Patterns of Human Growth [3 ed.]

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Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition This completely revised edition provides a synthesis of the forces that shaped the evolution of the human growth pattern, the biocultural factors that direct its expression, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate individual development, and the biomathematical approaches needed to analyze and interpret human growth. After covering the history, philosophy, and biological principles of human development, the book turns to the evolution of the human life cycle. Later chapters explore the physiological, environmental, and cultural reasons for population variation in growth, and the genetic and endocrine factors that regulate individual development. Using numerous historical and cultural examples, Social-Economic-PoliticalEmotional forces are also discussed. A new chapter introduces controversial concepts of community effects and strategic growth adjustments, and the author then integrates all this information into a truly interactive biocultural model of human development. This remains the primary text for students of human growth in anthropology, psychology, public health, and education. Barry Bogin is Professor Emeritus of Biological Anthropology, Loughborough University, UK and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, University of MichiganDearborn, USA. Bogin is a member of the University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA. He has expertise in human physical growth and development, nutritional ecology, evolutionary biology, Maya people, and human adaptation. The focus of his research is to explain how social, economic, political, and emotional forces influence human physical development. He has authored more than 230 books, articles, book chapters, and popular essays.

Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology Consulting editors C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor, University of Cambridge Robert A. Foley, University of Cambridge Series editors Agustín Fuentes, University of Notre Dame Nina G. Jablonski, Pennsylvania State University Clark Spencer Larsen, The Ohio State University Michael P. Muehlenbein, Baylor University Dennis H. O’Rourke, The University of Kansas Karen B. Strier, University of Wisconsin David P. Watts, Yale University Also available in the series 53. Technique and Application in Dental Anthropology Joel D. Irish and Greg C. Nelson (eds.) 978 0 521 87061 0 54. Western Diseases: An Evolutionary Perspective Tessa M. Pollard 978 0 521 61737 6 55. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles Christina J. Campbell (ed.) 978 0 521 86750 4 56. Between Biology and Culture Holger Schutkowski (ed.) 978 0 521 85936 3 57. Primate Parasite Ecology: The Dynamics and Study of Host-Parasite Relationships Michael A. Huffman and Colin A. Chapman (eds.) 978 0 521 87246 1 58. The Evolutionary Biology of Human Body Fatness: Thrift and Control Jonathan C. K. Wells 978 0 521 88420 4 59. Reproduction and Adaptation: Topics in Human Reproductive Ecology C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor and Lyliane Rosetta (eds.) 978 0 521 50963 3 60. Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes and Lisa Jones-Engel (eds.) 978 0 521 76433 9 61. The Monkeys of Stormy Mountain: 60 Years of Primatological Research on the Japanese Macaques of Arashiyama Jean-Baptiste Leca, Michael A. Huffman and Paul L. Vasey (eds.) 978 0 521 76185 7 62. African Genesis: Perspectives on Hominin Evolution Sally C. Reynolds and Andrew Gallagher (eds.) 978 1 107 01995 9 63. Consanguinity in Context Alan H. Bittles 978 0 521 78186 2 64. Evolving Human Nutrition: Implications for Public Health Stanley Ulijaszek, Neil Mann and Sarah Elton (eds.) 978 0 521 86916 4 65. Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Titis, Sakis and Uacaris Liza M. Veiga, Adrian A. Barnett, Stephen F. Ferrari and Marilyn A. Norconk (eds.) 978 0 521 88158 6 66. Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation G. Richard Scott and Joel D. Irish (eds.) 978 1 107 01145 8 67. Bioarchaeological and Forensic Perspectives on Violence: How Violent Death is Interpreted from Skeletal Remains Debra L. Martin and Cheryl P. Anderson (eds.) 978 1 107 04544 6

68. The Foragers of Point Hope: The Biology and Archaeology of Humans on the Edge of the Alaskan Arctic Charles E. Hilton, Benjamin M. Auerbach and Libby W. Cowgill (eds.) 978 1 107 02250 8 69. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton, 2nd Ed. Clark Spencer Larsen 978 0 521 83869 6 & 978 0 521 54748 2 70. Fossil Primates Susan Cachel 978 1 107 00530 3 71. Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders) Vincent H. Stefan and George W. Gill (eds.) 978 1 107 02366 6 72. Demography and Evolutionary Ecology of Hadza Hunter-Gatherers Nicholas Blurton Jones 978 1 107 06982 4 73. The Dwarf and Mouse Lemurs of Madagascar: Biology, Behavior and Conservation Biogeography of the Cheirogaleidae Shawn M. Lehman, Ute Radespiel and Elke Zimmermann (eds.) 978 1 107 07559 7 74. The Missing Lemur Link: An Ancestral Step in Human Evolution Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi 978 1 107 01608 8 75. Studies in Forensic Biohistory: Anthropological Perspectives Christopher M. Stojanowski and William N. Duncan (eds.) 978 1 107 07354 8 76. Ethnoprimatology: A Practical Guide to Research at the Human-Nonhuman Primate Interface Kerry M. Dore, Erin P. Riley and Agustín Fuentes (eds.) 978 1 107 10996 4 77. Building Bones: Bone Formation and Development in Anthropology Christopher J. Percival and Joan T. Richtsmeier (eds.) 978 1 107 12278 9 78. Models of Obesity: From Ecology to Complexity in Science and Policy Stanley J. Ulijaszek 978 1 107 11751 8 79. The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent and Fossil Homo Sapiens, 2nd Ed. G. Richard Scott, Christy G. Turner II, Grant C. Townsend and María Martinón-Torres 978 1 107 17441 2 80. The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work, and Violence over Two Millennia Richard H. Steckel, Clark Spencer Larsen, Charlotte A. Roberts and Joerg Baten (eds.) 978 1 108 42195 9 81. Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation and Resilience: A Bioarchaeological Perspective Daniel H. Temple and Christopher M. Stojanowski (eds.) 978 1 107 18735 1 82. Primate Research and Conservation in the Anthropocene Alison M. Behie, Julie A. Teichroeb and N. Malone (eds.) 978 1 107 15748 4 83. Evaluating Evidence in Biological Anthropology: The Strange and the Familiar Cathy Sang-Hee Lee Willermet (eds.) 978 1 108 47684 3 84. The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease Muntaser E. Ibrahim and Charles N. Rotimi (eds.) 978 1 107 07202 2 85. The Evolutionary Biology of the Human Pelvis: An Integrative Approach Cara M. Wall-Scheffler, Helen K. Kurki and Benjamin M. Auerbach 978 1 107 19957 6 86. Evolution, Ecology and Conservation of Lorises and Pottos K. A. I. Nekaris and Anne M. Burrows (eds.) 978 1 108 42902 3 87. The Biodemography of Subsistence Farming: Population, Food and Family James W. Wood 978 1 107 03341 2

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition BARRY BOGIN Loughborough University, UK University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108434485 DOI: 10.1017/9781108379977 © Barry Bogin 2021 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1988 Second edition 1999 Reprinted 2001, 2005 Third edition 2021 Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bogin, Barry, author. Title: Patterns of human growth / Barry Bogin. Other titles: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88. Description: Third edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. | Series: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020023044 (print) | LCCN 2020023045 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108434485 (paperback) | ISBN 9781108379977 (epub) Subjects: MESH: Human Development | Anthropology, Physical | Biological Evolution | Growth Classification: LCC GN62.9 (print) | LCC GN62.9 (ebook) | NLM QT 104 | DDC 599.9–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023044 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023045 ISBN 978-1-108-43448-5 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition This completely revised edition provides a synthesis of the forces that shaped the evolution of the human growth pattern, the biocultural factors that direct its expression, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate individual development, and the biomathematical approaches needed to analyze and interpret human growth. After covering the history, philosophy, and biological principles of human development, the book turns to the evolution of the human life cycle. Later chapters explore the physiological, environmental, and cultural reasons for population variation in growth, and the genetic and endocrine factors that regulate individual development. Using numerous historical and cultural examples, Social-Economic-PoliticalEmotional forces are also discussed. A new chapter introduces controversial concepts of community effects and strategic growth adjustments, and the author then integrates all this information into a truly interactive biocultural model of human development. This remains the primary text for students of human growth in anthropology, psychology, public health, and education. Barry Bogin is Professor Emeritus of Biological Anthropology, Loughborough University, UK and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, University of MichiganDearborn, USA. Bogin is a member of the University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA. He has expertise in human physical growth and development, nutritional ecology, evolutionary biology, Maya people, and human adaptation. The focus of his research is to explain how social, economic, political, and emotional forces influence human physical development. He has authored more than 230 books, articles, book chapters, and popular essays.

Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology Consulting editors C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor, University of Cambridge Robert A. Foley, University of Cambridge Series editors Agustín Fuentes, University of Notre Dame Nina G. Jablonski, Pennsylvania State University Clark Spencer Larsen, The Ohio State University Michael P. Muehlenbein, Baylor University Dennis H. O’Rourke, The University of Kansas Karen B. Strier, University of Wisconsin David P. Watts, Yale University Also available in the series 53. Technique and Application in Dental Anthropology Joel D. Irish and Greg C. Nelson (eds.) 978 0 521 87061 0 54. Western Diseases: An Evolutionary Perspective Tessa M. Pollard 978 0 521 61737 6 55. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles Christina J. Campbell (ed.) 978 0 521 86750 4 56. Between Biology and Culture Holger Schutkowski (ed.) 978 0 521 85936 3 57. Primate Parasite Ecology: The Dynamics and Study of Host-Parasite Relationships Michael A. Huffman and Colin A. Chapman (eds.) 978 0 521 87246 1 58. The Evolutionary Biology of Human Body Fatness: Thrift and Control Jonathan C. K. Wells 978 0 521 88420 4 59. Reproduction and Adaptation: Topics in Human Reproductive Ecology C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor and Lyliane Rosetta (eds.) 978 0 521 50963 3 60. Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes and Lisa Jones-Engel (eds.) 978 0 521 76433 9 61. The Monkeys of Stormy Mountain: 60 Years of Primatological Research on the Japanese Macaques of Arashiyama Jean-Baptiste Leca, Michael A. Huffman and Paul L. Vasey (eds.) 978 0 521 76185 7 62. African Genesis: Perspectives on Hominin Evolution Sally C. Reynolds and Andrew Gallagher (eds.) 978 1 107 01995 9 63. Consanguinity in Context Alan H. Bittles 978 0 521 78186 2 64. Evolving Human Nutrition: Implications for Public Health Stanley Ulijaszek, Neil Mann and Sarah Elton (eds.) 978 0 521 86916 4 65. Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Titis, Sakis and Uacaris Liza M. Veiga, Adrian A. Barnett, Stephen F. Ferrari and Marilyn A. Norconk (eds.) 978 0 521 88158 6 66. Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation G. Richard Scott and Joel D. Irish (eds.) 978 1 107 01145 8 67. Bioarchaeological and Forensic Perspectives on Violence: How Violent Death is Interpreted from Skeletal Remains Debra L. Martin and Cheryl P. Anderson (eds.) 978 1 107 04544 6

