Open Codes: Skills, Participation and Democracy in New Technology Development 9781443892438, 1443892432, 9781443883733
From a general perspective, as well as in scientific practice, technology and society are viewed as two distinct entitie
214 34 897KB
English Pages 180 [176] Year 2016
Table of Contents
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.2
1.3
CHAPTER TWO
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
2.4
CHAPTER THREE
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.5
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.5
4.6
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.4
CHAPTER SIX
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.3.1 a
6.3.1 b
6.3.2 a
6.3.2 b
6.3.2 c
6.3.2 d
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.4
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Open Codes
Open Codes: Skills, Participation and Democracy in New Technology Development By
Guido Nicolosi
Open Codes: Skills, Participation and Democracy in New Technology Development By Guido Nicolosi This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Guido Nicolosi Designed by Francesco Falsaperna All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-8373-5 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-8373-3
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Technology is neither good nor bad; nor is it neutral. .UDQ]EHUJ¶V¿UVWODZRIWHFKQRORJ\
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF TABLES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE: THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIENCE 7KHFRQFHSWRIH[SHULHQFHDQGUHVHDUFKPHWKRGRORJ\ 6NLOOVOLIHZRUOGDQGWKHVRFLDOLW\RIWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ 7UDQVGLVFLSOLQDULW\WKHHQF\FORSDHGLFDSSURDFKDQGVHPLRVLV 1.1.3 Rhizome semantics
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CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND. ON TECHNOLOGY: ESSENCE, PRAXIS, EXPERIENCE
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER THREE: THE BIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL ROOTS OF EXPERIENCE: AN EPIGENETIC INSIGHT
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CHAPTER FOUR: SYMMETRY AND ASYMMETRY BETWEEN BODY AND TOOL: FROM TECHNIQUE TO TECHNOLOGY
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CHAPTER FIVE: THE RECOVERY OF EXPERIENCE AND SOCIAL SKILLS IN MODERN TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
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CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSING SKILLED EXPERIENCE IN TECHNICAL ACTION: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work could not have been possible without the help and support of a great number of people. Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to prof. Guido Ruivenkamp for the continuous support of my research. I am also very grateful to the people who supported me during the time I spent in visiting research. Particularly, I need to thank prof. Steve Hughes, prof. Barry Barnes, prof. Lenny Moss and prof. Andrew Pickering for their suggestions, comments and criticism I collected visiting Egenis—The ESRC Centre for Genomics in Society, in Exeter (UK). I also thank Prof. Tim Ingold for his illuminating insights I had the opportunity to get visiting the School of Social Sciences, Department of Anthropology, in Aberdeen (UK). I am also grateful to prof. Ingold and his wife Anna for their wonderful hospitality and kindness. Finally, I thank you very much prof. Marina Maestrutti, prof. Alain Gras, prof. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, prof. Valérie Souffron and prof. Caroline Moricot for the intellectual exchanges we had and their support in organizing my visiting research at the Centre d’Étude des Techniques, des Connaissances et des Pratiques (CETCOPRA) in Paris (F). In conclusion, I want to remember someone who unfortunately disappeared during the period I dedicated to this research. My father Riccardo and my never born daughter Agata. Finally, my father-in-law Carmelo, who was a second father and who supported me believing in my academic career. I cannot but think about him riding an AJS motorcycle. I dedicate this book to Urbana and Riccardo Jr. They are our future and hope.
