Pearson Geography New South Wales Stage 5 Student Book with Reader+ 1488613915, 9781488613913

Citation preview

PEARSON

E

NEW SOUTH WALES

PHY COORDINATING AUTHOR

Grant Kleeman AUTHORS

Helen Rhodes David Hamper Andrew Peters

+ @ Pearson

STAGE5 · STUDENTBOOK

Pearson Aust ralia {a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd} 707 Collins Street, Melbou rne , Victoria 3008 PO Box 233(:l), Melboume, Victoria 8012 www.pea rson .com.au Cop yright C Pearson Australia 2016 {a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd} First pub lished 2016 b y Pea rson Australia 2019 2018 2017 2016 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Repro duction and communicat ion for edu cationa l pur po ses The Australian Copyrigh t Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chai:,ter or 10% o f the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reprodu ced and/or commu nicated b y any educa tiona l institution for its edu cationa l pu rposes provided that that educa tion al institution (or the bod y that adm inisters it) has given a remune ration notice to Copy right Agency Limited {CAL)unde r the Act. f-or de tails of the CAL licence tor edu cationa l institutions contact Copyrigh t Agency Limited (www.cop yright.c om .au). Reproducti on and commun icat ion for othe r purposes Except as permitted under the Act {for example any fair dealing for the purposes o f stud y, research , criticism or review), no pa rt of this book ma y be reproduced , stored in a relrieval system , comm unicated or transmitt ed in any form o r by any means without p rior written perm ission . All enqui ries should be ma d e to the pub lisher at the add ress abo ve. This book is not to be treated as a blacldine master; that is, any pho tocopying be yond fair dea ling req uires prior written permission . Publisher: Marita Tripp Project Manager : Michelle Thomas Production Manage r: Anji Bignell Ed itors : Writers Reign Designer : Anne Dona ld Typesetting : Aptara Rights & Permissions Editor: Lisa Woodland Desktop Opera to r: Rob Curulli IUustrato r/s : Guy Holt, Bruce Rankin and Diacritech Printed in China (SWTC/01) Nationa l Library o f Australia Cata logu ing -in-Publication entry Klee-man, Gran t. Pea rson Geograp hy NSW 9+ 10 stage 5 studen t b ook/Gran t Kleeman. Helen Rhodes, David Hampe r. ISBN: 9781488613913 (pbk.) Geograph y-Austra li~ Textbooks . Geograph y- Stud y and teaching (Seconda ry) 910 .712 Pea rson Australia Group Pty Ltd ABN 40 004 245 943

Every e ffo rt has been made to trace and acknowledge cop yright . However, if any infringemen t has o ccu rred, the p ublishers tende r their apo logies and invite the copyr ight hclde rs to contact th em . Disclaime rs The se lection o f internet addresses (URls) provided for Pearson Geograp ,-,,.Ne w South Wales 9+ 10was valid at the time o f pub lication and \\las chosen as be ing app ropriate for us.eas a se condary educa tion research too l. However, due to th e dynamic nature o f the internet. some addresses may have changed, may have ceased to exist since pub lication, o r may inadve rten tly link to sites with con ten t that could be considered offensive or inappropria te. While the auth ors and pub lisher reQret any inconven ience this may cause readers, no respon sib ility for any such changes o r unforeseeab le errors can be accepted by either the authors or the pub lisher. Some of the images used in Pearson Geograph y New South Wales 9+ 10 might h ave associations with deceased Indigeno us Australians. Please be aware th at these images might cause sadness or distress in Abo rigina l or Torres Strait Islande r communit ies .

PEARSON

GEOGRAPHY NEW SOUTH WALES

Writtenexclusively for NSW educatorsand learnersby NSW educators Pearson Geography NSWis a brand newseries, written by an expertauthor team from New SouthWalesto ensureyou teachwith quality, engaging and relevant content. The components of the series include:

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• Student Book (each Student Book comeswith PearsoneBook • PearsoneBook • Activity Book • Teacher Companion

Alignedto the new BOSTES NSW Geographysyllabus Pearson Geography NSWhas beendeveloped specifically for the Board of Studies Teaching and Educational Stardards (BOSTES) . Chapter titles and units reflect the new NSWGeographysyllabus, and specific NSWcase studies, content and examplesensurea personalised experience for students.

A digital solutionfor any device, anywhere, any time Pearson eBook provides a simple digital solution that works on any device in online and offline environments. While retaining the look of the printed book, Pearson eBookteacher and student resources include teaching programs, interactive case studies, quizzes,games,testsand answers.

iii

CONTENTS PARTA GEOGRAPHY'S TOOLS AND SKILLS CHAPTER I Geogra phi c al inquiry and skills 1.1 Analysing topographic maps 1.2 Working with topographic maps 1.3 Flow diagrams 1.4 Photograph interpretat ion: Agricult ure 1.5 Populati on pyramids

5.8 5.9

2 4 8 10 14 16

PARTB

.SUSTAINABLEBIOM.ES CHAPTER2 Biomes 2.1 8iomes: Ecosystems and biomes 2.2 Energy flows with in biomes 2.3 The global distribution of biomes 2.4 The world's major biomes 2.5 Australia 's major ecosystems and biomes 2.6 Product ivity of biomes 2.7

8iod iversity's impact on energy and matter

2.8 Human alterations to biomes 2.9 Biomes and food security 2.10 Global pattern of agricu lture CHAPTER3 Food and fibre pr oduct ion 3.1 Global food and fib re product ion 3.2 Changing food and fibre production 3.3 The agricultu ral trade 3.4 Factors affect ing crop yie lds 3.5 Environmental factors aff ectin g crop yie lds 3.6 Climate and crop yields Significance of soils Australia 's soils Soil erosion in Australia 3.10 Innovat ions in agricu lture 3.11 CASESTUDY:The Green and Gene revolutions 3.7

3.8 3.9

18 20 22 26 28 30 34 38 40 44

48

52 54 58 60

64 66 68 72 74 76 80 82

CHAPTER 4 Ch all enge s to food producti on Threats to global food production 4.1 4.2 Land and wat er degradat ion 4.3 Shortages of fresh water 4.4 Compet i n2 land uses 4.5 Populat ion growth 4.6 Climate change 4.7 Agricultu ral expansion and int ensificat ion

92 96 98 100 102 104

CHAPTER 5 Food secu ri ty 5.1 Populati on growth and food product ion 5.2 Potent ial for expanding food production 5.3 Barriers to increasing world food production 5.4 Sustainable agriculture 5.5 The environmental impacts of agriculture 5.6 Restoring the funct ioning of ecosystems 5.7 Australia and t he global food chain

106 108 112 114 116 120 124 126

Iv

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW •STAGE S

86

88

Food product ion in Austra lia food supplies

CASE STUDY:Alternative

130 134

PARTC CHANGING PLACES CHAPTER 6 Ur banisation 6.1 Urbanisation: Growth and impacts 6.2 People and large cities 6.3 Australia's population distri but ion lJrh~ni~.:iit ion in A.c;fa 6.4 Urbanisation in China 6.5 6.6 Environment and large cities 6.7 USA's population distrib ution 6.8 USA: Urban settl ement pattern 6.9 CASESTUDY:Las Vegas CHAPTER 7 Populati on movements 7.1 Australia: Interna l migrations 7.2 CASE STUDY:The mobility of Indigenous Australians 7.3 China's internal migrations 7.4 Impact on Chinese cities 7.5 China's rural towns and villages 7.6 Internati onal migrati on 7.7 Australian migration 7.8 Australia's cu lt ural diversity 7.9 Internat ional migration and urban lifestyles CHAPTER 8 Australia's ur b an fu ture 8.1 Managing growth of c it ies 8.2 Impacts of large c it ies 8.3 CASESTUDY:Canberra 8.4 Sustainable c it ies 8.5 CASE STUDY:Sydney: Planning for a sustainable future

138 140 144 146 1'iO 154 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 176 178 180 184 186 188 19 0 192 196 198 202 206

PARTD ENVIRONMENTALCHANGE AND MANAGEMENT CHAPTER 9 Env ir onme nts 9.1 The environment: Life' s support system 9.2 Towards a sustainable fut ure 9.3 Pollution 9.4 Land degradat ion 9.5 Exploited oceans 9.6 Habitat loss 9.7 Our warming planet 9.8 Environmental management 9.9 Environment al worldviews 9.10 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Environment al management

210 212 214 21 6 218 222 224 228 234 238 242

CHAPTER 10 Forests 10.1 Forests: The biophysical environment 10.2 Forests:Causes of environmental change 10.3 Forests: Managing environments 10.4 CASE STUDY: Canada's forests under threat 10.5 CASE STUDY: Australia's east coast forests 10.6 Forests: Evaluating management responses

248 250 256 260 264 266 270

CHAPTER 15 Mar in e environments 15.1 Marine environments 15.2 The importance of marine environments 15.3 Human impacts on marine environments 15.4 Managing marine environments 15.5 CASESTUDY: Bass Strait 15.6 CASESTUDY: Gulf of Mexico

CHAPTER 11 Inland wa ter 1 1.1 The inland water environment 1 1.2 Causes of environmental change 11.3 Water flow and environmental health 11.4 Managing inland waters 11.5 Applying human-environment systems thinking 11.6 CAS[ STUDY: The Great Artesian Basin 11.7 CAS[ STUDY: The Pangani River Basin 11.8 '" TH£ FIEU>:Rivers and water quality

274 276 280 284 286

CHAPTER 16 Hum an wellbe ing : In di a 16.1 India: An emerging economic giant 16.2 Patterns of human wellbeing 16.3 Contrasts in human wellbeing 16.4 Enhancing human wellbeing 16.5 Access to water in India 16.6 Access to sanitation, Mumbai 16.7 Child exploitation in India 16.8 India's squatter settlements and slums

290 294 298 302

CHAPTER 17 Extension tasks

PARTE HUMAN WELLBEING CHAPTER 12 Spatial variat ions in human wellbe ing 12.1 Development and human well being 12.2 Measuring and mapping human wellbeing 12.3 Progress in human wellbeing 12.4 Causes of spatial inequality 12.5 Human well being: The issues 12.6 Access to water 12.7 Access to sanitation 12.8 Child exploitation 12.9 Access to shelter 12.10 NGOs:Making a d ifference CHAPTER 13 Hum an wellb ein g: Austr ali a 13.1 Poverty in Australia 13.2 Spatial patt erns of Indigenous advantage and disadvantage 13.3 Origins of disadvantage 13.4 Measuring wellbeing 13.5 Disadvantage in remote communit ies 13.6 Closing the gap 13.7 Self-help init iatives 13.8 Role of NGOs INDEX

308 310 312 3 16 318 324 328 332 334 338 342 344 346 350 352 356 358

360 362 364 452

ONLINE CHAPTERS CHAPTER 14 Coastal envir onments 14.1 The importance of coastal environments 14.2 Causesof environmental change 14.3 Managing coastal environments 14.4 CAS[ STUDY: The Great Sandy Region 14.5 c•s£ STUDY: Bay of Fundy, Canada V

How to use this book Pearson Geography NSW is fu lly aligned to the BOSTES G~raphy syllabus. Unit s combine content and geographical tools. The following information outlines the feat ures of t his book.