68. The Foragers of Point Hope: The Biology and Archaeology of Humans on the Edge of the Alaskan Arctic Charles E. Hilton, Benjamin M. Auerbach and Libby W. Cowgill (eds.) 978 1 107 02250 8 69. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton, 2nd Ed. Clark Spencer Larsen 978 0 521 83869 6 & 978 0 521 54748 2 70. Fossil Primates Susan Cachel 978 1 107 00530 3 71. Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders) Vincent H. Stefan and George W. Gill (eds.) 978 1 107 02366 6 72. Demography and Evolutionary Ecology of Hadza Hunter-Gatherers Nicholas Blurton Jones 978 1 107 06982 4 73. The Dwarf and Mouse Lemurs of Madagascar: Biology, Behavior and Conservation Biogeography of the Cheirogaleidae Shawn M. Lehman, Ute Radespiel and Elke Zimmermann (eds.) 978 1 107 07559 7 74. The Missing Lemur Link: An Ancestral Step in Human Evolution Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi 978 1 107 01608 8 75. Studies in Forensic Biohistory: Anthropological Perspectives Christopher M. Stojanowski and William N. Duncan (eds.) 978 1 107 07354 8 76. Ethnoprimatology: A Practical Guide to Research at the Human-Nonhuman Primate Interface Kerry M. Dore, Erin P. Riley and Agustín Fuentes (eds.) 978 1 107 10996 4 77. Building Bones: Bone Formation and Development in Anthropology Christopher J. Percival and Joan T. Richtsmeier (eds.) 978 1 107 12278 9 78. Models of Obesity: From Ecology to Complexity in Science and Policy Stanley J. Ulijaszek 978 1 107 11751 8 79. The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent and Fossil Homo Sapiens, 2nd Ed. G. Richard Scott, Christy G. Turner II, Grant C. Townsend and María Martinón-Torres 978 1 107 17441 2 80. The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work, and Violence over Two Millennia Richard H. Steckel, Clark Spencer Larsen, Charlotte A. Roberts and Joerg Baten (eds.) 978 1 108 42195 9 81. Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation and Resilience: A Bioarchaeological Perspective Daniel H. Temple and Christopher M. Stojanowski (eds.) 978 1 107 18735 1 82. Primate Research and Conservation in the Anthropocene Alison M. Behie, Julie A. Teichroeb and N. Malone (eds.) 978 1 107 15748 4 83. Evaluating Evidence in Biological Anthropology: The Strange and the Familiar Cathy Sang-Hee Lee Willermet (eds.) 978 1 108 47684 3 84. The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease Muntaser E. Ibrahim and Charles N. Rotimi (eds.) 978 1 107 07202 2 85. The Evolutionary Biology of the Human Pelvis: An Integrative Approach Cara M. Wall-Scheffler, Helen K. Kurki and Benjamin M. Auerbach 978 1 107 19957 6 86. Evolution, Ecology and Conservation of Lorises and Pottos K. A. I. Nekaris and Anne M. Burrows (eds.) 978 1 108 42902 3 87. The Biodemography of Subsistence Farming: Population, Food and Family James W. Wood 978 1 107 03341 2

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition BARRY BOGIN Loughborough University, UK University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108434485 DOI: 10.1017/9781108379977 © Barry Bogin 2021 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1988 Second edition 1999 Reprinted 2001, 2005 Third edition 2021 Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bogin, Barry, author. Title: Patterns of human growth / Barry Bogin. Other titles: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88. Description: Third edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. | Series: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020023044 (print) | LCCN 2020023045 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108434485 (paperback) | ISBN 9781108379977 (epub) Subjects: MESH: Human Development | Anthropology, Physical | Biological Evolution | Growth Classification: LCC GN62.9 (print) | LCC GN62.9 (ebook) | NLM QT 104 | DDC 599.9–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023044 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023045 ISBN 978-1-108-43448-5 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition This completely revised edition provides a synthesis of the forces that shaped the evolution of the human growth pattern, the biocultural factors that direct its expression, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate individual development, and the biomathematical approaches needed to analyze and interpret human growth. After covering the history, philosophy, and biological principles of human development, the book turns to the evolution of the human life cycle. Later chapters explore the physiological, environmental, and cultural reasons for population variation in growth, and the genetic and endocrine factors that regulate individual development. Using numerous historical and cultural examples, Social-Economic-PoliticalEmotional forces are also discussed. A new chapter introduces controversial concepts of community effects and strategic growth adjustments, and the author then integrates all this information into a truly interactive biocultural model of human development. This remains the primary text for students of human growth in anthropology, psychology, public health, and education. Barry Bogin is Professor Emeritus of Biological Anthropology, Loughborough University, UK and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, University of MichiganDearborn, USA. Bogin is a member of the University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA. He has expertise in human physical growth and development, nutritional ecology, evolutionary biology, Maya people, and human adaptation. The focus of his research is to explain how social, economic, political, and emotional forces influence human physical development. He has authored more than 230 books, articles, book chapters, and popular essays.

Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology Consulting editors C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor, University of Cambridge Robert A. Foley, University of Cambridge Series editors Agustín Fuentes, University of Notre Dame Nina G. Jablonski, Pennsylvania State University Clark Spencer Larsen, The Ohio State University Michael P. Muehlenbein, Baylor University Dennis H. O’Rourke, The University of Kansas Karen B. Strier, University of Wisconsin David P. Watts, Yale University Also available in the series 53. Technique and Application in Dental Anthropology Joel D. Irish and Greg C. Nelson (eds.) 978 0 521 87061 0 54. Western Diseases: An Evolutionary Perspective Tessa M. Pollard 978 0 521 61737 6 55. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles Christina J. Campbell (ed.) 978 0 521 86750 4 56. Between Biology and Culture Holger Schutkowski (ed.) 978 0 521 85936 3 57. Primate Parasite Ecology: The Dynamics and Study of Host-Parasite Relationships Michael A. Huffman and Colin A. Chapman (eds.) 978 0 521 87246 1 58. The Evolutionary Biology of Human Body Fatness: Thrift and Control Jonathan C. K. Wells 978 0 521 88420 4 59. Reproduction and Adaptation: Topics in Human Reproductive Ecology C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor and Lyliane Rosetta (eds.) 978 0 521 50963 3 60. Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes and Lisa Jones-Engel (eds.) 978 0 521 76433 9 61. The Monkeys of Stormy Mountain: 60 Years of Primatological Research on the Japanese Macaques of Arashiyama Jean-Baptiste Leca, Michael A. Huffman and Paul L. Vasey (eds.) 978 0 521 76185 7 62. African Genesis: Perspectives on Hominin Evolution Sally C. Reynolds and Andrew Gallagher (eds.) 978 1 107 01995 9 63. Consanguinity in Context Alan H. Bittles 978 0 521 78186 2 64. Evolving Human Nutrition: Implications for Public Health Stanley Ulijaszek, Neil Mann and Sarah Elton (eds.) 978 0 521 86916 4 65. Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Titis, Sakis and Uacaris Liza M. Veiga, Adrian A. Barnett, Stephen F. Ferrari and Marilyn A. Norconk (eds.) 978 0 521 88158 6 66. Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation G. Richard Scott and Joel D. Irish (eds.) 978 1 107 01145 8 67. Bioarchaeological and Forensic Perspectives on Violence: How Violent Death is Interpreted from Skeletal Remains Debra L. Martin and Cheryl P. Anderson (eds.) 978 1 107 04544 6

68. The Foragers of Point Hope: The Biology and Archaeology of Humans on the Edge of the Alaskan Arctic Charles E. Hilton, Benjamin M. Auerbach and Libby W. Cowgill (eds.) 978 1 107 02250 8 69. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton, 2nd Ed. Clark Spencer Larsen 978 0 521 83869 6 & 978 0 521 54748 2 70. Fossil Primates Susan Cachel 978 1 107 00530 3 71. Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders) Vincent H. Stefan and George W. Gill (eds.) 978 1 107 02366 6 72. Demography and Evolutionary Ecology of Hadza Hunter-Gatherers Nicholas Blurton Jones 978 1 107 06982 4 73. The Dwarf and Mouse Lemurs of Madagascar: Biology, Behavior and Conservation Biogeography of the Cheirogaleidae Shawn M. Lehman, Ute Radespiel and Elke Zimmermann (eds.) 978 1 107 07559 7 74. The Missing Lemur Link: An Ancestral Step in Human Evolution Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi 978 1 107 01608 8 75. Studies in Forensic Biohistory: Anthropological Perspectives Christopher M. Stojanowski and William N. Duncan (eds.) 978 1 107 07354 8 76. Ethnoprimatology: A Practical Guide to Research at the Human-Nonhuman Primate Interface Kerry M. Dore, Erin P. Riley and Agustín Fuentes (eds.) 978 1 107 10996 4 77. Building Bones: Bone Formation and Development in Anthropology Christopher J. Percival and Joan T. Richtsmeier (eds.) 978 1 107 12278 9 78. Models of Obesity: From Ecology to Complexity in Science and Policy Stanley J. Ulijaszek 978 1 107 11751 8 79. The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent and Fossil Homo Sapiens, 2nd Ed. G. Richard Scott, Christy G. Turner II, Grant C. Townsend and María Martinón-Torres 978 1 107 17441 2 80. The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work, and Violence over Two Millennia Richard H. Steckel, Clark Spencer Larsen, Charlotte A. Roberts and Joerg Baten (eds.) 978 1 108 42195 9 81. Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation and Resilience: A Bioarchaeological Perspective Daniel H. Temple and Christopher M. Stojanowski (eds.) 978 1 107 18735 1 82. Primate Research and Conservation in the Anthropocene Alison M. Behie, Julie A. Teichroeb and N. Malone (eds.) 978 1 107 15748 4 83. Evaluating Evidence in Biological Anthropology: The Strange and the Familiar Cathy Sang-Hee Lee Willermet (eds.) 978 1 108 47684 3 84. The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease Muntaser E. Ibrahim and Charles N. Rotimi (eds.) 978 1 107 07202 2 85. The Evolutionary Biology of the Human Pelvis: An Integrative Approach Cara M. Wall-Scheffler, Helen K. Kurki and Benjamin M. Auerbach 978 1 107 19957 6 86. Evolution, Ecology and Conservation of Lorises and Pottos K. A. I. Nekaris and Anne M. Burrows (eds.) 978 1 108 42902 3 87. The Biodemography of Subsistence Farming: Population, Food and Family James W. Wood 978 1 107 03341 2

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition BARRY BOGIN Loughborough University, UK University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108434485 DOI: 10.1017/9781108379977 © Barry Bogin 2021 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1988 Second edition 1999 Reprinted 2001, 2005 Third edition 2021 Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bogin, Barry, author. Title: Patterns of human growth / Barry Bogin. Other titles: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88. Description: Third edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. | Series: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020023044 (print) | LCCN 2020023045 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108434485 (paperback) | ISBN 9781108379977 (epub) Subjects: MESH: Human Development | Anthropology, Physical | Biological Evolution | Growth Classification: LCC GN62.9 (print) | LCC GN62.9 (ebook) | NLM QT 104 | DDC 599.9–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023044 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023045 ISBN 978-1-108-43448-5 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition This completely revised edition provides a synthesis of the forces that shaped the evolution of the human growth pattern, the biocultural factors that direct its expression, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate individual development, and the biomathematical approaches needed to analyze and interpret human growth. After covering the history, philosophy, and biological principles of human development, the book turns to the evolution of the human life cycle. Later chapters explore the physiological, environmental, and cultural reasons for population variation in growth, and the genetic and endocrine factors that regulate individual development. Using numerous historical and cultural examples, Social-Economic-PoliticalEmotional forces are also discussed. A new chapter introduces controversial concepts of community effects and strategic growth adjustments, and the author then integrates all this information into a truly interactive biocultural model of human development. This remains the primary text for students of human growth in anthropology, psychology, public health, and education. Barry Bogin is Professor Emeritus of Biological Anthropology, Loughborough University, UK and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, University of MichiganDearborn, USA. Bogin is a member of the University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA. He has expertise in human physical growth and development, nutritional ecology, evolutionary biology, Maya people, and human adaptation. The focus of his research is to explain how social, economic, political, and emotional forces influence human physical development. He has authored more than 230 books, articles, book chapters, and popular essays.

Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology Consulting editors C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor, University of Cambridge Robert A. Foley, University of Cambridge Series editors Agustín Fuentes, University of Notre Dame Nina G. Jablonski, Pennsylvania State University Clark Spencer Larsen, The Ohio State University Michael P. Muehlenbein, Baylor University Dennis H. O’Rourke, The University of Kansas Karen B. Strier, University of Wisconsin David P. Watts, Yale University Also available in the series 53. Technique and Application in Dental Anthropology Joel D. Irish and Greg C. Nelson (eds.) 978 0 521 87061 0 54. Western Diseases: An Evolutionary Perspective Tessa M. Pollard 978 0 521 61737 6 55. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles Christina J. Campbell (ed.) 978 0 521 86750 4 56. Between Biology and Culture Holger Schutkowski (ed.) 978 0 521 85936 3 57. Primate Parasite Ecology: The Dynamics and Study of Host-Parasite Relationships Michael A. Huffman and Colin A. Chapman (eds.) 978 0 521 87246 1 58. The Evolutionary Biology of Human Body Fatness: Thrift and Control Jonathan C. K. Wells 978 0 521 88420 4 59. Reproduction and Adaptation: Topics in Human Reproductive Ecology C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor and Lyliane Rosetta (eds.) 978 0 521 50963 3 60. Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes and Lisa Jones-Engel (eds.) 978 0 521 76433 9 61. The Monkeys of Stormy Mountain: 60 Years of Primatological Research on the Japanese Macaques of Arashiyama Jean-Baptiste Leca, Michael A. Huffman and Paul L. Vasey (eds.) 978 0 521 76185 7 62. African Genesis: Perspectives on Hominin Evolution Sally C. Reynolds and Andrew Gallagher (eds.) 978 1 107 01995 9 63. Consanguinity in Context Alan H. Bittles 978 0 521 78186 2 64. Evolving Human Nutrition: Implications for Public Health Stanley Ulijaszek, Neil Mann and Sarah Elton (eds.) 978 0 521 86916 4 65. Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Titis, Sakis and Uacaris Liza M. Veiga, Adrian A. Barnett, Stephen F. Ferrari and Marilyn A. Norconk (eds.) 978 0 521 88158 6 66. Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation G. Richard Scott and Joel D. Irish (eds.) 978 1 107 01145 8 67. Bioarchaeological and Forensic Perspectives on Violence: How Violent Death is Interpreted from Skeletal Remains Debra L. Martin and Cheryl P. Anderson (eds.) 978 1 107 04544 6

68. The Foragers of Point Hope: The Biology and Archaeology of Humans on the Edge of the Alaskan Arctic Charles E. Hilton, Benjamin M. Auerbach and Libby W. Cowgill (eds.) 978 1 107 02250 8 69. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton, 2nd Ed. Clark Spencer Larsen 978 0 521 83869 6 & 978 0 521 54748 2 70. Fossil Primates Susan Cachel 978 1 107 00530 3 71. Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders) Vincent H. Stefan and George W. Gill (eds.) 978 1 107 02366 6 72. Demography and Evolutionary Ecology of Hadza Hunter-Gatherers Nicholas Blurton Jones 978 1 107 06982 4 73. The Dwarf and Mouse Lemurs of Madagascar: Biology, Behavior and Conservation Biogeography of the Cheirogaleidae Shawn M. Lehman, Ute Radespiel and Elke Zimmermann (eds.) 978 1 107 07559 7 74. The Missing Lemur Link: An Ancestral Step in Human Evolution Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi 978 1 107 01608 8 75. Studies in Forensic Biohistory: Anthropological Perspectives Christopher M. Stojanowski and William N. Duncan (eds.) 978 1 107 07354 8 76. Ethnoprimatology: A Practical Guide to Research at the Human-Nonhuman Primate Interface Kerry M. Dore, Erin P. Riley and Agustín Fuentes (eds.) 978 1 107 10996 4 77. Building Bones: Bone Formation and Development in Anthropology Christopher J. Percival and Joan T. Richtsmeier (eds.) 978 1 107 12278 9 78. Models of Obesity: From Ecology to Complexity in Science and Policy Stanley J. Ulijaszek 978 1 107 11751 8 79. The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent and Fossil Homo Sapiens, 2nd Ed. G. Richard Scott, Christy G. Turner II, Grant C. Townsend and María Martinón-Torres 978 1 107 17441 2 80. The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work, and Violence over Two Millennia Richard H. Steckel, Clark Spencer Larsen, Charlotte A. Roberts and Joerg Baten (eds.) 978 1 108 42195 9 81. Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation and Resilience: A Bioarchaeological Perspective Daniel H. Temple and Christopher M. Stojanowski (eds.) 978 1 107 18735 1 82. Primate Research and Conservation in the Anthropocene Alison M. Behie, Julie A. Teichroeb and N. Malone (eds.) 978 1 107 15748 4 83. Evaluating Evidence in Biological Anthropology: The Strange and the Familiar Cathy Sang-Hee Lee Willermet (eds.) 978 1 108 47684 3 84. The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease Muntaser E. Ibrahim and Charles N. Rotimi (eds.) 978 1 107 07202 2 85. The Evolutionary Biology of the Human Pelvis: An Integrative Approach Cara M. Wall-Scheffler, Helen K. Kurki and Benjamin M. Auerbach 978 1 107 19957 6 86. Evolution, Ecology and Conservation of Lorises and Pottos K. A. I. Nekaris and Anne M. Burrows (eds.) 978 1 108 42902 3 87. The Biodemography of Subsistence Farming: Population, Food and Family James W. Wood 978 1 107 03341 2

Patterns of Human Growth Third Edition BARRY BOGIN Loughborough University, UK University of California San Diego/Salk Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), USA

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108434485 DOI: 10.1017/9781108379977 © Barry Bogin 2021 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1988 Second edition 1999 Reprinted 2001, 2005 Third edition 2021 Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bogin, Barry, author. Title: Patterns of human growth / Barry Bogin. Other titles: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88. Description: Third edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. | Series: Cambridge studies in biological and evolutionary anthropology ; 88 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020023044 (print) | LCCN 2020023045 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108434485 (paperback) | ISBN 9781108379977 (epub) Subjects: MESH: Human Development | Anthropology, Physical | Biological Evolution | Growth Classification: LCC GN62.9 (print) | LCC GN62.9 (ebook) | NLM QT 104 | DDC 599.9–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023044 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023045 ISBN 978-1-108-43448-5 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Dedicated to the memory of my mentor Gabriel Ward Lasker in admiration and eternal friendship. Dedicated with love to my daughter Rachael and her daughters Anabella and Charlotte, my son Josh, and my daughter Isabel Jian-Ni. Wishing you comfort, learning, productive work, love for each other, and ever-lasting hope.

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

1

2

3

page xiii

1

Anthropology and Growth Maya in Disneyland Growth and Evolution Growth Theory Human Auxology The Organization of This Book

2 3 10 12 18 19

Background to the Study of Human Growth

22

Why Grow and Develop? Historical Background for the Study of Human Growth Prehistory and Early Historic Period The Latin West and the Renaissance Embryonic and Fetal Development Longitudinal Studies of the Eighteenth Century Statistical Approaches of the Nineteenth Century Politics, Heredity, Environment, and Growth “Race” and Growth Twentieth-Century Research Other Basic Research Related to Growth Technological Developments Endocrines and Growth Control Growth Theory Conclusion

22 23 26 28 33 34 37 38 44 47 63 64 65 69 71

Basic Principles of Human Growth

72

Stages in the Life Cycle Prenatal Stages Birth Postnatal Life

72 72 81 102

The Evolution of Human Growth Vertebrate and Mammalian Foundations for Human Growth Mammalian Growth Mammalian Reproduction Brains and Learning Stages of Mammalian Growth

143 143 146 149 156 160

x

Contents The Human Difference Primate Growth Patterns Of Brains and Bodies The Human Adolescent Growth Spurt Is Unique Some Important Differences between Human and Nonhuman Primate Growth A Philosophy of Human Growth

4

Evolution of the Human Life Cycle Human Biocultural Ecology Biocultural Ecology of the Human Life Cycle Life History and Stages of the Life Cycle The Evolution of Ontogeny From Heterochrony to Evo-Devo Evo-Devo Is Not Enough to Explain Human Growth and Development Human Childhood Weaning Feeding the Greedy Brain The Passage from Childhood Juveniles Feed Themselves and Become “Helpers at the Nest” How and When Did Human Childhood Evolve? Homo “Rocks” The Evolution of Adolescence Did Neandertals Have Adolescence? Who Benefits from Childhood? Cooperative Breeding vs. Human Cooperation in Reproduction Human Biocultural Reproduction vs. Cooperative and Communal Breeding Childhood and Biocultural Reproduction The Allometry of the Growth of the Human Child Releases Nurturing and Care-Giving Behaviors The Nature of Human Biocultural Reproduction Why Do Humans Rely upon such Diversity in Kinship and Allocare Strategies? Biocultural Reproduction and Lifetime Reproductive Effort Why Adolescence? The “Valuable Grandmother,” or Could Menopause Evolve? Conclusion

5

Growth Variation in Living Human Populations Population Differences in Body Size Population Differences in Rate of Growth Why Are Pygmies Short? Differences in Growth between Boys and Girls Population Variation in Skeletal, Dental, and Sexual Maturation The Extensive Interacting Matrix of Variables Associated with Population Variation in Growth, Development, and Maturation

163 169 176 177 183 184

187 189 190 191 193 196 201 202 202 205 209 212 212 219 222 224 230 230 233 234 235 241 245 247 254 264 272

273 273 279 286 287 289 295

Contents Ego Crescere, Ergo Sum Phaenotypo Body Proportions Secular Trends What Do Secular Trends Mean? Population Differences in Body Composition The Significance of Population Variation Adaptive Value of Body Size in Human Populations Human Growth under Adversity Trade-Offs in Human Growth and Development Hope for the Future

6

Genetic and Neuroendocrine Regulation of Human Growth Genetics of Human Development Back to the Homeodomain: Genes, Evolution, and Growth Genome-Wide Association Studies Twin Studies As an Approach to the Genetics of Growth Correlations in Growth between Biological Relatives (Non-Twins) The Effects of Genetic Aberrations on Growth Epigenetic Factors Endocrinology of Growth The Growth Plate and Its Role in Size Variation Other Growth Factors Summary of the Neuroendocrinology of Growth

7

What Makes People Grow? Love, Hope, Community Effects, and Strategic Growth in the Context of Environmental Factors Influencing Human Development Community Effects and Strategic Growth Nutrients and Food Infection and Psychosocial Stress in Guatemala Material and Emotional Security A Review of Failed Attempts to Overcome Insecurities and Poor Growth A New Perspective on Stunting and Nutrition Famines and Starvation The Milk Hypothesis Rejected Vitamin D3: The Effect of a Specific Nutrient Month of Birth Effect Migration and Urbanization What Makes Migrants Grow? Sex, Sport, and the Community Effect in Height You Can’t Be Too Rich or Too Tall Bringing It All Together – Evolution, Ecology, SEPE, Biocultural Reproduction, Community Effects, Strategic Growth, and Human Life History

xi 298 298 309 320 325 329 330 332 335 337

339 340 345 347 353 364 368 372 375 392 397 401

403 410 415 423 426 428 435 436 441 452 462 463 474 478 480 488

xii

Contents

8

A Biocultural View of Human Growth

490

Biocultural Interactions in Contemporary Populations The Most Important Discoveries about Human Growth, Development, and Maturation Unsolved Problems for Future Research Coda

491

Glossary References Index

506 515 561

Color plates can be found between pages 306 and 307.