INTRODUCTION
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Introduction
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xviii
Introduction
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CHAPTER ONE THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIENCE
7KLVZRUNKDVGHYHORSHGZLWKLQWKHRQJRLQJVFLHQWL¿FDQGVRFLRSROLWLFDO debate on the issue of the relationship between technology and society. In FRPPRQXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGDOVRLQVFLHQWL¿FSUDFWLFHWKHVHDUHYHU\RIWHQ viewed as two distinct and quite separate entities. Against that, this study SUHVHQWVDWKHRUHWLFDOH[SORUDWLRQDLPHGDWVKRZLQJWKDWWKHUHDUHVLJQL¿cant margins within which to maneuver in order to recuperate and valorize human and social action in the sphere of technological development. The principle of interwovenness between technology and society has been an important contribution of the sociology of science and technology. It has enabled what in sociological terms is usually referred to as the debate on the “social construction of technology”. This issue, therefore, is not new or original, but rather a major and ongoing debate that has characterized social studies of science and technology (STS studies) for some forty years on. Thus, the “interwovenness” principle seems to be broadly accepted nowadays in humanities and social sciences. Nevertheless, if one looks at the way in which technology is developed by engineers and technicians and applied in policy (sometimes also by sociologists and philosophers)—that is the practice of science and technology development—it seems that this SULQFLSOHPD\LQGHHGEHIRUPDOO\UHFRJQL]HGZLWKLQRQH¿HOGEXWVXEVWDQtially denied or misunderstood in another. It is important to emphasize that although STS studies have been able to express this interwovenness, the politico-economic aspects of technology development have tended to be neglected. They have been deeply elaborated, but in a rather essentialist and determinist way (as I will discuss in &KDSWHU )RUWKLVUHDVRQ,WKLQNDFULWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHLVVXHRIWKH interwovenness remains important; in particular, it is necessary to explore the margins of human and social action in the technology of today. One objective of this work, therefore, is to make a contribution to the actual interwovenness debate, indicating that a new cultural horizon is needed to
The concept of experience
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1.1 The concept of experience and research methodology 1.1.1 Skills, lifeworld and the sociality of technical action ,QWDNLQJVNLOOVDVWKHVSHFL¿FXQLWRIREVHUYDWLRQRIWKLVZRUN,DPREOL JHGWRXQGHUOLQHWKDWWKHPDLQREMHFWRIWKLVZRUNLVnotVNLOOV,GRQRWZDQW WRGHYHORSDUHVHDUFKPRGHORUSDUDGLJPIRUVNLOOV5DWKHU,ZLOO³XVH´WKLV FDWHJRU\LQDQ³LQVWUXPHQWDO´ZD\HPSOR\LQJVNLOOVDVWKHPDLQLQGLFDWRURI DPRUHJHQHUDOGLPHQVLRQRILQYHVWLJDWLRQ H[SHULHQFHLQWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ ,QRUGHUWRH[SODLQWKHUHDVRQIRUWKLVFKRLFHRILQVWUXPHQW,XVHDFODVVLFDO