: Chapter opener

Jntantlwater

: The chapter opener image is designed to engage ': students and provide a visual stimulus to the chapter • theme!>.Al5o included are an introduction to the

';

chapter and inquiry questions that link the chapter : to the NSWBOSTESGeography syllabus. A glossary : provides a ready reference for students to the key : concepts and terms in the chapter.

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Units Each chapter of the Student Book is divided into units. Units havebeen written to develop students' knowledge and understanding of the concepts,skills and processescentral to the study of Geography at this level. Units are written to ensure 'Knowledge and Understanding' and 'Inquiry and Skills' are , interrelated, as specified by the NSWBOSTES : Geography syllabus.

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: Geographical tools and skills ';

Units designedto improve students' geographical : skills. Theseskills relate to the BOSTES:Geography : syllabus-Geogra phical tools.

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In the field '. ' In the field' units provide a step-by-step guide to undertakingand evaluating fieldwork. 'In the field' units have been written as a guide and are not tied to a specific location.

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PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGES

Case studies

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Casestudy units relateto a specmc eventor location. The units are written to extendstudents' knowledge and understanding. Casestudiesinclude examples from Australia and the world.

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: Skills builder ,' ,' '

Skillsbuilders are embedded in selected units and concentrateon key geographical skills.

: Spotlight ,' ,' '

Spotlight boxesfocus attention on a place, an issue or a concept relating to the unit.

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ONLINE RESOURCES

: Extra content ( online) ': : : : ,' :' :

Chapters 14 and 15 refer to the NSWBOSTES syllabus unit 'Environmental change and management', providing two extra environments to investigate-Ali Kabas , p . 274; Matytsin Vale ry/lTAR-TASS, p . 46 ; Sally A Morgan/Ecoscene, p. 113b ; Vima Puspa Setyorini/Demoti x., p . 259 ; Oi lai Shen/In Pictures, p . 175; David Sha le/Nature Picture ub rary, p . 398 ; Shepa rd SherbelVCORB IS SABA, p . 44 1; Christina Simons, p . 220; Adam Woo lfitt., p . 286 . CSIRO:Water. Science and Solutions for Australia , by Rod O live r and tan Webs t er, ed it ed by Ian Prosser, http :J/www.pub lish.cs iro .au/ pid/6557 .htln , p. 284 ; Water: Science and Solurkins for Australia, by Simon Apte and Graeme Batle y, edited by Ian Prosse r, http:/ /www . pob lish .csiro.au/p id/6S57 .htm , p. 280 . CS IRO Pub lishing : Willem van Aken , p. 75 . Creators Syndicate lntema tiona l: Michae l Ramirez , 450 . Depa rtment of Susta inabi lity, Environment , Water , J>opo lat ion and Communities : C Commonwea lth o f Australia, 20 14, p . 405. Departmen t of the Environment , Water, Heritage and the Arts: e Commonwealth o f Austra lia 20 13, pp . 23 7; 246 ; Adapted from Smyth D .• (ndi9enous land and sea management - a case srudy. Report prepare d for the Austra lian Go vernment Departm e nt of Susta inabi lity, Environmen t, Wate r, Popu lation and Communities on behalf o f the State of the Environment 2011 Comm itt ee . Canbe rra: DSEWPaC, 2011 , p. 245 . Drea mstime : Agcuesta , p. 128 Red Grapefruit ; Albani li, p . 45r; Ste ve Allen , p . 2961; Alvaroennes , p . 128, mangoes; Andyamamary, p. 30r; Fabrizio Argonauta, p . 38 Dese rt; Art33a n, p . 28 bc; Kushn irov Avraham, p. 38 Flaming os; Babemo lly, p . 47; Kimy ~g, p . 128 Chickpeas ; Blago v58, p . 33 tr; Dan Breckwo ldt, p . 31b; Cere nzio, p. 128 Pumpkins; Andrew Chambers , p. 117b l; Dary423, p. 1St,; Oovcollenphoto, p. 28b r: Ryon Foo, , p. 2? Mongro vc, ; Fclindo, p . 15br; Garth Grim mer, p. 1Sbl; Gidistar, p . 32c ; Halbrind ley, p . 39 ; Tim HeusingerVon Waldegge . p. 38, Shells; Hugoht, p . 29Tro pica l rainfores t; lmagecom , p . 18761; Ja cnwill, p . 1S Ii; Johncamemofla , p . 128 , cotton ; tulia loana Huiduc , p . 28t; lhervas , p. 28b l; Mananos ,

p. 29 ; Tenyo Marchev, p. 38 , World G lobe; Phillip Minnis, p . 33b; Ruud Morijn, p. 64; Andre Nante l, pp. 26, 38 , rainforest ; Tyfer O lson , p. 123; Phartisan, p . 27b; Pho tog rapherfondon, p . 32t; Dean Penna la, p . 28c; Patrick. Poe ndl, p. 27t ; f>py20 10ha , p . 128, borlo tti beans; Preisle r, p . 38 , ocea n; Jason P.Ross , p. 29 , temperate grass land; Amador Garcia Sarcluy, p . 117tc; Tropical savanna ; Sburel , p . 31 c; Sharga ljut., p . 31 t; Sielan. p. 1 17tl; Siwaphoom Srichomphoom , p. 451; Skouat roulio, p. 12 1, t erraci ng; Stock cube , p. 117br, O liver Sved , p. 117tr; Hiroshi Tanaka, p. 29 , con ifero us fore-st ; Raluca Tudor,

p . 117bc; AleksandrVo loclin, p . 123 (inset); Wiratgasem, p . 15tl; Jinfeng Zhang , p. 128, me lons ; Minyun Zhou, p . 301; Zkruger, p . 128, red kidney beans. Fairfax Pho,o Sales: Jay Cronan , p . 269 ; Louie Douvi-s,p . 134; Dallas Kifponen , p. 190; Justin McManus, p . 346 ; Robert Pearce, p. 384 t; Wa-yneTaylor, p . 132. Food and Agriculture Organ ization (FAO) o f the United Nations: Global Forestry Resources Assessmen t 2010 , FAO Forestry Paper 163. Reprod uced with perm ission , p . 2S6; Decembe r 2003 , Mette Loyche Wilkie, Peter Holmgren and Froylan Castaneda , Sustainable Forest Management and the Ecosystem Approach , http://www.fao . org/forestry/6417 -0905522127db 12a324h f?"CM».,1.3;(clll\111 Ge~Clt!-.:t!C01».f

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STEP 1 Identi fy the calcuJation.

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pieces ofinfonuation needed to complete the

ll te difference in height betv.•een the two points. This is called the vertical imerool, or rise. Find this by sub tracting

the lowes t point from the highest poinr. 2

The horiz.omal distance between the t\\fo poin ts. TI1isis

sometimes rererred to as the nm. Find this by measuring the distance ben'/een the two point~ on the map and then

using the scale ro work out the acrual discance.

Local relief l ocal rellef is the variation in elevation or height over a relatively sm all, defined area. It is detennined by working out the difference in height between the highest and lowest points in the area.

EXAMPLE Calcu late the loca l relief between points X and Yin Figure 1.2.2.

STEP 2

X

To calculace d1e gradienc of a slope use the following fonuu la. Gradient= vertical interval (rise) horizontal distance (run) Note: Because the gradien t of a s lope is expressed as a ratio, the w1it of measurement for the rise (numerator) and the run (denominator) must be the same, for examp le mecres.

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Titis means that for eve.ry4.6 m traveUedin a horiz.ontal direction, you go up I m.

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100 m

EXAMPLE Calculate the gradiem or the slope between d1e s ummit of Big Smol-y(AR0679)on Figu,e 1.2.1, d>eTriaJ Bay topographic map extract, and the ca1nping ground at GR076085 . Gradiem = venical interval (rise) horizontal distance (run) 291 m

= --

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1350 m

.,.....No te that this is al,eady expressed as a ,atio. To simpli fy it you need a 'l' on the top. To simplify the-,atio, di11 ide the denominator by the numerator.

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50m

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Calcu lating local relief

150 m (highest poim : X) - 50 m (lowest point)= l00 m

Note: Always ensure you include d1e appropriate w1it of measurement with your answer .

= I in 4.6 (or I in 5 row1ded) or l:4 .6

ACTIVITIES 1 Study Figure 1.2.1 and do the following tasks. a What type of wetland ecosystem lines Saltwater Lagoon?

b Name two vegetation types found in AR0681.

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c Int o what waterway does Saltwater Lagoon drain? d Identify the feature of the biophysical environment found at each of the following grid references. • GR069797 • GR045817 • GR074818 • GR040835 • GR043835 • GR077813 • Identify the feature of the constructed environment lound at each of the following grid references. • GR042831 • GR072828 • GR047818 • GR062824 f What is the direction of South West Rocks (AR0483) from lhe summit of Sig Smoky (AR0679)? g In what d irection is Saltwater Creek f lowing in AR0582 7 h What is the bearing of the summit of Big Smoky from South West Rocks (AR0483)?

