Peacebuilding in Language Education: Innovations in Theory and Practice 9781788929806

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Peacebuilding in Language Education

NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION Founding Editor: Viv Edwards, University of Reading, UK Series Editors: Phan Le Ha, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA and Joel Windle, Monash University, Australia Two decades of research and development in language and literacy education have yielded a broad, multidisciplinary focus. Yet education systems face constant economic and technological change, with attendant issues of identity and power, community and culture. What are the implications for language education of new ‘semiotic economies’ and communications technologies? Of complex blendings of cultural and linguistic diversity in communities and institutions? Of new cultural, regional and national identities and practices? The New Perspectives on Language and Education series will feature critical and interpretive, disciplinary and multidisciplinary perspectives on teaching and learning, language and literacy in new times. New proposals, particularly for edited volumes, are expected to acknowledge and include perspectives from the Global South. Contributions from scholars from the Global South will be particularly sought out and welcomed, as well as those from marginalized communities within the Global North. All books in this series are externally peer-reviewed. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION: 83

Peacebuilding in Language Education Innovations in Theory and Practice Edited by

Rebecca L. Oxford, María Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison and Tammy Gregersen

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Blue Ridge Summit

DOI https://doi.org/10.21832/OXFORD9790 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Names: Oxford, Rebecca L., editor. | Gregersen, Tammy, editor. Title: Peacebuilding in Language Education: Innovations in Theory and Practice/Edited by Rebecca L. Oxford, M. Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison and Tammy Gregersen. Description: Bristol; Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters, [2021] | Series: New Perspectives on Language and Education: 83 | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book shares wisdom and strategies to help language teachers, teacher educators, and peace educators communicate peace, contribute to peace and weave peacebuilding into classrooms and daily life. The book’s Language of Peace Approach and more than 50 creative activities nurture peacebuilding skills in students, educators and the community”— Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020025472 (print) | LCCN 2020025473 (ebook) | ISBN 9781788929783 (paperback) | ISBN 9781788929790 (hardback) | ISBN 9781788929806 (pdf) | ISBN 9781788929813 (epub) | ISBN 9781788929820 (kindle edition) Subjects: LCSH: Peace—Study and teaching—Activity programs. | English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers—Activity programs. Classification: LCC JZ5534 .P433 2021 (print) | LCC JZ5534 (ebook) | DDC 303.6/6071—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025472 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025473 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-979-0 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-978-3 (pbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: NBN, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, USA. Website: www.multilingual-matters.com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright © 2021 Rebecca L. Oxford, M. Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison, Tammy Gregersen and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Nova Techset Private Limited, Bengaluru and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in the UK by Short Run Press Ltd. Printed and bound in the US by NBN.

Early Praise for Peacebuilding in Language Education: Innovations in Theory and Practice

Language can incite hate, hurt and harm; it can also cultivate love, empathy and respect. This timely book shares powerful wisdom and practical strategies for how language teachers and other educators can communicate peace; contribute to building inner, interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological peace; weave peacebuilding into instruction and daily life; and enhance their teaching, learning and being. Jing Lin, University of Maryland, USA. This is an impressive volume by international scholars aligned on the vision of the ripple effect, whereby peace is integrated into language education. The book deals with peace in its many manifestations and demonstrates how, beyond speech and writing, nonverbal communication can help create an environment where peace can flourish. This rich collection fosters peace not just through ripples, but potentially through waves. Andrew D. Cohen, Professor Emeritus, University of Minnesota, USA. This inspiring volume transcends geographical borders to encourage peacebuilding in language education. Exploring the six dimensions of the Language of Peace Approach, this book couples peace education theories with practical applications for language educators desiring to develop a culture of peace that recognizes the value of difference. Through this collection, ripples of peace will indeed be felt all around the world. Pamela Gunning, Concordia University, Canada. If ever the world needed peace it is surely now, and a book such as this is therefore certainly timely with its message of tolerance, understanding, empathy and nonviolence. Language teachers are in a unique position to promote more positive and peaceful mindsets, since we work and travel with people around the globe who may be influenced by our words and actions. Carol Griffiths, Professor, Girne American University of North Cyprus.

At a time of great sociopolitical tension globally, this volume is a beacon of light for understanding and reconciliation. From practical activities to the overarching state of mind this book instills, language educators are given the tools to build peace both with and within their students. This book involves the burgeoning fields of positive psychology, peace education, and language education but does not simply follow previous footsteps; instead, it carves a unique path from which any reader could benefit. Nathan Thomas, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK. Is there any better way to teach peace than by normalizing it as part of everyday human experience, communication, and expression, as this book does? Peacebuilding in Language Education is a muchneeded corrective to too much peace education that starts with the a priori assumption that peace is some lofty, hard-to-reach ideological good rather than the presumed norm for human community and thriving. Nicole Johnson, University of Mount Union, Ohio, USA. The integration of discussions on peace in education is paramount to positively shaping the minds of future generations, especially in times of personal, political and social uncertainty. In this very timely book, the editors have brought together a collection of profound papers that explore ways in which language educators can weave explorations of peacebuilding into their classrooms and curricula. Heath Rose, University of Oxford, UK. This book highlights the deep link between language education and culture, which is mostly overlooked in favour of the obvious parts of the ‘cultural iceberg’. In our highly turbulent and uncertain times, this volume constitutes a powerful statement that language educators need to raise learner awareness of the power of words. Zoe Kantaridou, University of Macedonia, Greece; Hellenic Open University, Greece.

Contents

Tables and Figures Dedications and Acknowledgments Contributors Foreword Gregory Hadley

ix xi xv xxv

Introduction Melinda Harrison

1

Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace 1

The Call for Peace in Language Education: This Book’s Purpose, Themes and Peace Approach Rebecca L. Oxford, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and M. Matilde Olivero

9

2

Empowering Language Teachers to Be Influential Peacebuilders: Knowledge, Competencies and Activities 29 Christina Gkonou, M. Matilde Olivero and Rebecca L. Oxford

3

The Nonverbal Channels of Peacebuilding: What Teachers, Trainers and Facilitators Need to Know Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

43

Section II: Applying Peacebuilding for Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace 4

5

6

Inner Peace and Emotion Regulation during Oral Production in ESL/EFL Teacher Education María Celina Barbeito and Adelina Sánchez Centeno How Increased Self-regulation, Learner Autonomy and Learner Cooperation Raise Self-esteem and Consequently Inner Peace and Interpersonal Peace: Insights from an Innovative School Context Carmen M. Amerstorfer Revolutionary Love and Peace in the Construction of an English Teacher’s Professional Identity Ana María F. Barcelos vii

63

80

96

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7

Seeking Connection through Difference: Finding the Nexus of Transformative Learning, Peacebuilding and Language Teaching Josephine Prado, Gönül Uguralp-Cannon, John Marc Green, Melinda Harrison and Laurie Frantz Smith

110

Section III: Applying Peacebuilding for Intercultural and International Peace 8

Can Foreign Languages Be Taught for Peace at US Government Institutes? 129 James E. Bernhardt, Christine M. Campbell and Betty Lou Leaver

9

International Faculty and International Students in Universities: Their Roles in Fostering Peace across Languages and Cultures Michael Wei and Yalun Zhou

10 Promoting Peace through Social Justice Pedagogies for Students from Immigrant Muslim Communities: Using Critical Language Awareness in Second Language Classrooms Laura Mahalingappa, Terri L. Rodriguez and Nihat Polat

146

162

Section IV: Applying Peacebuilding through Positive Psychology, Peace Linguistics and Peace Language 11 Acting Locally to Integrate Positive Psychology and Peace: Practical Applications for Language Teaching and Learning Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

179

12 From Hate Speech to Empathy: Lessons for Language Educators and Society Rebecca L. Oxford

196

13 Applying Peace Linguistics: What Peacebuilders Can Learn from the Languages of Hurt, Hate and Harm Andy Curtis and Rebecca L. Oxford

214

14 Exploring Peace Language: Hope, Help and Harmony Rebecca L. Oxford and Andy Curtis

228

Section V: Moving Further with Peacebuilding 15 Peacebuilding through Classroom Activities: Inner, Interpersonal, Intergroup, Intercultural, International and Ecological Peace M. Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford 16 Conclusion: Integrating Peace Concepts, Personal Insights and Future Peace Directions M. Matilde Olivero, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford Index

245

272

279

Tables and Figures

Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 10.1 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 13.1 Table 14.1

Responses to informal survey Peace dimensions occurring in the 431 peace defi nitions (written or drawn) Nonverbal decoding and encoding variables that influence peacebuilding in language learning and teaching Activity 1. Emotional rating (worksheet) Activities using critical frameworks Stages in the enemy-creation process Stages of genocide Negative 3-H words Positive 3-H words

10 22 46 71 170 201 202 215 229

Figures

Figure 1.1 Figure 4.1

Dimensions of peace in the Language of Peace Approach Activity 2. Putting things into perspective (worksheet) Figure 4.2 Activity 3. Portrait of me, my beliefs and emotions (worksheet) Figure 7.1 Soul as the apex of the compass Figure 7.2 Tactical peacebuilding: Finding common ground Figure 15.1 ‘Discrimination – Free Home Delivery’ Figure 15.2 ‘how can I explain?’

ix

18 73 74 115 118 256 259

Dedications and Acknowledgments

Dedications

To three courageous, loving, peaceful individuals, my lifelong friend Sylvia and two departed civil rights leaders, John R. Lewis and Martin Luther King, Jr., I dedicate my efforts in this book. Rebecca L. Oxford I dedicate this book to my mother Ana and to the memory of my father Rubén. María Matilde Olivero I dedicate my work on this book to my three co-editors – Rebecca, Matilde and Tammy – who throughout this process modeled for me the joy of peaceful partnership and perseverance. Melinda Harrison To Mario, Marito, Margie and Abby....for bringing me the peace that brings me tranquility and the chaos that keeps me non-complacent. To the moon and back..... Tammy Gregersen Acknowledgments

From Rebecca Oxford I thank my friends and co-editors, Matilde, Melinda and Tammy, whose peaceful power, intelligence and wholeheartedness have permanently touched my life. My husband, Clifford Stocking, always deserves my greatest gratitude. I honor Theresa Cheng for her beautiful work and my siblings, Ellen, Mac and Tom, for their artistic comments. Thanks to those who showed me how to love and serve: my parents and grandparents; dear xi

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friends Jing, Sylvia, Natalie, Ruth Anne and Bob; and my teachers in books and online, Thich Nhat Hanh, poet Mary Oliver, the Society of Friends, and others. Finally, Rabbi Tarfon’s words, spoken nineteen centuries ago, gently push me onward: ‘It is not your responsibility to finish the work [of perfecting the world], but you are not at liberty to desist from it’ (Pirke Avot 2:16). From María Matilde Olivero This is my first book, and I am deeply grateful to Rebecca Oxford who has opened my eyes to the importance of peacebuilding and the need to incorporate it into the field of language education. I thank Rebecca for trusting me to be part of such an important project. I am also grateful to Melinda Harrison and Tammy Gregersen for their wonderful work as coeditors and writers. I feel honored to have had the chance to work with and learn from three brilliant scholars and friends. Finally, I express my gratitude to all the students and colleagues who have given me opportunities throughout my career for deep reflection and transformation. Following the African philosophy of Ubuntu, I am convinced that I am because we are. From Melinda Harrison To my husband, Wade, I will always be thankful, especially for the space he makes for me to continually take on new projects such as this one. To my advisor and mentor, Dr Susan K. Spezzini, I give endless thanks. She is the human embodiment of Supportive Encouragement. My students – past, present and future, global and local – have taught me invaluable lessons about teaching and learning and life, and I am indebted to them. Finally, I hold ultimate gratitude for Dr Rebecca L. Oxford, not only for introducing me years ago to the beautiful routes in building peace through language learning but also for believing in me and inviting me to collaborate on this project. From Tammy Gregersen Isaac Newton once said that if we succeed with a forward vision it is because we ‘stand on the shoulders of giants’. My personal and professional journey has borne this out. Dad and Mario, I hope you aren’t hunch-backed now! And Beckers O., Elaine H., Petey M. and SarBear M., I owe you a shoulder rub! Mad-Hatter and Mel-Harry, you both rock! From all four of us We thank all who contributed to this book. You have changed our time-zone-spanning triangle (Matilde in Argentina, Tammy in the UAE

Dedications and Acknowledgments

xiii

and Melinda and Rebecca in the southeastern USA) into a much larger place. The book’s geographic territory and ‘soul-space’ includes England, home of Multilingual Matters’ wonderful staff (Laura Longworth, Anna Roderick, Sarah Williams, Flo McClelland and Elinor Robertson) and location of other excellent contributors: copyeditor Barbara Faux and designer Dave Wright. Very important to our volume’s geography is eastern India, where the esteemed project manager Rebana Barvin from Nova Techset and her talented typesetters worked on this book. The book’s vast area also encompasses western Canada, where our ‘sister of the book,’ Theresa Cheng, took the famous cover photo. We honor our amazing authors’ lands of birth, transition and/or current life, including Austria, Brazil, eastern Canada, France, China, Greece, India, Japan, the Netherlands, Russia, Scotland, Turkey, southeast UK, multiple areas of the USA, and perhaps elsewhere. We are grateful to readers for joining us in the growing circle of peacebuilders in language education. Contact us if you are interested in collaborative projects for expanding and enriching peace in our hearts, in our field and in the world. [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Contributors

Editors

Rebecca L. Oxford, Professor Emerita/Distinguished Scholar-Teacher (University of Maryland), works with PhD students at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Her degrees are in Russian (BA and MA) and educational psychology (MEd and PhD). Earlier she published five books on peace, spirituality and transformative education and eight on language learning. Examples include The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony; Understanding Peace Cultures; Re-Envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Paths to Wisdom and Social Transformation, with Lin and Brantmeier; Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies, two editions; and Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts, with Amerstorfer. She co-edited the 69-book Tapestry ESL/EFL book series and now co-edits two other series, Spirituality, Religion and Education (Palgrave/Springer) and Transforming Education for the Future (Information Age Publishing). Rebecca serves on the editorial boards of The Modern Language Journal, System, and other journals. She has presented her teaching and research in 43 countries and received a lifetime achievement award for ‘changing the way the world teaches languages’. María Matilde Olivero is a second language teacher-educator and researcher at Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Argentina. Her main research interests include individual differences in second language teaching and learning, and peacebuilding approaches in language (teacher) education. Matilde obtained her PhD in second language acquisition at the University of South Florida, USA under the auspices of the Fulbright Program. For the past several years she has worked intensively to fi nd ways to prepare language teachers to become peacebuilders. She is currently involved in a three-year-long research project that explores future EFL teachers’ beliefs, emotions and identities about a pedagogical innovation intended to foster multidimensional peace and social justice. Matilde has published peer-reviewed articles, written book chapters for different publishers and presented her work at renowned international conferences.

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Melinda Harrison believes that writing is a social activity and a key component in peacebuilding. After enrolling in a multilingual writing seminar in graduate school, she extended her English Studies master’s degree at Illinois State University to include an emphasis on TESOL. Upon completion of an educational specialist degree in English as a Second Language (ESL) Education from the University of Alabama at Birmingham in 2018, she immediately began a PhD in Educational Studies in Diverse Populations, with a pedagogical concentration. She has taught writing in various postsecondary contexts, including in intensive English programs, first-year composition departments and graduate programs. Her interest in the fi rst-year composition curriculum as a peacebuilding site originated during her years at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and continues at Auburn University at Montgomery. Valuing the synthesis of theory, research and praxis, Melinda always has several research projects in progress, most of which focus on how composition curricula can be more inclusive of multilingual writers and empower them in English literacy tasks beyond the classroom. Tammy Gregersen, Professor of TESOL at the American University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates, received her MA in education and PhD in linguistics in Chile, where she also began her academic career. She co-authored, with Peter MacIntyre, Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality and Optimizing Language Learners’ Nonverbal Behavior. She also co-edited, with Peter MacIntyre and Sarah Mercer, Positive Psychology in SLA and Innovations in Language Teacher Education. Tammy has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and has contributed numerous chapters to applied linguistics anthologies on individual differences, teacher education, language teaching methodology, positive psychology and nonverbal communication in language classrooms. She is passionate about exploring other cultures and has enjoyed the opportunities that participation in international conferences around the world and Fulbright Scholar grants to Chile and Costa Rica have provided. Authors

Carmen M. Amerstorfer is a senior scientist at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. She taught foreign language learners of all ages and at educational levels from pre-K to tertiary at educational institutions in Austria, the Netherlands and China. In her current position as a teacher educator, she applies a problem-oriented teaching approach to her language teaching methodology courses. She also teaches a course entitled Games and Activities in the EFL Classroom and regularly organizes excursions to a secondary school that promotes learner cooperation and self-reliance. Carmen’s main research interests include learner-centered and problemoriented teaching, strategic language learning and features of psychology

Contributors xvii

in language learning. In 2015 Carmen organized an international conference on language learning strategies which is hosted biennially in a different part of the world each time. Recently, she co-edited Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts (2018, Bloomsbury) with Rebecca L. Oxford. María Celina Barbeito is a teacher educator and researcher at the National University of Río Cuarto, Argentina. She is an Associate Professor and teaches Practicum I and II and English phonetics in the EFL Teacher Education Program, as well as a course on SLA and a seminar on ESL learning processes and strategies in the master’s in Applied Linguistics Program. She holds an MA in TESOL from the University of Arizona, USA. María Celina has almost 30 years’ experience as a teacher, trainer and researcher, mostly in the areas of learning strategies, beliefs and emotions. She is currently interested in fi nding ways to help future EFL teachers enhance their well-being through the lens of positive psychology. In the past few years, she has designed and implemented a series of pedagogical innovations aimed at helping future teachers regulate their emotions and increase their inner peace. Ana María Ferreira Barcelos is Full Professor of English and Applied Linguistics in the undergraduate and graduate Program of Languages and Applied Linguistics at Universidade Federal de Viçosa in Brazil. She holds a PhD from the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA. Her research interests concern how pedagogical love is related and can be enacted in language learning and teaching, and beliefs and how they relate to actions, emotions and identities in the social context of language learning and teaching. Ana María has edited and co-edited the following books: Beliefs about SLA: New Research Approaches (with Paula Kalaja, 2003, Kluwer); Narratives of Learning and Teaching EFL (with Paula Kalaja and Vera Menezes, 2008, Palgrave Macmillan); and more recently Beliefs, Agency and Identity in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (with Paula Kalaja, Maria Ruohotie-Lythy and Mari Aro, 2016, Palgrave Macmillan). James E. Bernhardt received his PhD in Slavic languages and literatures from the University of Pittsburgh. He taught Russian at Gustavus Adolphus College, the College of Wooster and, for 18 years, Northern Virginia Community College. For over 30 years his day job has been in the School of Language Studies at the Foreign Service Institute, the educational arm of the US Department of State. Jim is currently Director for Innovation, Curriculum, Student and Staff Development in the language school. Jim lives in Northern Virginia and has been studying Finnish and Welsh. Christine M. Campbell received her PhD from Purdue University. She is President of Campbell Language Consultants and was teacher, Department

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Chair, Dean, Assistant Provost and Associate Provost at the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC) for 30 years. In her last position at DLIFLC, Christine headed a directorate that practiced transformative teaching and learning. Her recent publications, in edited volumes, have focused on this topic. Andy Curtis received both his MA in applied linguistics and English language education and his PhD in international education from the University of York, UK. He has been the Director of the English Language Teaching Unit at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Executive Director of the School of English at Queen’s University in Canada. He is currently teaching online within the Graduate School of Education at Anaheim University, based in California, USA. From 2015 to 2016 Andy served as the 50th President of the TESOL International Association. In 2016 he received one of the Association’s 50-at-50 Awards, when he was voted one of the Fifty Most Influential Figures in the Field over the last 50 years. He has published more than 100 articles, book chapters and books. He is also the editor of a nine-book TESOL Press series, ELT In Context (2015–2017), and is the editor of a five-book series, Applied Linguistics for the Language Classroom (2017, Palgrave Macmillan). Christina Gkonou is Associate Professor of TESOL and MA TESOL Program Leader in the Department of Language and Linguistics at the University of Essex, UK. She is also Deputy Director of Education in the same department. She convenes postgraduate modules on teacher education and development and on psychological aspects surrounding the foreign language learning and teaching experience. Christina is co-editor of New Directions in Language Learning Psychology (with Sarah Mercer and Dietmar Tatzl, 2016, Springer), co-editor of New Insights into Language Anxiety: Theory, Research and Educational Implications (with Jean-Marc Dewaele and Mark Daubney, 2017, Multilingual Matters), co-editor of The Emotional Rollercoaster of Language Teaching (with Jean-Marc Dewaele and Jim King, 2020, Multilingual Matters) and co-author of MYE: Managing Your Emotions Questionnaire (with Rebecca L. Oxford, 2016). John Marc Green first taught English as a second language (ESL) to adult immigrant farm workers as a volunteer in rural Washington State in the early 1990s. He then spent more than 20 years as a reporter and photographer in various media including newspapers, public radio and broadcast television. He studied ESL pedagogy at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) prior to earning an MSc in instructional design and development from UAB in 2019. While at UAB, he taught adult community English classes and tutored international ESL students. John Marc currently works as an instructor of multimedia broadcasting, writing and fi lm production at Samford University. Keenly aware of the societal

Contributors xix

challenges second language learners face in all nations, John Marc believes it is an ethical obligation of native speakers to take proactive steps to reach out and bridge linguistic barriers in order to build peaceful societies. His current research focuses on the potential of interactive and branching stories for teaching and learning. Gregory Hadley is a Professor of Sociolinguistics and Western Cultural Studies at Niigata University, Japan, and a Visiting Fellow at the University of Oxford (Kellogg College). He has written a number of works on grounded theory, including Grounded Theory in Applied Linguistics Research: A Practical Guide (2017, Routledge) and English for Academic Purposes in Neoliberal Universities: A Critical Grounded Theory (2015, Springer). His professional website can be found at http://www2.human. niigata-u.ac.jp/~ghadley/main/. benjamin lee hicks is a visual artist, elementary school teacher and PhD candidate in curriculum and pedagogy at the Ontario Institute for Education (OISE), University of Toronto. They taught JK-Grade 6 classrooms in the Toronto District School Board for eight years prior to beginning graduate studies full time. benjamin has written and designed curriculum materials on topics of sustainable community building, queering school space and arts-based activism. They are interested in how we might better support teachers to expect queerness and welcome all gender identities in their classrooms. benjamin is also passionate about centering the voices and experiences of trans and non-binary people navigating the school system as students, staff and caregivers. Their current work explores how visual storytelling and comic art can help to engage teachers more personally and continuously in professional learning (+action) for social justice. Betty Lou Leaver received her PhD from Pushkin Institute, Moscow. She is Director of the Literary Center of San Juan Bautista and previously served as Provost, Associate Provost and Dean at the Defense Language Institute (DLI). She established an International Language Program at NASA, and served as a language training supervisor at the Foreign Service Institute, curriculum developer for the Federal Foreign Language Training Lab, Dean at the New York Institute of Technology in Jordan, President of the American Global Studies Institute, Co-Director of the Center for the Advancement of Distinguished Language Proficiency at San Diego State University and Founding Director of the Center for the Languages of the Central Asian Region at Indiana University. She has provided consultation to educational programs in 24 countries. Betty Lou has published 21 books and more than 100 articles. Her transformative education efforts at DLI received the 2015 Nikolai Khardajian Award for Innovation in International Education from the American Association of University Administrators.

xx Peacebuilding in Language Education

Peter D. MacIntyre is Professor of Psychology at Cape Breton University. He earned his PhD from the University of Western Ontario and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Ottawa. His research focuses on the psychology of language learning and communication. Peter has published over 100 articles and chapters on language anxiety, willingness to communicate, motivation and other topics. He has co-authored or co-edited books on topics including research-driven pedagogy, contemporary motivation research, positive psychology in second-language acquisition, motivational dynamics, nonverbal communication, teaching innovations and capitalizing on language learner individuality. Peter has received awards for teaching excellence (Atlantic Association of Universities), the Gardner Award (International Association for Language and Social Psychology), the Mildenberger Prize (Modern Language Association) for contributions to the study of language, and awards for service to students and the community. Laura Mahalingappa (PhD, The University of Texas at Austin) is an Associate Professor of English as a Second Language (ESL) Teacher Education at Texas State University. Her teaching and research interests include first and second language acquisition, sociolinguistics and teacher education. She has published research on bilingual language acquisition in marginalized language communities, teachers’ beliefs about teaching linguistically and culturally diverse populations and the education of Muslim students. She has taught English in the United States, Turkey and the former Soviet Union. Her recent book on multicultural education is entitled Supporting Muslim Students: A Guide to Understanding the Diverse Issues of Today’s Classrooms (2017, Rowman & Littlefield). Nihat Polat (PhD, The University of Texas at Austin) is a Professor and Chair of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Texas State University. He has taught both graduate and undergraduate courses in the areas of L2 learning, teaching and assessment, teacher education and the education of immigrant and minority populations in K-12 schools. He has published two books and over 30 peer-reviewed journal articles. His work has appeared in top-tier journals, including Applied Linguistics, TESOL Quarterly, Modern Language Journal, and others. Previously, he served as Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research at Duquesne University, while also sitting on national panels (e.g. Fulbright National Screening Committee) and serving as a consulting editor for the Journal of Educational Research. With Tammy Gregersen and Peter MacIntyre, he also has an edited volume entitled Research-Driven Pedagogy: Implications of L2A Theory and Research for the Teaching of Language Skills (2020, Routledge). Josephine Prado has worked with multilingual learners for more than 20 years. She began by teaching English as a foreign language to children in

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Ecuador. Upon returning to the United States, she earned an MA-TESOL degree and taught international college students in an intensive English program. However, she shifted her focus to K-12 English learners and worked for seven years as an English as a second language (ESL) specialist for the local school system. Wanting to train teachers to work effectively with culturally and linguistically diverse learners of all ages and backgrounds, Josephine pursued and received her doctoral degree in ESL – Secondary Education. She currently works as an Assistant Professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Education always transforms, but of all her educational experiences to date, the doctoral program transformed her the most. Current research leads her to connect a variety of issues, such as teacher preparation, peace education, language teaching, transformative learning and advocacy. Terri L. Rodriguez is a Professor of Education at the College of St Benedict and St John’s University in St Joseph, MN, USA, and a former middle and secondary (Grades 5–12) English language arts teacher. Her research focuses on teacher preparation for diversity, equity and social justice. She regularly presents her work at annual conferences of the American Education Research Association (AERA), the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). Within NCTE, Terri serves as a Co-Chair of the English Language Arts Teacher Educators (ELATE) Commission on Social Justice. Her research has recently been published in English Education (forthcoming), The European Educational Researcher, Literacy Research and Instruction and Social Education. She is co-author of Supporting Muslim Students: A Guide to Understanding the Diverse Issues of Today’s Classrooms (2017, Rowman & Littlefield). She welcomes all questions and comments at [email protected]. Adelina Sánchez Centeno is an EFL teacher and researcher at the National University of Río Cuarto, Argentina. She teaches English Language I at Tecnicatura en Lenguas. She holds an MA in applied linguistics from the National University of Río Cuarto. Adelina’s main research interests focus on beliefs and emotions about oral corrective feedback in EFL contexts. She is also interested in helping fi rst-year students improve their wellbeing by fostering inner peace through emotion self-regulation strategies. Adelina is currently working on a research project that involves the design and implementation of positive psychology-based classroom interventions to help future EFL teachers increase their well-being. Laurie Frantz Smith was born in Connecticut but spent most of her childhood in Gadsden, Alabama, USA. She earned her BS in early childhood education from Auburn University, and then her master’s degree from the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She has taught kindergarten and

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second grade in Birmingham, Alabama, Clayton, Missouri and Etowah County, Alabama. In addition, she has taught international students at the Alabama Language Institute at Gadsden State Community College. At the ripe age of 50, Laurie began work on her education specialist degree in English as a Second Language (ESL) Education at UAB. Her experiences and studies there furthered her interest in immigration and social justice issues and her passion for working with English learners. Laurie’s relationships with English learners and their families have enriched her life as she has learned more about their different cultures and life experiences. She has great interest in faith-based outreach to the poor and to undocumented workers. Also, she is hopeful for the future of immigrants in Alabama since she has been encouraged to see people of faith meet undocumented workers and hear their stories. This exposure and the generosity that followed have encouraged Laurie to hope and strive for peace, compassion and reconciliation in her small-town community. Gönül Uguralp-Cannon, born and raised in Turkey, is a retired English instructor from Uludag University, Bursa. She obtained her master’s degree in TESOL from the University of Alabama at Birmingham in 2017 after she took a sharp turn in life and permanently moved to the United States in 2015. Throughout her 23-year teaching career, she worked with students of all different ages and levels. Her passion has always been using different genres of literature, especially short stories and novels, in language teaching to promote tolerance, empathy, peace and understanding of others. Gönül believes that stories, as a peacebuilding medium, not only allow readers to gain new life perspectives but also can help them with considerable transformations. Her understanding of teaching also enables her to integrate everyday situations that learners are familiar with and comfortable talking about within the teaching environment. By doing so, she aims to help learners take active roles and become part of an interactive community where they can communicate peacefully and overcome anxiety in language learning. Michael Wei, PhD, is Associate Professor and Director of the TESOL Program in the Division of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Missouri–Kansas City, USA. His research interests include applied linguistics, reading/writing English as a second or foreign language, learning environments, early second language development and second language acquisition. With a co-editor, Michael has published a book entitled Applied Linguistics for Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners (2019, IGI Global). His research articles have appeared in TESOL Journal, Learning Environments Research, Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, Teachers College Record, System and The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes. He is the 2019 recipient of the Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching at the University of Missouri–Kansas City.

Contributors

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Yalun Zhou is an Associate Professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (USA), where she teaches Mandarin Chinese and English for academic communication. She also supervises undergraduate research in the Games and Simulation Arts and Sciences (GSAS) Program and graduate students in computer science. Zhou’s research interests lie in the intersection of SLA and L2 pedagogy. Passionate about how new technology and innovative pedagogy enhance the teaching and learning of second/foreign languages, her recent research activities involve the curriculum and instructional design and user testing of Chinese learning with artificial intelligence in human-scale, cognitive immersive environments. She is a core faculty researcher with the Mandarin Project, a collaboration between IBM Watson and Rensselaer. Before joining Rensselaer, Zhou worked on developing game-enhanced Chinese learning e-textbooks at Michigan State University. Zhou’s scholarly work has appeared in Learning Environment Research, System, ACM CHI and ESP Across Cultures. She has been featured in AP Press, MIT Tech Review and InsideHigherEd.

Foreword Gregory Hadley

We live in a world today where peace is unprofitable. By peace, I mean a way of living where we are reaching out to each other – especially those who are different and who disagree with us on just about everything – in a spirit of respect and good will. By peace, I mean the internal decision to seek understanding, to fi nd common ground and to discover ways forward toward achieving mutual coexistence. This is not the default setting for many of us today. In societies around the world, the insidious sifting of our multi-mediated world places us into consumer groups, market shares, social classes and political tribes. We are sold versions of reality telling us that we are under threat from the Other – those who are irreconcilably not like us, and who must somehow be either excluded or defeated. On social media, algorithms designed to keep us watching fearful headlines and seeing posts from people of other tribes make us angry. Marketers work behind the scenes as digital war profiteers, analyzing the heated discourse in order to find out what we might like to buy, while a wider public derives pleasure from reading violent exchanges, all the while learning implicitly to love conflict (Rose-Stockwell, 2017). These lessons are emphasized further on 24-hour news networks, which introduce to our living rooms groups of up to six people at a time, looking forward at the camera while shouting accusations at each other about the latest social, economic or political issue. We watch. We feel outrage. Most importantly, we watch the commercials. The program ends, and a silent echo in our hearts signals that we are even farther apart. Nothing is resolved. But the result of the aggressive and combative nature of today’s public discourse is that our feelings of stress, separation and insecurity are intensified. This nervous state is punctuated by the reports of yet another act of mass murder or violent uprising (Davies, 2019). Peace in our time, whenever it is mentioned at all, is often the peace of the gun; it is the peace of the wall, the peace of one side subjugating the other. It is the peace of isolation and the peace of the echo chamber. This sort of peace, if we can call it that, is profitable for those remorselessly milking us for money, who reward those participating in a futile cycle of anger, outrage and hate with daily hits of dopamine and adrenaline. Such is the social world inhabited by so many of our second language learners. It raises for us the question of whether we have a responsibility xxv

xxvi Peacebuilding in Language Education

to respond in a constructive way to the corrosive dynamics affecting our societies. In response, there will be those who will defer, saying that taking up the task of fostering peace is not their job: they are language teachers, and their mission is to help their learners to become proficient in the target language. I believe this way of thinking is mistaken, because at the end of this pragmatic path, language teachers run the risk of becoming little more than ‘instrumental and utilitarian’ (Peters, 2018: 148) within their institutions. Simply ‘teaching how the language works’ not only implicitly strengthens the status quo, it also tells institutional stakeholders that we are little more than technicians tasked with fi xing our learners’ broken language (Allman, 2001; Varghese et al., 2005: 22). There is a better way. Standing in solidarity with the contributors of this book, I firmly believe that as language teachers we have an obligation to encourage the building of peace within the scaffolding of our lessons. Few educators have access as we do to students who come from a wide variety of countries and cultures. By teaching languages in ways that foster peace, we have the potential to make helpful contributions that eventually will be felt around the world. In this volume, you will fi nd a wealth of ideas and insight on how to encourage your learners to become peacebuilders. I found the chapters truly inspiring and am personally honored to have a chance to contribute in some small way to this important work. They offer the hope that, by working together, we can become a force for good. These threads of cooperation leading to considerate action and of actualizing solid pedagogic practice run through the fabric of this book, making it a wonderful resource for readers seeking ways to encourage positive peacebuilding in their second language classrooms. It is in ‘envisioning the future of global peace and justice,’ writes bell hooks (2010: 41), that ‘we must all realize that collaboration is the practice that will most effectively enable everyone to dialogue together, to create a new language of community and mutual partnership’. Through reading and applying the ideas here, you are beginning that collaborative journey with many others who, each in their own unique way, are working for that ‘unprofitable’ peace – a peace that seeks to liberate us from bonded groups and from the clanking chains of tired tropes and stultifying stereotypes. It is a path to peace that ignores the artificial political and religious boundaries and travels forward to achieve a better future for us all. Welcome aboard. Read on, and let’s get started! References Allman, P. (2001) Revolutionary Social Transformation: Democratic Hopes, Political Possibilities and Critical Education. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Davies, W. (2019) Nervous States: Democracy and the Decline of Reason. London: W.W. Norton.

Foreword xxvii

hooks, b. (2010) Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom. London: Routledge. Peters, M. (2018) Education in a post-truth world. In M. Peters, S. Rider, M. Hyvönen and T. Besley (eds) Post-Truth, Fake News: Viral Modernity & Higher Education (pp. 145–150). Singapore: Springer. Rose-Stockwell, T. (2017) This is how your fear and outrage are being sold for profit. Quartz. See https://qz.com/1039910/how-facebooks-news-feed-algorithm-sells-ourfear-and-outrage-for-profit/ (accessed September 2019). Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnson, B. and Johnson, K.A. (2005) Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives and beyond. Journal of Language, Identity and Education 4 (1), 22–44.

Introduction Melinda Harrison

Every day we do things, we are things, that have to do with peace. If we are aware of our lifestyle, our way of consuming, of looking at things, we will know how to make peace right in the moment we are alive. Thich Nhat Hanh, 1992

Thich Nhat Hanh, in the quote above, asserts that as citizens of the world we all have a responsibility to act in peace, to rid our consciousness – what we do and what we are – of pollution and other elements that detract or work against peace. In this way, Hanh charges his readers to live with mindfulness, cognizant that we should be peacebuilders through what we consume and what we produce. Because we do not live in a vacuum and instead in a world of interconnected humanity, what we produce in action, in reaction, in language, affects the humans and ecology near us and extends out in effect to larger, more distant circles. The concepts of interconnected humanity and the resulting ripple effects of action are echoed in the recent work of one of our editors. Rebecca Oxford’s (2013, 2014) research and writing on the multidimensional aspects of peace demonstrate how activity that influences one dimension of peace – inner, interpersonal, intergroup, international, intercultural or ecological peace – will have an influence upon other dimensions. As she posited, communication through multiple language forms (e.g. everyday conversation, journalism, civil rights speech, interaction across cultures, body language and the language of art) is a process inherently connected with peace because the ways in which language is used can either create peace or destroy it. In other words, language is integral to strategies for keeping peace, for making peace and for building peace. In The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony (2013), Rebecca suggested that a future role for peace studies and peace research lies in integrating peace into the teaching of language and other subjects: ‘… research and program evaluation are needed regarding optimal ways to infuse peace education much more widely into subject-area curricula – for example, in language, literature, mathematics, science, and social studies at multiple levels – and the result of such efforts’ (Oxford, 2013: 56). While the 2013 text focused on the language of peace in broad contexts, Rebecca’s 1

2

Peacebuilding in Language Education

expertise in language learning strategies and intercultural communication strategies organically led to connections among peace studies, language learning and culture learning. She soon edited another peace book, Understanding Peace Cultures (2014), which connected the language of peace with peace cultures in North America, Africa, Europe, the Middle East and the Far East. Several years before those two books, Rebecca had already gained peace inspiration and experience from her University of Maryland colleague, Jing Lin, with whom she worked on several peace efforts, such as the peace booth described in Chapter 1, and co-edited a volume on ecological peace education, Transformative Eco-Education for Human and Planetary Survival (Oxford & Lin, 2011). Grand ideas usually arise from thinking outside of disciplinary boxes, and they often also spring up from networking, collaboration and friendship among scholar-teachers. If this anthology, Peacebuilding in Language Education, had an actual place of origin, that place would be Toronto, and the event would be the 2015 American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) annual conference. It was here, after Rebecca shared her peace-and-positive-psychology activities at the Innovations Symposium co-moderated by Tammy Gregersen, that Rebecca and Tammy began brainstorming in a hotel room how they might compile a text to showcase examples of peace activities for language learning which they both knew were being developed around the world. While discussing ideas, both drew upon their prior individual and collective work surrounding second language acquisition and positive psychology. Rebecca also gathered thoughts from her earlier books on peace. Rebecca’s and Tammy’s work, both prior to and at the 2015 AAAL conference, rippled outward to influence Matilde Olivero, a doctoral student who at that time was pursuing a degree in second language acquisition at the University of South Florida at Tampa. It was while attending the Innovations Symposium which Tammy was co-moderating and at which Rebecca was sharing instructional activities to foster peace and positivity in the classroom that Matilde was inspired to integrate peacebuilding approaches in second language teacher education and in her dissertation. Matilde had always been committed to fi nding ways to better prepare future teachers of English to make a difference in society. In addition, she was especially concerned about helping future teachers experience greater well-being and harmony. Another important trigger for her interest in peace education had to do with her personal struggles during her doctoral studies. During her times in the United States she went through the regular pressures of school while also dealing with a serious health problem and her father’s terminal cancer, which impacted her personal and professional selves in significant ways. Such difficult times involved immense suffering, indeed, but also a process of transformation, healing and peace. The peacebuilding presentation by Rebecca in AAAL Toronto in 2015 enlightened Matilde by allowing her to realize that she could help her practicum

Introduction 3

students to experience peace in concrete ways in the classroom and to be ambassadors of peace in their own teaching contexts. Since earning her degree in 2017, Matilde has continued to build upon the scholarship in emotion and affect in second language teaching, melding practices of mindfulness and well-being with peace research, all richly relevant areas of teaching and scholarship that augmented Tammy and Rebecca’s ideas for an edited collection on integrating peace in language education. The ripple that began in 2015 in Toronto found its way to Birmingham, Alabama in 2017, where Rebecca taught a graduate-level course in which Melinda Harrison, the third co-editor, was a student. Throughout the summer of 2017 as a student of Rebecca, Melinda found herself intrigued by the concepts of transformative learning, positive psychology and the dimensions of peace. Having realized early in her teaching career the value of coursework in psychology and cognition, Melinda began connecting her teaching with the new ideas she was learning in Rebecca’s course. At that time an adjunct instructor of composition at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and a graduate student in the university’s educational specialist in ESL Education program, Melinda began contemplating how she could incorporate peacebuilding into her multilingual freshman composition courses. After serving on a panel with Rebecca and others at the 2017 Peace and Justice Studies Association conference, she and the panelists co-authored a chapter for the present book. In early 2018, work on the edited collection began in earnest. The conversation that began in 2015 in Toronto spread into global collaboration, with Tammy in the United Arab Emirates, Matilde in Argentina and Rebecca in Alabama. They solidified the book’s themes and brainstormed who of the many scholars they knew around the globe could author chapters on rich topics relevant to peace in language education. Out of that collaboration came the current collection, organized partly according to Rebecca’s work on the dimensions of peace. In 2019 Melinda began her PhD program in Educational Studies in Diverse Populations at UAB, cotaught with Rebecca the UAB course that had inspired her two years earlier and was invited to join this book’s editorial team. We share with you this narrative of creative collaboration because it mirrors the influential ripples of peace that are integrated with language teaching. Just as we can build peace through what we as individuals produce and consume, as Thich Nhat Hanh asserts, so too can mere conversations between two individuals in a hotel room ripple outward and around the globe to collect into one volume exemplars of expertise in integrating peace in language learning. We challenged ourselves to tap into the knowledge and practice of some of the most progressive language educators and builders of peace around the globe, in various contexts, in order to provide our readers with not only theoretically based ideas but also practical, applicable strategies to incorporate into their own language teaching contexts.

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Peacebuilding in Language Education

We begin in Chapter 1 with a preview of the book: our purpose, theoretical frameworks, defi nitions, intended take-aways for readers and an outline of the book’s sections and chapters. In Chapter 2 a collaboration of scholars from the United Kingdom, Argentina and the United States presents theoretical concepts and practical activities to aid language teachers in becoming peacebuilders. Chapter 3, composed by professors focused on language learning and psychology from the United Arab Emirates and Canada, explores the role of nonverbal communication in building peace in language teaching and learning. To begin Section II, which focuses on inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace, scholar-teachers from Argentina present in Chapter 4 how inner peace operates to help control language-inhibiting emotion for language teachers. Chapter 5, authored by a senior scientist and teacher educator practicing in Austria, addresses the roles of inner and interpersonal peace in language learning. Chapter 6, presented by a scholar in Brazil, demonstrates scholarship on revolutionary love in education and on the role of love in building one’s professional identify as a language teacher, thus building inner peace. The narratives in Chapter 7 demonstrate how the interconnection of transformative learning, peacebuilding and language teaching results in building interpersonal and intercultural peace. The chapter is authored by language teachers from elementary and higher education contexts in the United States and Turkey. Chapter 8, which begins Section III on building intercultural and international peace, presents a view into language learning in government institutes in the United States and elsewhere. Chapter 9 continues the thread of intercultural and international peace by two scholars originally from China and with long experience of teaching in universities in the United States and Thailand. In Chapter 10 social justice pedagogies are explored, specifically in regard to Muslim communities at US universities. Section IV, which encompasses the roles of positive psychology, peace linguistics and peace language in building peace, begins with Chapter 11, in which the authors, from the United Arab Emirates and Canada, explore theory and activities in applying positive psychology and peacebuilding to language learning. Chapter 12, by a US author, provides lessons for language educators and society about moving from hate speech to empathy. In Chapters 13 and 14 two language scholars – one with a background in Hong Kong, the UK and Canada and the other from the United States – explore not only the relationship of peace to the terms hate, hurt and harm, but also the linkages of peace with the terms hope, help and harmony. In Section V, concerning moving further with peacebuilding, we offer Chapter 15, led by scholars from Argentina and the United States, who present many innovative, classroom-based peacebuilding activities and list peacebuilding activities that were included in earlier chapters. At the end of the book we leave you with Chapter 16, containing our joint perspectives on what we have learned about peacebuilding from this book’s

Introduction 5

influential authors, as well as our speculations about what could and should come next for peacebuilding in language education and beyond. In all, we present in this anthology five sections containing 16 chapters, written by 23 scholars, teachers and language practitioners, representing countless instructional, geographical and cultural contexts. Our vision for this book is that the reading and implementation of ideas from it will create ripples in all dimensions of peace. Our hope for you, our readers, is that in reading this volume you will see yourselves as peacebuilders, whether you are in language teaching and learning contexts, other educational settings or situations that are not directly related to education. May all readers fully experience Thich Nhat Hanh’s hopeful words which opened this introduction: ‘we will know how to make peace right in the moment we are alive’. References Thich Nhat Hanh (1992) Peace Is Every Step. New York: Bantam. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. and Lin, J. (eds) (2011) Transformative Eco-Education for Human and Planetary Survival. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Section I Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace 1

2

3

The Call for Peace in Language Education: This Book’s Purpose, Themes and Peace Approach Rebecca L. Oxford, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and M. Matilde Olivero Empowering Language Teachers to Be Influential Peacebuilders: Knowledge, Competencies and Activities Christina Gkonou, M. Matilde Olivero and Rebecca L. Oxford The Nonverbal Channels of Peacebuilding: What Teachers, Trainers and Facilitators Need to Know Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

9

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43

1 The Call for Peace in Language Education: This Book’s Purpose, Themes and Peace Approach Rebecca L. Oxford, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and M. Matilde Olivero

Works of love are always works of peace. Mother Teresa1

What is peace? These three words, immense in importance, might be on your mind as you open this fi rst chapter. This essential question launched some crucial conversations about peace. Crucial Peace Conversations

‘What is peace?’ Having just serendipitously met in the university coffee shop, Tammy asked this question to a Palestinian student living in the UAE who had never held a passport from anywhere. Tammy was on a mission to informally explore whether one’s country of origin or the passport one holds might influence how the respondent defi ned peace. The Palestinian student was sitting next to his Yemeni friend and, looking over at him, simply said, ‘sharing emotions and being kind’. Tammy next turned her attention to the Yemeni friend and asked the same thing, to which he responded, ‘No war between countries’ and followed that quickly with ‘and equality between genders’. ‘OK,’ Tammy said, ‘How do we communicate peace?’ The Palestinian laughed teasingly and said, ‘In Yemen, where there isn’t much food, you show peace by sharing your food!’ The Yemeni playfully slugged his friend’s shoulder and said, ‘That’s true, but it’s also by being open-minded and free. No stereotypes. No judging’. 9

10

Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

Tammy continued her exploration of the variables that might impact perceptions of peace and the ways it is communicated by informally surveying 22 students and professors on the campus where she teaches. The university is an ideal site to do this kind of appraisal because it is in the Middle East and hosts students from over 90 countries. Among her informal sample were 10 female and 12 male representatives from Bangladesh, Yemen, Jordan (2), England, Sudan (2), Palestine (with Syrian documents), Syria (2), Palestine (with Jordanian documents), Lebanese (with Belgian documents), China, Egypt, United Arab Emirates (5), Turkey and the United States. The biggest surprise from her ad hoc activity was the overwhelming concentration of answers that fell within the inner and interpersonal dimensions of peace. Tammy had speculated, given the part of the world she was in, that intercultural and international peace might be closer to the forefront of students’ and professors’ minds, but that was not the case. There were also no differences between males and females concerning the dimensions of which they spoke. Table 1.1 briefly summarizes their responses. For those few respondents whose defi nitions went beyond inner or interpersonal peace to more far-reaching dimensions of intergroup, intercultural or international peace, all invariably perceived peace as the absence of something negative: ‘Lack of war’; ‘No war with freedom to do as one wants’; ‘Inexistence of racism’; ‘Absence of conflict’; ‘Absence of violence’. Near the end of her informal survey of students, Tammy was sitting at a coffee shop table with young women from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. She casually mentioned her curiosity about the number of responses that spoke to inner and interpersonal peace as opposed to the few concerning peace on a broader scope. Enlightenment came from the young Palestinian woman: ‘At [name of university], students feel safe. We are not Table 1.1 Responses to informal survey Inner peace responses

Interpersonal peace responses

‘Being happy where you are’

‘Peaceful first with yourself to allow peace with others’

‘Understanding one’s limitations and being able to work freely within them’

‘Being on good terms with a person’

‘Being in good terms with life’

‘Unity. People interact without boundaries and with no misconceptions’

‘Tolerance, agreement, love’

‘Absence of lies and deception. Evil comes from lies’

‘Self-respect, valuing different opinions’

‘Ability to practice as you wish without transgressing on the rights of others’

‘Serenity and peace of mind. Satisfaction with how things are and the little you have’

‘Doing what you want without harming others’

‘My bed’ ‘Mental peace. More than physical. Being happy, comfortable, having peace of mind. It’s mental’

The Call for Peace in Language Education

11

in a war zone here. If you went to Palestine and asked me the same question there, you’d get very different answers’. The answers to Tammy’s second question in her aforementioned informal survey, ‘How do we communicate peace?’ are probably even more important for harmony-seeking teachers and teacher educators across the globe because they provide insight into the ‘how’ of peacebuilding. Not surprisingly, the multinational sample overwhelmingly responded that actions are much more important than words: ‘Be there for others’. ‘Reflect it into the world’. ‘Respect diversity’. ‘Eliminate negative energy’. ‘Respect others with no judgment’. ‘Do no harm’. ‘Encourage equal rights’. ‘Smile a lot’. ‘Find middle ground’. This informal exercise uncovers important concepts as we introduce this volume on advocating for peace in language education, which means language teaching, language learning, language teacher education and research on any of these. Tammy’s essential conversations about peace are also valuable for this book’s peace-oriented readers outside the language education field. We can be from any country of the world and hold any passport, yet inner peace and interpersonal peace remain integral to every individual’s well-being; we desire inner and interpersonal peace. When we move beyond ourselves and our small circle of loved ones, peace takes different forms, and the means by which we engage with it becomes more complex. This collection of chapters on peace will bear that out. As you continue reading the contributions to this anthology, we trust you will fi nd as much truth and wisdom as that shared by students who simply provided their spontaneous yet sage advice. If Tammy’s conversations with students in the UAE were happening now amid the global COVID-19 pandemic, what would be different? Participants might be sitting six feet apart and wearing face masks, or they might be interacting digitally through Zoom, Skype or other means. At least some students might now associate peace partly with health, access to medical support and mutual caring at a time of global crisis. Concepts of peace are influenced, but not determined, by factors like recent and past experiences, positionality, emotions at a given moment (e.g. pleasure, love, passion, pain, fear, panic, yearning), formal and informal learnings, family beliefs and the embedded, sometimes unacknowledged, experiences of past generations. How the Rest of This Chapter Is Organized

So far, we have shared some crucial conversations that began with the simple words, ‘What is peace?’, and described a university festival activity that explored the same issue. The rest of the chapter includes the following parts: • •

Objectives of this book What this book contains

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Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

• • •

Readers who can benefit from this book Important peace concepts Conclusion

Objectives of This Book

This book’s main objectives are to … • • • •

Share peace theories and applications useful for the language education field and other fields. Demonstrate how to enhance teaching, learning and living by weaving peacebuilding into instruction and daily life. Provide rich information and transformative activities which can be used to expand multiple aspects of peace: inner, interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological. Invite readers to participate in ongoing research that involves some ideas and activities from this book.

What This Book Contains

This anthology is organized into five sections composed of 16 chapters. We describe each of these below. Section I, the current section, is called ‘Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace’ because we, as language educators, hear the call for peace every day. This book is our response to that call. The book is also a plea to you to listen to the call and respond positively and soon, if you are not already consciously engaged in peacebuilding. This section contains three chapters (1, 2 and 3). •

•

•

Chapter 1, the present chapter, introduces the book. At the start of this chapter are two explorations of the meaning of peace. This foundational chapter also calls for peace in language education, advocates for language educators’ unique peacebuilding roles and opportunities, and provides essential background information on purposes, themes and peace approach. Chapter 2, ‘Empowering Language Teachers to Be Influential Peacebuilders: Knowledge, Competencies and Activities’, by Christina Gkonou (UK), M. Matilde Olivero (Argentina) and Rebecca L. Oxford (USA), offers guidelines for teacher educators to prepare language teachers to become peacebuilders. It does so by elaborating on fundamental peace knowledge and four competencies (ethnocultural empathy, intercultural understanding, cognitive flexibility and emotion regulation) that language teachers should develop to foster peace, followed by a sample of activities that can be used in language (teacher) education courses. Chapter 3, ‘The Nonverbal Channels of Peacebuilding: What Teachers, Trainers and Facilitators Need to Know’, by Tammy Gregersen (UAE)

The Call for Peace in Language Education

13

and Peter D. MacIntyre (Canada), focuses on the process of the communication of peace in its totality, including the nonverbal and vocal aspects. As this inspiring chapter reveals, awareness of the complexity of human communication facilitates the aims of harmony seekers as they use not only their words but also their voices and bodies to create the environment in which peace can flourish. Section II, ‘Applying Peacebuilding for Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace’, contains four chapters (4, 5, 6 and 7). This section delves into three dimensions of situated, multi-purpose peacebuilding: personal or inner peace, peace among people who know each other and group-to-group peace. •

•

•

•

Chapter 4, ‘Inner Peace and Emotion Regulation during Oral Production in ESL/EFL Teacher Education’, is by María Celina Barbeito and Adelina Sánchez Centeno, who work together in language teacher education in Argentina. This chapter is for language teacher educators preparing future teachers, who must regulate their emotions and stay peaceful when facing the stress of using the target language orally. Teacher educators and future teachers will value the field-tested, successful activities in this chapter. This chapter will also benefit others interested in inner peace and emotion regulation. Chapter 5, ‘How Increased Self-regulation, Learner Autonomy and Learner Cooperation Raise Self-esteem and Consequently Inner Peace and Interpersonal Peace: Insights from an Innovative School Context’, by Carmen M. Amerstorfer (Austria), refers to several key factors that contribute to inner and interpersonal peace in the language classroom. It also describes the author’s significant study which explored the value of a holistic teaching approach called Cooperative Open Learning (COOL) for fostering inner and interpersonal peace in an Austrian secondary school. Chapter 6, ‘Revolutionary Love and Peace in the Construction of an English Teacher’s Professional Identity’, by Ana María F. Barcelos (Brazil), opens the door to a topic generally undiscussed in applied linguistics: how a revolutionary, groundbreaking type of love relates to peace in the development of a language teacher’s sense of self. The author discusses the concept of love in education and its relationship to peace and identity, and then she applies these concepts in reporting on a narrative study of a Brazilian teacher of English. Chapter 7, ‘Seeking Connection through Difference: Finding the Nexus of Transformative Learning, Peacebuilding and Language Teaching’, has a five-person author team: Josephine Prado (USA), Gönül Uguralp-Cannon (Turkey and USA), John Marc Green (USA), Melinda Harrison (USA) and Laurie Frantz Smith (USA). These practitioners recognize that difference is often a source of strength that leads to unexpected unity. The authors offer unique personal and

14

Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

professional perspectives highlighting transformative learning, language teaching and peacebuilding (including but not limited to inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace). Three chapters (8, 9 and 10) constitute Section III, ‘Applying Peacebuilding for Intercultural and International Peace’. This section discusses intercultural and international harmony seeking and offers helpful classroom activities. •

•

•

Chapter 8, ‘Can Foreign Languages Be Taught for Peace at US Government Institutes?’, is authored by James E. Bernhardt, Christine M. Campbell and Betty Lou Leaver (USA), all of whom have long experience in government language institutes, e.g. the Foreign Service Institute, the Defense Language Institute and the National Aeronautical and Space Administration. They offer intriguing insights about whether governmental institutions that do not focus on peace as a goal can actually teach languages for peace through employment of defi ned language-learning models. Chapter 9, ‘International Faculty and International Students in Universities: Their Roles in Fostering Peace across Languages and Cultures’, by Michael Wei (USA) and Yalun Zhou (USA), reports on highly relevant research and is also informed by the personal and professional experiences of the two authors, who were international graduate students from China and are now celebrated international faculty members. Wei and Zhou, arguing that peace education research is at the intersection of peace and education, show how international faculty and international students can foster peace through intercultural communication. Chapter 10, ‘Promoting Peace through Social Justice Pedagogies for Students from Immigrant Muslim Communities: Using Critical Language Awareness in Second Language Classrooms’, by Laura Mahalingappa (USA), Terri L. Rodriguez (USA) and Nihat Polat (USA), draws from critical theory and equity pedagogy to offer curricular project ideas such as critical literacy narratives, critical media analyses and counter-storytelling. The authors’ theoretical foundations and resulting classroom practices encourage English learners to participate in discourse communities in ways that allow learners to co-create or recreate narratives for marginalized groups.

Four chapters (11, 12, 13 and 14) are included in Section IV, ‘Applying Peacebuilding through Positive Psychology, Peace Linguistics and Peace Language’. The section draws readers’ attention to the peacebuilding that can transpire when linking peace, language, linguistics and positivity. •

Chapter 11, ‘Acting Locally to Integrate Positive Psychology and Peace: Practical Applications for Language Teaching and Learning’, by Tammy Gregersen (UAE) and Peter D. MacIntyre (Canada), refreshingly unites

The Call for Peace in Language Education

•

•

•

15

positive psychology with positive peace and pleads the case that peace, like human well-being, is not just the absence of an adverse situation, but rather it is the creation and sustenance of conditions where peace and human well-being can flourish. Not only does this chapter offer a sound theoretical background, but it also provides realistic applications for our lives. Chapter 12, ‘From Hate Speech to Empathy: Lessons for Language Educators and Society’, is the creation of Rebecca L. Oxford (USA). This chapter distinguishes hate speech from hate crimes, although both are dangerous. The problem of hate speech is solved by neither national anti-hate speech laws, which most countries possess (the United States is an exception) nor by regulations to ban hate speech on university campuses and in certain institutions. To break down barriers of hate, important factors are education, experiential learning of empathy and getting to know people from the hated group. Chapter 13, ‘Applying Peace Linguistics: What Peacebuilders Can Learn from the Languages of Hurt, Hate and Harm’, is co-authored by Andy Curtis (Canada) and Rebecca L. Oxford (USA). Peacebuilders benefit from knowing etymologies, synonyms, idioms and other linguistic information in this chapter for the ‘negative 3-H’ words, hate, hurt and harm. This chapter also presents these negative words in authentic contexts and offers activities for going beyond negativity. This lively chapter builds on the first author’s groundbreaking work in creating the field of applied peace linguistics. Chapter 14, ‘Exploring Peace Language: Hope, Help and Harmony’, by Rebecca L. Oxford (USA) and Andy Curtis (Canada), is the counterpoint to the prior chapter. It focuses on the ‘positive 3-H’ words, hope, help and harmony. In addition to offering important linguistic data on each of the three words, the chapter discusses: peace language and peace concepts from the ancient Greeks; Viktor Frankl, Holocaust survivor and psychiatrist; the Beatles singing group; and many other sources. The chapter includes classroom-friendly activities to expand hope, help and harmony.

Section V, entitled ‘Moving Further with Peacebuilding’, contains an activity chapter with an array of ideas to build peace in the language classroom and a chapter with the general conclusions of the book. •

Chapter 15, ‘Peacebuilding through Classroom Activities: Inner, Interpersonal, Intergroup, Intercultural, International and Ecological Peace’, by M. Matilde Olivero (Argentina), Melinda Harrison (USA) and Rebecca L. Oxford (USA), is devoted to peace-fostering activities, which are in addition to the activities found in the other chapters. In each case we offer brief guidelines about how to use or adapt the activities for different groups. The peace activities involve several interwoven strands: holistic instruction for the whole person;

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•

contemplative inquiry for self-understanding, social awareness and meaning 2 ; and experiential education, which consists of active experience with reflection. Metaphorically speaking, when a single pebble of ‘peacebuilding intention’, fostered by peace activities, is dropped into the water of a large pond, the ripples grow larger and larger and eventually spread throughout the pond. We encourage you to test the water and try out the peacebuilding activities, which can be personalized or adapted for diverse students and situations. Chapter 16, ‘Conclusion: Integrating Peace Concepts, Personal Insights and Future Peace Directions’, by M. Matilde Olivero (Argentina), Tammy Gregersen (UAE), Melinda Harrison (USA) and Rebecca L. Oxford (USA), concludes the book by highlighting the main themes and synthesizing theoretical and practical contributions that we hope will continue to expand. The chapter also makes reference to recent developments in investigating peace in language education and looks forward to the beginnings of important lines of inquiry. The chapter begins and ends with inspiring stories of young peacebuilders.

Readers Who Can Benefit from This Book

We assume that if you have read this far in Chapter 1, you are interested in peace, at least to the point of asking key questions (e.g. What is peace? How large is its scope? Is it just about wars and national policy, or does it touch every aspect of life? Why is it important?). You might already be a ‘peacebuilder-under-construction’. Perhaps you have even intentionally worked for peace for many years. No matter what, if you want to know more about peace – inner, interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological – you will be rewarded by this volume, which contains creative peace ideas, activities and theories that could, if widely used, shake the world. Readers who can benefit from this book include: peace linguists (see later in this chapter); interested language educators in roles such as teachers, teacher educators, researchers, learning theorists and critical theorists; and educators with similar roles in other disciplines. This book would likely be valuable to direct contributors to the peace field (e.g. leaders, teachers, organizers and scholars in the area of peace), as well as to a diverse group of positive, generally serious ‘opinion leaders’ (e.g. book and magazine editors, publishers and authors; certain television, radio, film and social media people; community and religious leaders; ethical politicians) who are drawn to learn more about peace and who will share what they know. Important Peace Concepts

This part of the chapter, encompassing the second half, explains what readers need to know about peace in order to take the greatest advantage

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of this book. Here we offer key definitions of peace and short explanations of other peace concepts. Definitions of peace from King and Boulding

A cherished defi nition of peace comes from Martin Luther King, Jr (2001, in Oxford, 2013: 3), paraphrased as Peace is harmony attained by working productively with conflicting perspectives. American sociologist and peace scholar Elise Boulding (2000; see also Morrison, 2005), who helped create the field of peace and conflict studies, described peace as an active, daily process demanding imagination, love and effort. In defi ning peace, we emphasize positive peace, which Wenden and Schäffner (1995: xvii) described as fair, equitable and just social structures which ‘enhance the human rights of all’. This description of positive peace is far more appropriate than defi nitions depicting positive peace as the absence of something undesirable. 3 Positive peace contrasts with negative peace, which Galtung (1996) described as merely a coercion-gained absence of violence – peace by unpeaceful means. The Language of Peace Approach and its dimensions

This part of Chapter 1 offers a general overview of the Language of Peace Approach, including its dimensions. The peace dimensions in this approach provide the general structure for the entire book. Many chapters apply the peace dimensions to common settings and situations and offer further explanations. We encourage you to return to Chapter 1 whenever you need to review the fundamentals of the approach. The Language of Peace Approach was developed by Rebecca Oxford, a co-editor of this book. The six peace dimensions in this approach help people talk more easily about peace and give a sense of the breadth and depth of peace as a whole. The peace dimensions are inner peace, interpersonal peace, intergroup peace, intercultural peace, international peace and ecological peace, which are depicted in Figure 1.1. Inner peace is shown at the center, because it is related to all other dimensions. At the same time, if a person participates in any other peace dimension, inner peace can also increase. Each of the dimensions is briefly explained here. Inner peace

Inner peace is harmony within the person. In the view of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao-Tzu, if there is no peace in the heart, there can be no peace elsewhere: the home, the town, the nation or the world (see Miall, 2000). Developing peace in the heart – intentionally cultivating it, such as with mediation, music, art or deep breathing – is essential for social transformation (Lin, 2013). Activities for inner peace help reduce negative emotions and increase hope (see Chapter 14). This is especially

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Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

Inner peace Interpersonal peace Intergroup peace Intercultural peace International peace Ecological peace

Figure 1.1 Dimensions of peace in the Language of Peace Approach Source: Rebecca L. Oxford.

significant in educational areas that are emotionally charged, such as language learning and language teacher education (Johnson & Golombek, 2016). For language learners and pre-service language teachers, inner peace calls for reflection and relaxation. Some activities include creative writing or journaling, visualization, meditation, mindful breathing and yoga (Helgesen, 2016; Oxford, 2015, 2017). Interpersonal peace

Interpersonal peace involves caring about relations with family members, friends and acquaintances, and involves compassion, love, kindness, trust and respect. Mother Teresa stated, ‘Works of love are always works of peace’ (Nichol, 2007: 91). For her, interpersonal peace or love is the key, and it should start in the family. ‘If we really want to love others, we must first begin to love one another in our own home. Love begins at home, and so from here – from our own home – love will spread to my neighbor, in the street I live, in the town I live, in the whole world. … We can do no great things – only small things with great love’ (Nichol, 2007: 53, 72–73). Intergroup peace

Intergroup peace involves harmony among groups that are classified by all sorts of factors: gender, sexual orientation, attractiveness, intelligence, ethnicity, race, age, class, wealth, education level, political party, religion, (dis)ability and other criteria. Lack of intergroup peace is often based on fear of difference. Martin Luther King, Jr (2001) stated that love is the only cure for fear. King is still a beacon of light for many people around the

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world, even in this era of intense persecution of racial minorities, particular religions, immigrants and refugees, women, gays and transgender people. Intergroup hostility often shows itself in structural (institutional) violence (e.g. social injustice, discrimination and inequity), but direct violence (e.g. killing, maiming and raping) is also a perennial favorite for some. Parts of the internet are rife with hate speech against certain groups. Much work needs to be dedicated to intergroup peace. Intercultural peace

Culture is the human-made part of our environment. It consists of the shared attitudes, values, beliefs, behaviors, practices and artifacts of a group that views itself as united by a common history (Boulding, 2000). A given culture is not locked within tight, geopolitical, often artificially prescribed national boundaries. For instance, religiously-based cultures can spill into totally different parts of the world. A visual metaphor of culture is known as the ‘iceberg metaphor’ (Hall, 1976). Imagine the tip of an iceberg, which is seen above the waterline. The tip represents visible, conscious, external aspects of culture, including elements like gender roles, marriage customs, childcare, clothes, food, typical home structures and so on. Below the waterline is the invisible, unconscious, internal aspect of culture, consisting of hidden cultural attitudes, values and beliefs that drive the conscious cultural aspect without our knowing it. Culturally responsive, peace-oriented teachers and students understand the conscious elements of their culture and are willing to become more aware of some of the unconscious elements; they are also more open to learning about other cultures and other people. Dirkx’s (2012) transformative ‘imaginal method’ can help learners raise to the surface some deeply hidden cultural attitudes, values and beliefs. For riveting ideas about language and culture that could contribute to greater intercultural understanding and peace, see Kramsch (1998, 2013). International peace

Another crucial dimension is international peace, but as we move into the 21st century’s third decade (2020–2029), international peace seems more complex and further off than ever. The news media tell us constantly that nationalism is rising. John Judis (2018) wrote clearly about powerful urges to break the bonds of international cooperation at that time: the Brexit movement; anti-European Union parties in multiple countries, such as Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland and Hungary; and governments in the United States, Turkey, Russia, India and China. Judis found potential merit in a constructive form of nationalism that could inspire thriving democracies but described today’s us-versus-them nationalism as a toxic outbreak. He raised the frightening question of whether today’s nationalism portends a return to the kind of conditions that in the 20th century led to two World Wars.

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Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

What is international peace in a time like this? We believe it involves reaching beyond narrow interests and thinking about what might be good not only for the nation but for the world. It is possible to love one’s nation and yet be ready to cooperate with other nations with trust and honesty. International peace requires the use of peaceful communication: dialogue, not diatribe. Ecological peace

Ecological peace involves reconnecting with nature, realizing that human rights are tied to natural resources, focusing on more than just the human species and actively caring for the environment that sustains us. We are so concerned with the lack of ecological peace that we feel compelled to mention here some human-made environmental problems which humans can and must work toward solving. First, there is an ocean plastic crisis, a clash between human convenience and underwater reality (Weyler, 2017). Second, the Amazon rainforest is up in flames because of deforestation, the burning back of trees and other human actions (Gibbens, 2019). Third, there is a host of ‘space trash’, consisting of astronauts’ long-lost gloves, tools and toothbrushes and of fragments (as large as a truck or as small as a paint fleck) from defunct spacecraft, all careening round in the Earth’s orbit at speeds at which even the smallest of objects could create havoc when striking a currently operating satellite (Garcia, 2017; StarChild Team, 2000). Fourth, while all this is happening, courageous children and youth around the world are leading demonstrations to push adults to pay attention to climate change and environmental destruction (Lambert, 2019). Education for ecological peace is essential – and adults might need it even more than many of the children. The next part of the chapter describes a university event during which several hundred people shared what peace meant to them. Without knowing it, they helped to validate the peace dimensions we just explained. Imagining peace in words and pictures

This chapter started with Tammy’s intriguing peace conversations in 2019. Now we discuss Rebecca’s experience with 2010 Maryland Day, an annual outdoor event called ‘Explore Our World!’ at the University of Maryland. Thousands of people, from babies to elderly people, attended the event. Most people wore t-shirts with jeans or shorts or else cotton dresses because of the humidity and the heat (the event’s archives showed that it was 90° Fahrenheit, 32.2° Celsius), but some wore traditional garb from their home countries. Everyone came to enjoy Maryland ice cream, choreography, band concerts, games, wading pools and booth after booth of intriguing displays. Peace was brewing at a special booth, collaboratively organized by Jing Lin4 and Rebecca with help from other university faculty members and graduate students. The peace booth had large, full-color posters

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outside to invite people to come in, learn and talk about peace. For young children, the booth offered crayons, paper, toys and games, because the peace team thought the young ones would not be interested in the main activity, in which participants were asked to write or draw quick, spontaneous, unfi ltered responses to the prompt, ‘Peace is …’. (This prompt was wonderfully similar to Tammy’s recent question, ‘What is peace?’, which, as discussed above, offered rich information and sparked great conversations in the UAE. Tammy had not even heard about the 2010 Maryland Day peace activity, but she knew her question was a crucial one.) At the Maryland peace booth, some of the youngsters, seeing their older siblings and parents participating in the ‘Peace is …’ activity, ignored the toys and decided to participate, too. The activity took most people only a few minutes. Some adults stayed to discuss peace in their own lives and to learn about local peace efforts. Before leaving, each of the booth’s visitors, young or old, received a small token to take home as a reminder of peace. A total of 237 visitors participated in the open-ended ‘Peace is …’ activity, ranging in age from four to 75 and representing at least 25 countries on five continents. Using the provided pens and sticky notes, participants produced their responses and, as encouraged, placed them anywhere they chose on a large, standing world map. Posting their peace ideas on the map symbolically said that peace can happen anywhere in the world. Even the youngest participant, aged four, drew her peace idea (a smiling Planet Earth) and stuck it proudly on the map. By 4pm, closing time for Maryland Day, the world map was virtually covered with ‘Peace is …’ notes. Originally there was no thought of analyzing the responses; the activity was just for raising peace consciousness. However, the responses seemed too fascinating and important to ignore or discard, so Rebecca carefully removed the sticky notes from the map and took them home. Later, impassioned by peace concepts on the sticky notes, she sorted the concepts with a doctoral student, Tasha Parrish. The 237 participants in the ‘Peace is …’ activity had produced 431 responses, since some people gave more than one response about their perceptions of peace. Tasha and Rebecca wondered whether any of the responses related to the six peace dimensions of the Language of Peace Approach, which had been fully created but not yet shared or published. They found that 345 of the 431 total responses, or about 80%, had each addressed one or more of the peace dimensions in the Language of Peace Approach, without ever having heard about these dimensions. This large percentage of responses was a happy surprise. The other 20% were miscellaneous peace comments which were so wide ranging that they were not easily analyzable. Tasha and Rebecca conducted an inductive, grounded theory based, multi-phase analysis (see Parrish & Oxford, 2013). Table 1.2 summarizes the interesting results. Column A presents the peace dimensions, some of which were combined in the analysis because the responses overlapped (see later), and it also mentions miscellaneous peace responses that could

100%

20%

Overall percentage for miscellaneous peace responses

Total

80%

Overall percentage for all peace dimensions

4%

22%

Inner (personal) peace

Ecological peace

54%

Column B Percentage of the 431 responses

Interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural or international peace5

Column A Dimensions of peace that arose in the ‘Peace is …’ activity

Peace is … Greenpeace, handling global warming, making the world cleaner, all living beings are equal [includes non-humans], a green tree standing under a blue sky, sunset over the Pacific Ocean, words and pictures of a dove with an olive branch, a sketch of the Earth from space, a smiling Planet Earth.

Peace is … happiness, smiles, the key to happiness, happiness no matter what, when we finish one day’s good work, Bob Marley songs, ice cream, nice dreams, knowing oneself, being comfortable in your own skin, living in accordance with the law of God, given by God, having a personal relationship with God, personal safety, how a farmer feels when he harvests his good crops; also many pictures of smiley faces 

The following results were related to specific religions, politics or countries. Peace is … Jesus Christ, Islam, when George Washington won the battle, get rid of the arrogant leaders of ___ [a specific country], keep out of ___ [a specific country], Strategic Arms Limitation (in theory). Also, many specific countries were cited as needing peace, and some were described as already being peaceful.

Peace is … love for other people, open-mindedness to one another, respect for others’ ideas, a right available to everyone, a united community, family, meeting people, friendship with all, the culmination of justice and freedom, everyone is equal, live and let live, let’s all live together in harmony, when we love and care for everyone no matter who they are, when we begin to tell each other’s true stories, when we love anyone for no reason – just for who they are, making the world a happy place, respect in the world, one world, knowing about other cultures; accepting all cultures, religions, peoples, languages, opinions, and beliefs (this was all from one person), countries caring for each other, looking out for your global brothers and sisters, freedom without borders, peace lives in the world.