Chapter one
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The concept of experience
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Chapter one
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1.1.2 Transdisciplinarity, the encyclopaedic approach and semiosis %XW LI WKH LQWHUZRYHQQHVV RI WHFKQLTXH DQG VRFLHW\ FDQ EH HDVLO\ XQ GHUVWRRGRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHVHYHU\FRPPRQDQG LQVRFLRORJ\ VKDUHGHYL GHQFHVZK\DQRWKHUZRUNRQWKLVLVVXH"$VHPSKDVL]HGDERYHDOWKRXJKLQ VRFLRORJ\WKHSULQFLSOHRIWKH³LQWHUZRYHQQHVVRIWHFKQRORJ\DQGVRFLHW\´ LVDFFHSWHGWKLVSULQFLSOHVHHPVWREHVRPHZKDWFRQ¿QHGWRDQGZLWKLQWKDW GLVFLSOLQH 0RUHRYHU 676 VWXGLHV ZKLFK ZHUH ERUQ DV D ¿HOG RI LQWHUHVW ZLWKDVWURQJLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\RULHQWDWLRQQRZDGD\VVHHPKDYLQJDFTXLUHG D QHZ GLVFLSOLQDU\ FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ ZLWK LWV RZQ H[FOXVLYH ERUGHUV DQG JD WHNHHSHUV VFKRROVPDVWHUVOLWHUDWXUHVHWF ZLWKDFORVHGMDUJRQDQGZLWK
6
The concept of experience
DUDWKHUSRRUFULWLFDOJD]H There is still a huge lack in interdisciplinary research with the philosophical and sociological debate on this issue apparently remaining within the nar URZOLPLWVRIVLQJOHGLVFLSOLQHVDQGHYHQUHVHDUFKDUHDV KXPDQLWLHVVRFLDO VFLHQFHV $WWKHVDPHWLPHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\UHVHDUFKLVLWVHOIQRWDOZD\V DEOHWRRYHUFRPHWKHOLPLWVRIPXWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQ ,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDULW\PD\HDVLO\EH²RIWHQLVRUDWOHDVWVHHPVWREH²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¿FXOW DQGPD\VHHPGDQJHURXV'HVSLWHWKHVHULVNVZKLFKDUHVHYHUDO²LQFOXGLQJ DFFXVDWLRQVRIDQGUHVLVWDQFHWRSUHVXPHG¿HOGLQYDVLRQVDPELWLRXVSUHWHQ WLRQVMHDORXVLHVFULWLFLVPVRILQHYLWDEOHRYHUVLPSOL¿FDWLRQVGLI¿FXOWLHVLQ PDQDJLQJXQNQRZQFRQFHSWVDQGWHUPVUHGXFHGPDUJLQVIRUHPSLULFDOUH VHDUFKHWF²WUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\UHVHDUFKLVQHYHUWKHOHVVDULVNZRUWKWDNLQJ )URPWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\UHVHDUFKVKRXOGEH EDVHG RQ D SDUWLFXODU ³SLFWXUH´ RI NQRZOHGJH 3DUWLFXODUO\ WUDQVGLVFLSOL QDU\UHVHDUFKDVVXPHVNQRZOHGJHWREHDVHPDQWLFQHWZRUNRIPHDQLQJWKDW FDQ EH KDUGO\ RUJDQL]HG LQ D ZHOOVWUXFWXUHG KLHUDUFK\ RI OLQHDU PDWFKHV 5DWKHU NQRZOHGJH LV EDVHG RQ DQ XQVWHDG\ SUHFDULRXV DQG DOZD\V FRQ WH[WXDOO\UHFRQVWUXFWDEOHQHWZRUNRIVHPDQWLFDVVRFLDWLRQV7KLVimplies a GLIIHUHQWPHWKRGRORJ\RILQTXLU\DVSURYLGHGIRUH[DPSOHE\WKHVRFDOOHG encyclopaedic approach which has been widely represented and described E\8PEHUWR(FR LQWHUPVRIDQRSSRVLWLRQWRWKHVRFDOOHGdictionary-like approach 7KHGLFWLRQDU\LQIRUPVDQGGH¿QHVDSDUWLFXODUPHWDSKRULFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
Chapter one