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What is the straight-line distance between the bridge al GR04283 l and the br idge at GR053826? What is the elevation of li ttle Smoky (AR0781)? What is the difference in elevation between Big Smoky (AR0679) and li tt le Smoky (AR0781)? Using informatio n from the map, account for the existence of wetlands in the area. Construct the cross-section from GR060820 to the summit of little Smoky AR0781. Calculate the vertical exaggeration of the crosssections you have drawn. Construct a precis map showing land cover found on the Trial Bay topographic map extract.

CHAPTER 1 • GEOGRAPHICALINQ UIRYANO SKILLS

9

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Flow diagrams Using graphics

Constr uctin g a flowline map

By its narure, Geography is a visual subject. Keen observers

To construct a flo\,tfine map, followthese steps.

note the spectacular interactions of the narural and human elemems of landscape. Graphics tools such as Oowlfr\emaps and Oow diagrams help us co understand the workingsof both the natural and the human world. Such graphics capture and high.lightthe imporcant pane ms and links that e.'OsL They are a visual representation of what ls happening.

Select your statistics for now or movement and arrange rllem from d1esmallest ro the largeSL 2 Find a suitable base map. 3 Decide on the various dlicknesses of dle lines to match d1e different categories of the sizes of flows thacwi ll be shown.

Flowline maps

4 Draw in the lines orvarying thickness and add an arrowhead to each to show the direction ofthe flow. 5 Add a key and give lhe map a title .

Flowllne maps show movement between places, tracking the passage of goods, information and peop le. Llnes or arr0\..1s link dle place of origin with the destination. and the quantity thacis

DII

Flowline map li nes or arrows

moved is in di cared by their ,'lid th or thickness, as is illustra ted in Figur e 1.3. l.

Flowlinemaps are drawn using statistics of acrual movements that have occurred, for the.purpose of demonstrating the main patterns. Trade statisti~ , showing dle export or Auscralia's wheat in 2013- 14, are represented in Figure 1.3.2. lt is clear dlat the majority of it goes co feed people in Eastand South• East Asia.

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A flowline map showing the main destinations

of Australia's wheat exports

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Flow diagrams

Simple

Flow diagrams are used widely in Geograph)•to Ulustrate how che world funcdons and in particular the interactions that occur v.ithin and becween the ,physicaJ and human environments. While flowlinemaps show a record oractual movement tha t has occurred, 0ow d.Jagrams tend to be more generalised. They represent common nows that can occur in many places and they emphasise the processes and links involved.Annotations are often added to the picture 10 provide

Some ftowdiagrarns are quJte simple, showing the clear stages of a process., such as the production

ormilk

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depic ted

in Figure 1.3.3.Others anempc to simplify the comple:ticyof the reaJ world by highlightinga simple progression, such as in Figure 1.3.4.

build a clearer underscanding.

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A flow diagram showing the production of mi lk Hlrti liset production

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Soybean meal production

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finlng

Consume!'

showing how the energy gained from

food decreaseswhen meat is eaten

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Birth Low birth

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Ma les%

Female-.s% Stage 1

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16

PEARSON GEOGRAPH Y NSW • STAGE S

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Population pyramid of Australia, 1995 and 2015 (%)

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Projected age- sex data for Australian and India,

2050 (%) Australia

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Population pyramid of India, 1995 and 2015 (% )

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6.6

6.6

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6.6

5.7

5.3

6.8

6.7

20-24

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5.8

6.9

6.7

25-29

6.5

6.2

7.0

6.7

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6.6

6.3

7.0

6.6

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6.7

6.3

7.0

6.6

40-44

6.6

6.2

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6 .6

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6.5

6.1

6.9

6.5

50-54

6.4

6.1

6.7

6.4

55-59

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6.1

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5.9

60-64

5.9

5.8

5.3

5.4

66--69

5.4

5.4

4.5

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Population

29012740

1656553632 Souree:US Census8ur'eau

ACTIVITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 State what populatio n pyramids show.

Geographical skills 2 Study Figures 1.5.2 and 1.5.3 and complete the follow ing tasks. a Estimate the proportion of the popul ation under me age of lb in Austraha in l YYti ana 20 l S. b Estimate the proportion of the popu lat ion under the age of 15 in India in 1995 and 2015 .

c Estimate the num ber of Australians und er the age of 15 i n 2015 .

d Estimate the num ber of Indians und er the age of 15 in 20 15. • Estimate the proportion of the Australian popu lation over the age of 64 in 2015. f Estimate the proportion of the Indi an population over the age of 64 in 2015.

g Using data from the graphs, contr ast the popul atio n struct ure of Austral ia and India in 2015. h Using Figure 1.5 .1, classify the structure of the Austral ian and India n populations in 1995 accordi ng to stage of demographic transit ion. 3 Study Table 1.5.4 . Construct the popu lation pyram ids of Aust ralia and Ind ia using the 2050 populat ion project ions. Compare the 'under 15 years of age' and 'over 64 years of age' populations with the structure of the two countr ies' popul ations in 2015 .

Investigating 4 Using the US Census Bureau's int ernat iona l popu lation database, generate a population pyram id for a selected developing co untry in Africa (1995 , 20 15 and 2050) . Compare your selected popu lation pyramid with those of Austra lia and Indi a.

CHAPTER1 • GEOGRAPHICAL INQU IRYANO SKILLS

17

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I-

Biomes The earth's major ecosystems are often referred to as biomes. Biomes are defined by factors such as plant types (for example trees, shrubs and grasses), leaf type (broadleaf or needle-like), plan t spacing (forest, woodland or savanna) and climate (for exam ple deserts). The main world biomes are deserts , forests (equat orial and tropical rainforests; deciduous and evergreen forests; and coniferous forests), grasslands and tundra. In th is chapter we examine the distr ibut ion and characte ristics of biomes as regions in terms of climate, soil, vegetation and productiv ity. We also examine human alterations to biomes, especially those related to agricu lture.

~---------------------------------, INQUIRY QUESTIONS • What fact ors determ i ne the spat ial distr i bu tion and p hysica l charac teris t ics of t he earth ' s b iomes ? • What factors determ i ne the produc t ivity of b iomes? • How do energy and matter f low w ith in biomes? • How have h umans altered b io mes and what are the envi ronmental effec ts of t hese altera t io ns? • What i s t he relationship betwee n biomes and foo d security?

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GLOSSARY annual

a plant thal completes i ls life cycle in one year; this means it goes from seed to seed and then dies off, during the course

of oneyear

aquatic ecosyste m

a waler-based community of plants and animals

biome

a vegetation community occupying a large area of the earth's surface

commercial agricult ure

the use of energy, water and chemicals to produce food and other ag1icultural products for sale

consumer

an organismthat gains its energy requirements by eating plant or animal

matter decomposer

an organismthat breaksdownthe remains of other l iving things

ecosystem

a communityof interacting plants and

animals and their physical surroundings estuary

an area near a river's mouth where the tide ebbs and flows

nomadic

a way of life that involves moving acrossa territory seasonally in searchof food and

photosynthesis a process by whic.hgreen plants make carbohydrates such as sugar, using water, carbon dioxide and sunlight primary

productivity

the rate of energyaccumulation. usually through photosynthesis

producer

an organism (plant) that produces its own food via the process of photosynthesis

resilience

the capaci ty of an ecosystem to respond to a disturbance by resistin g damage and recovering quickly

shifting cultivation

a farmingsystemthat involvesmoving from site to site as soil fertil ity declines due to leaching

terrestrial ecosystem

a land-based community of plants and animals

tradi tion.al

subsistence and int ensive forms of

agric utture

agriculture(such as intensive rice cult ivation) practised in many developing countr ies

water

~

Aerialview of elephantsin the OkavangoDelta, Botswana CHAPTER2 • BIOMES 19

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-

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Biomes: Ecosystems and biomes Elements of life Lifecan be created and sustained only in the presence of moisture, sunlighcand nutrients. 11lesee lements occur rogecheronly on or near the surface of the land and in the sea. No organism c.anlive in isolation, induding humans. Yet the ecosystems that we depend on for survival are being

significantly altered by our actions.

The biosphere The biosphere encompasses all living tWngs.from dle creatures on the ocean Ooorand the anlmaJs burrowing into rhc soiJ to the planesanchored to the eanh 1s surface and the insec ts floadng high in the atmosphere. It inc ludes all the living

organisms and rheir excremenc(waste) and dead remains. It also inc ludes the non. Living environmen t, ·which is made

up of rocks, wonerand air. The levels and componems of the biosphere are shown in Figure 2.1.l and outlined in Table 2.1.2.

Ecosystems An individual of a species is intimately related to others of the same species and the environment in which it lives. lndividuals

musecome rogether and usualJ)r couch in order to mate and nurture their young. Feeding rerritories are established, 1,\lldldifferenr species sharing d1eavaiJableresources (water and nutrients). These species inreract in many curious and lnrerdependem ,...-ays . There is also comped don and predation, as some animals hunt and feed on others for survival, but this is au pan of the natural balance. Each individual is a member of a population, whJchin tum ronns a part of a larger communit)'. A commwtity, together with its non-livingenvironment, forms an ecosystem. A ddaJ pool on a rock platfonn or a huge e.' improve the supplyof oxygen ro plan t roots by aerating soils..When soil is c.uJdvated it ntrns ove~ and large dirt clods break down into a fine soil diat is an ideal environment for seed germination.

New technologies The adoption of ne,,,,ram , techn ologies has raised crop yields in a number of ways: Mechanisation has improved che speed and efficiency of cuJdvating large areas of land and harvesting the crop quickly .

ml

The heads of wheat are den sely packed w ith grains . Increasing the siz e or number of the grains increases yields.

