established within the last three years. Furthermore, 80% of the members of the “predominantly female” group and 70% of those from the “exclusively female” group stated that they had not previously participated in associations in their respective countries of origin; although some did say that they had maintained previous contact with such organisations. Contrary to what was found with respect to the size of “predominantly male” associations, the “predominantly female” groups never had more than one hundred members and cases of new members joining were limited, while those of members leaving were more common. With regard to the commissions in which immigrant women participate, it is relevant to highlight the interest shown in cultural commissions in all of the different groups of associations; the other commissions that aroused most interest were those of education, communications and sports. No substantial differences in interests were observed between associations “of women” and “with a predominance of women”, except with reference to intercultural mediation. The largest group of “predominantly male” associations was characterized by a periods of membership exceeding five years; length of membership could therefore be an important indicator. The majority of the
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associations were of relatively recent creation (within the previous 1 to 3 years). The vast majority had been established for between 4 and 8 years. Of the members of “female only” groups (10 in total), 66.7% had participated as president and 33.3% as secretary, mainly within associations of a cultural type. The account given below shows us that part of the substantial change that has taken place in recent years relates to preparation for the immigration process and to the high level of studies that many female immigrant leaders possess: I have higher secondary school studies, and then I did two years of professional training before working as a French teacher in schools; well in the secondary schools of Morocco. And now I’m studying here, at the University of, of Spain, at the UNED. […]. When I knew that I was going to come here, I signed up in Morocco and studied for six months, before coming. But before having any idea about coming, I didn’t know any Spanish, none at all. Once I had decided that I would come, mm, I studied for six months, over there, or for almost a year, one year. […]. Of course, as I was working as a teacher over there, and here it’s no longer the same, because they don’t give you equivalence, either to the qualifications or to anything else (E9M ASEMT09).
Amongst the discourses of the informants themselves, we get an insight into the importance of primary socialisation, in which the family context plays a fundamental role: Well … I, when I was 6 years old, my father took me to a May Day demonstration of workers. That was at age 6. Then, I joined some NGOs and after that I participated in a political party (E16B, Male). E16BH
The following informant highlights the high level of studies in her family. […] because my mother is a teacher and my father was … uh, had his own business, you know? And I’ve had a really great youth because I was born into a very good family (E17, Female “no qualifications or anything” (E17M, Female, 30 years old).
There are also cases of educational ambition and of motivation to succeed: Here, I lived opposite the official school of languages, because I have a basic grounding in French and English, and I wanted to study. Because I came here and I found myself within four walls and alone, so at least I could study. And I have been to sign up at the language school and things have become a little complicated, they say that no, that you must have …; I’ve done higher secondary school studies, but it’s different here, higher secondary school is three years there, not two like here (E3, Female).
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[…] because of the language, because I’d already studied French and I enjoyed it. […] I couldn’t continue studying and it cost more, and I said to myself: “Well, if I can’t, I’ll go to Spain” […] no one appreciates what you were before, do you know what I mean? (E15, Female).
The life histories have many similarities with respect to gender, with hardly any differences between males and females. Some relevant considerations here could include the greater sensitivity to women’s issues and in some cases to militant feminism, as opposed to a recognized and dominant patriarchal stance. We would underline strong leadership styles at the personal level, in the line of Weber’s charismatic leadership and/or a certain element of enlightened despotism, which is embodied and illustrated in some cases through the distance between the board and the rest of the members (who are treated like “clients”). When we want to change the board members, the five board members all get together and we deal with it here, in the centre (E9H). […] You have to repeat a lot of things because participation is difficult, there are people who work long hours, people who complain about problems of racism (E16H).
However, we also see examples of other styles of leadership with choral initiatives; this is not just a “personalised/charismatic” form of leadership because it is supported by institutionalisation: I started there too, with the girls who were there, forming women’s associations, and that’s how, little by little, they gradually get bigger (E17M).
This type of leadership involves taking initiatives, social involvement and involvement at school (for example); in other words, it involves the task of paving the way for socialisation and integration: I went to speak to the manager, and I told him that a friend of my daughter had asked her if we lived with wild animals and things like that in Senegal, and I went to talk to her and I asked her: “why don’t you invite us to give a talk about Senegal?” […] And I went the first time, I gave a talk, which they recorded, they took photos, and each of the children had a piece of paper with a question and I answered all of the questions (E17, Female).