Column C Examples of responses

Table 1.2 Peace dimensions occurring in the 431 peace definitions (written or drawn)

22 Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

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not be analyzed without further data, e.g. from interviews or questionnaires. Column B shows the percentage of responses for each peace dimension or combination of dimensions, accounting for 80% of the 431 responses, with the fi nal 20% being the unclassified responses. Examples of responses are included verbatim in Column C. Tasha’s and Rebecca’s analysis of the ‘Peace is …’ responses revealed that more than half (54%) of the 431 responses were about interpersonal peace (peace with people the respondent knew, like family or friends) and peace among groups, among cultures and among nations. Certain words or concepts, such as care, respect, equality, friendship and love, kept cropping up regarding these areas – a continuity well worth researching. Slightly less than a quarter (22%) of the total responses were about inner (personal) peace. Only a smattering of responses (4%) viewed peace as involving honoring or caring for the Earth. Contrastingly, the results of Tammy’s informal survey of university students in the UAE showed a strong emphasis on inner and interpersonal peace and much less stress on other peace dimensions, with no particular mention of ecological peace. If Tammy’s ‘What is peace?’ conversations or the ‘Peace is …’ event were held now, more people might think about peace in relation to the environment or might mention peace in a pandemic. We look forward to new, spontaneous peace discussions, entertaining awareness-raising activities and well-planned research studies in the area of ‘the people’s peace’ (Parrish & Oxford, 2013).

A few more peace concepts you might want to know

Here we present a few additional ideas you might like to know about conflict, violence and the triad of peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding. This information could come in handy for language teaching, teacher education and other professional fields, as well as in daily life. Conflict: What is it good for?

Everyone experiences conflict as part of living. It is part of the package. Although most people do not enjoy confl ict, there can be some benefits if we look for them. Peace cultures, said Boulding (2000), welcome diversity not just as a potential source of conflict but also as a step toward progress. A well-handled conflict can reveal the values, desires and selfidentities of the parties involved, generate greater respect and caring, spark more creativity in problem-solving and lead to productive, peaceful change (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008; Oxford, 2013). In fact, without some degree of conflict, progress can be stalled. Confl ict resolution skills are learnable and teachable. If you do not have the skills yet, you can learn them with time. For learning about conflict and peace, read the wise book, The Anatomy of Peace: Resolving the

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Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

Heart of Conflict (Arbinger Institute, 2015), which takes you into the hidden psychology that the volumes on conflict resolution techniques or approaches might not reach. For a general summary of approaches and techniques for dealing with conflict (e.g. conflict management, resolution and transformation), see Oxford’s (2013) book, which links you to many primary sources. However, before you go deeply into the mechanics of handling conflicts or teaching others to do so, go deeply into yourself with The Anatomy of Peace. Violence

We must not confuse conflict (disagreeing) with violence (intentionally infl icting harm for one’s own or one’s group’s purposes). Violence takes different forms. For Galtung (1990, 2004), direct violence involves killing, maiming, repression, detention and expulsion, with an identifiable person or group as the perpetrator. We expand this picture by saying that direct violence can also include raping, bullying (physically or verbally), beating a spouse or children without maiming, and hate-labeling or maltreating minorities, immigrants, refugees, women, the disabled and people from certain religious, national and language groups. Verbal direct violence often shades into physical direct violence (see Chapter 12). Indirect violence can be structural (social injustice, oppression and discrimination built into and enforced by social institutions) and cultural (e.g. cultural elements, such as religion, ideology, art or science, employed to legitimize structural violence) (Galtung, 1990). A chapter on violence in Oxford (2013) provides much more information on violence and handling it. Peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding

If you were in a serious conflict, verging on violence, and you wanted it to stop, which one would you seek: peacekeeping, peacemaking or peacebuilding? Each one has a different role. The purpose of peacekeeping is to keep the severe confl ict or violence from escalating. In educational settings, peacekeeping could involve keeping an eye open for a harsh argument, an instance of bullying or a physical fight; monitoring the action and immediately breaking it up if possible; and, if necessary, punishing the initiator, if reasoning does not do the trick (see Bickmore, 2011). The goals of peacemaking are to harmonize differences and restore peace after a major conflict or actual violence. Peacemaking involves using conflict resolution skills such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration and conciliation (see also Oxford, 2013). Bickmore showed that conflict resolution skills can be taught over time in regular classrooms, even those in elementary schools. Language teachers and teacher educators can teach basic conflict resolution processes, key vocabulary and appropriate verbal and nonverbal communicative behavior (Gregersen and MacIntyre address nonverbal behavior in Chapter 3) as a skill set that is profoundly and permanently useful for those involved.

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As important as peacekeeping and peacemaking are, they do not go to the heart of the difficulty and might not forever solve a major conflict or outright violence. Peacebuilding, in contrast to peacekeeping or peacemaking, addresses root causes, digs more deeply and for a longer time into understanding the root causes and tries to transform them. Peacebuilding promotes the development of peace cultures after classroom brawls and bullying and after massive battles and wars. Peacebuilding addresses deep, often tradition-based beliefs and attitudes that stimulate direct or indirect violence related to race, class, religion, age, gender identity, sexual preference, (dis)ability, physical appearance, citizenship or immigration status, cultural and language background, country of origin, profession or job (or lack of one), education level and other factors. Through the lens of social justice and critical consciousness, such factors are linked to power relationships (see Chapter 10 by Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat). Peacebuilding not only seeks the root of the problem but advocates for and takes steps toward reconciling the parties and building their capacity, so there will be fewer perceived reasons to fight henceforth. For instance, peacebuilding can uncover the origins of bullying (in educational settings; at work; in multiple levels of public politics; in, around and between social groups; on the internet and elsewhere) and can help bullies to process the situation and their own experiences until there is less or no compulsion to target a victim in the future (Oxford, 2013).6 Conclusion

We are excited to bring you this volume, which reflects our passion for peace and our hope for harmony through right relationships involving self, people we know, groups, cultures, nations and Mother Earth. As we close this chapter, we now mention an extraordinary insight gained from people who had just fi nished the ‘Peace is …’ activity at the Maryland peace booth. Several participants mentioned being very surprised that no one in the past had ever asked them about peace. They said they were glad they had been invited, for the very fi rst time, to think about and share in words or pictures what peace meant to them. They seemed eager to be authors or artists of peace in their lives and the life of the world. Based on these comments, we wonder what would happen to the world and to our souls if peace became a frequent topic of discussion, a bright light on a candlestick showing the way instead of a candle that is dim, sputtering or concealed under a bushel. We wonder what would happen if we ourselves – language teachers, language teacher educators, other educators and readers from additional areas who care about the fate of the world – begin seeing language and communication as the way to understand peace and spread it widely. Finally, we wonder what would happen if we recognize peace, love and wisdom, intertwined, as the true goal or meaning of our words and our inner and outer worlds.

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Section I: Language Education Responds to the Call for Peace

Notes (1) Mother Teresa’s words are in Nichol (2007: 91). (2) Zajonc (2009) used meditation as contemplative inquiry in various fields, including physics, and wrote a book about this, subtitled wonderfully ‘when knowing becomes love’. (3) In contrast, Galtung (1996) defi ned positive peace as the absence of structural violence (institutionalized, social injustice, oppression and discrimination), but this defi nition is based on the absence of something negative. This is not helpful as a defi nition of positive peace which indicates reflecting the presence of a something desirable. (4) Jing was the fi rst to invite Rebecca into the world of writing and editing books on peace, ecology and transformative education. Jing encouraged the writing of The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony (Oxford, 2013) and put her in touch with Ian Harris, who further encouraged her to edit Understanding Peace Cultures (Oxford, 2014). Together Jing and Rebecca co-edited the following volumes related to topics in peace and education: Transformative Eco-Education for Human and Planetary Survival (Oxford & Lin, 2011); Re-envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Paths to Wisdom and Social Transformation (Lin et  al., 2013); and Toward a Spiritual Research Paradigm: Exploring New Ways of Knowing, Researching, and Being (Lin et al., 2016). For some years Jing and Rebecca have been co-editing two book series: Transforming Education for the Future, edited by Lin, Oxford and Miller for Information Age Publishing; and Religion, Spirituality and Education, edited by Lin, Oxford, Edwards and Brantmeier for Palgrave Macmillan. (5) These four peace dimensions were combined because the responses overlapped. It seemed that many factors, such as awareness, care and compassion, were common across these four peace dimensions. Mixed-methods studies (using two or more of the following: open-ended prompt, personal interview, short essay and questionnaire) could offer more information about how people of various ages and different backgrounds experience peace and help it grow in their own lives. (6) Maiese (2003) includes peacekeeping and peacemaking functions within the umbrella of peacebuilding.

References Arbinger Institute (2015) The Anatomy of Peace: Resolving the Heart of Confl ict. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Bickmore, K. (2011) Keeping, making, and building peace at school. Social Education 75 (1), 40–44. Boulding, E. (2000) Cultures of Peace: The Hidden Side of History. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. De Dreu, C.K.W. and Gelfand, M.J. (2008) Confl icts in the workplace: Values, functions, and dynamics across multiple levels of analysis. In C.K.W. De Dreu and M.J. Gelfand (eds) The Psychology of Confl ict and Confl ict Management in Organizations (pp. 3–54). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dirkx, J. (2012) Nurturing soul work: A Jungian approach to retransformative learning. In E.W. Taylor and P. Cranton (eds) The Handbook of Transformative Learning (pp. 116–130). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Galtung, J. (1990) Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research 27 (3), 291–305. Galtung, J. (1996) Peace by Peaceful Means. London: Sage. Galtung, J. (2004) Violence, war, and their impact: On visible and invisible eff ects of violence. Polylog: Forum for Intercultural Philosophy. See http://them.polylog.org/5/ fgj-en.htm (accessed April 2019). Garcia, M. (2017) Space debris and human spacecraft. NASA, 7 August. See https://www. nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html (accessed September 2019).

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Gibbens, S. (2019) The Amazon is burning at record rates – and deforestation is to blame. National Geographic, 21 August. See https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/wildfires-in-amazon-caused-by-deforestation/ (accessed September 2019). Hall, E.T. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor/Random House. Helgesen, M. (2016) Happiness in ESL/EFL: Bringing positive psychology to the classroom. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 305–323). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Johnson, K.E. and Golombek, P.R. (2016) Mindful L2 Teacher Education. New York: Routledge. Judis, J. (2018) The Nationalist Revival: Trade, Immigration, and the Revolt Against Globalization. New York: Columbia Global Reports. King, M.L. Jr (2001) The Words of Martin Luther King Jr. (C.S. King, ed.) New York: Newmarket Press. Kramsch, C. (1998) Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (2013) Culture in foreign language teaching. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 1 (1), 57–78. Lambert, A. (2019) Climate movement now ‘too loud to handle’ for Trump and critics, Greta Thunberg says. U.S. News and World Report, 17 September. See https://www. usnews.com/news/top-news/articles/2019-09-27/climate-movement-now-too-loud-tohandle-for-trump-and-critics-greta-thunberg-says (accessed 23 September 2019). Lin, J. (2013) Education for transformation and an expanded self: Paradigm shift for wisdom education. In J. Lin, R.L. Oxford and E.J. Brantmeier (eds) Re-envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Pathways to Wisdom and Social Transformation (pp. 23–32). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lin, J., Oxford, R.L. and Brantmeier, E.J. (eds) (2013) Re-envisioning Higher Education:  Embodied Paths to Wisdom and Social Transformation. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lin, J., Oxford, R.L. and Culham, T. (eds) (2016) Toward a Spiritual Research Paradigm: Exploring New Ways of Researching, Knowing, and Being. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Maiese, M. (2003) What it means to build a lasting peace. In G. Burgess and H. Burgess (eds) Beyond Intractability. Boulder, CO: Confl ict Research Consortium, University of Colorado. See http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/peacebuilding/. Miall, H. (2000) What do peace studies contribute distinctively to the study of peace? Paper presented at the 18th International Peace Research Association Conference, Tampere, Finland. Morrison, M.-L. (2005) Elise Boulding: A Life in the Cause of Peace. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Nichol, M. (2007) Love: The Words and Inspiration of Mother Teresa. Boulder, CO: Blue Mountain Press. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (ed.) (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2015) Integrating innovative peace activities into language teacher education courses. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics, Toronto, Canada. Oxford, R.L. (2017) Peace through understanding: Peace activities as innovations in language teacher education. In T. Gregersen and P. MacIntyre (eds) Innovative Practices in Language Teacher Education: Spanning the Spectrum from Intra- to Inter-personal Professional Development (pp. 125–163). New York: Springer. Oxford, R.L. and Lin, J. (2011) Transformative Eco-education for Human and Planetary Survival. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

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Parrish, T. and Oxford, R.L. (2013) The people’s peace: Fresh ideas and images from ordinary people. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony (pp. 329–354). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. StarChild Team (2000) Question: What Is Space Trash? Greenbelt, MD: StarChild, A Learning Center for Young Astronomers, Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA. See https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question22.html (accessed 25 September 2019). Wenden, A.L. and Schäff ner, C. (1995) Introduction. In C. Schäff ner and A.L. Wenden (eds) Language and Peace (pp. xv–xxv). London: Routledge. Weyler, R. (2017) The ocean plastic crisis. Greenpeace International, 15 October. See https:// www.greenpeace.org/international/story/11871/the-ocean-plastic-crisis/ (accessed 27 September 2019). Zajonc, A. (2009) Meditation as Contemplative Inquiry: When Knowing Becomes Love. Great Barrington, VT: Lindisfarne Books.

2 Empowering Language Teachers to Be Influential Peacebuilders: Knowledge, Competencies and Activities Christina Gkonou, M. Matilde Olivero and Rebecca L. Oxford

Peace in every home, every street, every village, every country – this is my dream. Malala Yousafzai

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the world has an urgent need for peace, not just among races, religions, countries and cultures, but peace is also necessary within the self, in personal relationships and in relation to the environment. Given the clamor for peace in various dimensions and the global nature of the English language, it becomes crucial to prepare future second language teachers to become peacebuilders (Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford, 2017a). This, in turn, would allow them to propagate peace in the classroom when they start teaching and to positively influence future generations of language learners. To become influential peacebuilders, prospective teachers need to learn specific knowledge and skills. That is, they should understand fundamental concepts about peace and the importance of peacebuilding and develop the relevant competencies necessary for fostering peace. Such knowledge and skills must be reflected upon, enacted and embodied in teacher education programs through strategic activities based on transformative, holistic teaching approaches. In this way, future teachers would incorporate the peacebuilding competencies into their teacher knowledge base gradually and consciously, thereby making this process more natural. This chapter is intended mainly for language teacher educators who would like to prepare teachers to become peacebuilders, but it is also for language teachers who would like to teach peace but perhaps lack the 29

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necessary background. To make these efforts easier, we provide three forms of assistance: fundamental peace knowledge in the first section; four specific peacebuilding competencies (skills) in the second section; and examples of classroom ‘multidimensional peace’ activities in the third section and a brief mention of the impact these and similar activities have had in our field. The final section offers general conclusions. This chapter emphasizes the English language because it has such a vast global role. However, this chapter is meaningful for other languages, and the activities are adaptable. Fundamental Peace Knowledge

Practically speaking, to ‘know’ or to ‘have knowledge of’1 a fact, term, concept, theory or process requires enough understanding to be able to explain it at a cognitive level2 which is meaningful in a given context. To state it differently, fundamental peace knowledge can be expressed in words (declarative knowledge), signifying understanding. The purpose of this section is to explore aspects of peace that must be understood before they can be used more overtly, as in the four peace competencies discussed in the second section. Crucial aspects of peace knowledge include a useful defi nition of peace, the notion of positive peace and the dimensions of peace, which are briefly treated here but discussed in more depth in Chapter 1 (see also Olivero, 2017; Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford, 2013, 2014; Oxford & Olivero, 2019; Oxford et al., 2018). Peace definition, ‘positive peace’ and six peace dimensions

As mentioned in Chapter 1, we paraphrased Martin Luther King, Jr (2001) as harmony that is attained by working productively with conflict. This way of conceiving peace is associated with positive peace, which involves positive relationships among groups, respect of human rights and constructive conflict resolution (Groff, 2008; Oxford, 2013, 2014; Wenden & Schäffner, 1995). Peace has six dimensions, as Chapter 1 explained. Inner peace is harmony inside the person. It is the core dimension from which the other five flow, so the visual metaphor of concentric circles shows inner peace at the center. 3 Inner peace enhances psychological well-being (Sims et  al., 2014), attention, learning-related motivation and enjoyment and classroom climate (Nelson, 2014; Olivero, 2017). It is strongest when the person’s cognitive, emotional, social, spiritual and physical aspects are in equilibrium (Olivero, 2017). Interpersonal peace is harmony among friends, family and acquaintances, while intergroup peace can occur between groups that are based on factors like gender, age, religion, race, class and politics. Intercultural peace can arise between people of different cultures. International peace can theoretically emerge among all nations, but it can involve fewer nations. Ecological peace involves appreciating, caring for and connecting with nature, of which humans are part.

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Specific Peacebuilding Competencies

As briefly mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, in order to become a peacebuilder, fundamental peace knowledge is necessary but not sufficient; peacebuilders also need specific peace competencies. There is no universally accepted defi nition of ‘peace competency’, but we use the term to mean the demonstrated capability to handle effectively a complex, peace-related problem or challenge. This capability is highly complex. Dealing with a peace-related problem or challenge involves skill in analyzing and interpreting dynamic conflicts relevant to the people involved, the situation and the cultural context. Successfully dealing with the power and complexity of the challenge requires a sensitive, adaptable-as-needed synthesis of relevant knowledge, reasoning, intuition, attitudes and behavior. A competency in a person is not truly evident until it is tested in action, at least in a role-play. The four peace competencies described in this section are ethnocultural empathy, intercultural understanding, emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility. Girded by fundamental peace knowledge (an understanding of the concepts presented in the immediately prior section), future teachers can develop and practice using the four specific peace competencies in peacebuilding. Complex interactions of cognition and emotion occur during the development and use of the four competencies. Cognitive–emotional interaction is widely recognized by complexity theorists in applied linguistics (Dörnyei, 2009; Mercer, 2014; Oxford & Gkonou, 2020). Similarly, Lewis (2005: 194) emphasized, ‘[C]ognition and emotion were never two distinct systems at all. … [A] neuroscientific analysis fi nds them to be different aspects of a unitary phenomenon’. Motivation is also intertwined with cognition and emotion (Dörnyei et al., 2015) in the unfolding and use of peace competencies. The peace competencies in this section are made still more complex because they address the interweaving of culture, language and the well-being of people in the world at large and the health of the world inside each person. If we are to expect language teachers to make use of these peacebuilding competencies in their classrooms in order to positively influence their learners, it becomes necessary that they develop such competencies when they are preparing to become teachers so that they can incorporate these skills into their knowledge base of teaching. Teacher education programs should therefore offer ample opportunities for future teachers to develop peacebuilding skills through activities based on transformative, holistic teaching approaches. Strategic activities involving language and culture can stimulate ethnocultural empathy, intercultural understanding, cognitive flexibility and emotion regulation, promote contributions to multidimensional peace and positively influence prospective teachers. These are important skills for language teachers generally, and research has shown that they can be fostered over time, and through experience and sustained

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effort (Castle & Buckler, 2009; Gkonou & Mercer, 2017; Humphrey, 2013). As skills, they are also crucial for the development and maintenance of peace within the classroom – in and among students and teachers – and in the staff room. It is worth noting that these competencies are interrelated and require, at the same time, self-awareness and strong social or interpersonal competence. We discuss each of these teacher competencies in turn, with support from research fi ndings from general education and second language acquisition (SLA). Ethnocultural empathy

Ethnocultural empathy refers to one’s ability to step into the shoes of someone from a different sociocultural background, appreciate and understand their feelings and perspectives, and adjust interculturally; all of these abilities contribute toward encountering people from other cultures positively and facilitate learning. Theoretical models of general empathy (and not ethnocultural empathy per se) have shown that it includes three components, which should ideally work together and at the same time for an action to be classified as empathy: (a) affective empathy, (b) cognitive empathy and (c) empathetic concern (the latter being similar to compassion or sympathy) (Howe, 2013; Krznaric, 2014). The fi rst component, affective empathy, refers to shared emotional responses and reactions among individuals. Cognitive empathy, the second component, encompasses taking someone else’s perspective. Our ability and willingness to show empathy for others is a basic human need, rooted in our interest in or even curiosity about observing other people, reflecting on their behaviors and fi nding out what is going on in their minds. Indeed, seeking out connections and interactions with others is indicative of our social and collaborative nature and our capacity for social and ethnocultural understanding (Lieberman, 2013; Mercer, 2016). Additionally, empathy and the ability to take the perspective of those people who are within one’s immediate social environment are key aspects of emotional intelligence, the others being our ability to be aware of our own emotions and those of others, manage our emotions efficiently, build and manage interpersonal relationships effectively, and have a positive outlook on life by remaining motivated to work on daily tasks (Goleman, 1995; Mayer et al., 2008; Salovey et al., 2002). A number of interventionbased studies in general education have shown that emotional intelligence and its associated components should not just be viewed as stable personality traits which cannot change despite the fact that certain people might naturally be more emotionally intelligent than others, but rather as malleable constructs which can be developed through life experience and explicit instruction (Brackett & Elbertson, 2006; Matthews et al., 2002; Nelis et al., 2009; Zins et al., 2004). Incorporating empathy and emotional intelligence into 21st century educational frameworks is necessary

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for both learners and teachers (Humphrey, 2013). Such frameworks can include interventions that are separate for learners and teachers or that integrate both groups. Learners would benefit from emotionally intelligent teachers who manage the classroom effectively and promote emotional skills within their learners and themselves as role models. By the same token, teachers are also likely to benefit from students who are highly empathetic of other people in class as this would facilitate classroom management and help towards maintaining discipline and avoiding conflict. As is the case with other psychological constructs, both groups can benefit from each other’s fostered competencies through processes of emotional or psychological ‘contagion’ (Frenzel & Stephens, 2013). Intercultural understanding

Another teacher competence that is closely linked with ethnocultural empathy and that we feel directly contributes to peace in the classroom is intercultural understanding, which is developed during the process of learning to value one’s own culture/s, language/s and beliefs, as well as those of others. In addition to this, intercultural understanding involves understanding the concept of culture in general and how one’s identity/ies are formed on the basis of culture. Perhaps the most important aspect of intercultural understanding concerns one’s willingness to learn about other cultures, relate to them, acknowledge similarities and differences between one’s native culture/s and other cultures and respect all cultures (Matsumoto et al., 2007; Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009). Thinking in terms of language teachers in particular, their own ability for intercultural understanding as well as the process of cultivating intercultural understanding among their learners should be seen as an integral part of their professional roles. Contemporary foreign language classrooms are becoming increasingly multilingual and multicultural and, therefore, the focus of teaching should move beyond just language competence and incorporate culture and the urgent need for both intercultural understanding and ethnocultural empathy. After all, culture is viewed as the fi fth language skill and scholars such as Claire Kramsch (1993) have suggested that languages should be taught as culture. Emotion regulation

James Gross’s (2014) theory of emotion regulation also contributes toward a better understanding of peace dimensions and emotional skills which are necessary for language teachers. Emotion regulation (also known as emotional self-regulation) is activated when emotions are felt to be undesirable, and therefore individuals consciously try to avoid painful feelings and seek out pleasant ones, protect the feelings of others and feign an emotion. Emotion regulation concerns both positive and negative

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emotions; the former are up-regulated in order to increase their intensity and duration and be shared with other people, whereas the latter are down-regulated in order to reduce the effects of a negative experience and its accompanying behavioral reactions. Recent poststructuralist approaches to emotion research within SLA have further suggested that we should not necessarily just focus on what emotions are (i.e. the classical division of emotions into positive and negative) but rather on what emotions do (e.g. Benesch, 2017; Miller & Gkonou, 2018; Pavlenko, 2007). Additionally, recent frameworks that discuss affective or emotion regulation strategies for language learning include the terms pleasant emotions and painful emotions (e.g. Oxford, 2017b). Individuals usually choose between two main types of strategies for emotion management: antecedent-focused strategies, which are selected at the outset of the generation of an emotion and before it is fully elicited; and response-focused strategies, which are put into practice at a later stage of the emotion generation process and normally change how an emotion is experienced and expressed (Gross, 2014; Oxford, 2017b). Cognitive flexibility

A related competence is cognitive flexibility, which is the last aspect we have incorporated into our proposed framework of teacher competencies for peace in language classrooms. Cognitive flexibility is the ability to create new categories, face new and unexpected changes in one’s immediate environment and see more than one cultural perspective (BogerMehall, 1996; Deák, 2003). This competence is particularly useful for people who move to a new country or in cases where new students join a class and existing groups of friends within that class. People with higher cognitive flexibility are also better able to encounter positively and collaborate with people that they have never met before. In an article on culture, language and strategies, Oxford and Gkonou (2018) have suggested sets of specific techniques that second language teachers could use to set the scene in the classroom for cognitive flexibility, ethnocultural empathy and intercultural understanding, as well as for other groups of learners such as trauma survivors. It is important to note that the competencies that promote peace in one dimension or in a particular situation are also likely to promote peace in other dimensions and in other situations. For example, developing empathy would seem relevant to building peace toward acquaintances and other groups, and even to maintaining a more harmonious relationship with the natural environment. Similarly, whereas the development of cognitive flexibility becomes necessary to experience peace among a group of people who meet for the fi rst time, it could also be helpful to increase inner harmony. In what follows, we make an attempt to bring together the dimensions of peace and the teacher competencies by suggesting

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peacebuilding activities to be used in foreign language teacher education courses, which can be easily adapted for the language classroom. Strategic Activities for Enhancing Peacebuilding in Language (Teacher) Education

As explained above, as both the peacebuilding competencies and the peace dimensions are interrelated, and even though we have decided to organize the activities depending on the main competence that is intended to be developed, it is important to note that more than one competency and peace dimension might be enhanced indirectly through each activity. The sample of strategic activities presented below is suitable both for language teacher education courses and for the foreign language classroom. Activities like the ones proposed in this chapter can easily be incorporated through holistic and transformative approaches in a variety of courses in language teacher education programs, including language, phonetics (see Chapter 4 for an example of the implementation of self-regulation activities in a phonetics course), literature, teaching methodology and practicum, among others, or else in regular foreign language classrooms. For more peacebuilding activities, go to Chapter 15 of this book. Ethnocultural empathy Activity 1. Working with pictures and autobiographies of well-known victims

Time required: 25–30 minutes Peacebuilding competency: ethnocultural empathy Level of language proficiency: intermediate/advanced Age: teenagers, adults (a) Show students emotionally moving pictures about well-known victims of human suffering. (b) Tell students some true facts about this person, which you will have to read about and learn before the class. (c) Discuss the following questions with the whole group: (i) How do you think the person in the picture feels? Write some words representing what you think the person feels and what he/ she thinks about life. (ii) What would you think about life and how would you feel if you were in his/her situation? (iii) Imagine you had the possibility of helping this person for one day. What would you do? Where would you go? What would it be like to be with him/her? What would you talk about? How would you feel? Describe the situation with as many details as possible and share with the whole group.

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(d) After students share their descriptions, ask them how this activity made them feel. Tell them to ponder their thoughts on a piece of paper. (e) Discuss with the whole group the meaning of ethnocultural empathy and get students to reflect on the importance of developing this competence when learning and/or teaching a foreign language. Intercultural understanding Activity 2. Relating the familiar to the unfamiliar in EFL/ESL materials

Time required: 30–40 minutes Peacebuilding competency: intercultural understanding Level of language proficiency: intermediate/advanced Age: pre-teens, teenagers, adults (a) Give students a topic which is usually included in foreign language textbooks (such as sports or jobs) and ask them to fi nd this topic in a unit of a language textbook of their choice. (b) Tell students to analyze whether the topic chosen is presented in a way that reflects the intercultural dimension of the language or whether the topic is presented to enhance language competence only. Tell them to explain and to give specific examples from the textbook. (c) Tell students to think of ideas to adapt the unit in order to (further) reflect the intercultural dimension. For example, the topic ‘jobs’ could be presented in a way that includes relationships between types of jobs and gender, types of jobs and geographical region, type of jobs and racism, among others. Tell them to search for more information about the selected topic before they make the adaptations. (d) Ask students to share their ideas with their classmates. (e) Ask students what they have learnt about the topic (jobs, sports, etc.) that perhaps they were unaware of before. (f) Get students to reflect on the ways in which they think this activity would help increase intercultural understanding. Tell them to provide specific examples. (g) Ask students if they think it would be important to approach the different topics typically dealt with in the foreign language class in such a way, and if so, why. Emotion regulation Activity 3. A letter to self for enhancing regulation of emotions Note: Adapted from Greater Good in Action (2001). Science-based practices for a meaningful life.

Time required: 25–30 minutes Peacebuilding competency: emotion regulation Level of language proficiency: intermediate/advanced Age: pre-teens, teenagers, adults

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(a) Ask students to identify an aspect about themselves as learners that makes them feel insecure or ashamed or experience other negative emotions (it could be something related to their abilities, relationships with teacher or classmates, or any other aspect). (b) Tell students to write it down and describe how that makes them feel. They can represent it with words and/or pictures. Tell them to try to be honest with themselves and that they don’t have to share it with their classmates if they don’t want to. (c) Ask students to reflect on the following: (i) Imagine that you treat yourself like someone you love unconditionally. What would you say to yourself about this aspect that you dislike? (ii) Remind yourself that no one is without flaws. Think about how many other learners in the world are struggling with the same or similar things as you. (iii) Consider the ways in which your life events or your personality might have contributed to this negative aspect of yourself. (iv) In a compassionate way, ask yourself whether there are things that you could do to improve or better cope with this negative aspect. Focus on how small but systematic actions could make you feel happier about yourself and avoid judging yourself. (d) Based on the previous reflections, tell students to write a letter to themselves looking at the part they dislike, from a loving and compassionate perspective. Dear Self,

(i)

Ask students how they feel after writing the letter and reflecting on what they wrote. Get them to discuss in what ways doing this type of activity can help positively influence them as future language teachers (or language learners), for example, by helping them manage their emotions and shape their thoughts. (ii) Tell students to keep this letter handy and read it whenever they are feeling bad about themselves, as a reminder of the importance of being self-compassionate.

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Cognitive flexibility Activity 4. Perspective taking

Time required: 25–30 minutes Peacebuilding competency: emotion regulation Level of language proficiency: intermediate/advanced Age: pre-teens, teenagers, adults (a) Discuss with the members of the class what it means to have ‘different perspectives’. (b) Ask the class to reflect on what they believe about topics such as abortion, gender equality, vegan protests, among others – that is, topics that usually involve having different perspectives and that are generally debated in society. (c) Tell students to choose one of the topics mentioned in the previous task and to interview two classmates to ask them what they think about such a topic (they should all take turns to be both the interviewer and the interviewee). Tell students that the interviewers should try to listen mindfully to the interviewee, that is, to pay close attention to what their classmate is saying and to be open and non-judgmental in trying to understand the person’s thoughts and feelings. (d) Ask the interviewers if the interviewees have a different perspective about the topic, and how those differences made the interviewers feel and whether they made them think anything different about the topic. (e) Ask the class in what ways perspective taking can positively influence their personal and professional lives and contribute to peacebuilding. (f) Follow up. Give students a scenario such as the following to further practice perspective taking: A student was caught cheating during an English test in school. Write three short texts about the issue (one from the student’s perspective, one from the English teacher’s perspective, one from the head of the school’s perspective). The Transformative Power of Strategic Activities for Peacebuilding

We are certain from our experiences as language teacher educators and researchers in the area of peacebuilding in language education that activities such as the ones described in this chapter have a transformative capacity. A whole array of holistic activities for enhancing peacebuilding competencies has been used and tested with both pre-service and inservice English language teachers in undergraduate and graduate programs (Olivero, 2017; Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford & Olivero, 2019). Such activities have been shown to influence participants’ beliefs, emotions and attitudes regarding teaching and building peace in various ways. Research has indicated, for example, that activities intended to develop ethnocultural empathy have led pre-service teachers to understand their

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students’ feelings and be more compassionate, which has contributed positively to the rapport established between teacher and students and to the classroom climate. Activities to enhance intercultural understanding have been shown to help language teachers appreciate other cultures, not only cultures associated with different geographical regions, but also those including diverse social groups. This new understanding has contributed to participants’ creativity in integrating the intercultural dimension into their language classrooms. Emotion regulation activities have helped prospective teachers better control their fears and anxiety related to teaching, which has led to a better teaching performance. Strategic activities aimed at cultivating cognitive flexibility have led some practicum students to be more open to new opinions and suggestions, thereby improving their relationships with their classmates, their mentors and their own students. (For more information on the research validation of peacebuilding activities, see Olivero, 2017; Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford & Olivero, 2019; Oxford et  al., 2018.) Other countries have used similar peacebuilding activities for professional development in language teaching workshops, peace education workshops and teacher well-being seminars. Participants reported benefitting from learning peace fundamentals and from practicing and strengthening their peace competencies. Conclusion

The whole world is in urgent need of peace at multiple levels, and the international role currently assigned to the English language accentuates its capacity to bring people together by speaking the language of peace. Peace is made more possible by fundamental peace knowledge and the use of specific peace competencies, which were explained in this chapter. Peace is made possible by peaceful communication and peaceful actions, and the more future teachers develop ethnocultural empathy, intercultural understanding, emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility, the more they will contribute to creating a peaceful world both during their pre-service teaching practices and throughout their professional lives. Notes (1) Paul Pardi (2011, updated 2019) and Steup (2018) explain some of the epistemological complexities involved in identifying criteria for answering the question, ‘What is knowledge?’. Unfortunately, we have no room to discuss this important theme. This chapter is also not the place to explore levels and types of consciousness related to knowledge acquisition in general or second language acquisition more specifically, but if interested, please see Schmidt (1995) or Oxford’s (2017b) summary of Schmidt’s consciousness theory. (2) In the famous taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives fi rst devised by Bloom et al. (1956), understanding is a higher cognitive level than remembering but not as

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high as applying, analyzing, evaluating or creating. In the taxonomy, evidence of understanding something is to explain or describe it, while higher cognitive levels require more complex knowledge used in more complex ways. (3) However, some aspects of peace, such as peacekeeping through coercive means, do not engage one’s inner peace. For distinctions among peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding, see Chapter 1, as well as Bickmore (2011) and Oxford (2013).

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King, M.L. Jr. (2001) The Words of Martin Luther King Jr. (C.S. King, ed.) New York: Newmarket Press. Kramsch, C. (1993) Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krznaric, R. (2014) Empathy: A Handbook for Revolution. London: Random House. Lewis, M. (2005) Bridging emotion theory and neurobiology through dynamic systems modeling. Behavior and Brain Science 28 (2), 169–245. Lieberman, M.D. (2013) Social: Why our Brains are Wired to Connect. New York: Crown Publishers/Random House. Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S.H. and LeRoux, J.A. (2007) Emotion and intercultural adjustment. In H. Kotthoff and H. Spencer-Oatey (eds) Handbook of Intercultural Communication (pp. 77–97). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Matthews, G., Zeidner, M. and Roberts, R.D. (2002) Emotional Intelligence: Science and Myth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P. and Caruso, D.R. (2008) Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic mix of traits? American Psychologist 63 (6), 503–317. Mercer, S. (2014) The self from a complexity perspective. In S. Mercer and M. Williams (eds) Multiple Perspectives on the Self in SLA (pp. 160–176). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Mercer, S. (2016) Seeing the world through your eyes: Empathy in language learning and teaching. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 91–111). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Miller, E. and Gkonou, C. (2018) Language teacher agency, emotion labor and emotional rewards in tertiary-level English language programs. System 79, 49–59. doi:10.1016/j. system.2018.03.002 Nelis, D., Quoidbach, J., Mikolajczak, M. and Hansenne, M. (2009) Increasing emotional intelligence: (How) is it possible? Personality and Individual Differences 47, 36–41. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.046 Nelson, L.L. (2014) Peacefulness as a personality trait. In G.K. Sims, L.L. Nelson and M.R. Puopolo (eds) Personal Peacefulness: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 7–43). New York: Springer. Olivero, M.M. (2017) Cultivating peace via language teaching: Pre-service beliefs and emotions in an Argentine EFL practicum. Unpublished dissertation, University of South Florida. Olivero, M.M. and Oxford, R.L. (2019) Educating for peace: Implementing and assessing transformative, multidimensional peace language activities designed for future teachers and their students. In L. Walid Lofty and C. Toffolo (eds) Promoting Peace through Practice, Academia, and the Arts (pp. 184–206). Hershey: IGI Global. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (ed.) (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2017a) Peace through understanding: Peace activities as innovations in language teacher education. In T. Gregersen and P. MacIntyre (eds) Innovative Practices in Language Teacher Education: Spanning the Spectrum from Intra- to Interpersonal Professional Development (pp. 125–163). New York: Springer. Oxford, R.L. (2017b) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: SelfRegulation in Context. New York: Routledge. Oxford, R.L. and Gkonou, C. (2018) Interwoven: Culture, language, and language strategies. Second Language Learning and Teaching 8 (2), 403–426. doi:10.14746/ ssllt.2018.8.2.10 Oxford, R.L. and Gkonou, C. (2020) Working with the complexity of language learners’ emotions and emotion regulation strategies. In R.J. Sampson and R.S. Pinner (eds) Complexity Perspectives on Researching Language Learner and Teacher Psychology (pp. 52–67). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

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Oxford, R.L. and Olivero, M.M. (2019) Expanding the ripples of peace: Employing transformational, multidimensional peace language activities in language teacher education. In J. Lin, S. Edwards and T. Culham (eds) Contemplative Pedagogies for Transformative Teaching, Learning, and Being (pp. 101–119). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L., Gregersen, T. and Olivero, M.M. (2018) Peacebuilding: Fostering the language of peace in TESOL. Special Issue on the Theory and Practice of Peace Linguistics, TESL Reporter 51 (2) 10–33. Pardi, P. (2011) What is knowledge? Philosophy News, updated 27 January 2019. See www.philosophynews.com/post/2011/09/22/What-is-Knowledge.aspx (accessed August 2019). Pavlenko, A. (2007) Autobiographic narratives as data in applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics 28 (2), 163–188. doi:10.1093/applin/amm008 Salovey, P., Mayer, J.D. and Caruso, D. (2002) The positive psychology of emotional intelligence. In C.R. Snyder and S.J. Lopez (eds) Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 159–171). New York: Oxford University Press. Schmidt, R. (1995) Attention and Awareness in Foreign Language Learning. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Sims, G.K., Nelson, L.L. and Puopolo, M.R. (2014) Introduction to personal peacefulness: Psychological perspectives. In G.K. Sims, L.L. Nelson and M.R. Puopolo (eds) Personal Peacefulness: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 1–6). New York: Springer. Spencer-Oatey, H. and Franklin, P. (2009) Intercultural Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Steup, M. (2018) Epistemology. In E.N. Zalta (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. See https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ (accessed June 2019). Wenden, A.L. and Schäff ner, C. (1995) Introduction. In C. Schäff ner and A.L. Wenden (eds) Language and Peace (pp. xv–xxv). London: Routledge. Zins, J.E., Weissberg, R.P., Wang, M.C. and Walberg, H.J. (eds) (2004) Building Academic Success on Social and Emotional Learning: What Does the Research Say? New York: Teachers College Press.

3 The Nonverbal Channels of Peacebuilding: What Teachers, Trainers and Facilitators Need to Know Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say. Ralph Waldo Emerson

The language of peace often is unspoken. The teaching and learning of spoken languages occupy enormous amounts of time and effort worldwide. However, as we contemplate how language supports the goals of peace, we must spare a thought for the power, complexity and importance of the nonverbal communication system. Nonverbal communication is ubiquitous when people interact with each other; it is a rich source of meaning with the power to significantly alter or even reverse the meaning of any spoken word. The impact of nonverbals on communication is only partially conscious as the various cues can be subtle and occur very rapidly. Unfortunately, discussions of the nonverbal dimensions of language within peacebuilding are in short supply, likely because the larger issue of language learning in the service of peace has been largely neglected in the applied linguistics literature. Our immediate goal in this chapter is to introduce the breadth and scope of nonverbal (e.g. body language) and paraverbal (e.g. vocal cues like intonation) cues inherent in interpersonal interactions to sensitize peacebuilders to the complexity of the communication process when nonverbal dimensions are included in the mix. The larger goal of this chapter is to explicate the encoding and decoding of nonverbal cues so that readers can transform communication and facilitate the teaching and using of peace language in various cultures and settings.

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The Essential Verbal-Nonverbal Link

Vygotsky (1987) argues that contemplating the body apart from the mind is like attempting to divorce the heat from the sun; the same is true for verbal and nonverbal communication. When humans interact in the service of peacebuilding, they seek to have a meeting of minds by interacting in a situated social context where nonverbal and verbal channels are inextricably linked. Nonverbals carry a significant share of the meaning of each interpersonal communication event. As the noted humanitarian and language educator Earl Stevick (1982: 163) said, ‘(i)f verbal communication is the pen which spells out details, nonverbal communication provides the surface on which the words are written and against which they must be interpreted’. Many of the cues that enrich meaning, convey emotion and augment learning in the target language are embedded in nonverbal communication. According to Gregersen and MacIntyre (2017: 5): The inextricable and highly complex relationship between the verbal and nonverbal dimensions of behavior operates communicatively, emotionally and cognitively. The multifunctional nature of nonverbal behavior facilitates interpersonal meaning-making, conveys feelings and attitudes, and enhances thinking and learning – and sometimes all at the same time.

Although we might differentiate nonverbal communication from verbal for the purposes of research and discussion, in-person exchanges feature channels that are seamlessly interconnected. In practice, verbal and nonverbal channels are multifaceted and intertwined. Meaning is not simply the sum of assembled words and phrases; rather, words, vocal cues and actions are enmeshed and become one integrated communicative event (DeVito & Hecht, 1990). In such a context, nonverbal behavior can substitute for, complement, accent, regulate and sometimes contradict the spoken message (Knapp & Hall, 2010). In effect, each feature in the tacit alliance among movements, vocal cues and words delivers essential information which can alter or enhance the meaning of a message. Nonverbal elements, in combination with spoken words, at times can be distinguished as discrete meaning-bearing elements and consequently be used to decipher speech (Harris, 2003) – an important communicative strategy for those using English as an additional language. In the discussion to follow, we use Oxford’s (2013) six dimensions of peace language (inner, interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological) as a point of reference (see Chapter 1). We explore the largely neglected ways in which nonverbal communication can be used in language learning and teaching to echo, convey and enthusiastically pursue the expansion of peace, while also producing a deep and lasting culture of it as an integral part of the ‘language of peace’ (Oxford, 2013). When the additional language being used is English, the significance of nonverbal awareness for peacebuilding purposes is multiplied, given that English often serves as a lingua franca which could provide a medium of communicating among dissimilar others. We address the ways in which

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nonverbal codes such as gesture, facial expression, gaze behavior, posture, space and touch, and vocal cues influence the transformation of communication to promote peace in its multiple dimensions. Because both verbal language and nonverbal language are mediums through which humans understand one another, learning an additional language is simultaneously an interpersonal, intergroup, international and/or intercultural endeavor. Whereas nonverbal communication exerts an impact on virtually all human interaction, its importance in foreign language interactions may be substantial because, by defi nition, at least one communicator is working in an additional language where the verbal content may not be as clear as it would be in intracultural interactions. There is always a possibility of misinterpreting both verbal and nonverbal cues across cultures, but it has been shown that nonverbal cues are often relied upon to guide interpretation of the verbal message (Singelis, 1994). Therefore, it is fundamentally important that the interaction of verbal and nonverbal channels of communication be better understood. We hope this chapter will help to make peacebuilders more aware, attentive, intentional and effortful in their harmony-seeking journey, in all its dimensions. Six Dimensions of Peace

According to Oxford (2013), one way to depict the six dimensions of peace is as interacting nested circles that grow out from inner peace at the center. Inner peace is characterized by being grounded personally and spiritually (not synonymous with religiously), self-regulated, personally guided and living free from unchecked peripheral concerns. Interpersonal peace, the second dimension, embodies thoughtfulness, encouragement and/or love between individuals or among small group members. The third dimension is intergroup peace, which describes positive relationships between and among ‘unlike others’ in terms of categories like gender, race, language socio-economic class, religion, politics and even age, among others. The overlapping fourth and fi fth dimensions are, respectively, intercultural peace (harmony among members of different cultures, both large and small) and international peace (harmony among independent and sovereign geographic-political entities). Intergroup, intercultural and international dimensions have ‘parameters’ that are very fluid and can expand or contract to shape the others. Finally, ecological peace indicates harmony with the environment. Using peace language to expand these dimensions necessitates awareness of and attention to both verbal and nonverbal codes of communication. Enacting these six dimensions of peace requires an appreciation of the nonverbal dimensions of communication. The field of nonverbal communication has been well developed over the years, especially with reference to Western cultures. The details of nonverbals have not yet been integrated with the details of language to create a more holistic interpretation of the

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details of peacebuilding communication, in all its dimensions. To facilitate this work, the remainder of the chapter is taxonomic and explanatory in nature, introducing readers unfamiliar with nonverbals to the terminology and providing an organizational framework. Along with each of the encoding and decoding processes described below, we offer a ‘teaching tip’ that can help make the mysterious and unfamiliar nonverbal dimensions of communication more accessible. Teachers, trainers and other facilitators can adapt and expand the teaching tips to fit the context in which they work. We hope these activities result in an appreciation of the breadth of the field and the ways nonverbals can be applied in service to peace. Decoding and Encoding Nonverbal Cues in the Pursuit of Peace

In the remainder of the chapter, we introduce and explain the nonverbal decoding and encoding skills (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2017) found in Table 3.1. A decoder of a message receives it; an encoder sends it. In both cases, relative efficacy in interpreting (decoding) and conveying (encoding) messages can be gauged by how closely the interpretation of the receiver aligns with that of the sender. For each decoding and encoding skill that follows, we exemplify its use in one or more peace dimensions using one or more codes from the nonverbal and/or paraverbal channels. Decoding Skills Communicative context

The communicative context and immediate environment play important roles in accurately decoding any kind of communication. Inferring meaning without considering the totality of a situation may result in disastrous misconceptions that lead to conflict in any of the six dimensions of Table 3.1 Nonverbal decoding and encoding variables that influence peacebuilding in language learning and teaching Key elements in DECODING

Key elements in ENCODING

Communicative context

Leakage

Corroborating cues

Prickly problem of touch

Past experiences

Reaction observation

Behavioral expectations

Authenticity

Variable expertise Perception checking Emotion contagion Tentativeness Alternative options

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peace – especially since conflict is often rooted in struggles for power, status and dominance (Leathers & Eaves, 2008). Two of the nonverbal areas that are particularly influential in decoding messages of power are eye behavior and touch. Although they commonly reveal the nature of the affiliation between and among communicators, these specific behaviors differ among groups and across cultures. For example, in North America, power is communicated with a fi xed gaze at others while those who avoid eye contact are usually consigned to inferior status (Leathers & Eaves, 2008). Likewise, a communicator’s perceived competence and trustworthiness increase with the use of direct eye contact. Furthermore, it is assumed that those who look directly at others are credible and truthful, and that those who avert their eyes are presumed to be less honest, less competent and thus less persuasive (Burgoon & Saine, 1978; Burgoon et al., 1986). In many Asian contexts, however, nonverbal behaviors communicate the great importance placed on respect. Eye contact is a case in point as it is not considered as an essential feature of social interaction. Instead, it is often considered inappropriate and even disrespectful. The degree and intensity of eye contact may serve to convey that people are either trustworthy and friendly or sneaky and suspicious, that they are polite and appropriate or overly bold and disrespectful (DeVito, 2014). Touch, too, communicates power and status among North Americans, with those having more power more often initiating touch on those with less power. For this reason, people who are excessively touched run the risk of being considered individuals of inferior status (Richmond et al., 2012). Unfamiliarity with differences like these may put peacebuilders in precarious situations. Peacebuilding teaching tip

The peacebuilding teaching tip we offer concerning the role of context in decoding skills is centered on Oxford’s (2013) intercultural dimension of peace, with the goal of understanding how harmony might be facilitated by touch and eye contact. Teachers can ask learners to observe how interculturally diverse others interact with each other nonverbally, noticing details of their eye contact and touching behavior. This activity might be done in the community, at school, in the classroom, with video or even as a role play. Ask learners to think about issues such as: Are the nonverbal actions similar to or different from what they (students) are used to? Would they be comfortable using those cues themselves in order to accommodate? And to what extent do the observations reflect differences among individuals with cultural differences? Corroborating cues

Focusing intently or exclusively on a single nonverbal cue can jeopardize peace; corroborating cues helps to accurately interpret the

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significance of a nonverbal behavior. Decoding nonverbal cues in conjunction with other cues, the context and the person’s verbal message assists in avoiding confl ict that could potentially arise when one cue is interpreted to the exclusion of others. Research suggests that we display the kind of emotion we are experiencing in our faces and the intensity of it in our eyes (Leathers & Eaves, 2008). This brings into question a peacebuilder’s ability to fully and effectively interpret another’s emotion using a single cue. For example, the sight of tears undoubtedly infers that the ‘shedder’ is emotionally moved, but without other accompanying cues it is difficult to grasp whether the tears signify sadness, bodily discomfort, exasperation, enjoyment, anger or some other mixture of feelings (Knapp & Hall, 2010). Accurate interpretations are dependent on the deliberation of the entirety of nonverbal – as well as verbal and paraverbal – codes (Richmond et al., 2012). Smiling is another complex cue to interpret as it can be a signal of many emotions or rituals. In fact, according to the BBC, only six of 19 kinds of smiles are flashed in response to something positive; the rest can indicate pain, embarrassment, discomfort, misery, contempt, anger, incredulity or that the smiler is lying or lost (Gorvett, 2017). Imagine the chagrin of a peacebuilder who misconstrues an angry smile for a happy one, and the resultant conflict such a ‘lost in translation’ moment might trigger. Peacebuilding teaching tip

In helping learners search for corroborating cues, our peacebuilding teaching tip focuses on the interpersonal dimension, with the goal of connecting thoughtfulness about nonverbals with the empathetic perception of another person’s emotions. With everyone’s consent, teachers can ask learners to single out another member of the class and over the next day to observe the nonverbal cues this person performs. Have the observer choose one particular incident, defi ne the emotion they think the person is feeling, and note at least three nonverbal cues that went into this inference. Invite them to share their interpretation with the person being observed and talk about how the nonverbal cues fit together. Past experiences

Prior interactions and familiarity with a person, group, culture and/or nation increase nonverbal decoding accuracy. That is to say, knowing someone over a period of time increases sensitivity to unique glances, silences, movements and vocal cues which might be overlooked or misunderstood by others. Likewise, members of the same group, culture and/or nation can interpret each other’s nonverbal cues more accurately than those from outside and even more so if they are members of the same family. For instance, friends are more successful than strangers at inferring one another’s thoughts and feelings (Stinson & Ickes, 1992), and they

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can intentionally convey concealed messages to each other that strangers cannot understand (Fleming et al., 1990). Similarly, in family relationships, married couples decode one another’s nonverbal communications more accurately than strangers (Sabatelli et al., 1982), and parents read their own children’s facial expressions more accurately than other children’s (Zuckerman & Przewuzman, 1979). Beyond friends and family, members of the same culture recognize and interpret emotional cues using culturally learned decoding rules. A person’s culture influences their emotional restraint or freedom to display emotion but also sets the context to interpret what is acceptable and expected by others (Burgoon, 1985). Such display rules are tied closely to an individual’s specific culture and vary accordingly by cultural expectations. Hence, same-culture individuals tend to be more accurate decoders. For this reason, peacebuilders who consider their previous experience may ultimately understand their interlocutors better than those who attempt to infer the meaning of nonverbal behaviors without activating their personal schema. Peacebuilding teaching tip

The intergroup dimension of peace is the focus of the teaching tip in this section. The teacher can put learners into small groups and ask them to discuss and/or demonstrate (if they are willing) how members of their families use nonverbal behavior to communicate with one another. Ask them to report on what these differences imply about how familiarity affects decoding accuracy, especially as it extends to ‘unlike others’ that they might encounter. Behavioral expectations

The decoding of messages is often influenced by the ways in which people are expected to behave in a specific situation. Possibilities for effective interpretation are heightened when we compare what we expect to see and hear with what we actually see and hear. For instance, expectancy violation theory (Burgoon et al., 1995) proposes that people have certain preconceived expectations about the behavior of others even before entering into an interaction. Such expectations are construed from our life experiences and our culture. For example, when meeting a stranger, interactants from Western countries probably expect the other person to smile, possibly extend a hand for a handshake, say, ‘hello, my name is …’ and then provide their name. If, instead, new acquaintances unexpectedly clasp their hands together and bow without uttering a word or move close to kiss the cheek, the violation of expectancies presents a perplexing puzzle because the meaning of the nonverbal action is unclear. Although violated expectations may make individuals feel a bit discombobulated, such events provide an opportunity for peacebuilders to expand their own experience and adapt their behavior to an ‘other-orientation’.

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Peacebuilding teaching tip

Our teaching tip combines intergroup and intercultural dimensions of peace. Ask for learner volunteers from diverse cultural backgrounds to role-play their greeting and leave-taking rituals. What would be the response of members from learners’ cultures if these expectations were violated? Discuss harmonizing but also the alternatives to harmonizing greetings and the role of flexibility in expectancies in peacebuilding. Variable expertise

Self-assessing one’s own expertise in decoding nonverbal behavior supplies helpful information concerning where change is necessary and ultimately leads to the self-regulation and personal guidance that inner peace requires. Whereas some peacebuilders may seem to simply have a knack for interpreting nonverbal cues, we believe that it is possible for almost everyone to improve their awareness, attentiveness, intentionality and effort toward harmonizing the peace dimensions through a combination of self-reflection and explicit instruction. In practice, ‘emotional intelligence’ (EI), ‘interpersonal intelligence’ and ‘people smart’ are ideas with much in common. Emotional intelligence is defined as ‘The accurate appraisal and expression of emotions in oneself and others and the regulation of emotion in a way that enhances living’ (Mayer et al., 1990: 772). It is a set of interrelated skills and processes, and because the nonverbal channel is the most effective in expressing emotions, the ability to read other people’s facial expressions and other nonlinguistic cues is vital in EI (Elfenbein et al., 2002). Because emotion cues are often decoded unconsciously, focusing overt attention on them makes their interpretation more intentional. Awareness is the first step for peacebuilders to increase their decoding accuracy and ultimately their EI. Peacebuilding teaching tip

The teaching tip we offer here taps into the idea of inner peace. Ask learners to silently ‘name’ the emotion that each person with whom they communicate over the next day is likely feeling. Ask participants to reflect on whether or not labeling the emotion made them more overtly aware of the relationship between others’ emotions and their own inner experiences; do they feel more empathetic? Perception checking

Checking our interpretation of a message against the intentions of the sender guarantees more accurate decoding. Perception checking is a threepart process (Beebe et al., 2014). First, nonverbal cues are scrutinized, taking into consideration the entirety of the codes such as eye behavior, posture, gestures, facial expression and vocal cues. Next, an

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interpretation of the behaviors is required. Finally, decoders can check their perceptions against their interactants’ intentions by directly asking about the accuracy of their construal. Peaceful resolution to conflict and, even better, taking the necessary steps to avoid the first vestiges of tension, requires the interpretations of intentions to be accurate. For example, a peacemaker who fi rmly and unequivocally states his opinion to another during an interpersonal exchange and immediately notices an abrupt change in his interlocutor’s facial expression may want to consider following up with, ‘Did that sound too bossy?’ Peacebuilding teaching tip

The peacebuilding teaching tip for perception checking is a combination of Oxford’s (2013) inner and interpersonal peace dimensions. Simply ask learners to choose one or more occasions – three might be an optimal number – throughout the next week when they feel comfortable enough with their interlocutor to check the accuracy of their interpretation of a nonverbal event with what the interlocutor actually felt or thought. Invite learners to share their experiences. Which cues provided the most and least accuracy between the perceptions offered by different persons? Emotion contagion

Emotions and the nonverbal expression thereof are highly susceptible to being spread – for the virtuousness of peace or the malady of conflict. Emotional contagion theory (Hatfield et al., 1992) suggests that people tend to ‘catch’ the emotions of others. The process of emotional contagion occurs in three stages: mimicry, feedback and contagion. During interaction, communicators are inclined to automatically mimic and synchronize their own actions with the nonverbal behaviors of others. Personal emotional experiences are continually influenced by the activation and/or feedback from such mimicry because, by acting out the behaviors themselves, people tend to feel emotions consistent with the facial, vocal and postural expressions they adopt. For example, when interlocutors mimic the expressions of fear, anger, sadness, joy, love or disgust of their partners, they tend to feel a pale reflection of those specific emotions. Such feedback and contagion provide insight into the thoughts and feelings of others (Hsee et al., 1992). If, in an attempt to understand what makes another person behave as they do, people cognitively assess the emotions they have begun to feel themselves, and if they reflect upon the emotions they themselves experience in the company of others, they could possibly come closer to feeling others’ emotional states more powerfully (Hatfield et al., 2014). Peacebuilding teaching tip

The peacebuilding teaching tip we offer for emotional contagion is to consider the idea of contagion in the international dimension of peace.

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Ask learners in small groups to talk about a time when they experienced emotional contagion – when they felt their emotions aligned with the people immediately around them. Then invite them to discuss how this phenomenon might affect international peace on a larger scale and/or fi nd historical examples where international relations mirrored the kinds of processes that happen as emotional reactions spread within a group. Tentativeness

Developing a working hypothesis from an interactant’s nonverbal cues allows further evidence to attest to the validity and accuracy of a decoder’s guesses. A good example is found in the decoding of emblematic gestures, which are culturally defi ned hand movements that have a direct verbal translation and can substitute for a word (e.g. touching your index fi ngers to your lips to indicate ‘silence’ or waving your hand to say ‘hello’). Nonverbal emblems are socially learned and have assigned arbitrary meanings (Knapp & Hall, 2010), which make their use very challenging for many learners of an additional language. Even more complicated is the fact that the same emblem can mean something completely different from one culture to the next. According to Gregersen and MacIntyre (2017), this means that if an individual from a dissimilar group or culture observes an emblematic gesture being performed and infers meaning using information from his or her home culture, there is a good chance that it will be decoded incorrectly and lead to conflicts both large and small. For example, generally North Americans interpret the thumbs-up sign as a positive gesture; on the other hand, it is identified as insulting by Thais (who regard it as childish) and Afghans (where it is obscene). Thus, lacking caution in interpreting such an emblem may result in an unwitting peacebuilder from Thailand thinking that her North American friend just insulted her. Peacebuilding teaching tip

To teach the idea of tentativeness, emblems can provide an example of the intercultural dimension of peace. The teaching tip we offer is to invite learners to close their eyes and on the count of three make the gesture that would replace each of these phrases: ‘Time out!’; ‘Please’; ‘Be quiet!’; ‘Well done!’; ‘You’re crazy!’; ‘Attention!’. After each phrase, ask learners to open their eyes and look around to see how others signaled the same message before moving on to the next. If possible, show or enact one or more alternative versions of the same emblem from other cultures. Have learners practice them or make a game where learners close their eyes and are asked to display the emblem from alternative countries, and then open their eyes to check for accuracy on remembering the emblems of other cultures. Discuss the advantages of making tentative initial interpretations of nonverbal cues.

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Alternative options

Alternatives to initial judgments about another’s nonverbal behavior provide an effective way to test whether the first impression was accurate. Individuals constantly make decisions about others after seeing their faces for just a fraction of a second – and these snap judgments or ‘initial impressions’ predict all kinds of important decisions. They dictate the ways in which people anticipate reactions from others, how people relate to each other and what and how relationships are formed. For example, considering international peace, politicians who simply look more competent are more likely to win elections. Yet the character judgments made from decoding faces are often inaccurate. Essentially, humans have evolved the ability to read basic social signals and momentary emotional states from faces, using a network of brain regions dedicated to the processing of faces. In that process, however, faces do not necessarily provide an accurate indication concerning the personalities of others; rather, the impressions we draw from faces indicate our own biases and stereotypes (Todorov, 2017). This fallibility suggests that peacebuilders need to be continually secondguessing their initial impressions and seeking alternative options to them in the pursuit of harmony in all of the dimensions of peace. Peacebuilding teaching tip

We would like to incorporate all of the dimensions of peacebuilding in our teaching tip on alternatives. In it, learners experiment with holding two alternative interpretations and then resolving them. To do this, teachers show an ambiguous image or video that can be seen in alternative ways. Next, they ask learners to deliberately create at least two alternative interpretations and ways to choose between them, by noticing different nonverbal cues, searching out corroborating evidence and then discussing learners’ fi ndings. The above elements are integral to the process of making meaning of nonverbal cues, but that is only part of the interactive process. Below, we introduce variables that influence the expression of nonverbal messages. Beebe et al. (2014) and DeVito (2014) advise communicators to be aware of leakage, to be conscious of how touch is perceived, to watch for reactions and in general to maintain authenticity. We provide additional specifics of these aspects. Encoding Strategies Leakage

Perhaps the fi rst axiom or rule of nonverbal expression from the encoding perspective is that ‘We cannot not communicate’ (Watzlawick et al., 1967: 30). Sigmund Freud (1953: 94) once said, ‘He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a

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secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fi ngertips; betrayal oozes out of him at every pore’. That is to say, we tend to ‘leak’ nonverbal information, which can be seen as a mixed blessing. Individuals continuously experience feelings or combinations of feelings, although they are often not fully aware of those background emotions or how they affect behavior. We have discussed how receivers interpret nonverbal cues, but these nonverbal cues might not be as visible as an encoder might think. No one can regulate every element of nonverbal behavior and leakages cannot be stopped, but there is an ‘illusion of transparency’ in which encoders believe more of their emotional states leak out nonverbally than they actually do (Gilovich et al., 1998). Nevertheless, with increased self-awareness of feelings and responses, one’s communication can become more mindful, especially in the case of one potentially distracting behavior. Adaptors is the name given to those repetitive, unconsciously generated gestures that can be comforting but that also betray our internal emotional states. Adaptors tend to convey attitudes such as boredom, stress and disagreeable feelings concerning oneself and/or others. Adaptors are classified into three types: self-adaptors (an individual touches or manipulates his or her own body through actions like scratching, rubbing and hair twisting); other-adaptors (designed to protect the individual from other people via actions like folding the arms or crossing the legs); and object-focused adaptors (manipulating objects in the immediate environment, like tapping a pen or twisting a ring) (Knapp & Hall, 2010). Leaking emotional information may often be an unintentional cause of conflict. Therefore, effective peacebuilders make an attempt to become more aware of their own adaptive behaviors. Peacebuilding teaching tip

The peacebuilding tip we offer here is focused on the interpersonal dimension. To heighten awareness of adaptors, instructors can ask learners to interview a trusted friend concerning their use of adaptors. One friend might ask another, ‘Is there something you have noticed I do when I am anxious/bored/impatient, etc.?’ Collect and classify adaptors identified by the group and discuss (a) how informative about internal states and (b) how controllable each one might be. Prickly problem of touch

Touch is the most complicated code of nonverbal behavior and sometimes engenders unpleasant conflict because of its potential for being personally intrusive and given the culturally embedded rules that guide its use. Yet touch is an extraordinarily rich form of communication; if a picture is worth a thousand words, a touch is worth a million or more. Touch is our first sense to develop, one that never stops informing us about the world and people. A mother’s touch guides a child’s first interaction with

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the world and remains a powerful teaching tool for babies. As we grow older, we learn that acceptable and enjoyable forms of touch depend on context. As a general rule, touching raises the stakes of an encounter, amplifying the emotions people are experiencing and affecting the sense of connectivity, intimacy, affection and dominance (Chillot, 2013). Touch can be classified as professional-functional, social-polite and friendship-warmth. The potential for cultural differences in when, where and with whom one implements different forms of touch makes the sending of contradictory signals highly likely. Professional-functional touch is impersonal and is used to accomplish or perform a task or service. Most importantly, physical contact is incidental to the purpose of the exchange. Social-polite touch neutralizes the status disparity between interactants via limited interpersonal contact and occurs in a social situation like greetings. It is prescribed by strict cultural rules, so the notion of what is proper differs widely. Finally, the third type of touch is that which communicates friendship-warmth – that we care for, value and have an interest in the person we are touching. However, its ambiguity makes it the most problematic form to interpret. More cross-cultural variability arises with friendship-warmth touch than any other type. One reason for confusion is that relationships in which communication partners use friendshipwarmth touch are often so close that they can also be mistaken for intimacy and sexual attraction (Richmond et al., 2012). Given the potential for contradictory or unintended messages to be encoded by unwitting peacebuilders, it behooves them to be aware of the appropriateness of touch in different contexts and to avoid mixed messages. Peacebuilding teaching tip

Our peacebuilding teaching tip combines interpersonal and intercultural dimensions. Ask learners to discuss practical strategies for enhancing the positive qualities and avoiding the perils of touch. For a demonstration, ask one or more blindfolded or eyes-closed persons to receive a handshake from a group of people in sequence, as in a receiving line. On a set of cards, write an emotion to be communicated by the handshakers, such as happiness, dominance, disinterest, enjoyment and apprehension. The handshake is one of the few near-universally accepted forms of prolonged touch. After the demonstration, ask how this simple touch can affect peace in the different dimensions. Beyond the handshake, ask participants to discuss how the code of touch is used in their cultures; what type of touch is well accepted and what type is to be avoided or used only with appropriate caution? Reaction observation

Through keen observation of how others respond, a deeper understanding concerning the impact of our nonverbal behavior on others is

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developed. For instance, mirroring occurs when one person subconsciously imitates the nonverbal behavior of another. Because mirroring increases when affiliation goals exist, it often results in positive feelings (Andersen & Guerrero, 1998) and increased rapport as the correspondences in nonverbal behaviors emotionally connect the mirrored and mirroring communicators. Frequently associated with charisma, persuasiveness and approachability, mirroring can be embedded in many codes consisting of, but not limited to, gestures, prosody, posture, eye behavior, personal space and body orientation. As communicators express parallel nonverbal cues, they may also believe that they share similar attitudes and ideas. Mirror neurons in communicators’ brains react to in-sync actions, causing them to feel closer engagement and belonging (Iacoboni, 2009). Because individuals may be more willing to empathize with and accept people whom they believe hold similar interests and beliefs, peacebuilders might consider using some amount of mirroring to establish connections between themselves and their interlocutors as a means of building rapport and expanding peace. Peacebuilding teaching tip

The peacebuilding teaching tip for reaction observation is of the interpersonal dimension. Ask learners in pairs to mirror (or not mirror) their partner’s nonverbal behavior and ask how they felt afterward. Does mirroring that is too closely carried out feel phony and annoying? Are there channels where mirroring fails and others where it works? Next, ask learners to notice the body language of people in conversation the next time they are in a populated room. Can they distinguish those who know each other and/or have an affinity by the congruence in their postures and movements? What do these two exercises suggest for their own body language in interpersonal conversation? Encoding nonverbals: A comment on authenticity

Although it is important to practice nonverbal cues as a way to become more effective encoders for the sake of interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural and international peace, it is crucial to bring authenticity to the peacebuilding process, starting with inner peace. When fi nding the genuine positive affect at its core, nonverbal expressions of inner peace will flow more authentically than if a peacebuilder is faking it. Most people understand that affect displays can be altered or faked so that the conveyor may appear one way when in reality they feel another, like smiling when sad. Indeed, Knapp and Hall (2010) defi ne six emotional management behaviors that cultures worldwide implement to varying degrees: (1) expressing true emotions – no adaptations; (2) de-intensifying – conveying less vigor than actually experienced; (3) exaggerating – expressing more intensity than actually experienced; (4) neutral expression – conveying

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nothing; (5) qualifying the emotion – expressing a feeling along with a smile or other nonverbal cue; and (6) masking – concealing true feelings. The regulation of affect displays is extremely important for peacebuilders because people tend to focus attention on such displays as feedback during communication. Identifying and thinking mindfully about the choices we have available for expressing inner peace is a key to naturally encoding the configuration of desirable nonverbal messages that facilitate communication. However, it is extremely difficult to try to monitor and control one’s nonverbal behavior in more than one dimension at a time. There are layers of meaning that affect and constrain the quality of the interaction. For example, take into account the differences between highcontext and low-context cultures. High-context cultures focus intently on nonverbal communication to convey meaning, using features like relational intimacy, rigid social hierarchies and profound cultural familiarity. In contrast, low-context cultures rely heavily on words themselves. Their communication is more direct, their relationships more temporal and their hierarchies more relaxed than their high-context counterparts (Hall, 1989). In a high-context culture, the peacebuilders’ available options are constrained by indirectness, harmony, structure, understatement, conversational orderliness, confl ict avoidance and accuracy. Peacebuilders in low-contact cultures need to know the nuances presented in their alternatives which include issues like a dependence on the verbal (communication is explicit and direct), linearity, drama, precision, openness, depersonalized disagreement, privacy, space-consciousness and efficiency. Because every communicative interaction is situational, communication requires a continual adaptation of nonverbal messages to the specific circumstances of the exchange. Nonverbal behavior appropriate in one situation or at one time may be completely inappropriate in another, as with the difference between high- and low-context cultures. On top of those differences is a layer of interpersonal discourse norms within a given situation, which direct specific communication features such as gaze behavior, turn-taking, silence and the appropriateness of laughter, among other circumstantially driven norms. Peacebuilders who fi nd their communication sometimes being decoded inaccurately may unintentionally be violating expectations at one layer or another. Peacebuilding teaching tip

In particular, we might focus on inner peace as a way to build into communication the authenticity that will allow for the unconscious coordination of verbal and the myriad nonverbal behaviors. Particular gestures and postures not only reveal to others how we feel about ourselves, but they also have the potential to heighten those feelings. For example, maintaining closed postures increases unpleasant emotions (Rossberg-Gempton & Poole, 1993), while practicing open postures mitigates the unpleasant emotions from slouching because the

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relationship between the brain and body is bidirectional. When bodies are put in upright, open postures, biological pathways that can increase positive emotions and energy are opened up. Furthermore, when sitting up straight, the likelihood of remembering positive memories or thinking positively overall is increased (Peper & Mei Lin, 2012). A peacebuilder who pays attention to inner peace and works to create a sense of openness and acceptance of different ways of doing things might fi nd it easier to harmonize verbal and nonverbal ways of communicating. In practice, there are so many dimensions of nonverbal decoding and encoding to think about that it becomes impossible to deal with them all or for someone to control even a small number of them. If one uses inner peace as a way toward figuring out what one authentically believes, the various converging nonverbals will more likely be encoded consistently, naturally and automatically. Conclusion

Gandhi was claimed to have said that ‘you cannot shake hands with a clenched fist’, and Mother Teresa was given credit for saying that ‘peace begins with a smile’. Both of these universally recognized peacebuilders understood the critical importance of what harmony seekers communicate nonverbally. Oxford (2013) explains that the concept of peace is the harmony we can achieve through communication and that the language we use to actively expand it is composed not just of the things we say with words, but also of the meanings we communicate with our hands, faces and eyes. As language-learning and language-teaching peacebuilders, we are in a privileged position to consider the causes and effects of conflicts and to transform them via caring and communication in all dimensions – whether that be intra-, inter- or eco- peace – for the good of all. References Andersen, P.A. and Guerrero, L.K. (1998) Principles of communication and emotion in social interaction. In P.A. Andersen and L.K. Guerrero (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion: Research, Theory, Applications, and Contexts (pp. 49–96). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. and Redmond, M.V. (2014) Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others (7th edn). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Burgoon, J.K. (1985) The relationship of verbal and nonverbal codes. Progress in Communication Sciences 6, 263–298. Burgoon, J.K. and Saine, T. (1978) The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Boston, MA: Houghton Miffl in. Burgoon, J.K., Coker, D.A. and Coker, R.A. (1986) Communicative effects of gaze behavior: A test of two contrasting explanations. Human Communication Research 12 (4), 495–524. Burgoon, J.K., Stern, L.A. and Dillman, L. (1995) Interpersonal Adaptation: Dyadic Interaction Patterns. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Chillot, R. (2013) The power of touch. Psychology Today, 11 March. See www.psychologytoday.com/ca/articles/201303/the-power-touch. DeVito, J.A. (2014) Interpersonal Messages. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. DeVito, J.A. and Hecht, M.L. (1990) The Nonverbal Communication Reader. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. Elfenbein, H.A., Marsh, A.A. and Ambady, N. (2002) Emotional intelligence and the recognition of emotion from facial expressions. In L.F. Barrett and P. Salovey (eds) The Wisdom in Feeling: Psychological Processes in Emotional Intelligence (pp. 37–59). New York: Guilford Press. Fleming, J.H., Darley, J.M., Hilton, J.L. and Kojetin, B.A. (1990) Multiple audience problem: A strategic communication perspective on social perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (4), 593–609. Freud, S. (1953) The interpretation of dreams. In J. Strachey (ed.) The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works, Vols 4 and 5. London: Hogarth. [Originally published in 1901.] Gilovich, T., Savitsky, K. and Medvec, V.H. (1998) The illusion of transparency: Biased assessments of others’ ability to read one’s emotional states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (2), 332–346. Gorvett, Z. (2017) There are 19 types of smile but only six are for happiness. BBC Online, 10 April. See bbc.com/future/story/20170407-why-all-smiles-are-not-the-same (accessed November 2018). Gregersen, T. and MacIntyre, P.D. (2017) Optimizing Language Learners’ Nonverbal Behavior: From Tenet to Technique. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Hall, E.T. (1989) Beyond Culture. Norwell, MA: Anchor. Harris, T. (2003) Listening with your eyes: The importance of speech-related gestures in the language classroom. Foreign Language Annals 36 (2), 180–187. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. and Rapson, L. (1992) Primitive emotional contagion. In M.S. Clark (ed.) Review of Personality and Social Psychology: Emotion and Social Behavior 14, 151–177. Hatfield, E.C., Bensman, L., Thornton, P.D. and Rapson, R.L. (2014) New perspectives on emotional contagion: A review of classic and recent research on facial mimicry and contagion. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships 8 (2), 159–179. Hsee, C.K., Hatfield, E. and Chemtob, C. (1992) Assessments of the emotional states of others: Conscious judgments versus emotional contagion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 11 (2), 119–128. Iacoboni, M. (2009) Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology 60, 653–670. Knapp, M.L. and Hall, J.A. (2010) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction (7th edn). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Leathers, D.G. and Eaves, M.H. (2008) Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Mayer, J.D., DiPaolo, M. and Salovey, P. (1990) Perceiving affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment 54 (34), 772–781. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Peper, E. and Lin, I.-Mei. (2012) Increase or decrease depression: How body postures influence your energy level. Biofeedback 40 (3), 126–130. doi:10.5298/1081-593740.3.01 Richmond, V.P., McCroskey, J.C. and Hickson, M.L. (2012) Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Rossberg-Gempton, I. and Poole, G.D. (1993) The effect of open and closed postures on pleasant and unpleasant emotions. The Arts in Psychotherapy 20 (1), 75–82.