Determining crop yields AU crops req uir e b asic resources from the bio p hysica l

enviromn ent in order co grow. These are: solar radiation - the sun 's energy provides lighc co p lants and determines cemperature regimes that are favourable fort heir growth

carbo n dioxide from th e atm osphere soiJ wate~ which is concained in the pore spaces becween soiJ particles

64

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

Plant breeding has provided new high-yielding varieties or plants that growvigorously, are more resistant to diseases or are able co do well in a wider range of conditions. AgrochemJcals have been developed to protect planesand improve growth rates. These include herbicides. pesticides, insecticides, fungicid es, fertilL1oe rs and growth hormones. lrrigadon has become highJy sophisticared. Piezometers use soil probes to measure soil moisture and , when needed, irrigation water is applied to meet plant needs..

Maintaining high yields The success or an agriculrural enrerprisc in raising crop yields depends on how the crop is man aged and how well the environment is protected. Some imerventions in agriculrure have come at a cosL If the resource base of the agricultural system is damaged through land degradation, then the practices are unsustainable and crop yields eventua lly fall.

Im

I

Improved irrigation and more intelligent use of fertilisers could increase agricultural production by as much as 70 per cent.

High crop yields

ACTIVITIES

In the past, technology \\t3S very imponant in generating the growth in food oucput (see Figure 3.4.2). Despite this success, the world remains vulnerable to food shortages . As most suitab le land is already under cu ldvation, the reaJ cha Uenge in the coming decades is to expand food production without significancty increa sing the amount of land used . There are concerns d\at crop yields are rising more slowty than they did some decades ago. TI1ere is an urgent need for new crop varieties that offer higher yields but use less water, ferd.liser and other inputs . It is imponant thar crops are grown in an ecologically sust ainable manner to protect the resource base that supports them. ~ Grain crop yields, 1966-2009.

The rate of increase in grain crop yields has fallen from 2.9 per cent of average yields in 1966 to 1.3 per cent in 2009 , which is not fast enough to meet expected food demand without a large expansion of crop product ion area. 1966

-

2009

Knowledge and understanding 1 Desctibe how crop yield is measured. 2 Outline the basic resources that crops need to wow. 3 Explain how new technologieshave raised crop yields.

Applying and analysing 4 Createa mind map explaining how new

technologies increasedcrop yields. 5 Demonstratewhy the world is wlnerab le to

food shortages.

Geographical skills 6 Study Figure 3.4.3 and answerthe following questions. a Which crop has had the weatest increase in yield over the period from 1966 to 2009? b Whatwas the yield for corn, rice and wheat in 1980?

Investigating 7 Select a food crop to investigate and prepare an annotatedvisual display of its specific resource requirements.

CHAPTER3 • FOOD AND ABRE PRODUCTION

65

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Environmental factors affecting crop yields Constraints within the biophysical environment Most or the crops we rely on have quice specific environmental

requirement~

for growth and performance.

Increasingly though, other influences , which orcourse include humans , are affecting the actual yieJds rea lised. This is especialJy important when global food securi ty may be pu cat risk. Crops rely on the aJr above and the soil below ro grow and prosper.

Aerial environment Crops excend their stalks and leaves up into the.atmosphere . cakingin carbon dioxide and oxygen, and trapping solar energy. Temperarure and precipitation are bOlh very important and decermine the types or crops that can be grown within a region. Most crops have a certain temperature and precipitadon regime within which they

grow well.

Soil environment The roots of plams anchor them into the ground and also provide the means by which they absorb water, minera l nutrients and ox-ygen.The type and condition of soils can place signific.antrestrictions on the producdvicy of crops. The nu trienc level, water-holding capa bility and structure of soiJs are narural variables thaceither suppon or hinder growth. Fertile soils provide crops with au they need , bu t infertile soils impose Urnitations on growth and development.

Topography The shape of the land surface can also restr ict landuse, and is often related co soil rype. Slope generally decermines if the land can be cultivated safely. The most arable land, suitab le for unrestricted agriculrural use, is usuaJl}r found on Oat valley bon oms or p lains where soils are deep and fertiJe. Typically, such areas are used to produce high -yielding crops suc h as d1.oseshov.'ll in Figure 3.5.1. Steep slopes and ridge cops are unsuitable for cultivation as they have thin, scony soils and are an erosion hazard if the land is disrurbed . Terracing is one method people have developed to rum steep sloping land imo crop-supporting land.

66

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

ml

The fert ile Canterbury Plains of New Zealand

Inputs from the human environment Hiscorically, the major increases in crop yields have taken place as humans have intervened to overcome the physical limitadons on crop production. Technologyhas been particularly important in generating the growth in the output of food and it bas broughtabout an intensificationof agriculture. Conventionalcrop-breeding techniques haveled to genedc enginee-ring.Nei.\l"stra ins of high-J1eldingcrops have been developed. Large inpulSof agrochenlicalsand irrigationhave been used to maintain lhese yields.

Economic and cultural constraints While the feasibilityor growinga crop in a particular area is determined by the suitabilityof the biophysicaJenvironmem. d1.eactual choice of a crop type is based on economic and cultural factors. The choice ben,reen crops being grown for commercial purposes depends on the percei\ted profit rn be made. l11isis dependenc on price stabilicy, which will detenni ne the return on production; d1ecost of inputs such as agrochemicals, machinery, storage and transport; and distance to d1e market.

I-

o;fJ Cultivation of marginal land in Sub-SaharanAfrica. Crop yields are very low in a difficult biophysicalenvironmentand the land can becomeunproductive if it is overexploited.

In some developing nations, cuJrure exertsa stronginfluence over agriculture. Rulesof inheritanceand gender inequality are rhe core determinamsof access co the land for ramling,and women are generallydisadvancaged.

ACTIV ITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 Outl ine the constraints that the biop hysical environment places on crop productio n.

Pressures from humans

2 Assess the importance of technology in raising

TI1epush forhigheryields in resource.intensiveagriculru.re has resuJtedin environmcmaldegradation in some areas.Erosion., the contaminationof soil and water byagrochemicals, and d1e

3 Identify the pressures people put on the land tha t then affect crop productivi ty.

crop yields.

depletionofsurfaceand grow1dwatersuppUeshave resultedfrom unsustainab le land practice.,; and mustbe addressed.PopuJation pressureand overexploitationof the land in poor nations

also limit improvementsin agriculruralproduction.Ind1eir desperation10 feed theirfamilies,people overusemarginal

Applying and analysing 4 Study Figure 3.5 .2. Brainstorm and list the circum stances under which people might be forced .t o exploit the land even when t hey know tha t what they do is unsustai nable.

Geographical skills

land - and the damage can be irreversible (see Figure 3.5.2).

5 Study Figure 3 .5. 1 and draw an annotated photo sketch. High light the relationship between topography and land use in the region .

r---------------------------------,

l DID YOU KNOW ?

!

I the living and non- living features of the natu ral world

: I

I

I

l The environme nt is the total surro undings. It incl udes

l

as well as al l those features that are created or altered

by humans.

~---------------------------------J

I

CHAPTER3 • FOOD AND ABREPRODUCTION

67

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Climate and crop yields Climate

Climate and crop choice

Oima te is the most imporrant factor in determining che viabilityof cropping and grazing. !\'lost crops are suircd co certain regimes or cemperature and rainfall in which their seed~ germinate and subsequenr grov.1.hproduces the desired grains and fibres.The actual yield of a crop at harvest reflects the seasonal conditions dlat have been experienced whiJethe crop has been growing.

The climate experienced in any area detennines the types of crops rhat can be grown there. Crops vary in their yields

Ol!I) World c l imates

and these differences closely reflec t d1c growing conditions

found 1,\li d1in the various clima te bel ts across the world (see

Figures3 .6.1 and 3.6.2). The keyclimace variables are the remperarure and precipitation range.s to which some crop cypeshave quite specifictolerances.

-. l'atific

,, +

--

-~

." ••

;. ,

••••

:if.

-

0 c ea

11

,,

--

l1rdio1~ Oceo11

.liloOnlclCit. .... PrdlC!ion l.aaldls ~,_.sca ~ .ct:Nlh:IC~S

0 0

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68

Hot and rainyall ye,r Hot andrainymostof the year Hot all year.rainytrXliStmonthsbu1witha

dellnlte dry""""" 1-k>t andmosttydryal year:un,ellablemlnfal 1-k> t anddry al ye.w:unreliable rainfall

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

-

--

--

--.,.--.... -=--e;·-:;:,•-· ..'"·-. ·-------·-·0 0 0 0 0

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~

,,,-

/'

. - _..L__ --~,_. -

Wannto mlldmontl.s,weta,1yea,

-~ --~ 0 Coldmos.tmonthswitha short summer

Wannto mlldmont!S.ay In Yli.nter

□ Cddalyear

Hot dry sumner, rrlld wet wlnt«

Watmto mildsurrwn«, cool to cdd winter:wet all year Wannto mildsurrwn«, cool to cdd and dry wlntet'

0

Climate~

affectedby allltude

~ Coldoceancurrent ---...._,Wannoceancurrent

HE

I-

Global crop yields

....., ....

'

Current yields '

■ High 0 Moolum 0 Low

"

N 0

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2000

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4000k-n

~---------------------------------,

Temperature

SPOTLIGHT

The Umirsfor crops being introduced to any region are set by a number of factors.

Harvested when frozen

Daily maximum a,ul mildtmlm t.emperatures Wheat colerate.i:. temperatures as low as 3°C and up to 32°C.Com, however:,is a warm.climate crop and its ideaJ temperature for germination is 21•c. le is frost sensitive, bur can withstand remperarures up co 40°C. Ricealso requires high temperature s from 21'C to 37°C througho ut che lifespan of the crop. Soil temperature This is crucial for many of the processes that enab le seeds to genninace and crops co grow and marure. Adequate heat is necessary to suppon the billions of micro.organisms active in the -soil. If the soil wacer freezes it dlen become.~unavailable to planes. as it cannot move into the roots. The length of the gro,uillg season Tilis is set by dle nwuber of frost-free days from the last frost of spring co the first frost of aurumn . Tilis is usually the amoun t of time required ror a crop co comp lece its life cycle and produce an economic yieJd. Cotton, for example, needs 200 days co be ready for harvest, so it canno t survive in a cold climate.