RINQRZOHGJHEDVHGRQWKH¿JXUHRIWKHVRFDOOHG3RUSK\ULDQWUHH $UERU Porphyriana DFRQFHSWXDOGHYLFHLQWHQGHGWRLOOXVWUDWHWKH³VFDOHRIEHLQJ´ (scala predicamentalis HODERUDWHGE\WKH*UHHNORJLFLDQDQGSKLORVRSKHU 3RUSK\U\ )LJDQG)LJ 3RUSK\U\ HODERUDWHG WKLV ³GHYLFH´ IRU SUHVHQWLQJ WKH$ULVWRWHOLDQ FODVVL¿ FDWLRQ V\VWHP WKURXJK D WUHHOLNH GLDJUDP EDVHG RQ GLFKRWRPRXV VHPDQ WLFRSSRVLWLRQV7KLVGHYLFHLVFRQVLGHUHGWKHPDLQPRGHORIWKHVRFDOOHG ³GLFWLRQDU\OLNHVHPDQWLFV´DFODVVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHPLPSO\LQJD³IDOO´IURP ³JHQXV WR VSHFLHV´ EDVHG RQ D IRUPDO OLQHDU DQG KLHUDUFKLFDO V\VWHP RI OLQNDJHV EHWZHHQ FDWHJRULHV 7KLV PRGHO XVXDOO\ LQIRUPV WKH KHJHPRQLF PHWKRGRORJ\RI GLVFLSOLQDU\ VFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFK
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The concept of experience
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Chapter one
WKDWOHDGVWRRXULQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHUHSUHVHQWDPHQWKURXJKDQRWKHUVLJQ 3HLUFHFDOOVWKLVQHZVLJQ WKH³interpretant´ 7KLVODVWLVDQRWKHUFXOWXUDO XQLW\XVHIXOWRLQWHUSUHWEXWRQHWKDWZLOOLQWXUQFDOODQRWKHULQWHUSUHWDQW OHDGLQJWRDVHULHVRIVXFFHVVLYHLQWHUSUHWDQWV SRWHQWLDOO\ DGLQ¿QLWXP )RUWKLVUHDVRQDFFRUGLQJWR3HLUFHWKHPHDQLQJRIDUHSUHVHQWDWLRQFDQQRW EHDQ\WKLQJEXWDUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ$Q\LQLWLDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQFDQEHUHLQWHU preted and so semiosis is not considered a structure but a process,QWKLV LGHDRIVHPLRVLVQHLWKHUXQLYHUVDOVHPDQWLFVQRUPHWDOLQJXLVWLFHQWLWLHVDUH DOORZHG+HUHWKHV\VWHPLVEDVHGRQDQLQGH¿QLWHVHULHVRIFRQWHQWXQLWV WKDWDUHPXWXDOO\GH¿QHGDQGZLWKDGLIIHUHQWQDWXUHEXWZLWKRXWEHLQJKLH UDUFKLFDOO\RUGHUHG7KHVHXQLWVFDQQRWEHFODVVL¿HGDVHVVHQWLDORUDQFLOODU\ (FRGH¿QHVWKLVV\VWHPDQ³encyclopedia´,QGHHGRSHUDWLRQDOO\DQGRFFD VLRQDOO\ZLWKLQWKLVV\VWHPORFDOWUHHVRIPHDQLQJFDQEHLVRODWHG%XWWKH V\VWHPKDVWKHFRPSOH[VWUXFWXUHRIDrhizome, that is a network in which all WKHSRLQWVDUHPRUHRUOHVVGLUHFWO\FRQQHFWHGWRHDFKRWKHU
1.1.3 Rhizome semantics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ge can help in creating an intellectual and semantic map whose originality FRQVLVWVMXVWLQWKHFRXSOLQJRIFRQFHSWVXVXDOO\NHSWVHSDUDWH7KLVLVZKDW LVDWWHPSWHGLQWKLVERRNFRXSOLQJIRUH[DPSOHepigenetics ELRDQWKURSR ORJLFDOGLPHQVLRQ ZLWKtechnicity VRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDOGLPHQVLRQ DQG
10
The concept of experience
open source (socio-political dimension). This semantic model is usually rejected because it challenges the myth of expertise RI D GH¿QHG DQG FRPSOHWH VHW RI WHFKQLFDO NQRZOHGJH DERXW D VSHFL¿F LVVXH LGHD ZKLFK LV GLUHFWO\ OLQNHG WR WKH WUHHOLNH VWUXFWXUH RI NQRZOHGJH107KHUKL]RPDWLFPRGHORINQRZOHGJHUHTXLUHVDVHWRIGLIIHUHQW UHVHDUFKWHFKQLTXHVUHFLSURFDOO\LQWHUWZLQHG7KH¿UVWWHFKQLTXHLVWRXVH a language that is both logical and analogical through the use of so-called nomadic concepts.11 )RU WKH SXUSRVH RI WKLV VWXG\ WKH FRQFHSW WKXV HPployed is that of epigeneticsZKLFKKDVEHHQDOUHDG\XVHGYHU\IUXLWIXOO\ in robotics.127KHVHFRQGWHFKQLTXHLVDQFKRUHGWRDSURFHVVRIFRPSDULQJ GLIIHUHQWOLWHUDWXUHVRIGLIIHUHQWGRPDLQV+HUHZKDWLVRULJLQDOLVQRWWKH REMHFWRIDQDO\VLVLQLWVHOIEXWWKHSURFHVVRIFRPSDULQJLVVXHVFRQFHSWV DQGOLWHUDWXUHV,QWKLVZRUNZHWULHGWRIROORZWKHVHPHWKRGVDQGWKHWKUHH main chapters mirror this methodological effort.