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Conclusion One of the most relevant aspects that characterises these leaders of associations, with regard to the questions that we posed at the beginning of this chapter, it that which refers to the construction of their identities: in fact, in the deepest sense, it is a question of again reflecting over whether leaders are born or made. Beyond the tensions between assimilation and relativistic communitarianism, the data suggest that their ethnic and national origins, educational levels and religious beliefs have all helped female leaders to develop a great capacity for cultural syncretism. This makes it possible for them to reconcile different symbolic universes that we should locate within a transnational perspective in which they maintain a permanent dialogue between their countries of origin and their host countries. These women constitute a new category of associative leaders who do not live with the “provisional nature” of other immigrants, but who wish to lay claim to a space in the host society without making a break from their original identities in the process. In other words, they construct permanent links between their societies of origin and reception, developing multiple identities in which they bring together the best of both worlds. For these leaders, becoming associated does not mean retreating into ethnic spaces. Being a member of an association is seen as an opportunity to acquire more social capital and thereby greater personal enrichment. These new figures call into question the traditional systems which have so far been used to analyse the integration of immigrants; rather becoming diluted within a “liquid” society, these people acquire a character that is more in line with today’s society and provides them with a greater facility to integrate, regardless of international frontiers. More fluid identities are created through associations. These then call for greater social recognition with the establishment of new values, such as democratic participation, to help break down secular tendencies that limit the development of identity. By doing this, more integrated and dynamic leaders can emerge and promote new transnational relations. Among the most noticeable differences relating to gender, we could highlight the fact that, from a qualitative point of view, we find a discourse that calls for greater female participation amongst women. This should be very clear and direct and only “recognition” from men.
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Leaders “are made” and within the social learning involved, the figure of the mother is crucial for female leadership, although the whole family usually has a decisive influence over any type of subsequent leadership. This study shows us that, contrary to the stereotype of otherness and the commonly held image of the female African immigrant as being submissive, timid, ignorant and weak …, we found a strong, well-prepared type of woman and one who shone brilliantly for her leadership. In contrast to the essentialism (pseudo-feminist reification) of female superiority in emotional intelligence, their ability to contextualize issues and their negotiating skills … we found few gender-associated d ifferences between men and women. As opposed to the popular, romantic idea … of the Messianic born leader and the hero, or heroine, capable of saving the group … we found that the leader is made (leadership is learnt) and that leadership is associated with a series of basic characteristics of socialisation.
Annexe Bibliography Ester Barberà, María Amparo Ramos, Mujeres directivas: promoción profesional en España y Reino Unido (Valencia: Institut Universitari d’Estudis de la Dona, 2000). Bernard M. Bass, Bruce J. Avolio, Transformational leadership development: Manual for de Multifactor leadership Questionnaire (Palo Alto: Psychologists Press, 1990). Bernard M. Bass, Bruce J. Avolio, “Shatter the Glass Ceiling: Women May Make Better Managers”, Human Resource Management, 33/ 4 (1994), pp. 549-560. Robert Blake, Jane Mouton, The managerial grid: key orientations for achieving production through people (Houston: Gulf, 1964). Natalia Cantó, Angel Castiñeira, Anna Font, Les fonts del lideratge social (Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill, 2009). Stephen R. Covey, “Los tres papeles que desempeña el líder del nuevo para digma” El líder del futuro, Frances Hesselbein, Marshall Goldsmith, Richard Beckhard, eds. (Bilbao: Deusto, 1996), pp. 177-189.