Jcewine is an intensely sweet and very expensive dessert wine that is produced from grapes grown in the cool c l imate of southern Canada. The grapes stay on the

vine and become dehydrated , which intens ifies their flavour. The moment they freeze they are harvested by hand, usually when the temperature reaches - 13' C.

r---------------------------------, I

I I

DID YOU KNOW?

Rice is the main crop in the tropics because it requ ires I both consistently high temp erature s and su bstantial

I

1 rainf all . It is partic ularl y high-yielding as three cro ps

: can be grown in a year.

I

i : I

ml

The grapes must be just frozen through before

they are picked to make icewine.

I

I

I

L---------------------------------J

CHAPTER3 • FOOD AND ABRE PRODUCTION 69

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-

DifJ

Excessively high and low temperalureshinder crop yields.

Excessively high temperatures

i Excessively low temperatures

Increasesthe rate of evaporationof soil moisture.

Results in poorgrowthand low yields because photosynthesis is sloweddown.

Increasesthe rate of transpiration fromthe leaf poresor planls.

Causes the plantto go into dormancy;that is, it stopsgrowing becauseplant processessh,, t down.

Causesthe plants. le.avesand stemsto droopor wilt and halts the growthof newshoots.

Reducesthe germinationor seeds.

Can cause the pollen to becomeunviable and so Rowersdo not grow,which meansthat there will be ooseedor grain to harvest.

Kiltsthe ttow.,s, which alsostopsseedand grain being produced. If frostshit plants that h nriei1rnl pl:m r rovn

i~ rPmovt>tl.Mp

(1958-60)

154

PEARSO N GEOG RAPHY NSW • STAGE S

g>

Projocted

Economic policy and urbanisat ion in China, 1950-2035

70

li

~

1960

1966

1978

Eeonomi:: ~

Ci.lturtil RevolutiM (1966-76)

Ecotlomie

1992

2005

Contin~ O! inapns terorm WTO 8"ICI econoric C1978-90) d!Nelopmenr hukOu (I 990-200St system

20 10

20 15

2035·

• projeeted

"'"""" Source: McKinseyGlobal Institute. Prepatingfor China's UrbanBillion

The ear ly years or the strategy were focused on limiting large cities. The government decentralised economic activity and power. State-owned enterprises were relocated to s maller cities, local authorities were given more pov.-er to achieve local economic growth targets , and some cities were designated to offer incentives to investors .

Urban spatial pattern The Chinese government has favoured the deveJopment of small - and Jl'1edium-siz.ed cities over the developmem of very large cities. This has resulted in a un ique spatia l panem of urban places . n1e urban system consis ts of large - and medium size.d dties linked to smaller urban centres, as illustrated in Figure 6.5.3. In 2013, there were three main metropolitan areas consisting or a number of highly connected cities and towns. These were the Yangzi River delta, the Pear l River delta and d1e BeijingTianjin - Bohai region . Throughout the rest or the councry there are a number or urban cluste rs that fearure one or more c.itlesa t their cencre. These are important zones of economic deve lopment, not just for the.locaJ region but for the country as

I-

Outcomes of urbanisation Economic benefits Urbanisat ion has brought economic benefit.s for Chbia . In 2011, China had d1ewor ld's second largest economy and was the largest imponer and exporter of goods in the world. Meedng the needs of those moving to the ddes also generate s economic activity. For example , every additiona l 10 million urban residencs results in an increase in the countr y's GDP of 4 per cenc; 3.6 per cent or this is due rn cbe demand for housing. The growth in China's nadonal economy has been 3ccomp:utied by improvement s in people' s st:md3rd of living. A huge number of peop le have been lifted out ofpovercy. bl 198 1, 85 percent of people were living in poverty (defined as living on less than USSl.25 per day). By 2005, that figure had been reduced to Just 16 per cent. n1e economic benefi ts have not benefi ted everybody , and d1e gap betwe.en the rich and poor has widened.

a who le.

[D]

The disll ibuhon of c ities (based on population) and c ity clusters (based on GDP) in eastern China C ity •

Over 10 million

• 5-10 million • over 1 to less than 5 million

O.S-1 million Less than 0.5 million

City cluster

r ·,

\.)

Med ium Small

CHAPTER6 • URBANISATION

155

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The plight of rural-urban workers While urbanisation has'been accompan ied by gre ater emp loyment and an improvement in living conditions , some

groups still struggle economically. Peoplewho travel from rural areas to the cities loo king for contrac t-based work are lawwn as rural -urban worker s, or mingong('peasants who became

workers'). In 2009, there were 230 million rural-urban workers. Rural- urban workers face many difficulties. Many are employed in low-paid and da ngerous jobs. Tiley have lo ng working hour s- usu ally six and sometimes

seven days a week. They live tn poor or cramped houstng, as shown m Figure 6.5 .4.

Approximately 40 per cem have no work concracts, mean ing they are unable to comp lain about miscrea0l'1ent, abuse or unsafe workingpractices. Approximately 21.3 per cenc are entitled co a pension. OnJy 8.S per cent are able to get unemployinent benefits.

Housing shortages In China, homes are expensive, and low-cost housing is in short supply. Rapidly increasing urban populations push up prices and rents. An apartment in an urban area in China can cost 8.3 times the average income of a household, or 29 times that of a low-income worker.In many cases, rooms in apartments are sublet to other families, resuJd.ngin overcrowding. One Shanghai complex was recently fow1dto house 10 000 people In just 600 apartments.

(DJ

Some rural- urban workers bring their whole famil ies to the citi es, where they often live in squalid conditions.

-1 156

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

The government's response has been to allow developers to construct Large-scale housJng developments. Most of d1ese, however,are still too expensive for low-income earners. The d1inese govenun ent announced that ic would build 36 million low-cost homes by 2015, and has since reporred that it has achieved this goal.This has been difflcuJr ro evaluate due to local governments using various cypesof housing development, such as resenJemenc housing and housing developed by work. w1it.s, co meecthe targecssecby che government.

Health Urban living gives people access co modem medical facilities and an income co pay for persona] health care. However, che heaJch of peop le in cities is threatened b)' air pollution, a more sedentary lifestyle, greater work-related stre.~s . social detachmenr and high-fat diets, auof·which contribute co poorer heaJrh outcomes.

Water Half of China's largest cities are facingwater shortages. Three hundred million peop le have no access co clean water and 700 mill ion peop le drink water below WHO scandards. Eighty

per cent of China's rivers are too polluted to fish from. For example, less than 5 per cenr ofwasrewarer flowing into d1e largest river in Shanghai , the Huangpu, is created, re.suJd.ng in a river that L~essentiallydead. A toe.a]o(3.4 million cubic metres of industrial and domestic waste is dumped inro ir every day.

Pollution

(lm

According to d1e Vlorld Hea Jth Organi2ation (WHO) , .seven of the wor ld's ten mos t polluted cities are found in Ch ina . The

scaleandextentofurban

The growth of Chi na's tota l urban population and the number of people with permits to live in urban areas,

1970-2010

China's factories release huge amouncs of pollutancs, such as sulfur dioxide, into the aonosphere. l11eair quaHtyof many of China's cities is described as moderately or severely polluted. WHOestimates thac there are 300000 premarure dead1seach year in Chinese cities because or outdoor air pollution. In addition, many of the poUucants react in the air to produce acid rain, which can affectsoil acidity. Soil acidification(increase in d1eacidity of the soil) is an increasing problem for China's agriculrural regions because it affects d1e rertilityof the soil and therefore the ability cogrow crops.

Urba n population Popula tion w ith urban rights

--

pollut ion in China is immense . The

air, water and soiJare all affected and biodiversity has been reduced. ln January 2013, north.eastern China recorded its highest ever levels ofpo Uution. WHOconsiders concentrations or 25 PM2.5 panicles (the most dangerous partic les tha t peop le can inhale) per cubic metre to be unsafe; on 12January, Beijing recorded a PM2.5 levelof993 per cubic mette. (n some areas, visibiJit)'w.tsreduced to 200 metres and flights,,·ere cancelled. Offk ials ordered schools co suspend ou tdoor activities and people were advised to scay indoors.

I-

700 600

1500 ~ 400

~.!!I300 ::,

1 200

100

0-+---~---~---~---~ 1990 1970

1980

2000

2010

Year

Source:National Bufe.au of StatishcsandMinistryof PublicSecurity, Chi na

Hukou Whe,rea person may li\le in China has been controlled since ancienc times by a system of residency permits known as 1heh ulcou system. Under I.he.system, a person is officially identified as a residem of an area. ln 1958, the Chinese government began co use d1esystem co control the movement or people between urban and rural areas. Individuals were broadly classifiedas either 'ruraJ' or 'urban' '"mrkers. A worker wanting to move from the country to an.urban area to take up non-agriculruraJwork had 10 appl}' for permission. The number of workers allowed to make such moves was tighdy controlled. Aud1oritiesfeared a massive movement of people into the cities, causing strain on city government services, damage to rural econo1niesand increases in social wuest and crime. UntiJ 1976, police reguJarlyrounded up those \.\lithout valid residence permits. dernined them in detention centres and expeUedthem from cities. Today, the hukou system is only partially enforced, as the government is keen co inc.reased1e supp ly of skilled workers for industry.

Figure6.5.5shows the increase in the 'population with urban rights: Residemswho do not have hukou penn iesare often denied subsidised health care and d1eirchiJdrenare denied access co local schools.

ACTIV ITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 Outline how the nature of China's urbanisation has differed from that of other countries since 1949. 2 Explain how the hukou systemhas been used to control China's rate of urbanisation. 3 Define the term 'mingong'. Discuss the living and working conditions of these people. 4 Explain why housing is a hotly debatedissuein China. What has beenthe government'sresponse' Applying and analysing 5 List the outcomesof urbanisation in China and place eachoutcome in a PMI chart. 6 Imagine you are a Chinese resident living in a rural village.Would you moveto the city without a permit to live? Explain. Geographic:al skills 7 Study Figure6.5 .1. Which policy/policies have had the greatestinfluence on urbanisation in China since 1950? 8 Study Figure6.5 .3. Describethe distribution of China's ~rban population. 9 Study Figure 6.5.5. Describethe trends in China's urban population and the numberof Chinese with permission to live in urban areas.