Fig. 1-4 Rhizome
1.2 Problem statement and research questions :KLOHWKLVERRNGHDOVZLWKWKHSUREOHPRIWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWHFKQRORJ\DQGVRFLHW\LWGRHVVRE\GHYHORSLQJUHVHDUFK¿UPO\JURXQGHGLQ WKHWKHPHRIWKHUROHRIKXPDQH[SHULHQFHLQWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ0RUHRYHULW starts from the position that the root problem for any analysis of the so-calOHGWHFKQRORJ\VRFLHW\UHODWLRQVKLSFRQFHUQVWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDVSHFL¿FSHU-
Chapter one
VSHFWLYH IURP ZKLFK WR H[DPLQH VXFK D UHODWLRQVKLS )RU WKLV UHDVRQ WKH SULPDU\REMHFWLYHLVWRGHYHORSWKLVYHU\SHUVSHFWLYH(VVHQWLDOO\WKHDLPLV WRFRPELQHDUKL]RPDWLFDQGDVVRFLDWLYHZRUNLQJPHWKRGRORJ\LQDQRYHO IDVKLRQWRJHWKHUZLWKDFHUWDLQWKHRUHWLFDOVHQVLELOLW\ RXWORRN ZKLFKPD\ EHFDOOHG³critical-pragmatic´ &KDSWHU 0\KRSHLVWKDWWKLVFRPELQDWLRQPD\HQDEOHDFRQFHSWXDOPDSWRHPHUJH IURPWKUHHVHOHFWHGDFFHVVSRLQWV²ELRDQWKURSRORJLFDOVRFLRDQWKURSROR JLFDO VRFLRSROLWLFDO²ZKLFK FDQ WKHQ KLJKOLJKW DQG HQGRUVH WKH QHHG WR UHDVVHVVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIKXPDQSUD[LVLQWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ 7KHRULJLQDOLW\RIWKLVZRUNFRQVLVWVWKHQSUHFLVHO\LQWKHDVVRFLDWLYHFRP ELQDWLRQRIWKHHOHPHQWVLQWKHPDNLQJRIWKLVFRQFHSWXDOPDSVLQFHLWLV ZLWKMXVWWKLVFRPELQDWLRQ,VXJJHVWWKDWZHPD\H[SUHVVWKHVSHFL¿FSHU VSHFWLYHUHIHUUHGWR
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,QWKHOLJKWRIWKLVRXWOLQHWKHNH\SUREOHPRIWKHUHVHDUFKLVWRGHYHORSD theoretical perspective by which human experience can be reintegrated in WHFKQLFDODFWLRQ7KHFRUHSUREOHPLVWKXVWRFRQWULEXWHWRWKHGHYHORSPHQW RIDQHZRXWORRN SHUVSHFWLYH LQZKLFKWKHUROHRIKXPDQH[SHULHQFHSUD [LVDQGVNLOOVLQWHFKQLFDODFWLRQFDQEHUHHYDOXDWHGOHDGLQJWRDSURFHVVRI ERWWRPXSGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQRIPRGHUQWHFKQRORJLHV
The concept of experience
7KHPDLQSUREOHPGH¿QLQJWKLVIRFXVLVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKH ZD\VDQGGHJUHHWRZKLFKWHFKQRORJ\DQGH[SHULHQFH LQWKHVRFLRDQWKUR SRORJLFDODQGRSHUDWLQJWHUPVGH¿QHGXSWRWKLVSRLQW KDYHEHFRPHWZR PXWXDOO\H[FOXVLYHHQWLWLHV,QRUGHUWRGRWKLV,ZLOOLQYHVWLJDWHKRZWKH SULPDU\ UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ ERG\ VRFLHW\ DQG WHFKQLTXH KDV EHHQ WUDQ VIRUPHGE\WKHDGYHQWRIPRGHUQWHFKQRORJ\DQGZKDWNLQGRIFKDOOHQJHV WKLVFKDQJHLPSOLHV 7KLV SURYLGHV WKH RYHUDUFKLQJ WKHPH IRU UHÀHFWLRQ GHYHORSHG LQ WKH QH[W FKDSWHUVZKLFKDUHJXLGHGE\WKHIROORZLQJWKUHH³VWXG\TXHVWLRQV´ :KDW LV WKH ELRDQWKURSRORJLFDO H[SODQDWLRQ DQG MXVWL¿FDWLRQ IRU WKH LPSRUWDQFHRIH[SHULHQFHLQKXPDQFXOWXUH"$QGLVWKHUHDQHSLVWHPR