498 500 505

Acknowledgments

This third edition of Patterns of Human Growth was a long time in coming. In fact, the 20+ years since the second edition is about equal to the time it takes a fertilized ovum to grow, develop, and mature to adulthood. I have matured a bit over those two decades. I moved from the University of Michigan-Dearborn, an outstanding undergraduate university in the United States, to undergraduate and doctoral training at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom. Over 12 years in the UK I supervised six PhD students who gave back to me much value by expanding my research experiences to new peoples and new places. I also retired from daily university life in 2018, after 42 years of my own post-PhD life. Retirement for me means that a university no longer provides a pay check, but I remain quite active in research, writing, attending, and presenting at conferences, and enjoying the privileges of an academic life. I am very fortunate to have several colleagues who took time from their own research to read and criticize one or more chapters of this new edition, provide me with results of their own research, and engage with me in biological-anthropological-medical-historical-political-philosophical discussions. For their kindness, for their forthright comments which have improved the presentation of this work, and for their intellectual honesty and stimulation sincere thanks are extended to Drs. Christiane Scheffler, Michael Hermanussen, Will Johnson, and Liina Mansukoski. Liina was my final PhD student and was able to provide critical reviews from both the pre- and post-doctoral perspectives. Liina, Michael, and Christiane read every word of the third edition and contributed some of the final text. My gratitude for their support is beyond words. As must be said, the book you have before you is my responsibility and any errors are mine alone. Many thanks are due to colleagues who adopted previous editions of this book for their teaching. A few of you, and occasionally some of your students, sent notes of support and helpful comments. Since the publication of the second edition in 1999 I became a member of the Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA). “Anthropogeny” is a word first used in the 1839 edition of Hooper's Medical Dictionary and defined as “the study of the generation of man.” Today the word is defined as the investigation of the origin of humans. CARTA is an international and virtual organization, formed at the University of California San Diego and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, to promote transdisciplinary research into human origins, drawing on methods from many disciplines spanning the social, biomedical, biological, computational and engineering, physical and chemical sciences, and the humanities. Professor Ajit Varki, one of CARTA’s founders discovered me by reading Patterns of Human Growth and invited me to join. This new edition benefits from the learning provided at many CARTA symposia, both in person and online. I wish to

xiv

Acknowledgments

acknowledge the contributions of CARTA officers Drs. Pascal Gagneux and Margaret Schoeninger, CARTA administrators, especially Ingrid Benirschke Perkins and Linda Nelson, and the late James Handelman for financial and intellectual support. Final thanks for this third edition are extended to my editors at Cambridge University Press, Dr. Dominic Lewis, Jenny van der Meijden, and Olivia Boult. I also want to thank, again, those colleagues who helped with the first and second editions of this book, as many of their suggestions for improvement are still found in this third edition. For the first edition critical suggestions were provided by Drs. George Clark, Nancy Howell, Marquisa LaVelle, Michael A. Little, Daniel Moerman, Gerald Moran, Jessica Schwartz, and B. Holly Smith. The professional work of Professor Elizabeth Watts and Professor James Gavin inspired much of my interest in the evolution of human growth. Professor Watts read sections of the first edition and Professor Gavin engaged me in lively conversation about our disparate ideas about human evolution. Sadly, neither of these colleagues lived to see the drafts of the second edition. Nevertheless, their writings and conversations with me leave a mark on this book. Parts of the first edition of this book were written during a research leave from the University of Michigan-Dearborn. The author appreciates the assistance of Drs. Eugene Arden, Victor Wong, and Donald Levin in helping to arrange for the leave. A generous grant from the American Philosophical Society helped to defray research expenses at that time. The second edition was written without the benefits of a leave from teaching, nor special financial assistance. Of course, Cambridge University Press, in the person of my editor Dr. Tracey Sanderson, provided much support, even some money, but especially kind understanding of the inevitable delays in writing. Sandra Bogin contributed several of the line drawings that illustrate the text and, more importantly, provided physical and emotional support and encouragement for the writing. Professor Gabriel W. Lasker read every word of the draft of the text and engaged the author in many discussions about the intellectual and technical content of the book. His involvement in all aspects of the production of the book are appreciated deeply. Gabriel and his wife Professor Bernice (Bunny) Kaplan were my friends and mentors. The many hours I spent with them, in their home and elsewhere, were some of my most rewarding and pleasurable times. Gabriel passed away in 2002 and since then I have lost contact with Bunny. I hope she is well, and I hope she knows how important she was in my professional development. Support for the second edition was provided by Drs. Robert Anemone, Deb Crooks, and her students, Parasmani Dasgupta, Irv Emanuel, Holle Greil, Roland Hauspie, Steve Leigh, Diane Markowitz, Michael McKinney, Larry Schell, Ania Siniarska, Holly Smith, and Napoleon Wolanski. A former student and colleague, Dr. Matthew Kapell, also read and critiqued several chapters. Another student, Veronica Gorden, assisted in the production of this book in several ways, especially reading chapters to make sure they were intelligible to the non-specialist reader.

Introduction

It is the purpose of this book to describe and interpret some of the evolutionary, physiological, socio-cultural, and mathematical patterns of human growth1. Throughout, a biocultural approach is taken, one that tries to seamlessly meld scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Anthropologists have many definitions of human culture. Older proposals viewed culture as the sum of human technology, sociology, and ideology. The observations by Jane Goodall on wild chimpanzees, and by many researchers inspired by Goodall on other primate species, changed that older view. The technology and sociology of many nonhuman animals differs by degree, not kind, from human capacities. Contemporary theorists tend to focus their definitions of culture on ideology, that is, the justification of behavior. To justify behavior, we humans give meaning and purpose to our existence. Human purpose seems unique to our species (Jolly 1999). Ideology and purpose encompass the beliefs, norms, and values of a social group, which are transmitted across generations by means of informal and formal teaching and learning (Boyd & Richerson 1985). Human purpose spurred the technological change from chimpanzee hammer stones to the laptop I am using to write this sentence. Purpose took people to a moon landing, but also to the Nazi extermination of 11 million Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, Catholic priests, people with mental or physical disabilities, communists, trade unionists, Jehovah's Witnesses, anarchists, Poles, and others. Human purpose underlies the social change from genetically-based chimpanzee hunting parties to socially and ideologically defined human gathererhunters and agro-industrialists. Human purpose provides my rationale for revising this book to bring it more “up-to-date” in terms of both scientific fact and my own interpretations of the science and humanities literature about human growth. Given my purpose for this book, the title requires some explanation. A cell biologist might think of the phrase “patterns of growth” in terms of a series of genetically controlled cell duplication and division events. An embryologist might think of patterns of cell differentiation and integration leading to the development of a functionally complete human. The clinician interprets patterns of growth, especially deviations from expected or “normal” growth, as evidence of disease or other pathology in the patient. Each of these concepts of “pattern” may be biologically valid and useful in their own areas of specialization, but this book is about none of

1

Formal definitions for all words in bold type are found in the Glossary.

2

Introduction

them. The goal of this account is to consider the growth of the human body in a unified, holistic, and anthropological manner. The result, it is hoped, will be a synthesis of the forces that shaped the evolution of the human growth pattern, the biocultural factors that direct its expression in populations of living peoples, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate individual development, and the biomathematical approaches needed to analyze and interpret human growth. The study of human growth in relation to evolutionary biology, biocultural factors, intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as genes, hormones, the physical and social environment, and mathematics may seem like a strange brew of topics. In fact, it is a common mix for biological anthropologists. The rest of this book is designed to show the reader that the anthropological blend of scholarship and research is, in fact, a practical and rewarding combination. Introductory students of human growth often assume that the field is primarily a part of pediatric medicine. Indeed, until the publication of the first edition of Patterns of Human Growth in 1988, all but one of the leading introductory texts were written by physicians, and were written with the medical student in mind, or as a practical guide for parents. The one exception is the book Child Growth (Krogman 1972), written by a biological anthropologist, but focused primarily on pediatric topics. While it may seem logical for human growth to be a subfield of medicine, it is more accurate, however, to view pediatric medicine and “parenting” as subfields of the study of human growth. In turn, human growth is a part of a much broader discipline, namely anthropology. A little bit of history, and an applied example, are provided here to justify this statement. Chapter 1 includes a more detailed history of the study of human growth.

Anthropology and Growth The study of human growth has been a part of anthropology since the founding of the discipline. European anthropology of the early to mid-nineteenth century was basically anatomy and anthropometry, the science of human body measurements (Boyd 1980; Tanner 1981). Early practitioners of American anthropology, especially Franz Boas (1858–1942), are known as much for their studies of human growth as for work in cultural studies, archaeology, or linguistics. Boas was especially interested in the changes in body size and shape following migration from Europe to the United States. At the time of those studies, around 1910, most anthropologists and anatomists believed that stature, and other measurable dimensions of the body such as head shape, could be used as “racial” markers. The word “race” is set in inverted commas here because it refers to the scientifically discredited notion that human beings can be organized into biologically distinct groups based on phenotypes (the physical appearance and behavior of a person). According to this fallacious idea, northern European “races” were tall and had relatively long and narrow heads, while southern and eastern European races were shorter and had relatively round skulls. Boas found that, generally, the children of Italian and eastern European Jewish migrants to the

Maya in Disneyland

3

United States were significantly taller and heavier than their parents. The children of the migrants even changed the shape of their heads; they grew up to have long narrow heads. According to Boas, in the new environment of the United States, the children of recent southern European migrants grew up to look more like northern Europeans than their own parents. Boas used the changes in body size and shape to argue that environment and culture are more important than genes in determining the physical appearance of people. Boas used the concept of biological plasticity, the responsiveness of the body to environmental change, to account for the changes in size and shape. In Chapter 2 I return to the concept of plasticity in more detail. In terms of environment, life in the United States afforded better nutrition, both in terms of the quantity and the variety of food. There were also greater opportunities for education and wage-paying labor. These nutritional and socioeconomic gains are now known to correlate with large body size. In terms of culture, especially childrearing practices, there were other changes. In much of Europe infants were usually wrapped up tightly and placed on their backs to sleep, but the American practice at the turn of the century was to place infants in the prone position. To be “modern” the European immigrant parents often adopted the American practice. One effect on the infant was a change in skull shape, since pressure applied to the back of the infant’s skull produces a rounder head, while pressure applied to the side of the skull produces a longer and narrower head. The sleeping position effect on skull shape was demonstrated first in Europe by Walcher (1905). There has been lively debate about the work of Boas and his colleagues (Gravlee et al. 2003; Sparks & Jantz 2002), but all agree that an interest in human growth is natural for anthropologists. This is because the way in which a human being grows is the product of an interaction between the biology of our species, the physical environment in which we live, and the social-economic-political-emotional (SEPE) environment that every human culture creates. Moreover, the basic pattern of human growth is shared by all living people. That pattern is the outcome of the four-toseven million-year evolutionary history of the hominins, living human beings and our bipedal fossil ancestors. Thus, human growth and development reflect the biocultural nature and evolutionary history of our species.