CHAPTER6 • URBANISATION 15 7

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Environment and large cities Environmental impacts of large cities

hectares to 409 million hectares, due in pan to urban sprawl. Approximarelytwo-thirds or Australia's perishable fruit and vegetables are grown on the oucs.kirtsof cities (see Figure6.6.2) and these areas are under threat from urban sprawl.

The envi.ronmemaJ impact of urbanisation raises many concerns. Large cities use Jand and resources, rerurning their \vastes and pollutants to the very environmem they depend upon. However, some ex.pertsbelieve chat urbanisation is acrually advantageous co the environment.

Air and pollution L2rge dries: have an impact on 3ir and W3terquality.

Cities impact upon the land they cover with buildings and roads. Ci.desalso use. resources beyond their boundarie s. As large cities grow, their interference in the natural world increases, as Figure 6.6. 1 shows.

Loss of habitat and agricultural land

Rethinking cities

With die pressure of popu lation growth, cities push past

In China, a 1.3 square ldJomecre'Great City' has been proposed (see Figure 6.6.3). le will be a massive development that is completely sustainable and affordable. The city, planned for 80000 people, will bece nrred on a mass transit hub, with all destinatiorts within a fow minute s walk, reducing the need for cars.

their ou ter limits into the couno;rside beyond. When thl~ occurs, market gardens just outside the city disappear and

any remaining narural vegecation is cleared to make way for developme m. This outward growth orcities is known as urban sprawl. ln Australia, the Australian Farmlnsdru te claims thac in the l2 years between 1997 and 2009, Australia'sagriculmral land area was reduced by 11per cem, t'rom462 million

(DI

Cities depend on the environment and they also

impact heavily upon it. • Dome.:,f po lluted air (photochemicatsmog) • ChangasIn the mictocllmate • Heat itver sk>n Chemicals and particles

t Wat9f

Food Solid wastes

•

•

i/i I I

1m

f 11 ~t! 11•

m,

.-;i~ Key

~ ,!owing In •

158

Pollut!lnts:

from cars and factories produce photochemJcal smog, which can affect people 's health. \Vaste marerials are difficultand expensive to manage, especially those that are ro:dc, and landfill sires are needed to dispose of household and business waste.

PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

Flowing out

r

l!l'fJ

Kyeemagh Market Gardens, Sydney

The design will include a surrounding bufferlandscape, which will include forests, valleysand lakes tha t are integrated into the city. Fi~een per cent of the land within the cicyv.iU be devoted to parks and green spaces. SL-«yper cent ·will be reserved for construction. The remaining 25 per cent v.iUbe used for roads

and walkways.

Benefits of concentration So1ncexperts beUevethat concentrating growingpopulations in large cities can acrually help to save d1e environment.

Energy efficiencies If more high-rise buildings were built in urban environments, the resulting higher popu lation densities would improveenergy efficiencyand lower emissions per capita. Nm\TYorkis one of the most energy-efficientcities in the United Stares of America, as more than half of its households use pub tic transport rather than own a car.

Funding for environmental projects Cities generate wealth that could be used to fund projects to protect the environment elsewhere. For example. money could be used co save endangered species and conserve habitats. Invescmenccould be made in ne\\Ttechno logies or infrastructure to reduce peop le's environmental impact. One example of this is the increasing number of bike paths being built in Australiancities, which help reduce traffic congestion and emission.,;from cars by encouraging people to ride their bikes.

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China's pedestrian-focused city of the future

ACTIVITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 Describe the impacts of urban sprawl. 2 Explain how the growth of cities causes poll ution . 3 List the benefits of biuer cities.

Investigating 4 Choose one of the following topics: • photochemical smog • changes in the urban microcl imate

• heat in\lersion. With the aid of a diagram, prepare a multimed ia presentat ion, explain ing how it occurs and the impact it has on the city environment and its residents .

CHAPTER6 • URBANISATION

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USA's population distribution Distribution of population In 2016, the popuJadon of the UnJcedScatesor America was more than 320 million . The population of the Unjced States is concentrated along che country's coasts (see Figure 6.7.1). Tu•o.thirds of the people live in scatesalong the three major coascs- 38 per cent along the Adantic Ocean, 16per cenc along the PacificOcean, and 12per cent along rhe Gulfof Mexico. The smallest numbers Uvein the vast area beti.\teend1e Mississippi River and d1e Rocky Mounrains, particular !)' in the central and northern Great Plains. While the Rocky Mountains and Plains scates accoum for abouc half of the landmass of the country, the)r account for only 34 per cent of the.population .

OveralJ,the population. of the United States is more ,.,ifdely discribucedover icslandmass than ls the case in Australia The Great Plains, for example, is used quice extensivelyfor agriculture. Much or inland Auscraliais desert. Figures6.7. l and 6.7.2 illustrace che relationship becv,,eenprecipitation and populadon densicyand distribution in d1eUnited States.

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The UnJted Scates has a much larger popuJation than AuscraJia. Australia'saverage population density is close to 2.9 inhabitants per square kilomecre compared with 34 inhabirants per square kilometre for the United Scates. Significantly,however,a higher proportion or Auscralians(75 per cent) live on or near the coasL

Internal migra tions Since the 1960s,Americans have migrated to the south and west to a group or sta tes known as the ' Swt Belt' (indudes Florida, Nevada, Arizona, Urah, Colorado and New Mexico), seeking jobsJ a warmer climace and sometimes a lower cost of living. Hundreds of thousands or retirees have also settled d1ere.

lntemaJ migracton is closely related to economic condidons . People v.'iUmigrate to areas thac have job opportunides. The 2010census showed that North Dakota had d1efastest-growing popuJation, due ro the gro-wingoiJ shale industry.

Population distribution, United States of America. 2012

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PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

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\'hatthey are seeking is a more flexible lirestyJe unencwnbered by the responsibiUdes of maintaining a detached dwelling with garden. COMMUNITY-BASED INFRASTRUCTURE tnfrasuucrure such as schools, hospitals, utilities (electricity, wacer and sewerage), roads and public transport need to supp on communities as they grow. This will not only be imporcant in the nonh -west and south -west grO\\lth centres, bur also in urban consolidation developments closer to the city

~---------------------------------~ DID YOU KNOW ?

ce m re .

Sydney·s eme rgen ce a s a world city can, to a very significant extent , be linked to the Keatin g governmenr s decisio n to introdu ce the Sup erann uation Guarantee system in 1996. As of 30 June 2015, Au str alians had

ENHANCED AMENITY n,ere is a need to protect ct,e an1enityor the city. n,isinvolves procecting the city's environment- harbour, coast, moumains, parks and open spaces.

over $2 .02 tr illion invest ed in superannuation. This vast pool of saving s, the fourth large st of its kind in the world. need s to be manage d. This enc ourag ed some of the wor ld·s larg est financial institut ions to es tab lish bran ches in Austra lia . Sydney is their pre fe rred location.

CHAPTER8 • AUSTRAUA'.SURBAN FUTURE

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A Plan for Growing Sydney

provide s key di recti ons and acdons to guide Sydney's economic

In response coSydney'sgrowingpopulation, the New South Walesgovernment released A Planfor GrowingSydney in

growth, environmental management and liveability- including rhe delivery of housing, employment, infrastrucrure and open space, as omlined in Figure 8.5.4.

December 2014. TI1e reporc is a stra regy for the furure of the

Sydneymetropolican area over the nexc20 years. The Plan

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Urban consolidation Urban conso lidation (or dendflca tion, as it is sometimes

called) involves increasing population densities in an urban area in order to make more efficientuse orexisting infrastructure, and limiting the spread of urban land uses into

Sydenham corridor: In the furure, the Surherland-S)rdenham, East Hills-Sydenham , Hon,sby to Stratlule ld via Epping. Homsby to North Sydney \Ii.aGordon, and Kings Cross co

Bondi Juncdon rail corridors will become a focus of urban consolidation.

surrounding rural areas ( wban sprawl).

City 's edge

Inner city

Urban consolidation also includes the need for new, masterplanned, suburban development on chc city's periphery. Sydney'snorth-west and south -west growth centres will play an important role in prO\'lding housing and jobs for Sydney's growingpopulation. l11edevelopment of the North West and South \Vest RailLinks, together ,.,tiththe city's motorway network, will link the new .suburbs ,\'lch the cJcy'smajor employme11tand commercial nodes. Evenin these greenfield developments, a varietyof housing types are planned. Medium -density, and in some instances high-densicy, housing units are being constructed close co rail\\'a)rstations.

The need for urban consolidation in Sydney is becoming increasingly clear. The housing target for d1eSydney region is an additional 664 000dwellings.It is nor possible to meet this growth on the outer edge of the me tropolitan region. n\e

cost of providing d1e necessary infrastructure would be too great. Infillingis the only feasible option. Higher density living, especfallyin areas close to public transport nodes, is inevitable. In Sydney, urban consolidation is do sely associated with the process of urban renew al ( the redevelopment of an urban area). Urban renewal is a response co utban decaythe process by which a previously functioning pan of a city fallsinto disuse and disrepair: Largeareas of inner Sydney, especially those associated with the ciry's old and abandoned port and industrial precincu;, have become the focus of largescale urban renewal projects. These include Barangamo, Darling Square, Green Square and White Bay.

Middle suburbs Oucside the inner dcy, urban consolidation initiatives have focused on diversifyinghousing choice along Parramana Road, the Norrh West Rail Link,Anzac Parade and the BankstOY.'11 -

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NEW ROUSE HILL The New Rouse Hilldevelopmem in Sydney'snorth-wes-cis focused on lifestyle.It indudes a mix of low- and mediumdensity housing and land for commerciaJ landuses on a site adjacent co the Rouse HillTownCentre and d1enew Northwest lvtecro . Residentsof the development will enjoy exclusive access co recreationaJ facilities,including a community pavilion with tennis and multi-use couns, swimming pool and gym. Parksand open spaces are conveniently located throughout the community within walking distance of each home.