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Sabatelli, R.M., Buck, R. and Dreyer, A. (1982) Nonverbal communication accuracy in married couples: Relationship with marital complaints. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43 (5), 1088–1097. Singelis, T. (1994) Nonverbal communication in intercultural interactions. In R. Brislin and T. Yoshida (eds) Improving Intercultural Interactions (pp. 268–294). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stevick, E.W. (1982) Teaching and Learning Languages. London: Cambridge University Press. Stinson, L. and Ickes, W. (1992) Empathic accuracy in the interactions of male friends versus male strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (5), 787–797. Todorov, A. (2017) Face Value: The Irresistible Influence of First Impressions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1987) Thinking and speech. In R.W. Rieber and A.S. Carton (eds) The Collected Works of L.S. Vygotsky, Vol. 1: Problems of General Psychology (pp. 39–285). New York: Plenum Press. Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. and Jackson, D. (1967) Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes. New York: W.W. Norton. Zuckerman, M. and Przewuzman, S.J. (1979) Decoding and encoding facial expressions in preschool-age children. Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (3), 147–163.

Section II Applying Peacebuilding for Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace 4

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Inner Peace and Emotion Regulation during Oral Production in ESL/EFL Teacher Education María Celina Barbeito and Adelina Sánchez Centeno How Increased Self-regulation, Learner Autonomy and Learner Cooperation Raise Self-esteem and Consequently Inner Peace and Interpersonal Peace: Insights from an Innovative School Context Carmen M. Amerstorfer Revolutionary Love and Peace in the Construction of an English Teacher’s Professional Identity Ana María F. Barcelos Seeking Connection through Difference: Finding the Nexus of Transformative Learning, Peacebuilding and Language Teaching Josephine Prado, Gönül Uguralp-Cannon, John Marc Green, Melinda Harrison and Laurie Frantz Smith

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4 Inner Peace and Emotion Regulation during Oral Production in ESL/EFL Teacher Education María Celina Barbeito and Adelina Sánchez Centeno

I alone cannot change the world, but I can cast a stone along the waters to create many ripples. Mother Theresa

Students in second language teacher education (SLTE) programs learn a new language with a two-sided aim: to gain knowledge about the foreign language (FL) and become fluent users of that language, and to acquire a sound pedagogical knowledge base and an array of necessary skills to teach the FL in the future. During this multifaceted and sometimes difficult learning process, emotional conflict can arise and challenge students’ well-being. Emotions play a central role in the process of learning a language (Swain, 2013) and influence how we choose to act (Barcelos, 2015); they affect students’ motivation, their attention to goals and relevant information and their self-regulation of learning in favorable and unfavorable ways (Fredrickson, 2001; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012; Pekrun, 2014). If negative emotions prevail, inner peace can be threatened. Considering this, it is paramount that SLTE programs prepare preservice teachers to fi nd ways to regulate their negative emotions and increase positivity (Mercer, 2016; Oxford, 2015, 2017a). This, in turn, would help prospective teachers experience inner peace, which would likely lead to having a more meaningful and pleasant learning experience throughout their program of studies. One of the goals of educators in English as a second language (ESL) and teacher education should be to strive for positive peace, which can be described partly as building positive relationships, resolving confl ict in productive ways (Kruger, 2012; Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford, 2013, 2017a) and, according to Wenden and Schäffner (1995: xvii), the presence of fair, equitable and just social structures that ‘enhance the human rights 63

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of all’. Such a goal would ‘make our desire for peace tangible and productive, with implications far beyond our own classroom or locality’ (Oxford, 2017a: 160). As university teacher educators, we understand that the best moment to begin preparing the ground for inner peace to flourish is during the early stages of teacher education, as it is precisely during their fi rst years in the program that students tend to suffer from high levels of stress (Bharuthran, 2018), especially when confronted with course requirements that demand high levels of challenge. Moreover, as Olivero (2017) emphasizes, the implementation of explicit practical ways to embody peace throughout the teacher education program can make the process of learning to teach more transformative and give prospective teachers tools to become future agents of peace. This chapter is about a pedagogical innovation that took place in an English Phonetics 1 course in an SLTE program at an Argentine university. The need for such implementation arose from findings of a recent research project (Barbeito et al., 2016) which revealed students’ emotional struggle during oral production in the classroom and generated the need to help them develop emotion regulation strategies (Oxford, 2011, 2017b). The chapter fi rst defi nes the theoretical background. Next, it describes the innovation, which consisted of engaging English Phonetics 1 students in experiential activities with the aim of helping them increase positive emotions and build and expand inner peace. The chapter then presents a sample of selected activities considered to be successful in fostering inner peace and enhancing emotional work in teacher education. Language educators working in a variety of contexts could easily adapt these activities. Emotions and Inner Peace

This section refers briefly to emotions in higher education, emotion regulation and emotions seen through the lens of positive psychology. Next, it presents key concepts related to the dimension of inner peace based on Oxford’s (2013) multidimensional peace model. The last part of this section refers to significant reasons for incorporating inner peace activities into the early stages of an SLTE program in an Argentine setting. Emotions in higher education: Self-regulation and contributions from positive psychology

Higher education, including SLTE, has mostly focused on cognitive development, often ignoring students’ emotional states (Dewaele & Li, 2018; Golombek & Doran, 2014; MacIntyre, 2002; Oxford, 2015; Pekrun et al., 2002; Swain, 2013). In Dewaele and Li’s (2018: 18) words, the prevailing view in higher education has been that learning is the ‘emotionless, clinical, germ-free absorption and transmission of linguistic knowledge’. However, it has been widely demonstrated that the act of learning is

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indeed an experience loaded with emotions. For MacIntyre (2002: 61), emotion is ‘the primary human motive’ and functions as an ‘amplifier, providing the intensity, urgency, and energy to propel our behavior in everything we do’. In the last decades, emotions have been given a more important role in academia, as they have been shown to influence students’ desires to persist and the strategies they choose to apply, and thus have an impact on levels of engagement, learning and achievement (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012). The emphasis placed on emotion in higher education has led educational researchers to refer to academic emotions, defi ned as ‘emotions relating to learning, instruction, and achievements in academic settings associated with attending class, studying, and taking tests and exams’ (Pekrun et al., 2002: 169). Although the literature documents a shift in the educational paradigm from a cognitive approach to a more holistic view of teachers and students, education and second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have focused mainly on the study of negative emotions such as anxiety (see Horwitz et al., 1986; MacIntyre, 2002; Oxford, 2017b). More recently, however, the birth of the positive psychology movement in applied linguistics (MacIntyre et al., 2016), together with the influence of some educational psychologists (e.g. Pekrun & Schutz, 2007), have triggered a reconsideration of the value of both positive and negative emotions in learning (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018). Positive psychology is concerned with paving the route to happiness by enhancing positive emotions, increasing engagement and fostering an appreciation of meaning in life and its activities (Seligman, 2006). According to Fredrickson (2001), positive emotion facilitates learning because it tends to broaden a person’s perspective, thereby leading to increased attention, creativity and flourishing. Conversely, negative emotion tends to have a narrowing capacity. Fredrickson’s (2001) discussion on these differences led MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) to view positive and negative emotion along two different dimensions: positive-broadening and negative-narrowing. Such conceptualization allows the possibility of identifying the presence of ambivalence (MacIntyre, 2007), a state of conflicting emotions found to be prevalent among Argentinian SLTE students with respect to what they reported experiencing during oral production (Barbeito & Sánchez Centeno, 2016). Given that it is not the mere presence of positive emotions but the ratio of positive to negative emotions that is especially important for the well-being of a learner (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), finding ways to help learners regulate their negative emotions and increase positivity is critical. Fortunately, students can explore and manage their own emotions (Barbeito & Sánchez Centeno, 2018) through increased awareness of the triggers and outcomes of emotions and through concrete regulation strategies. Emotion regulation involves monitoring beliefs and emotions (Schunk & Ertmer, 2000) and requires the activation and maintenance of

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relevant ‘cognitions, affects, and behaviors’ (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011: 1), essentially through strategies (Oxford, 2017b). Emotion regulation can be developed through dialogue with more capable others, teachers or peers (Vygotsky, 1978), and is characterized by activating a goal, choosing and employing relevant strategies and identifying the outcome (Gross, 2014). According to Oxford (2017b: 70), regulating emotions is crucial for learning as she considers that ‘negative emotions can often impede learners’ performance and positive emotions can aid performance’. Recognizing the role of positive and negative emotions and the fact that they can be self-regulated in the classroom seems promising, as it can help language practitioners have a more nuanced understanding of how emotions influence both the learning of a second language (MacIntyre, 2016) and learners’ overall well-being (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014). Cultivating inner peace in higher education

Inner peace (Oxford, 2013: 192), or peace in the heart or mind, refers to a deliberate state of psychological or spiritual calm despite the potential presence of disruptors, and has been defi ned as ‘interior harmony, often attained by discovering meaning in life and by deepening spiritual or moral understanding’. Following Oxford’s multidimensional peace model, inner peace is the core of five other intertwined dimensions of peace, namely the interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological dimensions (see Chapter 1 in this book for a detailed explanation). As inner peace is closely connected to a person’s emotions, it can be easily threatened by internal stressors, such as the absence of emotion regulation and lack of self-direction, as well as by external threats (Oxford, 2017a). For example, for many university students, achievement pressure or expectancy of failure (Pekrun et al., 2002) become internal threats and may promote unfavorable learning outcomes. When this happens, negative emotions are often triggered and, if not managed successfully, may jeopardize inner peace and well-being. By drawing on elements of positive psychology and principles of the Language of Peace approach (Oxford, 2013), teachers can generate ways to help students regulate emotions and increase positivity, and thereby promote inner peace. An effective way to do this systematically in the classroom is through inner peace activities (Oxford, 2015, 2017a). Such activities can provide university students with various tools to ‘reduce negative emotions and enhance positive ones, resulting in greater confidence and better decision-making’ (Oxford, 2017a: 133). Enhancing inner peace at the early stages of teacher education

The transition from secondary school to university involves a wide range of intense emotions, both positive and negative (Barbeito & Sánchez

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Centeno, 2018). In fact, the beginning and end of the fi rst semester of university bachelor’s degree programs have been identified as the times when students suffer the most stress (Bharuthran, 2018; Denovan & Macaskill, 2017; Pitt et al., 2018). Both authors of this chapter have extensive experience of teaching fi rst-year university students and have witnessed the high levels of anxiety, fear and frustration they feel during the critical fi rst semesters of the SLTE program. The relationship between emotions and inner peace has only recently been scientifically studied. However, various studies (Gregersen et al., 2016; Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012; Olivero, 2017) have demonstrated that activities based on positive psychology facilitate inner peace. Such activities can contribute to the generation of positive emotions, which in turn ‘trigger upward spirals of well-being, contribute to resilience and aid health’ (Oxford, 2017a: 216), and can thus guide students in their pursuit of peace and happiness. In the field of SLTE, Dr Matilde Olivero is a pioneer in fostering peace explicitly and experientially through multidimensional peace language activities (MPLAs) in a practicum course of the SLTE program at the National University of Río Cuarto (Olivero, 2017; Olivero & Oxford, 2019). Pre-service teachers had the opportunity to experience and reflect on a variety of activities aimed at fostering peace in multiple dimensions. They later implemented MPLAs of their choice in their English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching practice at elementary level. By the end of the practicum, the participants concluded that even though all six peace dimensions were important, the development of inner peace became a priority as it helped them regulate their emotions and those of their students, establish healthy relationships in their classrooms and have a more pleasant practicum experience. The participants in Olivero’s study learned to regulate their emotions and found ways to increase inner peace at a late stage in their education, specifically in the practicum. In light of these fi ndings, Olivero’s advice is to start including peacebuilding sooner in the program of studies: ‘the earlier and the more frequent peace education is explicitly incorporated in pre-service teachers’ experiences as learners, the higher the chances that it will become part of their pedagogical content knowledge, and of their overall knowledge base for teaching EFL/ESL’ (Olivero, 2017: 288). Teacher education students experience intense emotions in the fi rst years of their program because they encounter significant challenges in learning to use and teach an FL. Therefore, activities that foster inner peace are likely to help students reduce negative affect and enhance positivity (Olivero, 2017; Oxford, 2017a), and it is crucial to incorporate such activities in the beginning stages of the SLTE program. We contend that an earlier start would give future teachers more time to explore, experience and reflect on the connection between emotions and inner peace and thus help them develop a stronger sense of well-being.

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A study to explore students’ emotions was carried out by Barbeito et  al. (2016). It involved 57 fi rst-year SLTE students, mainly at preintermediate/intermediate EFL levels, in a full-year Introduction to Phonetics course. During that course, negative emotions predominated, positive emotions decreased and ambivalent emotions increased. This study, which we cannot describe in depth due to space limitations, led us to design and implement the following innovation. This section has described concepts and frameworks applicable to emotion regulation for pre-service teachers in SLTE programs. The next section details several activities for those leading SLTE programs to help pre-service teachers reduce negative affect and increase inner peace in learning EFL and learning to teach EFL. The Innovation

The innovation described here was aimed at mitigating students’ negative emotions and increasing their inner peace and well-being during oral production. According to MacIntyre (2016), a central tenet in positive psychology is to make pedagogical innovations to increase well-being. By learning how to regulate their emotions through peace language activities, pre-service teachers can fi nd harmony in themselves and, later in their professional lives, they can deal with confl ict in more productive ways (Oxford, 2017a). Participants in the innovation (n = 27) were a subset of participants in the Barbeito et al. (2016) study. These students were now attending the one-term course English Phonetics 1, which occurs in the fi rst term of the second SLTE year and is organized in two-hour meetings twice a week, one of them taught by the first author of this chapter. Compared with the Introduction to Phonetics course, the English Phonetics 1 course has a heavier emphasis on articulatory phonetics. The activities

This pedagogical innovation was framed within Oxford’s (2017b) ‘Full Consciousness Mode’, which involves teaching peace directly and explicitly through exciting activities that include a mention of ‘peace’ or ‘peaceful’. In this mode, teachers foster ‘peace consciousness (i.e. the combination of awareness, attention, intention and effort) for the purpose of expanding peace’ (Oxford, 2017b: 126). In applying this mode, we explicitly integrated positive psychology-based activities into regular coursework to awaken and maintain emotion regulation. Some activities were adapted from the literature (Kalaja et al., 2008; Oxford, 2017a; Underhill, 2005) and others were specifically created for this group of students and integrated into regular English Phonetics 1 coursework. They were not content-specific (i.e. related to phonetics), but

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rather activities that set a positive psychological context that could result in more meaningful learning (Gregersen et al., 2016). The five activities presented in the following section involved anticipated emotions, relaxing, managing catastrophic thinking, disclosing emotions and expressing pride.1 Although these activities were tailored to the unique needs of students taking English Phonetics 1, they can be adapted and used in other SLTE content courses or in L2 classrooms. The activities were organized in three phases, following Oxford’s (2017b) guidelines for self-regulation: (a) forethought, (b) performance and (c) reflection. In the forethought phase, students analyzed the task to become aware of the emotions felt during oral production. During the performance phase, they were encouraged to monitor their performance and pay attention to emotions experienced during the task, so they could learn how to regulate them. Finally, during the reflection phase, students were prompted to evaluate how the strategies – analyzing the task, monitoring/paying attention and evaluating – helped to attain inner peace. In the course, students were encouraged to participate actively and were given the option of verbalizing their thoughts, opinions and emotions using their mother tongue in order to allow for more emotional intensity and more detail and to avoid a potential language barrier (Pavlenko, 2007). We also tried to create a positive climate in the classroom where everyone could participate without feeling intimidated or embarrassed. To assess the value of the innovation and understand the ways in which the students responded to it, their insights about the impact of the activities on their inner peace were systematically elicited through optional, short, online questionnaires to be completed at home after the reflection phase. These instances of further reflection provided feedback concerning the innovation’s value in helping students manage their emotions and cultivate inner peace. Below is a description of five activities that were included in the innovation. We designed, adapted and used a larger selection of activities, but students reported that the ones in continuation were the most useful.2 Activity 1. Emotional rating

Anticipated emotions (MacIntyre, 2016) are emotions you imagine in relation to a future event, but they are experienced in the present. These emotions, whether related to success or failure, might determine academic achievement and motivation (Pekrun et al., 2002). In this activity, useful in the initial stages of a course, students come into initial contact with how they feel about the tasks they will perform in the English Phonetics 1 course and rate the intensity of their anticipated emotions. It aims to help students understand that positive and negative emotions are part of learning and that these emotions can be managed to increase learning, inner peace and well-being.

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Elicit and then explain the different types of activities students will have to perform during the term (e.g. in a phonetics course: taking dictations in class, reading aloud or performing orally in front of the class and taking oral and written exams). (a) Discuss with students their experiences with similar activities in previous courses and the emotions these activities caused. Ask about the anticipated emotions the future activities may generate. (b) Hand out a worksheet with a list of the future activities already discussed and a word bank from which to select different emotions. Ask students to fill in the blank spaces with the emotions selected for each future activity and to rate them on a scale from 1 to 5 (see Table 4.1, next page). (c) Open a whole-class discussion to see which emotions are most prominent and propose possible actions to manage them. Announce that you will work on how to use emotion regulation strategies during the course, such as watching for signs of stress or anxiety before oral production, modulating emotional responses and engaging in positive selftalk. (These strategies are related to the general self-regulation model presented earlier in the chapter. Also, see Oxford, 1990, 2011, 2017b.) (d) Ask students to write a reflection at home following this prompt: ‘How do you feel about learning how to manage your emotions in the English Phonetics 1 course? How does managing your emotions make you feel more peaceful?’ (e) Optional follow-up: Collect the worksheets. Bring them back to class in the middle of the term and at the end of the course to allow students to see how they rated each activity at the beginning and then compare their emotions to those experienced at the times of the second and third ratings. This realization can give students a sense of control over their emotions and/or help them see that they need to be more attentive to their emotion regulation. Activity 2. Warm up and get ready to speak

In the phonetics course, students need to understand how sounds are made physically and to use their muscles to produce new sounds. Many students generally hold tension in their jaws, lips and tongue. This prevents them from articulating sounds correctly and often causes pain, stress and negative emotions. By practicing some simple relaxation and visualization exercises, students can relieve tension, articulate sounds correctly and increase their self-confidence, inner peace and sense of achievement. Different exercises can be practiced in each class session or presented all in one class session to allow students to select the ones they prefer or need. Below are some exercises inspired by Underhill’s (2005) work. Before initiating each exercise, discuss the problems and emotions faced by students when articulating certain sounds. Explain how inner peace is often affected by these

optimistic motivated

scared

(6) Actively participate in class by answering oral questions about the theoretical content

(5) Record my oral production at home and send it to the English Phonetics 1 teacher

(4) Read aloud with a classmate

(3) Read aloud in front of the teacher

Emotion(s) 1

2

worried confused comfortable anxious bored secure pessimistic uncomfortable overwhelmed insecure

(2) Transcribe a text at home in phonemic script (from a written text or an audio file)

(1) Transcribe from an oral text in phonemic script

Activities

at ease

3

Rating 4

nervous

5

Comments

ashamed excited apathetic

Below are some activities we are going to perform during the academic year in the English Phonetics I course. (a) How does the idea of performing each of these activities make you feel? Read the list of activities and think about the emotion(s) that each activity generates in you and write them in the corresponding column. (You can choose words from the box below or write others.) (b) Then, in the rating column rate each emotion in intensity, with 1 being the least intense and 5 being the most intense. (c) You can add comments in the last column.

Table 4.1 Activity 1. Emotional rating (worksheet)

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problems and emotions. Because some students might feel awkward performing the exercises in class, use humor to help students relax and increase well-being. (a) Ask students to massage their jaw and cheeks with their fi ngertips in circular movements. This may cause yawning as muscles begin to relax. Yawning stretches the lips and jaw and allows for deep breaths, which oxygenates the brain. Students can close their eyes and feel their faces relaxing. (b) Ask students to drag their hands down their jawbone toward the chin using the heels of their hands. Tell them to focus on releasing the jaw hinge and letting the face muscles relax. Instruct students to do it two or three times. (c) Ask students to focus on their lips, move them forwards and backwards, open their mouths wide and close them tight, visualize the sound /b/, close their lips tight, feel the air build up behind and then release. (d) After Activity 2 is fi nished, ask students to share with a peer or the whole class any peaceful emotions and peaceful thoughts they experienced when performing the relaxation/visualization activities. (e) Optional follow-up: In future class sessions, prompt students to share techniques they use to relax and exercise their speech muscles and invite them to lead a short relaxation/exercise session in class. Activity 3. Putting things into perspective

Catastrophic thinking is defined as irrational and exaggerated thoughts that are usually ‘paralyzing and unrealistic’ (Seligman, 2011: 133, 169). By putting a stress-causing situation in perspective (e.g. reading aloud in front of teachers), students can counteract negative thoughts. In this activity (adapted from Oxford, 2017a: 143), students are confronted with imagined academic situations such as an upcoming exam. Students learn to recognize irrational fears or anxieties and to focus on the reduction of the negative outcomes associated with catastrophic thinking. The activity can be done before a test, for example, or in the initial stages of any course. (a) Illustrate the activity using a situation from everyday life (e.g. first day in a new job) and describe the worst, the best and the most likely scenarios (e.g. worst case scenario: I will miss the bus and arrive late, so my boss will be angry; best case scenario: there will be someone at the door to welcome me with a bunch of flowers; most likely scenario: I will be on time, I will feel a little uneasy at first, I will meet new people and everything will be OK.) For each situation share possible emotions. (b) Hand out a worksheet (see Figure 4.1) and ask students to complete it in relation to an academic event (e.g. midterm exam next week).

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a.

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Read the situation presented below, which is an activity planned for your English Phonetics 1 course.

b. Imagine three things that could happen in this situation: Think of the worst case, the best case, and the most likely case. Write them in the corresponding thought bubbles.

Mid-term exam next week

The most likely

Source: https://iconos8.es/icon/23343/sobre-nosotros-mujer

Figure 4.1 Activity 2. Putting things into perspective (worksheet)

(c) Ask students to share their thoughts and emotions with a peer and/or the whole class, focusing on moving away from the worst case toward the best case, and from there to the most likely case. (d) To close the activity, share with students the reasons for including the situation (midterm exam), inquire about emotions felt during past midterms and reflect on ambivalent emotions. The class can also reflect on the benefits of doing this activity whenever they have a problem that generates catastrophic thinking. (e) Ask students to write a journal entry at home, following this prompt: ‘How has this activity, Putting things into perspective (i.e. thinking about the best, the worst and the most likely scenario), helped you increase inner peace?’ (f) Optional follow-up: Provide students with a set of questions that could help them regulate their catastrophic thinking. Examples might be: What would a friend say to me? What would I say to a friend? Do I know someone who experienced this situation? Invite students to add more questions. Then ask them to resort to these questions whenever necessary. Activity 4. Portrait of me and my emotions

According to Barkhuizen et al. (2014), narratives provide access to language learning as lived experiences that take place over certain periods of time and in multiple settings and contexts. Narratives can be oral, written or multimodal. Multimodal narratives are visual narratives, e.g. a selfportrait where students draw an event or series of events related to learning and the emotions generated by these experiences and write a short narrative interpreting their drawing. The drawings allow students to express emotions explicitly (Barcelos, 2015).

Section II: Applying Peacebuilding for Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace

Figure 4.2 Activity 3. Portrait of me, my beliefs and emotions (worksheet)

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In this activity (adapted from Kalaja et al., 2008), students draw how they feel when expressing their emotions orally in English (Hautamaki, 2010). (a) Ask students to think about how they feel (specific emotions) in the English Phonetics 1 class when they are asked to perform in English orally in front of classmates and teacher. Also ask them to think about the degree to which they feel peaceful when performing English orally in class. Tell them the response is just for themselves; they will not have to share it. (b) Hand out a worksheet (see Figure 4.2) and crayons (optional) and ask students to draw themselves in class performing English orally. If possible, give students the option to change the classroom arrangement, sit on the floor or go outside the classroom to draw. Students can also have an extra worksheet to start over if they are not happy with what they have drawn. (c) Ask students to write a title and a brief explanation of their drawing. (d) Once students have fi nished, ask them how they felt about drawing, how they felt during the process and whether they think they were able to transmit their emotions in a picture. Collect all the drawings. (e) Optional follow-up: Analyze the students’ drawings and create a list of the predominant emotions. In a future class, start a whole-class discussion showing students the list you have compiled and elicit ways to deal with those emotions and to feel peaceful. Perhaps return narratives to students for them to remember the emotions they felt at the time they drew them to compare how they felt afterwards. Students might also draw a new narrative toward the end of the course. Activity 5. I’m proud of it

Pride can be considered a positive emotion, often related to the process of learning and task performance (Pekrun et al., 2002) and to the ability to build enduring personal resources (MacIntyre et al., 2016). The ability to express pride and a sense of accomplishment and to reflect on future goals can help students increase their optimism, well-being and inner peace. This activity is best suited as the closure of a lesson, course book unit or the course itself. It aims at getting students to express pride in having met goals, such as mastering a skill or managing emotions. (a) Start a discussion about the importance of looking back, and provide examples of what you feel proud of in relation to yourself and the students taking the course. (b) Invite students to think about the goals they set for that course (or particular lesson or unit) and recall how they felt. Ask them to reflect on some of the things they could do well and therefore be proud of (e.g. in the phonetics class, be able to use the appropriate intonation patterns for questions in a dialogue; be able to control anxiety before

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reading aloud through conscious breathing; be able to feel more peaceful). (c) Invite students to share their thoughts with the rest of the class, using the phrase: I’m proud of …. The discussion can also focus on what needs more work and how to achieve goals that have not been reached yet. (d) Ask students to write a reflection at home, following this prompt: ‘Now that the course has come to an end, whom would you like to thank? Why do you feel grateful to this person?’ (e) Optional follow-up: Encourage students to express gratitude to those who helped them along the way (classmates, teacher, family, etc.). This last step focuses on how attaining inner peace can help us to increase interpersonal peace. Conclusion

This chapter has described activities based on positive psychology to foster inner peace and well-being as innovations for teacher education. The early stages of SLTE programs are difficult times for students, and as educators we should recognize that. We should regard students’ emotional well-being as an educational goal that is important in itself (Pekrun, 2014). As mentioned earlier, negative and ambivalent emotions were more frequent than positive emotions in an informal study of fi rst-year SLTE students in the Introduction to Phonetics course. This led to the design of an innovation involving activities to enhance emotion regulation and inner peace. This innovation was implemented in the next phonetics course, English Phonetics 1, in the fi rst term of the second year in the SLTE program. However, we emphasize that the same types of activities could be implemented in the first year of an SLTE program, with adaptations made to various courses in the program. 2 We fi rmly believe that the earlier students experience regulating their emotions, the better equipped they will be to succeed (Oxford, 2017b). In turn, pre-service teachers could be led to embrace peace and prepared to implement these activities in their own classrooms. The activities proposed here can be re-invented by teachers in different contexts based on the characteristics of their classes and groups of students. When this happens, teachers will be responding to Olivero and Oxford’s (2019: 6) appeal for teacher education courses which ‘embrace the whole person, including their cognitive, emotional, spiritual dimensions’. Like Oxford (2017a), we have opted for peace. We can proudly say now that we have begun a new journey and that, together with our students, we are learning to feel greater peace in our hearts. Inner peace makes us stronger, more balanced educators. We hope to inspire you to help students use emotion regulation to weave peace into their own hearts during the early stages of teacher education.

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Notes (1) Activities 1, 3, 4 and 5 were presented in a paper delivered at the 2018 Argentinian Federation of EFL Teachers (FAAPI) Congress and published in its Proceedings (Barbeito & Sánchez Centeno, 2018). (2) If readers are interested in seeing all the activities, please contact us at celinabarbeito@ gmail.com or [email protected].

References Barbeito, M.C. and Sánchez Centeno, A. (2016) Las emociones en la formación inicial de profesores de inglés: Resultados de una prueba piloto con narrativas visuales en la clase de fonética. Educación, Formación e Investigación 2 (4). See http://ppct.caicyt. gov.ar/index.php/efi /article/view/9677. Barbeito, M.C. and Sánchez Centeno, A. (2018) Weaving positivity into future teachers’ well-being in the phonetics class. In D. Banegas, M. López-Barrios, M. Porto and D. Waigandt (eds) Adapting to Meet Diverse Needs in ELT: Selected Papers from the 43rd FAAPI Conference. Río Gallegos: APISC. See http://www.faapi.org.ar/down loads/FAAPI2018SelectedPapers.pdf. Barbeito, M.C., Cardinali, R.F., Sánchez Centeno, A., Bina, E.L. and Rotti, A.L. (2016) La comunicación oral en inglés: El rol de las creencias y las emociones en la entonación de docentes en formación (Project: E398-2). Cordoba: SeCyT, UNRC. Barcelos, A.M.F. (2015) Unveiling the relationship between language learning beliefs, emotions and identities. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 5, 301–325. Barkhuizen, G., Benson, P. and Chik, A. (2014) Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and Learning Research. New York: Routledge. Bharuthram, S. (2018) Attending to the affective: Exploring fi rst year students’ emotional experiences at university. South African Journal of Higher Education 32, 27–42. doi:10.20853/32-2-2113 Denovan, A. and Macaskill, A. (2017) Stress and subjective well-being among fi rst year UK undergraduate students. Journal of Happiness Studies 18, 505–525. Dewaele, J.M. and Alfawzan, M. (2018) Does the effect of enjoyment outweigh that of anxiety in foreign language performance? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 8, 21–45. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.2 Dewaele, J.M. and Li, C. (2018) Editorial for the Special Issue ‘Emotions in SLA’. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 8, 15–19. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.1 Dewaele, J.M. and MacIntyre, P.D. (2014) The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4, 237–274. Fredrickson, B.L. (2001) The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist 56, 218–226. Golombek, P. and Doran, M. (2014) Unifying cognition, emotion, and activity in language teacher professional development. Teacher and Teacher Education 39, 102–111. Gregersen, T., MacIntyre, P.D. and Meza, M. (2016) Positive psychology exercises build social capital for language learners: Preliminary evidence. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 147–167). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Gross, J.J. (2014) Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J.J. Gross (ed.) Handbook of Emotion Regulation (2nd edn) (pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford Press.

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Hautamaki, A. (2010) Happiness, enthusiasm, anxiety, or even hatred?: Self-portraits as a means of exploring young students’ emotions towards learning EFL. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Jyväskylä. Horwitz, E.K., Horwitz, M.B. and Cope, J. (1986) Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70, 125–132. Kalaja, P., Menezes, V. and Barcelos, A.M.F. (2008) Self- portraits of EFL learners: Finnish students draw and tell. In P. Kalaja, V. Menezes and A.M.F. Barcelos (eds) Narratives of Learning and Teaching EFL (pp. 186–198). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Kruger, F. (2012) The role of TESOL in educating for peace. Journal of Peace Education 9 (1), 17–30. doi:10.1080/17400201.2011.623769 Lyubomirsky, S. and Layous, K. (2013) How do simple positive activities increase wellbeing? Current Directions in Psychological Science 22 (1), 57–62. MacIntyre, P.D. (2002) Motivation, anxiety, and emotion in second language acquisition. In P. Robinson (ed.) Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning (pp. 45–68). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. MacIntyre, P.D. (2007) Willingness to communicate in the second language: Understanding the decision to speak as a volitional process. The Modern Language Journal 91 (4), 564–576. MacIntyre, P.D. (2016) So far so good: An overview of positive psychology and its contributions to SLA. In D. Gabryś-Barker and D. Galajda (eds) Positive Psychology Perspectives on Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 3–20). Berlin: Springer. MacIntyre, P.D. and Gregersen, T. (2012) Emotions that facilitate language learning: The positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 2, 193–213. MacIntyre, P.D. and Mercer, S. (2014) Introducing positive psychology to SLA. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4, 153–172. MacIntyre, P.D., Gregersen, T. and Mercer, S. (eds) (2016) Positive Psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Mercer, S. (2016) Seeing the world through your eyes: Empathy in language learning and teaching. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 91–111). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Olivero, M.M. (2017) Cultivating peace via language teaching: Pre-service beliefs and emotions in an Argentine EFL practicum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida. Olivero, M.M. and Oxford, R.L. (2019) Educating for peace: Implementing and assessing transformative, multidimensional peace language activities designed for future teachers and their students. In L. Walid Lofty and C. Toffolo (eds) Promoting Peace Through Practice, Academia and the Arts. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Oxford, R.L. (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House. Oxford, R.L. (2011) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies. Harlow: Pearson Longman. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2015) Emotion as the amplifier and the primary motive: Some theories of emotion with relevance to language learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 5, 371–393. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2015.5.3.2 Oxford, R.L. (2017a) Peace through understanding: Peace activities as innovations in language teacher education. In T. Gregersen and P. MacIntyre (eds) Innovative Practices in Language Teacher Education: Spanning the Spectrum from Intra- to InterPersonal Professional Development (pp. 125–164). New York: Springer. Oxford, R.L. (2017b) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: SelfRegulation in Context (2nd edn). New York: Routledge.

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Pavlenko, A. (2007) Autobiographic narratives as data in applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics 28 (2), 163–88. Pekrun, R. (2014) Emotions and Learning. Educational Practices Series No. 24. Geneva: UNESCO International Bureau of Education. Pekrun, R. and Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2012) Academic emotion and student engagement. In S. Christenson, A. Reschly and C. Wylie (eds) Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 259–282). New York: Springer. Pekrun, R. and Schutz, P.A. (2007) Where do we go from here? Implications and future directions for inquiry on emotions in education. In P. Schutz and R. Pekrun (eds) Emotion in Education (pp. 313–331). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W. and Perry, R.P. (2002) Positive emotions in education. In E. Frydenberg (ed.) Beyond Coping: Meeting Goals, Visions, and Challenges (pp. 149–173). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pitt, A., Oprescu, F., Tapia, G. and Gray, M. (2018) An exploratory study of students’ weekly stress levels and sources of stress during the semester. Active Learning in Higher Education 19 (1), 61–75. Schunk, D.H. and Ertmer, P.A. (2000) Self-regulation and academic learning: Self-efficacy enhancing interventions. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich and M. Zeidner (eds) Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 631–650). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Seligman, M.E.P. (2006) Afterword: Breaking the 65 percent barrier. In M. Csikszentmihalyi and I.S. Csikszentmihalyi (eds) A Life Worth Living: Contributions to Positive Psychology (pp. 230–236). New York: Oxford University Press. Seligman, M.E.P. (2011) Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being. New York: Atria/Simon & Schuster. Swain, M. (2013) The inseparability of cognition and emotion in second language learning. Language Teaching 46, 195–207. Underhill, A. (2005) Sound Foundations (2nd edn). Oxford: Macmillan. Vygotsky, L.V. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wenden, A.L. and Schäff ner, C. (1995) Introduction. In C. Schäff ner and A.L. Wenden (eds) Language and Peace (pp. xv–xxv). London: Routledge. Zimmerman, B.J. and Schunk, D.H (eds) (2011) Handbook of Self-regulation of Learning and Performance. New York: Routledge.

5 How Increased Self-regulation, Learner Autonomy and Learner Cooperation Raise Self-esteem and Consequently Inner Peace and Interpersonal Peace: Insights from an Innovative School Context Carmen M. Amerstorfer

so this is how you swim inward, so this is how you flow outward, so this is how you pray. Mary Oliver

Living in peace is a privilege. Since the end of World War II in 1945, Austria has enjoyed this privilege, which is nowadays taken for granted. Peace is, however, more than an absence of war (Write, 1942) and does not necessarily concern resolved conflict between nation-states. Peace exists in many arenas of life, and in foreign language (L2) education peace is complex and takes multiple forms. For example, learners who encourage each other contribute to an atmosphere of peace in the classroom. Such scenarios form the basis of this chapter, which focuses on peace within a person (inner peace) and peace in relationships with others (interpersonal peace). A learning environment that supports these types of peace in L2 education requires, among other features, a learner-centered and forwardthinking teaching approach. Cooperative open learning (COOL) promotes 80

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learner autonomy and collaboration and provides a learning atmosphere that fosters learners’ inner and interpersonal peace. This chapter starts with a clarification of its central themes and the factors that contribute to learners’ inner and interpersonal peace. The presentation and discussion of empirical evidence of peace in COOL is followed by some concluding remarks and suggestions for future research. Peace in L2 Education

Peace is a necessity for L2 education and refers to a learner’s safety (i.e. the state of being safe from physical danger) and security (i.e. freedom from psychological issues such as anxiety and self-doubt). Following previous peace research (Galtung, 1964, 1969, 1996; Hutchinson, 1992; Schäffner & Wenden, 1995; Write, 1942), Oxford and Boggs (2014) emphasize that peace has multiple dimensions: • • • • • •

peace within oneself (inner peace); peace with people whom one knows personally, such as family, friends or a close social group (interpersonal peace); peace among larger groups, such as collectivities based on race, religion, age, gender, class, (dis)ability status and so on (intergroup peace); peace among cultures, which can be small or large (intercultural peace); peace among states/nations – that is, geographic-political entities, each with an independent, sovereign government (such peace is commonly called international peace); and peace between humans and the environment (ecological peace). (Oxford & Boggs, 2014: 14, emphasis added.)1

This chapter focuses on learners’ inner peace and interpersonal peace in the context of L2 education. Inner peace

In Buddhism, the ultimate goal a person can reach is Nirvana, the highest level of peace of mind. It refers to ‘a state of wellbeing that does not depend on the presence of external or internal pleasurable stimuli’ (Liu et al., 2013: 245). Reaching a condition of utmost inner peace is also the highest aim in Taoism (Lee et al., 2013) and a desirable goal in other world religions and faith communities. Inner peace describes a state of mental freedom combined with contentment and serenity. It expresses a person’s overall well-being through the liberation of burdens and distress and can be practised and improved with relaxation, meditation (Kidney, 2019) and ‘meaningful emotional and awareness-raising experiences’ (Waelde et al., 2019: 14). From a psychological perspective, inner peace is contingent on social conditions, personal factors and opportunities to talk about problems (Waelde et al., 2019), as is exemplified in the current text.

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In the context of L2 learning, inner peace, or peace within oneself, strongly depends on learners’ self-concept and individual characteristics. Self-concept refers to learners’ beliefs about their abilities and to the affective evaluation of their competence as L2 learners (Williams et al., 2015). Beliefs such as self-efficacy (i.e. evaluation of the ability to succeed in an L2 learning situation), self-confidence (i.e. confidence in the ability to communicate in the L2) and self-esteem (i.e. affective self-evaluation as L2 learners and users) play central roles in helping individuals develop a concept about themselves as L2 learners (Mercer, 2012). Another important influence on learners’ self-concept is the teacher. For example, a friendly teacher who supports her pupils and encourages them to learn from their mistakes will have a positive effect on the learners’ self-confidence and self-esteem. A teacher who motivates her pupils to aim higher after they have successfully completed an assignment and who provides the necessary guidance to succeed again will have a positive impact on the learners’ self-efficacy. The learners’ beliefs about themselves grow stronger, which also strengthens the peace within themselves. Besides a learner’s self-concept, inner peace seems to be particularly affected by the psychological factors of motivation and L2 anxiety, as well as language learning strategies and self-regulation. Motivation, which is ‘the choice of a particular action, the persistence with it, [and] the effort expended on it’ (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011: 4, original italics), fluctuates and is sensitive to internal and external influences. An example of motivation from within the learner is understanding why it is important to learn a new language. Teachers can support such internal motivation by elaborating in class on the advantages of studying the new language. Teachers can also manipulate external influences on motivation, for instance, by providing learning materials that engage the students in interesting and appropriately challenging tasks. Other external factors that influence motivation are the general learning environment (e.g. classroom atmosphere) and the learning mode (i.e. completing a task individually or together with peers) of an educational context. It is important for learner motivation and peace that students feel comfortable in class, around peers and around teachers. L2 anxiety is another psychological dimension that influences learners’ inner peace and is determined by emotions, beliefs and self-perceptions. Oral communication tasks in particular can cause L2 anxiety because learners face the risk of embarrassing themselves in front of others. Compounding their situation, anxious students tend to ‘focus on their flaws rather than their achievements’ (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2014: 1), which can be counteracted by a sensitive and encouraging teacher. According to Dewaele (2012: 48), the fear of being ridiculed is less pronounced in extraverts because they ‘tend to be more optimistic and hence more confident in the positive outcome of their risk-taking’. The combination of a supportive learning environment and a teaching approach that takes account of individual learner differences can lower anxiety.

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Another influence on inner peace is language learning strategies. Every L2 learner uses strategies to support learning processes and to communicate in the L2. Students have, for instance, individualized ways of memorizing new vocabulary items or grammar rules. They know what calms them down in a stressful speaking situation and who to approach for advice when needed. Strategies are connected to learners’ ‘self-regulation, agency and autonomy, growth mindsets, self-efficacy, resilience, hope, and internal attributions for success’ (Oxford, 2017: 65, italics omitted), which shows how complex and personal strategic L2 learning is. Students choose strategies according to their individual preferences but, like motivation, strategy choice also depends on external factors (Amerstorfer, 2016). For instance, a specific learning situation (e.g. a given learning assignment to be completed with a cooperation partner) and the general learning environment (e.g. technical facilities) impact strategy selection. Strategy instruction and less formal ways of raising learners’ awareness of their strategic behaviour (e.g. Oxford et al., 2018) positively contribute to students’ confidence as L2 learners and thus increase inner peace. Self-regulation, that is learners’ ability to ‘regulate or control their own learning, thus making it easier and more effective’ (Oxford, 2011: 11–12), also impacts inner peace. By managing and controlling learning processes, learners maximize their learning outcomes (Gu, 2010). Autonomy is a prerequisite for self-regulation because it represents learners’ control over learning management, cognitive processes and the learning content (Benson, 2001). Oxford et al. (2014: 31) defi ne autonomy as ‘the capacity and willingness to take responsibility for one’s language learning as well as actions […] in that direction […]; and the capacity for critically reflecting, making decisions, and taking independent action’. Taking responsibility for one’s own learning processes is a requirement for self-regulation. In addition to learning the L2, students who self-regulate learn to handle failure and success, which changes their self-concept and fosters inner peace. L2 learners who are motivated to learn a new language and who are not afraid to perform in it experience peace within themselves. A learning context in which learners have decision power over their own learning and the application of language learning strategies may further manifest inner peace. The factors affecting inner peace are interrelated, flexible and complex as they depend on numerous influences from the general learning context, specific learning situations and individual learner characteristics and preferences. A change in an external component can, for instance, impact the psychological factors of motivation and L2 anxiety. For example, if a school’s headmaster allows pupils to decorate the classroom walls, the learners’ overall motivation to study is likely to increase. Similarly, anxious learners who are afraid of speaking in front of a group may feel more comfortable if they can give presentations together with partners rather than independently. Language learning strategies and self-regulation also depend on external influences (Amerstorfer, 2020). For instance, a

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peer’s recommendation or a lesson of strategy instruction can open a student’s eyes to new learning strategies. Likewise, a teaching approach that encourages a high degree of learner autonomy fosters self-regulation and reliability (Benson, 2001; Jacobs et al., 2002; Parkhurst, 1922). Interpersonal peace

Interpersonal peace describes the positive relationships individuals or groups of people have with each other. It depends on people’s attitudes, behaviours and skills, such as being tolerant of differing perspectives or having interest-based negotiations rather than power-based ones (Waelde et al., 2019). Other conduct that has been found supportive of creating and maintaining interpersonal peace includes emotion regulation (Rizkalla et al., 2008), empathy (Block-Lerner et al., 2007), positive reappraisal of conflict situations, forgiveness and general mindfulness (Waelde et al., 2019). Two further competences vital to interpersonal peace are emotional intelligence and social intelligence (Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2006). In a nutshell, emotionally intelligent people are aware of their own emotions and the emotions of others while socially intelligent people have the ‘ability to manage their interpersonal relationships intelligently and efficiently in order to create genuine, caring and healthy relationships’ (Gkonou & Mercer, 2018: 159). High emotional and social intelligence positively contribute to good teacher–student relationships and group dynamics, another source of strength of interpersonal peace. Group dynamics greatly influence interpersonal peace as individuals ‘are more willing to make personal sacrifices for a group when they feel they exist in a larger interdependent network’ (Waelde et al., 2019: 12). Positive group dynamics and interpersonal peace among two or more people who depend on one another are thus characterized by strong relationships. The goal in any L2 learning setting should generally be to purposefully create and carefully maintain peaceful learning relationships. Students who collaborate in teams should respect and rely on each other. They should be well-organized with an ability to work autonomously and yet collaboratively within the team. Students who know each other well and who have experience working together often have strong bonds and can predict what their peers will do in certain situations (Amerstorfer, 2016). Learners who get along well know how they can support each other in L2 situations, thus providing individuals with confidence in their abilities and strengthening inner peace. Cultivating caring relationships is largely done through language. Conversations become frustrating if an interlocutor does not respond (Oxford, 2013) or if the response is unsatisfying or inadequate, which can, for instance, make an L2 learner feel insecure. Through backchannelling, a satisfying response in a conversation can be verbal (e.g. questions by the conversation partner but also shorter expressions like ‘I see’, ‘ok’ or

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‘uh-huh’) or nonverbal (e.g. a nodding head, rising eyebrows or a hand gesture). Verbal and nonverbal signals often occur in combination with each other and indicate active listening, which makes the conversation partner feel comfortable, appreciated and, specifically in an L2 situation, supported. See Chapter 3 in this book for a thorough explanation of the role of nonverbal language in the fostering of interpersonal peace. In order to nourish interpersonal peace, we should be mindful of ‘our actions of body, speech, and mind’ (Nghiem, 2014: 112). We should not judge or interrupt our conversation partners but instead ‘listen to not only what they are saying, but also what is left unsaid’ (Nghiem, 2014: 119). The manner in which words are conveyed matters, which includes body language (e.g. facial expressions, hand gestures, posture) and suprasegmental features such as volume, tone of voice and also silences. Imitating the speaker’s movements and expressions is an appropriate nonverbal way of responding in a conversation. According to Oxford and Mackenzie (2013: 312), ‘[l]ack of such mirroring can indicate discomfort, lack of cooperation, or deception’, which is counterproductive in an interpersonally peaceful relationship. In sum, mutual respect and trust are two key elements of well-functioning interpersonal relationships in L2 education (Kessler, 2000; Noddings, 1992; Palmer, 1998; Wentzel, 2015). Additionally, responsiveness and empathy are two central features of high-quality relationships between teachers and pupils (Gkonou & Mercer, 2018). Empirical Evidence of Peace in Language Education Research environment

The data presented in this chapter come from students at an Austrian secondary school with a focus on cooperative open learning (COOL). Since 1996, a small team of teachers have employed the humanistic principles of the Dalton pedagogy (Parkhurst, 1922), which follows three guiding principles: freedom, cooperation and self-reliance. The underlying notion is that children learn in a structured context in which they have many choices (freedom), that they develop a social consciousness by working together with others (cooperation) and that they make autonomous decisions and take responsibility for their actions (self-reliance). In addition to traditionally teacher-centred lessons, the approach includes open learning phases (i.e. two or three lessons blocked together). During these ‘Dalton’ lessons, students autonomously complete specifically designed study assignments in pairs or small teams. The Dalton concept takes a task-based approach to communicative language teaching. The tasks in English as an L2 are, for instance, writing a short text, partner interviews, group discussions or team presentations. Usually, a study assignment contains both mandatory and voluntary tasks to take into consideration individual learner differences (e.g. interest in a topic, motivation). Assignments have a due date, but when and where the

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students complete them is their decision. During the Dalton lessons the students are allowed to move freely within the school building, where computer-equipped study areas and comfortable reading corners are provided, as well as a ‘Silent Room’ where speaking is prohibited. Furthermore, the students decide for themselves how to structure their work, when to take breaks and how to relax. The school’s holistic perspective on education accommodates personal learner characteristics (i.e. physical, emotional, social or intellectual differences), physiological conditions from the general learning environment (e.g. space, movement, fresh air) and other situational factors (e.g. engaging learning materials, topics that are relevant to a specific age group, technological equipment). Learners are viewed as individuals within the educational context. As a pioneer regarding COOL, the school often receives visitors who are mostly in-service teachers from Austria and neighbouring countries. Accustomed to being observed and interviewed, the students frequently volunteer to take part in plenary discussions with visitors. Data collection, participants and data analysis

One part of the evidence presented in this chapter comes from semistructured interviews and stimulated recall interviews in a study (Amerstorfer, 2016) which explored the language learning strategies of five students at the COOL school (for details, see Amerstorfer, 2018). Aliases (Christina, Lisa, Paula, Sabrina and Stella) are used to preserve the anonymity of the participants. Additional data were collected during a three-day visit to the same school. Two teachers at the COOL school who host all visitors, a teacher of EFL and geography (Teacher A) and a teacher of physical education and geography (Teacher B), provided insights into 20 years of experience with COOL. Furthermore, 25 anonymous students from different COOL classes shared their opinions in an open questionanswer session on the fi nal day of the visit. The notes taken during the visit constitute the other part of the fi ndings. The data management program Atlas.ti was used for the qualitative analysis of the collected information. The coding was focused on expressions of the abovementioned influences on learners’ inner peace and interpersonal peace. Findings about inner peace

The prominent themes that promote learners’ inner peace are motivation, mitigated L2 anxiety, language learning strategies and self-regulation. The data reveal numerous expressions of these interrelated influences. A  selection of examples from the learners and teachers is presented here. Motivation

COOL gives students the freedom to make autonomous decisions regarding when and where they complete the assignments, which is much

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appreciated by all participants. Sabrina, for instance, fi nds it motivating to listen to music during open learning phases in order to ‘switch off for a few minutes’ when she feels like taking a break. Lisa and Sabrina are grateful for the opportunity to move around the school building ‘compared to sitting in the same classroom mainly passively all day’ (Lisa). Also, the nature of the COOL assignments appeals to the students. Sabrina particularly enjoys creative work like designing posters and writing texts as well as working with cartoons and riddles, describing pictures and gap-fi lling exercises. The most motivating tasks for Stella are designing posters and working with videos. More generally, the COOL approach motivates students to discover new information and to try to understand what they are learning, as Teacher A confirms: ‘It’s important to learn because something is interesting. [Students] don’t just memorise stuff when they study for a test … It isn’t about understanding then, which is the real goal’. Additionally, giving learners choices is a very motivating aspect in the teaching approach: ‘We want to encourage more freedom in the learning process because it is motivating when students fi nd their own things to study’ (Teacher A). L2 anxiety

Students use different strategies to reduce L2 anxiety. Lisa, for example, carefully thinks about what she wants to say before she starts speaking, while Christina uses encouraging self-talk. She tells herself, ‘You can do it!’ when she feels anxious about speaking in English in front of others. When Stella gets nervous before oral presentations in English, she tells herself that ‘it’s ok to make mistakes […] Our teacher says we should talk as much as we can because that’s how you learn the most. It doesn’t matter if we say a word wrong’. In general, the teachers try to convey a positive attitude toward learning with a focus on success rather than failure. In voluntary, individual coaching sessions (Lerncoaching), the teacher becomes an advisor who helps the students develop personal strategies for successful learning: Students need some kind of map that shows what they can do in order to be successful. What kind of expectations are there? […] What must they do in order to get to that goal? What is the fi nal goal for the end of the semester? […] How do you understand the things that are foreign to you or that are somehow unsettling to you? How can you make the foreign stuff understandable and relevant to you? What do you need for this? This helps the students realise the importance of the work they’re doing. (Teacher A)

This response typifies how the teachers at the school care about the students, their difficulties and their fears. Instead of pointing out mistakes, the emphasis is on success, which creates a positive atmosphere, increases the students’ self-confidence and lowers L2 anxiety.

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Language learning strategies

The study (Amerstorfer, 2016) revealed that the participants use numerous language learning strategies in school and in their free time. Lisa, for instance, considers translating the lyrics of English songs into her L1 German an enjoyable leisure time activity and simultaneously good practice. Watching English movies and TV series (Christina, Lisa, Paula, Sabrina) and reading in English for pleasure (Christina, Stella) are also popular with the participants. Language learning strategies applied in school are, for instance, the use of L1 words to avoid a breakdown in communication, as Sabrina did on one occasion: ‘Of course, I switch off the TV. Otherwise it would be Energieverschwendung [a waste of energy]’. Other strategic learning situations are marked by repetition, guessing from context, drawing parallels between different foreign languages and memorizing (Stella, Paula). Moreover, all participants use strategies to support self-regulation and cooperation (e.g. discussing a plan of action, dividing the workload) and motivational strategies (e.g. taking breaks, motivating peer and self-talk). COOL does not include any structured strategy instruction, but the teachers try to get across that ‘it’s important to be stable in learning and invest in concentrated work that is worthwhile and that lasts. By doing this, learning occurs in a less stressful manner’ (Teacher A). Self-regulation

Overall, students appreciate the high level of self-regulation in COOL. They particularly enjoy: working at their own pace (Stella); taking breaks when needed rather than at regular intervals (Paula); having choices, e.g. where to work, with whom to pair up, which tasks to complete in a specific lesson (Christina, Sabrina); the casual atmosphere caused by an increased amount of self-regulation during COOL lessons (Lisa, Paula, Sabrina); and the decentralized role of the teacher (Paula). As Teacher B reported in an interview: ‘Ideally, the students work on their assignments but if they have already fi nished or if they don’t want to work on the assignment, they can do whatever’. Adjusting to the COOL approach can be challenging for new students, though, because they are used to being taught rather than exploring: ‘[New] students have problems because they’re not used to working on their own and organising themselves. They are comfortable when the teacher leads their learning, but they should be encouraged to be responsible for themselves’ (Teacher B). Once students have adjusted to the COOL approach, they take responsibility for their learning and become increasingly independent of the teacher: You have to be self-regulated. You have to be responsible for yourself. They shouldn’t blame others for the things for which they themselves are responsible. […] How should they behave in order to be successful? Once

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that’s determined, then the way to success is open. This helps them to be independent. (Teacher A)

Despite students’ increasing independence, the teacher is always present during open learning phases even though students rarely seek their advice. ‘They figure stuff out in their own group, then ask another group, then fi nally ask the teacher’ (Teacher B). Findings about interpersonal peace

COOL encourages learners to cooperate with each other, which makes them ‘socially competent, independent, and self-reliant’ (Teacher B). At the end of each school year, students receive a certificate that shows their extra achievements. The social skills highlighted on the certificate make the students popular candidates on the job market because ‘teamwork is one of the most important skills that you need in your later working life’ (Teacher A). The data show that the parameters for successful and enjoyable teamwork are mutual respect and trust, verbal and nonverbal support and empathy. Respect and trust

One of the anonymous students in the question-answer session highlights the positive relationship between COOL teachers and students: ‘Dalton teachers are more relaxed and friendly. The students here generally have respect for the teacher but you get on better with the Dalton teachers. It’s on a different level’ (Anonymous). She describes how the teacher is present during open learning phases but does not interrupt or disturb the learners. When a problem is unsolvable in the team and consulting with other teams has also failed, approaching the teacher is the last resort. The teacher does not immediately tell the students the solution to the problem but gives them hints as to how they can solve it themselves. This kind of support is appreciated by the students because it shows the teachers’ trust in the learners’ abilities. Another sign of respect and trust between students and teachers is that they exchange personal information in order to get to know each other better. Furthermore, the teachers offer the informal address ‘du’ in German. Mutual respect and trust are most apparent during Lerncoaching because, on the one hand, speaking about one’s successes and failures is generally a very personal matter and, on the other hand, the coaching sessions provide suitable conditions for an exchange on a more personal level than during class. Teacher B stresses that ‘it’s important to discuss private things’ because it makes the learning more meaningful. When it comes to grading the students’ work, fairness and transparency are the deciding factors. Students know what to expect for their achievements. They trust in the teachers’ fair judgment and respect their

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decisions. Correspondingly, by giving fair grades, the teachers express their respect for the learners. Nonetheless, Teacher A would prefer a school system without grades and with verbal feedback instead. With regard to the students’ relationships among themselves, one student highlights that they do not have rivalries or competition. COOL teaches the students to be tolerant and caring. They respect each other even though their opinions and values may contradict one another. Another anonymous student explains that he appreciates the social harmony in class. Everybody is allowed to have a bad day and make mistakes. In such instances, the group compensates for the individual. However, ‘If only one person says something [i.e. offers solutions to a problem], that’s not working together. That’s just one person doing the work and the others copying the results. If everybody contributes, you’re faster and it is more fun’ (Paula). Although occasional lapses are tolerated, general long-term laziness by one team member is not accepted. Usually, the students solve such confl icts peacefully among themselves. All team members are expected to make constructive contributions. When an assignment allows students to divide the workload among the group members, they trust that everybody does their best (Stella, Paula). Other expressions of respect and trust among learners are sharing things (e.g. earphones, markers), taking care of each other’s belongings (Sabrina, Lisa) and avoiding noise in class so as not to disturb others (Sabrina). Furthermore, the students are aware that working together requires an ability to compromise (Stella). Verbal and nonverbal support

Lerncoaching is a particular form of support in COOL, but knowing that a teacher is always present in case help is required is already perceived as supportive by the students. One student explains in the group discussion that she is not afraid of speaking in English because the teacher smiles a lot and does not interrupt her even when she makes a mistake. Such nonverbal support encourages her to confidently use the L2 and feel comfortable doing it. For discussing personal matters, the teachers sometimes switch to German. It is easier for the students to express themselves in their fi rst language; they do not run the risk of making mistakes and can fully concentrate on the content rather than the accuracy of their speech (Teacher B). With regard to peer support, Paula believes that cooperative learning is a give-and-take as it is ‘important to help each other out sometimes’. Stella notices a benefit for herself in supporting others: ‘When I explain something to another student, I first have to think about how I would do it, how I can best explain. And that helps me learn, too’. Additionally, Christina believes that all team members should pool their strengths in

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order to compensate for each other’s weaknesses. From her experience, support is also expressed by telling a cooperation partner when they have made a mistake. Being corrected helps students grow as L2 speakers (Christina, Lisa). Asking for support can also be done nonverbally. In an L2 conversation with a peer, Sabrina uses a hand gesture to compensate for a missing word. This invites her partner to fill in the blank with the missing word. ‘Do you turn off the button on the TV or only use the … [gesture of pressing buttons on a remote control]?’ Similarly, circular hand movements in combination with a friendly face can be just the support a conversation partner needs when they get stuck (Lisa). The gestures send positive signals of active listening and well-meaning. Empathy

Sabrina shows empathy for her cooperation partner, who is going through a private crisis, by compensating for her workshare when she is absent from class. The student has been frequently absent recently, and Sabrina tries to be as understanding and supportive as possible. Nevertheless, Sabrina makes it clear that the additional support is only temporary and that the situation cannot continue like this for ever. Another sign of empathy is cheering one another up. As Paula remarks: ‘If you’re feeling low, you know you have to pull yourself together. Then somebody does something funny and you’re motivated to continue again’. Cooperation partners are often friends whose empathy reaches beyond the classroom. Paula, for instance, brings her partner chocolate to give her energy for her driving test in the afternoon. Teacher B demonstrates a high level of empathy when returning written exams, for which she uses open learning phases. The students can come to her individually to personally discuss the results. She sympathizes with low-achieving students, speaks with them quietly so that they do not lose face, gives detailed feedback and makes specific suggestions for improvement. In the same vein, she personally congratulates students on positive results and encourages them to maintain their high standards. The students greatly appreciate the teacher’s empathic manner of handing out exams (Sabrina). Discussion

With the COOL approach, the students perceive L2 education as meaningful, enjoyable and rewarding. They work in teams, where they have opportunities to incorporate new ideas into their own thinking and to explore their boundaries. This increases confidence in their abilities and thus their inner peace. Furthermore, learners develop bonds with their peers and teachers, creating a pleasant atmosphere and fostering interpersonal peace.

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A high degree of learner autonomy in COOL enhances the students’ responsibility. In comparison to mainstream teaching approaches, learners have more choices in COOL and consequently partial control over the learning content which, in addition to control over one’s learning management and cognitive processes (Benson, 2001), defi nes autonomy. In COOL, learners take charge of all three components and of attaining the goals they set for themselves. In teams, learners share the responsibility for their success and failure while each individual is accountable for their own personal accomplishments. COOL assignments are not only tailored to the students’ interests and abilities, but they also activate the learners, awaken their curiosity and foster team spirit. Learners are motivated to explore new knowledge and continuously improve their skills. When completing the assignments, the learners rely on each other and trust that all cooperation partners will do their best. Since the focus in COOL is on success and mutual support, students and teams help one another, which demonstrates social intelligence and strengthens interpersonal relationships. Within this framework, individual learners are at peace with themselves because they feel protected, supported and comfortable using the L2 in front of others. Since a learner’s willingness to communicate in the L2 depends on a multitude of influences (MacIntyre et al., 1998), the fact that mistakes are understood as opportunities to grow in COOL is beneficial to the learners as it lowers L2 anxiety and encourages them to speak freely in the L2. Depending on individual preferences and contextual influences, language learning strategies support diff erent functions (Amerstorfer, 2016), for instance, to improve L2 knowledge and skills, to complete a task or assignment or to memorize new vocabulary and grammar rules. The application of strategies, however, is flexible, and the same strategy can fulfi l different purposes in different learning situations (Amerstorfer, 2016, 2020). In addition to the above-mentioned functions, strategies in COOL are used to counteract L2 anxiety, to support motivation and self-regulation and to create and maintain positive work relationships with peers. For example, organizational strategies help students manage collaborations in a peaceful manner. They provide guidance for team members, reduce misunderstandings and hence contribute to a peaceful learning atmosphere. Motivational strategies are aimed at oneself and positively aff ect inner peace (e.g. motivational self-talk before an oral presentation) or are directed at other learners in order to enhance progress and peace within a team (e.g. encouraging peers to continue with a task). Regardless of different strategy types and functions, language learning strategies are generally applied to support the peace within individuals and to pave the way for positive interpersonal relationships.

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Only when the individual players in L2 education are at peace with themselves can interpersonal relationships be established on a foundation of mutual respect and trust. When such relationships flourish in COOL settings, a relaxed atmosphere develops between teachers and learners due to a casual tone characterized by informal address and an openness to engaging on a personal level. Interacting with open minds fosters meaningful and trusting bonds, thus highlighting how conducive mutual support and empathy are to positive interpersonal relationships. Conclusion

L2 learning requires a place where learners feel safe and secure. If individuals worry about their physical safety or psychological security, their minds will be preoccupied and they will be unable to study. COOL offers a framework for collaborative learning in a peaceful learning environment. With its roots in a humanistic teaching approach from the 1920s, COOL demonstrates a positive example of innovative education in this day and age. With regard to L2 education, COOL is beneficial to the inner peace of learners as well as the interpersonal peace between the actors in the L2 classroom. It demonstrates how personal and social harmony overrule inner unrest caused by L2 anxiety or low self-confidence as well as social tension caused by competition or comparison. Rewarding and meaningful relationships support learners in exceeding their individual limitations. Positive self-concepts and high levels of motivation benefit students and lead to overall contentment with L2 learning. Inner peace and interpersonal peace are tightly interwoven and complex. They require learners’ and teachers’ appreciation of individual differences and a focus on communal aims rather than the pursuit of individualistic goals. Advanced communication skills and active listening without judgment or interruption are the foundation of successful and rewarding interactions. Moreover, mutual support, respect, trust and empathy facilitate peaceful relationships in L2 education. Based on empirical fi ndings from a study and a visit to a school that employs COOL, this chapter has presented a selection of indications of peace in L2 education by students and teachers. A suggestion for future research is to shift the focus onto COOL assignments to explore the integration of intercultural and ecological peace in L2 education. Furthermore, an investigation of the teacher’s perspective (Amerstorfer & Shedd, forthcoming) and peace in comparatively more traditional, teacher-centred L2 instruction could bring other valuable insights. Note (1) See Chapter 1 in this volume for an explanation of the multidimensional peace model (the Language of Peace Approach).

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Promotion: Global Perspectives on Personal Peace, Children and Adolescents, and Social Justice (pp. 39–66). Cham: Springer Nature. Lee, Y.-C., Lin, Y.-C., Huang, C.-L. and Fredrickson, B.L. (2013) The construct and measurement of peace of mind. Happiness Studies 14, 571–590. doi:10.1007/ s10902-012-9343-5 Liu, X., Xu, W., Wang, Y., Williams, J.M.G, Geng, Y., Zhang, Q. and Liu, X. (2013) Can inner peace be improved by mindfulness training: A randomized controlled trial. Stress and Health 31, 245–254. doi:10.1002/smi.2551 MacIntyre, P.D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z. and Noels, K.A. (1998) Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situated model of confidence and affi liation. The Modern Language Journal 82, 545–562. Mercer, S. (2012) Self-concept: Situating the self. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan and M. Williams (eds) Psychology for Language Learning: Insights from Research, Theory and Practice (pp. 10–25). Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Nghiem, C.C. (2014) Creating peace, speaking ‘interbeing’: A Buddhist perspective. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) Understanding Peace Cultures (pp. 107–130). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Noddings, N. (1992) The Challenge to Care in Schools: An Alternative Approach to Education. New York: Teachers College Press. Oxford, R.L. (2011) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies. Harlow: Pearson/Longman. Oxford, R.L. (ed.) (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2017) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: SelfRegulation in Context (2nd edn). New York: Routledge. Oxford, R.L. and Boggs, R.M. (2014) Better than a thousand hollow words: Speaking the language of peace across contexts and cultures. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) Understanding Peace Cultures (pp. 13–25). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. and Mackenzie, L. (2013) Harmony and discord across cultural ‘dialects’ of body language. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony (pp. 303–325). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L., Rubin, J., Chamot, A.U., Schramm, K., Lavine, R., Gunning, P. and Nel, C. (2014) The learning strategy prism: Perspectives of learning strategy experts. System 43, 30–49. Oxford, R.L., Lavine, R. and Amerstorfer, C.M. (2018) Understanding language learning strategies in context: An innovative, complexity-based approach. In R.L. Oxford and C.M. Amerstorfer (eds) Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts (pp. 5–29). London: Bloomsbury. Palmer, P.J. (1998) The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Parkhurst, H. (1922) Education on the Dalton Plan. New York: E.P. Dutton. Rizkalla, L., Wertheim, E.H. and Hodgson, L.K. (2008) The roles of emotion management and perspective taking in individuals’ conflict management styles and disposition to forgive. Journal of Research in Personality 42 (6), 1594–1601. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.014 Schäff ner, C. and Wenden, A.L. (eds) (1995) Language and Peace. London: Routledge. Waelde, L.C., Panting, A. and Heise, A.G. (2019) Mindfulness in the peacebuilding process. In M. Njoku, L. Jason and R. Johnson (eds) The Psychology of Peace Promotion: Global Perspectives on Personal Peace, Children and Adolescents, and Social Justice (pp. 11–24). Switzerland: Springer. Wentzel, K.R. (2015) Teacher–Student Relationships, Motivation, and Competence at School. New York: Routledge. Williams, M., Mercer, S. and Ryan, S. (2015) Exploring Psychology in Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wright, Q. (1942) A Study of War. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

6 Revolutionary Love and Peace in the Construction of an English Teacher’s Professional Identity Ana María F. Barcelos

Love is a legacy that lasts. Wink and Wink, 2004

Love is an essential human emotion. We all need to feel accepted and understood, to give and receive love. According to Maslow (1943, summarized in Newton, 2011), love is one of our five main psychological needs, after our physical survival and safety needs are regularly met. We all hunger for meaningful relationships and for a sense of belonging in our communities. These statements are as true in the classroom context as they are elsewhere. As mentioned by Murphey et al. (2010), students need to feel they emotionally belong in the language classroom. Gidley (2016: 7) also emphasizes the importance of love and the role of the heart in educational settings: ‘if young people are to thrive in educational settings, new spaces need to be opened up for softer terms, such as love, nurture, respect, reverence, awe, wonder, well-being, vulnerability, care, tenderness, openness, and trust’.

Love Is Rarely Researched in Applied Linguistics, but It Could Be

One wonders why love as an emotion or from other viewpoints is still not commonly researched in applied linguistics (AL), with a few exceptions (Barcelos & Coelho, 2016; Culham et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2017; Pavelescu & Petric, 2018). This may have to do with the view of love as a feminized and soft topic concerning private spaces and personal emotions, usually evoking embarrassment, sentimentality or religiosity (Zembylas, 96

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2017: 25). Clingan (2015: 3) frames the absence of the study of love in the social sciences in the following manner: Overall love as a topic of scholarly discourse continues to be evasive. Or is it? Is love in fact present throughout the writing and thinking that people do related to positive change and growth? Is it simply time to call it love and prioritize it as a motivating value and methodological approach? Why then, given that philosophers and leaders have been examining the meaning of love since the beginning of recorded human thought, is the inclusion of love in scholarly work still evasive? And if my premise is true that love is embedded in every text, every idea, why do we not simply call it love? Why do we offer degrees in peace studies and justice studies, even happiness studies, and not have academic programs in love studies?

Barcelos and Coelho (2016) cite two myths for the absence of academic research on this topic: (a) affect excludes academic knowledge, rigor and serious learning (Freire, 1996), when in fact affect and joy are necessary in a system where disrespect to students is so common; and (b) emotions will impair professionalism (Noddings, 1992), when in fact caring relations are the foundation for successful pedagogical activity. I contend that researching love is necessary because it can help rehumanize education, create more caring relationships in schools, help increase our well-being and create social change. In this chapter I describe the importance of love as an emotion based on the narrative of a Brazilian EFL student-teacher, according to the perspectives of love as defi ned by Lanas and Zembylas (2015). In the fi rst section I discuss the concept of love in education and its relationship to peace and identity. In the second section I explain the methodology and the context of the study. Then I discuss the results and conclude with implications for language teacher education, language learning and research on the emotion of love in AL. Theoretical Framework

In this section I base my defi nitions of love on two complementary concepts.1 The fi rst is the concept of revolutionary love inspired by the works of Chabot (2008) and Lanas and Zembylas (2015). The second, related to revolutionary love, is Paulo Freire’s (1996) concept of love as amorosidade (amorosity). I then discuss the concepts of peace and identity and how they are related to love. Revolutionary love

Chabot (2008) sees love as revolutionary, going beyond the conventional view of love as personal, exclusive and everlasting. For Chabot, love is a social disposition which emerges, grows and survives within communication and interaction in human relationships. This view of love focuses

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on social connections, on people working together for the common good. For Chabot (2008), educators rely on love when they dialogue and collaborate with students, treat them as equals and engage with them in projects to change oppressive conditions in the world. This revolutionary love is learned (Chabot, 2008). All of us can learn to be more loving, giving, responsible and respectful in our collaboration with others. To Chabot (2008), love is the way to contest contemporary forms of alienation, consumption and personal ambition. In order to resist oppression, exploitation and alienation we need a cooperative effort. He suggests the following actions to avoid alienation: (a) choose meaningful life projects and work that contribute positively to the world; (b) manage our multiple selves to feel, think and act more authentically; and (c) be selfconfident when interacting with external challenges and with others. This revolutionary love involves generosity, care, responsibility, respect and knowledge. For revolutionary love to happen we must have discipline, concentration and patience. Chabot calls this the art of loving and explains it as a slow process that demands courage and commitment. A loving practice involves discipline, concentration, patience and concern. Love such as revolutionary love is incompatible with violence, just as peace is incompatible with violence (Oxford, 2013, 2014). Lanas and Zembylas (2015) also talk about revolutionary love. They contend that love is a more powerful force than anger in promoting political change: ‘… [W]hen we build on anger, we get anger; when we build on love, love is what we get’ (Lanas & Zembylas, 2015: 32). Love in critical education can encourage social transformation, justice, equality and solidarity, similar to Freire’s (1996) theory of education as an act of love. Lanas and Zembylas write extensively about Freire’s work on love, but argue, however, that Freire did not explain or explore what it means to teach with love. Thus, they developed a theory of ‘revolutionary love’ in practice, comprised of the following six interrelated perspectives: (1) Love as an emotion refers to love as ‘embodied’ and ‘performative’, i.e. realized through actions. It entails a risk, an investment of the self in lovingly responding to others or doing loving acts, which may not be reciprocated, thus hurting us. (2) Love as a choice we make implies that we are not obliged to love, yet we decide to do so. By choosing to love, love exists. This decision must be constantly reaffirmed. (3) Love as a response refers to how we relate to the world, constrained by the contexts in which we live. Our moral responsibility is to respond in ethical ways which open up possibilities for others. (4) Love as relational emphasizes love as something that happens in relationship to others in ‘discursive practices, relational exchanges and social rules’, ‘within specific socio-political historical-cultural-spatial contexts’ (Lanas & Zembylas, 2015: 37).

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(5) Love as political refers to the practice of love within societal power relations, since emotions help ‘the formation or maintenance of political and social identities and collective behavior’ (Lanas & Zembylas, 2015: 38). (6) Love as praxis suggests that it is an action: ‘love is as love does’ (Lanas & Zembylas, 2015: 39). Some of these actions involve voluntary acts of care, responsibility, respect and knowledge (of ourselves, of others and of the socio-political-historical and cultural space). Lanas and Zembylas (2015) conclude by fi rst stating that a focus on love can help us emphasize equality and social justice, especially in contexts based on measurement and competition. Second, a loving revolution can help us move away from anger and dominant anger discourses. Third, bringing love to formal education can help in the formation of loving members of a society and can enable us to learn how to love. We can do this by following Chabot’s suggestions (discussed earlier) on discipline, concentration, patience and developing loving ties. Love as amorosidade (amorosity)

For Freire (1996), education is an act of love because love is a practice that is specific and inherent to the activity of dealing with human beings. This practice is based on dialogue and on learning through interacting with others. Freire describes teaching as being open to affect and not being afraid to express it, respecting students’ curiosity, experiences and language and giving them freedom. Freire talks about amorosity and the amorous dimension of teaching, which includes working with commitment, involvement, competence and seriousness. To him, amorosity is an essential condition for these effects to occur. 2 Amorosity is characterized by Freire (1996) as the intercommunication of two or more individuals who respect each other. This amorosity includes intelligence, reason, embodiment and politics as well as the role of emotions, desire, decision, resistance, choice, curiosity, creativity, intuition and the beauty of the world and of knowledge. Amorosity for Freire is a fundamental factor of human life and education, which manifests itself in the teacher–student relationship and in the teacher’s desire to educate people and in doing it in the best way possible. Love and teacher identities

Several researchers (e.g. Barcelos, 2015; Lemke, 2008; Zembylas, 2003) state that our emotions strongly influence our identities. Teaching is a profession in which emotions play a central role, both personally and professionally. In order to preserve their passion for teaching, teachers need to be aware and learn how to manage the emotional tensions of their job.