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Vanessa Druskat, “Gender and leadership style: transformational and transactional leaderships in the Roman Catholic Church”, Leaderships Quarterly, 5 (1994), pp. 99-119. Alice Eagly, Linda Carli, “The female leadership advantage: an evaluation of the evidence”, The Leadership Quarterly, 14 (2003), pp. 807-834. Fred Fiedler, “El estudio del liderazgo. El modelo de la contingencia”, Teoría e investigación en la Psicología Social actual, José R. Torregrosa, ed. (Madrid: Instituto de la Opinión Pública, 1974), pp. 911-955. Helen Fisher, El primer sexo. Las capacidades innatas de las mujeres y cómo están cambiando el mundo (Madrid: Grupo Santillana, 2000). Howard Gardner, Mentes líderes. Una anatomía del liderazgo (Madrid: Paidós, 1998). Camilla Gibb, “Leadership”, The Handbook of Social Psychology, Lindzey Gardner, Elliot Aronson, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 270. David Graeber, En deuda (Barcelona: Ariel, 2012). Alexander Haslam, “Leadership”, The Social Science Encyclopedia, Adam Kuper, ed. (London: Routledge, 2004), vol. 2, pp. 566-568. Edwin P. Hollander, Julian W. Jamesm, “Tendencias actuales en el análisis de los procesos de liderazgo”, Teoría e investigación en la Psicología Social actual, José R. Torregrosa (Madrid: Instituto Opinión Pública, 1974), pp. 957-974. Margaret Mead, Cultura y compromiso (Buenos Aires: Granica, 1971). María Nuria Cinchilla, Consuelo León, La ambición femenina. Cómo reconciliar trabajo y familia (Madrid: Santillana, 2004). Josph S. Nye, Las cualidades del líder (Barcelona: Paidós, 2011). Tom Peters, La esencia del liderazgo (Madrid: Pearson, 2005). Lidia Puigvert, Beatriz Muñoz, “Estudios de Género. Barreras y aporta ciones al debate teórico internacional desde las voces de las ‘otras mujeres’” , Géneros. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 1/1 (2012), pp. 4-27. Amparo Ramos, Maite Sarrio, Ester Barberá, Carlos Candela, “Mujeres directivas y demandas organizacionales”, Revista de Psicología Social, 17 (2002), pp. 183-192. Remei Sipi, “Las asociaciones de mujeres ¿agentes de integración social?”, Papers, 60 (2000), pp. 355-364.
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Webgraphy Alexandra Martínez, “Liderazgo, género e identidad étnica en Ecuador”, 2011, CV Gobernabilidad. Comunidad Virtual de Desarrollo Humano e Institucional. 10 de Mayo 2013 .
Mi Nombre es Nadie. El Síndrome de Ulises. Emigrar en el Siglo XXI. Salud Mental y Migración Joseba Achotegui Universitat de Barcelona
[…] y Ulises pasábase los días sentado en las rocas, a la orilla del mar, consumiéndose a fuerza de llanto, suspiros y penas, fijando sus ojos en el mar estéril, llorando incansablemente […] (Odisea, Canto V, 150). me preguntas cíclope cómo me llamo…voy a decírtelo. Mi nombre es nadie y nadie me llaman todos […] (Odisea Canto IX, 360).
Emigrar se está convirtiendo hoy para millones de personas en un proceso que posee unos niveles de estrés tan intensos que llegan a superar la capacidad de adaptación de los seres humanos. Estas personas sufren el riesgo de padecer el Síndrome del Inmigrante con Estrés Crónico y Múltiple o Síndrome de Ulises (haciendo mención al héroe griego que padeció innumerables adversidades y peligros lejos de sus seres queridos). Sin embargo, paradójicamente, a nivel antropológico hoy sabemos que la capacidad de emigrar constituye uno de los rasgos distintivos de nuestra especie y se halla en la base de nuestro gran éxito evolutivo1. Ante esa situación, obviamente la pregunta es: siendo los humanos tan buenos emigrantes, cómo puede ser que emigrar hoy resulte tan terrible para tanta gente, hasta el punto que les afecte en su salud mental? La realidad a la que nos enfrentamos es que nunca, en nuestro trabajo en la atención en salud mental a los inmigrantes desde los años 80, habíamos presenciado situaciones tan dramáticas como las actuales. Y sin embargo, consideramos que existe una gran deshumanización al abordar las migraciones de hoy, ya que se presta muy poca atención a los sentimientos, a las vivencias de los protagonistas de la migración, los inmigrantes.
1
Wolfgang Müller, Henry Fricke, Alex N. Halliday, Malcom T. McCulloch, Jo-Anne Wartho, “Origin and Migration of the Alpine Iceman”, Science, 302 (2003), pp. 862-866.
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Ya hemos señalado que desde la perspectiva psicológica se considera que la migración es un acontecimiento de la vida, que como todo cambio supone una parte de estrés, de tensión, al que se denomina duelo migratorio. Tal como planteamos2 consideramos que existirían 7 duelos en la migración en relación a: la familia, la lengua, la cultura, la tierra, el estatus social, el grupo de pertenencia y los riesgos físicos. Estos duelos se darían, en mayor o menor grado en todos los procesos migratorios, pero consideramos que no es lo mismo vivir la migración en buenas condiciones (duelo simple) que emigrar en situaciones límite (duelo extremo) cuando las condiciones son tan difíciles que no hay posibilidades de elaboración del duelo y la persona entra en una situación de crisis permanente, siendo este tipo de duelo migratorio el característico del Síndrome de Ulises.