ACTIVIT IES Knowledge and understanding 1 State by how much Sydney's population is expected

2

3 4

5

6

to grow in the period to 2031. What are the main drivers of this growth?What challengeswill this growth present? Outline how the demographic characterof Sydney differs from Australia as a whole. Identify the principal factors contributing to the emergenceof syaneyas a world city. Outl ine the key elements of Sydney's plan to meet the needsof a rapidly growingpopulation. Define 'urban consolidation'. Why is it considered critical to meetingthe housing needsof Sydney's growing population? Explainthe processof urban decayand renewal.

Geographical skills 7 Study Figures 8.5. 1 to 8 .5.3. Usingdata from

the graphs, describethe changing demographic characteristics of Sydneyin the period to 2031. 8 Study Figure 8.5 .4. Identify the key elementsof the Plan for Growing Sydneyon the map.

Applying and analysing 9 Createa PMI chart on urban consolidation. comparing the inner city, middle suburbs and city fringe.

CHAPTER 8 • A USTRALIA'.$URBAN FUTURE Z09

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Environments At the beginning of the twent ieth century th ere were 1.6 billion people on ear th . Pollution and environmental degrada tion were prob lems , but were mainly local. The world still seemed vast, an d large areas remained virtuall y unt ouched by th e activities of people. Just over 100 years lat er, the world 's pop ulation was heading towards 7 billion and th e environmental proble ms that have resul ted from th is rapi d growth now affect the whole planet . How we manage th ese environmental challenges an d how we address the social and economic inequalities th at exist between and within places are critical to our futur e well being .

This chapt er in troduces the concept of enviro nm ental functions, the major challenges to their sustainability an d the environm ent al worldvi ews that influence how people perceive and resp ond to th ese chall enges, as well as th e differen ces in human wellbeing between places. r---------------------------------,

INQUIRY QUESTIONS • What is t he role of nat ural environments ? Why are they im portant' • What fu nct ions of natu ral environ ments support life? • What are th e main human-induced environmenta l changes?

GLOSSARY bioaccumulation the accumulationof substancessuchas pesticides in an organism

biodiversity

carboncycle

livingorganisms g·Jobalwarming the gradual rise in averagetemperatures brought about by an increase in lhe heatabsorbing gases presenl i n the atmosphere

the naturally occurring processesin which carbon is exchangedbetween organisms and

greenhouse effect

the atmospheric processesthat maintain an average surface temperature of 15°C

habita t

the physical environmentin which a community of plants and animals lives

desertification the expans ion of desertsdue to overgrazing, soil erosion, climate changeor prolonged d rought

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land degradation the downgrading of the producti ve capaci ly of land due to the acti viti es of people

the refotion:;hip between living things

(includ ing people) and their physical

pollution

the releaseof any hazardous , or potentially hazardous, substance into the environment

poverty

the inability to meet the basic needs for food, clo thi ng and shelter; the absence of

environment environment

a nalural fuel such as coal or gas, fo,med i n the geological past from the remains of

the variety of all li fe forms: plants, animals and microorganisms; the genesthey contain; the ecosystems of wh ich they form a part; and the processes that link them

the environment

ecological

fossil fuels

the total ity of our surroundings

extinct (species) a species of an imal Of plant lhat no longerexists

l1lll Human circ le around the North

money, goodsor the meansof subsistence

Pole, July 2008

CHAPTER9 • ENVIRONMENTS

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The environment: Life's support system Climate change

The environment The en vlromn ent is the to tality of our surroundings and compticse.s the living and non .living rearuresor d1eearth 's surface . ll te term ' biophysical environme nt ' refers to features that are altered or created by people, called the managed and consu ucted environments . People perceive, ada pt to and use

environments in different ways. Geographers are interes"ted in the relationship ben'leen people and c.he environmenL People depe nd on the envi.ronme m for their survivaJ an d wellbeing. The environme nt supports and enriches our li ves by providing raw mater ials and

food, absorbing and recyclingwastes, and being a source of enjoyment, inspiration and spiritual welJbeing. It also influences our lifestyles, our recreational activiciesand the waysin which we use the land.

Environmental change Environmental change is any alteration to an environment that disnu bs narural ecological processes. Some envi.ronmencal changes have beneficial outcomes for hwnans. The clearing of land for agriculture and the grazing of animals, especfally ,.,•hen combined with irrigadon, have increased rood produc.tion; and mining and forestry have provided the resources necessary to construct water storage facilities, buildings, machines, vehicles and transport infrastructure. All these activities have promoted economic growth and employin e1u. Some environmental changes can have negativeeffects, especialJyif they result in soil erosion, air and water pollution, or climate change.

Over d,e last 200 years, the amoun t of carbon dioxide.present in the aanosphere has increased by more than 25 per cent.111e main cause of th.isincrease is the burning orfossil fuels(oil,coal and natural gas) and the cucting down of trees, which convert carbon dioxide into cu.-ygen . l.nc.reasingglobal cemperarures, risingsea levelsand d,e retreat of ice caps and glaciers have all been linked co this impact of people on the atmosphere.

Pollution Pollution is the releaseinto the environment of any macter dlat has a hannful effecc.Pollumms,many ofwhich are the product ofour demand for consumer goods,can reduce cheabilityofd,e biophysical environmem to provideecosyscem services(clothing. (ood and shelrer).

Land degradation The removal of naturaJ vegetation (the result of deforestation, overgrazin g and farming) is the main cause or land degrad adon . When trees are removed, the land is exposed to d,e agents of erosion: wind and running wacer.

Habitat loss A habitat is the physicaJenvironment in which a community of plants and animals lives.n,ere is a high level of destruction of habitats arow,d d,e world. Animalsand plants are dependent on their habitats, and once these are destroyed they are vulnerable to extinction. Some, such as the orang-utan in h,donesia (see Figure 9.1.1), are in fact facing extinction.

Challenges to sustainability Population growth Manyor the challenges facing humanity are directly related co the surge in the world's populndon.

lncroosing nun.1.ber&of

human beings, combined with improved material standards of living(for some), have greatly increased the demands people place on the plane1,its resources, ecosystenu and environmental processes.

Energy use The bunting of foss.ll fuels, which are used to meet people's energyneeds, has had a major impact on the earth's atmosphere. The development of alternative sources or energ}', such as solar energ)1, wind powe~ tidal flow and hydro-electricity, is one way of reducing people's reliance on fossil fuels.

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PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGES

OD In the Tripa peat swamp forest of Indonesia,the Sumatran orang-utanpopulation has declined by 80 per cent, as people haveburnt forest to clear tracts of land for oil palm production.

Urbanisation

Exploited oceans

rural areas to large citie s has creared many problems. The rapid growth of cities, especially in developing countries.,has ovenvhelmed the abilityor authorities to 1neet the basic needs of the urban popu Jation . Overcrowding,polluctonand the growth orsquatter settlemenrs are all results of rapid urbanisation.

Tile world's oceans are an important natural resource. Of panicular imponance are the world's fisheries. These supply vast amouncs of food. Unfornmately., the rate at which this resource is being exploited is unsustainable. Pollution is another major problem affectingoceans. Ifoceans are to be used sustainably, their use must be carefuJJy managed and there needs to be international cooperation.

The migration or peop le from

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l SPOTLIGHT lI Biosphere 2

I In 1991, eight men and womenmovedinto a US$200 I I mi llion purpose-.built glass and steel repl ica of the earth•s I biomes in the Arizona desert. Known as Biosphere 2,

the complex wasdesignedto investigatewhether the eight occupantscould be self-sustainingIn a sealed-off environmen t. It was lloped that a facility such as this cou ld be used to co lonise outer space.

own food, and for the biomes, which ioc luded ocean£ with coral reefs, mangrove wetlands, tropical rainforest, savanna

grasslandS and a fogdesert,to supplynaturallyrecycled air and water. Despite the useof lhe latest technology, Biosphere 2 could not produce enough air, water or food to support the eight people. Significantly, the level of carbon dioxide could not be contro l led. The experiment was

abandonedafter just threeyears.Today,lhe University of Arizona uses Biosphere 2 fOfscientific research.

11JEBiosphere2, a failed attempt to recreate the complex ecological processes

of planet earth

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~---------------------------------------------------------------------ACTIVITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 Define the term 'environment' and outline its importance. 2 Outl ine what 'environmental change' is and explain how it can be both beneficial and detrimental. 3 Outline the impacts of world population growth on the environment and how this affects the wellbeing of people.

Applying and analysing 4 Study the Spotlight box 'Biosphere 2'. Describe what this example tells us abOtJtthe complexity of the earth's environmental processes. S Construct an annotated mind map highlighting the key challenges to sustainability.

CHAPTER9 • ENVIRONMENTS Z13

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Towards a sustainable future Environments and sustainability

SOURCE

Environments were once considered 'bonomJess pits"- infinite s tores orresources that could be exploited ror d1e benefit or

humans. Today, cnvironment.sarc seen as fragile, threatened systems in need of careful managemem. The concept of sustainability is at the cencre of conten'lporary approaches to environmental management.

Sustainability in an ecologicaJ context refers to the ability of biological systems ro remain diverse and productive. For

human s, sus tainabilit y is about maintain ing the capacity of the

environment to support life, and the quality of life, wellimo d1e future.

Four functions of environments The capacit)• of the earth ro support life and huma n wellbeing depends on maimenance or rhe rour function s of the environment, as outlined in Figure 9.2. l.

Source The source func.tion is the provis ion of lhe naturallyoccWTing resources needed to sus tain life and our materiaJ wellbeing . Jt Includes the minera ls and ores , timber and rood- the plant~ we grow, the animals we graze and the .seafood we harvest.

Sink The sink function is the ability co break down , recycle or absorb and render harm.less waste and polJution . The world's oceans, ror example, are d1e larges t active carbon sinks on earth. When waste output exceeds the limit of the sink funcdon, long-term damage occurs .