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According to Day (2009), in order to behave like and remain a passionate teacher, a teacher needs to develop good relationships with students and show moral attributes such as care and courage. To do that, teachers need to know who they are and what their strengths and limitations are. In addition, they must ‘connect emotionally with each student’ in order to ‘praise and demonstrate always their deep love for their work as teachers’ (Day, 2009: 6). Teachers need to be hopeful about how they make a difference in students’ lives and in their own work. This requires sensitivity to the obstacles students face in their daily lives, which can impact their motivation, commitment and well-being. Having hope, according to Day (2009), will help us to prevent anxiety and lessen emotional distress. Love and peace

Kruger (2012: 19) defi nes violence as ‘direct or indirect action that causes unequal life chances’. Friedrich (2007, cited in Kruger, 2012: 19) defi nes linguistic violence as ‘language-related act that violates the four basic human needs – survival, well-being, identity, and freedom’. As mentioned earlier and posited by Oxford (2013, 2014), love and peace are incompatible with violence. Based on Kruger (2012), I assert that a central purpose for considering love in AL is related to our desire for a more just and peaceful world, promoting greater equality and fairness. By integrating love into our classrooms and focusing on care, ethics, responsibility and respect, we are contributing to wider societal peace through the promotion of individual and group well-being. In investing in more loving classrooms, situational ethics and relationships in classrooms and in schools, we are creating a culture of peace (Boulding, 2000; Oxford, 2014) whose effects will reach beyond any given class. Contemplative learning is a model Olivero and Oxford (2019) discuss for enhancing qualities such as love, social justice, peace, wisdom, compassion, forgiveness and social justice (see Lin et al., 2019; Zajonc, 2006). These qualities resonate with Chabot’s (2008: 811–812) statement that in order to ‘eradicate oppression and alienation and contribute to a more just and peaceful world that benefits all of us in the long run’, we need to practice revolutionary love in our personal and social lives. Revolutionary love can extend to various kinds of peace. Oxford (2013) writes about peace as a multidimensional concept which includes levels of peace such as inner (peace within the person), interpersonal (peace between people one knows well, such as family and friends ), intergroup (peace among larger groups based on race, religion, age and so on), intercultural (peace among different cultures), international (peace among nations) and ecological (peace between humans and the environment). In my view, these dimensions are related to the perspectives of love presented

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here. For the purposes of this chapter, the concepts of inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace are more directly useful. Methodology

Having discussed theoretical issues, I now turn to the study’s methodology, which is followed by results and discussion. The context of this study is a specific course requirement for the English teaching practicum class I teach every year as Professor of English at the Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil. In this course, I ask student-teachers to write a narrative about their language learning and teaching trajectories from the time they started learning English. I have collected over 100 narratives over the last 15 years. In this chapter, however, I report on the analysis of one narrative from that corpus. This narrative was written by Paula (a pseudonym), who was 23 at the time of data collection and was in the last year of her language teaching major (English/Portuguese). This program of 4.5 years prepares students to teach Portuguese, English and their literatures. The Language Teaching Practicum (I and II) is offered in the last year of the program and requires student-teachers to observe classes in public schools and practice their teaching in schools. This specific narrative was written in 2016, after Paula had completed the teaching component. The analysis of this narrative followed the parameters of qualitative research (Patton, 2002), with an inductive perspective beginning with data reduction, i.e. reading the narrative several times and fi nding the units of meaning, which is a heuristic, or the ‘smallest piece of information about something that can stand by itself’ and that is interpretable in the broader context of inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985: 345). Units are grouped as categories of relatively similar content and then reviewed several times for overlapping and for possible relationships among them. The categories are prioritized according to their salience, credibility, uniqueness, heuristics and content (Patton, 2002). The results have suggested that the categories found in Paula’s narrative were related to the following perspectives of love, as discussed in this chapter: love as relational, as an emotion, as a response and as praxis. Each of these is discussed in the next section, accompanied by relevant excerpts taken from the data. Results and Discussion

In Paula’s narrative, love played a clear part in her identity as a future English teacher in Brazil and was a fundamental aspect of the dimensions of inner and interpersonal peace she claimed for herself and her students. Below, I comment on each perspective of love found in her narrative, based on Lanas and Zembylas (2015).

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Love as relational

Relational love refers to the relationships we have with other people and relational exchanges, as we can see in this excerpt: Fortunately, my cousin, who had graduated in English, talked to me and told me that she could help me. She knew that I was interested in English but that I had a psychological barrier. So, she talked with a teacher she had at university and asked that teacher to help me the way she could. [This] teacher suggested me to keep a diary or a notebook where I should write in English about things that I liked or attach some comic strips, pictures. After a period of fi fteen days she took the notebook to read.

Paula explains how she was aided by a professor and her cousin at a difficult moment in her English learning trajectory: she almost quit the language course, believing that she could not speak English. Her professor’s loving attitude was influential in Paula’s choice to continue her program of studies and to believe in herself. Based on her professor’s advice, Paula’s action seemed to have brought her some inner peace after her previous despair about learning English. She felt ‘desperate and uncomfortable because most of [her] classmates were very good on speaking English’; thus, she ‘did not like to talk in class’, she ‘felt less than them’ and ‘wanted to give up’. This relational aspect was also present when Paula had a chance to study abroad: I liked a lot to study there because my classmates were all from different countries and it was necessary to speak English to make friends and get along with them. […] [T]he teacher was very good. He did not allow us to talk with people from the same country as ours. In the classroom I never talked with Brazilian speakers. […] Living there was also so gratifying because I worked in a shoe repair store and I dealt with different people using the L2. I also learned a lot about life, dedication and commitment. I am conscious that I learned a lot during those four months but I know that I still have a lot to learn. It was that teacher who helped me start to break my psychological barriers with English. Since she started to help me I have been giving all my effort to learn English.

Obviously, Paula carried the love given to her by her teacher into her general interactions. She understood that to communicate she needed to go further and talk to people from different countries. Once again, the concept of love in learning languages is shown to be centered in relationships, discursive practices and relational exchanges with others, as well as the social rules language teachers can create in class to kindly nudge students to interact beyond the scope of their nationality and experience. We could infer that Paula’s teacher was trying to foster interpersonal and intergroup peace (Oxford, 2013). It is this kind of love-centered practice in the language classroom that was helpful to Paula.

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Love as a response

Love as a response refers to ethical agency toward others and particularly how we choose to respond to critical events. This perspective is also related to love as a choice, i.e. voluntarily choosing and re-choosing love as a response to situational stimuli. Love as a response is shown when Paula chooses English as her major, despite believing she was not good at it. This choice was part of her identity construction as a learner and future English teacher. She knew that if she wanted to become a good English teacher, she would have to take actions toward her goals and dreams. A loving response is to act according to the dreams we have, which also increases inner peace. Such a loving process is described below: The first thing I did was to enroll at the English course (EC) at the university. I did the placement test and I started in the second level. At EC I did the second and third levels while I kept doing my English subjects at university. I also decided to save some money to travel abroad. I worked two years to save money; my father also helped me. In 2014 I went to the US to study. I lived in NY for four months and I studied at PLU [an English Institute in the United States].

As illustrated in this quote, Paula’s choice to study English was influenced by love. The love for learning English involves her choice to develop as a student by improving her English competence, studying abroad and deciding to teach English, as shown below: Since I started to study Languages I’ve had a dream to teach at EC because I saw my classmates there and it seemed to be an amazing opportunity. So, when I came back to Brazil I was more comfortable with my language proficiency and I decided to do the training course (TC) they offer. I liked the course and the teacher so much; it was very helpful to see myself as a teacher. I started to think about methodology and the best ways to teach different content. During the TC I taught some mini classes and got feedback from the teacher. This was the best thing to me, because I could know how had done and how and if I was prepared to be a teacher.

As previously mentioned, love as a response involves having agency and coming into being as a subject. Paula acted with agency when she chose to take specific actions to fulfi ll her dreams. Love as an emotion

Ways in which the emotion of love is embodied in actions and performance are illustrated in Paula’s description of her fi rst experiences as a student-teacher: When I was a child I used to pretend that I was a teacher and I knew that it was what I liked most to do but it was only after did the TC I started to behave [as if I were a teacher] and to see myself as a teacher. I’ve had some

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experiences teaching Portuguese (almost two years) and I liked that but I did not feel like it was what I wanted to do in my life. I think one of the best experiences of my life is when I was selected to be a teacher at EC because more than fulfi lling a dream, it meant to me a moment to believe that I am able to do everything I want, that I broke the barriers of learning a second language, that I’ve been doing what I like to do; the best thing I’ve done was to chase my dream and not to give up.

Although I have commented on each of these perspectives separately, many of them are interdependent. Thus, in enacting love – in acting toward her dreams – Paula is also constructing her identity as an English teacher. The way she responds to her dreams shows not only love as an emotion, but also as a choice, as a response, as relational and as praxis. Love as praxis

Love as praxis is related to actions involving care, responsibility, respect and knowledge. Paula shows the importance of love as praxis when she explains what a teacher must do in the classroom: I think a teacher has to pay attention in everything that happens in the classroom; you have to know your students and to do your best, you have to be concerned about your behavior, your words and the responsibilities you have to students’ learning processes. You are not the only and the mainly responsible for that but you are really important to them. Nothing better than realizing that you have been building a good environment in classroom and that your students are learning. Sometimes when I see how better my students are I feel really good and motivated to keep teaching.

As seen in this excerpt, Paula demonstrates care toward her students by seeking to know them better and assuming responsibility for their academic experience. In addition, she shows care and respect by trying to relate to them personally and supporting a good learning environment through the facilitation of a sense of community in the classroom. In turn, this helps her feel more motivated, more ‘in love’ with teaching. In other excerpts, Paula states how love as praxis is manifested in good teaching: I believe I am already a good teacher but I want to still keep learning and to help my students even more. To be a better teacher I am studying more and I participate of everything I can that is English related: courses, lectures, etc. I think only if I allow myself to be in touch with the language and to use it I am able to be even better. As a teacher, I have to provide opportunities in the classroom to make students use the language; I also have to show them that our time in classroom is very short and because of that it is important to develop their autonomy as learners to optimize this process. I am there as a teacher to guide them, but if they do not walk by themselves they won’t learn.

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Both excerpts suggest Paula’s responsibility, i.e. her ability and willingness to respond to others’ needs – in this case, her students’ needs. This indicates Paula’s knowledge about herself and others. As Palmer (1998: 2) says, ‘we teach who we are’. Love as praxis and love as relational involve developing loving relationships with others, which also correlates with interpersonal and intergroup peace (Oxford, 2013; Oxford et al., 2018). Relationship: Love, identity and peace

My analysis of this narrative ultimately shows that love, identity and peace are interrelated concepts. Such a relationship is illustrated in the following excerpt: I see myself as a good teacher, someone who is always concerned about what I can do better or different to motivate my students and make the learning process interesting and easy. […] when I do not know something, I try to look for it and to bring the answers. I feel that because of my story of overcoming my English learning difficulties, I can use that as an example to show them that they can learn, if they really want that, and that learning is not impossible or painful.

As an English teacher, Paula identifies herself with love-centered practices that bring peace not only to her classroom, which would help expand the experiences of interpersonal and also intergroup peace, but also to herself, i.e. inner peace. Her identity as a teacher has been formed around these practices, which she explains by referring to her own identity as an English learner, reflected in the following excerpt: Now that I’ve been already teaching English I believe the best way to learn is trying, it is facing the situations and giving your best and it is also important to listen to suggestions and to watch yourself, your behavior and your feelings as a teacher. I think it helps a lot in the process of becoming a better teacher. You have to reflect about your classes, to see how and if it is working and sometimes why it is not working as we planned, to think about what we can do different and always try, because if you do not try you will never know if you are doing your best.

This excerpt shows that Paula’s identity as a language teacher is inextricably grounded in her respect, care and knowledge of her profession. In the act of expressing what she identifies with and in her beliefs about giving the best to her students, she shows her emotional and practical concerns toward them. By revealing how much she cares and respects students, she enhances love and inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace. Conclusion

In this chapter I have discussed the importance of the concept of love as a topic of research and practice for the field of AL. The process of

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researching love is ultimately a political and ethical consideration embodying a caring approach to the many aspects of language learning teaching. I presented two major theoretical perspectives on love: the concept of love as a revolutionary transformative force, based on the studies by Lanas and Zembylas (2015) and Chabot (2008); and the concept of amorosity by Freire (1996). Based on these two theoretical perspectives on love, I analyzed a written narrative of Paula, a Brazilian EFL student-teacher in Brazil. The results have shown four perspectives of love identified in Paula’s narrative: love as an emotion, as relational, as a response and as praxis. These perspectives were related to her identities as an English teacher. Paula wanted to become the best teacher she could be, and her ideas were grounded in the principles of ethics, respect, knowledge and responsibility. Her choice of becoming a teacher had to be constantly reaffirmed and repeatedly chosen in the many actions and responses she took in order to develop. Her choices and actions illustrate how love is relational, because it involves not only the people who helped Paula, but also the way in which she envisions herself in relation to her students. All the perspectives of love are closely connected to her identity as a person and a teacher. Once she started to act based on love-centered choices, she experienced increased inner, interpersonal and even intergroup peace, responding more lovingly not only toward herself (taking actions that would promote her self-esteem and development as a teacher), but also toward her students. The implications of the results for language teaching include the following. First, love is a factor present in the trajectories of student-teachers, helping them make decisions to become better professionals while fostering their individual identities. Second, it is wise not only to critically examine love in education, but also to include it as content in language teaching courses to help student-teachers gain awareness of the many perspectives on love and the impacts that love can have in their learning trajectories and future practices with their own students. Third, studying love in the classroom opens conversations about the close relationship between love and peace. The results here have shown how important love is for inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace in the life of a studentteacher. Fourth, by focusing on love in teacher education, we can help student-teachers, especially in Brazil, who are unsure of becoming teachers, either because of their low language proficiency or the low status of the English teaching profession. Fifth, adding love for teaching and possibly love of the language to be taught as topics in teacher education would also help us to take a more critical perspective on our profession so we can improve the parts that need change. As explained earlier, there are very few studies on love in AL. Investigating love can add to the spectrum of salient emotions being explored in the fi eld of AL while contributing to the studies of peace already in place in AL. Future studies could investigate love and its different perspectives, as presented by Lanas and Zembylas (2015), with

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in-service and pre-service language teachers and with learners. Other studies might propose validating and/or evaluating the impact of activities that (a) are potentially useful in class and (b) either employ the concept of love or include love as one of the dimensions. Such investigations would complement current studies on peace-centered activities in language classrooms and teacher education classrooms (such as Johnson & Murphey, 2018; Johnson et  al., 2017; Olivero, 2017; Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford, 2017). In this way, we transcend superfi cial understandings of the salience of love and treat love as an important critical concept worthy of consideration, thought and implementation within the field of AL. Notes (1) There are many other perspectives on love, but due to limitations of space and time I have chosen only these two. Others would include: the pedagogy of care (Noddings, 1992), pedagogical love (Gidley, 2016; Määttä & Uusiautti, 2011), the pedagogy of love (Clingan, 2015; Culham et al., 2018), passion in teaching (Day, 2004), attentive love (Liston, 2008) and the pedagogy of the soul (Palmer, 1998). For a review of some of these, see Barcelos and Coelho (2016) and Culham et al. (2018). (2) Amoroso or amorosidade in Portuguese does not carry the same sexual connotation as the word amorous does in English – quite the opposite. In Portuguese, the word means feeling love: being tender, caring, gentle and loving. Thus, for Freire, amorosidade does not refer to any connotation of sexual feelings. Rather, as explained in this text, it means respect, reason, curiosity and knowledge.

References Barcelos, A.M.F. (2015) Unveiling the relationship between language learning beliefs, emotions, and identities. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 5 (2), 301–325. Barcelos, A.M.F. and Coelho, H.S.H. (2016) Language learning and teaching: What’s love got to do with it? In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 130–144). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Boulding, E. (2000) Cultures of Peace: The Hidden Side of History. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Chabot, S. (2008) Love and revolution. Critical Sociology 34 (6), 803–828. Clingan, J. (2015) A pedagogy of love. Journal of Sustainability Education 9. See www. jsedimensions.org/wordpress/content/a-pedagogy-of-love_2015_03/ (accessed 22 June 2018). Culham, T., Oxford, R.L. and Lin, J. (2018) Cultivating the ability of the heart: Educating through the pedagogy of love. In J. Miller, M. Binder, S. Crowell, K. Nigh and B. Novak (eds) The International Handbook for Holistic Education (IHHE) (pp. 170–177). New York: Routledge. Day, C. (2004) A Passion for Teaching. London: Routledge/Falmer. Day, C. (2009) A passion for quality: Teachers who make a difference. Tijdschrift Voor Lerarenopleide [Journal for Teacher Training] 30 (3), 4–13. Freire, P. (1996) Pedagogia da Autonomia [Pedagogy of Autonomy]. São Paulo: Paz e Terra. Friederich, P. (2007) English for peace: Toward a framework of peace sociolinguistics. World Englishes 26 (1), 72–78.

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Gidley, J.M. (2016) Postformal Education: A Philosophy for Complex Futures. New York: Springer. Johnson, K. and Murphey, T. (2018) Promoting students’ trajectories of agentive, reflective, and peace-making-languaging in TEFL classes … and beyond. TESL Reporter 51 (2), 34–52. Johnson, K., Johnson, T. and Murphey, T. (2017) Becoming actively altruistic for love and peace. Research Institute of Language Studies and Language Education 28, 91–121. Kruger, F. (2012) The role of TESOL in educating for peace. Journal of Peace Education 9 (1), 17–30. Lanas, M. and Zembylas, M. (2015) Towards a transformational political concept of love in critical education. Studies in Philosophy and Education 34, 31–44. Lemke, J.L. (2008) Identity, development, and desire. In C.R. Caldas-Coulthard and R. Ledema (eds) Identity Trouble: Critical Discourse and Contested Identities (pp. 17–42). London: Palgrave/Macmillan. Lin, J., Kirby, B., Edwards, S. and Culham, T. (eds) (2019) Contemplative Pedagogies for Effective and Profound Transformation in Teaching, Learning and Being. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lincoln, Y. and Guba, E. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Liston, D. (2008) Critical pedagogy and attentive love. Studies in Philosophy and Education 27 (5), 387–392. Määttä, K. and Uusiautti, S. (2011) Pedagogical love and good teacherhood. In Education 17 (2), 29–41. Maslow, A.H. (1943) A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review 50 (4), 370– 396. doi:10.1037/h0054346. Cited in psychclassics.yorku.ca (accessed 22 June 2018). Murphey, T., Prober, J. and Gonzales, K. (2010) Emotional belonging precedes learning. In A.M.F. Barcelos and H.S.H. Coelho (eds) Emoções, Reflexões e (trans)form(ações) de Alunos, Professores e Formadores de Professores de Línguas. [Emotions, Refl ections, and Transformation(s) of Students, Teachers, and Teacher Educators] (pp. 43–56). Campinas: Pontes. Newton, J. (2011) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Needs. The Neurotypical Site. See www. theneurotypical.com/maslows_basic_needs.html (accessed 22 June 2018). Noddings, N. (1992) The Challenge to Care in Schools: An Alternative Approach to Education. New York: Teachers College Press. Olivero, M. (2017) Cultivating peace via language teaching: Pre-service teachers’ beliefs and emotions in an Argentine EFL practicum. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of South Florida. Olivero, M.M. and Oxford, R.L. (2019) Implementing and assessing transformative, multidimensional peace language activities designed for future teachers and their students: Educating for peace. In L. Walid Lofty and C. Toffolo (eds) Promoting Peace Through Practice, Academia and the Arts (pp. 184–206). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2017) Peace through understanding: Peace activities as innovations in language teacher education. In T. Gregersen and P. MacIntyre (eds) Innovative Practices in Language Teacher Education (pp. 125–163). New York: Springer. Oxford, R., Gregersen, T. and Olivero, M.M. (2018) The interplay of language and peace education: The Language of Peace Approach in peace communication, linguistic analysis, multimethod research, and peace language activities. TESL Reporter 51 (2), 10–33. Palmer, P.J. (1998) The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life. New York: Jossey-Bass.

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Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pavelescu, L.M. and Petrić, B. (2018) Love and enjoyment in context: Four case studies of adolescent EFL learners. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 8 (10), 73–101. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.4 Wink, J. and Wink, D. (2004) Teaching Passionately: What’s Love Got to Do with It? Boston, MA: Pearson. Zajonc, A. (2006) Cognitive-affective connections in teaching and learning: The relationship between love and knowledge. Journal of Cognitive Affective Learning 3 (1), 1–9. Zembylas, M. (2003) Caring for teacher emotion: Reflection on teacher self-development. Studies in Philosophy and Education 22, 103–125. Zembylas, M. (2017) Love as ethico-political practice: Inventing reparative pedagogies of aimance in ‘disjointed’ times. Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy 14 (1), 23–38. doi: 10.1080/15505170.2016.1277572

7 Seeking Connection through Difference: Finding the Nexus of Transformative Learning, Peacebuilding and Language Teaching Josephine Prado, Gönül Uguralp-Cannon, John Marc Green, Melinda Harrison and Laurie Frantz Smith

Better than a thousand hollow words is one word that brings peace. Buddha

Language learning can be disorienting. Language learners can lose their way among the mysteries and frustrations of trying to communicate in a new language. Imagine, however, that on the first day of class a language teacher invites beginning-level language learners to remember a phrase, a quote, a favorite passage or something intensely meaningful and personal. Once remembered, learners write their messages in the languages they know best. Class continues as learners and their teacher translate their phrases into beautifully rendered versions of the new language. Learning to say or read the phrase in their new language, learners can now communicate a meaningful message with a proficient speaker. The learner’s message very likely contains a universal theme which connects the learner with the new language and its speakers. Translating the message helps learners negotiate the linguistically and culturally unfamiliar while offering something precious to listeners. Sharing something valuable opens hearts and promotes trust, which sets the foundation for building peace among strangers. Martin Luther King, Jr (2001) viewed peace as harmony in melding confl icting voices into a productive, harmonious understanding and connection. In a globalized world where we fi nd ourselves simultaneously more connected with and more isolated 110

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from each other, strengthening communication skills with peace language is urgently needed in order to build authentic and harmonious interactions. Language teachers are uniquely positioned to promote these skills but may not have the prior knowledge or instructional strategies to effectively integrate them into the curriculum. In this chapter, we draw from our backgrounds as teachers of English to speakers of other languages to narrate our experiences with transformative learning that resulted in peacebuilding opportunities. Residing in the southeastern United States, we teach in public schools, community English settings, intensive English programs, freshman composition courses and teacher education programs. With these varied contexts, our English learners (ELs), who range in age from five to 75 years and arrive from all parts of the globe, bring different levels of formal education and life experiences to our classrooms. Our narratives reveal unique experiences which shine light on the potential for peaceful interactions through language learning and teaching. Our transformative learning experiences clarified confusion and deepened understanding in ways that shifted our paradigms and refocused our worldviews. Fresh perspectives and newly realized empathy raised our awareness but did not necessarily equip us with strategies for peacebuilding in the classroom. To bridge awareness and action, we connect transformative learning theory (Dirkx, 1997; Mezirow, 2012) which outlines this intense internal change with Oxford’s (2013, 2014) multidimensional model for peace language in order to explain the context and process by which peaceful communication occurs. Peace Language

Language is a social tool that facilitates human expression of abstract thought and sentiments. Peace language extends beyond vocabulary and sentence structure to include nonverbal communication, belief systems and worldview. According to Oxford (2013: 3), peace language not only ‘describes, reflects, expresses, or actively expands peace … but it also has transformative qualities’. This chapter explores the powerful intersection of transformation, language learning and peacebuilding using peace language. One of the six principles that defi nes Oxford’s (2013) concept of peace language is a multidimensional model illustrated as five concentric circles. The central circle represents individual inner peace, which is essential to peace language. Without inner peace, people have difficulty with effectively engaging in other peace dimensions (Oxford, 2013, 2014). Expanding from inner peace, these dimensions describe harmonious interactions at the interpersonal, intergroup and international levels. The fourth dimension, intercultural, overlaps interpersonal, intergroup and international levels, indicating culture’s influence at each level, whether

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the interaction is among individuals, racial, ethnic or religious groups, or nation states defi ned by geopolitical boundaries. The fi nal dimension, ecological peace, describes the harmonious interdependence of humans with the natural world. Just as concentric circles represent a ripple moving through water, peace dimensions ripple through inner peace to ecological peace (Olivero & Oxford, 2019). See Chapter 1 for a thorough description of the peace language model. Whether expressed as mindfulness, visual arts, music, dance or poetry, peace language begins with individual inner peace and expands to interpersonal peace through mutual love, respect, trust and affirmation toward family and friends. As individuals strengthen their sense of empathy, equity and desire to foster human well-being – without distinction of sex, race, religion and nationality – as well as the Earth, peaceful interactions ripple through all dimensions, sometimes in circuitous, complex ways. When ordinary people use peace language, they create opportunities to transform themselves and those around them, which is the essence of peacebuilding (Olivero & Oxford, 2019). Transformative Learning

Like peacebuilding, transformative learning affords opportunities for deeper understanding of self and humanity. When an experience fundamentally changes an aspect of an individual’s belief system, that person must acquire new skills and insights in order to integrate the changes, resulting in a deeper understanding of self as well as increased empathy. Mezirow (2012: 76) explains that a frame of reference – a meaning perspective – contains assumptions which are capable of becoming ‘more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action’. Humans make assumptions about the world based on prior experiences, associations and values. These assumptions influence the meaning we make of subsequent experiences as well as our reactions to and beliefs about those experiences. An essential part of the transformative learning process involves recognizing and questioning our automatic actions and beliefs. Mezirow (1994) contrasts a perspective transformation with mere reflection. Simple reflection does not extend beyond a superfi cial correction in how we interpret our life experiences. As Merriam and Bierema (2014: 84) explain, this process is often set into motion because of a ‘disorienting dilemma’ or sudden life-altering crisis; however, transformational learning can evolve gradually as ‘an accumulation of experiences over time’. Inarguably, transformation of one’s meaning perspective occurs during the process of critical reflection upon long-held beliefs and values, and reformulates deeply held beliefs and often involves soul work.

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While Mezirow perceives transformative learning as a cognitive and rational process, Dirkx echoes Jungian psychology to focus on the roles of emotions, imagination and spirituality in the learning process, known as soul work or inner work (Dirkx et al., 2006), an instinctive urge to ‘search for meaning and make sense of changes’ that percolates beneath society (Dirkx, 1997: 79). Dirkx defi nes soul through examples of different soul experiences, such as being fascinated by the beauty of a sunset or feeling intense pain and helplessness in the face of another’s suffering. While such incidents populate strong personal emotions, they also lead us to construct meaning in our lives as well as to make distinct shifts in our consciousness. Likewise, environments rich with symbols, images, art, music, poetry and stories reveal the presence of our soul and enable a connection between our conscious world and unconscious self. For Dirkx (1997: 79), transformative learning is a process of ‘learning through soul, giving voice in a deep and powerful way to imaginative and poetic expressions of self and the world’. This concept weaves through time and culture, as seen in the poetry of 13th century Persian scholar and Sufi mystic, Mevlana Jalaluddin Muhammad Rumi, who has inspired and transformed the hearts of readers from various religious faiths and traditions. Embodying love, tolerance and peace, Rumi’s poetry encourages readers to journey inward and establish a connection between soul and conscious self in order to achieve a more acute awareness of inner self. As Rumi says, ‘A divine dance appears in the soul and the body in time of peace and union. Anyone can learn this dance, just listen to the music’ (Wisdom Quotes, 2017). This union allows the discovery of true love and peacebuilding among all in and of the universe (Enteshari, 2013). In this way, Rumi’s verses and teachings align with Dirkx’s ideas of soul work. Both adopt an emotional, imaginative and spiritual view of transformative learning and self-knowing experience. Rumi addresses anyone, regardless of religion, race, gender, culture and language, who is willing to take the journey of self-knowledge. Rumi’s universal messages on fi nding meaning and making peace bolster the connection between transformative learning and peacebuilding. With soul work included within transformative learning, profound change and inner peace become possible. Dirkx et al. (2006: 127) describes this inner world as ‘a place of rest, peace, a kind of sacred sanctuary’. He further explains that focusing on the inner world does not suggest detachment from the outer world and emphasizes that ‘our relationships with others are only as strong and deep as the relationship we have with ourselves’ (Dirkx et al., 2006: 129). Understanding ourselves brings awareness, satisfaction, happiness and most importantly inner peace so that we can share and build peace with the world around us. Within each framework or model, Dirkx et al. (2006) and Oxford (2013, 2014; Olivero & Oxford, 2019) convey the importance of strengthening inner peace in

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order to interact harmoniously with others. Taken together, the following narratives illustrate the nexus between inner peace and other peace dimensions. Transformation is Personal

As authors of this chapter, we share the common thread of transformative learning in connection with peace language. These stories convey the impact and significance of our experiences in exploring the nexus of peace, language and transformation. While each narrative exemplifies this greater intent, we communicate our stories in deeply personal ways, for transformation is nothing if not personal. Gönül’s story: My soul is my guide (Rumi)

Teaching provides different avenues and experiences to learn and transform. During my early years, I was uncertain why life had prepared me for the English teaching profession. Over time, I realized that my role as a foreign language teacher accords with what I believe to be my mission in life. Thirty-five years ago, my high school philosophy teacher helped me recognize how my role in life aligns with the meaning of my name. In Turkish, Gönül means the spiritual heart that speaks the love words of the soul. Comparing me to a bee, my teacher emphasized that I was not a queen bee, but only a worker bee. While working in the education sector, the similarities between worker bee and teacher became apparent, unlocking the consciousness of my soul and triggering a transformation in my approach. My understanding of soul work (Dirkx et al., 2006) within transformative learning theory frames my story of becoming a language teacher and of attaining inner peace. From the moment of conception and equipped with the inner knowledge of change, our body, mind and soul continuously transform. Unaware of internal self-knowledge, we instinctively seek everyday experiential knowledge to satisfy the demands of the body and mind, but not the soul. However, we hardly assign any deep meaning to our experiences until we explore the inner guidance of the soul. Regardless of different methods to fi nd meaning in life, one universal truth rules for all individuals. Our soul is connected to our body and mind, like a drafting compass with two adjustable arms hinged together, as represented in the image in Figure 7.1. Just as the compass is anchored at the center point to draw a complete and perfect circle, the soul anchors a balanced, whole and peaceful life. According to Jung (1958: 60), ‘everything depends on the human soul and its functions’. Some of us like to think that we master our souls. Our inability to control subconscious instincts and our lack of awareness of the unconscious aspects of mind

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Figure 7.1 Soul as the apex of the compass Source: Creative Commons; arrows and words added by Gönül Uguralp-Cannon

and the spiritual elements of soul indicate that we are not our own masters (Jung, 1964). Only understanding the intimate connection between our conscious and our unconscious worlds facilitates a holistic transformative learning experience (Dirkx, 1997; Jung, 1958). The soul seeks connection with the conscious self through deep, personal roots of emotions that are essential to transformative learning. The powerful messages of the soul gain a voice when ‘we sometimes fi nd ourselves feeling strongly about something or toward someone’ (Dirkx, 2000: 65). I owe my transformative experience to Derya, one of my former students from the English Language Teaching Department at Uludag University who was assigned to a small village in the Eastern Anatolian region where conditions were challenging. The school had no internet, no technology and scarcely any supplies. Interestingly, the village’s name was Karayazı, which translates as ‘unfortunate fate’. Hoping to create a positive impact, I arranged a fundraiser and gathered considerable supplies for Derya and her students. The elementary school was impoverished, but the students’ hearts were rich. Attached to their individual thank-you letters in English were thoughtful personal gifts, such as a hairpin or a flower from their village. Such heart-warming and generous responses awakened my soul, inspiring me to share it with my undergraduate pre-service teachers. I knew they would rejoice in this eye-opening experience with a nuanced view of the role of teacher. My pre-service teachers eagerly replied to each student and

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this exchange of communication between pre-service teachers and elementary students not only provided the Karayazi students with English practice and enabled the undergraduates to experience a deep connection with their souls, but it also fostered a sense of intergroup peace. Through a series of positive interactions, two very different groups did the work of peacebuilding by practicing peace language and reflecting on perceived opportunities to transform their worldviews. Although transformative learning is voluntary (Cranton, 2006), this experience made learning a continual process for both the future language teachers and the elementary students from a distant town. On both a personal and a professional level, this rewarding experience helped me align with my inner source, recall my mission as a worker bee, transmit the experience to my students, and fi nd inner peace as I nurtured and stretched the boundaries of my consciousness. My transformative learning experience enabled me to correlate the poems of Rumi to soul work, and identify myself with these words of Rumi: ‘I have been a seeker, and I still am, but I stopped asking books and the stars. I started listening to the teachings of my soul’ (Wisdom Quotes, 2017). Melinda’s story: Promoting peace through university first-year composition

Gönül’s story beautifully illustrates transformative experiences among and between adults and children. While transformative experiences are often discussed in the context of adulthood, emerging adults – those aged 18–25 years who are often the majority of college undergraduates – can also experience transformation. This in-between season is ‘a period of life that offers the most opportunity for identity explorations in the areas of love, work, and worldviews’ (Arnett, 2000: 473). Expectations in the fi rstyear composition classroom encourage these emerging adults to reflect upon their past and current worldviews through composition, and create a prime site for transformative learning. My fi rst-year composition students come from as close as our metropolitan community and as far as the other side of the world. While a disorienting dilemma is often a catalyst for transformation, my own transformation as a teacher has been one of ‘an accumulation of experiences over time’ (Merriam & Bierema, 2014: 84). I came to this role of teaching fi rst-year writing to both non-native English speakers and native English speakers in a US university as a way to gain inner peace and to feel as if I were contributing toward the personal and academic success of immigrant and international students. I also wanted to feel as if I were informing a majority White, monolingual student population of the additive benefits to our society of cultural and linguistic diversity. These emerging adults, who are from very diverse backgrounds, cultures and ethnicities, are in a ‘prolonged period of independent role

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exploration’ (Arnett, 2000: 469). I am mindful of this important aspect as I plan the curriculum, hoping to create a fertile environment for my students to question their automatic responses and perhaps transform their frames of meaning that build rather than detract from peace. Dimensions of peace provide a model for building and promoting inner peace in myself and in my students, intergroup peace in our local classroom context and intercultural peace in our university context (Oxford, 2013). Since I teach sections of fi rst-year composition for international students as well as sections for our general student population, I am in a unique position to address these dimensions from two angles. If I can help build and promote peace within and among my US-born students as well as within and among my international students, then perhaps I can lead these students toward peacebuilding outside of our local classroom and inside their intercultural contexts. My pedagogical choices incorporate reflection and introspection for transformative learning, as well as activities and readings that promote critical thinking and cultural literacy. Student-centered collaborative activities often include discussion of immigrant literacy narratives, crosscultural communication and cultural rhetorics. Students collaborate and respond by analyzing the rhetorical components, engaging deeply with their beliefs about those topics. Students also individually reflect upon their own linguistic histories and attitudes. Collectively, we reflect upon the presence of these topics in the classroom and university contexts, and how our proactive or reactive practices can aid or hinder peacebuilding. Through my own search for inner peace, I have found what I feel is a calling to develop other dimensions of peace within my own sphere: firstyear composition with both resident and international student writers. Hopefully, with a conscientious effort toward incorporating reflection, introspection and critical thinking, my students will go on to serve as peacebuilders. John Marc’s story: Tactical peacebuilding

Melinda’s story shows how transformative learning can occur incrementally. My journey of transformative learning was just that: a process that emerged naturally, as I pursued a career in journalism. As a journalist, I interacted daily with an incredibly diverse cross-section of people from the highest levels of celebrity and public service to the poorest and most victimized members of society. As a broadcast TV news reporter and videographer from 1999 until 2008, my daily news deadline forced me to be creative in getting interviews with newsmakers and primary sources. I often had less than a minute to establish credibility and goodwill toward the subject. This necessity forced me to look for multiple points of common interest and identity in order to create rapport and meaningful connection. Over time,

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I developed an intuitive sense of how to fi nd common ground very quickly. This lowered subjects’ barriers of resistance and increased the likelihood of their agreeing to an on-camera interview, and I often left the encounter having made a new friend with someone very different from myself. However, as a point of personal integrity, I always put the interests of my subjects first and felt a sense of personal obligation to make sure that I did not misquote them or, through selective editing, misrepresent what the person in front of the camera was trying to say. Upon entering an ESOL graduate program, I struggled to defi ne multicultural education. Through a series of reflective assignments I compared the goals of multicultural education with my journalistic practice of looking for a good interview subject. I realized that thinking like a journalist was similar to the way a teacher could approach multicultural sensitivity. Through that summer of reflection I developed a three-tiered model, depicted in Figure 7.2, illustrating modes of identity that emerged naturally from my daily, tactical strategies for fi nding common ground as a reporter. Whenever I meet someone, I look for surface-level similarities: visible factors that could become common ground such as physical attributes, cultural symbols or socio-economic status cues; these I call ‘iso-identities’, since they are related to the individual. Iso-identities tend to be mutually exclusive and the sources of dangerous cultural division, but they are also easily identifi able. To engage a person in conversation, I ask questions to discover their interests and affi liations. Groups with broader inclusivity such as sports teams, hobby interests or geographic origin are what I called ‘poly-identities’, since they include many more types of people. However, the groups themselves (like political parties

Tactical Peacebuilding: Finding Common Ground ‘META-identities’: Based on universal human roles; found in every society & culture, widest categories of connection (outer ring)

Modes of Identity

‘POLY-identities’: Based on interests, beliefs, geographies; amicable competing groups, broader networks (middle spires) ‘ISO-identities’: Based on personal traits, cultures; mutually exclusive groups (center core) Figure 7.2 Tactical peacebuilding: Finding common ground Source: John Marc Green

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or religious affi liations) tend to compete among themselves. If I can still fi nd no common ground, I move to an even wider level of abstraction: the cross-cultural, universal human roles throughout history, such as parent, builder, artist, guardian or explorer. These seem best referred to as ‘meta-identities’, since they transcend so many other types of divisions and are often the most deeply felt in terms of meaning and personal significance. By employing tactical peacebuilding, I use intentional goodwill to overlook differences, quickly building connection and trust in another person. This is the best way I know to describe peacebuilding at the immediate, interpersonal level. Peacebuilding can happen in the grocery store, at the post office or in the medical waiting room. Because deadline pressures forced me to engage in daily tactical peacebuilding, I have built a sense of self-efficacy in fi nding common ground. With practice, any educator could also adopt the mindset of a journalist on a deadline, engaging each student with the same openness, goodwill, genuine interest and inquisitive desire to fi nd common ground in building connection and trust. In this way, tactical peacebuilding becomes a daily mindset and a way of life, producing transformative learning experiences for both the educator and the student. Laurie’s story: Connecting with undocumented workers

John Marc’s idea of tactical peacebuilding for educators shows one way in which educators can deliberately build peace. Similarly, my story illustrates the power engaging with others has in transforming long-held views. I am embarrassed to say that for much of my life I never thought about the plight of undocumented workers in the United States, thinking the issue was isolated to states such as Arizona, Texas, California and Florida. My neighborhood, my group of friends, my church and the area where I teach are not diverse. It never occurred to me that the few immigrants I encountered might not have documents. My fi rst indication that I was uninformed occurred about 15 years ago when I heard another soccer parent laughing after one of my daughter’s games. He was telling a story of when immigration officers raided a local Mexican restaurant, and many employees had dropped what they were doing and fled. He and other fathers thought this story was hilarious. Hearing the story, I was enraged that people’s terror was humorous to those who led safe, comfortable lives. Inwardly, I was surprised that these employees did not have documentation. At that moment, I began to feel curious about people working without documents. However, I still believed the core cultural narrative of my small conservative community: Weren’t these undocumented workers being unfair to move here in place of the people who waited to become legal residents? Weren’t they ‘breaking in line?’

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Ten years later, I met a Hispanic landscaper named Alfredo. Friends recommended him, so we asked him for a price quote. The young man, gracious and likable, gave us such a low price that I felt guilty about hiring him, but he never returned. Later, we learned that Alfredo was grieving the death of his young son in Mexico. Because Alfredo sent his money home to support his family he could not afford the $5000 fare to return for his son’s funeral. I wondered about the pain of living apart from one’s family in order to support them. My most compelling experience happened closest to home. One summer, I participated in an English learner summer camp and transported two young Hispanic boys who lived in apartments near my home. When the children answered the door, I peeked in and saw no overhead light, no sofa and no rug. An old television was perched on a dryer in one corner of the room, with a scuffed Formica table and chairs in another corner. The apartment was so dark that I could not imagine how these boys did their homework. Frankly, I had never seen such poverty near my home, and I was completely stunned at how oblivious I had been to the daily struggles of people living so close. The boys were engaging, polite and thrilled to attend camp for two weeks, and although I treasured my time traveling with them every day, I could not forget their poverty. In the fall, my Bible study group read Radical (Platt, 2010), which advocates for simple living and for generosity toward our neighbors around the world. This book reinforced my compassion for undocumented workers as it cited heartbreaking statistics about the wealth that abounded in America and the poverty commonly found in the world. Our Bible study ‘adopted’ the Hispanic family with the two boys as an ongoing charitable commitment, so at Christmas we offered gifts to each member of the family. Their joy upon receiving these gifts was exceeded only by the joy that my husband, daughter, son and I felt as we delivered them. Our group continues to support this family, and my son and I occasionally drop by their apartment to whisk the boys off for ice cream. I hope to help this family and other immigrant families more in the future. I shared in my Bible study group’s staunchly conservative views regarding immigration for years. However, my connections with Alfredo and the little boys’ family fundamentally changed me, so I have hopes that even the most conservative Americans can change their views about undocumented workers. I believe getting to know real people who work hard and struggle to survive because they lack documentation can shake middleclass Americans out of their comfortable lives and move them to act for the well-being of everyone in our community. Josephine’s story – The power of pronouns

Like Laurie, I uncovered an embedded assumption that unequivocally undermined my values. Standing before 16 college freshmen, I was

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blindsided. As a teacher educator in an MA-TESOL (Master of Arts in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) program, I think and teach about social inequities, analyze diversity and, more recently, explore peace language in the classroom. I fi nd the power of language fascinating, especially word associations and connotations. While teaching about the intersection of language, culture and identity, I experienced language’s power when my assumption repeatedly spilled out of my mouth during class discussions. One student, a transman named Blair, enriched every class discussion with his perceptive, intelligent comments, but I became acutely aware that my language invalidated his identity. When I began teaching university courses, I formed the habit of saying ‘yes ma’am’ or ‘yes sir’ to acknowledge students until I learned their names. After stumbling three or four times over ‘yes ma’am’ when acknowledging Blair, I made a conscious effort to discontinue the practice, with hopes that I would eliminate the habit permanently. However, removing vocabulary from my teacher talk does not address the reason I chose to use ‘yes ma’am’ instead of ‘yes, sir’ with Blair, whose preferred pronoun is ‘he’. I do not wish to invalidate Blair; on the contrary, I want to respect Blair’s identity expression by incorporating his preferred pronoun into my speech and thoughts. Despite good intentions, I continued to struggle with internal forces that I did not comprehend. To understand my cognitive dissonance, I turned to Mezirow’s (2012) discussion of the transformative learning process, which examines the overarching concept of the frame of reference. A frame of reference has two layers. The layer set more deeply in consciousness (e.g. awareness) is the habit of mind, according to Mezirow, which identifies a person’s set of embedded assumptions. The more superficial layer within the frame of reference includes points of view, which delineate expectations, beliefs, feelings, judgments and attitudes. While my belief and attitude called for respecting Blair’s identity expression, my habit of mind revealed an assumption in need of critical reflection. According to Mezirow (2012), transformative learning occurs in one of four ways. After critically reflecting on assumptions, learners interact with their frame of reference to (1) expand the existing one, (2) add a new frame of reference, (3) alter a habit of mind or (4) change points of view. To contextualize my experience, I regard my habit of mind within my frame of reference to be culturally bound. As assumptions, I do not often acknowledge their existence. Although my points of view are also culturally bound, I am more aware that they exist and evolve as I learn new ideas and gain life experience. When my senses send information to the brain, my habit of mind and points of view activate in order to categorize, evaluate and make meaning of the information. My disorientation occurred when my habit of mind and point of view contradicted one another. Over my lifetime, I have internalized a rigid connection of gender and biological sex, using American English pronouns to solidify the he/she

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binary. I automatically use pronouns describing biological sex because habit of mind dictates that biological sex and gender match, whereas my belief system or point of view evolved ten years ago when I learned that biology does not necessarily match gender identity. When I imposed my assumption on my transman student, I realized that I had not completed my learning process. Cisgender men and women – those whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth – can promote intergroup peace by validating gender identity through language. Checking my assumptions and changing my pronouns clarified my understanding of the trans community. A pronoun exemplifies the power of peace language within the interpersonal dimension as I acknowledged Blair and validated his identity, which in turn built trust between us. By validating Blair in the public space of a classroom, a tiny ripple moved between cisgender and transgender groups. Finally, by resolving my inner conflict on this topic, I gained inner peace and the ability to speak peaceful words. The Nexus of Peace, Language and Transformation

As illustrated in the narratives, transformative learning begins with internal changes. When circumstances align and the learner has the necessary communication tools, an individual’s transformation could promote societal change. Expanding from the internal to the universal is the essential progression reflected in Oxford’s (2013, 2014) model of peace language. As with Paulo Freire’s (1970) concept of conscientization, the learner’s consciousness awakens through dialogue and critical reflection, which can inform and empower the individual to engage with the environment and social institutions as well as to seek solutions leading to change. Adults and transformative learning

Emphasizing the inner life in a classroom setting affords both teachers and learners the opportunity to understand ourselves more deeply, to fi nd our mission in life and to strengthen our connection with others (Dirkx et al., 2006). Therefore, guiding adult learners to examine emotions and memories connected with the new language fosters opportunities for inner soul work, which could lead to transformative learning. We believe tools like Oxford’s (2013) peace language model provide a legitimate instructional scaffold for approaching this inner work, even in an academic setting such as an adult language learning class, whether online or in person. Adult learners bring years of living and a range of experiences with them into the language classroom. Affirming life experiences serve to nurture the soul and to promote inner work. Positive memories, past experiences and associations with the new language bolster adult learners as they engage in

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the learning process. In contrast, a learner’s negative past encounters with the new language could adversely influence the learner’s self-perception and self-efficacy. Indeed, the challenges and constraints of beginning to learn a new language can itself be a disorienting experience for many adults (Foster, 1997; Johnson & Nelson, 2010). The peace language model gives adult language learners a tool that they can use to process and transform various emotions through inner work while learning the language. Practical applications: Seeking connections through difference

Our surface work as language teachers and learners begins with exploring, practicing and refi ning communicative competence and its components of grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competencies (Canale & Swain, 1980). As we have demonstrated through our narratives, within that language learning process comes the opportunity for transformation. Our language classrooms bring together individuals with varied cultural and personal frames of reference. While transformative learning offers new perspectives, deeper understandings and greater peace, it also forever changes the learner through a disorienting and emotional process. McGonigal (2005) emphasizes that the holistic nature of transformative learning involves both emotional and rational processes. Consequently, a language teacher pursuing transformative learning goals with students will create a safe classroom where everyone respects risk taking and rewards openness. The teacher creates opportunities and then takes specific actions for learners to express their new awareness. Once the teacher establishes an environment of trust and support, learners have emotional and intellectual space to challenge previously held assumptions or perspectives in an event that ‘triggers students to examine their thinking and the possible limitations of their understanding’ (McGonigal, 2005: 2). In addition to what instructors bring to the process, learner characteristics heavily influence the likelihood of transformative learning. For a successful experience, learners must be open to change, willing to selfreflect and amenable to suspending belief. They must also have enough provisional goodwill to practice interpersonal communication in a new language, as well as the maturity needed to facilitate respectful dialogue and to manage the emotions inevitably generated by the transformative process. Finally, in keeping with Mezirow (1994, 2012), learners must be ready to translate heightened awareness into actions that will build new habits of mind. Materials and experiences that teachers can employ to push their students’ belief systems might include film, literature or guest speakers. The resulting disorientation provides topics for class discussion and individual reflection. Language learning is essential during this process because new vocabulary helps learners organize conflicting thoughts and express new

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ideas. During this turbulent process, learners, especially language learners, will benefit from structured activities that reinforce language skills and promote thoughtful discourse with each other as they build peace inside themselves and learn to share peaceful words in a new language. Jakar and Milofsky (2016) view peacebuilding as a learning tool and share concrete suggestions for the language classroom. Peacebuilding activities in the classroom integrate diplomatic skills used to resolve confl icts among people of different cultures, ethnicities or nation-states (Oxford, 2013). Several classroom activities for peacebuilding complement transformative theory (Mezirow, 2012). For example, one recommendation promotes conversations about difficult or controversial topics, specifically to provide multiple perspectives. The introduction of new perspectives has two potential benefits. First, it can help learners develop skills to disagree appropriately in a new language. Second, it can trigger a disorienting dilemma, a key part of transformative learning. Additionally, language learners can practice respectful disagreement by role-playing or creating dialogues where they sharpen appropriate language use. Instructors can focus on listening skills by explicitly teaching communication strategies used in dialogues. Jakar and Milofsky (2016) distinguish a debate, which has a winner and loser, from a dialogue, in which participants listen with open minds to different perspectives on a topic. In a dialogue, learners practice language skills while sharing personal and important experiences from their lives. A well-received story builds trust among classmates and stories illuminate multiple facets of the storyteller’s life. In sharing our human experiences, we can no longer dehumanize the stranger. Conclusion: The Nexus

Situating language learning within Oxford’s (2013, 2014) Language of Peace model provides language teachers with a rationale for integrating transformational peace dimensions and peace language into the curriculum through peacebuilding activities at the individual and interpersonal levels. Developing interpersonal communication in and beyond the language learning classroom is urgently needed, both to improve learning outcomes and to elevate second language learners’ quality of life. Peacebuilders offer compassionate words, maintain awareness of body language or advocate visibly and locally for equity and human rights. Peacebuilding fosters transformative learning and initiates internal changes in an individual: as with Freire’s (1970) concept of conscientization (conscientização), the learner’s consciousness (and conscience) ‘awakens’ through dialogue and critical reflection. Over time, this transformation empowers the individual to engage with her immediate circles, wider society, institutions and environment, seeking peacebuilding solutions for positive change as she expresses her new paradigm with effective communication skills.

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Through critical assessment of our belief systems, we fi nd new perspectives and empathy, and then discover new means of expression. Combined with peacebuilding tools, these can provide the motivation needed to promote empathy, civility and human connection. We hope our stories inspire readers to explore possibilities for fi nding ‘nexus’ – the dynamic intersection of transformative learning, peacebuilding and language teaching – in their own instructional contexts. References Arnett, J.J. (2000) Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist 55 (5), 469–480. Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980) Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1 (1), 1–47. Cranton, P. (2006) Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Dirkx, J.M. (1997) Nurturing soul in adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 74, 79–88. Dirkx, J.M. (2000) Transformative learning and the journey of individuation. ERIC Digest No. 223. See https://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/journey.htm (accessed July 2018). Dirkx, J.M., Mezirow, J. and Cranton, P. (2006) Musings and reflections on the meaning, context, and process of transformative learning: A dialogue between John M. Dirkx and Jack Mezirow. Journal of Transformative Education 4 (2), 123–139. Enteshari, F. (2013) Rumi’s poetry: The journey toward meaning and transformation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Fielding Graduate University. Foster, E. (1997) Transformative learning in adult second language learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (74), 33–40. Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Jakar, V.S. and Milofsky, A. (2016) Bringing peacebuilding into the English language classroom. In C. Hastings and L. Jacobs (eds) Social Justice in English Language Teaching (pp. 41–48). Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press. Johnson, S.M. and Nelson, B.M. (2010) Above and beyond the syllabus: Transformation in an adult, foreign language classroom. Language Awareness 19 (1), 35–50. Jung, C.G. (1958) The Undiscovered Self. London: Routledge. Jung, C.G. (1964) Man and His Symbols. New York: Doubleday. King, M.L. Jr (2001) The Words of Martin Luther King Jr. (C.S. King, ed.). New York: Newmarket Press. McGonigal, K. (2005) Teaching for transformation: From learning theory to teaching strategies. Stanford’s Center for Teaching and Learning Newsletter 14 (2). See www.teoeducation.com/teophotos/albums/userpics/transformation.pdf (accessed June 2018). Merriam, S.B. and Bierema, L.L. (2014) Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1994) Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly 44 (4), 222–232. Mezirow, J. (2012) Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In E.W. Taylor and P. Cranton (eds) The Handbook of Transformative Learning (pp. 73–95). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Olivero, M.M. and Oxford, R.L. (2019) Educating for peace: Implementing and assessing transformative, multidimensional peace language activities designed for future teachers and their students. In L. Walid Lofty and C. Toffolo (eds) Handbook of Research on Promoting Peace through Practice, Academia and the Arts (pp. 184– 206). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

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Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Platt, D. (2010) Radical: Taking Back your Faith from the American Dream. Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah Books. Wisdom Quotes (2017) 300 Rumi quotes that will expand your mind (instantly). See www. wisdomquotes.com/rumi-quotes/ (accessed June 2018).

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Can Foreign Languages Be Taught for Peace at US Government Institutes? 129 James E. Bernhardt, Christine M. Campbell and Betty Lou Leaver

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International Faculty and International Students in Universities: Their Roles in Fostering Peace across Languages and Cultures Michael Wei and Yalun Zhou

10 Promoting Peace through Social Justice Pedagogies for Students from Immigrant Muslim Communities: Using Critical Language Awareness in Second Language Classrooms Laura Mahalingappa, Terri L. Rodriguez and Nihat Polat

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8 Can Foreign Languages Be Taught for Peace at US Government Institutes? James E. Bernhardt, Christine M. Campbell and Betty Lou Leaver

Katherine: Your majesty shall mock at me. I cannot speak your England. Shakespeare, Henry V, p. 221

‘Lord, please help faculty remember that they are teaching language and culture for peace and understanding,’ Fr Thomas Hall, military chaplain for the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC), intones at weekly Mass for faculty, staff and students. But is this idealistic purpose not at odds with the missions of the US government institutes? On the surface, the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) would seem more poised to teach languages for peace than the DLIFLC, considering that the FSI is educating diplomats and the DLIFLC is training military linguists in language and warrior ethos. However, the situation is more complex. The FSI has embassies in countries that are not necessarily allies or that can suddenly turn away from positive relationships; the DLIFLC trains specialists like Afghanistan-Pakistan (AFPAK) Hands (whose purpose it is to win the hearts and minds of the non-US populations they work with), Defense Threat Reduction Agency specialists (whose métier it is to work with counterparts to ensure that peace treaty promises are followed) and Foreign Affairs Officers (whose principal task is to work alongside their FSI counterparts at embassies worldwide). Then there is a myriad of other US government agencies where language is taught for a wide variety of purposes, e.g. the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), where language is a critical tool for collaborative exploration and mutual survival in space. Regardless of mission, teachers at these agencies are challenged to facilitate the creation of a metanoia in learners that leads them toward

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transformation into bi-cultural individuals with superior linguistic skills in support of missions seldom singularly linguistic in nature. To teach language for peace more effectively, teachers must recognize that learning language for peace is as much a personal persuasion – inner peace that transfers to intercultural peace – as it is a content topic. This chapter explores teaching foreign languages for peace at the FSI and NASA. Then it examines a variety of approaches for promoting peace within an organization, here, the DLIFLC. Such approaches operate through the following: (1) choice of leadership model; (2) instructional approaches such as: (a) scenario-based learning, where learners work on projects that promote collaborative learning, and (b) learner delivery of course content, where teacher and learners collaborate on lesson plans and presentation of content.

The Teaching of Language for Peace at the Foreign Service Institute One day the South will recognize its real heroes. […] They will be old, oppressed, battered Negro women, symbolized in a seventytwo-year-old woman of Montgomery, Alabama, who rose up with a sense of dignity and with her people decided not to ride the segregated buses, and responded to one who inquired about her tiredness with ungrammatical profundity: ‘My feet is tired, but my soul is rested’. Martin Luther King, 1991: 302

Answering the question ‘What is peace?’ in their essay ‘Peace is a Lifelong Process: The Importance of Partnerships’, Leckman et al. (2014) identify four components to peace: an outcome (the absence of war or violence), a process (often negotiation), a human disposition and a culture. In this section, we look at building peace in the second language acquisition process through the lens of the third component – peace as a human disposition – which, as Leckman et  al. (2014: 6) write, ‘is predicated on a fundamental recognition of the freedom and dignity of all people’. For second language teaching and learning, their argument can be taken a step further: peace requires a recognition of the dignity of each person’s language, the ability to value ‘ungrammatical profundity’ and a disposition toward celebrating the learner’s progress toward success rather than waiting until s/he has accomplished perfection. In a recent curriculum design workshop at the FSI, design teams asked themselves, ‘How can we design a language training program that will lead a larger percentage of our learners to success?’ Surprisingly, answers may lie in a TEDxVienna talk by 2006 Nobel Peace Laureate Muhammed

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Yunus (2012), A History of Microfinance, in which he summarizes his work with micro loans: [I]t’s not just the tiny size of loans that make the Grameen Bank. It’s kind of making things the other way. […] One banker said, you’re not going to get away with this. You made the whole banking system upside down. I said yes, that’s what exactly I did, because the banking system was standing on its head. So, I’m trying to put it on its feet.

In his Nobel lecture, Yunus (2006) explains: The first thing I did was to try to persuade the bank located in the campus to lend money to the poor. But that did not work. The bank said that the poor were not creditworthy. After all my efforts, over several months, failed, I offered to become a guarantor for the loans to the poor. I was stunned by the result. The poor paid back their loans, on time, every time! But still I kept confronting difficulties in expanding the program through the existing banks. That was when I decided to create a separate bank for the poor, and in 1983, I fi nally succeeded in doing that. I named it Grameen Bank or Village bank. Turning language training upside down

For the language teaching and learning world, what would it take to turn language training on its head? What can be learned from Muhammed Yunus? Is there a way to transform curriculum design teams’ strategies from quixotic attacks on windmills on the one hand or mindless replications of previous programs on the other into effective actions that could make long-term changes for the good in government language training? Is there a way in which such teams could create programs that respect the human dignity of all people and the dignity of all registers of language, including the multifarious steps through which learners progress? Every year, the FSI trains over a thousand members of the foreign affairs community, their family members and others who have job-related needs for language skills. The School of Language Studies teaches people who are assigned to training for job-related reasons. Learners are not selected for participation in programs based on their language learning aptitude or track record. As a result, the FSI has a range of language learning capabilities, including gifted students, average learners and ones with little aptitude for second languages. Goals in curriculum design focus on making training effective for all learners, especially those without high aptitude. Even learners with low aptitude need to have sufficient language skills to use language effectively in the jobs they are assigned to do for the nation. Success in language learning at the FSI is one of the most reliable predictors of program success, i.e. people who succeed at learning in the way the FSI teaches will learn when the FSI teaches them in that way.

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A significant number of learners thrive in the current learning environment and will acquire the professional proficiency they need when they study in the programs. The challenge is to find a way to build a path to success for the rest. If the FSI were able to turn its language training program on its head (or on its feet), everyone might reach new levels of success. A second challenge the FSI may face is that diplomats in the 21st century are engaging with a broader audience than their predecessors during the years after World War II. Diplomats of the 21st century employ a wide range of media platforms, provide historical perspective and conduct public outreach. According to the US Department of State (2018): ‘whether discussions take place in person or in virtual space, […] the top goal is to connect people with policy through dialogue that is relatable and understandable’. To help learners develop their language proficiency to a level where they can be ‘relatable and understandable’ to a broad audience, the FSI has been using a ‘design thinking’ approach to curriculum design (Lee & Bernhardt, 2016). The approach dictates that curriculum design teams explore a wide variety of approaches to second language acquisition and talk with people who have succeeded, failed, given up or even abandoned their language studies. (Here the FSI would like to give a ‘shout out’ to all the unsuspecting tourists on the National Mall and in the shopping centers of Northern Virginia who agreed to talk with us!) The FSI rapidly prototyped hundreds of ideas from the most mundane to the most unexpected. Through these prototypes, the FSI has uncovered some interesting issues. Defining ways of communicating

The first issue is defi nitional: Are the contemporary goals and tasks of the government addressed by its long-established standards for language success? The Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR, 2018) directs us to teach the language-use abilities of persons whose language meets contemporary expectations for the formal, careful style of the language as well as a range of less formal varieties of the language, with particular emphasis placed on the belief that high-level proficiency ‘is typically consistent with that of well-educated native speakers of a non-stigmatized dialect’. The FSI teachers are thus charged with teaching standard, correct language. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Guidelines (2012) have a similar, but different, set of definitions. At the Distinguished Level (the highest ACTFL level, which is approximately equivalent to S4 on the ILR scale or C2 on the Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2018), oral discourse typically resembles written discourse (ACTFL, 2012: 4). The Standardized Agreements (STANAG) levels used within NATO countries essentially parallel the ILR proficiency descriptions (BILC, 2018). Hence, there is a worldwide problem.

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As a result of the descriptions for the highest proficiency levels, and when the learners’ goal is a high score, learners strive toward the highest registers of standard language. Such language, according to Bourdieu (1991: 61–62), ‘is a semi-artificial language which has to be sustained by a permanent effort of correction […]. Through its grammarians, who fi x and codify legitimate usage, and its teachers who impose and inculcate it through innumerable acts of correction, the educational system tends, in this area as elsewhere, to produce the need for its own service and its own products’. Since the FSI has been charged to teach standard, non-stigmatized language, i.e. correct, legitimate language, it follows that the language instruction for the past half-century has been focused on correctness, which is in this case grammar, which Ingrid Piller (2016: 50) calls ‘the imagined ideal’. In the FSI context, however, the language skills for positions requiring high-level proficiency are: (1) ability to speak on highly sensitive topics; (2) ability to speak on the record; (3) ability to speak to broad audiences; and (4) for some, ability to speak on camera. The ability to speak to a broad audience is often the most challenging of the four and the one that least reflects the standards of the proficiency movement. When attention is turned away from the semi-artificial, or imagined, language typically viewed as the standard and redirected toward authentic language used in actual situations by real people, one discovers that the object of study needs to be quite different. Consider Thai. Thai has several different registers which can be seen as hierarchical: the Thai spoken by monks; royal Thai, the language of the King; educated Thai; and street or village Thai. In Thailand, the register a speaker chooses for a particular interaction is determined by the status of the speaker’s interlocutor. When the Prime Minister of Thailand, Prayut Chan-o-cha, inspected an irrigation canal expansion project in Phetchaburi in southern Thailand on 23 August 2018, he spoke to the assembled group of people in village Thai, using the pronunciation, rhetorical style and humor appropriate to that audience. When the dignity of all humans in their ways of speaking is recognized in the learning environment, teachers are freer to help learners to communicate in ways that are not artificial, to recognize and accept words and grammatical constructions that people actually use and to focus attention on the appropriate situations for their use. Teachers allow for the ‘ungrammatical’ and celebrate learners’ success when they connect with people in authentic ways. When the goal is to say things that people want to listen to, rather than things that are perceived as correct, teachers are doing the right thing! Native speakers live on social ladders of linguistic acceptability, but people who have learned or who are learning their languages differently, such as non-native speakers, may occupy a space that is not on that ladder but that is set aside for them. In her writings and YouTube lectures about linguistics, culture and peace, Svetlana Ter-Minasova suggests that

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expectations exist among native speakers about the kinds of things nonnatives may say. Most important, Ter-Minasova (2011) notes that, ‘Grammar mistakes are relatively harmless. Cultural mistakes can be much more serious’. While we may all agree that profanity almost never works for non-native speakers, Ter-Minasova cautions against using sayings (poslovetsy), since they are hard to get right, and since the native speaking interlocutor often does not know the ones the learner learned. In From Cold War to Hot Peace (2018: 300–301), former US Ambassador to Russia, Michael McFaul, wrote: Russian tweeters also deploy tons of slang. Bloggers creatively invent verbs, use words from other languages, and abbreviate. I would not always follow the flow. Early in my Twitter career, I would cut and paste phrases from Russians’ tweets as a way to save time and get the grammar right. One night, however, this shortcut produced a disaster. I copied in a slang name for the city of Yekaterinburg, ‘yoburg’. I just assumed that this invented word was a cool way to refer to Russia’s third-largest city. I had no idea that the word I had cut and pasted from someone else’s tweet actually meant ‘f**burg’. Of course, that tweet went viral. […] I learned that it was OK for residents of Yekaterinburg to use this word, but it was defi nitely not OK for others, and especially not for me. Achieving success

Through analysis of what language should be taught, framed in dignity for the learner and cultural aspects of language, the FSI faculty and staff believe they have found the key to success. The FSI may, indeed, have found a way to turn language training on its head with these five simple core principles: • • • • •

Each class should be well balanced. The instructional program should be interesting, relevant and at the learners’ level. Implicit learning is as important as explicit learning, and not all learning is happening in declarative memory. A high level of proficiency is the ability to communicate with a broad audience effectively rather than the ability to perform in high registers. The FSI does not teach French (or any of the other 60+ languages listed in our course catalogue). Rather, it teaches foreign affairs professionals how to use language (such as French) in their jobs and in their lives.

The Teaching of Language for Peace at NASA: Concurrently Enhancing Language Skills and Peace for Decades

For decades, the very core of NASA language training has been to teach professionals to use language (mostly, Russian and English) in their

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jobs and in their lives. A well-kept secret in both the United States and the then-Soviet Union/now-Russia has been the continued training and bonding of astronauts and cosmonauts, following the docking of the Apollo and Soyuz capsules in 1975. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, as it was formally called, was the first joint Soviet-US space flight and was undertaken as a symbol of the policy of détente pursued by the two superpowers during that part of the Cold War. In 1993 the two governments announced a new collaborative project aboard Russia’s Space Station Mir, and in 1994 cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev rode into space aboard the US shuttle Discovery. To prepare for that event, the first American crew undertook language studies at the DLIFLC, but subsequent American crews studied Russian at the location of their space studies in Houston and in Star City, Russia, home to the Gagarin Center for the Training of Cosmonauts. Russian training was provided by contractors local to Houston, and in Star City by employees of the Russian Space Agency (Russkoe Kosmicheskoe Agentstvo, RKA). Likewise, cosmonauts were offered training in English. As the Mir program began to close and a new International Space Station (ISS) was designed, the language training in Houston was formalized, offering Russian and English for astronauts and cosmonauts from an increasingly larger number of nations, including Israel, European countries, Canada and others, under a private company supporting the new ISS with logistics and translation, Tech Trans International (TTI), headed by the wife of an astronaut killed in the line of duty. The teachers hired and then trained by TTI, joined by a few DLIFLC teachers who were transferred to Houston, became highly experienced in content-based instruction (CBI), task-based instruction (TBI) and language for specific purposes and focused on language use as opposed to language usage, the fi fth pillar recently adopted by the FSI.

ISS: A reason and means for changing language instruction

With the ISS being readied to replace Space Station Mir, plans were made for a number of countries to have their own modules within the new ISS. With multiple countries occupying the ISS, the need for good communication became clear. Just as the FSI has found that good programs teach learners, not languages, and not only teach them but also transform them, so too the program at NASA focused indirectly on transformation (begging the question as to whether any transformation can be directly achieved or is, by nature, an indirect outcome of experience). In addition to attending classroom lessons that reflected CBI (Stryker & Leaver, 1997) and TBI (Leaver & Willis, 2005; Nunan, 2006b), focused on technical topics such as space terminology, docking and egress and on general topics such as family, aviation

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history and climate, each mixed-country crew met in a two-hour weekly practicum (Leaver & Bilstein, 2000). This practicum, the brainchild of Paula Bilstein, the director of the English program in Houston in the 1990s, set up a problem to be solved, typically provided by the astronauts themselves since they had the superior knowledge of the kinds of problems that arise in space. Examples of problems include a fi re breaking out on the space station, a broken computer that impeded communication with the ground, and extravehicular activity (EVA) that involved mishaps. During the practicum, the crew spent the fi rst hour solving the problem in English and the second hour solving the same problem in Russian (or vice versa). Both the English teachers and the Russian teachers were present for the entire session, but they were not allowed to help, because once in space, the crew would not have access to a teacher to help them. Instead, the teachers took notes of the gaps and language mistakes that would have resulted in poor or no communication, i.e. catastrophe, had the learners been in space. During the classroom lessons the following week, the teachers would weave into their task-based lessons the training needed to fi ll the gaps and improve the communication, whether that be grammar, vocabulary, discourse or something else. The linguistic elements of the lessons, while central to communication and therefore later taught, were not the focus of the practicum. Rather, it quickly became apparent that the development of learner communicative ability relied on getting to know each other, building a team and developing speaking strategies (especially strategies for communicating when a necessary lexeme had not yet been acquired). The result of the language practicum, after the typical 3–5 years of training, was a highly functional team – linguistically, pragmatically and psychologically. They had bridged the culture divide, and they had found their own path to peace in order to work together in harmony in an environment, space, that offers no margin for error. Language learning environment: A crucible for engendering peace

Practicums provided a mechanism for crossing the linguistic and cultural divide and eliminating any natural tendency toward hostility toward a crew member. (After all, most of the world thought of Russians and Americans as enemies, not friends; the international image of the two nations centered on war, albeit a cold one, not peace.) The problem solving fostered movement toward collaboration, but so did the language learning environment of the practicum itself. Language was for use; there was no classroom competition to be the best, and the goal was to be able to handle a non-linguistic problem using the language skills at hand. It was a mathemagenic environment. No less so, however, were the RKA classes in Star City. Here, learners studied the Russian equipment used aboard Mir, and later the equipment

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aboard the ISS. Again, the emphasis was on language development as the medium of improved communication, not as the goal of instruction. The same could be said of technical classes taught in Houston and robotics classes taught in Canada; improving English came as a result of needing to learn the equipment upon which the cosmonauts and astronauts would rely, together, while in space. As the cosmonauts navigated the bustle of Houston and the astronauts coped with the cold and wilderness of Star City (not the least of which was weeklong survival training in Siberia in the winter), they built a bond as a team, learning to depend upon each other for what could be their very lives, and osmotically in most cases breathing in the values and culture of the other. In short, they transformed. New relationships with peers and with the broader communities of Houston and Moscow aided that transformation. And, of course, once onboard Mir or the ISS, that transformation expanded. Are astronauts or cosmonauts good ambassadors for peace? They are! Including the community in the learning process, as in the case of the Russian-American NASA example described above, is a component of transformative language learning and teaching (TLLT; Leaver & Campbell, 2020). Focused on the transformation of the individual into a bicultural, autonomous learner, transformative learning is based on change in the very nature of instruction (Cranton, 2016) and can be a natural catalyst for peace (John, 2017). Opening the possibility for building peace through language programs is grounded in personal experience that results in personal transformation, whether as learners planning to work in a foreign land or with foreigners in their own land or as colleagues in environments that are microcosms of world states and ethnicities. Approaches for Promoting Peace in Organizations: The Case of the DLIFLC

The DLIFLC is indeed a microcosm of world states and ethnicities, with faculty members representing more than 80 countries. The faculty, professionals in language learning, have typically spent the greater part of their lives working in multicultural environments. They have undergone a personal transformation to become bi- or multicultural, in addition to bi- or multilingual, persons (Leaver & Campbell, 2020). A percentage of these professionals are afforded the opportunity to lead a multicultural workforce. This section of the chapter will discuss a variety of approaches an organization, whether in academe, business or the government sector, can use to promote peace. First, this section will describe servant leadership as a leadership model rooted in genuine respect and concern for others, regardless of rank or grade. Next, it will discuss the concept of shared governance in academe and the mechanisms, such as reverse evaluation, learner sensing

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sessions and appreciative inquiry, for ensuring that all members of the organization have a voice in decision making. Finally, it will examine scenariobased learning where learners work on projects that promote collaborative learning, and learner delivery of course content where teacher and learners collaborate on lesson plans and presentation of content. Servant leadership

In 1970, Greenleaf, a retired AT&T executive who had spent 40 years leading and managing employees, created the term ‘servant-leadership’ (Greenleaf, 1970) to describe leadership based on serving the needs of others, whether employees, customers or community, recognizing that the raison d’être of the leader and manager is to support the workforce, the lifeblood of the organization who daily contribute to its mission. He states: The servant-leader is servant fi rst. … It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. … The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-fi rst to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? (Greenleaf, 1970: 6)

Termed a ‘specific leadership and management concept’ and a ‘leadership model’ by Spears (1998: 2 and 4, respectively), one of Greenleaf’s followers, servant-leadership has revolutionized the workplace around the world since its inception. Spears (1998) has distilled Greenleaf’s (1970) servant leadership ideas into ten key characteristics of the servant-leader: • • •

• • •

Listening: Understanding the will of the group through listening to its members. Empathy: Listening empathically to others. Healing: Promoting healthy relationships, helping those, including him/herself, to mend their broken spirits and become ‘whole’ (6). As Greenleaf (1970: 20) asserts: ‘There is something subtle communicated to one who is being served and led, if, implicit in the compact between servant-leader and led, is the understanding that the search for wholeness is something they share’. Awareness: Being both generally and self-aware. That awareness, posits Greenleaf (1970: 15), ‘is a disturber and an awakener’. Persuasion: Using persuasion, a deviation from the authoritarian model of leadership, versus authority as a tool when making decisions in the organization. Conceptualization: Balancing conceptual, visionary thinking with a practical, day-to-day operational perspective.