1. Estresores del Síndrome de Ulises Los estresores más importantes son: la separación forzada de los seres queridos que supone una ruptura del instinto del apego, el sentimiento de desesperanza por el fracaso del proyecto migratorio y la ausencia de oportunidades, la lucha por la supervivencia (dónde alimentarse, dónde encontrar un techo para dormir), y en cuarto lugar el miedo, el terror que viven en los viajes migratorios (pateras, ir escondidos en camiones…), las amenazas de las mafias ó de la detención y expulsión, la indefensión por carecer de derechos, etc. Pero además, estos estresores de tanta relevancia y que van más allá del clásico estrés aculturativo, se hallan incrementados por toda una serie de factores que los potencian tales como: la multiplicidad (a más estresores mayor riesgo, los estresores se potencian entre ellos), la cronicidad ya que estas situaciones límite pueden afectar al inmigrante durante meses o incluso años, el sentimiento de que el individuo haga lo que haga no
2
Joseba Achotegui, La depresión en los inmigrantes. Una perspectiva transcultural (Barcelona: Editorial Mayo, 2002); Joseba Achotegui, Trastornos afectivos en los inmigrantes: la influencia de los factores culturales (Barcelona: Jano, 2002).
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puede modificar su situación (indefensión aprendida Seligman3, ausencia de autoeficacia Bandura)4, los fuertes déficits en sus redes de apoyo social (el capital social de Coleman)5, y si por si tantos problemas no fueran suficientes, consideramos que lamentablemente, con frecuencia, el sistema sanitario y asistencial no atiende adecuadamente este Síndrome: –porque hay profesionales que banalizan esta problemática (por desconocimiento, por insensibilidad…, incluso por racismo). –ó porque no se diagnostica adecuadamente este cuadro como un cuadro reactivo de estrés y se trata a estos inmigrantes como enfermos depresivos, psicóticos, enfermos somáticos…actuando el sistema sanitario como un nuevo estresor para los inmigrantes.
1.1. Sintomatología Como es obvio la vivencia tan prolongada de situaciones de estrés tan intensas afecta profundamente a la personalidad del sujeto y a su homeostasis, al eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-médula suprarrenal, al sistema hormonal, muscular, etc. dando lugar a una amplia sintomatología: síntomas del área depresiva fundamentalmente tristeza y llanto, síntomas del área de la ansiedad (tensión, insomnio, pensamientos recurrentes e intrusivos, irritabilidad), síntomas del área de la somatización como fatiga, molestias osteoarticulares, cefalea, migraña (es tan frecuente que para abreviar la denominamos in-migraña), síntomas del área confusional que se pueden relacionar con el incremento del cortisol y que tienden pueden ser erróneamente diagnosticadas como trastornos psicóticos. Y a esta sintomatología se le añade en bastantes casos una interpretación de su cuadro basado en la propia cultura del sujeto. Así es frecuente oír decir: no puede ser que tenga tan mala suerte, a mí me han tenido que echar el mal de ojo, me han hecho brujería …
3 4 5
Martin Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975). Albert Bandura, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A social cognitive Theory (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984). James Coleman, Foundations of social theory (Cambridge (Mass.): Belknap Press of Harvard, 1984).