Maya in Disneyland The biocultural nature of human growth may be appreciated by examples based on my own research in Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States on the impact of the SEPE environment on the growth and development of Maya children. Because this research will be used throughout this book, I provide some background to the Maya people here and then move on to describe the results of the research examples. The living Maya are the biological and cultural descendants of people inhabiting a geographic region extending from the Yucatan Peninsula of southern Mexico, through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and western Honduras (Figure I.1).

4

Introduction

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION Modern country borders Extent of Mayan civilization

GULF OF MEXICO

Mayan Lowland

BELIZE

MEXICO

CARIBBEAN SEA

Mayan Highland PACIFIC OCEAN

GUATEMALA

HONDURAS

EL SALVADOR

Figure I.1 Map of Maya Culture region.

By about the year AD 250 a Maya cultural identity was well established. Maya society was organized in several state-level groups, each ruled by a priest-king or queen and an elite class of political-religious leaders. Each Maya state group maintained a workforce of peasants that produced food and provided labor for construction, as well as classes of artisans, military specialists, and bureaucrats for government administration. After the year AD 900, many Maya state societies declined, likely due to internecine warfare and overexploitation of natural resources. European contact and conquest in the year AD 1500, found the Maya living in chiefdomship societies, still building monuments, and still fighting each other. Europeans dismantled these societies via a combination of diseases, military action, taxation, and enslavement. By the year AD 1600, Maya population numbers plummeted from about 2 million in 1500 to about 200,000 (Lovell & Lutz 1996). Maya became the underclass of the new Colonial societies of Yucatan and Central America. The Maya population recovered in size during the following centuries and today there are an estimated 7–8 million Maya living in Mexico and the Central America region (Lovell 2010). This makes the Maya the largest Native American ethnic group. Common features of rural lifestyle, economic activities, kinship and marriage systems, religion, philosophy, and a brutal history of repression since the Conquest of the Americas binds all Maya together into a shared cultural identity. There are, however, 30 or more Maya languages, each associated with a specific Maya group (see Wikipedia, Mayan Languages).

Maya in Disneyland

5

3.00

z-score, height

2.00 1.00

Guatemala

0

USA

–1.00 –2.00 –3.00 5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Age (years)

Figure I.2 Mean z-scores for height of Maya children from the GUATE-1998 (circles), USA1992 (diamonds), and USA-2000 (squares) samples compared with the NHANES III reference means. From (Bogin et al. 2002). The illustrations are of 9-year-old Maya children (illustration copyright with Barry Bogin). The line indicates the average height of 9-year-olds according to the US growth references.

The following describes growth in height of three samples of Maya at the time of our fieldwork in 1992 and 2000 (Bogin & Loucky 1997; Bogin & Rios 2003; Bogin et al. 2002). One is a group living in their homeland of Guatemala, and the other two are migrants living in the United States. All three groups include girls and boys between the ages of 5 and 12 years old. Mean heights by age and sex are shown in Figure I.2. The heights are expressed as z-scores, that is, as a value indicating how many standard deviations a Maya mean height for a given age and sex differ from the mean of a reference for the same age and sex. The reference here is the Third United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994 (NHANES III). This Survey included nationally representative samples of white (European-American), black (African-American), and Hispanic (mostly Mexican-American) people. The version of this reference published by Frisancho (2008) was used to calculate the z-scores. The sample living in Guatemala are Maya schoolchildren (n = 1,347), measured in 1998 by an anthropometric team from Spain (Dr. Luis Rios of the National Museum of Natural History, Madrid kindly supplied these data). This sample is referred to as GUATE-1998. These children lived in the rural agricultural and fishing communities around Lake Atitlan in the western highlands of Guatemala. These Maya communities are of very low socioeconomic status (SES, see Box I.1 for definition of SES as used in this book) and many families lived below the poverty level. In these villages, basic human services, such as health care, safe drinking water, and supplementary food programs for women, infants, and children, were either very limited or totally absent. The incidence of infant and childhood morbidity and mortality from infectious disease and undernutrition was relatively high. Other deaths were due to military action and political repression, especially the civil war of 1960–1996. The

6

Introduction

Box I.1

Socioeconomic status

Throughout this book there is discussion of the association between socioeconomic status (SES) with human growth, development, and maturation. In this book, and in the research literature, SES is often treated as a proxy for specific factors known to influence growth, such as nutrition, disease, and workloads. In this text box the concept of SES, as used in this book, is defined. In its most widespread usage, SES is a concept devised by the social scientists, statisticians, and the governmental tax authorities2 to measure some aspects of education, occupation, and social prestige of a person or a social group. One early usage was by the psychologist Raymond Cattel who claimed that the essence of socioeconomic status was the “prestige factor” (Cattell 1942). Prestige was derived from a person’s occupation and was more important than income, property, or education, but prestige was highly correlated with these. Cattell (p. 300) wrote that, “Social status, in short, is a purely psychological entity. Such a statement must not be taken to mean that it is not real or that it cannot be measured or that it is not a precisely definable concept. It is to be defined and measured in terms of behavior, implying mental states behind behavior. The prestige of an occupation is resident in the minds of all people in the community and is to be measured by assessing their attitudes towards it at a given time.” A key concept added by Cattell is that prestige, and its socioeconomic status, is measured by the people of a community – it is a community effect. The influence of community effects on biological growth is a theme of this book and is discussed in detail in Chapter 7. In practice today, SES is measured in the wealthier industrialized nations by the years of formal education (schooling) and the occupation of an adult. In the United Kingdom the official classification is based on occupation only. In the lower-income nations, SES must often be measured by other criteria because formal education is unavailable to so many people and occupations are traditional sorts of farming or herding. In these traditional communities,

2

Governments use socioeconomic status to target taxes, e.g., taxes on tobacco products and sugary drinks. In the United States, Mexico, and some other nations, people of lower SES tend to use more of these products. To discourage overuse, governments tax these products. There is another purpose of the taxes on these products – to increase revenue to the government. People of lower SES often earn less money and pay less income tax. Lower SES people purchase fewer expensive items such as houses, boats, and other luxury goods that are taxed at relatively high levels. As lower SES people make up the predominate share of the population (e.g., ~30% of the population in the USA is in poverty or nearpoverty and 44% of the population in Mexico live below the poverty line) taxing the products that these low-income people use is one effective means to increase revenue. References: USA, Haymes et al. (2015); Mexico, www.telesurenglish.net/news/In-Mexico-7-out-of-10-Born-in-Poverty-Will-Die-inPoverty-20180509-0008.html.

Maya in Disneyland

the size of land holdings or number of animals owned may be useful indicators of SES. Among the urban poor of the lower-income nations, the quality of the home, as indicated by the number of persons per room, the presence of running water and toilet facilities within the home, the ownership of various electrical appliances, and the type of cooking fuel used, are sometimes used as markers of SES. The SES of infants, children, juveniles, and most adolescents is ascribed to them based on the SES of their parents. Some societies have very rigid boundaries between people of different economic, educational, and occupational statuses. In these societies the boundaries establish well-defined social classes and a person’s SES is, in many ways, constrained by that person’s social class. Other societies allow varying degrees of mobility between social classes, and often that mobility is linked to the quantity and quality of formal education. Examples of this relationship between education and social class exist today in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and other WEIRD (Wealthy, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) nations (Henrich et al. 2010). Graduates of certain prestigious universities are selectively employed by the largest corporations, by governments, and associate with the wealthiest individuals of their society. Many of the elite university graduates themselves come from well-to-do families, and therefore retain the social class of their parents. This has been well documented in the United Kingdom (Clark & Cummins 2014, discussed further in Chapter 7). Fewer students of elite universities were raised in middle SES or lower SES families, but some of these fortunate few may eventually supersede the social class of their parents. A popular cultural myth of the WEIRD nations is that they are relatively open societies, with equality of opportunity for upward and downward social mobility. But, empirical research shows this is not true and over the past 100 years there has been less social mobility of the lower SES groups toward the wealthiest, higher social status groups. This trend toward greater SES inequality intensified with the 2007–2008 global economic crisis3 and is reported for most of the nations of the world (Marmot & Bell 2012; Sen 1999; Wilkinson & Pickett 2009b). In all societies, whether totally rigid or relatively more open to social movement, social class and SES are powerful influences on human physical and psychological growth and development (Batty et al. 2009; Bogin et al. 2017; Mansukoski et al. 2019b; Steckel 2012; Wilkinson & Pickett 2009a). Conversely, stature, body composition (fatness and muscularity), and rate of maturation influence the social, emotional, and economic status of children, youth, and adults. An appreciation of these synergistic and seamless biosocial interactions between growth and socioeconomic status has been realized only

3

www.oecd.org/social/inequality.htm

7

8

Introduction

in the past 200 years and are still being researched today. Some of the history of findings, their conventional explanations, and novel mechanisms for SES biosocial interactions are explored in the chapters of this book.

residents of the Lake Atitlan region were caught up in the military hostilities of that time and suffered some of the worst atrocities of the civil war.4 They also suffered from reduced food availability due to the collapse of the Guatemalan economy during the 1980s and a cholera epidemic of the early 1990s (Bogin & Keep 1999). The Maya children in the United States are the offspring of Maya adults who emigrated from Guatemala, mostly from the late 1970s to the early 1990s. All the adult Maya refugees were born in Guatemala and prior to migration most lived in rural villages in the Q’anjob’al-speaking language area (northwest Guatemala highlands). My colleagues and I analyzed data for the height of children measured in 1992, called the USA-1992 sample (n = 211). About 50% of the children in the 1992 sample were born in the United States and the remainder were born in Guatemala or Mexico. All had lived for at least two years in the US and there was no significant difference in height between those born in the different countries. We also measured the heights of Maya children in the United States in 1999 and 2000 – the USA-2000 sample consisting of 431 Maya American children, 93% were born in the United States. There were approximately equal numbers of girls and boys in all samples and no statistically significant differences in height, so sexes were combined for analysis. The Maya families in the United States lived in two communities, one in rural Florida and the other in Los Angeles, California – not so far from the theme parks that name this section “Maya in Disneyland.” There were no differences in height between the two communities. In both locales, adult Maya worked as day laborers in low paying jobs. Some Maya worked as teacher aids, nursing aids, or had small businesses such as grocery stores. All the Maya-USA children in the sample qualified for free breakfast and lunch programs at the schools they attended. The Maya-USA samples, although of low SES for the USA, lived under much more favorable conditions for growth and development than did the Maya sample in Guatemala. The Maya-USA children benefited from safe drinking water, medical screening at the schools, medical care in their communities, and supplementary feeding programs. The parents of the Maya-USA children capitalized on the economic prosperity in the United States of the 1990s via relatively steady employment and freedom from statesponsored violence. 4

See Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, 1991, Massacre In Santiago Atitlan, www.culturalsurvival .org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/massacre-santiago-atitlan-turning-point-maya-struggle.