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• •

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Foresight: Using intuition to foresee the likely outcome of a situation. This characteristic is relatively unexplored in the leadership and management research and requires further study. Stewardship: Holding the organization in trust for the benefit of society, a concept elaborated on by Block in Stewardship: Choosing Service over Self Interest (2013) and The Empowered Manager: Positive Political Skills at Work (2017). Commitment to the growth of the people: Understanding the need to nurture employees as they grow personally, professionally and spiritually as human beings. Building community: Building a sense of community among employees in an organization (5–8).

In the education context, the teacher is a leader in his/her own right, as Dewey posited when he wrote that the teacher is ‘the intellectual leader of a social group. He is a leader, not in virtue of official position, but because of a wider and deeper knowledge and matured experience’ (Dewey, cited in Nichols, 2011: 13). Any teacher can choose to be a servant-leader, exhibiting the ten characteristics listed above in their schools, colleges and universities. In Teachers as Servant Leaders, Nichols (2011: 18) defi nes leadership in the classroom environment as ‘the art of helping students to defi ne and achieve their goals and purposes …’. He goes on to assert that the teacher is more than just a servant-leader to learners; s/he is one to parents and families, to colleagues and the school administration and, fi nally, to the community. The practice of servant-leadership promotes peace by fostering, at the minimum, an organizational culture of civility and, ideally, one of heartfelt concern for the person. Servant-leadership as a leadership model can enhance the educational experience for both learner and teacher and improve faculty–administration relations. Myriad companies and nonprofits such as TD Industries (Dallas, TX), Schneider Engineering Company (Indianapolis, IN), the Sisters of St Joseph’s Health System (Ann Arbor, MI) and the National Association for Community Leadership have adopted it and extol its benefits. It behooves the K-16 organizational culture to explore more fully its application in academe.

Shared governance

Perhaps the most succinct defi nition of shared governance is that provided by Olson (2009: 2) in The Chronicle of Higher Education: ‘[I]t is a delicate balance between faculty and staff participation in planning and decision-making processes, on the one hand, and administrative accountability on the other’. Olson (2009: 4) further asserts that: ‘Genuine shared governance gives voice (but not necessarily ultimate authority) to concerns common to all constituencies as well as to issues unique to specific groups’.

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Shared governance has its origins in the 1960s in the university context, when the American Association of University Professors, the American Council on Education and the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges collaborated to jointly publish a document in 1966 affirming the importance of shared governance, entitled ‘Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities’. Examples of mechanisms that promote shared governance in post-secondary environments are the Academic Senate, Faculty Council(s), Faculty Committees(s), Learner Sensing Sessions, Reverse Evaluation and Appreciative Inquiry. To most, the Academic Senate, Faculty Council(s) and Faculty Committees(s) are self-explanatory. Learner Sensing Sessions may be more unfamiliar; they are opportunities for learners to provide weekly, monthly, bi-monthly or quarterly feedback to a teacher(s) and/or administrator(s) about aspects of the academic program such as the teachers, curriculum, use of technology and more. The feedback, which is uncensored but respectful in tone, is an important source of information to teacher(s) and/or administrator(s) which can be used to improve processes. The person in charge of the Learner Sensing Session, who can be the teacher of the learners, another teacher, a department chairperson, a Dean, etc., arrives with a laptop or fl ipchart to take notes. The person alerts the learners at the start that it is critical to: (a) be fair and honest; (b) be respectful when providing constructive criticism; (c) not project personal frustrations unrelated to learning against the teacher(s) and/or administrator(s); and (d) be cognizant of the power they have when asked for their opinion in this type of forum. The learners are told they can comment as often as they wish, fi rst citing the positive aspects, then the areas of concern. At the end, the person in charge asks the learners to vote in order to identify what areas of concern might be shared by the majority. These areas are then communicated to the other teachers in the case of team teaching. The feedback to the teacher(s) is formative, not summative, i.e. the feedback is not used by the administrator(s) to evaluate the teacher(s); rather it is used as a tool for professional development. The teacher or teaching team then systematically works to correct the areas of concern. Learner Sensing Sessions are an excellent way to enhance communication across learners, teachers and administrators. Reverse Evaluation is a process designed to bring about positive change in an organization through the yearly evaluation of the administration/management by the workforce. It empowers teachers to voice their opinions about how the administration/management is doing its job in the area of human resources, fiscal resources, quality of work environment and more. Just as in the Learner Sensing Sessions, teachers are alerted to be fair and honest, etc. They are asked to list processes that are helpful to teachers and those that are not. A team of volunteer teachers organizes the Reverse Evaluation process using online surveys where teachers provide written, anonymous feedback using categories such as those mentioned

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above. The team collates the feedback and presents it to the administration in a public forum to which all teachers are invited. The administration listens and may clarify a questionable point if asked but does not make commentary. The administration is then required to make monthly written reports to the faculty about those areas of concern that have been addressed, have been tabled, etc. Reverse Evaluation provides every teacher with the opportunity to analyze and comment on the positive and negative aspects of the organizational culture. Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a model of change management conceived by Cooperrider and Srivastva in the Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western University in the 1980s. According to Cooperrider and Whitney (2005: 15), AI is ‘a narrative-based process of positive change … a cycle of activity that starts by engaging all members of an organization or community in a broad set of interviews and deep dialogue about strengths, resources, and capabilities. It then moves people through a series of activities focused on envisioning bold possibilities and lifting up the most life-centric dreams for the future’. Four key phases involve all key stakeholders: Discover (identify system strengths and best practices); Dream (create a ‘results-oriented’ vision) (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005: 16); Design (create propositions of the ideal organization that can realize the vision); and Destiny (strengthen the ‘affi rmative capacity’ of the system) (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005: 16). AI, instead of focusing on seeking out and solving problems, concentrates on the ‘positive core’ of organizational life, i.e. noteworthy aspects such as achievements, product strengths, technical assets, breakthrough innovations, best business practices and visions of possibility; it then facilitates communication about the positive core so stakeholders can share best practices and, ultimately, expand the positive core (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005: 9). The practice of shared governance promotes peace by decreasing the probability for conflict because communication lines across all sectors of the organization are open and functioning. When members of an organization are routinely kept informed of the latest developments and directly involved in the decision-making process, they can contribute to solving both problems common to the majority and those unique to a minority. Scenario-based learning and learner delivery of course content

Scenario-based learning and learner delivery of course content are instructional approaches within the TLLT pedagogical model (Leaver & Campbell, 2020). Scenario-based learning, where learners individually and in groups engage in problem-solving about real-world issues in the context of a scenario, is being practiced more and more in the language learning field. In 1981, Di Pietro explored scenario-based learning when he expanded dialogue-based ESL role plays to an ‘open-ended scenario’ where participants were challenged to respond to the often unexpected

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(Di Pietro, 1981: 233). Spinelli and Nerenz (2004) asserted that scenarios fit well into a content-based curriculum. Dababneh (2017) presented five features of scenario-based syllabus design: • • • • •

curricular framework versus a textbook, gradual progression in quantity and level of difficulty of material, coherent transitions across daily sub-themes and weekly units, positive tension and recycling of lexicon and structures. (Dababneh, 2017: 51)

It is important to clarify here that the reference to a ‘curricular framework versus a textbook’ pertains to learners at Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR, 2018) levels 1+ and above; a textbook is generally used with learners at levels 0+ through 1 because all learners should be exposed to the same content corpus, i.e. the building blocks of language learning focused on language features such as lexicon and structure. At levels 1+ and above, the teacher uses Open Architecture curricular design to create flexible weekly and daily lesson plans according to a thematically based syllabus which relies on authentic materials. The teacher takes on the role of advisor, mentor and partner, negotiating aspects of the syllabus and lesson plans with the learners, a collaborative effort about which Nunan (1988, 1997a, 1997b, 2006a, 2006b) has written extensively. Learner delivery of course content is an instructional approach that fosters collaboration between teacher and learners, specifically at ILR levels 1+ and above, on the design, development and execution of the curriculum through projects, presentations, tutoring, contracted learning and learner-fronted teaching. For example, at levels 1+/2, where the themebased syllabus focuses on current events, the learner identifies a current event of interest to him/her and prepares a lesson plan about it, working closely with the teacher to ensure the lesson plan has an objective(s), an observable learning outcome, etc. The learner then delivers the course content to the class. The lesson plan can be short at the lower levels of proficiency, e.g. five to ten minutes at level 1+, and can gradually build up to 60 minutes at the higher levels. Importantly, learner participation in the shaping of the language program should not impinge on the responsibility of teachers to ensure the continued, rapid, accurate and comprehensive development of language skills and cultural knowledge in real-life contexts, where authentic materials are the core of the curriculum. The practice of scenario-based learning and learner delivery of course content promote peace because the basis is collaboration across parties, with negotiation as the primary communication tool. The individual learner who participates comes to understand that the observable learning outcome(s) are the result of the work of a group who construct knowledge together, i.e. that teamwork can lead to a richer learning experience and that experience is the culmination of the dynamic interplay of the parties, some of whom may have overcome misunderstandings that are typical of

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all human communication in order to ultimately become part of a community of practice and understanding. In examining the various approaches described above to promote peace in the work environment (whether a leadership model, a change management model, mechanisms to promote shared governance or instructional strategies), themes emerge. Three are noteworthy. First, genuine, observable respect for all individuals in an organizational culture is the basis of a positive work environment. Second, deliberate, systematic communication of developments in an organizational culture to all its members enhances understanding and therefore minimizes the possibility of confl ict. Third, collaboration can lead to greater learning outcomes. May reflection on and application of the approaches described here promote peace among language learning professionals. Conclusion

The FSI, NASA and the DLIFLC have very different instructional goals. They enroll quite different learners. They have extraordinarily different missions, ranging from representation to supporting war efforts. Yet, they are bound together by the very nature of language learning done well. Where individuals acquire high levels of proficiency in the language, they most often cross the boundary from one culture to another, develop a bicultural (or multicultural) personality and deeply transform. Whether a diplomat, an astronaut or a soldier, graduates of a US government language program will likely say that their language study was the most significant undertaking of their lifetime and that it changed them forever. The authors of this chapter would argue that language study has changed them in many positive ways, one of which is that it has predisposed them to peace. References ACTFL (American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages) (2012) ACTFL Profi ciency Guidelines: Speaking, Writing, Listening, and Reading. Fairfax, VA: Author. Block, P. (2013) Stewardship: Choosing Service over Self Interest (2nd edn). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Block, P. (2017) The Empowered Manager: Positive Political Skills at Work (2nd edn). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. BILC (Bureau for International Language Co-ordination) (2018) NATO Standardization Agreements. See www.natobilc.org/en/products/bilc-subjects/language-testing/; NATO StandardizationAgreements. Bourdieu, P. (1991) Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chan-o-cha, P. (2018) นายกร ฐั มนตร ี ตรวจเย ย ี ่ มการขยายคลองชลประทาน ท่ายาง [The Prime Minister visits the Extension of the Tha Yang Irrigation Canal]. YouTube, 23 August. See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqi9FmLA3lE (accessed August 2018). Cooperrider, D. and Whitney, D. (2005) Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Revolution in Change. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

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Council of Europe (2018) Common European Framework for Reference for Languages. See www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. Cranton, P. (2016) Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide to Theory and Practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus. Dababneh, R. (2017) The practice of scenario-based learning at the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center. Connections 9, 49–61. Di Pietro, R. (1981) Discourse and real-life roles in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 1, 227–237. Greenleaf, R. (1970) The servant as leader. Essay later published in Greenleaf, R. (1977) Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. See www.paulistpress.com/Pages/centerright/our_books. aspx. ILR (Interagency Language Roundtable) (2018) ILR Rating Scale. See www.govtilr.org/ Skills/ILRscale2.htm. John, V.M. (2017) Transforming power and transformative learning in peace educator development. Journal of Social Sciences 37 (1), 87–91. King, Jr., M.L. (1991) Letter from Birmingham City Jail (1963). In J.M. Washington (ed.) A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches. New York: HarperOne. Leaver, B.L. and Bilstein, P.M. (2000) Content, language and task in content-based programs. In M.R. Kecht and K. von Hammerstein (eds) Languages across the Curriculum: Interdisciplinary Structures and Internationalized Education (pp. 79–118). Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. Leaver, B.L. and Campbell, C. (2020) The shifting paradigm in Russian language pedagogy from communicative language teaching to transformative language learning and teaching. In E. Dengub, I. Dubinina and J. Merrill (eds) The Art of Teaching Russian. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Leaver, B.L. and Willis, J. (2005) Task-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: Practices and Programs. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Leckman, J.R., Panter-Brick, C. and Salah, R. (2014) Peace is a lifelong process: The importance of partnerships. In J.R. Leckman, C. Panter-Brick and R. Salah (eds) Pathways to Peace: The Transformative Power of Children and Families (pp. 3–18). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lee, J. and Bernhardt, J. (2016) Email exchanges. Washington, DC. McFaul, M. (2018) From Cold War to Hot Peace: An American Ambassador in Putin’s Russia. New York: Houghton Miffl in Harcourt. Nichols, J. (2011) Teachers as Servant Leaders. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Nunan, D. (1988) The Learner-Centered Curriculum: A Study in Second Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (1997a) Designing and adapting materials to encourage learner autonomy. In P. Benson and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning (pp. 192–203). London: Longman. Nunan, D. (1997b) Does learner strategy training make a difference? Lenguas Modernas 24, 123–142. Nunan, D. (2006a) Go for it! Energizing your classes: A learner-centered approach. See www.davidnunan.com. Nunan, D. (2006b) Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olson, G. (2009) Exactly what is ‘shared governance’? Chronicle for Higher Education, 23 July. See www.chronicle.com/article/Exactly-What-Is-Shared/47065. Piller, I. (2016) Linguistic Diversity and Social Justice: An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shakespeare, W. (1995) Henry V, act 5, scene 2, lines 105–06. In B.A. Mowat and P. Westine (eds) Folger Shakespeare Library (p. 221). New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.

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Spears, L.C. (1998) Introduction. In R.K. Greenleaf (ed.) The Power of ServantLeadership (pp. 1–16). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Kochler Publishers. Spinelli, E. and Nerenz, A. (2004) Learning scenarios: The new foreign language curriculum. CLEAR News: Newsletter for the Center for Language Education and Research at Michigan State University 8 (1), 1–3, 6. Stryker, S. and Leaver, B.L. (1997) Content-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: Models and Methods. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Ter-Minasova, S. (2011) Язык. Культура. Регион (Language, Culture, Region). Lecture by M.V. Lomonosov at Moscow State University. YouTube, 28 October. See www. youtube.com/watch?v=uhehxBdcKpU (accessed September 2018). US Department of State (2018) Website information. See www.state.gov/r/iip/ (accessed 23 September 2018). Yunus, M. (2006) Nobel Lecture presented in Oslo, Norway. Nobel Media AB, 10 December. See www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2006/yunus/26090-muhammadyunus-nobel-lecture-2006-2/ (accessed November 2018). Yunus, M. (2012) A history of microfi nance. TedXVienna, 18 January. See www.youtube. com/watch?v=6UCuWxWiMaQ&t=326s (accessed August 2018).

9 International Faculty and International Students in Universities: Their Roles in Fostering Peace across Languages and Cultures Michael Wei and Yalun Zhou

Harmony is the most precious. A Chinese Proverb

The number of international students attending universities in the United States and other developed Western countries has increased dramatically in recent years. According to the Fall 2018 International Student Enrollment Hot Topics Survey (Institute of International Education, IIE hereafter), more than 1 million international students enrolled in US higher education in the 2017–2018 academic year. Among them, nearly 70% are Asian with over half a million from China and India. To maintain a steady increase of international student enrollments, many US institutions have continued institutional recruitment efforts focusing on Asia with prioritized efforts on China (Baer, 2018). With the international education student mobility trends, the majority of the international student population in American higher education will inevitably come from collectivist cultures that have hugely contrasting communication styles compared to those of the host institutions, which reflect individualist cultures. Meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign-born international faculty teach in American classrooms and are challenged by legal and academic issues (Herget, 2016; Kim et al., 2012). When international students and faculty raised in collectivist cultures interact with the individualist American society, both verbal and nonverbal communication conflicts may arise. Such conflicts between collectivist 146

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and individualist cultures are the major causes of intercultural communication misunderstandings or violence. Actively working on the knowledge and skills of intercultural communication can enhance communication between collectivist and individualist cultures. The viable option of peace language and peacebuilding skills leads to effective intercultural communication (Oxford, 2013). This chapter draws on data obtained from lived experiences and critical incidents of international faculty and international students in a middle-sized, midwestern university in the United States. We discuss the roles that international faculty and international students can play on campus and recommend practices and pedagogy in fostering peace across languages and cultures. Intercultural Competence: The Key to Peacebuilding in Cross-cultural Communication

Confl ict across cultures on American higher education campuses can significantly affect the motivation and academic achievement of international students. In this regard, intercultural competence is the most essential element in enhancing communication between collectivist and individualist cultures. According to Byram (1997, 2018), intercultural communication involves relationships between two groups of people and cultures. It is focused on establishing and maintaining relationships. Intercultural communication competence demonstrates a person’s ability to interact with people from different cultural or social groups. While highly respecting both one’s own and one’s interlocutor’s cultural identities in cross-cultural communication, Byram (1997) proposes a model of intercultural communicative competence comprising linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and intercultural components. For Byram, ideal intercultural communication competence contains five elements: (1) attitudes toward one’s own culture and willingness to discover and/or challenge other perspectives regarding the interpretation of familiar and unfamiliar phenomena both in one’s own and in other cultures and cultural practices; (2) knowledge about and of one’s own and the interlocutor’s historical relationships, types and evolution of misunderstanding between the two cultures, national identities, etc.; (3) skills of interpreting a document or event from another culture and explaining it and relating it to those from one’s own culture; (4) skills of discovering new knowledge of a culture and cultural practice and interacting with people of another culture with limited knowledge and skills in constrained situations; and (5) critical cultural awareness and ability to evaluate one’s own and other cultures and negotiate where necessary.

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Similarly, Oxford (2013) suggests a four-part model of intercultural competence which includes four ‘gold’ ideas to enhance intercultural communication between different cultural groups. These ideas include: (1) (2) (3) (4)

a fundamental attitude, development and use of cultural knowledge, development and use of broad cultural skills, and development and use of appropriate intercultural communicative behavior.

According to Oxford, the fundamental attitude regarding intercultural competency consists of respect, openness, inquisitiveness, tolerance of ambiguity, expectation of complexity and maintenance of personal integrity. To foster peace across language and culture, people from varied cultures need to learn cultural knowledge of the other group in terms of communication styles (e.g. indirect, implicit meanings of collectivist cultures versus linear, logical and rational individualist cultures), values (e.g. harmony, interdependence and fi lial piety of collectivist cultures), selfinterpretation, and facework practices for maintaining honor. In addition to having the aforementioned cultural knowledge for intercultural communication and peacebuilding, skills such as mindfulness, higher-order thinking, metacognition, cognitive flexibility, cultural adaptability and intercultural empathy are crucially important to form and develop skills in intercultural communication. Equipped with the intercultural communication knowledge and skills, peaceful intercultural competence calls for the development and use of appropriate intercultural communication behaviors in practice. Such behaviors include rapport, conversational empathy across cultures and collaborative dialogue. On top of gaining cultural knowledge and cultural skills to enhance intercultural competence, having intercultural sensitivity is the prerequisite to develop intercultural competence and pursue the construction of a peaceful environment. According to Arslan et al. (2015), intercultural sensitivity prevents negative emotions (e.g. prejudice, anxiety and lack of confidence) toward different cultural perspectives. Promoting peace education is an effective way to stimulate intercultural sensitivity among university students so that the students are peace oriented, reconciliatory and understanding of intercultural dynamics. People with intercultural sensitivity possess the characteristics of self-esteem, self-monitoring, openmindedness, empathy, interaction involvement and suspension of judgment (Chen & Starosta, 1997). Furthermore, based on our long-term intercultural communication experiences, from the perspectives of peacebuilding across languages and cultures, cultural adaptability and intercultural empathy are crucially important in developing intercultural competence. As Oxford (2013) points out, cognitive flexibility and cultural adaptability are needed for communicators from individualist cultures to recognize the presence of a

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very different cultural perspective, and often, in the case of US international education, such a different perspective comes from collectivist international students and faculty. Developing cultural adaptability, which is the ability to adjust to different communication situations across languages and cultures, fosters intercultural empathy among communicators from both collectivist and individualist cultures. Whether in conflict resolution or peacebuilding, the communicators have affective responses that arise from apprehending and understanding another’s emotional state across cultures and from experiencing what others are feeling. In addition to the aforementioned knowledge and skills needed to develop intercultural competence, for international students, intercultural competence can be effectively cultivated by pursuing a multicultural strategy of interaction (Brown, 2009). This strategy can be explicitly taught as demonstrated in the next section. Teaching, Intercultural Communication and Peacebuilding

The pervasive nature of education through all segments of humanity, regardless of class, race, gender, religion and region, has ‘tremendous potential to accelerate the peace prospects followed by minimizing the conflict and violence’ (Agnihotri, 2017: 913). The peacebuilding process is embedded in the context of educational communication and practices that are culturally constructed and produced. The process is also intertwined with intercultural communication practices that affect the dimensions of personal, structural and relational transformation (Broome & Collier, 2012). One theoretical root of peace education is international education (Harris, 2004), which stresses diversity, tolerance, sharing, collaborating and awareness of stereotypes (Opotow et  al., 2005). In the context of internationalization, language and culture are mostly related to the English language and associated sociolinguistic issues faced by international students (Crichton & Scariono, 2007). In this sense, second language (L2) learners and users, often coming from many diverse countries and backgrounds, are the primary clients of international education. They have the potential to serve as ‘cultural mediators’ who carry the power to improve global relations (Brown, 2009: 209). Teachers are peacebuilders, aiming to build a sustainable peaceful future (Galtung, 1976), and have ‘a critical role to play in promoting, organizing, and practicing peace education in classrooms’ (Sun, 2017: 14). Teachers are also agents in peacebuilding by promoting harmony among different groups and using pedagogy and curricula to address inequity and conflict (Horner et al., 2015). Specifically, language teachers can build a culture of peace in their classrooms and make a significant contribution to the transformation of conflicts and violence that stem from stereotypes and hierarchy. Toward this goal, Adunyarittigun (2017) discovered that using dialogue and critical literacy pedagogy can optimize

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cultural learning and engage students in a cooperative and supportive learning environment. Some useful approaches that cultivate dialogue among learners include: (a) asking critical questions about the text they are reading, such as ‘Does the author have any bias? Do you have any bias, reactions and attitudes toward the text? and What would be an alternative for presenting the problem? What action can you take …?’; (b) viewing and investigating an issue from multiple viewpoints; and (c) focusing on sociopolitical issues by connecting literacy lessons to the lives of students and helping them connect to their community and to their world. Besides learning language and culture, learners can engage in discovering how language, power, sociopolitical systems and issues are interrelated. For Adunyarittigun (2017), critical literacy that aims to empower learners to be conscious of their own experience and to interpret the experiences of others in cultural contexts is an effective means to resolve conflicts in a peaceful manner and prepare students to listen to multiple voices, exchange ideas, raise critical questions and be conscious of social problems and social injustice. When designing an internationalized intercultural curriculum, teachers consider not only what content, skills and tasks to include but also how to integrate these skills and content so that students can reflect on language and cultural awareness (Crichton & Scariono, 2007). Gill (2016) proposes a pedagogy for intercultural classrooms. To teach all students how to approach and engage with otherness, Gill makes the following recommendations: (1) a designated space for open dialogue during lectures, seminars and research investigations as well as informal contexts to ensure positive encounters with ideas of otherness; (2) genuine encounters that facilitate attentiveness to otherness and encourage interlocutors to be prepared to engage in ideas of otherness and to address one’s own prejudice; (3) mutual learning, which includes both the students’ and the teachers’ self-knowledge; (4) sharing of biographical stories, both the students’ and the teachers’, which create a shared mission for meaning-making and transcend physical and conceptual space and plan for future intentional action; (5) dialogue that forms groups and communities for all kinds of social and civic engagement. (Gill, 2016: 496–497) Other teachers (e.g. Buck, 2016; Krol & Cordeiro, 2018) apply culturally responsive peace education approaches to teach conflict resolution. These pedagogical approaches include: (a) diminishing the possibility of intercultural confl ict by creating cooperative groupings, (b) creating a peace station in their L2 classroom for student reflection and introspection, (c) incorporating conflict analysis in curricula with a focus on peaceful approaches, (d) meeting each individual student in his or her own

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cultural and emotional space and (e) adopting project-based learning modes for diverse learners. To successfully implement culturally responsive peace education pedagogy, teachers need to develop cultural competence that attains a deep understanding of their students’ home communities and background. This cultural competence requires teachers to have the capacity to assess and interpret socio-economic, racial and gendered experiences of culture and power in relation to his/her students. In universities, academic units that largely interact with multilingual students, such as student affairs offices, can contribute to the promotion of campus peace culture by paying attention to student needs and strategically handling conflicts between ‘compliance and avoidance’ (Bernardo & Baranovich, 2012: 78). Biases, such as stereotypes, prejudices and negative feelings toward international students on campus, affect US domestic students’ willingness to participate in peacebuilding workshops, according to Broome and Collier (2012). Broome and Collier further suggest that nonjudgmental, intercultural dialogue offers a promise for peacebuilding efforts and helps promote new, mutually agreed upon understanding of issues arising in the process of intercultural communication. They believe such dialogue demonstrates peacebuilding efforts to improve understanding, enhance communication and build a viable relationship, providing the foundation for collaborative problem solving and action. Echoing Broome and Collier, Concannon and Finley (2015) also advocate utilizing dialogue and narratives as one of the most effective means to engage students and faculty in peace and social justice education on campus. Such dialogue provides a space where faculty (a) reflect on pedagogies and practices; (b) seek support or help; and (c) identify new opportunities for collaborative activism and to engage students in what they are learning. Such dialogue needs to be a genuine encounter where ‘dialogue partners are treated as equally critical and reciprocally engaged participants in an unfolding inquiry … and dialogue partners engage as co-inquirers’; thus, the dialogic encounter is ‘not limited to the strangeness of the other, but also extends to unfamiliar aspects of oneself’ (Gill, 2016: 497). To move toward inclusive, long-term peacebuilding, Broome and Collier (2012: 260–265) outlined seven strategies: (1) Avoid the tendency to essentialize culture in peacebuilding that predicts and explains culture as singular (e.g. comparing US culture to Japanese culture). (2) Recognize cultural multivocality and intersectionality in peacebuilding; move beyond offering overly simple predictions for national or ethnic group conduct. (3) Critically examine historical legacies and ideologies in peacebuilding; look beyond and beneath communicative texts or variables to uncover the assumption that guides their work.

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(4) Acknowledge power relations and privilege in peacebuilding. (5) Examine agency and voice in peacebuilding; publicize voices that are silent and excluded. (6) Advocate for long-term engagement in peacebuilding projects. (7) Engage in reflexive dialogue; interrogate one’s own ideological positioning and taken-for-granted assumptions. All of these pedagogical strategies toward peacebuilding exemplify the importance of intercultural communication on internationalized higher education campuses. In the transformative process of peacebuilding, teachers are reflexive professionals who deliver teaching that is relevant, effective, efficient and culturally responsive. Teachers are also transformative agents, reflective practitioners, agents of healing, agents of peace (modeling interpersonal relationships) and agents of resistance to inequity (Horner et al., 2015). With regard to intercultural communication on increasingly diverse campuses, Luo and Jamieson-Drake (2013) assert that American domestic students benefit from interacting with international students in the following ways: • • • • • • • • • •

gaining new cultural perspectives, developing empathy, becoming more competent in intercultural communication, positively affecting families’ and friends’ attitudes toward international students, increased awareness of language use, encountering perspectives sharply different from their own, more open and willing to challenge their own beliefs, greater intercultural awareness, tolerance and acceptance of others, increased interest in international economic, political and crosscultural issues, and higher commitment to peace and international cooperation.

Admittedly, not all international faculty and students are aware of differences in intercultural communication because some also see culture as monolithic. American domestic students, on the one hand, are confronted by the frustrations of communicating with monolithic international faculty and students. On the other hand, they could influence or involve the international faculty and students who lack intercultural communication knowledge and skills in order to help them become part of the diversity dialogues. Intercultural Communication Conflicts: Critical Incidents

Tripp (1993) defi nes a critical incident as an interpretation of an event where people attach significance to the meaning of the event. Critical

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incidents could be ‘highly charged moments and episodes that have enormous consequences for personal change and development’ (Sikes et al., 1985: 230). Tripp (1993) further states that the original concept of a critical incident is an event that marks a significant turning point or change in an individual or an institute. The vast majority are not so obvious, however; they may occur in a routine professional practice process that appears to be ‘indicative of underlying trends, motives and structures’ (Tripp, 1993: 25). Specifically in a teaching and learning context, GabryśBarker (2012: 199) thinks critical incidents are ‘the significant events … occurring during class periods’ and contributing to the teachers ‘acquiring a critical attitude towards beliefs held about what is and what is not effective in the teaching/learning process’. Critical incidents are usually unplanned, unanticipated and uncontrolled (Farrell, 2007; Woods, 1993), whereas critical events are deliberately planned, implemented and controlled classroom practices (Gabryś-Barker, 2012). ‘The dramatizing of the [critical] incident elevates teacher–pupil interaction to a new level, and ensures that it is imbued with new meaning on a permanent basis’ (Woods, 1993: 357). Teachers and teacher educators need to turn critical incidents into critical events in classroom practice. Gabryś-Barker (2012: 113) insightfully points out that critical incidents ‘constitute a powerful vehicle for teachers to move from a state of unconsciousness to a state of consciousness by reacting to critical incidents (CIs) and transforming them into controlled critical events (CEs)’. In this section we introduce two critical incidents that happened in a middle-sized midwestern university in the United States and explain how they were resolved, one peacefully and the other not peacefully at all. The first critical incident occurred in a multicultural classroom and the second in an academic administrative office. This is a public university with more than 14,000 students, of whom 800 were international students from 70 countries at the time of the incidents. Chinese and Saudi Arabian students were the largest international student groups on campus. Additionally, the university provides degrees in ten academic disciplines: arts and sciences, biological sciences, business and public administration, music and dance, dentistry, education, computing and engineering, law, nursing and pharmacy. The administrative offices that supervise international students are the International Student Affairs Office (ISAO), the School of Graduate Studies and the respective academic unit. Incident 1: A multicultural classroom

Anna (pseudonym) is an international student from Saudi Arabia pursuing a master’s degree in education. She enrolled in an educational psychology course with an American female professor. One day, Anna’s major advisor, Professor Z, who is an international faculty member, received an email from the professor of the educational psychology course.

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The professor said that Anna cheated on her academic paper. The professor claimed that, instead of synthesizing literature, Anna copied some information directly from the internet. The professor decided to give Anna a failing grade because Anna plagiarized. Anna was very angry with the professor’s decision and wrote a strong email to the professor to express her anger. According to Anna, she did not think she plagiarized. What she did was to follow what she did back in Saudi Arabia, and her citation was acceptable in her native country. When Professor Z heard both the American professor’s accusation and Anna’s perception of these issues, he scheduled a meeting with Anna. In the meeting Professor Z, on the one hand, explained the cultural differences in plagiarism in academic writing and pointed out resources from which Anna could learn about citation and academic writing conventions in English. On the other hand, he encouraged Anna to schedule a meeting with the American professor and negotiate for a better solution. Professor Z helped Anna identify intercultural negotiation strategies as follows: (a) carefully explain Anna’s position and acknowledge the American professor’s position; (b) admit lack of knowledge about English academic writing conventions and citation skills; and (c) fi nd a mutually acceptable compromise. Professor Z encouraged Anna to explore other cultures’ understanding of plagiarism and to prepare a proposal that both Anna and the American professor might accept. Anna followed Professor Z’s advice to schedule a meeting with the professor of educational psychology. During the meeting, Anna sincerely apologized and acknowledged the importance of following English academic writing conventions. She then requested an opportunity to resubmit the paper. Seeing Anna’s reflective thinking and eagerness to learn academic cultural conventions, the professor agreed to give Anna a chance to resubmit the paper. The peaceful resolution of this intercultural confl ict resulted from Professor Z’s intervention and both the American professor’s and Anna’s compromise when encountering intercultural communication confl icts. Without Professor Z’s help, Anna might have ended up with an F for the course, and the American professor might have sustained a bad impression of Anna. The win-win situation resulted from all three parties’ effort and collaboration. Incident 2: A conflict between international students and international student office staff

The second critical intercultural conflict occurred between the international students and the International Student Affairs Office (ISAO). As in other American universities, the ISAO at this midwestern university is an administrative unit designated to issue immigration-related documents and monitor immigration status rather than for continued academic

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advice and support for international students who struggle with learning in their non-native language. The office holds an annual cultural fair and takes care of new international student orientation. The cause of conflict between the international students and the ISAO was a fee collection from the office. Per a federal regulation, each international student needed to pay an additional $100 in addition to the preliminary fees the international students had paid to the federal international student management system. Without any forewarning or explanation as to why this fee was being collected and that it was a mandatory fee from the government, all the international students received a cold mass email from the ISAO, simply stating that the students were being billed $100. This email was a shocking and unpleasant surprise among the international students. They wondered why there was such a mandatory fee and asked the office about it by email and via in-person office visits. Unfortunately, the office refused to explain with any details and just insisted that it was a federal law to pay this fee. As some students told the second author of this chapter, The quality of service did not match what we paid already. Now they increased fees with the as-is fi nal decision in a mass email. I think they [ISAO] should at least have a Town Hall meeting, telling international students [about] the increase of administrative fees as a result of federal law. (Personal conversation) My roommate immediately decided to cut off his program of studies and transfer to another school. Nowadays everyone has friends in other institutes. They can compare how much service they received and how much they pay for. It’d be better to have a proper procedure for such administrative procedures. (Personal conversation)

This intercultural communication confl ict resulted from the ISAO staff members’ unwillingness to inform students in advance and share the rationale behind unilateral decision making. The ‘we-they’ disposition toward international students imposed a white privilege. For the staff, the international students were viewed as the Other: you should do this; you should do that; if you don’t, the consequence will be XYZ. Such gatekeeping practice is counterproductive for intercultural communication (Zhou, 2010). It may also drive the international students away from the institution. Ultimately, such avoidable conflicts can result in the host institute losing revenue, which will be another institute’s gain. Conflict and Peaceful Resolution: Lessons Learned

‘Peacebuilding is … a transformative process that seeks to establish sustainable peace’ (Horner et al., 2015: 10). In the context of international education and internationalized campuses, faculty, staff and students benefit from exposures to linguistically and culturally diverse campus

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communities that differ from their own (Crichton & Scariono, 2007). Due to the inevitable educational background and intercultural communication divide, intercultural communication clashes and increased Otherness are perpetuated (Gill, 2016). Conflicts and violence inside or outside of the classroom can have a negative impact on the quality of learning. In this chapter we shared two critical incidents of intercultural communication that happened in a public, midwestern university between international students and faculty and staff at this institute. The resolution of one incident was successful for the participants, while the resolution of the other incident was not positive. Based on analyzing the cause of the critical incidents and the process of peacemaking and conflict resolution, lessons for the involved cultural groups follow. First, international students as English language learners should aim at acquiring not only communicative competence but also communicative peace. Communicative peace stresses the link between attitude, language and behavior. TESOL professionals need to incorporate peace education in their curricula, making learners aware of the language, power and linguistic inequity when language is manipulated. Students should also be taught that unequal power relations can be changed to create cultures of peace through the strategic use of language and communication (Kruger, 2012; McInnis, 1998). In addition, L2 learners should be taught help-seeking awareness. Language teachers can design some scenarios for the students to learn intercultural negotiation. Such negotiation activities or case analyses should aim to prepare L2 learners to deal with the learning crisis caused by intercultural misunderstanding. Second, other than language skills and communicative competence, L2 international students need to learn strategies of intercultural communication in order to resolve conflicts that are related to racism, unjust treatment, prejudice and misunderstanding. L2 learners should be taught the Language of Peace proposed by Oxford (2013), especially intercultural sensitivity and adaptivity. Anna’s willingness to adapt to American academic English writing culture and the educational psychology professor’s intercultural empathy to international students are examples of peacemaking when conflict arises. Anna was fortunate to have an international faculty member who guided her to actively seek negotiation with the American professor. If such help is not always available, L2 international students should be taught cross-cultural negotiation skills (Harvard Law School, n.d.). L2 international students need to learn how to (a) cope with culture clashes, (b) prepare for possible cultural barriers, (c) be aware of ethical stereotypes and (d) consider approaches for conflict resolution. Third, international faculty, who are increasingly present in US higher education institutions and who have different cultural, educational and language backgrounds, are an important aspect of the peace culture of American universities. If untrained or unaware, they can also be a cause of conflict. Their presence and importance are likely to increase over time,

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particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (Herget, 2016). While there is scant research on international faculty’s experience and how they contribute (or not) to the institution (Kim et al., 2012), international faculty can develop their own way of successfully serving as role models of communicative peacemaking in US academia. As advanced English language users and intercultural communicators themselves, they can model the essential qualities of a peacemaker (Kruger, 2012) in American higher education. American institutions should maximize international faculty members’ contribution to peacebuilding across languages and cultures. For example, higher education institutions can invite international faculty to be workshop facilitators, talk about peaceful and non-violent behavior, and provide the campus community with lived experiences and examples to address problem-solving skills in intercultural communication and peacemaking. Fourth, the critical tension and unsuccessful peacemaking between the international students and the international office staff members necessitate professional development on intercultural competence for peacebuilding for faculty and staff. According to Smith and Paracka (2018), faculty and staff who wish to build sustainable peace should possess traits such as self-awareness, open-mindedness, empathy and intercultural intelligence, and they should possess skills in identifying and addressing peace-inhibiting factors involving power, privilege, stereotypes and subconscious biases. If staff members serving international students do not have professional development in intercultural communication and do not avoid internalizing an Othering attitude toward international students, the biases may pervade the attitudes of other faculty members. To some faculty and staff in higher education institutions, the burden is on international students to adapt rather than on the institution’s representatives. Fifth, universities need campus-wide programs that involve both international and domestic students and faculty. An example program is Identity Dialogues, proposed by Spitzman and Waugh (2018). According to these authors, identity dialogues that pair international students and domestic students as conversation partners allow the participants to examine their own cultural histories and analyze stereotypes with guided protocols, then create actionable steps for fostering intercultural competence in their communities. A systematic, progressive dialogue program covering the topics discussed in the fourth point above will facilitate mutual understanding between international students and faculty and American faculty and staff. The universal character of confl ict resolution in keeping peace has evolved to fit into educational fields with an emphasis on equity and fairness (Bekerman & Zembylas, 2014). International students and international faculty can model how L2 learners and users defend themselves in a peaceful manner. As L2 learners and users, international students’ and faculty members’ negotiations through two cultures serve as lived

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examples and reminders to domestic students, faculty and staff to be open-minded and flexible in cross-culture communication. Their successful or unsuccessful cross-cultural negotiation and peacemaking outcomes should raise awareness among the domestic culture group of the additional communicative work that needs to be done. Professional development workshops can facilitate discussions and group dialogues between international students and international faculty (i.e. the collectivist cultures group) and the host institute (i.e. the individualist cultures group) for peacebuilding. Topics could be ‘issues of coexistence of marginalized groups and interdependence’ or ‘stances of the oppositions’ (Adunyarittigun, 2017: 253–254). American host institutions can take advantage of the presence of international students and international faculty, involving them in holding peace education workshops. Research (e.g. Arslan et  al., 2015) demonstrates that peace education helps increase intercultural sensitivity, interaction engagement and interaction attentiveness levels. Last but not least, those involved in institutes of higher education in the United States should be cognizant that ‘understanding is languagebound … Language further conditions human experience and shapes whole inheritances of learning’ (Gill, 2016: 496). Learning and understanding the Language of Peace proposed by Oxford (2013) helps us to understand the sources of intercultural communication conflicts and to foster peace across languages and cultures. Eventually, people equipped with intercultural competence from both the collectivist cultures and the individualist cultures may embrace each other, enjoy the encountering, listen to the others, question, fuse horizons, reciprocate and engage in languages in the context of intercultural and interreligious education (Gill, 2016). In this regard, TESOL professionals and TESOL teacher trainers are intercultural communication experts who are important in peacebuilding across countries and across cultures. What they teach and how well they teach have a direct impact on their students, who will need to be competent or incompetent cross-culture communicators and peacebuilders in the future. TESOL teachers can teach language skills, attitudes and values that will foster peace strategies. Adding social consciousness dimensions to communicative tasks (Kruger, 2012) will raise cross-cultural communication awareness, enhance intercultural competence and help resolve intercultural communication conflicts. TESOL teacher programs and doctoral programs should train pre-service and in-service teachers’ pedagogical approaches that develop their learners with conscious and critical minds. Conclusion

Peace education research is at the crossroads of peace, education and research. ‘The crises in peace, education, peace education, and research

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could be amplified if peace education researchers are not reflexive and mindful’ (Cremin, 2015: 12). In this chapter we offered a transformative inquiry that Toews and Zehr (2003) called for; that is, instead of teaching knowledge about peace, we shared the critical incident inquiry and explored possible conflict resolution suggestions that aimed at social action to foster peace across languages and cultures on the American campus. The cultural dimension of diversity in international education is related to raising awareness and promoting values of cultural diversity and equity to linguistic minority groups (Crichton & Scariono, 2007). International students and international faculty can play an important role on campus in fostering peace education and dialogue through demonstrating how to settle disputes and negotiation via non-violent means across languages and cultures. Ultimately, people from different cultures cultivate a culture of peace on campus and leave no space for ‘taking-forgranted’ ideologies and ‘we-they’ standpoints in intercultural communication. Gill’s (2016: 497) pedagogy of encounter can enable us to develop a sense of ‘we-ness’ in a harmonious world. In the process of peacebuilding and peacemaking, international students are both learners and makers of intercultural communication. International faculty as advanced L2 users are role models and facilitators of peaceful intercultural communication and conflict resolution. Since the major direction of student trends in international education is from non-English speaking countries to English speaking countries, TESOL educators and professionals are at the forefront of promoting peace across languages and cultures. They have huge contributions to make and opportunities to have an impact by engaging students and coworkers for a sustainable peaceful community, locally and globally (Kruger, 2012).

References Adunyarittigun, D. (2017) Building a culture of peace through critical literacy with the net generation. PASAA 54, 235–260. Agnihotri, S. (2017) Critical reflection on the role of education as a catalyst of peacebuilding and peaceful coexistence. Universal Journal of Educational Research 5 (6), 911–917. Arslan, Y., Guncavdi, G. and Polat, S. (2015) The impact of peace education programme at university on university students’ intercultural sensitivity. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 174, 2301–2307. Baer, J. (2018) Fall 2018 International Student Enrollment Hot Topics Survey. See www. iie.org/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors/Data/Fall-International-EnrollmentsSnapshot-Reports (accessed April 2019). Bekerman, Z. and Zembylas, M. (2014) Some reflections on the links between teacher education and peace education: Interrogating the ontology of normative epistemological premises. Teaching and Teacher Education 41, 52–59. Bernardo, M. and Baranovich, D.L. (2012) Higher education in the heart of armed confl ict: The pivotal role of student aff airs. International Journal of Educational Development 35, 78–85.

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Broome, B.J. and Collier, M. (2012) Culture, communication, and peacebuilding: A reflective multi-dimensional contextual framework. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 5 (4), 245–269. Brown, L. (2009) International education: A force for peace and cross-cultural understanding? Journal for Peace Education 6 (2), 209–224. Buck, B. (2016) Culturally responsive peace education: A case study at one urban K-8 catholic school. Journal of Catholic Education 20 (1), 32–55. Byram, M. (1997) Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2018) Intercultural communicative competence with Michael Byram. We Teach Languages 73. See https://weteachlang.com/2018/10/05/ep-73-with-michael-byram/. Chen, G.-M. and Starosta, W. (1997) A review of the concept of intercultural sensitivity. Human Communication 1 (1), 1–16. Concannon, K. and Finley, L. (eds) (2015) Peace and Social Justice Education on Campus: Faculty and Student Perspectives. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. Cremin, H. (2015) Peace education research in the twenty-fi rst century: Three concepts facing crisis or opportunity? Journal of Peace Education 13, 1–17. Crichton, J. and Scariono, A. (2007) How are we to understand the ‘intercultural dimension’? An examination of the intercultural dimension of internationalisation of higher education in Australia. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 30 (1), 04.01–04.21. Farrell, S.C. (2007) Refl ective Language Teaching. London: Continuum. Gabryś-Barker, D. (2012) Refl ectivity in Pre-service Teacher Education: A Survey of Theory and Practice. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Slaskiego. Galtung, J. (1976) Three approaches to peace: Peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding. Impact of Science on Society 1/2, 282–304. Gill, S. (2016) Universities as spaces for engaging the other: A pedagogy of encounter for intercultural and interreligious education. International Review of Education 62, 483–500. Harris, I.M. (2004) Peace education theory. Journal of Peace Education 1 (1), 5–20. Harvard Law School (n.d.) International Negotiations: Cross-cultural Communication Skills for International Business Executives. See www.pon.harvard.edu/freemium/ international-negotiations-cross-cultural-communication-skills-for-internationalbusiness-executives/ (accessed April 2019). Herget, A. (2016) Foreign-born faculty face challenge. HigherEdJobs, 18 August. See www.higheredjobs.com/articles/articleDisplay.cfm?ID=1012 (accessed April 2019). Horner, L., Kadiwal, L., Sayed, Y., Barrett, A., Durrani, N. and Novelli, M. (2015) Literature Review: The Role of Teachers in Peacebuilding. Amsterdam: Research Consortium on Education and Peacebuilding. IIE (2018) Fall 2018 International Student Enrollment Hot Topics Survey. See www.iie. org/en/Research-and-Insights/Publications/Fall-2018-International-Student-Enroll ment-Hot-Topics-Survey. Kim, D., Twombly, S. and Wolf-Wendel, L. (2012) International faculty in American universities: Experiences of academic life, productivity, and career mobility. New Directions for Institutional Research 155, 27–46. Krol, M. and Cordeiro, K. (2018) Culturally responsive peace education: A probative approach to confl ict resolution. Paper presented at the New York State TESOL Conference, Albany, NY, 2–3 November. Kruger, F. (2012) The role of TESOL in educating for peace. Journal of Peace Education 9 (1), 17–30. Luo, J. and Jamieson-Drake, D. (2013) Examining the educational benefits of interacting with international students. Journal of International Students 3 (2), 85–101. McInnis, C. (1998) Academics and professional administrators in Australian universities: Dissolving boundaries and new tensions. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 20 (2), 161–173.

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Opotow, S., Gerson, J. and Woodside, S. (2005) From moral exclusion to moral inclusion: Theory for teaching peace. Theory into Practice 44 (4), 303–318. Oxford, R. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Sikes, P., Measor, L. and Woods, P. (1985) Teacher Careers: Crises and Continuities. London: Falmer Press. Smith, S. and Paracka, D. (2018) Global learning is shared learning: Interdisciplinary intercultural competence at a comprehensive regional university. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 63, 17–26. Spitzman, E. and Waugh, M. (2018) Structured and critical intercultural programming: Faculty and staff collaborate to put research into action. Journal of International Students 8 (3), 1337–1345. Sun, L. (2017) When literacy gets critical. Language Magazine, 17 November. See www. languagemagazine.com/2017/11/19/literacy-gets-critical/ (accessed April 2019). Toews, B. and Zehr, H. (2003) Ways of knowing for a restorative worldview. In E.  Weitekamp and H. Kerner (eds) Restorative Justice in Context: International Practice and Directions (pp. 257–271). Collompton: Willan. Tripp, D. (1993) Critical Incidents in Teaching: Developing Professional Judgement. London: Routledge. Woods, P. (1993) Critical events in education. British Journal of Sociology of Education 14 (4), 355–371. Zhou, Y. (2010) The lived experiences of L2 Chinese graduate students in American higher education: A phenomenological narrative inquiry. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Kansas City.

10 Promoting Peace through Social Justice Pedagogies for Students from Immigrant Muslim Communities: Using Critical Language Awareness in Second Language Classrooms Laura Mahalingappa, Terri L. Rodriguez and Nihat Polat

The hope of a secure and livable world lies with disciplined nonconformists who are dedicated to justice, peace and brotherhood. Martin Luther King, Jr

When we educators think about the concept of peace in education, we may often consider it to be a positive, calm classroom atmosphere where there is little or easily managed conflict. However, as Dr Martin Luther King, Jr stated in Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958, 2010: 27): ‘True peace is not merely the absence of tension; it is the presence of justice’. In this sense, as educators who strive for peace in society at large, in our schools and among and within our students, the responsibility is ours to promote justice in our classrooms. In this chapter we suggest using social justice pedagogies as a way to promote peace and justice in second language classrooms for students from communities experiencing marginalization in the current sociopolitical context. We focus here on the experiences of Muslim English learners (ELs) in US schools who

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are learning language and academic content against a backdrop of xenophobic, anti-immigrant and Islamophobic rhetoric. In most US schools, supporting ELs means helping them acquire standard English so that they may be able to succeed academically and acculturate effectively into American life. What is often missing, however, is explicit and consistent attention to the critical positioning of language and discourses present in the schools and communities in which these students learn. The second language classroom in particular can provide a positive, empowering context for these students to forge affirming complex identities through engagement with culturally relevant curriculum and instruction – one that incorporates a critical focus. In other words, we propose an explicit focus in the classroom on a broader understanding of the discourses that move around and through language, how these discourses carry and create power and how such power relations and positioning relate specifically to Muslim ELs’ identity and development. The current post-9/11 sociopolitical context in the United States is one steeped in Islamophobia, which is defi ned as ‘an exaggerated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims that is perpetuated by negative stereotypes resulting in bias, discrimination, and the marginalization and exclusion of Muslims from social, political, and civic life’ (Gallup World, 2016). In this context, it is essential that educators understand how negative information about Islam and Muslims in society can lead to conflict in schools and impact Muslim youths psychologically, socially, culturally, emotionally and academically. In the United States, for instance, negative stereotypes of Muslims abound in the media (see Kincheloe et al., 2010), in messages that follow students into their daily lives and ultimately into the educational environment. Many Muslim students have experienced macroaggressions and bullying – both physical and verbal – in school, stemming from discrimination and religious intolerance (Mahalingappa et al., 2017). In addition to this social conflict faced by Muslim students, there is the inner conflict Muslim ELs may experience as they try to acculturate into larger American social life. In US public schools, for example, Christian students and families experience little dissonance between home and school cultures. Muslim students and families, on the other hand, may fi nd themselves in conflict with school procedures, practices and discourses. At a time when most youth are in the midst of emotional and physical change, Muslim youth are at particular risk for identity threat in which their self-view is challenged (Sherman et al., 2013), and they may feel rejection and discrimination leading to a decreased sense of belonging, self-efficacy and overall well-being (Rousseau et al., 2011). Critical language and literacy scholars, K-12 educators and teacher educators can use meaningful educational experiences to help promote social justice and peace in classrooms by helping youth expand their intellectual lives and relationships and experience a sense of agency and empowerment

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for their futures (D.D. Hassett, M.L. Gomez & G. Ivey, personal communication, 17 May 2017). In this chapter we aim to engage educators in considering the question, ‘How might educators design instructional approaches utilizing social justice pedagogies to promote peace by improving experiences and outcomes for all students, but especially for Muslim ELs, in a post-9/11 world?’ Specifically, we advance key concepts and peace activities (Oxford, 2017) for framing a socially just and culturally relevant approach to language and literacy instruction supporting Muslim ELs in US schools using critical approaches to language and literacy education. We use Critical Language Awareness (CLA) as a framework and offer suggestions for incorporating critical literacy narratives, critical media literacy (CML) and counter-storytelling activities into second language classrooms. In the following sections, we first discuss the relationship between peace and social justice in education using the lens of critical pedagogies. Then, we introduce the CLA framework. Finally, we present the three pedagogical tools within this framework that educators can use in class. Peace and Social Justice Pedagogies

Peace and social justice pedagogies both work toward harmonious conflict resolutions around issues of access and equity. Dr Martin Luther King, Jr posited that ‘Peace is harmony attained working productively with conflicting perspectives’ (as cited in Oxford, 2013: 3). The quest to achieve peace is thus an effort to achieve harmony on many levels. These include: inner peace, which is within a person; interpersonal peace, which is peace with people whom one knows; and intergroup peace, which is peace among groups in society such as those based on race, religion, gender and class, among others (Oxford, 2013; see Chapter 1 in this volume for the multidimensional peace model). One of the barriers to peace is the presence of violence, which Galtung (1969: 168) defi ned as ‘when human beings are being influenced so that their actual somatic and mental realizations are below their potential realizations’. Thus, much conflict in the world may stem from the struggle to realize the achievement of one’s needs, interests, identity, values and actions or practices, which may be counter to those of others. The achievement of peace relies, therefore, on individuals’ ability to manage these types of conflicts in ‘nondestructive ways’ (Oxford, 2014: 5). If peace is to be achieved, then we need to consider methods to promote the ability of individuals and groups to realize ways in which they can resolve both internal and external conflicts in positive ways. In order to achieve inner peace, the goal is to promote one’s psychological well-being and emotional self-regulation – ‘when we conceptualize our place in a larger reality’ (Oxford, 2017: 128). The attainment of interpersonal and intergroup peace requires the promotion of dialogue and conflict resolution strategies that foster empathy between people and result in the absence of violence. The absence of violence is not only concerned with direct violence, which is more easily identified, but also with structural

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(indirect) violence, which is violence that has been built into the system and that manifests in asymmetrical power distribution and consequently unequal life chances (Galtung, 1964, 1969). Structural violence is present when there is social injustice, oppression and discrimination. Within the concept of structural violence also occurs linguistic violence, which Kruger (2012: 19) refers to as ‘any language-related act that violates’ basic human needs of ‘survival, well-being, identity, and freedom …’. In order for there to be what Oxford (2014: 5) considers ‘positive peace’, there must be human rights and just social structures with the absence of inequity, repression and exploitation (Oxford, 2013: 16). Peace education and the second language classroom

The achievement of positive peace requires the promotion of social justice, which includes each individual’s equal access to education, information and the ability to question those in power (Oxford, 2017). Achieving equality in education first requires an examination of education as a political process which is situated in historical and social contexts with particular hierarchies and power relationships (Freire, 1970, 2009). Education as an institution is either meant to or may result in the maintenance of inequities – thus there must be a disruption of the status quo, where students are empowered through access to information and given a venue to develop their voices. This process may, in fact, cause conflict and disruption in the current system but, in the end, is essential in order to attain social justice for all. Peacebuilding can be promoted through education by incorporating social justice pedagogies into the curriculum or everyday classroom culture. Our vision of social justice pedagogy is informed by critical multicultural education (Grant & Sleeter, 2006), culturally relevant teaching (Ladson-Billings, 2005, 2006) and equity literacy (Gorski, 2014; Gorski & Swalwell, 2015; Swalwell, 2013). Although distinct, these approaches are complementary. Taken together, they offer insights into socially just teachers’ ways of ‘doing’ and ‘being’ (Ladson-Billings, 2006: 41). First, Grant and Sleeter (2006) focus on instructional practices and how they are informed by different approaches toward multicultural education. One approach, multicultural and social justice education, is primarily concerned with preparing ‘students to be citizens able to actualize the social justice ideology that is the cornerstone of democracy’ (Grant & Sleeter, 2006: 259). Such pedagogy examines multiple forms of oppression as they intersect and is rooted in the ‘belief that schools in a democracy can and should prepare citizens to work collectively and actively on problems facing society’ (Grant & Sleeter, 2006: 258). The emphasis on social action is central, although the pathway to this goal also includes critical questioning, practicing democracy and analyzing systems of oppression. Ladson-Billings (2006) suggests that how teachers think about social contexts, students, curriculum and instruction is central to culturally

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relevant teaching. Although culturally relevant teachers may practice a wide range of methods and instructional strategies, they hold several characteristics in common. The fi rst is a focus on academic achievement, or student learning. The second is cultural competence. Culturally competent teachers help students ‘recognize and honor their own cultural beliefs and practices while acquiring access to the wider culture’ (LadsonBillings, 2006: 36). Finally, culturally relevant teachers are socially and politically conscious. They educate themselves about social and political issues within the school and the wider community that affect their students’ lives and then incorporate these into their teaching. Equity literacy, as proposed by Gorski and Swalwell (Gorski, 2014; Gorski & Swalwell, 2015; Swalwell, 2013), complements these two approaches because it synthesizes the goals of multicultural education and culturally relevant teaching while going ‘beyond’ culture to more directly address equity. According to Gorski and Swalwell (2015: 36), a central tenet of equity literacy is that ‘any meaningful approach to diversity or multiculturalism relies more on teachers’ understandings of equity and inequity and of justice and injustice than on their understanding of this or that culture’. Further, in line with Grant and Sleeter (2006), Swalwell (2013) asserts that social justice pedagogy relies on three essential elements: exposing students to multiple perspectives that include the voices of marginalized peoples; a democratic classroom structure that values student voice; and opportunities to participate in project-based learning and community-based social action that addresses issues of injustice. In addition to these elements which highlight how to ‘do’ social justice pedagogy, Swalwell (2013: 108) describes the identity of the ‘activist ally’ teacher as one ‘intent upon facilitating the development of justice-oriented citizens with a deep understanding of systemic injustices, a sense of agency that is empowered and critically self-reflective and the ability to mobilize their resources in order to act in concert with others’. In line with a pedagogical approach that focuses on social justice and thus peace, some peace scholars have made the case that the second language classroom is uniquely positioned to enact peace education and discussion which encourages the reduction of structural violence and the elimination of linguistic violence (Kruger, 2012; Morgan & Vandrick, 2009; Oxford, 2017). Oxford (2017: 125) stated that, ‘Peace is created through communication, and communication is the métier of L2 teacher educators and L2 teachers’. Thus, interaction in second language classrooms for all students, but especially marginalized ELs, should aim to be democratic and dialogical (Gay, 1998, referenced in Kruger, 2012). Since the role of the second language classroom is to promote communicative development in culturally relevant ways, with the understanding that learners bring with them a fi rst language and culture through which they learned to understand the world, instructors and students have been prepared with the ability to understand conflicts from multiple perspectives.

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In order to promote peace, second language classrooms must incorporate the development of students’ self-awareness, critical thinking, independent judgment and ability to negotiate meaning, along with communicative development (Kruger, 2012: 23). These goals can be achieved with the inclusion of various communicative activities such as guided discussions, role-plays, games, group work and problem-solving activities. In addition, approaches that incorporate critical analysis, synthesis and evaluation could include research projects, media-analysis and literature critiques (Kruger, 2012; Morgan & Vandrick, 2009). Critical Approaches to Language and Education

Since social justice in the classroom requires students’ access to education and information, students need to navigate the language demands of the classroom by acquiring the ability to use the dominant language of institutions (school, government, etc.); the dominant language in the United States is so-called standard academic English. A critical approach to language and literacy development, however, assumes that language, as a system of communication, is never neutral, but rather is a system of grammatical rules and symbols which is heavily laden with social meaning and firmly embedded in the sociopolitical context: ‘Language is thus theorized as a linguistic system, but also as a social practice in which experiences are organized and identities negotiated’ (Norton, 2008: 1). Thus, as ELs acquire English, they are in fact learning not only grammar, but also about how social relations are organized, which ‘may reflect and constitute inequitable relations of power in the wider society, on terms that may be defi ned’ by social categories such as race, class, ethnicity and religion (Norton, 2008: 1). As such, language is composed of images and symbols that can be both positive and negative; words can contribute to conflict by reflecting stereotypes and biases and promoting hatred and the dehumanization of others, or they can promote peace by created understanding (Morgan & Vandrick, 2009; Oxford, 2017). Among other critical approaches to language in education, CLA enables and requires students to consider the ways in which ‘invested power relations and ideological processes’ are contained in conventional language use and are often used unconsciously (Fairclough, 1992, 2014: 7). Under this assumption, the language and texts that are used in classrooms carry with them ideologies and identities that represent dominant groups, often to the detriment of students from marginalized communities. As noted by Alim (2005: 28), ‘education institutions are designed to teach citizens about the current sociolinguistic order of things, without challenging that order, which is based largely on the ideology of the dominating group and their desire to maintain social control’. Fairclough (1992, 2014: 9) considered CLA ‘a prerequisite for effective citizenship and democratic entitlement’ so students can have ‘the resources

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to take control of their own learning and change the inequities they face’ (Case et al., 2005: 377). As such, CLA should be used to help students question and respond to the texts they see throughout their schooling experiences to achieve their own objectives: educational, linguistic, cultural, social or political. According to Case et al. (2005: 377): ‘Fairclough offered CLA as an instructional approach aimed at helping students to read a text critically, uncover the ways in which ideologies in a text marginalize some groups while sustaining the power of others and, ultimately, fi nd opportunities in their own lives to change these inequities’. Previous research has used CLA to increase students’ and teachers’ awareness of sociolinguistic, political and social issues. Some research has focused on the benefits to students in terms of positive academic achievement (Sweetland, 2006), improved attitudes about diversity (Mehl & Pendlebury, 1991), knowledge about language variation (Henderson, 2016; Reaser, 2006) and ability to engage in critical analysis of text (Huang, 2015). A number of studies in recent years have addressed using critical literacy approaches to increase teachers’ engagement with social justice pedagogies and equitable practice. Such research has found that a CLA approach has helped pre-service teachers to critically examine text for dominant discourses (linguistic, racial, religious, gendered) and become more positive toward diversity (Godley et al., 2015; Janks, 1999; Wetzel & Rogers, 2015), while also acknowledging its limitations. We draw on CLA as a framework to apply critical approaches to the language education of Muslim ELs. Since language is ‘a practice that constructs, and is constructed by, the ways learners understand themselves, their social surroundings, their histories, and their possibilities for the future’ (Norton & Toohey, 2004: 1), it is important that all students understand how their language use reflects and constructs their own identities. ELs from marginalized communities in particular should have an awareness of their own language resources and how the dominant language they are learning is positioned and reflects, or does not reflect, their own identities. As Nieto (2010: 46) asserts, language shapes the very ‘misconceptions, untruths, and stereotypes that lead to structural inequality and discrimination’. Fostering students’ agency through critical literacy instruction is imperative. In the next section, we discuss how various instructional activities – critical literacy narratives, CML and counterstorytelling – can be applied within a CLA framework as parallel and complementary pieces of an overall social justice curricular approach necessary to the education of ELs. Critical Language Awareness Activities in the Classroom

The CLA framework entwines critical language and literacy activities that include consideration of sociopolitical contexts, students’ identities and culturally relevant pedagogy in both ESL and mainstream classrooms

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where second language learning happens. Fairclough (2001: 200) suggested four key practices in the implementation of CLA activities: reflection, systemizing, explanation and developing practice. In this section, we provide examples of how activities stemming from critical literacy narratives, CML and counter-storytelling can be used in CLA practices and can reinforce each other in their promotion of a critical awareness of language and literacy. A list of activity examples and their objectives within this framework is presented in Table 10.1. First, in second language or contentarea classrooms, teachers can ask Muslim ELs to reflect on language use by thinking critically about their own language use and identities through critical literacy narratives. Then, teachers can help their students systemize and explain their positioning in the larger discourses that surround them through CML activities. Finally, both teachers and students can develop practice by incorporating counter-storytelling activities which allow students to directly articulate their lives to others and enact and enhance their sense of agency and empowerment. Reflection: Critical literacy narratives

As part of a CLA approach, critical literacy narratives promote our awareness of our own language use and what language, literacy and discourses mean to us, because without understanding our own experiences, cultures and frames of reference, we cannot see how biases (ours and others’) are positioned in society or how they inform and/or are informed by our teaching and learning. For both K-12 students and pre-service teachers, critical literacy narrative assignments can be an essential tool in constructing agentive identities, acknowledging the interconnectedness of the intellectual, social, emotional and moral aspects of people’s lives, and offering ways to explore the multiplicity and complexity of social identities of a learner/teacher (Rodriguez & Cho, 2011). Critical literacy narratives transform the self, in part ‘because they give meaning to narrators’ lives and position them in particular relations with others while telling their stories’ (Rodriguez & Cho, 2011: 2). For pre-service teachers, research affirms that critical literacy narrative assignments in teacher education courses can provide ‘opportunities to juxtapose personal narratives with broader social contexts in ways that allow for the cultivation of social justice orientations’ (Rodriguez et al., 2017: 206). Critical literacy narratives can take the form of many different classroom activities, such as written autobiographic essays, letters (paper or electronic), class discussions (face-to-face or online), interviews or videos, among other modes. Critical literacy narratives can encourage ELs in particular to explore their language use from a critical perspective, one that allows them to understand and question their language use and acquisition. For instance, students can consider what their first languages mean to them and what role they wish these languages to play in their future lives, which is a

Social Justice Pedagogy; Critical Media Literacy; Counter-Storytelling Social Justice Pedagogy; Counter-Storytelling

Goal/objective • students prepare to be citizens/civically engaged; • students engage in social action. • • • • • students engage in critical questioning; • students analyze multiple forms of oppression; • students critically analyze and reimagine texts and artifacts from varying perspectives. • students are exposed to multiple perspectives that include the voices of marginalized peoples; • students are exposed to stories of people of varying backgrounds. • students’ voices are heard in class; • students and educators appreciate unique experiences and responses of students of color and English learners through deliberate, conscious and open listening. • students consider language variation and ways in which invested power relations and ideological processes are contained in conventional language use. • students critically analyze, question and respond to texts they see throughout their schooling experiences, uncovering ideologies. • students understand how their language use reflects and constructs their own identities and find opportunities in their own lives to change inequities.

Table 10.1 Activities using critical frameworks

Activity example

Students participate in campaigns, public education or activism projects through websites like DoSomething.org.

Teachers create lessons for students centered on current events, like those offered through the Anti-Defamation League’s Current Events Classroom, which offer students choices of the next steps to take action.

Students examine films and other resources related to the economic situations of particular countries through websites like the Global Oneness Project.

Students create documentaries that tell important stories in the name of social justice through resources like the Educational Video Center.

Teachers create a culture of student voice in their classroom through the selection and implementation of strategies like those offered by Edutopia.

Critical analysis of language used in the community and in texts, e.g. media-analysis (newspapers, television, film, Twitter); literature critiques.

Guided discussions; problem-solving activities; research projects; critical reading of texts.

Written autobiographic essays; letters (paper or electronic); class discussions (face-to-face or online); interviews or videos.

students engage in critical questioning; students analyze multiple forms of oppression; teachers engage in critical self-reflection; students are exposed to multiple perspectives that include the voices of marginalized peoples.

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Critical Literacy Narrative; Critical Language Awareness

Critical Language Awareness; Critical Media Literacy

Critical Language Awareness; Critical Media Literacy

Social Justice Pedagogy; Counter-Storytelling

Social Justice Pedagogy; Counter-Storytelling

Social Justice Pedagogy

Framework

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consideration that does not often arise in second language classrooms. Another part of a narrative could examine what learning a second language entails from a sociocultural perspective. This perspective could prompt ELs to contemplate their acquisition of a second language beyond the more practical aspects of success in academic life (passing a proficiency test, getting good grades or going to college), attainment of a solid future (getting a good job) or integrating into society (‘becoming American’). Rather, ELs would have the chance to reflect on what learning English really means, positioning their second language identities within a broader political and historic context. By considering topics such as what it means to be bilingual in the United States, what they may be giving up or adding (second language self) with their acquisition of English, how their fi rst language identity is perceived in the current context, and who they have been (self) and who they wish to be (ideal-self), all through a language lens, ELs have the opportunity to truly reflect on their lived and to-be-lived realities. For Muslim ELs in particular, critical literacy narratives let students explore their language and identity in the current context, which is rife with Islamophobic discourses and attitudes. Teachers, both pre-service and in-service, could also reflect upon their beliefs about language and linguistic diversity (Rodriguez & Polat, 2012), how their language learning experiences affect their own practices and how their identities and ideologies influence their perceptions of Muslim students. Systemizing and explanation: Critical media literacy

The second and third practices of CLA, systemizing and explanation, refer to the ways in which students can analyze the language and discourse they are studying in a systematic way so that they may explore how social meanings and ideologies can be hidden within them (Case et al., 2005; Fairclough, 2001). At this stage, CML can be an integral part of the education of Muslim ELs. Due to the current highly charged atmosphere, where almost daily xenophobic and Islamophobic rhetoric is expressed in multiple modes (i.e. mainstream news, billboards, social media, politicians, etc.), a critical analysis of text seen in media is essential to help Muslim students in general understand the overt messages these texts express. This practice also traces the ideologies behind the production of the texts and what kind of social work they are trying to achieve. Especially for Muslim ELs, some of whom may have recently arrived in the United States, it is important to be able to examine these texts so that they can deconstruct and challenge them for their own empowerment. CML, like CLA, is an instructional approach which is not new but is perhaps not widely embraced in school systems. It fosters students’ abilities to deconstruct and reconstruct how ideologies operate and to understand how power and information are always linked (Kellner & Share, 2007). CML involves the analysis of media, or ‘textual images (both print

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and nonprint)’ as well as the study of audiences and the mapping of subject positions (Alvermann & Hagood, 2000: 194). CML necessarily expands notions of text beyond print and includes critical analyses of traditional media (e.g. newspaper, television, radio, fi lm) and emerging communication technologies (e.g. blogs, Twitter, Snapchat). Within a CML approach, there is an important emphasis on alternative media production because the audience is perceived as actively engaged in the production of meaning. As Alvermann and Hagood (2000: 194) remind us, CML moves beyond simply ‘viewing’ or ‘critical visual literacy’ because audiences of media messages are not passive. In other words, CML recognizes that media audiences engage in a cultural struggle between dominant readings, oppositional readings or negotiated readings (Kellner & Share, 2007). Further, a CML approach in the classroom recognizes the influence of popular culture and mass media; thus, it is important for teachers to neither valorize nor critique students’ seamless ability to blend popular cultural literacies and their out-of-school lives with the school-based literacies educators are imposing upon them. We, like Alvermann and Hagood (2000: 194), are interested in the ‘pedagogical implications of helping students experience the pleasures of popular culture while simultaneously uncovering the codes and practices that work to silence or disempower them as readers, viewers, and learners in general’. CML-based activities would be particularly useful in any classroom with second language learners, especially recently arrived immigrants, since they would give them the opportunity to understand better the second language culture into which they are trying to acculturate. By incorporating a critical lens, ELs would be able to examine what they see, hear and participate in from their cross-cultural perspectives and have those perspectives validated in the school context. As suggested by Morgan and Vandrick (2009: 515), ‘The newcomer’s or outsider’s eyes and ears are alert to power in ways no longer available to habituated, domesticated insiders’, and second language learners already have the experience of viewing the world from multiple perspectives such that they ‘can see how representations and concepts change (often invisibly) with different languages and uses of language’. By directly analyzing texts in the wider discourse, as portrayed through the media, Muslim ELs can examine and have a platform to expose language that is in fact socially charged and unobjective but that may seem neutral or commonplace, and can condition ‘our indifference to poverty, systemic racism, homophobia, sexism, and religious intolerance in all spheres of public life’ (Morgan & Vandrick, 2009: 514). In the current post-9/11 context, the dominant discourse is certainly structured around anti-Muslim or Islamophobic discourse, from our politicians down to our local communities (Mahalingappa et  al., 2017). There is also a growing counter to these discourses, which a CML approach can examine and give Muslim ELs language to frame responses to negative rhetoric.

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Students and teachers can also use a CML lens to examine common texts used in schools, such as course readings, multimedia, classroom discussions, school policies, social discourse and teacher discourse, among others. They can better identify the ideologies behind the words and recognize that every text, no matter how ‘factual’, has an author who chose what to say and how to say it, and that author is also situated in a broader social context which advantages some and disadvantages others. This will show that all pedagogical activities, to varying degrees, are ideological, and some are structured in specific ways to maintain the status quo (Bakhtin, 2004). This exercise allows teachers to ensure that the texts that they are using in classrooms do not bias one culture or viewpoint over another. It also allows students to see that not only can they critique discourses in media in the ‘real world’, but they also can apply those same methods of critique to their educational environment. Developing practice: Counter-storytelling

Finally, developing practice in CLA is using the knowledge about language that students developed from reflecting, systemizing and explaining, and applying it to their own setting: the school and classroom. We suggest counter-storytelling as a tool for educators to use in the classroom which encourages Muslim students to reclaim the discourse surrounding their own identities: ‘By their very nature, ESL classrooms are productive settings for the telling of stories that counter official ones’ (Morgan & Vandrick, 2009: 511). Counter-storytelling is ‘a method of telling the stories of those people whose experiences are not often told’ and ‘a tool for exposing, analyzing, and challenging the majoritarian stories of racial privilege’ (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002: 32). As proposed by Wong and Grant (2014: 37): ‘Counter-storytelling can serve as a pedagogical tool by allowing multicultural educators to better understand and appreciate the unique experiences and responses of students of color and English learners through deliberate, conscious, and open listening’. By first using CML as a way to inform their ideas about discourse as situated within the language in the world, Muslim ELs are better able to understand how discourses in the wider social and specific school contexts may affect them, positively and negatively. Without the opportunity to understand and challenge these discourses, Muslim ELs may be at a disadvantage in their own identity, language and academic development, since by and large the social context of school may advantage those who can fluently use standard academic English and who are Christian. In both second language and content-area classes, Muslim ELs can have multiple opportunities to use counter-storytelling by drawing on their lived experiences and presenting perspectives on a variety of topics. They can apply varying perspectives on history, politics, science, art and literature which confront the centrality of Euro-centric, Christian culture and

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‘strengthen traditions of social, political, and cultural survival and resistance’ (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002: 32). Through this framework, Muslim ELs can use language and discourse as tools for their own educational and social empowerment. Conclusion

A current focus in education is to consider how our instructional practices ‘… speak to and of emotions such as fear and anxiety, which are regularly scapegoated onto the most marginalized individuals rather than attributed to their economic and social causes’ (AERA, 2018). Our work speaks to the ways in which K-12 educators and other community leaders can support Muslim students and families who have increasingly become ‘scapegoats’ within current sociopolitical contexts of Islamophobia. As Mark Gonzalez, author of the children’s book Yo Soy Muslim (2017: x), reminds us, ‘We are all learning what it means to be human’. Social justice educators take seriously the imperative to create and foster a better and more compassionate sense of this shared humanity. By expanding on current critical approaches, we use CLA to frame an overall approach to enacting social justice pedagogies in second language classrooms with Muslim students. This framework can create a commitment to advocacy, equity and achievement for all students, but especially for those from marginalized groups – a major prerequisite in the achievement of social justice leading to action against structural violence. By employing these social justice pedagogies, we can promote peace for Muslim students – inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace. We acknowledge that students may be new to the particular methods we have suggested, such as critical literacy narratives, and may be reticent about participating, especially if students have not engaged in such critical analysis or self-reflections in the past. However, through careful scaffolding, and by asking students to think critically about their own identities, their positioning in the larger discourses that surround them and how to articulate their lives to others, we encourage Muslim ELs to embrace the opportunities, resources, connections and relationships that will support them as they resist Islamophobia and reimagine their language and literacy development. References AERA (American Educational Research Association) (2018) 2019 Annual Meeting Theme. See http://www.aera.net/Events-Meetings/Annual-Meeting/2019-AnnualMeeting-Theme (accessed October 2018). Alim, H.S. (2005) Critical language awareness in the United States: Revisiting issues and revising pedagogies in a resegregated society. Educational Researcher 34 (7), 24–31. Alvermann, D.E. and Hagood, M.C. (2000) Critical media literacy: Research, theory and practice in ‘New Times’. Journal of Educational Research 93 (3), 193–205.