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1.2. Diagnóstico Diferencial: El Síndrome de Ulises no es una enfermedad, se ubica en el ámbito de la salud mental que es más amplio que el ámbito de la psicopatología El Síndrome de Ulises es un cuadro reactivo de estrés ante situaciones de duelo migratorio extremo que no pueden ser elaboradas. Consideramos que plantear la denominación “Síndrome de Ulises” contribuye a evitar que estos inmigrantes, por no existir un concepto para su problemática sean víctimas: –por un lado de la desvalorización de sus padecimientos, que se les diga que no tienen nada, a pesar de padecer a veces hasta 10 síntomas –y por otro lado el peligro de que sean incorrectamente diagnosticados como enfermos depresivos (a pesar de no sólo no tienen apatía sino que son proactivos, no sólo no tienen ideas de muerte sino que están llenos de proyectos e ilusiones…), ó como trastornos adaptativos (a pesar de que su reacción es totalmente proporcional a unos estresores de pesadilla que padecen), ó como trastorno por estrés post-traumático a pesar de no tener conductas de evitación, ni pensamientos intrusivos en relación a situaciones traumáticas. AREA DE LA SALUD MENTAL NO BANALIZAR
SÍNDROME DE ULISES
PSICOPATOLOGÍA NO MEDICALIZAR
Consideramos que, tal como señala el esquema, es muy importante ante esta problemática que se halla en el límite entre el área de la salud mental y el área de la psicopatología, por un lado no banalizar este cuadro, considerando que no les pasa nada (la peligrosa banalización del mal que señalaba Hanna Arendt), ni por otro lado medicalizarlo, considerando que estos inmigrantes padecen una enfermedad mental. A nivel metafórico, el Síndrome de Ulises es como si en una habitación se subiera la temperatura hasta los 100 grados. Tendríamos mareos, calambres… Estaríamos enfermos por tener estos síntomas? Decididamente, no. Cuando saliéramos al aire libre estos síntomas desaparecerían porque se simplemente se corresponderían con un intento de adaptación fisiológica a esa elevada temperatura ante la que no funciona nuestra termorregulación. Pero si alguien en la sala tuviera un infarto, un cólico, ese sí que estaría enfermo (lógicamente en esta metáfora se trataría de una depresión, una psicosis…).
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Es decir, el Síndrome de Ulises se halla inmerso en el área de la prevención sanitaria y psicosocial más que en el área del tratamiento, y la intervención deberá ser fundamentalmente de tipo psicoeducativo y de contención emocional por lo que el trabajo sobre el Síndrome atañe no tan sólo a psicólogos médicos o psiquiatras, sino a trabajadores sociales, enfermería, educadores sociales y otros profesionales asistenciales. Malos tiempos aquellos en los que la gente corriente ha de comportarse como héroes para sobrevivir. Ulises era un semidios, que sin embargo, a duras penas sobrevivió a las terribles adversidades y peligros a los que se vio sometido, pero las gentes que llegan hoy a nuestras fronteras tan sólo son personas de carne y hueso que sin embargo viven episodios tan o más dramáticos que los descritos en la Odisea. Soledad, miedo, desesperanza…las migraciones del nuevo milenio que comienza nos recuerdan cada vez más los viejos textos de Homero… Si para sobrevivir se ha de ser nadie, se ha de ser permanentemente invisible, no habrá identidad, ni autoestima, ni integración social y así tampoco puede haber salud mental.
Anexo Bibliografía Yu Abe, “Ulysses syndrome in immigrants in Japan”, Symposium Stress and migration, Prague: Congress of Word Psychiatric Association (Prague, 2008), unpublished. Joseba Achotegui, “Los duelos de la migración: una perspectiva psicopatológica y psicosocial”, Medicina y cultura, Enrique Perdiguero, Josep M. Comelles, eds. (Barcelona: Editorial Bellaterra, 2000), pp. 83-100. Joseba Achotegui, La depresión en los inmigrantes. Una perspectiva transcultural (Barcelona: Editorial Mayo, 2002). Joseba Achotegui, Trastornos afectivos en los inmigrantes: la influencia de los factores culturales (Barcelona: Jano, 2002). Joseba Achotegui, “Emigrar en situación extrema. El Síndrome del inmigrante con estrés crónico y múltiple (Síndrome de Ulises)” Revista Norte de salud mental de la Sociedad Española de Neuropsiquiatría, 5/21 (2004), pp. 39-53.