Maya in Disneyland

9

The growth in height (as well as weight, fatness, and muscularity which are not shown here) of Maya children living in Guatemala was significantly retarded compared with the NHANES reference data (Figure I.2). At all ages the mean z-score for height is near or below 2.0. When average heights of a group of children are less than 2.0 z-scores, that group is considered stunted, that is, within the shortest 2.3% of a growth reference or growth standard.5 In the 1980s and early 1990s, some researchers argued that the small size of impoverished, and likely malnourished, communities such as the Guatemala Maya is a genetic adaptation to their poor environmental conditions. Being small protected them against the need for even more food to support larger bodies. If this argument were true, then a change in the economic, social, or political environment would not influence growth. The notion that the small size of the Maya is primarily genetic is clearly wrong, for as also shown in Figure I.2, the USA-resident Maya averaged about 1.0 z-scores. While still short in comparison with the US reference, these Maya were significantly taller than Maya children living in Guatemala. We also reported that Maya children in the United States attained virtually the same weight as the US reference due to increased fatness and muscularity. Our analysis indicated that the USA-1992 sample was, on average, 8.9 cm taller than the GUATE-1998 sample. For the USA-2000 sample, the height difference increased to an average of 11.5 cm. These increases occurred within single generations, that is, as the parents of the children moved from Guatemala to the United States. These are the largest such increases in mean height between migrant children and sedentes (those remaining in their homeland) ever reported in the literature. To place this in context, the immigrant children measured by Boas averaged about 2.0 cm taller than their sedente counterparts back in Europe. Even more impressive is that of the total height increase for the USA-2000 children, 4.7 cm was due to greater sitting height (length of the trunk, neck, and head of the body) and 6.8 cm was due to greater leg length. The growth of the legs of infants and children seem to be more sensitive to the environment than growth of the upper body – a topic that is explored in more detail in Chapter 5. That the Maya children in the United States changed in shape, as well as growing taller, is more evidence of Boasian biological plasticity. The reasons for the increase in body size of the Maya children are similar to those for the European immigrant children measured by Boas. In the United States there is greater food security, which means not only more food and a greater variety of food than in rural Guatemala, but more importantly the reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable food. The public supply of safe drinking water in the United States eliminates the constant exposure to bacteria, parasites, agricultural pesticides, and fertilizers that contaminate drinking water in rural Guatemala. The Maya-USA children benefit from social services that are unavailable in rural Guatemala, including food supplementation programs such as free school breakfast and lunch for low

5

See www.who.int/childgrowth/en/ for World Health Organization growth standards.

10

Introduction

income students and free or subsidized health care. These services improve the biological, social, and emotional environment for human growth. The emotional/ psychological environment, discussed in later chapters, is as powerful an influence on physical growth as any nutrient or illness. Part of the emotional/psychological difference in the United States is the absence of overt political repression and the threat of military violence. To be sure, most of the Maya families in the United States were low income and many parents were undocumented and without legal status or citizenship. These impose economic and emotional stress on all members of the family, as parents could be seized and deported (children of immigrants born in the United States are given citizenship). Many families in Los Angeles lived in highcrime neighborhoods. Even so, the relative security and political freedom for Maya in the United States allowed parents to pursue their goals for the healthy growth and development of their children. Parents around the world share highly similar goals for their offspring. Robert LeVine (1988), an anthropologist of the family and of children, proposed a universal evolutionary hierarchy of human parental goals. The primary goal is to encourage the survival and the health of a child. Secondary goals relate to developing the child into a self-supporting adult and instilling cultural beliefs and behavioral norms. Economic and political conditions in Guatemala make it difficult for parents to achieve these goals for their children. The political economy of the United States offers real possibilities for success, and Maya parents seize upon these, just as other immigrants have done before them. As Boas argued for nearly 50 years, the study of human growth provides a mirror of the human condition. Reflected in the patterns of growth of human populations are the “material and moral conditions of that society” (Tanner 1987). The forces holding back growth in Guatemala are severe indeed, and the growth differences between Maya of Guatemala and the United States may be used as a measure to assess the magnitude of change in SEPE conditions.

Growth and Evolution The pattern of human growth serves as another type of mirror; one that reflects the biocultural evolution of our species. Biological evolution is the continuous process of genetic adaptation of organisms to their environments. Natural selection determines the direction of evolutionary change and operates by differential mortality between individual organisms prior to reproductive maturation and by differential fertility of mature organisms. Thus, genetic adaptations that enhance the survival of individuals to reproductive age, and that increase the production of similarly successful offspring, will increase in frequency in the population over time. Human ideology and purpose also evolved and interacted with genetic adaptations. The combined biocultural evolution produced the pattern of growth and development that converts a single fertilized cell, with its full complement of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and cytoplasm, into a multicellular human organism composed of hundreds of different tissues, organs, behavioral capabilities, and

Growth and Evolution

11

emotions. That process is no less wondrous when it occurs in an earthworm, whale, or human being. Indeed, many growth processes that occur in people are identical to those in other species and attest to a common evolutionary origin. The discovery of PAX6, a “master-control gene” for of the eye (Halder et al. 1995) common to species as diverse as marine worms, squid, fruit flies, mice, and people, is powerful evidence for the common evolutionary origin of the eye. The PAX6 protein is thought to activate other genes involved in the formation of the eyes, as well as the brain and spinal cord, and the pancreas.6 Other organs, and the genetic mechanisms that control their growth and development, also are shared among diverse species (Chapters 4 and 6 discuss the evolutionary biology and genetics of growth in greater detail). Nevertheless, some events in the human life cycle may be unique, such as distinct childhood and adolescent growth stages (discussed in later chapters), and attest to ongoing evolution of our species. Dobzhansky (1973) said that “nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” Human growth, which follows a unique pattern among the mammals and, even, the primates, is no exception to Dobzhansky’s admonition. A consideration of the chimpanzee and the human, two closely related (genetically) extant primates, shows the value of taking an evolutionary perspective on growth. Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) carried out careful anatomical studies and demonstrated many anatomical similarities between chimpanzees and humans (Huxley 1863). Mary-Claire King and Allan C. Wilson (1934–1991) proposed in 1975 that such anatomical similarities are likely due to a 99% identity of the alignable structural DNA sequences of the two species. The completion of the human and chimpanzee genome projects shows, however, “ . . . that closer to 5% of the total DNA in the chimpanzee genome differs from that of humans, if one considers the DNA that is missing in either species but present in the other” (Varki & Gagneux 2017, p. 152). Still, the genomic similarity is striking given the many differences in phenotype. One interpretation of King and Wilson’s findings is that the differences in size and shape between chimpanzee and human are due to the regulation of gene expression, rather than the possession of unique genotypes. Of course, humans are not descended from the chimpanzee, but both species did have a common ancestor some five, or more, million years ago. During evolutionary time, mutations and selective forces were at work on the descendants of this ancestor shaping their genomic constitution and its expression in their phenotypes. A systematic and transdisciplinary search for the evolutionary reasons for human–“great ape” (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, and orangutan) similarities and differences was organized several years ago. It is called comparative anthropogeny (Varki & Gagneux 2017).7 One way that alterations in gene regulation produce anatomical differences between human and chimpanzee is via changes in growth rates. D’Arcy Thompson (Thompson 1917, 1942) showed that the differences in form between the adults of various species may be accounted for by differences in growth rates from an initially

6

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/PAX6

7

See also https://carta.anthropogeny.org/moca/.

12

Introduction

Figure I.3 Transformation grids for the chimpanzee (left) and human (right) skull during growth. Fetal skull proportions are shown above for each species. The relative amount of distortion of the grid lines overlying the adult skull proportions indicate the amount of growth of different parts of the skull. (Inspired by the transformational grid method of D’Arcy Thompson 1917, and redrawn from Lewin 1993)

identical – one might better say “similar” – form. Thompson’s transformational grids (Figure I.3) of the growth of the chimpanzee and human skull from birth to maturity show how both may be derived from a common neonatal form. Different patterns of growth of the cranial bones, maxilla, and mandible are all that are required to produce the adult differences in skull shape. Of course, the differences in skull growth are related to size and shape of the brain, and size of the dentition (both species have the same number and types of teeth). In a similar manner, the differences in the postcranial anatomy between chimpanzee and human being result from unequal rates of growth for common skeletal and muscular elements. Despite the anatomical and biochemical evidence for the evolutionary origins of the human growth pattern, most works on human growth give little consideration to this topic. A paragraph or two is all that may be found in the current physiological and medical texts devoted to human growth. I am happy that since the publication of earlier editions of this book, many textbooks in biological anthropology and evolutionary medicine do give space and emphasis to the evolution of the human pattern of growth. In this new edition of Patterns, Chapters 3 and 4 are devoted to an account of the evolution of mammalian and especially nonhuman primate and human patterns of growth. Moreover, the theme of evolution runs throughout this book because it is the evolutionary perspective which makes sense of the rest.

Growth Theory This is also a book about a theoretical approach to the study of human growth. The literature in the general area of animal growth is rich in both hypothesis testing and

Growth Theory

13

theory (Bertalanffy 1960; Bonner 1965; Brody 1945; Goss 1964, 1978; Huxley 1972; Snow 1986; Thompson 1917; Weiss & Kavanau 1957). By contrast, until the year 1980 only a few workers had published hypotheses about the course and regulation of human growth (a few examples are Bogin 1980; Bolk 1926; Frisch & Revelle 1970; Gould 1977; Grumbach et al. 1974; Tanner 1963). Examples of some important contributions to growth theory, and some of its impact on later research, are given in Box I.2. Until about 1970, most research and writing about human growth and development was descriptive and atheoretical. A typical anthropological or public health study would be based on a sample of children, youths, or adults measured for some variable(s) (height, weight, etc.). The data would be presented, described, and compared to similar data for another group of people. Or, in the fields of medicine and psychology, an unusual case study of growth, perhaps resulting from physical or psychosocial pathology, was described. In another realm, growth data derived from statistically representative samples of human populations were used to construct references and standards of height, weight, and other physical dimensions. Growth standards and references have value in public health work to assess the growth, development, and nutritional status of populations that are “at risk” for growth failure or malnutrition, and to monitor the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to improve the health and growth status of such populations. Historically, most disciplines begin with this sort of descriptive phase. Human growth research was no exception, as documented in two books that detail the historical development of the field (Boyd 1980; Tanner 1981). One sign of a maturing discipline is when it begins to develop hypotheses to examine the nature of the processes that account for the descriptive data. An early example of the use of hypotheses in growth research is the classic series of studies by Boas (Boas 1912, 1922) on the growth of the children of migrants to the United States, as discussed earlier. The scholarly value of the research lies in Boas’s use of the scientific method. Boas challenged the dogmatic belief that physical types, or “races,” were fixed and biologically distinct. His hypothesis was that a change in environment brought about by migration from impoverished urban and rural areas in Europe to urban centers of the United States would bring about alterations in the amount and rate of growth. The value of his hypothesis-testing method lasted, and is still being used in migration research to test the relationship between migration history and human biology (Bogin & Loucky 1997; Bogin et al. 2014c; Mascie-Taylor & Krzyżanowska 2017; Mascie-Taylor & Lasker 1988). Mature sciences are noted for their ability to synthesize several hypotheses that have been verified independently into one or more comprehensive theories that can explain the known data and, in turn, indicate the kind of observations that should be made in further research. Despite the early work of Boas, hypothesis testing in human growth research was only sporadic until the late 1960s. Since that time, the relationships between nutrition and growth, physical development and chronic disease, and environmental stress and growth, among other topics, began to be actively pursued.