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Morgan, B. and Vandrick, S. (2009) Imagining a peace curriculum: What second-language education brings to the table. Peace & Change 34 (4), 510–532. Nieto, S. (2010) Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives. New York: Routledge. Norton, B. (2008) Identity, language learning, and critical pedagogies. In J. Cenoz and N.H. Hornberger (eds) Encyclopedia of Language and Education (2nd edn) (pp. 1–13). Boston, MA: Springer. Norton, B. and Toohey, K. (2004) Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2014) Using this book to discover peace cultures. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) Understanding Peace Cultures (pp. 3–12). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2017) Peace through understanding: Peace activities as innovations in language teacher education. In T.S. Gregersen and P.D. MacIntyre (eds) Innovative Practices in Language Teacher Education (pp. 125–163). Dordrecht: Springer. Reaser, J. (2006) The effect of dialect awareness on adolescent knowledge and attitudes. Doctoral dissertation, Duke University. Rodriguez, T.L. and Cho, H.S. (2011) Eliciting critical literacy narratives of bi/multilingual teacher candidates across US teacher education contexts. Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (3), 496–504. Rodriguez, T.L. and Polat, N. (2012) Politicizing difference: Interpreting citizenship as a dimension of diversity in pre-service teachers’ narratives. Linguistics and Education 23, 361–372. Rodriguez, T.L., Bohn-Gettler, C.M., Israelson, M.H., O’Brien, M.A. and Thoma, L.B. (2017) Telling our stories: Navigating social justice-oriented teaching on the ground. In H. Hallman (ed.) Innovations in English Language Arts Teacher Education (pp. 203–223). Castle Hill, NSW: Emerald Press. Rousseau, C., Hassan, G., Moreau, N. and Thombs, B.D. (2011) Perceived discrimination and its association with psychological distress among newly arrived immigrants before and after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health 101, 909–916. Sherman, D.K., Hartson, K.A., Binning, K.R., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., TaborskyBarba, S., Tomassetti, S., Nussbaum, A.D. and Cohen, G.L. (2013) Deflecting the trajectory and changing the narrative: How self-affi rmation affects academic performance and motivation under identity threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 104 (4), 591–618. Solórzano, D.G. and Yosso, T.J. (2002) Critical race methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical framework for education research. Qualitative Inquiry 8 (1), 23–44. Swalwell, K.M. (2013) Educating Activist Allies: Social Justice Pedagogy with the Suburban and Urban Elite. New York: Routledge. Sweetland, J. (2006) Teaching writing in the African American classroom: A sociolinguistic approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University. Wetzel, M.M. and Rogers, R. (2015) Constructing racial literacy through critical language awareness: A case study of a beginning literacy teacher. Linguistics and Education 32, 27–40. Wong, S.D. and Grant, R.A. (2014) Womanist and critical race theory for peacemaking in multilingual, multicultural classrooms. In R.L. Oxford (ed.) Understanding Peace Cultures (pp. 29–52). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Section IV Applying Peacebuilding through Positive Psychology, Peace Linguistics and Peace Language 11 Acting Locally to Integrate Positive Psychology and Peace: Practical Applications for Language Teaching and Learning Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

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12 From Hate Speech to Empathy: Lessons for Language Educators and Society Rebecca L. Oxford

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13 Applying Peace Linguistics: What Peacebuilders Can Learn from the Languages of Hurt, Hate and Harm Andy Curtis and Rebecca L. Oxford

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14 Exploring Peace Language: Hope, Help and Harmony Rebecca L. Oxford and Andy Curtis

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11 Acting Locally to Integrate Positive Psychology and Peace: Practical Applications for Language Teaching and Learning Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre

While you are proclaiming peace with your lips, be careful to have it even more fully in your heart. Francis of Assisi

Viewing peace through a positive psychology lens transforms the pivotal question from ‘What prevents peace?’ to ‘What invites peace?’ We frequently imagine peace as the absence of conflict, aggression and inequality, but not necessarily as a dynamically emerging phenomenon of a sociocultural context which embraces the principles and actions that make peace possible. This chapter explores the potential for language educators and their learners to collaborate in the creation of the conditions by which individuals, communities, cultures and nations can experience enduring peace. We propose that hopeful, positive motivations and practices are critical to the solution, offering ways to transform how individuals and communities of language teachers and learners work cooperatively from inside their classrooms, their borders and beyond to propagate cultures of peace. We begin this chapter by venerating the words of two inspiring peacebuilders who capture the tenor we would like to set for our fusion of language learning, teaching, peace and human well-being. Nelson Mandela and Malala Yousafzai, both Nobel Peace Prize winners, not only embody passionate dedication to reconciliation and liberty but also embrace the importance of language learning and education. For Mandela, knowing another language was a means of connecting with others, especially his prison guards: ‘If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes 179

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to his heart’ (Garimendi, 1996: vi). For Malala, education was the means through which peace could be achieved: ‘If you want to end the war then instead of sending guns, send books. Instead of sending tanks, send pens. Instead of sending soldiers, send teachers’ (Falk, 2013: 1). Peace and wellbeing seem inextricably linked to language and education. Nowhere is the link between peace, language and education more eloquently addressed than in peace psychology and positive psychology. While the two disciplines have worked independently toward defi ning their respective fields, coordination could be an advantage because the combination of peace psychology and positive psychology potentially ‘… represent[s] a powerful force for building better societies’ (Cairns & Lewis, 2003: 143). However, researchers in positive psychology and positive peace have been developing parallel but most often separate approaches to defi ning the fields in which they operate. In both areas, researchers had been unsatisfied with conceptualizations of their disciplines based on ‘absence of …’ or deficit defi nitions. Just as peace is not simply the absence of confl ict and violence, psychological health is not simply the absence of mental illness. Deficit-oriented definitions can be set aside in favor of exploring ways to represent the positive nature of a phenomenon without necessarily viewing it as the opposite of dysfunction. To this end, positive peace researchers have sought to focus on how to actively build peace and social justice rather than concentrating only on how to prevent or eliminate violence (Gibson, 2011). Similarly, positive psychologists moved away from psychology’s familiar focus on human disorders and mental illness (What’s gone wrong?) to instead balance the research agenda with studies on how humans can live more fulfi lling lives (What goes right?) (Peterson, 2006; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Peace psychology and positive psychology share similar large-scale goals yet have developed rather independently from each other, with a relationship, where it exists, best described as complex (Cohrs et al., 2013). The purpose of the present chapter is to consider the gains made in both disciplines and apply them to enhancing peacebuilding in a specific domain: the teaching of English as an additional language. Language teachers, particularly those of English, often cross borders during their careers and are in some measure agents of international harmony as they interact with learners who will in turn cross linguistic and cultural boundaries. Teachers’ influence on learners – including migrants, sojourners and refugees – can be profound at times of vulnerability and/ or transition in learners’ lives. Hence, language teachers can affect their students’ adaptation and adjustment to new communities. We begin this chapter by clarifying how the addition of positive to the terms psychology and peace transforms each of the concepts. Next, we explore the intersection of peace and positive psychology. The discussion then turns to the practicalities and opportunities of the language teaching context, where we adopt a distinctly local approach in presenting three studies we have

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conducted which, we argue, represent viable, specific and practical ways of integrating positive psychology tenets into language learning and teaching. We conclude by outlining detailed activity instructions for interventions found in the three studies with specific adaptations for bringing together TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) classroom activities which simultaneously tap into both positive psychology and positive peace. What is Positive Peace?

Rather than asking questions such as ‘How do we eliminate conflict, violence and aggression?’, positive peace asks instead, ‘What do we need for peace to flourish?’ According to Davies-Vengoechea (2003: 11), ‘If peacemakers simply target violence, then they may remain oblivious to the real issues of peace’. Over 50 years ago Galtung (1969) contrasted negative peace as the absence of violence and positive peace as the presence of social justice. In outlining the field of peace psychology, Christie et al. (2001) said that: (p)eace psychology seeks to develop theories and practices aimed at the prevention and mitigation of direct and structural violence. Framed positively, peace psychology promotes the nonviolent management of conflict and the pursuit of social justice, what we refer to as peacemaking and peacebuilding, respectively. (Christie et al., 2001: 7, emphasis added)

The authors suggested that, on the one hand, peacekeeping activities tend to be reactionary, seeking to reduce and/or prevent violence through nonviolent means; peacebuilding activities, on the other hand, can be tied to a proactive pursuit of social justice, also through non-violent means. (See Chapter 1 for clearer distinctions and with applications to teaching.) Despite the potentially important distinctions underlying discourse about peace, the meaning of peace as a construct is often not actively defi ned or interrogated (Gibson, 2011). A contextually appropriate conceptualization of peace is necessary so that we know what we are striving for. Such clarity is appreciably facilitated by thinking beyond the circumstances necessary to prevent or eliminate confrontation or aggression in order to focus on what peace is, instead of what it is not. Framing the goals of positive peacebuilding as something to be added or achieved makes evaluating outcomes easier than striving for the absence of violence, confl ict, etc., which is difficult to assess. Although many authors take a broad view of peace versus conflict, the two concepts are not mutually exclusive. Within a given context, be it international, national, regional, municipal, local or even within a family, peace and confl ict co-exist. Peace co-occurs with confl ict, and confl ict occurs within peace, in different proportions across time and contexts. With this dynamic mix in mind, a peacebuilder’s goal might then be to

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create more opportunities for positive actions which also may reduce the frequency of conflicts and aggressive actions. There is an argument to be made that any action can be interpreted in multiple ways. It is not easy to reconcile phrases such as ‘fighting for peace’ or ‘just wars’ with actions that clearly are peacebuilding. Peace psychology, therefore, emphasizes peace by peaceful means (Galtung, 1969), a non-violent approach to fostering harmonious actions and relationships. As active social creatures, we maintain interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural and international relationships with others. Such interconnectedness means that the behavior of one impacts the lives of all, weaving our deeds and non-deeds into an intricate web of causal relationships that link individuals, groups, cultures and nations from across the globe (Davies-Vengoechea, 2003). Nowhere is this interconnectedness more clearly communicated than in Oxford’s (2013) Language of Peace model, where she elucidates six dimensions of peace in nested circles comprised of inner peace in the middle followed by intrapersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological peace spreading outward, where the peace found in one of the nested circles influences the presence of peace in others (see Chapter 1 for a description of the multidimensional peace model). A positive characterization of peace makes its enactment a matter of choice, denoting a way of life wherein one elects to be committed to the nurturance of the well-being of others. The responsibility for describing positive ways of living has been embraced by positive psychology, whose stated purpose is to empirically validate ways of living that are pleasant, engaged and meaningful (Seligman, 2002), leading to a life worth living (Csíkszentmihályi & Csíkszentmihályi, 2006). What is Positive Psychology?

Similar to the traditional deficit manner in which many peace studies have framed the goals of peace as the elimination of violence or aggression, the discipline of psychology has also tended to conceptualize its role as healing illness, i.e. the absence of dysfunction (Cairns & Lewis, 2003). Historically, conventional psychology has focused on negative phenomena such as anxiety, depression, mental illness, personality disorders and the like. However, the emergence of positive psychology around the turn of the millennium is an appeal for the scientific discipline of psychology to be as involved with well-being as with dysfunction. One goal of positive psychology is to employ the research methods that have successfully described psychological dysfunction toward describing healthy functioning, and to turn as much attention toward describing fulfi lling lives as healing the sick (Seligman & Csíkszentmihályi, 2000). This does not imply that studying negative or dysfunctional phenomena is a waste of time, but rather that the scientific study of the human mind and its functions needs to fi nd a balance between (a) searching for ‘the good life’ and

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(b) the problem-focused manner which has dominated traditional psychology. According to Peterson (2006), simply put, ‘positive psychology is the scientific study of what makes life most worth living’ – not merely the absence of the problematic. Just as peace means more than not being at war, well-being goes far beyond the absence of illness. We have argued that when positive is added as a modifier to peace, the idea of peace becomes more dynamic and interconnected, reflecting more accurately what is already happening in a given context. This same phenomenon occurs when the word positive accompanies psychology: we move from spectating in our own inner world toward enhancing our minds and behavior by our actions. Peterson (2006: 249, italics in original) sums up his motto of positive psychology in three words: ‘Other people matter’, and extends it (citing Reis & Gable, 2003): ‘Despite relative neglect by psychologists over the years, the topic of love now resides front and center in any discussion of human nature, especially from a positive perspective’. Good relationships form the sturdiest foundation for contentment in life and emotional well-being, regardless of age or culture, according to Reis and Gable. The ability to create stronger relationships is one of the powerful effects of experiencing positive emotion more frequently. Fredrickson’s (2013) Broaden and Build theory, explained in more detail later, suggests that positive emotions tend to facilitate exploration, play and creativity, allowing people to be more open to new things, broaden their worldview, and build both personal and interpersonal resources on which they can draw when needed. Luthans et al. (2004: 45) describe the nature of those positive resources in terms of economic, human, social and positive psychological capital. The authors emphasize that the world economy is moving toward placing greater value on personal strengths such as confidence, hope, optimism and resilience (positive psychological capital) which direct attention away from valuing only what one has (economic capital) or what one can do (human capital) toward acknowledging the need to invest in resources that build networks of trusting relationships (social capital). Luthans et al. (2004: 49) conclude that, ‘In moving beyond human and social capital to positive psychological capital, the full force of the importance of the human factor can be better recognized and used in meeting the tremendous challenges faced by organizations now and in the future’. Thus, peacebuilding becomes an essential ingredient in developing the necessary interconnectedness among a collection of personal and interpersonal, tangible and intangible resources on which future growth and prosperity will be based. Contributions of Positive Psychology to Peace

Perhaps it might surprise readers of this chapter that peace has not been a major topic in the field of positive psychology. The word peace does not appear in the index to Peterson’s (2006) influential A Primer of Positive

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Psychology, and peace is not named in a chapter title in the expansive Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (Lopez & Snyder, 2011). In the positive psychology literature, the most prominent discussion to date of potential contributions to peace was offered in 2013 as a special issue of the American Psychological Association’s flagship journal, American Psychologist. Within that special issue, Cohrs et al. (2013) cogently outline the connections between positive psychology and peace psychology. The article by Cohrs et al. (2013) begins with the notion that peace and positive psychology share a complex relationship but certainly are not isomorphic. As evidence, they note that the attributes most often studied in positive psychology – positive emotions, virtues, character strengths, well-being – have not established a direct, empirically validated connection to peace. They ask whether these intrapersonal attributes actually can promote peace at ‘… interpersonal, community, national, and, ultimately, global levels’ (Cohrs et al., 2013: 591). Suggestive fi ndings indicate that positive emotion can enhance interpersonal relationships, organizations and communities, in addition to setting fertile ground for conflict resolution. Cohrs et al. (2013) single out research on character strengths, including self-transcendence, forgiveness, mercy, humility, prudence and self-control, as being closely aligned with peace psychology and as relatively healthy reactions to negative events. But they question whether other key positive psychology concepts, such as the pursuit of happiness and positive emotion (e.g. pleasure), might create unfavorable conditions for peace if and when those pursuits are frustrated. In particular, Cohrs et al. note that positive psychology has its deepest roots in Western culture (originating in the United States) and since its inception two decades ago has not been sensitive enough to cultural variations in the conceptualization of happiness, positive emotion or personal growth, especially as they apply in a collective. Cohrs et  al. openly question what the pursuit of intrapersonal positivity means for other people or groups; they suggest that an individual pursuing happiness may have both positive and negative effects on other people. The path forward offered by Cohrs et al. (2013) sees an expanded positive psychology which concerns itself with concepts at the group level, moving beyond the dominant intra-personal paradigms that pervade most of psychology. In particular, the authors note that an individuallevel concept such as resilience can be extended to a broader concept of social or community resilience (see Cacioppo et al., 2011). That is, psychological processes that have traditionally been conceptualized as internal to a person can be (re)conceptualized at the interpersonal level and beyond. Community resilience recognizes not only the relevance of internal personal attributes but also the resources to community members, such as familial and institutional supports that reduce risk factors and promote protective factors, including economic conditions favoring greater equality, the built environment and available infrastructure, and

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how resources are allocated and used across the community. But community resilience is not the end of the story. The authors note that just as intrapersonal resilience defi ned only at the individual level can neglect its interpersonal effects, so too can community resilience neglect the consideration of inter-community relationships. Cohrs et al. (2013) argue that the expansion of concern for interconnected resiliencies has a global impact, concluding that, (a)lthough there is no guarantee that enhancing individual flourishing will lead to community, national, and global flourishing and peace, positive psychology may have the potential to build better and more peaceful societies. However, to understand the effectiveness of positive psychology interventions for promoting peace, the interdependence between individuals, communities, and nations, in particular with regard to power differentials, needs to be taken into account. One of the key challenges for positive psychology, if it is truly interested in the well-being of all, will be to enhance its understanding of these interrelations and its conceptualization of global, in addition to individual and community, well-being and resilience. (Cohrs et al., 2013: 597)

As a discipline, psychology has focused most of its attention on research and theory related to intra- or interpersonal processes. Although institutions have been named as a focus of positive psychology, they are by far the least well-developed of the three original pillars (Peterson, 2006). There have been developments that allow for more global-level assessment of positive attributes. Cohrs et al. (2013) make note of the Global Peace Index (see www.visionofhumanity.org/) and a number of other indicators, including the World Happiness Report (e.g. Helliwell et al., 2019). One of the unique features of the World Happiness Report is that it provides ratings of the whole population and immigrants to each country separately. Consistent with the position offered by Cohrs et al. (2013), the rankings of overall countries and immigrants’ happiness are highly consistent, correlating at +0.96 (Helliwell et  al., 2019: 40), suggesting an impact for national-level differences in governance and infrastructure. In thinking about the processes that align the happiness of native-born and immigrant populations, we would add education and the degree of peace in a country to the possible explanations for such a strong correlation. Indeed, the 2019 World Happiness Report concludes that ‘… making use of international data measuring peace and confl ict, countries able to reduce conflict and achieve peace were estimated to become happier places to live’ (Helliwell et al., 2019: 41). Examining the contributions of positive psychology to peace on a global scale is daunting; readers might be wondering, ‘What can a humble language teacher do to affect world peace?’ In the following section we offer some thoughts that might move us in the direction of one potentially reasonable answer to that question. Here we can make a transition from large-scale conceptions of peace psychology literature, with its global

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scale, to a small-scale, pragmatic approach. Adopting a pragmatic and local approach makes peacebuilding easier to manage, with tangible outcomes that can be observed over a relatively short period of time. It has been argued that peacebuilding, on a large scale, is inherently disruptive to the status quo (Christie et al., 2001). But so is language learning; learning an additional language, especially one as ubiquitous as English, changes the dynamics within which individuals and groups interact with each other. There are a host of complex issues surrounding the role of English in the world; for better or worse, its impact is pervasive. In fact, Crystal (2003) suggests that having a global language such as English might promote an exclusive role for first language speakers who will have the benefit of thinking and communicating more fluently and accurately in their native language, perhaps creating a linguistic gap between people. That said, peacebuilding language activities are not limited to English, and teachers of any language can engage with the theories and activities described in this chapter. Combined with their own international mobility, sensitivity to the connections between language and culture, and their work with potentially vulnerable migrant populations around the world, TESOL and other language teachers are in a unique position to incorporate peacebuilding into their lessons and activities. Applications of Positive Psychology in TESOL

We began this chapter with two quotes from inspirational leaders, and we will similarly begin this section with two quotes that help set the tone for the following paragraphs. The first has a very disputed origin, but is nonetheless very sage: ‘Think globally, act locally’. The argument is that global-scale environmental problems are most effectively addressed within the local environment to effect concrete change. Language teachers concerned with peacebuilding on a large scale might fi nd that they can begin by acting on a small scale with their students and colleagues. The second quote is from Margaret Mead, who said, ‘Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed, citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has’ (Keys, 1982). The growth within the field of positive psychology in applied linguistics is increasing awareness of the well-being of language learners and teachers and promises expanded theory, innovative research and pioneering approaches for language teaching practice (MacIntyre et al., 2016, 2019). In outlining a research agenda for positive psychology in second language acquisition (SLA), MacIntyre et al. (2019) emphasize that language teachers already perform a dual role, integrating the academic content of their teaching with the personal development and well-being of their learners. Internationally, this work fits well with the global orientation noted by Cohrs et al. (2013) in the previous section, in particular the

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International Positive Education Network featured in the World Happiness Report. Emerging trends should encourage the development of language teaching and learning practices that foster greater personal well-being, especially if we keep in mind the interpersonal to ecological dimensions of Oxford’s (2013) multi-layered approach to peace education. In the spirit of acting locally, the next pages outline three small-scale empirical investigations wherein evidence-driven pedagogical implications inform practice. In each, positive psychology interventions were tested in language learning and/or teaching milieus to explore their benefits to learners and the learning process. The lofty goals that arise from the combination of positive psychology and peace psychology can be applied within specific contexts. Our goal in presenting these three studies is to show specific ways in which positive psychology can influence language learning. The section following presents recommendations for the same positive psychology activities which teachers and learners can adapt to their local needs to emphasize peacebuilding. We hope that these specific recommendations will inspire teachers to think about how local language activities can fit into thinking globally about peacebuilding. Study 1: Finding Silver Linings

Gregersen et al. (2020) explored language teachers’ workplace stress, with special attention being given to the international context. They implemented a case study approach with an international teacher, ‘Elizabeth’, to investigate the effects of Finding Silver Linings, a positive psychology cognitive reappraisal strategy which is meant to mitigate the undesirable affective effects of stress. As a social profession demanding continuous contact with others, teaching may produce relatively high stress, ranging from interpersonal conflicts with parents and colleagues to contradictory communications from administration (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). Furthermore, variability exists in individuals’ adjustment to stressful life events; while some individuals suffer dysfunction, others exhibit remarkable resilience. The Silver Linings intervention promotes an especially flexible type of emotion regulation found in cognitive reappraisal which may have a shielding quality for language teachers, as successful reappraisal influences many aspects of one’s emotional response, including self-reported negative affect (Gross, 1998). During the experimental period, Elizabeth performed the Silver Linings intervention several times a day for a week whenever a stressful event occurred. Elizabeth’s data revealed temporary positive benefits, but these did not necessarily persist. The authors concluded that the individual, the context and the specific positive intervention all interact to determine the efficacy of the intervention, and so evaluating specific interventions at the individual level is necessary.

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Study 2: Conversation partners implement positive activities

The second study is a mixed-methods investigation which examined the effect of six positive psychology exercises, including the introduction of music, physical exercise, animals, laughter, gratitude stimulation and altruism (Gregersen et al., 2016). In this study, five language tutors provided one-on-one instruction to five English learners for a period of 12 weeks in an extracurricular ‘Conversation Partners’ program. During every other meeting (six sessions in total), language learners took part in experimental procedures whereby the above-mentioned exercises were personalized to the preferences of each learner and implemented before their tutorial. Personalization of the interventions was done after an exhaustive preliminary interview wherein participants shared their likes and dislikes concerning musical taste, pet preferences, exercises they enjoy, etc. Learners used a 10-point thermometer-shaped scale (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991) to self-rank their affective state on three different occasions during the tutorial: before each positive psychology intervention; after the intervention but before instruction; and then after the session. Learners and tutors also composed written responses about their experience at the conclusion of both control and experimental sessions. Data from all their sources – including within and between individuals, between meetings, and from groups as well as learner narratives – showed stable positive results with every exercise, but even more important was the nurturing effect of the relationships between learners and conversation partners in which they accumulated social capital (Gregersen et al., 2016). Study 3: Possible future selves

Emotional intelligence is the focus of the third empirical study we present, and it uses the interventions of ‘savoring’ and ‘three good things’ (Gregersen et  al., 2014). The purpose of this qualitative study was to observe how a language learner and a language teacher used the four different branches of emotional intelligence (emotional perception and expression, emotional facilitation of thought, emotional understanding and emotional management) to understand themselves and to incorporate this self-awareness into their classroom and daily life experiences as part of their language learning and teaching. The two participants were chosen from among a larger population because they exhibited the most efficient progress toward realizing their possible future second language selves; that is, these participants vividly imagined the language learner or teacher they wanted to be and were making gains in that direction. The data demonstrated ways in which the four branches of emotional intelligence interacted as the language teacher and learner carried out the interventions, shedding light on specific ways in which the interventions encouraged reflection and focus to accompany the positive emotions that acted as an impetus toward attaining desired possible future selves.

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Adapting Activities of Positive Psychology to Peacebuilding

The three studies described above were not designed to focus directly on peacebuilding. However, in reflecting on the ways in which teachers and learners engaged with the activities, we believe they can be adapted to focus on peace. In the following section, we provide details of the interventions and how to modify them to expand their original intent (which was to improve the well-being of learners and teachers in the process of learning and using the target language) to also include peacebuilding. For each, we describe the effects based on evidence from previous investigations and then offer a modified version of the activity so that it incorporates one or more of the dimensions of peace. Activity 1. Finding a silver lining

Individual reactions to stressful circumstances vary; stress deeply debilitates some people, but other people are remarkably resilient. An individual’s outlook reveals how they interpret or make meaning of their current circumstances. A fundamental way, then, to augment positivity is to fi nd positive meaning more often within day-to-day circumstances. As unpleasant circumstances are reframed in a positive way, the odds become higher that positive emotions – like hope or optimism – will blossom. This is the crux of Fredrickson’s (2013) Broaden and Build theory. Positivity opens up mental and emotional space to create future plans and goals – the by-product of positivity’s broadened minds. According to Fredrickson (2009: 183), ‘Meanings are interpretations, the sense you make of your current circumstances. Whether acknowledged or not, you forge meanings all day long. Although you might call these small, if you cast them in a positive manner, you pave the way for streams of positive emotions to follow’. Finding silver linings in adverse circumstances – casting them in a brighter light – leads to greater positivity and broadened thought-action repertoires. In the Gregersen et al. (2020) study described above, the activity that the case study participant, ‘Elizabeth’, was asked to carry out was to write journal entries about the stressors in her daily life – both big and small – and, upon encountering one, to reframe it in a positive way and share her silver linings with those around her. The goal of this ‘silver linings’ activity is for the participant to learn to habitually reframe situations, consciously noting benefi cial outcomes without negating the adverse aspects of any situation by being aware of both negative and positive aspects in a situation that might be otherwise viewed as monolithically negative. In modifying the original version of this activity, we present an option that incorporates intergroup, intercultural and/or international dimensions of peace. Our adaptation consists of asking language teachers to be vigilant concerning any non-peaceful situations between or among groups, cultures

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or nations that arise in the lives of their students. Such situations could be found in a micro-environment as small as groups in a classroom to macroscale international hostility retrieved from news sources. Once a specific situation is pinpointed, teachers can decide whether to make the activity an oral interactive task or one focusing on literacy by deciding whether to invite learners to brainstorm in small groups or to reflect individually in a journaling activity. Because positive peace necessitates going beyond the mere elimination of aggression to actively building peace, the prompt given to learners in this modified silver linings activity needs to direct participants’ attention in that direction. It might look something like this: [The situation under reflection] is preventing peace from occurring between [one group/culture/nation] and [another group/culture/nation]. Let’s reconsider this adverse situation from another more positive perspective. What can we take from it that would invite peace to thrive?

Here is a specific example. Say, for instance, that you are teaching English in a country where disturbances are occurring over women’s rights for equal pay and that clashes between pro-rights activists and authorities were escalating on the streets. A potential prompt is: ‘Differences of opinion on the issue of equal pay for women is preventing peace between people who desire gender equity and those who uphold the status quo. Consider the demonstrations on the streets yesterday and think of ways in which this situation might be used to encourage peace’. The goal is to inspire learners to reappraise adverse situations in order to find meaningful ways to positively encourage peace. Activity 2. Pleasurable pursuits in daily routines

Previous investigations have established that positive psychology exercises are valuable for increasing happiness and diminishing depressive symptoms. While some interventions generate temporary improvement in well-being, others yield longer-term effects (Seligman et al., 2005). In the following activity, we explore four of the six pleasurable pursuits (laughter, music, gratitude and altruism) employed in the Gregersen et al. (2016) language learner study and provide evidence for their efficacy. For the purposes of this chapter, we leave out the interventions of exercise and interacting with pets, as such activities would be difficult to enact in a classroom setting. Laughter

Humor sharpens coping and savoring skills, relieving tension and anxiety (Kuiper & Martin, 1993; Moran & Massam, 1999; Yovetich et al., 1990) and protecting against stress and its corporal effects (Lefcourt & Martin, 1986; Martin & Dobbin, 1988; Martin & Lefcourt, 1983). Additionally, laughter safeguards a positive perspective through

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challenging times and increases observable expressions of happiness, thus enhancing one’s ability to handle life’s difficulties (Bryant & Veroff, 2007). Most importantly for our purposes, classroom humor makes learning more enjoyable (Bryant & Zillmann, 1988; LoSchiavo & Shatz, 2005). Music

Music can be made, composed or listened to and encourages emotional expression and improvement while relieving stress or anxiety. In the arena of language learning, Murphey (2010) incorporated music and song to provide cultural and linguistic elements with respect to English language learning and to help motivate his Japanese students. In another study, Murphey (2014) demonstrated that singing and teaching with movement produced positive emotions and had an effect on learners’ and teachers’ well-being. Furthermore, using music provided value-added linguistic outcomes like rhyming, blending, vowel changes, assonance, alliteration and rhythm. Gratitude

Gratitude comes with the acknowledgment of being beneficiaries of the behavior of others (Peterson, 2006). Individuals who maintain diaries of events for which they are grateful benefit from improved health and high subjective well-being. Counting one’s blessings is one manifestation of gratitude in which individuals identify what they are grateful for, identify the source of the blessings and then link their gratitude to the perceived sources (Emmons & Shelton, 2002). Altruism

Altruistic behaviors are those that improve the well-being of another while maintaining ulterior egocentric motives in the distant background. Empathic emotion evokes altruistic motivation because of the emotional reaction stemming from observing another in need of help that we can provide. This can be likened to sympathy, compassion and tenderness. Batson and his team (Batson, 1991; Batson et al., 2002) have demonstrated that altruistic helping behavior is prompted by empathic emotion instead of egoistic triggers. Altruistic acts make us happier because we view others with greater compassion, and we feel connected which also helps us value our own good fortune. We feel useful as we exercise our strengths and talents in meaningful ways which ignites a chain reaction of positivity; being generous may incentivize the recipients to be grateful and generous to others, who in turn pay it forward (Lyubomirsky, 2008). The purpose of the positive psychology activities in Gregersen et al. (2016: 147) was to facilitate language learning by implementing interventions ‘in the context of emerging friendships that provide learners with positive emotional experiences and intangible resources for language acquisition (i.e. building social capital)’. Furthermore, the authors explain, ‘The specific

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activities were not chosen to be language learning exercises per se but rather exercises that set a positive psychological and social context in which language learning can take place’ (Gregersen et al., 2016: 150). To adapt the Gregersen et al. (2016) version of this activity, we offer an opportunity for learners to cultivate their interpersonal peace and develop what Luthans et al. (2004) described as ‘social capital’. Our adaptation begins with language learners, in pairs, interviewing each other, using the following prompts in order to personalize the interventions: (1) (2) (3) (4)

What makes you laugh? What is your favorite kind of music? What things are you most grateful for? Choose someone in this class that you would like to do something nice for. Who is it and what would your act of kindness be?

For each of the next four class periods, invite learners to plan ten minutes each (20 minutes for both in the pair) to realize an activity using the answer from the partner’s interview. For example, for the next class period, have each learner in every dyad prepare materials with the purpose of making his or her partner laugh and take turns doing so. In the second class period, have learners prepare a selection of music for one another, taking turns enjoying the songs together. In the third, have learners prepare a list of the things for which they are grateful and read it aloud to their partner. Finally, in the fourth session, invite learners to carry out the act of kindness together for each of the people in the class that were chosen during the interview. The goal is to inspire learners to interact socially in positive ways to encourage interpersonal peace – not merely to eradicate negative relational vibes, but to actually build social capital. Activity 3. Savoring three good things

Activity 3, like Activity 2, combines activities for exponential effect. In the positive psychology literature, ‘savoring’ and ‘three good things’ are separate interventions. Research on the three good things exercise reveals that positive results occur as people reflect upon things for which they are thankful. According to Peterson (2006: 38), ‘counting your blessings on a regular basis makes you happier and more content with life’. The directions for this intervention used by Gregersen et al. (2014) included asking participants to write down three things that went well during the day and then briefly to describe the reason why each event was good. According to the creators of this intervention (Seligman et al., 2005), the description is essential as it obliges participants to ponder more deeply than they would by merely writing down positive noteworthy events. Seligman et al. suggest that feeling gratitude for three good things every day raises happiness and lowers depression for up to six months.

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The second activity, savoring, implies focusing on enjoyable experiences and intentionally attempting to make them endure, reminiscing and re-experiencing them as vividly as possible. According to Peterson (2006: 70), ‘those who habitually savor are indeed happier and more satisfied in general with life, more optimistic, and less depressed than those who do not savor’. In Gregersen et al. (2014), participants were asked to stop and notice something enjoyable and to share it with others. They were encouraged to collect a tangible item from the event that would later allow savoring and reminiscing (such as a photo or a memento) and to indulge in self-congratulatory thinking. The adaptation from the Gregersen et al. (2014) study is to merge the two activities – three good things and savoring – into one cohesive, positive inner peace-building intervention. To do this, language teachers can ask learners to think of three positive peace-building things that went well during their day and fi nd a memento that would promote their reminiscence. To make this a literacy task, teachers can invite learners to write down their responses; to make this a speaking activity, learners orally share with a peer. Whether in writing or orally, have learners explain the connection of their memento to the ‘three positive peace-building things’ and in this way amplify the savoring aspect. Encourage learners to keep their mementos and refer to them repeatedly over the upcoming days or weeks. According to Peterson (2006), such savoring, which includes becoming totally immersed in the pleasure of the moment, results in greater life satisfaction and, we also add, positive inner peace. Conclusion

In reviewing the connections between positive psychology and peace psychology, we are reminded of the power of language to promote understanding, the role of education in fostering language development, the need for local action to accomplish broad global goals and the cumulative impact of even a small, dedicated group of practitioners. We argue that positive psychology aligns well with peace psychology, especially if the implications of one’s actions for other people – from the local to global levels – are taken into consideration. The studies and associated activities presented reflect our experience with transitioning a focus on well-being into a focus on peacebuilding. There remains much work to be done, and much more is possible as we examine the powerful combination of simultaneously developing language, education, well-being and peace. References Batson, C.D. (1991) The Altruism Question: Towards a Social Psychological Answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Batson, C.D., Ahmad, N., Lishner, D. and Tsang, J. (2002) Empathy and altruism. In C.R. Snyder and S. Lopez (eds) Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 485–498). New York: Oxford University Press.

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Bryant, F.B. and Veroff , J. (2007) Savoring: A New Model of Positive Experience. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bryant, J. and Zillmann, D. (1988) Using humor to promote learning in the classroom. Journal of Children in Contemporary Society 20, 49–78. Cacioppo, J.T., Reis, H.T. and Zautra, A.K. (2011) Social resilience: The value of social fi tness with an application to the military. American Psychologist 66, 43–51. doi:10.1037/a0021419 Cairns, E. and Lewis, C.A. (2003) Empowering peace. The Psychologist 16, 142–143. Christie, D.J., Wagner, R.V. and Winter, D.A. (eds) (2001) Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21st Century. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Cohrs, J.C., Christie, D.J., White, M.P. and Das, C. (2013) Contributions of positive psychology to peace: Toward global well-being and resilience. American Psychologist 68, 590–600. Crystal, D. (2003) English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Csíkszentmihályi, M. and Csíkszentmihályi, I.S. (2006) A Life Worth Living: Contributions to Positive Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Davies-Vengoechea, X. (2003) A positive concept of peace. In G. Kemp and D.P. Fry (eds) Keeping the Peace: Conflict Resolution and Peaceful Societies around the World (pp. 11–18). New York: Routledge. Emmons, R. and Shelton, C. (2002) Gratitude and the science of positive psychology. In C.R. Snyder and S. Lopez (eds) Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 459–484). New York: Oxford University Press. Falk, R. (2013) Malala and Eartha Kitt: Words that matter. Foreign Policy Journal, 22 October. See https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/10/22/malala- and- ear tha-kitt-words-that-matter/. Fredrickson, B. (2009) Positivity. Pittsburgh, PA: Harmony. Fredrickson, B.L. (2013) Positive emotions broaden and build. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 47, 1–53. Galtung, J. (1969) Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research 6, 167–191. doi:10.1177/002234336900600301 Garamendi, J. (1996) The Peace Corp Story. Washington, DC: Peace Corp. Gibson, S. (2011) Social psychology, war and peace: Towards a critical discursive peace psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5, 239–250. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00348.x Gregersen, T., MacIntyre, P.D., Finegan, K.H., Talbot, K. and Claman, S. (2014) Examining emotional intelligence within the context of positive psychology interventions. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4 (2), 327–353. doi:10.147 46/ssllt.2014.4.2.8 Gregersen, T., MacIntyre, P.D. and Meza, M. (2016) Positive psychology exercises build social capital for language learners: Preliminary evidence. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Gregersen, T., MacIntyre, P.D. and Macmillan, N. (2020) Dealing with the emotions of teaching abroad: Searching for silver linings in a difficult context. In C. Gkonou, M.  Daubney and J.M. Dewaele (eds) The Emotional Rollercoaster of Language Teaching (pp. 228–246). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Gross, J. (1998) Antecedent and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, 224–237. Helliwell, J., Layard, R. and Sachs, J. (2019) World Happiness Report 2019. New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network. See https://worldhappiness.report/ ed/2019/. Keys, D. (1982) Earth at Omega: Passage to Planetization. Wellesley, MA: Branden.

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Kuiper, N.A. and Martin, R.A. (1993) Humor and self-concept. Humor 6, 231–270. Lefcourt, H.M. and Martin, R.A. (1986) Humor and Life Stress: Antidote to Adversity. New York: Springer-Verlag. Lopez, S.J. and Snyder, C.R. (eds) (2011) Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. LoSchiavo, F.M. and Shatz, M.A. (2005) Enhancing online instruction with humor. Teaching of Psychology 32 (4), 247–250. Luthans, F., Luthans, K.W. and Luthans, B.G. (2004) Positive psychological capital: Beyond human and social capital. Business Horizons 47, 45–50. Lyubomirsky, S. (2008) The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting the Life You Want. New York: Penguin Press. MacIntyre, P.D. and Gardner, R.C. (1991) Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. The Modern Language Journal 75, 296–304. MacIntyre, P.D., Gregersen, T. and Mercer, S. (2016) Positive Psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. MacIntyre, P.D., Gregersen, T. and Mercer, S. (2019) Setting an agenda for positive psychology in SLA: Theory, practice, and research. The Modern Language Journal 103, 262–274. Martin, R.A. and Dobbin, J.P. (1988) Sense of humor, hassles, and immunoglobulin A: Evidence for a stress-moderating effect of humor. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 18, 93–105. Martin, R.A. and Lefcourt, H.M. (1983) Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stressors and moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45, 1313–1324. Moran, C. and Massan, M. (1999) Differential influences of coping humor and humor bias on mood. Behavioral Medicine 25, 36–42. Murphey, T. (2010) Gracias a la vida – musica que me ha dado tanto: Songs as scaffoldedlanguaging for SLA. In A. Hermont, R. Esprito Santo and S. Cavalcante (eds) Linguagem E Cognição (pp. 241–255). Belo Horizonte: PUC Minas. Murphey, T. (2014) Singing well-becoming: Student musical therapy case studies. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 2 (2), 205–235. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Peterson, C. (2006) A Primer in Positive Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reis, H.T. and Gable, S.L. (2003) Toward a positive psychology of relationships. In C.L.M. Keyes and J. Haidt (eds) Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life WellLived (pp. 129–159). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Seligman, M.E. (2002) Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. Handbook of Positive Psychology 2, 3–12. Seligman, M. and Csíkszentmihályi, M. (2000) Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist 55, 5–14. Seligman, M.E., Steen, T.A., Park, N. and Peterson, C. (2005) Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist 60 (5), 410. Skaalvik, E.M. and Skaalvik, S. (2007) Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Psychology 99 (3), 611–625. Yovetich, N.A., Dale, J.A. and Hudak, M.A. (1990) Benefits of humor in reduction of threat-induced anxiety. Psychological Reports 66, 51–58.

12 From Hate Speech to Empathy: Lessons for Language Educators and Society Rebecca L. Oxford

Hate needs an enemy. When we meet the enemy, and respond with enmity, we mirror the enemy and in time we become the enemy. … The enemy we fear and hate is now within our own souls. David Augsburger

Part 1 of this chapter identifies hate speech as a violent force which can lead to psychological devastation, physical violence and sometimes genocide. Part 2 provides copious examples of hate speech from expected sources and surprising sources. We could throw ourselves into eradicating hate speech, but such a goal represents only a particular form of ‘negative peace’, i.e. the absence of violence. The absence of something bad does not equate to the presence of something positive, so negative peace does not mean much by itself. Parts 3 and 4 highlight examples of ‘positive peace’, a process that consists of taking steps toward the goals of accepting, understanding and honoring others who are different from oneself and one’s social group.1 Part 3 looks at two positive psychosocial phenomena: empathy, known in many cultures, and ubuntu, an African concept of empathy. These positive modes are stronger than hate speech and more powerful than fear. Part 4, which concludes the chapter, tells the true story of one young man who rose out of hate speech into empathy.

Part 1. Concepts

This part of the chapter explains general concepts, including speech, free speech, hate, hate speech and enemy-creation.

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Speech

In this chapter the term ‘speech’ is used broadly to mean multiple forms of communication: spoken and written words, images, symbols, nonverbal communication and even certain expressive actions (e.g. rape) intended to send a message. In the United States, the legal meaning of speech even extends to memberships of certain organizations and to publications and demonstrations by these organizations, including hate groups (Walker, 1994). Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR; UN, 1967) similarly highlights speech as oral, written or print, art forms and other media. This suggests that ‘speech’ is a very flexible concept and that it need not include just words. Free speech

The US Constitution, Amendment I, says that the government is prohibited from abridging the following freedoms, among others: freedom of speech and of the press, the right to assemble peaceably and the right to petition the government. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (1941) ‘Four Freedoms Speech’ declared that freedom of speech and expression, freedom of worship, freedom from want and freedom from fear should exist ‘everywhere in the world’. The UN General Assembly (1948) adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which asserts in Article 19 that: ‘Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers’. 2 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR; UN, 1967) called for freedom of opinion and expression. However, British political philosopher Parekh (2012: 55) wrote that free speech is ‘only possible under certain conditions, such as some degree of political stability, intercommunal harmony and a culture of civility’. When threats to such a relatively stable society occur, free speech is often decreased, such as when some countries make praising terrorism a crime. Later in this chapter, see Parekh’s comments about hate speech. Hate

The noun hate is synonymous with hatred (see Chapter 13, this volume), but for consistency this chapter uses ‘hate’ as both noun and verb unless a specific quotation or book title employs ‘hatred’. Hate is an intense combination of emotion and belief which arises in reaction to an immediate or long-term perceived threat. This combination often, but not always, seeks an outlet through aggressive action. At the very least, hate allows mobilization for aggressive action toward an individual or group.

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Hate is not identical to disrespect, dislike or a negative view of a person or group. Instead, hate ‘implies hostility, ill will, severe contempt, rejection, a wish to harm or destroy the target group’ or person (Parekh, 2012: 40). Acute hate is quick, time-limited hostility toward a perceived immediate threat. In contrast, chronic hate is long-term, deep hostility toward a perceived prolonged threat. Anti-Semitism is often viewed as history’s oldest and most chronic hate (see historical information from the ADL, 2019; Augustyn, 2019; Gitlitz, 2007; History Editors, 2019; Phillips, 2018; Politico Editors, 2018; Holocaust Encyclopedia Editors, 2019), which dates back to the Babylonian Captivity and to ancient Greece and Rome. One underlying cause was that the Jews wanted to maintain their own monotheistic religion and cultural identity in polytheistic settings, thus bringing about clashes with other groups and the authorities. Other rationales for hating and persecuting Jews were added. For instance, after the Romans crucified Jesus, the Jews were blamed for killing him, although he himself was a Jew. In the Middle Ages, many European Jews had to move into ghettos, wear symbols and face numerous travails: non-citizenship, charges of ‘blood-libel’ (accusations of killing Christian children to use their blood for Passover bread) and eventual expulsion from Austria, England, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Portugal, Sicily, Spain and parts of what is now modern Italy. Jews were massacred in Russian pogroms in the 19th and early 20th centuries, followed later by the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust (the Shoah). In 2017 white supremacists marched and chanted ‘Jews will not replace us!’ in a famous, deadly event in Charlottesville, VA. Massacres at Jewish places of worship are increasing in various countries. In sum, hate speech and hate crimes have been widely used against the Jews for millennia. Hate speech

Here I present general features of hate speech, specific attempts to define hate speech, and enemy-creation as a process of promoting hate and hate speech. General features of hate speech

There is no simple, straightforward, universally accepted defi nition of hate speech. However, as a guideline, Parekh (2012: 37, 40) provided three prototypical features: (1) Hate speech is directed toward an easily identifiable individual or group of individuals based on an arbitrary characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender or sexual orientation. (2) Hate speech ascribes to the hated group generally undesirable qualities, which are considered either as contextual and thus remediable or, far worse, as intrinsic to the hated group’s fundamental identity.

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(3) Given that the target group is said to have these undesirable qualities, the group must deserve hostility, expulsion or even extermination, and hate speech is naturally used to foster and validate these actions. (Note: I have found that the third feature might be expressed only implicitly as a logical follow-up, as long as the fi rst two features are expressed overtly and convincingly.) Hate speech thrives and proliferates in an atmosphere of anger, anxiety, fear and paranoia. Contributing to that atmosphere are what experts call ‘dangerous words’, i.e. vague, manipulative and ultimately undefi nable terms (Snyder, 2017). For instance, many authoritarian regimes, including modern Russia, use the word ‘extremism’ to promote hate toward those who disagree with a given regime’s policies, views or intentions (Snyder, 2017). Other dangerous words are ‘exception’ and ‘emergency’. If a political leader creates or encounters a negative situation and calls it an ‘exception’ or a ‘temporary emergency’, that leader can easily ‘transform that state of exception into a permanent emergency’ (Snyder, 2017: 100), allowing the leader to take increasing control, identify a public scapegoat or enemy and punish the scapegoat (see also Judis, 2018). For Parekh (2012: 54), hate speech metaphorically ‘strikes at the root of the shared communal life’. In Parekh’s words, hate speech also ‘represents a gross misuse of the right to free speech’, ‘breathes the spirit of aggression and violence, lowers the tone of public discourse, expresses and promotes hostility’ and damages a ‘sense of dignity and equal life chances’ (Parekh, 2012: 54). For these reasons, Parekh contended that a decent society should discourage or ban hate speech. In an interview conducted by Molnar (2012), scholar Nadine Strossen made a very different case. She argued that the real problem is not hate speech but instead the discrimination that lies beneath it. Therefore, she said, curtailing hate speech not only fails to handle discrimination but is moreover a restriction on free speech. Strossen’s solution is counter-speech, in which the attacked group (or anyone else) can argue against hate speech but more importantly speak against the deeper problem, discrimination. Specific attempts to define hate speech

Characteristics of hate speech were presented earlier in the chapter. International committees and commissions have also produced varied defi nitions of hate speech. Here are just two. •

A non-binding recommendation of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (1997) defi ned hate speech as: ‘all forms of expression which spread, incite, promote or justify racial hate, xenophobia, antisemitism or other forms of hate based on intolerance, including: intolerance expressed by aggressive nationalism and ethnocentrism, discrimination and hostility against minorities, migrants and people of immigrant origin’.

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The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (2016) defi ned hate speech as: ‘the use of one or more particular forms of expression – namely, the advocacy, promotion or incitement of the denigration or vilification of a person or group of persons, as well any harassment, insult, negative stereotyping, stigmatization or threat of such person or persons and any justification of all these forms of expression – that is based on a non-exhaustive list of personal characteristics or status that includes “race”, colour, language, religion or belief, nationality or national or ethnic origin, as well as descent, age, disability, sex, gender, gender identity and sexual orientation’.

Parekh (2012: 37) revealed the diversity of defi nitions of hate speech used by different countries in their bans against hate speech: Britain bans abusive, insulting, and threatening speech; Denmark and Canada prohibit speech that is insulting or degrading; and India and Israel ban speech that incites racial and religious hate or is likely to stir up hostility between groups. In the Netherlands, it is a criminal offence to express publicly views insulting to groups of persons. Australia prohibits speech that offends, insults, humiliates, or intimidates individuals or groups, and some of its states have laws banning racial vilification. Germany goes further, banning speech that violates the dignity of an individual, implies that he or she is an inferior being or maliciously degrades or defames a group. Enemy-creation as a process of promoting hate and hate speech

In the eerily predictable ‘enemy-creation’ process, hate speech (including words, images, art and other forms) helps to identify, describe and punish the enemy. Over millennia, people from different groups, cultures and nations have been using hate speech to help create enemies for reasons such as the following:3 • • • • • • • •

revenge for a perceived past wrong or current threat; pathological narcissism of the leader or sometimes a whole culture; need to release shadow emotions (e.g. humiliation, dishonor, anxiety, grief, despair, anger, shame and guilt) by transferring their malevolence onto an enemy; desire to feel righteous and virtuous; quest for religious, political and material domination; need to unify one’s in-group, most easily done if there is an enemy; fear or disgust that certain ‘unworthy’ groups (e.g. racial minorities, people with disabilities, poor people and uneducated people) might gain a share of power; ‘bloodlust’ – the joy of exercising cruelty combined with lack of moral restraints.

Table 12.1 displays the stages in the enemy-creation process (Augsburger, 2004; Oxford, 2013). At each stage, hate speech and images

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Table 12.1 Stages in the enemy-creation process Stage

Events at this stage

(1) Beginning

Facing and fearing differences. Upon encountering differences, using fearbased prejudices (overgeneralized and rigid distortions of reality, usually negative) and stereotypes (largely unchangeable mental generalizations, usually negative, used to identically and unfairly describe the members of a group) to magnify those differences.

(2) Middle

Intensifying the fear. Fearing the stranger, collecting evidence of possible threat, anticipating danger, experiencing spiraling fear, and maximizing fear with disgust, dismay and anticipatory hate through dehumanizing metaphors and other hate speech.

(3) End

Raging. Using increasingly vicious and frequent hate speech.

Source: Simplified and arranged for this chapter. Based on Augsburger (2004: 165) and Oxford (2013: 257).

help to ‘construct’ the enemy. Generalizations are particularly powerful in stirring up prejudices and stereotypes and using them for enemy-creation. For example, a presidential candidate and later President of the United States falsely generalized immigrants from ‘South and Latin America’ (Moreno, 2015) and particularly from Mexico as drug dealers, criminals and rapists (BBC News, 2016; Mark, 2018). Based on generalizations made by the US leader, authorities broke up immigrant families at the border. Many immigrants, including children, were placed into indefi nite detention in conditions of ‘fi lth’ and ‘cruelty’ that ‘shock[ed]’ an experienced United Nations human rights observer (Cumming-Bruce, 2019; Gumbel, 2018). Far-right followers of the President have repeatedly described critical journalists as purveyors of ‘fake news’ (Foley, 2018). Much worse has happened to independent Russian journalists who questioned their government’s authoritarian policies (Committee to Protect Journalists, 2019). Generalizations, frequently the basis of oppression and persecution, have often taken the form of repeated lies (see Shafer, 2019; Snyder, 2017). The stages in enemy-creation in Table 12.1 overlap with Stanton’s (1998) eight stages of genocide (Oxford, 2013: 261), which I have simplified into three stages in Table 12.2. Dehumanization occurs in both enemy-creation (Table 12.1) and genocide (Table 12.2). Dehumanization, as in describing a human enemy as a typhus-bearing insect, smooths the way toward genocide. In the last hundred years alone, hate speech has contributed to many genocides and so-called ethnic cleansings (a term typically, but not always, equated with genocide), including the Holocaust. In the late 1970s the Cambodian genocide occurred, wiping out 25% of the population of Cambodia, including nearly 2 million city-dwelling ‘intellectuals’ and middle-class people: teachers, doctors, lawyers, clergy and ordinary people wearing glasses (Holocaust and Genocide Studies Research Center, 2019; Stout, 2015). The 1990s brought the Rwandan genocide, in which

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Table 12.2 Stages of genocide Stage

Events at this stage

(1) Beginning

Classification (into racial or other units, with non-mixing rules). Symbolization (forcing targeted groups to wear colored symbols so they can be spotted easily). Dehumanization (describing hated groups with metaphors like cockroaches, vermin, rats, disease, infections, cancer, germs or bacilli).

(2) Middle

Organization (logistics of weaponry, death squads, transportation). Polarization (targeting moderates and fostering the extremes). Preparation (victim lists, ID cards, confiscating victims’ property, moving victims into ghettos). Note: Events from Stage 1 also continue and intensify in Stage 2.

(3) End

Extermination (not murder but extermination, because the victims are no longer considered human; extermination can be called ‘ethnic cleansing’ or ratonade [rat extermination], with bodies then mutilated or disposed of like garbage). Denial (hiding records, rejecting records, minimizing numbers, diverting attention by arguing over definitions).

Source: Simplified and arranged for this chapter. Based on Stanton (1998) and Oxford (2013: 261).

the Hutu majority slaughtered Tutsi and Twa minorities and moderate Hutus (Dallaire, 2005). In 2014 the Islamic State (IS) began a genocidal campaign of enslavement, rape and massacre against Iraq’s Yazidi religious minority, and although the campaign ended in IS defeat, the Yazidis are still suffering in disarray (Abdul-Hassan & Mizban, 2019; Cetorelli et al., 2017). Starting in 2017, the government of Myanmar, a predominantly Buddhist country formerly known as Burma, started subjecting to ethnic cleansing its own Muslim Rohingya minority, who have been unfairly labeled since 1982 as illegal immigrants or stateless non-citizens (Human Rights Watch, 2019). Virulent hate speech, including dehumanizing metaphors, slurs and much more, have marked these actions. Part 2. Examples of Hate Speech

Now I present examples of different categories of hate speech, often in the context of politics. I have divided these illustrations into two major categories: (a) expressing the wish that hated groups or individuals would die and (b) dehumanizing people through speech. This section, while perhaps difficult for some people to read due to the nature of the content, is crucial. Indeed, without being fully informed, we can ignore hate speech or unknowingly perpetuate it ourselves. A great hero unfortunately uses death-focused hate speech

Even some of the world’s greatest heroes are prejudiced. For instance, Winston Churchill, the courageous, intelligent savior of Britain during World War II, sometimes wrote and spoke using prejudice and stereotypes. In conversations, letters, articles, books and political addresses,

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this hero occasionally used language that was xenophobically aimed at certain races and individuals. Without intending to tarnish Churchill’s sterling reputation as an author, British army officer and Prime Minister twice over, I point out that the moral armor of even illustrious people can have chinks or entirely missing pieces. Churchill believed in British aristocratic superiority over all other nations and races (Roberts, 2018), and from this belief came harsh rhetoric toward anyone who challenged such superiority. His sharpest taunts were directed toward Mahatma Gandhi, whose advocacy for India’s self-rule clashed with Churchill’s insistence on a powerful British Empire. In a 1921 conversation with Edwin Montagu, Secretary of State for India, Churchill graphically stated that he wished Gandhi dead: ‘He ought to be lain bound hand and foot at the gates of Delhi, and then trampled on by an enormous elephant with the new Viceroy seated on its back’ (quoted by Barczewsk et al., 2015: 301; Toye, 2010: 172). Churchill expressed a more subtle but undeniable death wish for Gandhi in commenting to the British cabinet, ‘Gandhi should not be released on the account of a mere threat of fasting. We should be rid of a bad man and an enemy of the Empire if he died’ (quoted by Heyden, 2015). During Gandhi’s anti-Raj fast in 1943, Churchill wired the British Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, several times, angrily speculating that the fast must be a fraud and that Gandhi was secretly taking glucose. The Viceroy argued to the contrary (Guha, 2019). In a 1931 speech, Churchill said, ‘It is alarming and nauseating to see Mr. Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir … striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal Palace’ (Heyden, 2015).4 Churchill used hate speech toward others as well. In a 1910 letter to Britain’s Prime Minister at the time, Lord Asquith, he called for sterilization of ‘feeble-minded and insane classes’, which he believed were ‘a national and race danger which it is impossible to exaggerate’ (Iggulden, 2002). He wished for ‘their curse to die with them and not [be] transmitted to future generations’ (Gilbert, 1983: 152). In 1949 Churchill openly wished in the House of Commons that Bolshevism (Communism) had been strangled at birth. ‘I think the day will come when it will be recognized without doubt, not only on one side of the House, but throughout the civilized world, that the strangling of Bolshevism at its birth would have been an untold blessing to the human race’ (quoted by Langworth, 2012: 148). Dehumanization as hate speech

Dehumanizing an enemy in words and images has long been a popular way to express hate. Here I describe various modes of dehumanization. Vermin, bacilli and plagues

Churchill (1929) described Russia as ‘wounded’, ‘poisoned’, ‘infected’ and ‘plague-bearing’. The reason, he said, was that the Bolsheviks were

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‘swarms of typhus-bearing vermin’ that had ‘destroyed the health and even the souls of nations’ (Churchill, 1929: 262–263). Hitler used such terminology much more loudly and virulently against the Jews, taking advantage of age-old anti-Semitism in Europe. Hitler’s speeches and writings described Jews in animalistic and sometimes bacterialistic ways, calling them ‘bacilli’, ‘rats’, ‘vermin’, ‘leeches’, ‘vipers’, ‘parasites’, ‘fungi’ and ‘vampires’. All these terms describe subhuman beings seeking to poison or drink German blood. ‘Images that put men on a level with rats carrying epidemic plagues were part of the ideological escort of anti-Jewish … racism’ (Hund & Mills, 2016). For Hitler, the only cure for the Jewishborne illness was exterminating its cause (Musolff, 2007). He persuaded much of the German population, overtly or subliminally, that the Holocaust was wholly virtuous, capable of reinstating the harmony, health and pride of the heroic Aryan Master Race. Hitler’s constant use of hate speech was disastrously successful. Pigs and dogs

Modern Hungary’s right-wing party dehumanized George Soros, a progressive, globally known, widely respected Hungarian-Jewish intellectual and philanthropist. In 2018, Janos Pócs, supporter of Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban who was running for re-election, posted an infamous photo of a slaughtered pig, on the skin of which was carved the words ‘Ö volt a soros!!!’ (Verseck, 2017). While this could be translated in different ways, it was commonly believed to be hate speech suggesting that Soros and perhaps others like him were pigs deserving death. Pócs’ photo caption, accompanied by a smiling emoji, was ‘One pig less’. Orban was re-elected despite (or because of) his supporter’s crude attempt at dehumanizing Soros and his own frequent instances of hate speech against Muslims, Roma, migrants and refugees (Nebehay, 2018). This is reminiscent of the 2016 campaign for the US Presidency, in which the future President called various women ‘pigs’ and ‘dogs’ (Snyder, 2017: 75). When speaking to the Peel Commission in 1927, Churchill used a dog analogy to talk about indigenous peoples of North America and Australia (Clifford, 2003: 34). Simians

Describing specific groups of people as simians, i.e. as apes, baboons, chimpanzees, gorillas and monkeys, has been common. Christians in the Middle Ages often viewed apes and other simians as fiends and devils representing sinful and lustful behavior, which was also attributed to women who had sexual urges (Hund & Mills, 2016). According to Hund and Mills, some ‘experts’ in the physical sciences, the social sciences and even theology used simian images to express disgust toward Black people in Africa and anyone who had descended from them, no matter where. Why is grotesque, sexualized simianization linked

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to Black people? Hund and Mills explained: ‘Africa is labelled as a contagious continent incubating pestilences of all sorts in hot muggy jungles, spread by reckless and sexually unrestrained people. AIDS in particular is said to have its origin in the careless dealings of Africans with simians, which they eat or whose blood they use as an aphrodisiac’. Black entertainers were imaged as or called ‘monkey’ or ‘ape’ (Lester, 2017). In 1964 the US Federal Bureau of Investigation described Reverend Dr Martin Luther King, Jr as a ‘filthy, abnormal animal’ in a letter criticizing his civil rights leadership (Lester, 2017). A recent US First Lady, Michelle Obama, African American like her husband, President Barack Obama, was identified in words and pictures as ‘an ape in heels’ (Phillips & Bever, 2016) and as a ‘monkey’ and a ‘chimpanzee’ (Leonard, 2010). Renaissance Europe had its own stereotypes of Black Africans (Earle & Lowe, 2007). Goff et al. (2008) summarized laboratory studies showing that among ‘non-Black’ people in the United States, an implicit mental, judgmentshaping association still exists between Black people and apes. Goff et al. (2008: 293) discussed scientific racism. Anthropologist Franz Boas and evolutionist Charles Darwin conceived of an evolutionary spectrum for primates, with whites being the most evolved; savage and/or deformed anthropoids less evolved; people of African descent still less evolved; and simians such as monkeys and apes least evolved. This ‘scientific’ hierarchy was used to support stereotypes depicting peoples of African descent as being intellectually inferior, lazy, oversexed, aggressive, needing control and deserving of violence (Goff et al., 2008). Dehumanization and genocide

Hitler showed us that dehumanization can be linked to genocide. Do genocidal leaders really believe that the people they describe as roaches or germs are actually subhuman and thus deserving of death? Alternatively, do they believe that their victims, although constantly described as subhuman, are actually humans with bad intentions who deserve to die (Appiah, 2008)? This leads us back to Parekh (2012), who identified the third feature of hate speech as the belief that the victim ‘deserves’ punishment. Writer Adam Gopnik (2006) took a diff erent tack, emphasizing human suffering. ‘In fact, what motivated the spectacle’ of the bloody Reign of Terror in France was not precisely dehumanization but instead ‘exactly the knowledge that the victims were people, and capable of feeling pain and fear as people do. We don’t humiliate vermin, or put them through show trials, or make them watch their fellow-vermin die fi rst’ (Gopnik, 2006). Part 2 has discussed two major categories of hate speech: wishing death upon someone or some group and dehumanizing people via speech. The fi nal part of the chapter is the opposite of the negativity found in this part and offers hope.

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Part 3. Positive Peace through Reducing Hate Speech and Reaching Empathy

This part of the chapter explains ubuntu and empathy as alternatives to hate speech and as manifestations of the process of positive peace. It also offers a four-step process for working toward empathy for a group that is unlike one’s own. Language educators, other educators and people in society at large can use these practical ideas.

Ubuntu and empathy

The African virtue of ubuntu is often stated as ‘I am because you are’. Ubuntu embodies connectedness, community and caring. Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu’s explanation of ubuntu is ‘My humanity is bound up in yours, for we can only be human together’ (Robb, 2017). Even if great differences exist, underneath these differences are commonalities, as Maya Angelou (1993: 12) suggested: ‘… [A]ll peoples cry, laugh, eat, worry, and die. … [I]f we try and understand each other, we may even become friends’. Ubuntu overlaps with empathy. The word empathy comes from the Greek empatheia (passion, emotion), which was based on an ancient ProtoInto-European root word meaning ‘to suffer’ (Harper, 2019). Although this etymology suggests that we can experience another person’s pain, Ghaemi (2011) explained that empathy can also involve experiencing another’s good feelings. Here is an expression of that larger concept of empathy: ‘And every time we’re touched by another, whether by the contagion of their joy or the opening of their pain, every time the song of life moves from them through us, we carry their note, and add our own, … [to move] our way into harmony’ (Nepo, 2015). Researchers discovered that monkeys’ brains mirror the activity (e.g. arm movements) or feeling (e.g. pain or contentment) of other monkeys. Using the term ‘mirror neuron system’, researchers found that the human brain, like that of the monkey, ‘is wired for empathy’ (Ghaemi, 2011: 82–83). Empathy experts Batson, Amhad and Lishner (2011: 418) described human emotional empathy as ‘sympathy, compassion, softheartedness, tenderness, and the like’, i.e. feeling the emotions of another person. Empathy can also be sensory (experiencing another person’s physical sensation, such as excitement or relief), cognitive (thinking the same thoughts as another) or motor (moving in the same way another person is moving). ‘Without empathy, we can barely communicate with each other’ (Ghaemi, 2011: 83), but empathy brings us together. Empathetic listeners use words (‘That must have felt disappointing/ stressful/difficult for you’; ‘You must feel really happy now’; ‘So, what you are saying is …?’) and nonverbal behaviors to enhance mutual trust, understanding, teamwork, collaboration, care, calmness and information-sharing (Bruneau, 2009; Burley-Allen, 1982; Salem, 2003;

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Timpson, 2010). Mindful listening is similar to empathetic listening and occurs when the listener is fully present, compassionate and open. Mindful listening emerged from the Asian tradition of mindfulness (see Brady, 2007, 2008; Olivero, 2017). Connected with empathy is the neuroscientific finding that humans are social beings who need to cooperate (Mercer, 2016). The ‘social brain hypothesis’ suggests that our cognition evolved to help our species to collaborate (Dunbar, 2009). Except for people with developmental delays, each of us is pre-programmed to develop a ‘theory of mind’ as young children. The theory of mind allows us to understand another person’s emotions, intentions, beliefs and knowledge; to hold multiple perspectives simultaneously; and to use that understanding in social settings (Kloo et al., 2010). A process for developing empathy

Below is a summary of Herling’s (2016) process of empathy development, which I express in my own cognitive framework. The process could be adapted for use with adolescents and adults in any educational situation. It could also be simplified for children. (1) The participant selects a group and identifies personal biases about that group. The participant chooses a group that is different from his or hers in at least one easily identifiable characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, nationality, home language, religion, age, gender, sexual orientation or appearance. (Remember from earlier in the chapter that Parekh, 2012, mentioned such factors as ‘arbitrary characteristics’ which can be used to spark both hate and hate speech.) The participant then identifies personal feelings or biases that might influence his or her view of people who have the characteristic(s) the participant has named – the ‘different group’. (2) The participant compares the different group with his or her own group. In this step, the participant considers the different group in terms of its beliefs, attitudes and behaviors and compares them with his or her own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. (3) The participant views his or her group as though seeing it for the first time. ‘Defamiliarization’ is a way for the participant to detach from an ingrained perspective and to look at his or her own group’s beliefs, attitudes and behaviors with new eyes. The participant becomes an outsider looking in, astonished by the strangeness of it. This might be how people from the other group view the participant’s group. (4) The participant experiences empathy with the different group. Having gone through the first three steps, the participant reaches a degree of empathy with the different group. The participant has become open to a new perspective and will be more able to dialogue members of the different group without the burden of stereotypes and prejudices.

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This is a very abbreviated version which does not hold a candle to Herling’s full explanation, so go to the original if possible. Also feel free to contact me about the process.

Part 4. A True Story of Moving from Hate Speech to Empathy

Is hatred a necessary element of our human bloodline? Roger Stone, a sentenced criminal and confidante of an American, spoke of hate as an inevitable part of ‘human nature’ and as ‘a stronger motivator than love’ (Dowd, 2019). The colloquial statement ‘Haters gonna hate’ accepts hate as the status quo and reflects views such as Stone’s. This perspective seems to fit much of human history. However, it is possible to pursue the pathway of positive peace, thereby emerging from hatred and hate speech into empathy, as discovered by Derek Black, the subject of the biography Rising out of Hatred: The Awakening of a Former Nationalist (Saslow, 2018). Black (his real name) grew up as an outspoken, fervent, yet highly intelligent white nationalist. His godfather was David Duke, Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, a notorious, hooded and masked hate group that emerged in the United States in the late 1860s to dominate and attack freed slaves and those who tried to help them. 5 As a teenager, Derek became a well-known hatespeech radio personality and used the internet to promote racist and antiSemitic beliefs. During his fi rst years at a highly liberal university, he continued to broadcast his white nationalist radio program and online hate messages. However, at the university he also became close to Jews, a Hispanic and others who would have been anathema to his family. Derek’s girlfriend and other friends helped him, through friendship, caring, discussion and reading, to disavow his contempt for non-whites. Slowly he gave up hate speech and became more empathetic and accepting of differences in people. As Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu stated, ‘Differences are not intended to separate, to alienate. We are different precisely in order to realize our need of one another’ (Tutu, 2007: 51). This is something Derek Black would now understand. In my view, love encompasses empathy and ubuntu. Treasures can be found in Barcelos’ chapter concerning revolutionary love (Chapter 6, this volume), as well as in a piece by Culham et al. (2018) on the pedagogy of love and in a book by Zajonc (2009), mentioned earlier, about ‘when knowing becomes love’. The love-related works of Martin Luther King, Jr (2001, 2007, 2010), Thich Nhat Hanh (1996, 2005, 2014), Mother Teresa (2002, 2007) and Pema Chödrön (1991, 2016) lead to immersion in love and peace rather than hate and discord. Martin Luther King, Jr (2001: 90) stated, ‘Hatred and bitterness can never cure the disease of fear; only love can do that’. King (1967) also wrote the unforgettable lines, ‘I have decided to stick with love. … [H]ate is too great a burden to bear’.

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Notes (1) Although positive peace is most often linked with social justice, I add that positive peace in its broadest sense can and does incorporate self-acceptance (inner peace) and environmental justice (ecological peace). (2) There is always a possible confl ict between UDHR Art. 19 (freedom of opinion and expression) and Art. 12, which prohibits by law ‘arbitrary … attacks upon [a person’s] honour and reputation’. Freedom of opinion and expression could be (mis)used to attack someone’s positive reputation. (3) Some of these possible reasons came from Augsburger (2004) and Oxford (2013). Others are new. (4) After the Home Rule Bill was ‘in the Statute book’, in Churchill’s phrase, he fi nally said something good about Gandhi: ‘Mr. Gandhi has gone very high in my esteem since he stood up for the untouchables’. He continued, ‘Tell Mr. Gandhi to use the powers that are offered and make the thing [better treatment of the untouchables] a success’ (Manchester, 2013: 147). (5) The KKK’s cross-burnings and nooses are embedded in the American psyche. The KKK enjoyed many high-power periods in the 1900s, including the unleashing of its murderous fury against civil rights activists in the 1960s. The increase in immigration has given the KKK yet another chance to demonstrate the malignant power of hate speech and hate crime.

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Roosevelt, F.D. (1941) FDR’s Four Freedoms speech: A call for human rights ‘everywhere in the world’. The Life, Times, and Vision of Franklin D. Roosevelt. See fdr4free doms.org/four-freedoms/ (accessed 10 November 2019). Salem, R. (2003) Empathic listening. In G. Burgess and H. Burgess (eds) Beyond Intractability. Boulder, CO: Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado. See https://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/empathic_listening (accessed 17 August 2019). Saslow, E. (2019) Rising out of Hatred: The Awakening of a Former White Nationalist. New York: Doubleday. Shafer, J. (2019) How to trick Trump into telling the truth. Politico Magazine, 22 October. See www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/10/22/how-to-trick-trump-into-tellingthe-truth-229874 (accessed 30 October 2019). Snyder, T. (2017) On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century. New York: Tim Duggan Books/Crown/Penguin Random House. Stout, D. (2015) Witness describes Khmer Rouge’s torture during genocide trial. Time Magazine, 3 February. See time.com/3693242/cambodia-khmer-rouge-genocide-untrial (accessed 12 November, 2019). Thích Nhat Hanh (1996) Cultivating the Mind of Love. New Delhi: Full Circle. Thích Nhat Hanh (2005) Teachings on Love. New Delhi: Full Circle. Thích Nhat Hanh (2014) How to Love. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. Timpson, W. (2010) Bridging faith, values, understanding, and life skills. In E.J. Brantmeier, J. Lin and J.P. Miller (eds) Spirituality, Religion, and Peace Education (pp. 227–239). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Toye, R. (2010) Churchill’s Empire: The World That Made Him and the World He Made. New York: St Martin’s Press. Tutu, D. (2007) Believe: The Words and Inspiration of Desmond Tutu. Boulder, CO: Blue Mountain Press. UN (1967) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). See treaties. un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006-17%20AM/Ch_IV_04.pdf (accessed 8 November 2019). UN General Assembly (1948) Universal Declaration of Human Rights. New York: United Nations. Verseck, K. (2017) Hate speech in the Hungarian election campaign. DW (Deutsche Welle), 13 December. See www.dw.com/en/hate-speech-in-the-hungarian-electioncampaign/a-41786438 (accessed 9 October 2019). Walker, S. (1994) Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Zajonc, A. (2009) Meditation as Contemplative Inquiry: When Knowing Becomes Love. Aurora, CO: Lindisfarne.