Service The earth's environm enraJ service functions are all those things done for us by the bio physica.lenvironment ; for example the absorption of carbon dioxide and pro duction of oxygen b) r forests, and d1e filtering of water and recycling or nutrien cs via d1e proce.ss of decomposition by wectands.

Spiritual The spiriruaJ fimcdons of the enviro nment include its cuJturaJ and recreadonal value ro peop le and the ways in which it enriches aesthetic experience .

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PEARSON GEOGRAPHY NSW • STAGE S

~ The four functions of environments

Sustainable development Susta inabl e development is devel opmen t that meets d1e need s of the presem population without affecting lhe ability of future generations to meet their needs . The aim of sus tainab le development is to achieve improvements in people's quality of life or wellbeing while prot ecting che environment. Sustainable development and good environmenra l management go hand in hand . ff we are to put sustainab le development into practice we must : use d1e earth's non-renewable resources in ways d1at do nor re.duce their userutness ror furure generations involve peop le in making the decisions that affect their lives and their environment develop cechnologies d1at are cleaner, use less energy and require fewer na tura l resources reduce the waste we produce , and make products d1at last longer and are easy co recycle and repair reduce the amooot or energy we use encourage the development and use of renewa ble energy £rom che sun, wind and flowing water.

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The earth's carbon stores, sources and sinks

Volcanoes, forest fires, decompos ition, respiration and, under certain condit ions, the wor ld's oceans are all natural 'sources' of atmospheric CO2 • When the oceans warm or are disturbed by storms they can release large amounts of

Carbondioxide (CO,) is continually recycledon earth. The

dissolved CO,.

environmenta l processes by which CO2 is re leased to the atmosphere are called carbon sources , whi le processes

Photosynthesis,forests,oceansand freshwaterbodies and

that absorb it are called carbonsinks. The atmosphere,

fossil fuels and the earth's forests, soils and oceans are I important stores of carbon. Carbon 1s constantly moving I between these different stores. A carbon smk absorbs I 1 more carbon than it eives off. whi le a carbon source emits I 1 more than it absorbs.

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fossi l fuels are all natu ral 's inks' for atmospheric CO2 • The amount of carbon in the atmosphere at any one time depends on the balance that exists between the various sources and sinks. This system of sinks and sources is

referred to as the car~on cycle (see Figure9.2.2).

~ The earth's carbon stores. sources and sinks

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ACTIVITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 State how our thinking about environments has changed over t ime. 2 Outl ine the four functions of the environment. 3 Explain what is meant by the term 'sustainable development'.

Applying and analysing 4 Identify the source, sink, service or spirituality functions of the environment shown in Figure 9.2 .2. Which of these functions is of greatestvalue

to humans' Justify your choice. What would be the impact if this environment was degraded or destroyed' 5 As a class, brainstorm the concept of 'sustainability' . Develop a mind map highlight ing the main points raised in the discussion. Use the mind map to write your own definition and explanation of ·sustainability'. 6 Email t he Australian prime minister with suggestions about how the government could promote sustainable development. CHAPTER9 • ENVIRONMENTS Z15

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Pollution Air pollution Air pollution is the contaminatio n o(dle annosphere by substances that can, eitherdlrec d}r or indirectly, impact on human health and welfare . Sulfur dioxide, panicu late matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxlde and lead are.common

ml

A well-manage\'hencreesare cue down, saJcywater may rise to rhe surface (see Figure 9.4.3).The water e\f'aporates, leaving a salty crust.

Vegetation degradation Narural vegetation can also be degraded. A narural ecosystem or planescan be changed in a number or ways.For example, vegecation can be affecced by imroduced plants. Tilese can upset d1enarural balance of che ecosystem and spread uncontroUably.

Soil erosion

Pires can also change the vegecationgreatly. Altl1oughfire can be a naruraJ pan oh he environment, it has a major effec.ton some species. It can remove some species, and encourage dle growch of ochers.

Soil erosion is d'le removaJ of topsoiJby water or wind. Erosion occurs wherever the soil is unprotected by plant cover. Once the original plant cover is removed, soiJ can be carried away easily by sCTOng winds or heavy rain. VVindscan strip the land of its topsoil and carry it hundreds of kilometres, and heavy rain and run .offcan cut deep gulUesin rhe soiJ (see Figure 9.4.4).

Weed infestadons often occur when vegecation is disru.rbed. Weeds are plants that have run wild (like animals gone feral) and have ta.kenover from other species. Plants rum into ,,.-eeds v.tflen the)r 0nd conditions t.har are ideaJ and consequently come to dominace an ecosystem.

CHAPTER9 • ENVIRONMENTS Z19

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Desertification One of the most serious fomu of land degradation it1 the world is d e-.sertlficatlon,which means the creadon of desen s. Desertificationis a problem in pares of Africa,where the desert is steadily advancing over what used to be good fanning land. Desertificationin northern Africahas occurred on the edges of cheSahara 111ese marginal lands have variable rainfalland can only be used wid1 great care. A mL'\'h en a king dde and a storm occur at the same time,dle effectsof the high tide and destructive wavesoften lead to a storm surge.Stonn surgesare caused byvery low-pressure cells, such as tropicalcyclones.These severe storms form over d1eocean and the low pressure causes the air to rise, pulling d1esea surfaceup with it. Storm surgescan do tremendous damage.

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Functions of coasts Table 14.1.5outlines the different functions or coastaJ environments.

Functions of coasts

Function

Coastalenvironments

Source function

• About 15 per cent of all p,oteinconsumedby humansis in the fo,m of seafocxl.Mostor this is taken from coastal waters,making this a crucial envirorment for feedingthe world's growinghuman population. • Coastalareasare crucial habitatsfor manyanimal speciesthat rely on the coast for both focxland shetter.For example, the iconic dugongsof HerveyBayrely entirelyon the coastal seagras.s beds f0

nff Pn un rlP.rt:t~Pn M thP. P¥pr-n,::1>nf rlPVPlnpmPn t

projects. For example, land has to be put aside for dune

restoration that might otherwise be deveJoped, and sometimes this can be seen as 'wasting' the resource. People with this view generalJysee the ecosystem in cerms of its value for human use rather than its ecologicalvalue.

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Figure 14.3.4shows a soft engineering projec1off the coast or Louisiana, in che United States. The US Nadonal Oceanic and Aanospheric Administration(NOAA),with other partners, has constructed eanhen terraces and barrier islands 10 creare wetlands., whJchwill crapsedilnent and create new land over time. lehas been estimated that Louisiana lost approxima1ely 0.5 million hectares of land during the twentieth cenrury and continues to lose 65 square kilometresof coastaJwerland,s every year.

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NOAArestoration project, Louisiana. This photograph,takenthree

months after the hurr icanes Katr ina and Rita, shows new land being built between earthen lerraces.

ACTIVITIES Knowledge and understanding 1 Outline the changing attitude towards coastal environments. 2 State the tension betweenthe interestsof humans and the protection of the coastal environment. 3 Describe the role of the community in protecting the coastal environment. 4 Explainthe differencebetweenprotective ana restorative strategies ror environmental management. 5 Outline the concept of zoning and explain how it can be used to protect the coastal environment. 6 Describethe role of fencing dunes in pc'Ote cting coasts. 7 Explainthe value of access waysthrough fenced dunes. 8 Outline the importance of replanting dunes as a restorative strategy.

9 Explainthe difference between hard and soft engi oeering. 10 Outline the aclY antagesof soft engineering over hard.

Applying and analys ing 11 Examine the infOc' mation in the text on sea walls and do the following activities. a Explain why seawalls are built. b Outline the environmental consequences of sea walls. c Taking the perspective of an environmental manager for a local council on the coast, prepare a presentation to give to residents about why the council should look for alternatives to building a seawall lh at residents want.

CHAPTER 14 . COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS 379

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The Great Sandy Region

CASE sTuov: Location

The Great Sandy Region is located co the north of Queensland's Sunshine Coast, stretchi ng northwards from Noosa co the Bumen River north

orBw1daberg (see Figur e 14.4.1).

81.ndabybann ing fishingwich drifmets over 2.5 metres long.

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PEARSON GEOGRAPHY N SW . STAGE s

Drifmetsare somethnes called 'walls of death'.The nets are strung out to drift near the surface and capture fish by entangling them around their gills.Traditionally, drifmers were small, but modern commercial driJtnecboats use very large nets. These nets are equipped with floats to keep them on che surface and weights that anach to the sea floo~ creating a curcain to crap anyching that swims imo the net. dle ners do not discriminate, they c.reate Yel"} ' large bycatches. TI1eseare speoies that are nor meant to be caught and they are often thrown back,already dead. 1\udes are particularlywlnerable. as are dolphins and many shade species. Driftnets become even more dangerous if they are lost at sea. TI1enecsare made of nylon, and can float around for decades, entangling animals. The success of d1e VlellingtonConvention has led to the protection of other marine environments outside the South Pacific.Audlorides in rhe United States have banned driftnetting along pans of the western UScoasc. As

Whaling in the Southern Ocean In 1982, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) placed

an indefinite moratorium on the commercial hunting of most whale species. A huge v.thalesanctuary was declared in rhe Southern Ocean in 1994. Knownas the Southern Ocean WhaleSanctuary, the sanctuary protec.ts rhe imponam feeding grounds for many whale species around Antarctlca.Since dle introduction of the moratoriu~ whale numbers have increased.

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Marine management in Australia

Althoughit is a member or rhe f\t\rc , Japan has continued its whaling program, arguing chat its program is for scientific research. Environmental groups and whale expert~argue that this is a lie. Tileysay that the program l~purely for commercial whaling,and the whale meat is sold in fish markets in Japan. They also point out rhat almost no scientific papers abou t dle program have been written by Japanese researchers, whlle scientists studying whales in ocher countries produce.excellent research ,vithout harming anywhale-s at all

Australia has become a world leader in managing its marine environment. The fishing industry is heavilyregulated, \\rith strict quotas used to maintain sustainable fisheries. E."