Introduction

Box I.2

Models of the regulation of human growth

A Conceptual Model of Growth

In 1963, James Tanner proposed a conceptual model for the biological regulation of normal human growth. By “normal” it is meant nonpathological growth. Chromosomal pathology, such as Klinefelter syndrome, other genomic mutations, chronic infectious disease, prolonged emotional trauma, and other pathology results in different patterns of growth, development, and maturation. Basic elements of Tanner’s model are represented in Figure BI.2.1. A major feature of this model is that growth is target seeking and selfstabilizing. The curve labeled “Time-Tally 1” represents a hypothetical mechanism that provides a “target size” for body growth and keeps track of biological time during infancy and childhood. Biological time is measured in units of maturation, with the clock started at conception and stopped when some functionally mature state is reached. The curve labeled “Inhibitor” represents the concentration in the body of a hypothetical substance, perhaps a by-product of cell division or protein synthesis, that acts upon the time-tally to regulate growth rate. The amount of Time tally 2

lly e ta

Tim

1

L

ibit or

M

Inh

Concentration of hypothetical substance

14

Time, chronological Figure BI.2.1 Tanner’s conceptual model for the regulation of human growth.

Rate of growth is determined by the amount of mismatch (M) between the concentration of a hypothetical inhibitor substance and a time-tally. Time-Tally 1 controls growth during childhood. Time-Tally 2 controls growth during adolescence. At point L, the switch between time tallies occurs, and the adolescent growth spurt is initiated. (Original drawing, based on Tanner 1963)

Growth Theory

mismatch, “M,” between the two curves determines the rate of growth at each chronological age. Tanner’s model accounts for the deceleration of growth velocity during infancy and childhood and explains the phenomenon of catch-up growth (Prader et al. 1963) following serious illness or starvation. During the normal postnatal growth of an infant, there is a large mismatch between the size the infant might attain and its actual size, and growth rate is rapid. As the infant and child grows, the amount of mismatch decreases, and the concentration of inhibitor increases. As a result, the rate of growth slows. Under nonnormal conditions, for instance starvation, the rate of growth slows or stops during the period of insult. The concentration of inhibitor remains constant during this time as well. The time-tally continues to register the mismatch between actual size and target size. When the insult is removed, in this case upon refeeding, there is a rapid increase in growth rate to restore the balance between the timetally, the expected amount of mismatch, and the concentration of inhibitor. When this balance is restored the rate of growth assumes the normal velocity for that child, as if the insult had not occurred. To account for the abrupt change in the velocity of growth that occurs at adolescence, Tanner suggested the existence of a second time-tally. “TimeTally 2” (Figure BI.2.1) operates in the same manner as time-tally 1, but both the mechanism controlling the new tally and its inhibiting substance are assumed to be distinct from the old one. Tanner believed that the switch to the new tally occurs when a minimum velocity of growth, or minimum mismatch, on the old tally is reached. This is labeled point “L” in Figure BI.2.1. After the switch occurs, a new larger mismatch is established and a rapid increase in growth rate results. This is the adolescent growth spurt. As the mismatch is reduced, and the concentration of inhibitor is increased, the rate of growth slows once more. Variation in the timing of the adolescent spurt between individuals is explained by changing the point at which the switch between tallies takes place. This model is as conceptually stimulating today as when it was first proposed. Early in my career (Bogin 1980), I published a paper that built on Tanner’s model by incorporating the, then popular, mathematical concepts of catastrophe theory. Since 1980, much more has been learned about the biological nature of the growth promotors (Tanner’s time-tallies) and the inhibitor substances that regulate growth both before and after puberty. This research is reviewed in Chapter 7. Where Is the Growth Regulator Located?

A complete and exact knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved in the regulation of amount of growth and rate of maturation are unknown. Clinicians treating children with growth disorders often report a strict association between increase in length/size and increase in maturity. Those who do not

15

16

Introduction

increase in height, be it due to illness, starvation, or emotional trauma, also do not increase in bone age. Successful treatment that promotes growth usually also succeeds in increasing the biological rate of maturation, so that in the end there is no or only little effect on final height – these patients just reach final height at an earlier age than untreated patients who, in time, overcome their growth pathology. This tight linkage between size and maturity suggests that the growth and the maturation regulator are either located in the same tissue or organ, or if separate entities they are in intimate communication with each other. Tanner’s model proposed that the control of amount of growth is related to the concentration of a hypothetical inhibiting substance that acts on a timetally located in the brain, perhaps in the hypothalamus. Goss (1978) suggested that overall size of the body is regulated by a genetically programmed amount of growth for certain visceral organs. For instance, the heart or the kidneys may grow to a predetermined size and the functional limits of these organs to support the operation of other organs and systems of the body may determine the size to which these tissues and the body, as a whole, may grow. Snow (1986) interpreted the results of experimental studies of growth-controlling mechanisms to support Goss’s hypothesis. However, Snow found that growth control in a developing organism is evident before organogenesis occurs during embryonic development. This fact, Snow suggested, indicates that control may lie in a tissue that differentiates relatively early in development and is distributed widely throughout the body, rather than in the visceral organs. A tissue composed of cells derived from the neural crest of the embryo, such as the central nervous system, was Snow’s choice of a likely tissue for this function. More recent research, some with insects, adds a further complication to the question of how body size is regulated. Nijhout and Emlen (1998) experimented with the growth of body parts in buckeye butterflies and dung beetles. In one experiment they removed embryonic cells that would have developed into the hind wing of butterflies. The adult butterflies’ fore wings grew to be significantly larger than expected. Experiments with beetles manipulated the size of their horns by exposing them to hormones that were known to shrink or enlarge horn size. As larger horn size was induced, the size of the eyes decreased, and vice versa. These findings indicated that there is an interaction between body parts in their growth. A greater amount of investment in the size of one part may limit the size of another part. If this is true, then there is no simple genetic determination of the final size and shape of an organism. Epigenetic (meaning “above” the level of the DNA sequences of the genome) marking of the genome, micro-RNAs, and other elements that were largely unknown to Tanner and Snow may also provide important mechanisms for the regulation of gene-by-environment interaction and phenotypic plasticity in adult height (Simeone & Alberti 2014). Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence

Growth Theory

17

(more detail on epigenetics is provided in Chapter 6). Rather, chemicals that interact with the DNA, such as presence of histones or methyl groups, inhibit or enhance the expression of DNA sequences. Still unknown is how the epigenome (the factors that influence gene expression) is marked and regulated to promote a target height for a population or group of people (Simeone & Alberti 2014). What is clear is that there is unlikely to be a single, central time-tally or size-regulating mechanism. Instead, animals may be able to adjust their final size and shape during development in response to many stimuli, both internal and external to the body. One proposal is that competition for social status and other community effects may be a key player in the setting of target height. Evidence for this type of strategic growth has accumulated in the past few years and is reviewed in Chapter 7.

Despite the hypothesis-testing purpose of science, a dreadful number of purely descriptive growth studies are still produced today. One valid reason for the paucity of hypothesis testing and experimentation in human growth research in the past and today is the ethical dilemma. In nonhuman animal research, the genetic and environmental determinants of growth may be studied in the laboratory. The growth of the entire organism, anatomical regions, or even isolated populations of cells may be studied with great precision. Using human beings in experimental research is almost always unacceptable ethically. It is even illegal to use human tissues in research in some countries. Moreover, laboratory-controlled experimentation is conceptually unrealistic for many questions relating to human growth. Normal human growth and development require the complexities of a normal social and cultural milieu. Despite the needed ethical and legal safeguards, students of human growth and development are not restricted to descriptive studies. Human growth may be studied with the same intellectual excitement, experimental approach, and theoretical research as is done by laboratory biologists. Creative and rigorous field research that makes use of “natural experiments” can be employed. A few examples are the studies of migration of southern Europeans or Maya to the United States mentioned already and research with young people who survived the horrors of World War I and World War II (e.g., Hermanussen et al. 2018a; Ravelli et al. 1976). These natural experiments, in combination with powerful new statistical and computational methods, the study of pathological growth disorders, and controlled experimentation within allowable and ethically justifiable limits, can be used to achieve a sophisticated understanding of human growth. Advances in technology are also forging a new conceptualization of growth. Scientific advances in fields from tissue engineering to computerized imaging allow for human growth research that can proceed without some of the ethical and moral limitations that restricted experimentation on people. Molecular biology has reached

18

Introduction

the stage where the biochemical substances that control growth and development can be identified, their DNA sequences decoded, and synthesized. Using CRISPR-CAS9 technology that was first proposed by Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier (Jinek et al. 2012), DNA sequences may be edited to add desired DNA or eliminate undesirable DNA. An early breakthrough was the invention of the polymerase chain reaction by Kary Mullis in 1983 (Mullis et al. 1986), which allowed for the nearly unlimited duplication of segments of DNA. This led to the identification of regions of the genome that code for structural proteins and regulatory elements for growth, development, and maturation; so-called master genes for development of body segments and organs, and genome regions that cause specific growth pathologies, all of which were proposed as possible prior to 1983. Another major advance is the synthesis of data from many branches of biology, including ecology, demography, genetics, physiology, phylogeny (evolutionary history of a species), and ontogeny (growth and development of individuals), into a type of grand unification called life history theory. Life history theory is a field of biology concerned with the strategy an organism uses to allocate its energy toward growth, body maintenance, defense against infection, reproduction, raising offspring to independence, and avoiding death (Bogin & Smith 2012; Varea & Bernis 2013). For a mammal, it is the strategy of when to be born, when to be weaned, how many and what type of pre-reproductive stages of development to pass through, when to reproduce, and when to die. The life history approach attempts to unravel the reasons why different species of animals follow different sequences of development and why new life stages evolve, such as the juvenile stage of the social mammals. As will be shown later in this book, some “mysteries” of human growth, such as the nature of the human childhood and adolescence stages and the vigorous post-menopausal stage of women, are best understood in terms of life history strategies for efficient reproduction and offspring survival.