13 Applying Peace Linguistics: What Peacebuilders Can Learn from the Languages of Hurt, Hate and Harm Andy Curtis and Rebecca L. Oxford

The world perishes not from bandits and fi res, but from hatred, hostility, and all these petty squabbles. Anton Chekhov

In 1999 The Women’s Review of Books published an interview with Dr Valerie Jenness, a Professor in the Department of Criminology, Law & Society at the University of California, Irvine, where she was teaching a course on ‘Hate Crimes’. During the interview, entitled ‘Making sense of hatred’, Jenness explained that ‘The fi rst thing I do in the course is conceptualize hate crime by discussing what makes something a hate crime as opposed to a merely violent act, a malicious act, a hateful act, a mean act’ (Jenness, 1999: 18). Thus, for students to think about hate crimes, they must know clearly what ‘hate’ or ‘hatred’ means. The first two-thirds of this chapter are devoted to analyses of the fascinating but frightful terms, hate, hurt and harm (‘negative 3-H’ words), because we believe in-depth linguistic knowledge of these words is crucial for fully informed peacebuilders. We call this analytic approach ‘peace linguistics’. The last third of the chapter presents activities for further exploring the negative 3-H words for the purposes of peacebuilding. In contrast with the present chapter, which is linguistically oriented, the next chapter (Chapter 14) focuses more on the peace language in a less linguistically analytic sense. Specifically, Chapter 14 explores the meanings and uses of hope, help and harmony, the ‘positive 3-H’ words. In this chapter, we often use etymology, or the history of specific words, to enable readers to understand the deep meanings of the words ‘hate’, ‘hurt’ and ‘harm’. Our explanations of etymologies are not just historical curiosities; they get at the very heart of the matter regarding the most important terms in this chapter and perhaps in our lives in language 214

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education and peacebuilding. In the etymologies in this chapter, we present in boldface words or word roots found in any ancient ‘proto-language’, specifically ‘Proto-Indo-European’ (PIE) and ‘Proto-Germanic’ (PGmc). Proto-languages are ‘mother languages’ or ‘ancestor languages’ which no longer exist but which were reconstructed through the comparative method. PIE was used in the 2000 years from the Late Neolithic Age through the Late Bronze Age (bce 4500–2500) and was the mother language of numerous current languages – Latin, Greek, English, German, Welsh, Spanish, Italian, French, Portuguese, Russian, Ukrainian, Albanian, Punjabi, Bengali, Nepali, Hindustani, Persian and many more. PGmc, also known as Common Germanic, began as a PIE dialect. It was spoken during the last half of the first millennium bce and into the 1st century ce. PGmc was originally used in Scandinavia and then moved south to modern-day northern Germany and part of Denmark. See Ringe (2006) for specifics. The Negative 3-H Aspect

Table 13.1 shows important negative 3-H words: hate, hurt and harm. For these words, the verb forms and noun forms are exactly the same. Table 13.1 also indicates adjective forms: hateful, hurtful and harmful. The words in the table can cause, correlate with, reflect and exacerbate extreme phenomena such as genocide and war, as well as the racism, sexism, ageism, (dis)ableism and fear-filled phobias such as homophobia pervasive in many societies today. We begin our exploration with ‘hate’. Hate: The first element of the negative 3-H aspect

Hate can be a verb, a noun and part of a compound word, as we demonstrate below. It is also part of evocatively threatening phrases, as in ‘love to hate’ and ‘hate on (someone)’. It has such destructive power and range that dictionaries, thesauruses and etymological studies give ‘hate’ vast attention, and today’s media sources blare out examples of hate on a daily basis in many cultures, including our own, in Canada and the United States. Hate as a verb

‘Hate’ as a verb came from the ancient PIE root, *kad-, meaning a combination of ill-will and sorrow (Harper, 2019). It makes sense that this Table 13.1 Negative 3-H words Verb

Noun

Adjective

Hate

Hate

Hateful

Hurt

Hurt

Hurtful

Harm

Harm

Harmful

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root involves a mixture of feelings, which might have been a complex reaction to the real or threatened loss of something important. This root transformed into the PGmc verb *haton (to hate) and then to Old English hatian (regard with extreme ill-will, have a passionate aversion to, treat as an enemy) (Harper, 2019). What does it mean, ‘to hate someone/something’, according to the Macmillan Dictionary? When ‘hate’ is used as a transitive verb, the defi nition is ‘to dislike someone or something very much’, and one of the accompanying examples is ‘I hate the smell of cigarettes’. There is also self-hating, in which we treat ourselves as the enemy, turning against our own thoughts, words and actions. Hate as a noun

What is ‘hate’? ‘Hate’ as a noun was from the same PIE root as the verb, *kad- . The root *kad- developed into the PGmc word *hatis (extreme ill-will, passionate aversion, the feeling one has toward an enemy), then Old English hete (spite, envy, malice, hostility) (Harper, 2019). Today’s meaning of the noun ‘hate’ is much like the meaning of the PGmc and Old English forms. ‘Hatred’ is often used as a synonym for the noun ‘hate’. In fact, these words are frequently used interchangeably. However, these words have somewhat different lineages. ‘Hatred’, which first appeared in Old English in the 13th century, has an unusual and somewhat complicated history. Two PIE roots, *kad- (defi ned above) and *re- (to reason, count) were originally separate but came together in Old English as hete (spite, envy, malice, hostility; see above) plus the rarely used suffix -red (a condition or state), related to the Old English noun ræden (condition, state) and the Old English verb ræden (to advise, discuss, rule, read, guess). For this information, see Harper (2019). The online Macmillan English Dictionary defi nes the uncountable noun ‘hate’ as ‘the feeling of hating someone or something’ and gives this intensity-revealing example: ‘She looked at him with eyes full of hate’. If our eyes really are the windows to our soul (Ludden, 2015), then phrases such as ‘if looks could kill’ can be seen in a new light. Very occasionally, ‘hate’ is used a countable noun, as in the British phrase ‘pet hates’, meaning the main things someone dislikes, according to the Macmillan Dictionary. In that expression, ‘pet’ is an adjective modifying the plural noun ‘hates’ – a phrase parallel to but stronger than ‘pet peeves’ (Macmillan Dictionary). Compounding hate

A compound word combines two or more words that work together to form one unit of meaning. There are three types of compound words: open, hyphenated and closed. An open compound consists of words that function semantically as a single semantic unit but whose parts stay separate and unhyphenated. A hyphenated compound contains two words

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joined by a hyphen (or three words joined by two hyphens). A closed compound consists of at least two words that literally become one word, without hyphenation. ‘Hate’ compounds appear to be primarily of the first two types, open and hyphenated. (Although this chapter will focus on the English language, it is worth remembering that in some other languages words can be compounded without hyphens, such as the German word Rindfl eischetikettierungsueberwachungsaufgabenuebertragungsgesetz, which would be written in English as ‘law-delegating-beef-labelmonitoring’.) Three open compounds, hate mail, hate crime and hate speech, are increasingly common in the angst-ridden age in which we live (Kahn, 2012), although their use began earlier. The following definitions of these terms come from the Macmillan Dictionary. ‘Hate mail’ refers to ‘extremely unpleasant letters sent to someone, containing threats or offensive remarks’. A ‘hate crime’ is ‘a crime that is done by someone because they hate the group that the victim … belongs to’. ‘Hate speech’ is ‘a statement expressing hatred for a particular group of people’. According to a prominent etymologist, ‘hate mail’ first appeared in English in the early 1950s and ‘hate crime’ in the late 1980s, and although the widespread, modern use of the term ‘hate speech’ appeared in the early 1990s, that phrase can be traced back to the translation of a poem in the late 1890s (Harper, 2019). See Chapter 12 in this book for more on hate speech and ways in which some people, institutions and countries have tried to deal with it. Synonyms for ‘hate’

More than 40 synonyms for the noun ‘hate’ (extreme dislike) are listed on Thesaurus.com. These synonyms are presented in terms of degrees of closeness in meaning to the noun ‘hate’. Words from ‘animosity’ to ‘venom’ have the greatest closeness to ‘hate’, while words from ‘abhorrence’ to ‘trouble’ show more moderate closeness to ‘hate’. At the lowest level of synonym-closeness to ‘hate’ is the French phrase bête noir, literally ‘black beast’, which has a clearly animalistic sense but which might conceal a potentially racial allusion. Another study of synonyms (Thesaurus.com) reveals some important shades of meaning for the verb ‘hate’. Intense dislike or aversion is shown by the verbs hate, abhor, detest and abominate. The most general of these, ‘hate’, expresses passionate dislike and enmity, as in ‘I hate Politician X’. ‘Abhor’ implies deep repugnance, rejection and horror, as in ‘We abhor the genocides that have occurred throughout the ages’. ‘Detest’ suggests not only strong dislike but also disdain, as in ‘Those hockey players are worthless; I detest the whole team’. ‘Abominate’ portrays true disgust and repulsion toward a person or thing, such as the infamous ‘Abominable Snowman’. Some less vicious verbs and verb phrases related to the verb ‘hate’ include ‘be allergic to’, ‘deride’, ‘belittle’, ‘look down on’ and ‘sneer at’ (Thesaurus.com).

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Additional sources provide synonyms for ‘hate’ as a noun or verb. ‘Odium’, a powerful, evocative synonym for ‘hate’ or ‘hatred’, came from the Latin for ‘ill-will, hatred, grudge, animosity; offense, offensive conduct’ (Harper, 2019). An example of its use is ‘Telling lies to the public every day is bound to bring odium down on him’. ‘Odium’ is related to the Latin odi, meaning ‘I hate’ (infi nitive odisse) (Harper, 2019). It is also related to the Greek odussasthai, ‘to be angry’, according to the Collins English Dictionary, which shows that hatred is often tied to anger or rage. Looking to the deep past, ‘odium’ came from the PIE root *od-, meaning ‘to hate’, which also spawned the Old English atol, meaning ‘loathsome’ (Harper, 2019). This linkage could explain why the person or thing we hate is experienced as loathsome or disgusting. Odium has many synonyms that are used today in addition to ‘hatred’: ‘detestation’, ‘abhorrence’, ‘antipathy’ and ‘obloquy’ (Thesaurus.com). Try out those words to get noticed at the next faculty meeting, workplace gathering or cocktail party! Hurt: The second element of the negative 3-H aspect

Having established that there are different kinds of hate, expressed in a variety of ways, using a wide range of communicative channels, from saying and writing hateful words and phrases to comments posted on social media, we can now look at the second H in our 3-H framework: Hurt. Hurt as a verb

As explained by Harper (2019), ‘hurt’ as a transitive verb and a noun appeared in the English language in the 13th century from the Old French hurter, a word of uncertain origin. The transitive verb meant ‘to injure, wound (body, feelings, reputation, etc.)’ and also ‘to stumble into, bump into, charge against, rush, crash into, knock (things) together’. (Much later, in the early 20th century, the verb ‘hurt’ additionally acquired an intransitive meaning, ‘to feel or experience pain’, as in ‘I hurt today’). Whoever came up with the saying ‘Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me’ had clearly never encountered the kind of language that many of us are exposed to on a daily basis. A more accurate version of that particular pearl of (un)wisdom was reportedly said by the Armenian-American actor and playwright, Eric Bogosian: ‘Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words cause permanent damage’ (Langman & Gold, 1994: 222). A sarcastic idiom involving the verb has been around for many decades: ‘It wouldn’t hurt you to [do something]’, as in ‘It wouldn’t hurt you to help with the housework for a change’ or ‘It wouldn’t hurt you to be friendly at the party, instead of standing in the corner by yourself’.

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Hurt as a noun

The noun ‘hurt’, arriving along with the transitive verb, meant ‘a wound, an injury’ and also ‘sorrow, lovesickness’, indicating both the physical and the emotional damage signified by ‘hurt’. Some hurts are just short term but others can last a lifetime. These days it is common to hear someone moan, using the noun, ‘I’m in a world of hurt’ or ‘I’m in a world of pain’, with the former being more common in the United States and the latter in the United Kingdom. Although this lamentation could be about something permanent, people generally use it to refer to a wound or injury of shorter duration. It is worth noting the etymological or semantic irony that, in British English, a ‘hurter’, which would be assumed to mean ‘the one who does the hurting’, is in fact ‘an object or part that gives protection, such as a concrete block that protects a building from traffic’ (Collinsdictionary.com, emphasis added). That unexpected positivity of ‘hurters’ also draws attention to a potentially protective function of pain. For example, when we are children, the first time we burn (or nearly burn) our hand by getting too close to a naked flame is often the last time we put our hand in such a position. Therefore, physical pain can help us avoid making the same mistake again, and the same may be true in some ways for emotional pain. For example, when we are adolescents, we may throw ourselves headlong into our first serious relationship, only to have our hearts ‘broken’ – or to ‘break’ the heart of a loved one. Those examples distinguish ‘hate’ from ‘hurt’ in at least one important way, as there are no positive or protective forms of ‘hate’. However, experiencing physical or emotional pain (hurt), as long as it does no long-term damage, can help us avoid such pain in future. Sports as war and how people get hurt

As a result of the success of the 2008 film The Hurt Locker (see review by Olsen, 2008), and its popularity at the time, a number of interesting online discussions about ‘hurt’ and ‘hurting’ took place. For example, the BBC online news service reported that, according to Bigelow, ‘hurt locker’ was US army slang for ‘severe injury’ (BBC News Magazine, 2010). The BBC report went on to explain that ‘hurt’ ‘used adjectivally means something which causes suffering’, and quoted Fiona McPherson, the senior editor of the Oxford English Dictionary’s new words group, who explained the link between war and sports by saying: It’s not unusual for something in the military to make the move into sports reporting. You often hear of footballers being ‘midfield generals’ or rugby pitches being ‘battlefields’ or players ‘waging war’. Rightly or wrongly the language [of war] seems to lend itself well to sports. (BBC News Magazine, 2010)

In this case, ‘the language’ appears to be English, so McPherson’s comments may not necessarily apply to all languages, but making the war–sports connection may be more important than is realized. The BBC

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also quoted Nick Szczepanik, a US baseball and American football correspondent, who stated: War words lend themselves to writing about sport. Sport is confrontation. Particularly in international sports, it is war without weapons. We talk about victory and defeat – the ratcheting up of the whole value system. The temptation is to reach for something that makes [sport] more important. (BBC News Magazine, 2010, emphasis added)

If the many millions of people around the world who watch sports and play sports every day think of it in militaristic terms, would that make war more or less likely? Either way, such a ‘sport is war’ and/or ‘war is sport’ mindset may desensitize people to ‘real’ wars, fought on battlefields rather than on sports fields. Professor Azadeh Aalai, a Scholar-in-Residence at the Kupferberg Holocaust Center, pointed out in her 2012 article in Psychology Today, entitled ‘Sport as warfare?’: ‘Historically, gaming rituals have oftentimes been either precursors to actual war or ways to prepare young boys for war. The metaphor of sports as warfare is in no way a new one, and has endured throughout the ages’. After all those ages of human history, are we still equating one with the other, sport with war, and vice versa? We seem to be willing for athletes, even teenagers playing football on a Friday night, to absorb hurt as though they were on the battlefield. Just how much hurt do we believe is acceptable in sports? The Alzheimer’s Association (2018) gives us the bad news that ‘repeated mild traumatic brain injuries, such as those that can occur in sports like American football, boxing, hockey and soccer, may be linked to a greater risk of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a form of dementia. … The symptoms of CTE may include memory loss, confusion, impaired judgment, impulse control problems, aggression, depression, anxiety, suicidality, parkinsonism …, and, eventually, progressive dementia. These symptoms may begin years or even decades after the last traumatic brain injury’. Yes, a sports injury that leads to dementia would defi nitely put someone ‘in a world of hurt/pain’. Keeping that in mind, we now turn to the third element of the negative 3-H aspect: harm. Harm: The third element of the negative 3-H aspect

Harm is the last, but by no means the least, element of the negative 3-H aspect. The meaning of ‘harm’ overlaps greatly with that of ‘hurt’. There are also relationships between hate and harm. Hate causes great harm to people, and being seriously or severely harmed by someone can spark and fan the flames of hatred. Harm as a verb

As a verb, ‘harm’ comes from Old English hearmian (to hurt, injure), based on the Old English noun hearm (Harper, 2019), derived from the

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noun (see below). The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2019) gives the following as a current defi nition of the transitive verb ‘harm’: ‘to damage or injure physically or mentally; to cause harm’, as in ‘The national interest was gravely harmed by this attack’. The inference is often that someone harms a person, animal or object deliberately. Harm as a noun

As noted by Harper (2019), the noun form emerged earlier than the verb form. The noun came from the PIE root *kormo- (pain). It was transformed into the PGmc noun *harmaz (pain, injury, grief). The Old English noun hearm (hurt, pain, evil, insult) led to our current English word ‘harm’. In Old High German the noun was harm, which took on an initial capital in the German noun Harm (grief, sorrow, harm). Related adjectives

‘Harmless’ arose as a term around 1300, meaning at that time ‘uninjured’, but within a few decades the word ‘unharmed’ emerged, taking on a similar meaning. By the 1530s, ‘harmless’ came to mean ‘without the power or disposition to harm’ (Harper, 2019), which is the meaning we know today. ‘Harmful’ arose in the mid-14th century. Old English used hearmful, but ‘harmful’ appears to come from Middle English (Harper, 2019). What’s the harm in bullying?

A major source of harm for children and teens is bullying at school or online. Bullying can scar the emotions and even push certain children to suicide. An article for U.S. News and World Report by Raychelle Lohmann (2018) was tellingly entitled, ‘What to do when your teen is being bullied’ (emphasis added) rather than ‘if your teen is being bullied’. Lohmann reported on a study conducted by researchers at Florida Atlantic University and the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Results indicated that, of the 20,000 youths in the study, ‘73 percent of teens ages 12 to 17 reported that they have been bullied at school, and 44 percent said the bullying had occurred within the past 30 days’. To put those percentages into perspective, that means 4,600 and 8,800 young people, respectively (bullied at school versus bullied during the last 30 days), reported having been bullied. The cumulative effects of such bullying cannot be precisely calculated but are likely to be large and long term. However, bullying does not stop outside of school. Lohmann stated that in a study conducted by Pew Research Center, six out of every ten teenagers reported being bullied through social media, while eight out of every ten of the same teens also reported being bullied at school (11,800 and 16,000 young people, respectively). Children can be taunted and hounded by bullies for almost anything, especially anything that represents ‘differentness’, ‘otherness’ or ‘foreignness’, including gender, sexual orientation, race (including skin color), religion, physical appearance (especially being obese), clothing and shoes,

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‘nerdiness’, disabilities, poverty or family problems. The school and the internet can easily become sites of harm, hurt and sometimes horror. Language plays a huge role. ‘You’re fat. You’re a slob. You’re poor. You’re gay. You’re a slut. You’re ugly. You wear the wrong clothes. You’re a Muslim, so you’re a terrorist’, and on and on it goes. Bullying hits the high water mark with harmful commands like the following, all too often said, ‘Just go home and kill yourself. You deserve to die’. Tragically, some bullied victims do just that, committing what is sometimes called ‘bullycide’. See Oxford (2013) for a discussion of bullying, and Serani (2018) for facts and figures on ‘bullycide’. More about ‘Hate’, ‘Hurt’ and ‘Harm’

The fact that hate is harmful is not news to anyone who has ever been on the receiving end of hateful, harmful, hurtful language. However, these three things are not the same, although they are sometimes used as though they are synonymous (perhaps, in part, because of the three-part alliterative rhythm that these three words create). The point of our discussion above is to use a language-based understanding of the three, as a way of helping people reflect on what is often an overwhelming set of feelings. For example, if one person says to another, ‘I hate you’, depending on the interlocutors and the context, a great deal of damage, on many different levels, can occur instantly and can take a long time to recover from. Hate needs to be in a category of its own, so it can be clearly and unequivocally identified as such. Hate often leads to harmful and hurtful behavior. To use a medical analogy, whereas harmful and hurtful behavior are symptoms of some kind of ‘disease’ – or ‘dis-ease’ (see Sharoff, 1997) – the root cause is hate. Taking a language-based perspective, we can see that the clear and concrete opposite of ‘to hate’ is ‘to love’. However, in English there is no adjectival opposite to ‘hated’ using the suffi x ‘un-’. The term ‘unhated’ is not used, even though it is correct to say ‘unhurt’ as the opposite of the adjective ‘hurt’ and ‘unharmed’ as the opposite of the adjective ‘harmed’. Applying Knowledge of the Negative 3-H Aspect for Peacebuilding Purposes

It might seem paradoxical that knowledge of the negative 3-H aspect can be useful in helping to foster peace. However, this section explains how such a paradox can come to life in a productive way. Basically, we explain how a critical study of hateful, hurtful and harmful language can encourage second and foreign language (L2) learners to avoid such language in the future. L2 learners can be peacebuilders throughout their lives in both their home language and any other languages they use, and they can be a peace catalyst for other people.

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Simply telling L2 learners not to use ‘bad language’, such as the trio of hate, hurt and harm (negative 3-H language), is likely to have a limited effect, especially in L2 education, because what constitutes such language in one culture may be fi ne in another, and vice versa. However, there are numerous peace-related ways to make use of understanding hateful, hurtful and harmful language. Activity 1. Discussing insults in the L1 to avoid making them in the L2

An approach based on making use of the learners’ first languages (L1s) in the L2 classroom could include discussing some examples of words and phrases from the course participants’ L1s that are considered to be hateful, hurtful and/or harmful. Needless to say, great care needs to be taken to avoid causing offense to anyone in the class, as many words in the negative 3-H cluster are considered to be unacceptable to say in public – for example, in English (and many other languages) the words and phrases that refer to female and male body parts (especially the reproductive organs). One way to avoid anyone causing offense or embarrassment to anyone else would be for the course participants to write, anonymously, the words and phrases onto pieces of paper, to protect the identity of those who have contributed examples from their L1. Of course, the more homogenous the class the less anonymity will be possible, as there may only be one or two students from a particular L1 group, making them easily identifiable. A discussion of what makes those L1 words and phrases fall within the negative 3-H cluster could be helpful in distinguishing between direct and indirect expressions, from the direct ‘I hate you’ to the indirect ‘You’re a …’ followed by an insult of some kind, usually in the form of a noun or an adjective, for example: ‘You’re an idiot!’ or ‘You’re stupid!’ However, ‘You’re gay!’ is the third rail in many cultures and many languages and should be avoided. Activity 2. Using pictures of hateful, hurtful or harmful communication

Another way to help learners recognize the danger of hateful, hurtful or harmful communication is to ask them to fi nd pictures of such communication in action. Respected newspapers and magazines often contain photos or cartoons of this kind of communication, often regarding political or social situations. Some serious publications, such as the Guardian in the UK or the New York Times in the United States, as well as their online versions, include photos or cartoons that would be useful for this task. Use of ‘published’ online pictures or photographs might be possible, but again learners must be discerning in their choice of sources. Far-right or far-left sources should be avoided, because their views and

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negative language use are often extreme and misleading. Sharing negative-communication photos from Facebook or Instagram, unless they show the learner himself or herself and are chosen by that learner, could be understood as too personal or misleading. Publications or online sources that are dubious or overly personal should only be used if learners are prepared well enough to know when lies and misleading information are being used to convey hate, hurt or harm and if learners are capable of identifying and critiquing communication that is untrue or too personal. Some learners who are adept at photography can create their own photos about this type of negative communication. However, a caution is that it can be dangerous to photograph people who are actively using insulting, demeaning or other negative language unless learners obtain permission from the communicators. Such people might get quite angry at a learner taking photographs of their use of hateful, hurtful or harmful language. Photographs might be taken at a group rally or march that allows significant physical distance, but even in such instances, learners should be careful. Learners can draw their own pictures or cartoons of hateful, hurtful or harmful language in action in public or private communication – but not necessarily giving an easily identifiable image of public figures, such as the leader of a given country, if that would create too much dispute or upsetting argumentation in a given class. The teacher can be the judge of the value (or danger) of drawing famous people who are using negative language before offering the option of drawing. With any of these possibilities, learners could label the specific type of negative communication in English (e.g. ‘This is an example of hate talk’ or ‘Harmful language being used here’) and discuss it in small groups. Small groups can report back to the class as a whole if desired without identifying the specific person who shared. Activity 3. Employing key sources to grasp the origins of hateful, hurtful and harmful language

One way to sharpen the linguistic skills of high-intermediate or advanced learners of English as an L2 (English as a second language, ESL, and/or English as a foreign language, EFL) is to create lessons on the origins and development of hateful, hurtful and harmful English. This is a mode of directly using the L2, English, rather than using the L1 as a key to the importance and dangers of hateful, hurtful and harmful uses of English. This mode can be used in classes involving ESL or EFL speaking, vocabulary or pragmatics. It consists of students going to sources such as the dictionary, Etymology.com (Harper, 2019), Thesaurus.com and even the present chapter to discover where certain hateful, hurtful or harmful words came from and to fi nd examples of their current usages. The

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origins and development of words can often tell learners about the feelings and thoughts that gave rise to such words and phrases, and how they function or operate. Learners can outline their fi ndings and share them in small groups, who could then write them on posters or on PowerPoint or Prezzi and share them with the whole class. Within the whole class, learners could point out the similarities and differences in the small-group fi ndings. Ask students to link (a) the linguistic information about hateful, hurtful or harmful language with (b) real situations in which people have used such language between individuals or groups. Activity 4. Discussing what peace means and how negative 3-H language can reduce peace

3-H-related concepts can become part of peacebuilding for L2 learners. Teachers could encourage learners to discuss what peace means to them (see Oxford, 2013, for a well-tested model of how this can easily be done). Learners could then discuss how hateful, hurtful and harmful language can reduce peace and could give examples of settings in which this could occur. They could then brainstorm ways to use more peace-promoting language in those settings. (See the next chapter, which centers on peacebuilding language involving the trio of words ‘hope, help and harmony’.) Activity 5. Critically evaluating research, journalism and/or films

This chapter reveals that the language in the negative 3-H aspect, i.e. words or phrases involving hate, hurt and harm, can sometimes be employed for the good of society. Examples are medical, psychological and social research on hateful, hurtful and harmful behaviors, as well as journalistic and film portrayals of the same. Students could study examples of sources like research, journalism and fi lms that are meant to highlight the problems with hate mail, hate speech, warlike sports, war itself, bullying and addictive substances and habits. These revelatory sources are not meant to promote negative language, behaviors and situations but are instead intended to open people’s eyes to the extreme difficulties posed by the negative language, behaviors and situations. Students could be asked to watch excerpts or whole films (e.g. US films such as The Hurt Locker, Born on the Fourth of July or fi lms from other countries) and to discuss critically what they learned. They could then evaluate and discuss the potential of such films for waking people up to the socially and personally dire effects of war. Students could encounter serious, high-quality online reporting (e.g. from the Southern Poverty Law Center, BBC, CNN or other major sources) about hateful, hurtful and harmful language and behaviors and could evaluate and discuss the potential assistance such reporting provides. All such evaluation-oriented

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activities encourage the development of learners’ critical thinking capacities. One of the points of discussion could be ‘What makes a source trustworthy and deserving of learners’ attention?’ In our own view, without serious, helpful films and without journalistic reporting of difficult problems with hateful, hurtful, harmful language and behaviors, the world would be poorer in its understanding. Lessons on this topic would be particularly salient for intermediate to advanced L2 learners and would need to be handled with tact and diplomacy. If students themselves are asked to locate the materials for discussion, teachers would need to check the materials in advance to ensure the quality of the sources. Alternatively, teachers could find and provide trustworthy materials to the students. Conclusion

The first part of this chapter explored in depth the negative 3-H concepts of hateful, hurtful and harmful language and some of their applications. The second section particularly focused on how negative 3-H language can paradoxically be used as examples in L2 learning activities for peacebuilding purposes. L2 learners can enhance their peacebuilding competence through these activities. In addition, beyond the activities in the second section, the entire chapter aims to foster peace by helping its readers identify the negative 3-H form of communication and by sensitizing readers to how such communication is used, for good (as in some medical reporting) but often for ill (as in bullying). One outcome of this chapter is to help us all to understand the power of language, the deeply contextual nature of meaning-making, and the damage that negative 3-H language can do in certain circumstances. The following chapter explores positive 3-H (hopeful, helpful and harmonious) language. Part of that discussion presents ways in which language teachers and learners can apply educational interventions that promote a deep understanding of the peacebuilding strengths of positive 3-H communication.

References Key linguistics references

The following reference works (2018–2019, except as otherwise noted) were used to identify word histories and current meanings for this chapter. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus. See https://dictionary.cam bridge.org/us/. Cambridge Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See https://dictionary. cambridge.org.

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Collins English Dictionary Online (2012) See https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english. Harper, D. (2019) Etymology Online. See https://www.etymonline.com. Macmillan Dictionary: Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus Online. See https://www. macmillandictionary.com. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. See https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/. Oxford English Dictionary. See https://en.oxforddictionaries.com. Thesaurus.com. See https://www.thesaurus.com.

Other references Aalai, A. (2012) Sports as warfare? The latest NFL scandal exposes a fundamental delusion in American football. Psychology Today, 9 April. See https://www.psychology today.com/us/blog/the-fi rst-impression/201204/sports-warfare. Alzheimer’s Association (2018) Traumatic Brain Injury. See https://www.alz.org/alzheim ers-dementia/what-is-dementia/related_conditions/traumatic-brain-injury. BBC News Magazine (2010) What is a ‘hurt locker’? BBC News Magazine, 8 March. See http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8555318.stm. Jenness, V. (1999) Making sense of hatred. Women’s Review of Books 16 (5), 18–20. Kahn, J.P. (2012) Angst: The Origins of Anxiety and Depression. New York: Oxford University Press. Langman, L. and Gold, P. (1994) Comedy Quotes from the Movies: Over 4,000 Bits of Humorous Dialogue from All Film Genres. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Classics. Lohmann, R.C. (2018) What to do when your teen is being bullied in school. U.S. News and World Report, 30 October. See https://health.usnews.com/wellness/for-parents/ articles/2018-10-30/what-to-do-when-your-teen-is-being-bullied-in-school. Ludden, D. (2015) Your eyes really are the window to your soul. Psychology Today, 31 December. See www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/talking-apes/201512/your-eyesreally-are-the-window-your-soul. Olsen, M. (2008) The Iraq war – from the troops’ point of view. Entertainment Section, Los Angeles Times, 8 September. See http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/08/entertainment/et-hurt8. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NY: Information Age Publishing. Ringe, D. (2006) A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to ProtoGermanic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Serani, D. (2018) Bullycide: When a bullied child dies by suicide. Psychology Today, 2 June. See https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/two-takes-depression/201806/ bullycide. Sharoff, L. (1997) Coping with the dis-ease of having a disease: A holistic perspective. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 35 (10), 43–45.

14 Exploring Peace Language: Hope, Help and Harmony Rebecca L. Oxford and Andy Curtis

The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence. Rabindranath Tagore

‘Everything that is done in the world is done by hope’, wrote Martin Luther, the 16th century German leader of the Protestant Reformation, in his Table Talk (see Luther, 1832). We could expand this famous remark by saying, ‘Everything good that is done in the world is done by hope as we help each other in the quest for harmony’. Alternatively, we could also say, ‘The only hope we have for harmony comes from giving and receiving help and understanding’. Indeed, the three most important words in this chapter are hope, help and harmony. We call these the ‘positive 3-H words’, in contrast with the ‘negative 3-H’ words in the prior chapter: hate, hurt and harm. This chapter contains the following parts: introduction of the positive 3-H words, a section on each of these words, and a discussion of interventions that can promote hope, help and harmony. Introducing the Positive 3-H words

Table 14.1 presents the positive 3-H words, including these forms: nouns, verbs and adjectives. We use the terms ‘positive’ here (and ‘negative’ in the previous chapter) because these terms offer a very convenient way to organize concepts and to talk about words and human values. However, we do not want to imply simplistic contrasts, such as polar opposition. We do not believe in a sharply dualistic, Manichean universe, neatly divided into good versus evil, light versus dark, or positive and negative. Complexity theory tells us that nothing is simple and that systems are interconnected, possess multiple causality and often have unpredictable outcomes. We employ the words ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ primarily because they are a means of communicating ideas simply concerning a world that is much more complex. This chapter, compared with Chapter 13, is less oriented toward (analytical) peace linguistics than toward the rich and varied use of the words 228

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Table 14.1 Positive 3-H words Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Hope

Hope

Hopeful

Help

Help

Helpful

Harmony

Harmonize

Harmonious

hope, help and harmony in action. Examples span the centuries, from ancient Greece to the Reformation to the 20th century and the present day, and they quote or refer to many types of people, such as: religious and spiritual leaders, including one who was also an icon for civil rights; language teachers, writers, poets and a playwright who was also a socialist historian; philosophers, psychologists and psychiatrists; and, not to be left out, the Beatles singing group. Although the use of the positive 3-H words is the paramount feature of this chapter, we also present certain linguistic fundamentals from the following sources: Etymology Online by Harper (2019) for word histories; Merriam-Webster Unabridged (2019b), which includes a dictionary, word histories, synonyms and antonyms; MerriamWebster Thesaurus (2019a); Roget’s Thesaurus (Kipfer, 2013); and the Cambridge University Dictionary (2019). We often sought out Harper’s version fi rst and checked what we had found by looking in the other sources. Some words came from very old ‘proto-languages’, such as ProtoIndo-European or Proto-Germanic (see Chapter 13 for details), the ancestor languages that were reconstructed by the comparative method from ‘daughter languages’. Any proto-language words or word roots are shown in boldface. We start our journey now with the word ‘hope’. Hope

Scioli and Biller (2009) identified hope as humankind’s most important virtue. French existential philosopher Marcel (1962) called hope ‘the oxygen of the soul’. Let’s see what these ideas mean by fi rst looking at the history of the word ‘hope’ and then at an array of writings about hope. Exploring the word ‘hope’

Here we discuss hope as a noun, verb and adjective, with the assistance of Harper (2019) unless otherwise noted. As a noun, this word began with the Old English hopa, which meant ‘confidence in the future, especially God or Christ as a basis for hope’. From the early 13th century, the noun meant the ‘expectation of something desired’, ‘trust’ and ‘confidence’. Starting in the late 14th century it meant ‘the thing hoped for’ or the ‘grounds or basis for hope’. Because hope includes an expectation that has a basis, it is different from optimism, which is a generally sunny, expectant attitude that does not necessarily have a reasonable basis.

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As a verb, ‘hope’ includes the sense of trust and comes from the Old English hopian, a word of unknown origin which means ‘to have trust, have confidence; assume confidently or trust’ (that something desired is or will be so). A theological usage is to hope for salvation or mercy, assuming that these will in fact occur. Cognates include the Old Frisian hopia; Middle Low German, Middle Dutch and Dutch hopen; and Middle High German hoffen, all meaning ‘to hope’. The phrase ‘to hope against hope’, from the 1610s, means to trust or have confidence (that something will occur), but this implies only an incomplete expectation or belief in its occurrence – hence the word ‘against’ in the phrase. In the 13th century, ‘hopeful’ meant ‘full of hope’. However, in the 16th century it also meant ‘having qualities that excited hope’. The noun ‘hopefulness’, which developed from the adjective ‘hopeful’, refers to the condition of being hopeful. A study in Merriam-Webster Thesaurus (2019a) showed that ‘hopefulness’ can mean ‘having positive beliefs’, with synonyms such as certainty, confidence and trust. However, beyond those rather sober synonyms, hopefulness can be emotionally lively in a jumping-for-joy sort of way. In that sense, hopefulness has synonyms such as enthusiasm, happiness and elation (based on an expectation) – a condition nearly everyone would want. Conversely, the words ‘hopeless’ and ‘hopelessness’ conjure up great negativity. ‘Hopeless’, fi rst used in the 16th century, meant ‘offering no grounds for hope’ and then ‘having no expectation of success’ (Harper, 2019). Hopelessness can be linked with negative distortions of reality (Clarke, 2003) and with despair (Vaillant, 2008). To Vaillant (2008: 103), ‘Suffering equals hope destroyed’. Scioli and Biller (2009) described nine types of hopelessness in our age of anxiety: (a) alienation, forsakenness and lack of inspiration; (b) powerlessness, oppression and limitedness; and (c) doom (despair), captivity and helplessness. Thinking about ‘hope’ with assistance from positive psychology and other fields

Howard Zinn (2004), American historian, playwright and socialist thinker, offered the following wisdom about hope: We need hope. … To be hopeful in bad times is not just foolishly romantic. It is based on the fact that human history is a history not only of cruelty but also of compassion, sacrifice, courage, kindness. What we choose to emphasize in this complex history will determine our lives. If we see only the worst, it destroys our capacity to do something. If we remember those times and places – and there are so many – where people have behaved magnificently, this gives us the energy to act … The future is an infi nite succession of presents, and to live now as we think human beings should live, in defiance of all that is bad around us, is itself a marvelous victory. (Zinn, 2004)

In a useful review of research on hope in psychological, psychiatric and nursing areas, Schrank et al. (2008) offered 49 defi nitions of hope.

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The consensus of these defi nitions indicated: that hope is a generally future-orientated expectation, believed to be realistic; that a person will attain valued, meaningful goals; and that reaching these goals depends on personal effort, features like resilience or courage and external factors like helpful resources. Expressed differently, hope has four general components, according to the research review by Schrank and colleagues: affective (e.g. trust, confidence, humor and positive emotions); cognitive (reflecting on past experiences, goal-setting, planning and assessing the likelihood of success); behavioral (e.g. motivation and personal activity); and environmental (e.g. availability of resources, care and relationships). Hope can be someone’s expectation of keeping an existing good life or status in the future, or it could be an individual’s expectation of improvements in life in the future (Schrank et al., 2008). Perhaps, for some people, both are true. No matter what, rather than being a wish or fantasy, hope is a ‘desire accompanied by (reasonable) expectation’ (Clarke, 2003: 164). Vaillant (2008), a highly respected psychiatrist, explained that hope comes from our earliest experiences of receiving care as an infant and child, and when these experiences are turbulent or negative, hope might be difficult to develop. He also described hope as ‘the very foundation block of all human development’ (Vaillant, 2008: 110). However, we have seen people with difficult early childhood experiences who later developed hope when receiving love and caring after early childhood. The best-known theory of hope (Snyder, 1994, 2000, 2002) is a primarily cognitive theory which comes from positive psychology. This theory defi nes hope as a cognitive set including a person’s beliefs in (a) his or her capacity to produce workable pathways to goals (mental targets or desired future conditions that guide actions) and (b) his or her agency, i.e. ability and intention to initiate and sustain movement via pathways toward those goals. Using Snyder’s model, researchers found that higher levels of very long-term hope (trait hope) are linked with greater academic success and other factors, such as previous academic performance, college entrance-exam scores and self-esteem (Oxford, 2016b), even when intelligence is statistically controlled for. People with high hope scores, in contrast to those with low hope scores, are more energized, inspired, goal-oriented, satisfied and confident, and less depressed (Snyder et al., 1997; Wrobleski & Snyder, 2005). Now we turn to the second positive 3-H word, ‘help’. Help

We first explore the history of the word ‘help’, the roots of which are older than those of ‘hope’. Then we offer further thoughts about help as a concept.

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Exploring the word ‘help’

The current noun ‘help’ initially came from the Proto-Germanic *help (see Chapter 13 for information on Proto-Germanic and other proto-languages). Proto-Germanic (PGmc) was also the source of the Old Norse hjalp, Swedish hjälp, Old Frisian helpe, Dutch hulp, Old High German helfa and German Hilfe (Harper, 2019). In Old English, the noun help (masculine) meant ‘assistance’ or ‘succor’, and the current English meaning is the same. The thesaurus tells us that today’s English synonyms for the noun help include assistance, aid, balm, comfort, cooperation, guidance, relief and support (Kipfer, 2013; Merriam-Webster Thesaurus, 2019a). Who wouldn’t want to receive help like this? Antonyms include blockage, encumbrance, handicap, hindrance, injury and obstruction, so giving help must involve aiding in the removal of such barriers (Kipfer, 2013). However, sometimes the noun ‘help’ refers to the person who helps rather than to the assistance provided. For instance, a Middle English meaning (around the 12th century) was ‘assistant, supporter, and helper’ (Harper, 2019). The term ‘the help’ was used instead of ‘servant’ in the American English of the 1640s (Harper) and in many places even now. ‘Help wanted’ is the common heading for advertisements calling for a person who could provide a service. The verb ‘to help’ comes from the PGmc *helpanan, which helped to forge the Old Norse hjalpa, Old Frisian helpa, Middle Dutch and Dutch helpen, Old High German helfan and German helfen, all meaning ‘to support, help’ (Harper, 2019). The transitive verb ‘to help’ something or someone comes from the Old English helpan, meaning to ‘help, support, succor; benefit, do good to; cure, amend’ (Harper, 2019). As an intransitive verb, without a direct object, ‘to help’ meant ‘afford aid or assistance’ as early as the 13th century. In the 14th century, ‘Help!’ was fi rst recorded as a cry of distress (Harper, 2019). Thinking about ‘help’ with assistance from spirituality, poetry and the Greeks

A famous spiritual teacher from India, Krishnamurti (2011: 84), described a profound type of help which an individual can give the rest of humanity: an understanding of universal suffering. He wrote: ‘… [S]orrow is the sorrow of all humanity because we all have fears, … pleasure, and anxiety … We are the whole of humanity, and when there is suffering, that suffering is humanity’s suffering. … And if one human being understands the nature of suffering and goes beyond it, she then helps the rest of mankind’. In poetry we fi nd examples of help being given in ways that are highly relevant to language teachers aiding their students. For instance, in Christopher Logue’s (1969) book New Numbers, the poem ‘Come to the Edge’ (pp. 65–66) is a fi ne example of help that could be given by a wise

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language teacher or mentor. The poem can be read as a fable about an older, experienced bird teaching young birds to be courageous and fly. When gently called by the older bird to ‘Come to the edge’, the inexperienced ones cowered, worrying that the edge was too high and that they might fall. The clever elder then ceased coaxing. He demanded that they come to the edge, and so they came. ‘And he pushed. And they flew’. The moral is clear for teachers who want to empower anxious students: provide a challenging situation coupled with a supportive, helpful push. Language teachers’ caring help and encouragement can weaken the monster grip of anxiety, open learners’ hearts and allow learners to show the world their cultural and communicative abilities. The narrative studies of Oxford and Bolaños-Sanchez (2016) and Oxford and Cuéllar (2014) reveal instances of helpful, compassionate mentoring of language learners. Additional examples of help in the language classroom come from Gertrude Moskowitz’s (1978) humanistic caring and sharing in the language classroom and Earl Stevick’s (1980: 5) descriptions of the humanistic harmony that teachers can help create ‘within and between people in a language course’. See also Stevick (1990) for more on humanistic language teaching. The ancient Greek philosophers had multiple concepts of love which had elements of help (Krznaric, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c). For instance, philia refers to affectionate regard, friendship, loyalty, sharing emotions and willingness to sacrifice for (and thus powerfully help) the other person. Storge (spoken with two syllables) encompasses caring compassionately for others, especially one’s children and other family members but also friends, companions and even pets. Helping is part of compassionate caring. Agape means selfless love, which is extended to everyone, ranging from family members to strangers. (In Buddhism this would be viewed as universal lovingkindness.) Agape, with its all-embracing charity for all, implies willingness to love and help others unconditionally, with no thought of recompense. Pragma means longstanding, mature love and deep understanding, which necessitates making compromises and helping to keep the relationship strong and healthy over time. The Greek ritual of xenia means hospitality (e.g. helpfulness, generosity, protection, shelter, courtesy and a gift to take home) that is extended to a guest, often a stranger far from home (Potter, 2013), based partly on the belief that any stranger might actually be a disguised god, ready to punish an ungenerous or unwelcoming host. In a later, less punitive Christian version, the Epistle to the Hebrews 13:2 stated, ‘Be not forgetful to entertain strangers: for thereby some have entertained angels unawares’ (Bible Hub, 2019). See Herman (2002) for a more sociopolitical explanation for xenia in ancient Greek cities. The Beatles, a wildly popular British singing group, used the verb ‘help’ in two ways. The title of one of their songs, as well as an album and a film, is ‘Help!’ (Lennon & McCartney, 1965), an intransitive construction

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(without an object) that is a distress call. However, in the song’s lyrics, ‘help’ has a direct object (‘me’): ‘Won’t you please, please help me?’ This song emphasizes the personally supportive nature of help among those who know and care for each other. Harmony

‘Harmony’ is the last word in our positive 3-H group. Here we present the origins of this word and explain how its meaning unscrolled over time. Exploring the word ‘harmony’

The words ‘harmony’ and ‘peace’ started with very similar meanings in their earliest ancestor language, Proto-Indo-European (PIE), which was spoken during the 2000 years from the Late Neolithic Age through the Late Bronze Age (bce 4500–2500). Harper (2019) provided a useful history of the word ‘harmony’. The PIE root for ‘harmony’, *ar- (to fit together) led to the ancient Greek word harmos (fastenings of a door; joint, shoulder), and it evolved into Latin harmonia (joining, agreement and concord) and into Old French harmonie. In Late Middle English (15th century), the meaning was ‘agreement of feeling among people’. In today’s English, ‘harmony’ refers to an agreement of ideas, feelings or actions or a pleasing combination of parts (summarized from the Cambridge University Dictionary, 2019). The history of ‘harmony’ is unrelated to that of the word ‘harm’ (see Chapter 13). The meanings of the PIE root *ar-and its later forms, mentioned above, are tantalizingly close to the meanings of the PIE root for ‘peace’, *pag- (to fasten) and its later forms, Latin pacem and pax (agreement, compact, a binding together in an agreement or compact, tranquility, absence of war), Latin pacisi (to covenant or agree, related to the later English term pact), Old French pais (peace, reconciliation, silence, tranquility, permission), Modern French païx, Provençal patz, Spanish paz, Italian pace and English peace (Harper, 2019). In light of word histories and meanings, harmony and peace are nearly identical twins, and we saw in Chapter 1 of this book that civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr linked peace and harmony. Harmony and peace do not mean eradicating all confl ict (differences of interests, values and so on) but instead understanding the diverse concerns of all and balancing them within the whole. Considering ‘harmony’ in music and the other arts

Harmony has long been an important term in music. The Latin word harmonia (above) not only meant concord in general, but it also meant ‘the quality of concord of musical sounds’, a meaning that recurred over time and in different languages. Harmony involves combining notes simultaneously to produce chords or chord progressions that are pleasing to the ear. Harmony consists of notes that are played and sung along with

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the main tune (the melody) to make the piece more interesting and complex (summarized from the Cambridge University Dictionary, 2019; see also Jamini, 2005). Harper (2019) gave us information on the verb ‘harmonize’ and the adjective ‘harmonious’. The Middle French verb harmoniser (15th century) meant ‘to sing or play in harmony’, and its parallel adjective harmonieux meant ‘sounding together tunefully’. Nonmusical use was fi rst documented in the 17th century, when the verb could mean ‘to be in harmony (with), go well together’ and the adjective could mean ‘being in harmony or going well together’. In the 18th century, the verb began to be used with a direct object to mean ‘to bring into harmony or agreement’ or ‘to add harmony to a melody’. Beyond music, the words ‘harmony’, ‘harmonize’ and ‘harmonious’ apply to other arts, such as painting, photography, ceramic art, fashion design, architecture, landscape art and dance. In these uses, harmony refers to a pleasing combination of elements in a whole. Harmony does not mean that all components are alike. In fact, harmony is the art of blending and combining different components so that they enhance each other without losing the distinctions among them. Thinking about ‘harmony’ with assistance from positive psychology and other fields

Human harmony could not exist without empathy. Empathy, initially meaning ‘feeling into’, now denotes experiencing another’s thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 2016b). Stated somewhat over-technically, empathy is an ‘other-oriented emotional response elicited by and congruent with the perceived welfare of someone else. … [It] is not a single, discrete emotion but includes a whole constellation of feelings … [such as] sympathy, compassion, soft-heartedness, tenderness, and the like’ (Batson et al., 2011: 418). This defi nition highlights the emotional side of empathy, but empathy is actually a combination of emotional and cognitive elements (Oxford, 2016b). Most positive psychologists have said that empathy is situational, rather than being a disposition or a personality trait (Oxford, 2016a). While this is true, we can point to people who are generally more empathetic than others, and it is easy to think of those who usually seem unempathetic. Ideally, language teachers and language learners would be empathetic, attuned to others’ needs and welfare. One of the greatest feelings of harmony comes in what Maslow (1970) called ‘peak experiences’, i.e. transient but powerful moments of selfactualization. Peak experiences are harmonious in the sense that the person who is having the experience has a sense of great love, unity, empathy and joy. Along with these feelings are creativity, meaning, well-being, wonder, awe, limitlessness, timelessness and ego-transcendence (Maslow, 1970). A peak experience is ‘a great and mystical experience, a religious experience if you wish – an illumination, a revelation, an insight …

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[leading to] “the cognition of being”, … the cognition that Plato and Socrates were talking about; almost, you could say, a technology of happiness, of pure excellence, pure truth, pure goodness’ (Maslow, 1971: 169). According to Maslow (1971), most people experience peak experiences that can give them a sense of harmony, love, joy and the other related feelings. There are countless sparks to peak experiences, depending on the individual: deep meditation, great art, classical music, body movement, the beauty of nature and even studying mathematics or science from an aesthetic viewpoint (Maslow, 1970, 1971). Although the goal of harmony can involve effort to achieve it, peak experiences can never be a goal; they are by-products of engaging fully in something meaningful. In analyzing language learning histories, Oxford and Cuéllar (2014) and Oxford et al. (2015) found that several successful learners had peak experiences through interacting with teachers, fellow students and native speakers in the target culture and experiencing the richness of the language. Harmony can also come from dealing well with change. Serious language learners deeply experience change, which can be very stressful. ‘Change involves challenging what is familiar to us and daring to question our traditional needs for safety, comfort and control. This is often perceived as a painful experience. Becoming familiar with this pain is part of your growth. Even though you might not like the feelings of inner disturbance, you must be able to sit quietly inside and face them if you want to see where they come from’ (Singer, 2007: 99). ‘If you maintain your center, you can learn to appreciate and respect even the most difficult [emotional] experiences’, said Singer (2007: 86), who suggested that people should experience their negative emotions, learn from them and then let them go. ‘If you want to be free of these [negative] energies, you must allow them to pass through you …’ (Singer, 2007: 86), while respecting them and gaining lessons from them. Singer (2007: 86) noted that some of the most exquisite poetry, art and music have come from people experiencing anguish or other difficult emotions: ‘You can experience these very human [negative emotional] states without getting lost in them or resisting them …’. Frankl (1984) gave more concrete recommendations about what to do when facing the strongest negative emotions (see later in this chapter). Spiritual sage Deepak Chopra (2004: 65) addressed suffering, which he described as ‘pain that we hold on to’ if we believe it cannot be escaped or that we deserve it. ‘The secret cause of suffering is unreality itself’ (Chopra, 2004: 66), based on overlooking actual facts, adopting a negative perception, reinforcing that perception by obsessive thinking, getting lost in the pain without looking for a way out, comparing self to others and cementing the suffering through negative relationships. For a sense of harmony, ‘there has to be detachment, making sure that suffering, no matter how real, isn’t the dominant reality’ (Chopra, 2004: 72). Such detachment does not signify a detachment from the world of meaning and purpose (see van Deurzen, 2012); instead, it is a way to have harmony and bring it back into the world.

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Harmony, well-being and shared, positive feelings can be gained by reaching out to others through loving-kindness meditation (Hutcherson et al., 2008). Meditators allow whatever negative feelings might arise to go by without holding onto them, similarly to what was suggested by Singer and by Chopra. They focus on loving-kindness, or caring about others. When meditation is used in deep, reflective, often spiritual learning (contemplative inquiry) in any subject area, knowing can be transformed into love (Zajonc, 2009). Thus, meditation can release negative emotions and ground the individual in a more harmonious, more loving way of being. Some language teachers teach learners to use the meditation-like affective strategy of slowly taking a deep breath and releasing it (Oxford, 1990), thus letting go of anxiety, sadness and other negative emotions and gaining harmony (see Olivero, 2017; Oxford & Olivero, 2019; and Chapter 15, this volume for activities involving contemplative inquiry). Interventions Using Hope, Help and Harmony

Specific positive psychology interventions to stimulate hope have been successful. Based on hope theory, interventions to foster hope have been tested on university campuses and elsewhere (Rand & Cheavens, 2011). McDermott and Snyder (2000) discussed self-help texts written for parents and teachers who want to enable children to have hope. We believe such self-help texts could make language learners’ parents and teachers themselves more hopeful and less stressed while encouraging hope in language learners. Because the process of gaining skills in another language often provokes anxiety and leads some learners to lose hope, we suggest that learners could be aided directly (not through parents or teachers) by means of ‘hope booklets’, ‘hope bookmarks’ or short, online videos offering tips or reminders about how to reduce language-performance anxiety and increase hope for success in language learning. Additional pay-offs for language learners might be greater motivation and more favorable views of themselves as learners. Using the Snyder hope framework mentioned earlier, Brown Kirschman et al. (2011) reported that middle schoolers who participated in an activity for identifying hopeful and unhopeful language had ‘hope scores’ that were significantly higher than peers who did not participate. In the language class, an exercise that enables students to distinguish their own hopeful and unhopeful comments about their learning could decrease anxiety, expand hope and increase self-efficacy and motivation. In a different activity, hope could be increased when language learners in a pair or small group share with each other their hopes and goals about language learning or other aspects of life. This can be done through oral discussion or a combination of writing and discussion. Such an activity could be conducted in the native language for greater expressive power,

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unless the learners are at a reasonable level of proficiency in the language being learned. The outcomes in terms of hope, confidence and ultimate achievement could be dramatic. Clarke provided a research-based system of interventions, such as reassurance, problem-solving, offering help, ‘being with’ and exploring meaning. Schrank et al. (2008) emphasized that to restore or generate hope, positive experiences are needed, not just amelioration of deficits; these researchers suggested that standard hope interventions, which they listed as education, goal-setting, problem-solving and cognitive-behavioral therapy, are not enough. Specifically, Schrank et al. (2008) called for hope-increasing interventions to address all four components of hope: cognition, affect, behavior and the environment, described earlier. What can people do if they feel truly helpless and hopeless in a threatening, disharmonious and unsafe situation? Viktor Frankl’s (1984) own experiences – the Nazis killed his whole family and imprisoned him in a death camp – could have made him, like so many others, experience a total lack of hope, help and harmony. However, he helped other deathcamp prisoners fi nd meaning through three principles of personal responsibility: focus on something special, such as goodness, truth or beauty; encounter someone and love that person; and develop an attitude of dignity to transform personal tragedy into triumph. Frankl survived, was freed, developed a thriving psychiatric practice in Vienna, and became famous for ‘logotherapy’, which helped others use the three meaning-making principles. Currently, many people face genocide, oppression and other political, social and personal cruelties, which could ‘justify’ hopelessness, helplessness and internal disharmony. Some language students, at a different level of intensity, experience such negativity in learning or in other life circumstances. For anyone, Frankl’s logotherapy teachings could stimulate personal responsibility for self-help and hope for inner harmony Specific logotherapy concepts, if used by anxious language learners, could enhance self-help, hope and harmony. For instance, learners could let go of failure-inducing hyper-intention (overwhelming desire for success) and of gloomy hyper-reflection, by using ‘paradoxical intention’, i.e. wishing for precisely what they fear, such as failing a test or communicating poorly in the new language. Paradoxical intention lightens the mood and offers useful detachment. Conclusion

The work of Olivero (2017; see also Olivero & Oxford, 2019; Oxford & Olivero, 2019) demonstrates that peacebuilding activities, as found in Chapter 15 of this book and in many of the chapters, can guide learners to help each other and experience greater harmony and hope. Teachers, teacher educators and other readers of this book can use these activities to

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help others and themselves. Amerstorfer (Chapter 5, this volume) reveals how a cooperative learning setting can promote positivity among students, giving them hope, helpfulness and harmony through collaborating. The multiple aspects of the Language of Peace (Oxford, 2013) and peace cultures (Oxford, 2014) foster experiences of hopeful, harmonious and helpful cooperation and communication. We believe the whole world needs these experiences. References Batson, C.D., Ahmad, N. and Lishner, D.A. (2011) Empathy and altruism. In S.J. Lopez and C.R. Snyder (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 417–426). New York: Oxford University Press. Bible Hub (2019) Hebrews 13.2. King James Version of the Bible. See https://biblehub. com/hebrews/13-2.htm (accessed 15 September 2019). Brown Kirschman, K.J., Johnson, R.J., Bender, J.A. and Roberts, M.C. (2011) Positive psychology for children and adolescents: Development, prevention, and promotion. In S.J. Lopez and C.R. Snyder (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 133–148). New York: Oxford University Press. Cambridge University Dictionary (2019) Cambridge University Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See https://dictionary.cambridge.org (accessed 10 September 2019). Chopra, D. (2004) The Book of Secrets: Unlocking the Hidden Dimensions of Your Life. New York: Three Rivers Press/Random House. Clarke, D. (2003) Faith and hope. Australian Psychiatry 11 (2), 164–168. Frankl, V.E. (1984) Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (I. Lasch, trans.). Boston, MA: Beacon. Harper, D. (2019) Etymology Online. See https://www.etymonline.com (accessed 9 September 2019). Herman, G. (2002) Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hutcherson, C.A., Seppala, E.M. and Gross, J.J. (2008) Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion 8, 720–724. Jamini, D. (2005) Harmony and Composition: Basics to Intermediate. Victoria, BC: Trafford. Kipfer, B.A. (2013) Help. Roget’s 21st Century Thesaurus (3rd edn). New York: Penguin Random House. See https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/search/2013rogets?q=2013%20Roget’s (accessed 15 September 2019). See also Wingdale, NY: Philip Lief Group, https://www.thesaurus.com (accessed 15 September 2019). Krishnamurti, J. (2011) Where Can Peace Be Found? Boston, MA: Shambhala. Krznaric, R. (2013a) Have you tried the six varieties of love? Sojourners Magazine, 5 December. See https://sojo.net/articles/have-you-tried-six-varieties-love (accessed September 2019). Krznaric, R. (2013b) How Should We Live? Great Ideas from the Past for Everyday Life. Katonah, NY: Blue Bridge. Krznaric, R. (2013c) The ancient Greeks’ 6 words for love (and why knowing them can change your life). Yes! Magazine, 7 December. See http://www.yesmagazine.org/hap piness/the-ancient-greeks-6-words-for-love-and-why-knowing-them-can-changeyour-life (accessed 12 September 2019). Lennon, J. and McCartney, P. (1965) Help! [song]. On Help! [album]. London: Capitol Music. Logue, C. (1969) Come to the edge. New Numbers. London: Jonathan Cape.

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Luther, M. (1832) Luther’s table talk, or, some choice fragments from the familiar discourse of that godly, learned man, and champion of God’s truth, Dr. Martin Luther. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, & Green. [Originally published 1566.] See also Forbes Quotes (2015) https://www.forbes.com/quotes/6679/ (accessed 19 September 2019). Marcel, G. (1962) Introduction to a Metaphysic of Hope (E. Craufurd, trans.). New York: Harper & Row. [Originally published 1944.] Maslow, A.H. (1970) Motivation and Personality (revised edn). New York: Harper & Row. Maslow, A.H. (1971) The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York: Penguin Compass. McDermott, D. and Snyder, C.R. (2000) The Great Big Book of Hope: Help Your Children Achieve Their Dreams. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Merriam-Webster (2019a) Merriam-Webster Thesaurus. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. See https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus (accessed 10 September 2019). Merriam-Webster (2019b) Merriam-Webster Unabridged. Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster/Britannica Digital Learning. See https:www.unabridged.merriam-webster. com (accessed 10 September 2019). Moskowitz, G. (1978) Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class. Boston, MA: Newbury House. Olivero, M.M. (2017) Cultivating peace via language teaching: Pre-service beliefs and emotions in an Argentine EFL practicum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida. Olivero, M.M. and Oxford, R.L. (2019) Implementing and assessing transformative, multidimensional peace language activities designed for future teachers and their students: Educating for peace. In M.W. Lutfy and C. Toffolo (eds) Handbook of Research on Promoting Peace Through Practice, Academia, and the Arts (pp. 184–206). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Oxford, R.L. (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House. Oxford, R.L. (ed.) (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (ed.) (2014) Understanding Peace Cultures. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2016a) ‘Biasing for the best’: Looking at new elements in a model of language learner well-being. In D. Gałajda, P. Zakrajewski and M. Pawlak (eds) Researching Second Language Learning and Teaching from a Psycholinguistic Perspective: Studies in Honor of Danuta Gabryś-Barker (pp. 13–26). Cham: Springer. Oxford, R.L. (2016b) Toward a psychology of well-being for language learners: The ‘EMPATHICS’ vision. In P. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 10–87). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Oxford, R.L. and Bolaños-Sanchez, D. (2016) A tale of two learners: Discovering motivation, emotions, engagement, perseverance, and mentoring. In C. Gkonou, D. Tatzl and S. Mercer (eds) New Directions in Language Learning Psychology (pp. 113–134). Cham: Springer. Oxford, R.L. and Cuéllar, L. (2014) Positive psychology in cross-cultural narratives: Mexican students discover themselves while learning Chinese. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4 (2), 173–203. Oxford, R.L. and Olivero, M.M. (2019) Expanding the ripples of peace: Employing transformational, multidimensional peace language activities in language teacher education. In J. Lin, S. Edwards and T. Culham (eds) Contemplative Pedagogies for Transformative Teaching, Learning, and Being (pp. 101–119). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

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Oxford, R.L., Pacheco Acuña, G., Solís Hernández, M. and Smith, A.L. (2015) ‘A language is a mentality’: A narrative, positive-psychological view of six learners’ development of bilingualism. System 55, 100–110. doi:10.1016/j.system.2015.08.005 Potter, B. (2013) The Odyssey: Be our guest with xenia. Classical Wisdom, 19 April. See https://classicalwisdom.com/culture/literature/the-odyssey-be-our-guest-with-xenia/ (accessed 8 September 2019). Rand, K.L. and Cheavens, J.S. (2011) Hope theory. In S.J. Lopez and C.R. Snyder (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 323–333). New York: Oxford University Press. Schrank, B., Stanghellini, G. and Stade, M. (2008) Hope in psychiatry: A review of the literature. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 118 (6), 421–433. Scioli, A. and Biller, H.B. (2009) Hope in the Age of Anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press. Singer, M.A. (2007) The Untethered Soul: The Journey Beyond Yourself. Oakland, CA: Noetic Books. Snyder, C.R. (1994) The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get There from Here. New York: Free Press. Snyder, C.R. (2000) Hypothesis: There is no hope. In C.R. Snyder (ed.) Handbook of Hope: Theory, Measures, and Applications (pp. 3–21). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Snyder, C.R. (2002) Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry 13 (4), 249–275. Snyder, C.R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W.E., et al. (1997) The development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 22 (3), 399–421. Stevick, E. (1980) Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Stevick, E. (1990) Humanism in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Vaillant, G.E. (2008) Spiritual Evolution: How We are Wired for Faith, Hope, and Love. New York: Broadway Books. van Deurzen, E. (2012) Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy in Practice (3rd edn). London: Sage. Wrobleski, K.K. and Snyder, C.R. (2005) Hopeful thinking in older adults: Back to the future. Experimental Aging Research 31, 217–233. Zajonc, A. (2009) Meditation as Contemplative Inquiry: When Knowing Becomes Love. Great Barrington, MA: Lindisfarne Books. Zinn, H. (2004) The optimism of uncertainty. The Nation, 2 September. See https://www. thenation.com/article/optimism-uncertainty/ (accessed 29 August 2019).

Section V Moving Further with Peacebuilding 15 Peacebuilding through Classroom Activities: Inner, Interpersonal, Intergroup, Intercultural, International and Ecological Peace 245 M. Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford 16 Conclusion: Integrating Peace Concepts, Personal Insights and Future Peace Directions M. Matilde Olivero, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford

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15 Peacebuilding through Classroom Activities: Inner, Interpersonal, Intergroup, Intercultural, International and Ecological Peace M. Matilde Olivero, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford

Peace cannot be kept by force; it can only be achieved by understanding. Albert Einstein

In this chapter we provide activities to inspire language educators and language teacher educators to teach peacebuilding in their own educational contexts. The chapter has several parts. First, we describe the ‘peacebuilding triad’, consisting of the three interconnected, transformative learning modes that undergird the peacebuilding activities in this chapter and this book. These modes are holistic, contemplative and experiential learning. Second, we offer a framework for integrating peacebuilding activities into language teaching and language teacher education. The framework reflects the peace dimensions (inner, interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international and ecological) that were presented in Chapter 1 and explored within many other chapters of this book. Third, the bulk of the chapter consists of peacebuilding activities in categories linked to the peace dimensions described earlier in this book, especially in Chapter 1. At the end of this chapter, we ponder the worldwide, turmoilstricken educational situation around the world during the current pandemic, and we explain why now, more than ever, language classes and language teacher education programs need to incorporate peacebuilding activities. Even when the global pandemic recedes, education might never be quite the same as it was before the COVID-19 crisis. The world will increasingly need competence in peacebuilding in order to face new local and global circumstances. Language teachers and teacher educators who 245

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understand communication, interaction and culture can learn to be peacebuilding leaders by means of the activities in this chapter. This chapter can guide language teachers and teacher educators who hope to teach positive peace in their classes but who lack the necessary time and knowledge to design their own materials. It can also guide language teachers and teacher educators who are already active peacebuilders and who want to expand their scope and practice. These and other educators can join our worldwide peacebuilding efforts by using this chapter’s linguistically, socially and culturally adaptable activities. A Peacebuilding Triad: Holistic, Contemplative and Experiential Learning

The peacebuilding activities described below involve a melding of three learning modes: holistic, contemplative and experiential learning. These three modes are optimal both for the embodiment of peace in the classroom and for the expansion of peace beyond the classroom setting. Holistic learning involves educating the whole person by developing emotional, cognitive, social, physical and spiritual aspects of the self. This mode of learning involves deep reflection and inner work on the basis of personally meaningful experiences. In addition, holistic learning facilitates the development of self-esteem and autonomy. Due to the conscious concern for love, peace and justice that characterizes this mode of learning, Culham, Oxford and Lin (in Miller et al., 2019) have referred to holistic education as a pedagogy of love. The second learning mode reflected in the peacebuilding activities described in this chapter is contemplative learning, which shares many of the principles of holistic education. Contemplative learning also involves self-reflection through deep inner work, development of the whole person and the fostering of peace, love, caring and justice. In this learning mode the learner is given a central role. Connecting with the self through introspection is key in contemplative learning. Practices and techniques such as reflective reading and writing, active listening, developing a mindful attitude, cultivating empathy, visualizing and meditating are commonly used in contemplative learning (Cohen, 2009; Miller et al., 2019). It has been demonstrated that contemplation has many positive outcomes, including the development of creativity, an increase of well-being and positive emotions (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012), greater ethical attitude (Culham, 2013) and moral intelligence (Wei & Wei, 2013). Lastly, experiential learning, which involves learning through reflection on experience (Kolb, 1984), is also optimal for promoting peace in the classroom as it enables learners to reflect on the importance of peace and its impact through embodiment. Experiential tasks offer learners opportunities to experience peacebuilding by experimenting with, and reflecting on, concrete ideas (Legutke & Schocker-v. Ditfurth, 2009), thereby helping them relate theoretical concepts about peace with how to put them into practice.

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About the Peacebuilding Activities

In this section we explain the uses of our array of peacebuilding activities. We also outline how the activities are organized. Uses of the activities

The peacebuilding activities in this chapter are useful for second or foreign language classrooms. In addition, they are valuable for a variety of language teacher education courses, including language, phonetics, literature, teaching methods and practicum. Language teachers and teacher educators can use these activities as shown or can easily adapt them to their specific contexts and needs (e.g. students’ age, level of language proficiency and second or foreign language). Here are some important tips for understanding and using the activities: •

• •

Each activity includes the following information: purpose of the activity, language proficiency level, students’ age, other peace dimensions involved (if applicable), interaction type of the activity, materials needed, approximate amount of time required and activity instructions. The activities reflect holistic and experiential learning modes, include reflection as a core component to enhance peace consciousness and are centered on developing positive peace. The activities emphasize all four of the second language skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing). They could also be used to emphasize points of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, pragmatics and nonverbal communication.

How the activities are organized

In this chapter we give a number and a title to every activity. Some activities have already been described in some detail in prior chapters. For those activities we indicate where to fi nd the details earlier in the book. Other activities are presented here for the first time, so we provide enough information for you to use or adapt them readily. We use five categories to organize the activities: • • • • •

Category A – an activity to reflect on the multidimensional nature of peace; Category B – activities to enhance inner peace; Category C – activities to enhance interpersonal peace; Category D – activities to enhance intergroup, intercultural and international peace; and Category E – activities to enhance ecological peace.

Each of the following five sections presents one category of peacebuilding activities. As shown above, Category A is the most general

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because it draws together multiple peace dimensions. For simplicity, Categories B, C and E are allied with particular peace dimensions (inner, interpersonal and ecological peace, respectively). Category D is associated with three peace dimensions that involve complex social interaction at the levels of groups, cultures and nations. Of course, in the complex reality of our lives, each peace dimension is related to all others. Category A. An Activity to Reflect on the Multidimensional Nature of Peace Activity 1. What is peace?

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students reflect on what they understand of peace through artwork. Level of language proficiency: suitable for any level Students’ age: children, teenagers, adults Language focus: if applicable, words related to peace Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: markers, posters, paint, brushes Amount of time required: 45 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students to draw or paint pictures to answer the question, ‘What is peace?’, with or without adding words. If they prefer, they can write down their answer to the same question without visual images. They usually offer deep words from the heart. (b) Ask students to place their contributions on a large map of different parts of the world (where students came from, where their families came from or where they want to visit someday). Category B. Activities to Enhance Inner Peace Activity 2. Reflecting on self-compassion and self-care

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students increase inner peace and well-being by becoming conscious of what they think about themselves and what they do regarding self-care. Level of language proficiency: intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: interpersonal Language focus: language to describe recurrent thoughts and actions related to self-compassion and self-care Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: paper, pen/pencil/markers Amount of time required: 35–40 minutes

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Activity instructions: (a) Students receive two pieces of blank paper, on which they trace their own hands. Both hands should be traced onto one piece of paper. (b) Ask students the following questions: If your hands kept a record of the thoughts you tend to have about yourself and of how you treat yourself, would they look as beautiful as they are? In one pair of hand shapes, write some words and thoughts you generally have about yourself and words representing actions related to how you treat yourself. You don’t have to share it if you don’t want to. (c) Tell students the following: Now, if you had the possibility of being kind to yourself and treating yourself nicely, what thoughts would you have and what actions would you take? Ask them to write these ideas in the other copy of the hand shapes. (d) Prompt students to compare both pairs of hands. Ask them: In what ways are they different? (e) Ask students the following: What do you think you can start doing daily to try to be a better version of yourself in the way you think and how you care about yourself? Students can then write down an action plan with one daily resolution to implement for an entire week. (f) Engage students in group discussion to reflect on their ideas. (g) Ask students in what ways they think this activity would help increase their inner peace and well-being. (h) Ways to expand this activity: At the end of the week, ask students about their experience with their self-care action plan. Urge them to reflect on how the actions made them feel and whether they encountered any difficulties, among other aspects.

Activity 3. A day of positivity

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students increase inner peace by becoming more aware of the positives in their daily lives. By trying to have only positive thoughts for an entire day, students can start developing the habit of being more aware of the ways in which positive thoughts can help them experience positive emotions and therefore have a more positive attitude. Level of language proficiency: (pre) intermediate or above Students’ age: (pre)teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, international, ecological Language focus: language to describe positive thoughts Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 35–40 minutes

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Activity instructions: (a) Explain to students that for an entire day they should try to have only positive thoughts. If they start thinking negatively about something, they should start again on the following day. (b) Ask students to write each positive thought in their journal at home. (c) Ask students to write about how those thoughts made them feel and act. (d) After a few days, engage students in a whole group reflection in class by asking them about their experiences and the ways in which this activity can help them foster inner harmony and peace. (e) Ways to expand this activity: Ask students to do the same activity at home but for an entire week in order to enhance the habit of increasing positivity. Activity 4. Mindful awareness

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students focus their attention with the purpose of increasing inner peace. Focusing our attention on the present moment helps lower our anxiety and helps us experience events more fully. Learning entails a high level of concentration, which can be enhanced through focusing exercises. Level of language proficiency: suitable for any level Students’ age: children, teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural, ecological Language focus: language to describe their mindful awareness experience; language to refer to the senses Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 15–20 minutes Activity instructions: (a) In class, open a discussion about what it means to have focused attention and what situations in life and in the language classroom would require focusing our attention. (b) Then explain to students that you will all do mindful breathing to practice focusing your attention. (i) Ask students to sit comfortably and to close their eyes to focus on their breath. (ii) Ask them to notice how the air comes in through their nose and how it gently comes out when they exhale. Work on this with them for 5 minutes. (iii) After the breathing practice, ask the whole class how they felt, what they noticed, and how these types of exercises can help them when learning a language or when teaching.