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Joseba Achotegui, Cómo evaluar el estrés y el duelo migratorio. Escalas de evaluación de factores de riesgo en la migración. Aplicación al estrés y el duelo migratorio. Escala Ulises (Llançà: Ediciones El Mundo de la Mente, 2009). Joseba Achotegui, Emigrar en el siglo XXI: estrés y duelo migratorio en el mundo de hoy. El Síndrome del inmigrante con estrés crónico y múltiple-Síndrome de Ulises (Llançà: Ediciones el Mundo de la Mente, 2009). Joseba Achotegui, María M. Morales, Pablo Cervera, Celia Quirós, José V. Pérez, Natalia Gimeno, Agustín Llopis, Jorge Moltó, Alberto M. Torres, Carme Borrell, “Características de los inmigrantes con Síndrome de estrés crónico y múltiple del inmigrante o Síndrome de Ulises”, Norte de salud mental, 8/37 (2010), pp. 23-30. José Aguilar, Comunicación personal Sesión clínica Hospital de Sant Pere Claver (Barcelona: 2003), unpublished. Joseba Achotegui, Sònia Lahoz, Eva Marxen, Salvadora Espeso, “Study of 30 cases of inmigrantes with The Immigrant Síndrome with Chronic and Multiple Stress (The Ulysses Syndrome)”, XVIIIº World Congress of Psychiatry (Cairo, 2005), unpublished. Rosa Aparicio, “La inmigración en España a comienzos del siglo XXI. Las novedades de las actuales migraciones”, La inmigración en España: contextos y alternativas, Francisco Javier García, Carolina Muriel, eds. (Granada: Laboratorio de estudios interculturales de la Universidad de Granada, 2002), vol. 2, pp. 31-39. Joaquín Arango, “La inmigración en España a comienzos del siglo XXI. Un intento de caracterización”, La inmigración en España: contextos y alternativas, Francisco Javier García, Carolina Muriel, eds. (Granada: Laboratorio de estudios interculturales de la Universidad de Granada, 2002), vol. 2, pp. 57-69. Morton Beiser, “Adjustment Disorder in DSM-IV: Cultural Considerations”, Culture and Psychiatric Diagnosis. A DSM_IV perspective, Juan Mezzich, Arthur Kleimman, eds. (Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 1996), pp. 215-225. Rachid Bennegadi, “Medical Anthropology and migration”, XVIIIº World Congress of Psychiatry (Cairo, 2004), unpublished. Norbert Bilbeny, Per una ética intercultural (Barcelona: Editorial Mediterránea, 2002). Denis Bon, L`animisme (París: Edtions de Vechi, 1998). Francisco Calvo, Qué es ser inmigrante (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1970).
Mi Nombre es Nadie. El Síndrome de Ulises
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Identities. An interdisciplinary approach to the roots of the present Identités. Une approche interdisciplinaire aux racines du présent Identidades. Una aproximación interdisciplinar a las raíces del presente
Individual or collective, assumed or imposed, accepted or disputed, identities mark out the basic framework that root the human being in society. Language, literature, the creation of a shared memory, social formulas and the range of all cultural expressions have contributed to articulating human life as a mixture of identities. Given these concerns, this series publishes books from the different branches of the Humanities and Social Sciences, which have taken identity as a prism through which the problems of current society and its historical roots are studied. The preferential use of English, French and Spanish ensure greater dissemination of research collected here. The series includes monographs, collected papers, conference proceedings. Individuelles ou collectives, assumées ou imposées, acceptées ou combattues, les identités configurent le premier cadre d’enracinement de l’être humain en société. La langue, la littérature, la création d’une mémoire commune déterminée, les formules sociales et toutes les expressions culturelles ont contribué à articuler la vie humaine comme un treillis d’identités. Compte tenu de ces préoccupations, cette collection publie ouvrages depuis les diverses branches des sciences humaines et sociales qui prennent l’identité comme prisme par lequel étudier les problèmes de la société d’aujourd’hui et ses racines historiques. L’utilisation préférentielle de l’anglais, le français et l’espagnol assure une plus grande diffusion des recherches ici présentés. La collection accueille des monographies, ouvrages collectifs et actes de congrès. Individuales o colectivas, asumidas o impuestas, aceptadas o combatidas, las identidades configuran el primer marco de enraizamiento del ser humano en sociedad. La lengua, la literatura, la creación de una determinada memoria común, las fórmulas sociales y todas las expresiones culturales han contribuido a articular la vida humana como un entramado de identidades. Asumiendo estas preocupaciones, esta colección publica obras provenientes de las distintas ramas de las Humanidades y las Ciencias Sociales que adopten la identidad a modo de prisma con que estudiar los problemas de la sociedad actual y sus raíces históricas. El uso preferente del inglés, el francés y el castellano garantizan una mayor difusión de las investigaciones aquí recogidas. La colección acoge monografías, obras colectivas y actas de congreso.
Editorial address:
Institut for Research into Identity and Society (IRIS) University of Lleida Plaça Víctor Siurana 1 25003 Lleida Catalonia / Spain
Vol. 1 Flocel Sabaté (ed.) Identities on the move ISBN 978-3-0343-1296-7, 2014 Vol. 2 Flocel Sabaté (ed.) Hybrid Identities ISBN 978-3-0343-1471-8, 2014 Vol. 3 Flocel Sabaté (ed.) Perverse Identities ISBN 978-3-0343-1556-2, 2015 Vol. 4 Flocel Sabaté (ed.) Conditioned Identities ISBN 978-3-0343-1618-7, 2015