Human Auxology This book is a synthesis of methods and knowledge about human growth gleaned from evolutionary biology, from reports of the growth of human populations living under various ecological regimes, from statistical and mathematical applications, from medical pathology, and from experimental biology. Theoretical perspectives from anthropology, economic history, political economy, sociology, philosophy, and life history are used to order the data derived from observation and experiment. Drawing upon these areas of research and theory, this book strives to include human growth within the field of auxology. The term “auxology” refers to the study of biological growth. It could be the study of any type of growth, and some botanists and most veterinary and farm animal zoologists use this term to refer to growth research in their fields. Botanists use the term “auxins” to refer to the hormones of plants that promote an increase in size of stems, leaves, and other structures. From about 1970, European human biologists began to use the phrase “human auxology” to refer to human growth research and in 1974 the International Society for the

The Organization of this Book

19

Study of Human Growth and Clinical Auxology was founded.8 In the words of James Tanner, one of the founders, the Society is the place where “ . . . physiology, psychology, and sociology meet” (from the web page). An ideal human auxology will combine the results of descriptive studies, experimental research, and hypothesis testing into a comprehensive theory of the structural and functional elements of growth.

The Organization of This Book A major purpose of this book is to show that the tempo and mode of human growth are basic to the understanding of our species’ place in nature – that patterns of human growth reveal the basis for human life history biology and the basis for much of human behavior. The book approaches its purpose by dividing the understanding of patterns of human growth into five areas. The first area is an overview of the history of the study of growth and the basic biological principles of growth and development during the human life cycle, presented in Chapters 1 and 2. The second area is the evolutionary foundation of the human growth pattern, treated in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4. Chapter 3 focuses on the evolution of the human growth curve. The mammalian foundations of the human growth curve, and the nonhuman primate embellishments upon that foundation, are presented conceptually and mathematically. In Chapter 4 the pattern of human growth is considered from an ecological and evolutionary perspective. The relation of hominin and human growth rates to feeding and reproductive adaptations is examined using data from paleontology, paleoecology, demography, ethology, and ethnology – in other words from a life history perspective. The unique features of the human pattern of growth, including the evolution of the childhood growth period and the human adolescent growth spurt in height, are detailed. The result is a comprehensive exploration, and, where possible, theoretical explanation for the functional and adaptive significance of human growth patterns. The third area is variation among human populations in growth patterns. In Chapter 5, several cases of such variation are described and the adaptive value of population differences in growth is discussed from an evolutionary and life history perspective. Chapter 6 has discussion of some aspects of genetic and endocrine regulation of growth, development, and maturation. This chapter continues with the theme of population variation and adds a focus on variation between smaller groups, such as communities, families, and individuals. The genome codes for many structural elements, such as proteins, needed for growth and form. The structural genome also interacts with the regulatory genome (noncoding DNA, micro-RNA, etc.), the epigenome, the proteome, and with the environment, including the trillions of organisms that live in and on human bodies (the microbiome). Each of these provide guidelines for genetic expression, but not direct gene-to-phenotype

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Introduction

determination. In Chapter 6 there is a review of this popular but incorrect notion of genetic determination. Much of the current debate centers on the benefits and failings of genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The advent of GWAS technology is part of a 150-year history of the misuse of hereditary and genetic information to promote racism, sexism, social inequality, and other harmful political agendas. Parts of this history relevant to human growth are critiqued. It is shown that genomic factors usually do not directly control growth, development, and maturation. Rather, genomic influences are mediated by the endocrine system. In Chapter 6, the basic workings of the endocrine system are presented, and several examples of hormonal mediation are given, including the effects of nutritional and social-psychological stress on hormones, genomic action, and growth. The fourth theoretical area is covered in Chapter 7, which asks “What makes people grow?” This chapter discusses impacts on human growth, development, and maturation originating from human biocultural environments. Topics include nutrition, seasonal variation, migration, urbanization and modernization, pollution, sleep, socioeconomic status, community effects on growth, and strategic growth. Some aspects of these topics were discussed in previous chapters in the context of SEPE influences on growth but are treated more formally and intensely in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 offers a more formal theoretical model of community effects and strategic growth regulation. These two theoretical areas offer relatively new hypotheses about the complex interactions between material, social, and psychological variables that are known to influence biological growth, development, and maturation. Interspersed throughout the book is discussion devoted to a fifth theoretical area, mathematical and biological models of the process of human growth and development. A scientific understanding of the pattern of human growth requires detailed information of the biological factors that determine development. However, it also requires the precision and economy of analysis that is provided by mathematics. These are not separate realms of knowledge, for the growth and form of an organism often display a clear relationship between biological structure and mathematical regularity. D’Arcy Thompson (1942) described the biological form of the growth of the Nautilus shell, seen in Figure I.4, and several other spiral shapes in nature, with a mathematical function called an equiangular spiral. In a similar fashion, the form of the curve of growth of the human being can also be expressed as one or more mathematical functions. The mathematical treatment of human growth, or the growth of any other organism, is made possible by the predictability of biological development. Growth must produce a biological form that meets the ecological requirements of life for the species. Thus, in terms of growth and form, including the morphology and physiology of organisms, new individuals resemble other members of the same species more than they resemble members of other species. Due to this predictability, growth and form are amenable to the precision of mathematical description. Where appropriate and when needed there are sections of boxed text that describe some of the classic and recent innovative quantitative and qualitative mathematical approaches to the study of growth and its regulation.

The Organization of this Book

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Figure I.4 Shell of Nautilus pompilius, sagittal section. Credit ilbusca / DigitalVision Vectors /

Getty Images

A recapitulation and synthesis of the major themes of the book are given in Chapter 8. A list of “The most important discoveries about human growth, development, maturation” is offered. As a challenge for the future, Chapter 8 ends with an invitation for readers of this book to consider growth and development research as a professional career. Younger researchers are needed to lead the way toward more accurate, dynamic, and imaginative models and understanding of patterns of human growth, development, and maturation, and their regulation.

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Background to the Study of Human Growth

People, like most animals, begin life as a single cell, the fertilized ovum. Guided by the interaction of the genomic information provided by each parent, the cytoplasmic environment provided by the mother’s ova and her body, and the physical and sociocultural milieu in which people live, this cell divides and grows. The daughter cells differentiate and develop into the embryo, fetus, newborn, and with much care from others, and a bit of luck, into the adult who may start the whole process again. Though growth and development may occur simultaneously, they are distinct biological processes. Growth may be defined as a quantitative increase in size or mass. Measurements of height in centimeters or weight in kilograms indicate how much growth has taken place since birth. Additionally, the growth of a body organ, such as the liver or the brain, may also be described by measuring the number, weight, or size of cells present. Development is defined as a progression of changes, either quantitative or qualitative, that lead from an undifferentiated or immature state to a highly organized, specialized, and mature state. Maturation, in this definition, is measured by functional capacity, for example, the development of motor skills of a 6-year-old child that result in a mature state of bipedal walking. Though broad, this definition allows one to consider the development of organs (e.g., the kidney), systems (e.g., the reproductive system), and the person.

Why Grow and Develop? The human body is composed of about 3.72  1013 cells (Bianconi et al. 2013), which result from approximately 238 mitoses (cell divisions) since the moment of fertilization. During mitosis, cells differentiate into dozens of types of tissues and organs. From a human perspective, all of this appears to be normal and good. Anthropologists write paeans to the marvels of the specializations of human brain, hand, and bipedal foot. It is not obvious, however, why any living thing should be multicellular. Paleobiologists estimate that enormous numbers of “selfish”1 single cells, capable of 1

Use of words such as “selfish” may seem like misguided anthropomorphism. Biologists use words such as “altruistic,” “selfish,” “cheater” and the like when writing about the evolution of cooperation between cells, organs, and whole organisms. These words are a short-hand way to refer to more complex biochemical mechanisms of the genome. “Selfish” denotes preservation of the genome of a cell or individual. “Altruistic” denotes preservation of the genome of another cell or individual. “Cheaters” are cells or individuals that benefit from the altruism of others without reciprocating. Biologists ascribe no human moral, ethical, or purposeful meaning to these words.

Historical Background

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self-replication and sometimes organized into aggregations such as mats, dominated the history of life on Earth between about 4.2–1.5 billion years ago. There are many hypotheses explaining the advantages of multicellularity, all of which revolve around “food and sex.” By this is meant the two forces of evolutionary natural selection discovered by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913): differential fertility and differential mortality. All living things require nutrients for the building-blocks of their physical structure and, also, require energy to organize, maintain, and power their life. Most living cells are mortal and must replicate to pass on copies of themselves, in whole or part, to the future. On the “food” side of things, multicellularity and specialization of tissues, it seems, were naturally selected to increase the efficiency of food acquisition and the digestion and transport of nutrients between cells. Selection for defense against predators also played a role, for example, being larger than your predators or having surface defenses. On the “sex” side, many types of differentiated cells can still divide by mitosis to replace their mortal comrades (think of your skin or bones healing after damage) and specialized gametes produced by meiosis – ova and spermatozoa – allow for repeated reproduction events during the lifetime of the individual. Multicellularity requires cooperation between cells that were formally autonomous and selfish. Several mechanisms for the evolution of cooperative multicellularity are proposed, the most basic of which is the single-cell bottleneck of sexual reproduction (Levin et al. 2015). The descendant cells are genomic clones of the fertilized ovum. The selfish interest of these clones is the altruistic care of their “sister” cell’s genomes, no matter their phenotype as specialized cells, tissues, or organs. The very high genome similarity between the clones promotes inclusive fitness, that is, behavior to increase, “ . . . the proportion of replica genes in a relative . . . ” (Hamilton 1964, p. 1). Experimental evidence from the laboratory of Joan E. Strassmann and David C. Queller supports both inclusive fitness and another mechanism, called “resistance to cheating,” as promoters of multicellularity (Levin et al. 2015). Multicellularity likely evolved more than once and is present in at least the four Eukaryote Kingdoms of life – Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista. Even some species in the normally unicellular Kingdom Eubacteria form colonies that seem to divide biological activities and increase metabolic efficiency. The benefits of multicellularity, cell and tissue specialization, and sexual reproduction come with the costs of growth, development, and maturation. The initial contribution to the next generation, a fertilized ovum, does not look or behave like the adult parents. To be like their parents, “ . . . the new organisms will have to suffer changes before they become something approaching replicas of the old” (Newth 1970, p.1). Newth, an embryologist, adds that the processes of growth, development, and maturation are arduous, often prolonged, and generally hazardous.

Historical Background for the Study of Human Growth Like the fertilized ovum, the study of human growth and development has undergone an arduous, prolonged, and hazardous history of intellectual development. Arduous

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Background to the Study of Human Growth

and prolonged because it has taken more than three thousand years of study to arrive at our present state of knowledge. Some of the highlights of these three millennia are described in the next paragraphs of this section. The history of growth research is hazardous because misinformation and gaps in our knowledge lead to tragic consequences for human beings. The thalidomide drug disaster of the 1960s and the decline in breast-feeding in “modern” societies are just two recent examples of these hazards. Thalidomide is a sedative and hypnotic drug that was used to treat some of the discomforts of pregnancy. It was withdrawn from sale after it was found to cause severe birth defects, especially of the limbs. The thalidomide tragedy promoted tougher standards for testing the safety of new drugs and more research on environmental influences of embryonic development. A decline in breast-feeding during the twentieth century is a typical occurrence in both developed and developing nations. The development of milk-based formulas to feed infants and their aggressive promotion by the formula makers as “modern,” “safer,” and nutritionally “superior” to breast milk, led partly to the decline. Antinursing support also came from physicians, who were often compensated by the formula makers (Wolf 2003). In the United States, rates of breast-feeding of any duration fell to a low point of