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(c) Ways to expand this activity: Similarly, ask students to focus their attention when walking (in the street, on campus) and to notice the different things around them (nature, people, things in that place that they had not noticed before). Ask students to write about their experience when they get home. Once back in class, ask them to share their experiences and to reflect on the ways in which walking with focused attention can facilitate inner harmony and improve their relationship with others and with nature. Activity 5. Letting go of grudges

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students increase their inner peace and improve their relationships with others by learning to let go of grudges. Level of language proficiency: intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural Language focus: language to describe negative thoughts and emotions Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 25–30 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students to brainstorm and write a list of five grudges they hold about someone or about a situation. You can first elicit or explain what a grudge is. (b) Explain to students that for each of the items they should come up with a more empathetic way to think about it. The teacher can provide examples here in order to guide students. For example, the teacher can ask students to think of a time when another person did something hurtful to them. How long did students hold on to this hurt feeling? Then, the teacher can ask the students if they had considered the reasons for the perceived hurtful action by the other person. (c) Next, students can work in pairs and discuss their ideas and experiences about trying to reframe their perception of each hurtful situation into a more understanding, empathetic perspective. (d) Finally, ask the whole class to reflect on ways in which learning to let go of grudges can help us increase peace. (e) Follow up: Guide students in a letting-go meditation by telling them the following: • ‘Put your list of grudges on a hot air balloon. As you breathe in, put your grudge on the balloon and, as you breathe out, let the balloon fly away with your grudges’. Other activities to foster inner peace have been detailed in different chapters of this book:

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Activity 6. A letter to self for enhancing self-regulation of emotions

(Chapter 2) Activity 7. Variable expertise

(Chapter 3) Activity 8. Perception checking

(Chapter 3) Activity 9. Alternative options

(Chapter 3) Activity 10. Emotional rating

(Chapter 4) Activity 11. Warm up and get ready to speak

(Chapter 4) Activity 12. Putting things into perspective

(Chapter 4) Activity 13. Portrait of me and my emotions

(Chapter 4) Activity 14. I’m proud of it

(Chapter 4) Activity 15. Finding a silver lining

(Chapter 11) Activity 16. Pleasurable pursuits in daily routines

(Chapter 11)

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Activity 17. Savoring three good things

(Chapter 11) Category C. Activities to Enhance Interpersonal Peace Activity 18. Reflecting on love and peace

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students reflect on love, which is essential in order to have good relationships with others and the world. Level of language proficiency: intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intergroup, intercultural, international Language focus: language for defi ning concepts; vocabulary related to love Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper, markers, internet, speakers Amount of time required: 35–40 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students to think individually and to answer the question, ‘What is love?’ (b) Ask students to get into pairs and to share their answers. (c) Ask students to write a metaphor reflecting what love is to them. They can add pictures to make it a visual metaphor, if they’d like. (d) Ask students to share their metaphors with the rest of the class and to explain the ways in which the metaphor reflects their understanding about ‘love’. (e) Based on their work, ask the whole class how they think love relates to peace. (f) Ways to expand this activity: Prompt students to listen to All You Need is Love, by the Beatles. Ask them to follow the lyrics to analyze how love is conceived. Guide students to give their opinions on the following: Do you agree that all we need is love? What do you understand by love? What meaning of love is the song referring to? Activity 19. Reflecting on people we love

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students be conscious about the people they love and care for in order to increase interpersonal peace. Level of language proficiency: high beginner or above Students’ age: children, teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner

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Language focus: language used for descriptions Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 35–40 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students to think of a person they love (it can be a friend, a partner, a family member). (b) Ask them to think why they love that person, how that person makes them feel, how they make their life better. Based on their reflections, ask them to write a description of that person mentioning his/her qualities. (c) Ask students to write a poem for the person they love. Ask them to use some of the following words (or similar ones) as a guide: loving/kind/thoughtful/empathetic/friendly/love/fun/connection/ laughter/bond/admiration/trust/joy/peace/light/shine (d) Ask students to share their poems in class and to think about the ways in which the poems reflect how much they care about the person chosen. (e) Ask students how they think this activity helps them enhance interpersonal peace. (f) Ways to expand this activity: In class, prompt students to think about different acts of kindness. Ask students to perform an act of kindness to the person they love and to write about their experiences in their journals. Once back in class, urge them to share their different experiences and to reflect on ways in which this type of activity can help them increase peace among their loved ones. Activity 20. Building relationships through active constructive dialogues

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students strengthen relationships by learning to respond to others’ good news in ways that show caring and empathy. Level of language proficiency: (pre) intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intergroup, intercultural Language focus: positive language to react to a positive situation Interaction type: individual, pair work and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 35–40 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Discuss with students different ways in which we can respond to a person who shares good news with us. Teachers can exemplify this with a specific scenario:

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Suppose a friend tells us he got a promotion in his job. There are four different ways in which you can respond to the situation: active constructive (showing enthusiasm, empathy and responding with details); passive constructive (with delayed response, low enthusiasm); active destructive (being demeaning); passive destructive (ignoring the person, shifting the focus of the topic).

(b) In pairs, give students different scenarios and ask them to practice responding to these scenarios in an active constructive way (Person A will act out the situation; Person B will respond). (c) Ask students to write about their experiences and to reflect on what made those responses active constructive. (d) Discuss with the whole class about the ways in which active constructive dialogues can help strengthen relationships and build interpersonal peace. (e) Ways to expand this activity: Ask students to try to have active constructive dialogues with others for an entire week. Encourage them to write in their journals how they responded to others, and what effect this had on the other person.

Activity 21. ‘Discrimination – Free Home Delivery’

Purpose of the activity: This activity provides practice in reading, speaking and listening. It involves using a photo for analyzing and evaluating a major social pattern. Finally, it calls for students to search for the deep meaning (soul) of the photo. Level of language proficiency: high intermediate, advanced; also can be used with students of lower proficiency when vocabulary is pre-taught and concepts are scaffolded Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intergroup, intercultural Language focus: reading of texts and images; expression of abstract concepts; speaking and listening Interaction type: individual, pair work and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen; photos and images; smartphone and/or computer Amount of time required: 45 minutes to an hour or more Activity instructions: (a) This activity and the possible expansions of it involve a socially sensitive topic, the Dalits, traditionally called the ‘Untouchables’, viewed as subhuman. Be sensitive to the feelings of your students. (b) Students read the following paragraph and look at the photo in Figure 15.1.

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Figure 15.1 ‘Discrimination – Free Home Delivery’ Source: Parth Purohit. Used with permission.

A Picture Story: ‘Discrimination – Free Home Delivery’ by Parth Purohit, MA TESOL, English teacher, computer technology specialist and writer I took the photo above in India at my home, where I saw two daughters of our housemaid (left and center) playing with the daughter (right) of what we call ‘parents from a high social status’. The idea of ‘untouchables’ is quite prominent even today in many parts of India. Technically, the fair skinned girl shouldn’t be interacting with the other two girls (maids), since she might learn or grasp something from them that is socially unacceptable or bad, according to the standards set by the society itself. This picture shows that nobody is born with the notion of discrimination. It is something that is taught to us and fed to us. It is hammered upon us by the society, so hard that we start adapting to it, accepting it, believing it. And before we know it, discrimination becomes a way of Life. This picture gives me a lot of hope toward a better, broader, and a more compassionate India. A happier World. I love clicking pictures and linking them with the philosophy of Life that is hidden right in the soul of the picture.

(c) Answer the questions below through small group discussion. [To the teacher: Allow students to discuss as many of the questions as possible. If there is not enough time for all questions, then choose relevant or pertinent questions for your context in advance or, alternatively, give students autonomy in selecting the questions they feel are relevant and pertinent to answer and discuss. Students can also work on some

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questions outside of class and use their responses as discussion points at the next class meeting.] As needed, look up some information on a smartphone or a computer, but put your answers in your own words. Encourage every person in the group to talk. (i) What does ‘caste’ mean? (ii) How many castes are there in India? (iii) Traditionally, the ‘untouchables’ have been described as being below all (human) castes. This means they were considered ‘subhuman’ (less than human), or not even people. Do you think a person can be ‘less than human’? Please explain. (iv) How would you feel if you or your family and friends were described as subhuman, or as not humans (people) at all? (v) In the photo, who is or are ‘untouchable’? Who is or are from a high caste? What does skin color have to do with this social division? What other differences separate ‘untouchables’ from people from human castes, especially those from high castes? (vi) What are at least five negative ways in which the ‘untouchables’ have been treated in India by people from higher castes? (vii) ‘Untouchables’ prefer to call themselves ‘Dalit’ (plural ‘Dalits’), meaning ‘broken’ or ‘shattered’ in Sanskrit and Hindi languages. Why would historically called ‘untouchables’ want to be called ‘Dalits’ instead? (viii) What is discrimination? Why does Parth, the author of the story, call the story and the photo ‘Discrimination – Free Home Delivery’? What is the humor or irony in that title? (ix) There are laws against discriminating against Dalits. What are the laws? Who made the laws? Why are these laws often not followed, as Parth’s story seems to suggest? (x) How does the scene of the three young friends at Parth’s home reveal a positive, helpful ‘philosophy of Life’? Please put that philosophy into your own words. Whose philosophy is it? Do we agree with it? (xi) What does Parth mean by ‘the soul of the picture’? (xii) Answer the following questions to link Parth’s photo and story to your own experience: (a) What examples could you give about a group that faces discrimination in your home country, or in the country where you are living now? (b) What negative words or phrases are used about this group? (c) What is a stereotype, and what stereotypes are used about this group? (d) How is this stereotyped group excluded or treated poorly in other ways? (e) Is this situation fair? If not, what should be done to change it? What could you do?

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(d) Ways to expand this activity: (i) Show an excellent video of the life of Dalits and use this as a basis for discussion. (Depending on the students’ English proficiency level, you might show part of a video and ask the students to discuss that part before going on to the next part. Ask students to describe what is happening, how the Dalit people in the video are feeling, what can be done to improve the situation and what types of discrimination they have seen during their lives. Help students understand the somewhat accented English; it is worth it!) ‘Dalit Protest: The plight of India’s Untouchables’. See https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Dalit+videos&docid=6 08029268407684773&mid=67C20C62940115A01A5B67C20 C62940115A01A5B&view=detail&FORM=VIRE ‘A New Life for Nepal’s Dalit Women’. See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAGgh5QNVic ‘Why Am I an Untouchable?’. See https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=1J4dKnYYIYk (ii) Adapting the ideas to students’ age and proficiency level, invite students to conduct projects such as the following: (a) Write a paper or a story about the life of a typical Dalit of their own age. (b) Conduct a research project on the history of ‘untouchability’ in India, Nepal or another country. (c) Write about the life of Dr B.R. Ambedkar and what he did for the Dalits. (d) Create a photo album or a three-dimensional exhibit of Dalits with quotations from some major Dalit leaders, like Dr B.R. Ambedkar. (e) Compare anti-discrimination laws in any two or three of the following countries: India, Nepal, Britain, the United States, Germany and Australia. Find out how well those laws are enforced. Activity 22. ‘how can i explain?’

Purpose of the activity: This activity uses Figure 15.2 as a ‘visual story’ (in this case, it is a serious story in the form of a cartoon) for two main purposes: to enhance students’ empathy and to explore discrimination and ways to combat it. Level of language proficiency: intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intergroup, intercultural Language focus: reading of texts and images; linking vocabulary with visual and alphabetic text; retelling a story; speaking and listening; expressing abstract concepts Interaction type: individual, pair work, small group discussion and whole group sharing (flexible format)

Source: benjamin lee hicks. Used with permission. Mixed media: ink, watercolor, pencil crayon and paper collage.

Figure 15.2 ‘how can I explain?’

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Materials needed: notebook paper and pen; copies of the picture story Amount of time required: 45 minutes to an hour Activity instructions: (a) Give each student or each small group a copy of the visual story (Figure 15.2), created by benjamin lee hicks. Alternatively, send it by email to each student or post a copy of it on a class website that is large enough for everyone to read. (b) The steps can be done individually, in a pair or in a small group. Please decide which is the most effective for a given class and make it clear which mode students should use. (c) Pre-teach relevant vocabulary. Explain the following to students in your own words: (i) We will read a ‘picture story’ or ‘visual story’. There are four pictures in the story: three on the top row and one on the bottom row. (ii) Read the words to understand the pictures. Also use the pictures to understand the words. (iii) Answer the questions to decide what the story means to you. (d) Give the following written text to each student or each small group as a handout if possible. Alternatively, before class, send it to each student by email or post it on a class website. If none of these is possible, just write the italicized questions on the board. (e) Read it aloud with the students if desired. Picture 1, top row on the left: We see the winged person from the back. The person’s beautiful wings are fully extended. The winged person looks at the front door of the school. The door is narrow, just the right size for ‘regular people’. Below are questions for students to answer and discuss, perhaps in a small group. (Note: There is no single ‘right’ answer to any of these questions.) Questions 1–3. Why is the winged person looking at the door? What is the winged person wondering? What is the winged person feeling? In the same frame, there are speech bubbles for two unseen people. One person says, ‘That person is not going to fit …’. The other person responds, ‘Yeah, but we can’t be expected to expect that …’. Questions 4–6. What are these two people talking about? How do they feel? Have they said hello to the winged student or shown an interest in the winged student?

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Picture 2, top row in the middle: ‘Regular’ students are getting ready to climb the stairs to the front door. At the top of the stairs are two people, a woman and a man. Question 7. Who do you think they are? The man and the woman are pointing at a huge hole in the wall that looks about the size and shape of the winged person. The sign above the hole says, ‘Winged People Entrance’. Questions 8–10. Is the hole in the wall pretty or welcoming? Would you want a sign like that or a hole in the wall made just for you? Why or why not? The woman says, ‘Look … We have accommodated you …’ Question 11. What do you think that means? Look it up if you need to. The man says, ‘You’re welcome’. Questions 12–13. Why are the man and the woman so proud of themselves? What do they want the winged person to say? Picture 3, top row on the right: ‘Regular’ students walk up the school stairs and into the main entrance. Questions 14–16. Do they seem to care about the winged person? Could the winged person ever fit in that entrance? How can you be sure? The winged person, left behind all alone, has to deal with the ‘Winged People Entrance’. Questions 17–19. Does the winged person go through that strange entrance? If so, how does the winged person feel? What would you do if you were the winged person? Picture 4, the bottom half of the picture: We see the winged person with head drooping. The winged person asks, ‘How can I explain the feeling of not being expected?’ Question 20. The winged person is speaking with body language and words. What are some emotions the winged person might be feeling, and why? Question 21. What can you see in this picture about the winged person’s talents and loveliness? Name at least three or four things. Questions 22–24. In any of the pictures, has anyone at the school seemed interested in knowing the winged person? Did anyone act friendly to the winged person? Will the winged person decide to go to school there?

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(f) Ways to expand this activity: (i) Ask students to answer and discuss: What do wings and flying mean as a symbol? What can the winged person do that the others can’t? (ii) Ask students to write down, in no more than two sentences, the meaning of this story and how the story made them feel. (iii) Invite students to understand social discrimination in more depth through discussion, as follows: (a) Defi ne discrimination. Is discrimination always negative? Why or why not? (b) Find three specific clues of social discrimination in this picture story. How do you think the gifted, winged person felt and why? What could others have done to help the winged person? Although the moral burden was on the others in the story, could the winged person have said or done anything to change the situation? (c) Think back over your life. Have you ever experienced discrimination? If so, when and where? Who was in the situation? How did you feel? What did you do? How did you begin to feel better, if you did? (d) Have you observed discrimination toward other people? If so, when and where? Who was in the situation? What emotions arose? What needed to happen to diminish the discrimination, and did it happen? (e) What famous historical examples of discrimination do you know? Other activities to foster interpersonal peace were explained earlier in this volume: Activity 23. Corroborating cues

(Chapter 3) Activity 24. Behavioral expectations

(Chapter 3) Activity 25. Perception checking

(Chapter 3) Activity 26. Alternative options

(Chapter 3)

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Activity 27. Leakage

(Chapter 3) Activity 28. Prickly problem of touch

(Chapter 3) Activity 29. Reaction observation

(Chapter 3) Activity 30. Pleasurable pursuits in daily routines

(Chapter 11) Activity 31. Discussing insults in the L1 to avoid making them in the L2

(Chapter 13) Activity 32. Pictures of hateful, hurtful or harmful communication

(Chapter 13) Activity 33. Employing key sources to grasp the origins of hateful, hurtful and harmful language

(Chapter 13) Activity 34. Discussing what peace means and how negative 3-H language can reduce peace

(Chapter 13) Activity 35. Critically evaluating research, journalism and/or films

(Chapter 13) Category D. Activities to Enhance Intergroup, Intercultural and International Peace Activity 36. Exploring human rights

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students raise awareness of the importance of protecting human rights for building a peaceful society.

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Level of language proficiency: high intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, ecological Language focus: language used to describe human rights incidents; vocabulary related to human rights Interaction type: group work, whole group sharing and individual work. Materials needed: computer or television, newspaper, notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 40–45 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students to work in groups of four and look for a magazine article or television or internet news about human rights problems in the target culture and/or their culture. (b) Get students to answer the following questions: (i) What incidents negating human rights have occurred in the target culture or your own? (ii) Why did those incidents occur? Were they related to religious traditions, political systems, individual personalities or other factors? (iii) What was the outcome of these incidents? Did they end peacefully and fairly? (c) Get students to share their discoveries with the whole class. (d) Engage the whole class in reflection about what tools and actions are needed to solve the human rights conflicts (previously presented) in a peaceful manner. (e) Get students to reflect on how this activity can help them promote peace. Tell them they can use their journal to write about this. Activity 37. Developing empathy by telling a photo-story

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students develop empathy and reflect on the importance of empathy for building peace through photo-stories. Level of language proficiency: high beginner or above Students’ age: children, teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: interpersonal Language focus: language used to narrate; vocabulary related to empathy and emotions Interaction type: individual, sharing and mutual assistance in a pair and whole group sharing Materials needed: photos, notebook paper Amount of time required: 30–45 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Show students a set of photos reflecting empathy, by PowerPoint, enlarged on a poster or in a student workbook.

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(b) Ask students to choose a photo from the set. They need the photo to write a story. (c) Before getting them to write the story, teach important language that most students will need to write their stories. (You might not need to do this for students with higher proficiency levels.) (d) Remind students that a story usually includes ‘before, during and after’. This could mean what happened before the event in the photo, what happens during the photo event and what will happen afterwards. (e) Ask students to write their stories and to give them a title. Remind them that the stories must show empathy. The story can be 30–200 words, depending on the proficiency level of the students. (f) Get students to work in pairs to share their stories in writing and orally and help each other improve or correct the stories. (g) Tell students that each pair will share its two stories with another pair for enjoyment and possible feedback, and then with the class as a whole. (h) Ask them to reflect on the ways in which empathy is reflected in the different stories, and how empathy relates to different dimensions of peace. (i) Ways to expand this activity: (i) Expand the set of photos to choose from. Teachers and students can add photos of their own or from magazines, newspapers or the internet. Ensure that the photos are meaningful and lend themselves to peace language. (ii) Encourage students to use the internet, especially databases of Creative Commons images, to fi nd interesting, copyright-free photos and then write stories based on the photos. Some examples are Pixabay and Unsplash. Activity 38. Reading a peacebuilding poem and writing your own

Purpose of the activity: This activity uses creative writing to raise students’ awareness of their roles as peacemakers and to enhance students’ consciousness of what is involved in building peace. Level of language proficiency: high intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, interpersonal, ecological Language focus: language related to building peace; metaphorical language Interaction type: whole class and individual work Materials needed: the poem (in print or digital version), notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 45–60 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Distribute on paper or online the peacebuilding poem below. (b) Pre-teach any words in the poem that students are unlikely to know, such as soggy, squishy, roofbeams.

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(c) Also teach the word ‘stanza’. Point out that there are two stanzas in the poem. Ask students to identify the two stanzas. (d) Ask students to read along with you as you read the poem aloud. Be sure to read it dramatically, with gestures and emphasis. Make it interesting! Building the House of Peace The ground is soggy and squishy. It is hard to build here. Build here anyway. Especially build here, Where Peace is not often found. Let Love be the foundation Of the House of Peace. Put up the walls. Frame the windows and the doors. Raise high the roofbeams. Lay the paving stones leading To the House of Peace. Fling open the doors to the world. The House of Peace Is never really fi nished. Invite more and more people Into the house, and Ask them to build with you. (Rebecca Oxford) (e) Now go through the poem more carefully with the students. Tell students that they will soon understand the whole poem. (i) Read a line (or several lines in sequence), again using gestures and emphasis. (ii) Ask students to do the same. (f) Ask students to guess what each line means and express it in their own words. (g) Ask students to point out all the ‘word pictures’ in the poem. Examples: Soggy, squishy ground. The foundation of the house. The paving stones. The guests who become peacebuilders, too. While students point out the word pictures, ask them questions such as: (i) Why would someone want to build on soggy, squishy ground? (ii) Why would paving stones help? (They make it easier to get to the House of Peace. Paving stones help to mark the house so people will see it.) (h) If students are at the high-intermediate or advanced level, teach the concept of metaphor and ask students to fi nd the main metaphor and the details supporting that metaphor.

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(i) Ask students to read the whole poem with you again. Do this once more with greater speed. Do it a third time. Then split the class in two, with the two halves of the class facing each other. One half of the class reads the first stanza with spirit (gestures, emphasis). Then the other half read the second stanza with equal fervor. (j) Tell students the following: Your images and words about peacebuilding could be very different from the poem we just read. (i) Think of yourself as a peacebuilder in one or more of these situations: in your family, on the internet, in the classroom, among friends, among opponents, among bullies, in a diverse neighborhood, on the ocean, in a hurricane, on a mountain, among others. (ii) Write a short poem about yourself as a peacebuilder and share it with the whole class. In earlier chapters, other activities also foster intergroup, intercultural and international peace: Activity 39. Working with pictures and autobiographies of well-known victims

(Chapter 2) Activity 40. Relating the familiar to the unfamiliar in EFL/ESL materials

(Chapter 2) Activity 41. Perspective-taking

(Chapter 2) Activity 42. Communicative context

(Chapter 3) Activity 43. Past experiences

(Chapter 3) Activity 44. Behavioral expectations

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Activity 45. Emotion contagion

(Chapter 3) Activity 46. Tentativeness

(Chapter 3) Activity 47. Alternative options

(Chapter 3) Activity 48. Prickly problem of touch

(Chapter 3) Activity 49. Reflection: Critical literacy narratives

(Chapter 10) Activity 50. Systematizing and explanation

(Chapter 10)

Activity 51. Counter-storytelling

(Chapter 10) Activity 52. Finding a silver lining

(Chapter 11)

Category E. Activities to Enhance Ecological Peace Activity 53. Nature Is …

Purpose of the activity: This activity is designed to help students appreciate nature by reflecting on its importance and beauty through creative writing. Level of language proficiency: beginner or above Students’ age: children, teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner Language focus: vocabulary related to nature and the senses Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper and pen

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Amount of time required: 25–30 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students what nature means to them and how they feel about nature. (b) Based on the previous assignment, ask students to complete the sentences below to form a simple poem. Nature looks like … Nature feels like … Nature sounds like … Nature tastes like … Nature smells like … Nature is … (c) (d) (e) (f)

Ask some volunteers to share their poems with the whole class. Ask students to represent their poems visually. Hang their productions up on the class walls. Get students to reflect on the ways in which reflecting on nature might help them build ecological peace.

Activity 54. Protect our oceans

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to raise awareness of the importance of taking care of the environment and undoing the consequences of plastic pollution. Level of language proficiency: high intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intercultural, international Language focus: vocabulary related to plastic pollution and to protecting the environment Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: video, news articles, notebook paper and pen Amount of time required: 25–30 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Show students a short video from a video-sharing site about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. (b) Ask students if they knew about this situation in the Pacific Ocean before watching the video. (c) Get students to reflect on what are the causes of such pollution in the ocean, and what are some of the major consequences for humans and other species. (d) Ask students to work in groups and think of concrete actions that can be done to reduce the amount of plastic waste. Ask them to write

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(e) (f) (g) (h)

down five actions. You can guide them with the language they might need or pre-teach vocabulary. Encourage students to look for news articles or other sources of information about what is currently being done to reduce plastic waste. Ask students to compare their previous ideas with what they found and to decide on a fi nal list of three concrete actions to be taken. Ask the whole class to share their plans of action. Get students to reflect on how protecting the environment might facilitate peace, and what dimensions would be involved.

Activity 55. Appreciating nature: The seven-day action

Purpose of the activity: This activity is intended to help students have greater appreciation for nature. Level of language proficiency: (pre) intermediate or above Students’ age: teenagers, adults Other peace dimensions involved: inner, intercultural, international Language focus: language to express future intentions; vocabulary related to appreciating nature Interaction type: individual and whole group sharing Materials needed: notebook paper, pen Amount of time required: 60 minutes Activity instructions: (a) Ask students what they do in their daily life to appreciate nature and how it makes them feel. (b) Ask students to think of seven actions they will do to appreciate nature. These can be as simple as taking time to smell the flowers, to water their plants or to spend more time outdoors. (c) Tell them that for one week, they will take one action per day. You can Encourage them to take a picture of each moment to show to their classmates once back in class. (d) Ask them to write down their experiences in their journals. (e) Once back in class, encourage students to share their pictures and to comment on the actions taken for appreciating nature. Ask them to reflect on how such actions can help foster ecological peace and other possible dimensions of peace. Conclusion

As we finalize this book, the COVID-19 pandemic is sweeping around the world, and most classes are online. The meaning of ‘classroom’ is less solid than it was earlier. No one knows how many waves of the pandemic will emerge, how many people will die or how the world economy will alter over the long term. Peacebuilding activities in language education, language

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teacher education and every other area of education are needed now more than ever. With language teachers’ and teacher educators’ typical instructional devotion and with even more creativity than usual, these valiant professionals can use the activities to generate peace in an unpeaceful time. In this chapter we categorized peacebuilding activities according to their ties to specific peace dimensions, such as inner peace or international peace. However, no peacebuilding activity is truly unidimensional. For instance, an activity intended to help students deepen their inner peace might also have the side-effect of enhancing their motivation to cooperate with others. Such social cooperation might in turn lead students to experience even more profound inner peace. Ecological peace activities, even those conducted through Zoom, can enrich inner peace and intimacy with nature, while simultaneously sparking new, collective, multilevel efforts to save the environment. We hope all educators, no matter their field, will weave peacebuilding into their practice, thus contributing to a more humane world. References Cohen, A. (2009) Gateway to the Dao-fi eld: Essays for the Awakening Educator. Amherst, NY: Cambria. Culham, T. (2013) Exploring unconscious embodied ethical transformation: Perspectives from Daoist body-mind contemplative practices. In J. Lin, R.L. Oxford and E.J. Brantmeier (eds) Re-envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Pathways to Wisdom and Social Transformation (pp. 33–56). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice Hall. Legutke, M.K. and Schocker-v. Ditfurth, M. (2009) School-based experience. In A. Burns and J.C. Richards (eds) The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education (pp. 209–217). New York: Cambridge University Press. MacIntyre, P.D. and Gregersen, T. (2012) Emotions that facilitate language learning: The positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 2 (2), 193–213. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4 Miller, J.P., Nigh, K., Binder, M.J., Novak, B. and Crowell, S. (eds) (2019) The International Handbook of Holistic Education (IHHE). New York: Routledge. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Wei, Y. and Wei, M. (2013) Developing moral intelligence: Global, networked, and embodied approaches. In J. Lin, R.L. Oxford and E.J. Brantmeier (eds) Re-envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Pathways to Wisdom and Social Transformation (pp. 57–73). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

16 Conclusion: Integrating Peace Concepts, Personal Insights and Future Peace Directions M. Matilde Olivero, Tammy Gregersen, Melinda Harrison and Rebecca L. Oxford

Differences are not intended to separate, to alienate. We are different precisely in order to realize our need of one another. Desmond M. Tutu

Worldwide, remarkable children and teenagers initiate inspiring deeds in service to others, confronting bullying, aggression, discrimination and other travesties that adversely impact educational rights and human rights. These young people are builders of peace and active changemakers. Every year, the International Children’s Peace Prize is conferred upon a young person who bravely battles for the rights of other children. Hilary, a young man who was nominated for the Peace Prize in 2017 when he was aged 12, lived in a destitute village in Ghana where interethnic clashes and violence posed a huge problem. His response to the clashes and violence was to initiate peace marches with other schoolchildren. This so impressed the authorities that they invited him to organize marches in other communities. By October 2017, he had led a total of more than 15,000 children in 30 local, regional and national marches and had the dream of launching ‘peace clubs’ in schools across Ghana (TheirWorld, 2017). What stands out about Hilary’s story, and the stories of many more young people like him, is that his peacebuilding efforts reflect our own personal insights about peace and the future directions we hope promoting peace will take. His thoughts and actions perfectly illustrate the ideas about peace that have been integrated into this volume. Hilary’s peace is • • •

positive, embodied and enacted, arising from within,

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• •

urgent and transformative.

Let’s review these peace principles one by one and reflect on the themes emerging from the entirety of this anthology’s contributions. This includes referring to important conceptualizations of peace in language education and language teacher education, as well as ways in which language practitioners and researchers might advance their quest to create conditions in which peace can flourish in all its dimensions. The conclusion expresses personal insights about peace and identifies future directions.

Conceptualizing Peacebuilding in Language Education

To conceptualize peace in language education, several things are necessary. These include (a) using the nomenclature of positive peace, (b) embodying peace and taking action and (c) recognizing that the source of peace is internal. Nomenclature matters: Pursuing positive peace

Chapter authors in this volume recognize that peace is most accurately described as positive peace. For instance, in Chapter 2, Gkonou, Olivero and Oxford explain that positive peace involves respecting human rights, developing harmonious relationships among groups and cultures and resolving conflicts in productive ways. Similarly, Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat (Chapter 10) indicate that true peace implies fostering social justice. Chapter 12 by Oxford discusses hate speech and explains that positive peace is cultivated through empathy and personal collegiality. Gregersen and MacIntyre clearly highlight in Chapter 11 that positive peace is not merely the absence of confl ict. In fact, conditions for positive peace can and must exist even in the presence of confl ict. Gregersen and MacIntyre ask, ‘Rather than asking questions such as “How do we eliminate confl ict, violence and aggression?”, positive peace asks instead, “What do we need for peace to flourish?”’ (p. 181). Through various theoretical lenses and approaches, each chapter has addressed this question by suggesting that the different actors involved in language education, including teacher educators, pre-service and in-service teachers, researchers, learners, school staff and faculty, work cooperatively to propagate positive peace. Work toward positive peace includes ways to develop self-regulation strategies, promote love, foster respect for cultural diversity, stimulate cognitive fl exibility, cultivate empathy, enhance harmony through nonverbal communication, and raise awareness of the critical positioning of language, among other aspects. This volume raises consciousness of the myriad forms that positive

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peacebuilding takes, while outlining the indispensable notion that peace can only be enhanced through explicit concrete actions. This takes us to the second overall theme of the book. Actions matter: Embodying positive peace and putting it into action

Peacebuilding in language education is embodied verbally and nonverbally, as Oxford (2013) suggested. Throughout this volume, authors have advocated for a nonverbal/verbal amalgam as a means of communicating positive peace. For example, Chapter 10 by Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat provides awareness-raising practices, such as narrative artifacts, for the critical positioning of language and discourses to promote social justice. Wei and Zhou (Chapter 9) explain that English language learners should aim at developing communicative peace, which involves a combination of attitudes, language and behavior. Also, Gregersen and MacIntyre in Chapter 3, after explaining the inextricable interconnectedness of communication channels, remind us of the power of nonverbal and paraverbal communication in fostering or hindering positive peace. Contributors to this volume have shared various approaches and pedagogical tools through which we can promote positive peace in language education. For example, Prado et al. clearly articulate in Chapter 7 the capacity of transformative learning approaches to stimulate internal changes in teachers and learners and thereby foster peacebuilding in the classroom. Learners and teachers, while reflecting on their thoughts and emotions and challenging long-held beliefs, produce transformation. In such transformation, multiple dimensions of positive peace can inspire novel ways of thinking about self and others. In Chapter 8, Bernhardt, Campbell and Leaver highlight alternative forms of transformative teaching which also stimulate positive peace through project-based and learner-centered approaches in which numerous virtues and individual characteristics conducive to peace evolve, such as cooperation, trust, motivation and autonomy. Chapters 2 and 11 celebrate holistic, transformative teaching approaches, which are optimally suited for building positive peace in the classroom through specific activities involving emotional, cognitive, spiritual and social aspects of the individual. Likewise, positive peace is enhanced in classrooms through contemplative practices, as mentioned in Chapter 6 by Barcelos. Such practices, which promote selfreflection through deep inner work, cultivate essential human values and virtues such as love, wisdom, compassion and forgiveness, all of which are fundamental to positive peace. The peace activities in Chapter 15 (Olivero, Harrison and Oxford) involve the combination of holistic, experiential and contemplative learning for generating positive peace. Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat explain in Chapter 10 that positive peace and social justice can be promoted in the classroom through critical

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language approaches and activities that include, for instance, literacy narratives, counter-storytelling and analysis of teaching materials. Moreover, Curtis and Oxford (Chapter 13) suggest that critically studying hateful, hurtful and harmful language can help second language learners reflect on the power of language in building or hampering peace. Gregersen and MacIntyre (Chapter 11), Barbeito and Sánchez Centeno (Chapter 4) and Oxford and Curtis (Chapter 14) refer to positive psychology activities that cultivate environments in which peace thrives. Such pedagogical interventions urge learners and teachers to regulate their emotions and become more hopeful and grateful, thereby leading to greater well-being. As these chapters demonstrate, having knowledge about peace is important but is insufficient on its own. True positive peace is reflected upon and practiced through specific actions. Verbal and nonverbal forms of language and specific language skills combine to foster communicative competence and simultaneously promote positive peace. Source matters: Peace starts from within

Although each chapter in this anthology adds something new to our conceptualization of peace, taking a step back and contemplating the assembly as a whole reveals peace as a complex and nested construct, which involves being in harmony with oneself, others and the environment. Mostly framed within Oxford’s (2013) Language of Peace Approach, the chapters in this book reflect the multidimensional nature of peace. Each section of the book highlights certain peace dimensions, with Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 centering on the core dimensions of inner and interpersonal peace, and in part intergroup peace, and Chapters 8, 9 and 10 focusing on the broader dimensions of intercultural and international peace. The abundant activities in Chapter 15 not only deal with all the peace dimensions just named, but they also include the broad area of ecological peace. Whether a given chapter involves core or broad dimensions of peace, a common theme running throughout most chapters is the recognition that, as many positive psychology practitioners and spiritual leaders have said, peace starts from within. In other words, in order to initiate and expand peace among friends, family, colleagues, social groups, cultures, nations and the environment, peace begins with transforming, or at least recognizing, the inner self. Closely linked to the threefold relationality framework proposed by Bai, Cohen and Scott (2013), this notion reflects the central role of the self in all the aspects that explain human life: self to self, self to other and self to nature. Deep reflection, which implies reflecting on one’s thoughts, emotions and attitudes, is crucial in fi nding harmony with oneself and with the world. In Chapter 5 Amerstorfer explains how inner peace depends on learners’ self-concept, motivation, self-regulation strategies and language anxiety, and why social and emotional intelligence are important in

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maintaining positive, peaceful relationships. Also, Barbeito and Sánchez Centeno (Chapter 4) propose that experiencing well-being and expanding peace in core and broad dimensions requires working on self-regulation strategies. Highlighted by Prado et al. (Chapter 7), the value of inner work, fostered by harmony-seeking language teachers, encourages inner transformation that ultimately affects outer transformation. Similarly, in Chapter 11, Gregersen and MacIntyre emphasize that having a global impact necessitates acting locally, which implies advocating for peace in our immediate environment, including our language classrooms. In ‘acting locally’, self-reflection on thoughts, emotions and attitudes plays a fundamental role. Processes of exploring the inner self and moving outward are also reflected in Chapter 10, in which Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat discuss the need to foster social justice through pedagogies that transform the self by exploring one’s identity. Researching Peacebuilding in Language Education

Action toward peacebuilding in language education, as well as in life more generally, can benefit from research studies. These investigations are urgent and important, because they can lead to transformation at many levels. Timing matters: The urgency of peacebuilding

Every chapter provides evidence of the innumerable reasons for building peace in language education. The contributions in this volume raise awareness of the urgency for promoting peace in language education and offer many valuable points of departure for further explorations into this area. In this light, two important matters deserve our urgent attention. First, this anthology demonstrates the imperative for additional research to validate peacebuilding actions. Many chapters, especially Chapter 15, include activities for building peace in language classrooms, teacher education classrooms and/or other venues. Most activities in this volume have been tried out in language classrooms or teacher education settings, but all the activities in this book deserve further testing to show how (and with what outcomes) they operate with different kinds of people in varied settings. Such research validation would also reveal the ways in which theories and approaches undergirding the peacebuilding activities can foster peace in its multiple dimensions. Some of the interlocking theories and approaches involve positive psychology, peace psychology, peace cultures and peace language transformative learning modes, such as holistic, experiential and contemplative; and critical awareness for social justice.

Conclusion 277

The second urgent matter for research is ecological peace. Lack of ecological peace is a global phenomenon. Large swaths of the Amazon rainforest, often called ‘the lungs of the world’, have been destroyed by intentional fires. Overuse of fossil fuel creates pollution. Climate change makes coastal areas vulnerable to massive flooding. Plastic bags and bottles litter the sea floors and kill sea life. The current global COVID-19 pandemic is an ecological and medical disaster. ‘Flattening the [statistical] curve’ of COVID-19 deaths is a worthy goal, which is sometimes ignored in practice. Research-based video documentaries, articles and stories on these and other related topics, as well as the environmental activities in Chapter 15, can help integrate ecological peace into language education and language teacher education. See also the adaptable eco-educational activities, projects and themes offered elsewhere (e.g. Oxford & Lin, 2011). Change matters: The transformative nature of peacebuilding

Peacebuilding is transformative, as are practices of the best teaching and learning. The chapters in this book have shown that transformations created by peacebuilding involve the interrelationship of constructs (commonly studied in second language acquisition and language learning), which give account of the future directions that research on peacebuilding should take in the field of language education. For example, Gkonou, Olivero and Oxford in Chapter 2 consider cognitions and emotions to be the core components of four transformative competencies that are necessary for building peace. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Chapters 7 and 11 have explained that reflecting on one’s beliefs and emotions can produce inner transformations, which will consequently lead to transformations in larger dimensions. Furthermore, Chapter 10 by Mahalingappa, Rodriguez and Polat refers to ways in which social justice pedagogies, which are informed by critical language awareness, can help learners reflect on and transform their identities and senses of agency. Barcelos (Chapter 6) explains how love relates to peace in the transformational development of a language teacher’s identity. In Chapter 12, Oxford discusses the transformation from hate speech to empathy. In Chapter 5, Amerstorfer reveals how inner (and interpersonal) peace depend on transformations in self-concept and individual characteristics, including motivation, self-regulation strategies and language anxiety. This volume has indicated that peace in language education, explored jointly with individual differences (e.g. in identity, empathy, beliefs, emotions, motivation and learning strategies) and related constructs, has the potential to advance understandings of using, learning and teaching foreign and second languages for transformative peacebuilding purposes.

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Final Thoughts: Personal Peace Insights and Future Directions

Contributors to this volume concurred on several notions about peace. First, peace is positive, is an active process and springs from within. Peacebuilders need to act with urgency and be aware of the transformative nature of peacebuilding. In the opening to this chapter, we mentioned Hilary, a 12-year-old boy from Ghana, who took it upon himself to enact a positive peace movement by leading thousands of other children on peace marches. We end this chapter the way we began it, with an inspiring story of children, the next generation, taking peacebuilding into their own hands. The stirring account comes from South Sudan, from which millions of refugees have fled to Uganda to escape violent wars. Among those who escaped are more than 10,000 parentless children who live together, communally immerse themselves in musical, trauma-healing ventures and convey their aspirations for peace in South Sudan. Coming together from various warring tribes, they sing together about peace, unity, love, coexistence, forgiveness and reconciliation. The children’s fi rst recording, ‘Save Me’, had a wide impact because it was played on radio stations across South Sudan. The children’s current peacebuilding project is in warring refugee communities in Bidibidi, where the children plant seeds of passion fruit which they call ‘seeds of love and peace’. These young people distribute the seeds throughout multiple neighborhoods, accompanied by a message of peace (TheirWorld, 2017). Let us all become as focused, energetic and peace-oriented as these young children, and let us use ourselves as messengers of peace. References Bai, H., Cohen, A. and Scott, C. (2013) Re-visioning higher education: The three-fold relationality framework. In J. Lin, R.L. Oxford and E.J. Brantmeier (eds) Re-envisioning Higher Education: Embodied Pathways to Wisdom and Social Transformation (pp. 3–22). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. (2013) The Language of Peace: Communicating to Create Harmony. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Oxford, R.L. and Lin, J. (2011) Transformative Eco-Education for Human and Planetary Survival. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. TheirWorld (2017) Meet some inspiring young people who are fighting for children’s rights. TheirWorld News, 27 October. See theirworld.org/news/inspiring-young-peopleinternational-childrens-peace-prize-child-labour-child-marriage-bullying-education (accessed November 2019). Tutu, D. (2007) Believe: The Words and Inspiration of Desmond Tutu. Boulder, CO: Blue Mountain Press.

Index

affect [noun], affective, 3, 34, 52, 54–57, 63, 67–68, 82, 97, 99, 147, 149, 151, 166, 171, 173, 180, 185, 187–188, 231, 237–238 affective empathy, 32 see also empathy agency, agents, agentive, xvii, 64, 83, 103, 149, 152, 163, 166, 168–169, 180, 231, 277 altruism, altruistic, 188, 190–192 Amerstorfer, Carmen M., xvi-xvii, 13, 80–95, 239, 275–277 amorosidade (amorosity), 97, 99, 106, 107 see also love anxiety, xx, 22, 39, 65, 67, 70, 81–83, 86–87, 92–93, 100, 148, 174, 182, 190–191, 199–200, 220, 230, 232–233, 237, 250, 275, 277 attitude, attitudes, 19, 25, 31, 38, 44, 54, 56, 84, 87, 102, 117, 121, 147–148, 150, 152–153, 156–158, 168, 171, 207, 229, 238, 246, 249, 274–276 Augsburger, David, 196, 209 autonomy, autonomous, autonomously, 80–93, 138 aware, awareness, 13, 16, 19, 26, 32, 44–45, 50, 53–55, 65, 68–69, 83–84, 90, 99, 106, 111, 113–114, 121, 123–124, 138, 147, 149–150, 152, 156, 158–159, 162–174, 186, 189, 249–251, 263, 265, 269, 273, 276–278 see also conscious, consciousness

belief, beliefs, believe, xv, xvii, xx–xxi, xxvi, 11, 19, 22, 25, 33, 38, 50, 54, 56, 56, 65, 76, 82, 102, 104–105, 111–112, 117, 121–123, 125, 132, 134, 153, 165–166, 171, 197, 200, 203, 205, 207–208, 230–231, 233, 274, 277 Bernhardt, James E., xvii, 14, 129–145, 274 bias, biases, biased, 53, 150–151, 157, 163, 167, 169, 173, 207 Boulding, Elise, 17, 23, 23 Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhist, 81, 110, 202, 233 bully, bullies, bullycide, bullying, 24–25, 163, 221–222, 225–226, 267, 272

Barbeito, María Celina, xvii, 13, 63–79, 275–276 Barcelos, Ana M. F., xvii, 13, 96–109, 208, 274, 277 Batson, C. Daniel, 191, 193, 206, 209, 235 Beatles, 15, 229, 233–234, 253

Campbell, Christine M., xvii-xviii, 14, 129–145, 274 Caruso, David R., 32, 41, 42 Chabot, Sean, 97–100, 106 Chopra, Deepak, 236–237 Christ, Christian, Jesus, 22, 163, 173, 198, 229, 233 Churchill, Winston, 202–204 climate, 69, 136 classroom climate, 30, 39 climate change, 20, 277 cognition, cognitive, xxiii, 3, 30–31, 39–40, 65, 76, 83, 92, 113, 206–207, 231, 235–236, 238, 246, 274 cognitive-affective, cognitiveemotional interaction, 31 cognitive-behavioral therapy, 238 cognitive dissonance, 121 cognitive empathy, 32 see also empathy cognitive flexibility, 12, 31–32, 34–35, 38–39, 148, 273 cognitive reappraisal strategy, 187 Cohrs, J. Christopher, 184–186

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compassion, compassionate, selfcompassion, self-compassionate, xxii, 18, 26, 32, 37, 39, 100, 120, 124, 174, 191, 206–207, 230, 233, 235, 248–249, 256, 274 complex, complexity, 11, 13, 19, 31, 40, 43–44, 48, 80, 83, 93, 112, 148, 163, 169, 180, 184, 186, 216, 228, 230, 235, 248, 275 conscientização, conscientization, 122, 124 conscious, consciousness, consciously, 1, 12, 19, 21, 25, 29, 33, 39, 43, 53, 68, 76, 85, 102, 113–116, 121–122, 124, 138, 150, 153, 158, 166, 170, 173, 189, 246–247, 248, 253, 265, 273 see also unconscious, unconsciousness, unconsciously contemplative [education/teaching/ learning], contemplative inquiry, 15–16, 26, 128, 237, 245–246, 274 see also experiential; see also holistic Cooperative Open Learning (COOL), 13, 80–81, 85–93 Cranton, Patricia, 116, 137 Crichton, J., 149–150, 156, 159 critical literacy, 14, 149–150, 164, 168–169, 171 see also literacy Csíkszentmihályi, M., 180, 182 Culham, Tom E., 96, 107, 208, 246 culture, cultural, culturally, xx–xxi, 2, 19, 31, 33–34, 44, 48–49, 52, 54, 57, 100, 113, 121, 129–130, 133, 136–137, 139, 143, 147–152, 156, 158–159, 165–166, 172–173, 183–184, 186, 197, 200, 223, 236, 246 acculturate, 163, 172 bicultural, biculturalism, 137, 143 cross-cultural, 55, 119, 147–149, 156, 158, 172 cultural iceberg, 19 cultural-religious, 19 ethnocultural, 12, 31 see also empathy intercultural, 1–2, 4, 10, 12, 14–17, 31, 33–34, 36, 39, 44–45, 47, 50, 52, 53, 56, 66, 111, 147–153, 155–159, 182, 189 multicultural, multiculturalism, 153–154, 166

curriculum, curricula, curricular, xvi, xix, xxiii, 1, 111, 117, 124, 130–132, 140, 142, 149–150, 156, 163, 165–166 Curtis, Andy, xviii, 15, 214–227, 228–241 Dalits, 255, 257–258 Dalton, 85–86, 89 death, 120, 202–205, 238 dehumanize, dehumanizing, dehumanization, 124, 167, 201–205 Dewaele, Jean-Marc, xviii, 64–65, 82 dialect,132, 215 dialogue, dialog, dialogic, dialogical, xxvi, 20, 66, 75, 98–99, 122–124, 132, 141, 148–152, 157, 159, 164, 166, 207 diplomat, diplomats, diplomatic, 124, 129, 132, 143 Dirkx, John, 111, 113–114, 122 disability, disabled, 24, 200 discriminate, discriminating, discrimination, antidiscrimination, 19, 24, 26, 112, 163, 165, 168, 119, 255–258, 262, 272 diverse, diversity, xx–xxi, 16, 39, 47, 50, 116–117, 149, 151–152, 155, 234, 267 dominate, domination, dominance, dominant, 47, 55, 200, 208 Dörnyei, Zoltán, 31, 82 dynamic, dynamics, dynamically, dynamism, xx, xxvi, 31, 84, 125, 142, 148, 179, 181, 183, 186 see also complex ecological peace, 1–2, 17, 20, 22–23, 30, 45, 81, 93, 112, 182, 209, 245–271, 277 see also peace ecology, ecological, 1, 12, 16, 26, 277 embody, embodying, embodiment, xii, 64, 99, 106, 113, 179, 246, 273–275 emotion regulation, 12–13, 31, 33–34, 36–37, 39, 63–77, 84, 187 see also self-regulation emotion, emotions, emotional, emotionally, emotionless, xv, xvii, xxi, 3–4, 11, 13, 30–34, 37–38,

Index

44, 48, 50–52, 54–58, 63, 64–75, 84, 86, 96–98, 101, 103–104, 106, 113, 115, 122–123, 163, 169, 183, 188–189, 191, 200, 221, 206, 235–237, 275–277 emotional intelligence, emotionally intelligent, 32–33, 50, 84, 188, 275–276 see also intelligent, intelligently EMPATHICS (positive psychology acronym), 240 see also positive psychology empathy, empathetic, empathic, empathically, empathize, xxii, 4, 32–33, 45, 56, 84–85, 89, 91, 93, 112, 125, 138, 148, 152, 157, 164, 196–209, 235, 246, 251, 255, 265, 273, 277 affective empathy, 32 cognitive empathy, 32 ethnocultural empathy, 31–33, 35–36, 38–39 environment, environments, environmental, xxii–xxiii, 13, 19–20, 23, 29, 32, 34, 45–46, 54, 81–83, 85–86, 93, 100, 104, 113, 117, 122–124, 132–133, 136–137, 140, 143, 148, 150, 173, 186, 231, 238, 239, 271, 275–277 see also ecological ethical, ethics, ethico-political, xix, 16, 98, 100, 103, 106, 156, 246 see also moral ethnic cleansing, 201–202 see genocide ethnic, ethnicity, interethnic, 18, 112, 151, 167, 198, 200, 207, 272 ethnocentric, ethnocentrism, 199 ethnocultural empathy, 31–33, 35–36, 38–39 see empathy experiential [education, learning, activities], experientially, 15–16, 64, 67, 245–247, 276 see also contemplative; see also holistic Fairclough, Norman, 167–169, 171 family, families, xxii, 11, 18, 22–23, 30, 48–49, 76, 81, 100, 112, 120, 131, 139, 152, 163, 201, 222, 233, 237, 275 feeling, feelings, xxv, 32–33, 37–39, 44, 48, 51, 54, 56–57, 69, 138, 149,

281

151, 205–206, 216, 225, 235–237, 255, 258, 261 see also emotion female, 10, 153, 223 see also sex flourish, flourishing, 13, 15, 64–65, 93, 181, 185, 273 see also Seligman Frankl, Viktor, 15, 236, 238 Fredrickson, Barbara, 63, 65, 189 see also positive psychology Freire, Paulo, 97–99, 106–107, 165 Gabryś-Barker, Danuta, 153 Galtung, Johan, 17, 24, 26, 81, 149, 164–165, 182 Gandhi, Mahatma; Gandhian, 58, 203, 209 gender (human), genders, gendered, xix, 9, 18–19, 25, 30, 38, 45, 81, 113, 121–122, 149, 151, 164, 168, 190, 198, 200 feminized, 96 non-binary, xix queerness, xix trans(gender), xix, 19, 122 see also sex genocide, genocidal and ethnic cleansing, 196, 201–202, 205, 215, 238 Cambodian genocide, 201 death camp, 238 “ethnic cleansing” of Rohingya (Myanmar), 202 genocidal campaign against Yazidis, 202 Holocaust, Shoah, Nazis, Hitler, 15, 198, 201, 204, 205, 238 Rwandan genocide, 201–202 geography, geographies, geographic, geographical, geographicpolitical, xiii, 86, 118 Gill, S., 150–151, 158 Gkonou, Christina, xviii, 12, 29–42, 84, 273, 277 globalize, globalization, global, globally, globe, xii, xxvi, 3, 29–30, 110, 149, 184–185, 245, 276–277 goal, goals, goal-oriented, goal-setting, 14, 24–25, 43, 47, 48, 56, 63–64, 66, 75–76, 81, 84, 92, 103, 118, 123, 131–133, 136–137, 149, 164, 166–167, 181–182, 187, 189–190, 192, 196, 231–238, 277 Goleman, Daniel, 32, 84

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Gopnik, Adam, 205 governance, governing, government language institutes, 14, 137, 139–141, 143, 185 Grameen Bank, 131 Grant, C.A., 165–166, 173 grateful, gratitude, gratifying, xii–xiii, 76, 87, 102, 188, 190–192, 275 Greek types of love: agape, philia, storge, xenia, and pragma, 233 see also love Green, John Marc, xviii-xix, 13, 110–126 Gregersen, Tammy, xii, xvi, xx, 2, 9–28, 43–60, 179–195, 272–278 Hadley, Gregory, xix, xxv-xxvii Hall, Edward T., 56 happy, happiness, joy, 10, 21–22, 48, 51, 55, 65, 67, 97, 113, 120, 184–185, 190–192, 200, 206, 230, 235–236 harm, 4, 15, 24, 198, 214–215, 220–225, 228, 234 harmony, harmonious, harmonyseeking, 2, 4, 11, 13–15, 17–18, 25, 30, 34, 45, 47, 53, 57–58, 66, 68, 90, 93, 110–112, 136, 148– 149, 159, 164, 180, 182, 197, 204, 206, 214, 226, 228–229, 234–238, 251, 273, 275–276 Harrison, Melinda, xii, xvi, 1–5, 9–28, 29–42, 245–271, 272–278 hate (noun or verb), hater, hatred, hateful, xxv, 15, 163, 167, 196–198, 208, 214–216, 218, 220, 222–226, 275 hate labeling, 24 hate work, 209 anti-hate, 15 hate speech, 4, 15, 196–213, 217, 273, 277 healing, health, healthy, 2, 11, 31, 67, 84, 138, 152, 182, 184, 204, 233 help, 4, 15, 214, 225, 228, 231–234, 237–238 Herling, Bruce L., 207–208 see also empathy hicks, benjamin lee, xix, 259, 260 high-context cultures, 57 see also low-context cultures holistic [education, learning, teaching, activities, interpretation], 13, 29,

31, 35, 38, 45, 115, 123, 245–247, 274, 276 see also contemplative, experiential education homophobia, 172, 215 see also gender; see also discrimination hope, hopeful, hopefulness, hopeincreasing, hopeless, hopelessness, 4, 15, 83, 183, 214, 225, 228–231, 238 Horwitz, Elaine, 65 see also anxiety hostility, 19, 136, 163, 190, 198–199, 216 humanism, humanistic, 85, 93, 233 humanity, humanitarian, 1, 44, 112, 149, 174, 232 humor, humorous, 72, 119, 133, 190–191, 231 iceberg, cultural, 19 see culture identity, identities, xv, xvii, 13, 19, 25, 33, 96–107, 116–118, 121–122, 163–167, 169, 171, 173–174, 198, 200, 223 277 iso-identities, meta-identity, polyidentities, 118–119 ideology, ideologies, ideological, 24, 151–152, 159, 165, 167–168, 171, 173, 204 imagine, imagining, imagination, imaginative, 17, 19–23, 48, 69, 73, 110, 113, 179 immigrate, immigrating, immigrant, immigrants, immigration, xx, xxii, 24–25, 116–117, 119–120, 154, 172, 185, 201–202, 209 indigenous, 204 individualistic, individuality, individualized, xx, 83, 93 inequality, inequalities, inequity, inequitable, 19, 149, 152, 156, 165–168, 179 injustice, 19, 24, 26, 150, 165–166 inner peace, xvii, 4, 10, 17–18, 45, 50, 56–58, 63–77, 80–93, 102–103, 105, 111–114, 116–117, 122, 130, 164, 182, 209, 245–271 see also peace innovation, innovations, innovative, xv, xx, 4, 64, 68–76, 93, 141, 186 intelligence, intelligent, intelligently, xi, 18, 32–33, 84, 99, 121, 202, 208 see also emotional intelligence

Index

interbeing, 95 see also interdependence intercommunal, inter-community, 185, 197 intercultural peace, 4, 17, 19, 30, 45, 81, 117, 130, 245–271 see also peace interdependence, interdependent, 112, 148, 158, 185 see also interbeing intergroup peace, 4, 14, 17–19, 30, 45, 81, 102, 105–106, 116–117, 122, 174, 245–271, 275 see also peace international peace, 4, 10, 17, 19–20, 30, 45, 52–53, 56, 81, 245–271, 275 see also peace international, internationalize/ise, internationalization, 149–150, 152, 155 interpersonal peace, 4, 10–11, 13, 18, 23, 30, 45, 51, 80–81, 84–86, 89–91, 112, 164, 192, 245–271 see also peace intolerance, 163, 172, 199 see also tolerance, tolerant intracultural interactions, 45 see also culture Islam, Islamic, Islamophobia, Islamophobic, 22, 163, 171–172, 174 Johnson, K., 18, 107 Johnson, R.J., 239 Jung, Carl G., Jungian, 113–114 justice, xxvi, 97–98, 162, 246 see also injustice; see also social justice kindness, 18, 192, 230, 254 see also lovingkindness King, Martin Luther, Jr., 17–18, 30, 110, 130, 162, 164, 205, 208, 234 Knapp, M.L., 44, 48, 52, 54 Kruger, F., 63, 100, 156–158, 165–167 Ladson-Billings, Gloria, 165–166 Lanas, M., 97–99, 101, 106 language education, xii–xiii, xv, xviii, 3, 5, 9–26, 38, 85–91, 168, 193, 270, 273–277 language learning, xii, xv–xviii, xx, xxii, 2–4, 11, 18, 34, 43–44, 46, 58, 73, 82–83, 86, 88, 92, 97, 101, 106, 110–111, 122–124, 131, 136–137, 141–143, 169, 171, 179, 179–193, 236–237, 277

283

language testing, 276 language teaching, xv, xvi, xxi–xxii, 3–5, 11, 14, 23, 39, 58, 85, 101, 106, 110–125, 130–131, 179–193, 233, 245 Language of Peace Approach, the, 17–21, 66, 275 see also peace dimensions language grammar, grammatical, grammarians, grammarist(s), 83, 92, 133–134, 136, 167, 247 language use, 124, 132–133, 135, 152, 157, 167–170, 224, 254, 264 language-based, language-bound, 158, 222 language-inhibiting, 4 metaphor, 19, 30, 220, 253, 266 pragmatics, 224, 247 vocabulary, lexicon, 24, 83, 92, 111, 121, 123, 136, 224, 247, 253, 255, 258, 260, 264, 268, 269–270 Leaver, Betty Lou, xix, 14, 129–145, 274 Lin, Jing, 2, 26, 100 linguist, linguists, linguistic, linguistically, linguistics. xvi, xviii, xx–xxii, 4, 13, 15–16, 31, 43, 64–65, 96–97, 100, 110, 116–117, 123, 129–130, 133, 136, 147, 155–156, 159, 165–168, 171, 180, 186, 191, 214–226, 228–229, 246 bilingual, bilingualism, 20, 171 multilingual, multilingualism, xvi, xx, 3, 137, 151 listen, listens, listening, listener, listeners, 12, 38, 85, 87, 93, 105, 113, 116, 124, 133, 138, 141, 150, 158, 173, 207, 246–247, 253, 255, 258 literacy, literacies, critical literacy, 14, 117, 149–150, 163–173, 190, 193, 275 Lopez, Shawn, 184 love, loves, loving, loving kindness, xi, xvii, xxv, 4, 11, 13, 17–18, 20, 22, 23, 25–26, 37, 45, 51, 96–107, 112–114, 116, 183, 208, 222, 231, 235–237, 246, 253–254, 256, 273–274, 277–278 see also Greek types of love; see also pedagogy of love low-context cultures, 57 see also highcontext cultures; see culture

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MacIntyre, Peter D., xvi, xx, 13–14, 24, 43–60, 65, 68, 179–195, 273–276 Mahalingappa, Laura, xx, 14, 25, 162–176, 273–274, 276–277 Mandela, Nelson, 179 marginalized, marginalization, xx, 14, 158, 166–168, 174 Maslow, Abraham H., 96, 235–236 Mayer, John D., 32, 50 media, xviii, 14, 19, 132, 163–164, 171–173, 197, 215, 221, 259 mediate, mediator, mediators, mediation, 17, 24, 149 Mercer, Sarah, xvi, xviii, 31–32, 63, 66, 82, 84–85, 207 metacognitive, metacognition, 148, see also cognition, cognitive metaphor, metaphors, metaphoric, metaphorical, metaphorically, 16, 19, 30, 199, 201–202, 220, 253, 266 Mevlana, 113 see Rumi Mezirow, Jack, 111–112, 121, 123–124 microfinance, 131 see Yunus, Muhammed migrant, migrants, 180, 186, 199, 204 see also immigrant, immigration military, militaristic, 129, 219–220 mind, minds, mindless, 9–10, 44, 66, 81, 85, 114, 121–123, 181–182, 187, 207 mindful, mindfulness, mindfully, 1, 3, 38, 54, 57, 84–85, 112, 117, 148, 159, 207, 246, 250–251 mindset, 119, 220 mirror neuron, 56, 206 mood, 238 see also affect moral, 66, 98, 100, 169, 200, 203, 233, 246, 262 see also ethics Morgan, Brian, 166–167, 172–173 motivate, motivates, motivated, motivation, motivational, motivator, motive, motives, xx, 30–32, 63, 65, 69, 71, 82–83, 85–88, 91–93, 100, 104–105, 125, 147, 153, 191, 205, 208, 231, 237, 271, 274–275, 277 multicultural, multiculturalism, xx, 33, 118, 137, 143, 149, 153–154, 165–166, 173 see also culture

multidimensional, xv, 1, 30–31, 64, 66–67, 100, 111, 164, 182, 247–248, 275 see peace dimensions multilingual, xvi, xx, 3, 137, 151 see also linguistics Murphey, Tim, 96, 107, 191 music, musical, 17, 87, 112–113, 153, 188, 190–192, 234–236 Muslim, Muslims, xx, 4, 162–174, 202, 204, 222 see also Islam narrative, narratives, narrators, 3, 13, 73, 75, 97, 101, 105–106, 114, 119, 169, 171, 233, 274 nation, nations, national, nationality, nation-states see also international, xix–xx, 15–17, 19–20, 23–25, 30, 48, 80–81, 100, 102, 112, 124, 135–136, 147, 151, 179, 181–182, 184–185, 190, 198, 200, 203–204, 207, 221, 248, 272, 275 nationalism, nationalist, 19, 199, 208 see also international nature, natural environment, 20, 29–30, 32, 34, 44, 46–47, 87, 123, 130, 135, 137, 143, 149, 173, 180, 183, 202, 208, 232, 234, 236, 247–249, 251, 268–270, 275, 277–278 see also environment; see also ecology negative, negativity, 10–11, 15, 17, 26, 33–34, 37, 63, 65–70, 72, 76, 141, 148, 151, 156, 163, 167, 172, 181–182, 184, 187, 189, 192, 196, 198–201, 205, 214–220, 222–226, 228, 230–231, 236–238 see also positivity; see also positive psychology negotiate, negotiating, negotiation, negotiations, 24, 110, 130, 142, 147, 154, 156, 158–159, 167 Nelson, L.L., 30, 123 neurobiology, neuroscientific, 31, 207 Nobel Prize, 130–131 Noddings, Nel, 85, 97, 107 nonverbal, nonverbal, xx, 4, 13, 24, 43–58, 85, 89–91, 146, 197, 206, 247, 273–275 gaze, 45, 47, 57

Index

gesture, gestures, 45, 50, 52, 54, 56–57, 85, 91, 266–267 paraverbal, 43, 46, 48, 274 posture, 45, 50, 56, 85 touch, 16, 26, 45–47, 54–56, 263, 268 non-violence, non-violent, 157, 159, 181–182 Norton, Bonny, 167–168 Olivero, María Matilde, xii, xv, 2, 9–28, 29–42, 63–64, 67, 76, 100, 107, 112–113, 207, 237–238, 245–271, 272–278 oppression, oppressive, oppressed, 24, 26, 98, 100, 130, 165, 170, 201, 230, 238 optimism, optimistic, 71, 82, 75, 183, 189, 193, 229 see also pessimist optimism-uncertainty, 241 Othering, otherness, 150, 156–157, 221 other-orientation, other-oriented, 49, 235 Oxford, Rebecca L., xi–xii, xv, 1–2, 9–28, 29–42, 44–45, 51, 58, 63–70, 72, 76, 81, 83–85, 98, 100, 102, 105, 107, 111–113, 122, 124, 147–148, 156, 164–165, 182, 196–213, 214–227, 228–241, 245–271, 272–278 pandemic, 11, 23, 245, 270, 277 Parekh, Bhikhu, 197–200, 205, 207 peace dimensions, 17, 20–21–23, 26, 30, 33, 35, 45–46, 50–51, 67, 111–112, 114, 117, 124, 245, 247–255, 258, 264–265, 268–271, 275 inner peace, xvii, 4, 10, 17–18, 45, 50, 56–58, 63–77, 80–93, 102–103, 105, 111–114, 116–117, 122, 130, 164, 182, 209, 245–271 intergroup peace, 4, 14, 17–19, 30, 45, 81, 102, 105–106, 116–117, 122, 174, 245–271, 275 international peace, 4, 10, 17, 19–20, 30, 45, 52–53, 56, 81, 245–271, 275 ecological peace, 1–2, 17, 20, 22–23, 30, 45, 81, 93, 112, 182, 209, 245–271, 277 intercultural peace, 4, 17, 19, 30, 45, 81, 117, 130, 245–271

285

interpersonal peace, 4, 10–11, 13, 18, 23, 30, 45, 51, 80–81, 84–86, 89–91, 112, 164, 192, 245–271 peace, peaceful, peacefully, peacefulness, xix, xxii, xxv, 1–3, 5, 9–26, 30, 39, 46, 51, 68, 72, 75–76, 84–85, 90, 92–93, 100, 111–112, 114, 122, 124, 148–150, 153–158, 185, 263–264, 276 peacebuilding, peacebuilder, peacebuilders, xiii, xv–xvi, 1–2, 4–5, 13–14, 16, 25, 29, 31, 35–39, 43–58, 67, 110–125, 147–152, 155, 157–158, 180–183, 186–187, 189–193, 214–215, 222–226, 245–278 peace-fostering, peace-promoting, peaceoriented, peace centered, 11, 15, 19, 107, 225, 278 peace-inhibiting, 157 peacekeeping, 23–25, 40, 181 peacemaking, peacemaker, 23–25, 40, 156–158, 181 pedagogy, pedagogical, xv–xvi, xix–xx, xxiii, 14, 63–64, 68, 85, 97, 117, 147, 149–151, 158, 164, 172–173, 187, 274–275 critical pedagogy, 108 culturally relevant pedagogy, 168–169 dialogic pedagogy, 175 pedagogy of care, 107 pedagogy of encounter, 159 pedagogy of love, 107, 208, 246 Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 125, 175 see also Freire, Paulo pedagogy of the soul, 107 social justice pedagogy, 165–166, 170 Pekrun, Reinhard, 63–66, 69, 75–76 personality, personalities, 32, 37, 53, 143, 182, 208, 235, 264 Peterson, Christopher, 180, 183, 185, 191–193 poem, poems, poet, poets, poetic, poetry, xii, 112–113, 116, 217, 229, 232–234, 236, 254, 265–267, 269 Polat, Nihat, xx, 14, 162–176 politicize, political, politician, politicians, politico, politics, xxv, xxvi, 16, 18, 53, 98–99, 106, 152, 163, 165–166, 168, 171–172, 174, 197–198, 199–200, 202, 223

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pollution, 1, 269, 277 positive psychology, xvii, xx, 2–3, 15, 64–68, 76, 179–193, 230–231, 275–276 negative-narrowing, 65 pleasant, painful emotions/affect, 34 positive-broadening, 65 positive-psychological, 69, 183, 192 relationship with nonverbal communication, 4 virtues, 184, 274 poverty, 120, 172, 222, 225 power, powerful, powerfully, powerless, powerlessness, xi, 25, 31, 38–39, 43, 47, 83, 119–122, 149–151, 156–157, 163, 165, 167–168, 171–172, 185, 215, 221, 226, 237, 274–275 Prado, Josephine, xx-xxi, 13, 110–126, 273–274, 276–277 prejudice, prejudices, prejudiced, 148, 150–151, 156, 201–202, 207 psychological, psychologically, psychologist, psychologists, psychosocial, 30, 33, 65–66, 69, 81–83, 96, 102, 136, 163–164, 180, 182–184, 192, 196, 225, 229–230, 235 queering, queerness, xix race, racial, racism, racist, 10, 18–19, 25, 30, 36, 45, 81, 100, 112–113, 149, 151, 156, 164, 167, 168, 172–173, 199–200, 202–205, 207–208, 215, 217 rape, rapists, 197, 201–202 refugee, refugees, 19, 24, 180, 204, 278 see also immigrant, immigrants, immigration religion, religious, religiously, religiosity, religious faith, 18, 24–25–26, 30, 45, 81, 100, 112–113, 149, 164, 167, 198, 200, 207, 221 resilience, resiliencies, resilient, 67, 83, 183–185, 187, 189, 231 resist, resistance, resisting, 98–99, 118, 152, 174, 236 rights, 10–11, 17, 20, 30, 63, 124, 165, 190, 201, 205, 209, 229, 234, 263–264, 272–273

risk, xxvi, 47, 82, 90, 98, 123, 163, 184, 220 Rodriguez, Terri L., xxi, 14, 162–176, 273–274, 276–277 Rumi, Jalaladin, 113–114, 116 Salovey, Peter, 32 Sánchez Centeno, Adelina, xxi, 13, 63–79, 275–276 savor, savoring, 188, 190, 192–193, 253 see also positive psychology Schäffner, Claudia, 17, 30, 63, 81 Schrank, Beate, 230–231, 238 self self-acceptance, 209 self-aware, self-awareness, 32, 54, 138, 157, 167, 188 self-care, 248–249 self-compassion, self-compassionate, 37, 248–249 see also compassion, compassionate self-concept, 82–83, 93, 275, 277 self-confidence, 70, 82, 87, 93 self-efficacy, 82–83, 119, 123, 163, 237 self-esteem, 80–93, 148, 231, 246 self-knowing, self-knowledge, 113–114, 150 self-reflection, self-reflective, 50, 170, 174, 246, 276 self-regulated, self-regulation, 45, 66, 88 see also emotion regulation self-reliance, self-reliant, 16, 85, 89 self-talk, 87–88, 92 Seligman, Martin E. F., 65, 72, 180, 182, 190. see also flourish, flourishing sex, sexual, sexuality, sexualize, sexism, 18, 25, 55, 107, 112, 121–122, 172, 198, 200, 204, 215, 221 female, 10, 153, 223 silence, silences, silent, silently, 52, 57, 172, 234 Smith, Laurie Frantz, xxi-xxii, 110–126, 157 Snyder, C. R., 184, 199, 201, 231, 237 society, societies, societal, 2, 4, 38, 99, 113, 116–117, 124, 139, 162–164, 167, 169, 171, 197, 206, 199, 225 sociocultural, 32, 171, 179 socio-economic, 45, 118, 151 sociolinguistic, sociolinguistics, xx, 123, 147, 149, 167–168

Index

sociopolitical, socio-political, 150, 162–163, 167–168, 174, 233 spirit, spirits, spiritual, spiritually, spirituality, 30, 66, 76, 92, 113–115, 138, 187, 199, 229, 232, 236–237, 246, 267, 274–275 stereotype, stereotypes, stereotyping, xxvi, 53, 149, 151, 156–157, 163, 167–168, 200–202, 205, 207, 257 Stevick, Earl, 44, 233 strategic, strategy, strategies, xvii, 29, 34, 44, 65, 69–70, 83–84, 87–88, 92, 123–124, 131, 149, 151–152, 156, 187, 237, 275, 277 strategic activities for enhancing peacebuilding in language education, 35–38 stress, stresses, stressful, stressors, stressmoderating, xxv, 13, 54, 64, 66–67, 70, 83, 88–89, 149, 156, 187, 189–191, 195, 236 subconscious, subconsciously, 56, 114, 157 see also unconscious, unconsciousness, unconsciously subhuman, 204–205, 255, 257 see dehumanization suffer, suffering, 2, 35, 64, 67, 113, 187, 202, 205–206, 230, 232, 236 sustain, sustainable, sustainability, sustaining, sustenance, xix, 15, 149, 157, 159, 168, 231 symbol, symbols, symbolic, symbolically, symbolization, symbolized, 21, 113, 118, 130, 135, 167, 197–198, 202 Thich Nhat Hanh, xii, 1, 3, 5, 208 tolerance, tolerant, xxii, 84, 90, 113, 148–149, 152 see also intolerance tradition, traditional, 20, 25, 93, 172, 182–183, 207, 236 transform, transforming, transformation, transformative, transformational, xxi, 2–4, 14, 17, 19, 24–26, 29, 35, 38–39, 43, 45, 58, 64, 98, 106, 111–117, 119, 122–124, 130, 135, 137, 143, 149, 152–153, 155, 169, 179, 199, 238, 245, 274, 276–277 Trump, Donald, 27, 209, 212, 213

287

trust, trusting, trustworthy, trustworthiness, xii, 18, 20, 47, 85, 89–90, 92–93, 110, 112, 119, 122–123, 183, 226, 229–231 truth, truthful, untruth, 11, 47, 114, 236, 238 Tutu, Desmond, 208, 272 Uguralp-Cannon, Gönül, xxii, 13, 110–126 unconscious, unconsciousness, unconsciously, 19, 50, 54, 57, 113–115, 153, 167 see also conscious, consciousness, consciously Vandrick, Stephanie, 166–167, 172–173 victim, victims, victimize, 25, 202, 205, 217 violence, violent, 10, 17, 19, 23–26, 98, 100, 130, 147, 149, 156, 164–165, 174, 180–182, 196, 199, 205, 214, 272, 278, see also nonviolence, nonviolent Vygotsky, Lev, 44, 66 war, wars, warlike, warfare, warrior, xxv, 10–11, 16, 19, 25, 80, 129–130, 132, 134–136, 180, 182–183, 202, 215, 219–220, 225, 278 Wei, Michael, xxii, 14, 146–161, 274 wellbeing (well-being), xvii, xxi, 2–3, 11, 15, 30–31, 39, 63, 65–69, 72, 75–76, 81, 96–97, 100, 112, 120, 163–165, 179, 180, 182–193, 235, 237, 246, 248–249, 275–276 Wenden, Anita, 17, 30, 63, 81 wisdom, wiser, 11, 25, 100, 138, 218, 230, 274 Yousafzai, Malala, 29, 179 Yunus, Muhammed, pioneer in microfinance and the Grameen Bank, 130–131 Zajonc, Arthur, 26, 208 Zembylas, Michalinos, 96–99, 101, 106, 157 Zhou, Yalun, xxiii, 14, 146–161, 274