ORJLFDOSDUDGLJPDEOHWRUHSUHVHQWVXFKDOLQNLQOLIHVFLHQFHVWRGD\" :KDWNLQGRIVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDOGDWDFDQKHOSXVXQGHUVWDQGZKHWKHU and to what extent the relationship between corporeal experience and PDWHULDOUHDOLW\LVVWLOOUHOHYDQWLQGH¿QLQJWKHLGHDRIWHFKQLFLW\" :KLFKSUDFWLFHVRIWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYHORSPHQWDUHLQDSRVLWLRQWRFRQ FUHWHO\ UHFXSHUDWH KXPDQ VNLOOV LQ WKH SURFHVVHV RI WHFKQLFDO LQQRYD WLRQ"$QGKRZFDQVXFKSUDFWLFHVEHWKHDGYRFDWHVIRUDJUHDWHUGHPR FUDWL]DWLRQRIWHFKQRORJ\" 7RJHWKHU WKHVH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV SURYLGH D WRRO ZLWK ZKLFK WR FULWLFDOO\ LQYHVWLJDWHWKHPDLQIRFXVRIWKHZRUNIURPWKUHHGLIIHUHQWEXWFRPSOHPHQ WDU\SHUVSHFWLYHVRIDQDO\VLV WKHELRDQWKURSRORJLFDOWKHVRFLRDQWKURSROR JLFDODQGWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDO
1.3 Overview &KDSWHUSUHVHQWVWKHWKHRUHWLFDOEDFNJURXQGRIWKLVZRUN7KHPDLQ DLPLVWRVKRZWKDWWKLVEDFNJURXQGKDVEHHQFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHH[LVWHQFH RI DQ ³HVVHQWLDOLVW SDUDGLJP´ RQH WKDW WUDGLWLRQDOO\ LQÀXHQFHG WKH SKLOR VRSK\DQGVRFLRORJ\RIWHFKQLTXH7KLV,DUJXHVKDSHGDG\VWRSLDQGLVWRU WLRQRIVRFLRORJLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ 6HFWLRQ DIIHFWLQJ SURJUHVVLYHFXUUHQWVRIVWXG\ 6HFWLRQ 7KHVHFRQGVHFWLRQGHVFULEHVWKH SKLORVRSK\RISUD[LVDVDQDQWLGRWHWRWKHGHWHUPLQLVPRIWKHHVVHQWLDOLVWSD UDGLJPRXWOLQHGLQWKH¿UVW6HFWLRQSUHVHQWV$QGUHZ)HHQEHUJ¶VWKLQNLQJ DVDSKLORVRSKLFDOYLVLRQWKDWLVDEOHWRUHKDELOLWDWH0DU[¶VFRQFHSWRISUD [LV,QDGGLWLRQWKLVFKDSWHUWULHVWRPDNHH[SOLFLWWKH³SHUVSHFWLYHDQJOH´RI WKLVUHVHDUFKWKDWLVWKHWKHRUHWLFDOJD]HDQGVHQVLELOLW\WKDWLQÀXHQFHGKLP
Chapter one
LQVHOHFWLQJWKHRULHVDQGDXWKRUV FULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVP $GGUHVVLQJWKH¿UVWVWXG\TXHVWLRQ²FRQFHUQHGZLWKDELRDQWKURSRORJLFDO OLQNIRUWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIH[SHULHQFHLQKXPDQFXOWXUH²&KDSWHUVHHNV to show that skills are an ineliminable anthropological given since they are ERXQGWRWKHYHU\ELRORJLFDOVWDWXVRIKXPDQV,QSDUWLFXODU,DLPWRGH PRQVWUDWHWKDWDOWKRXJKVFLHQWL¿FFXOWXUHDQGSXEOLFRSLQLRQKDYHEHFRPH dominated by theories with roots in a genocentric cultural paradigm ruled E\ D GHWHUPLQLVW ³LQIRUPDWLRQDO´ P\WKRORJ\ against this mythology, a FRUSXVRIDGYDQFHGDQDO\VHVKDVGHYHORSHGGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKDWWKHKXPDQ RUJDQLVPLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\H[WUDRUGLQDU\PDOOHDELOLW\7KLVFRUSXVPD\EH FKDUDFWHUL]HGDVFRQVWLWXWLQJDQDSSURDFKWKDWHPSOR\VZKDWLVGXEEHGWKH ³epigenetic paradigm´7KLVSDUDGLJPUHHYDOXDWHVWKHPXWXDOLQWHUFKDQJH EHWZHHQRUJDQLVPDQGHQYLURQPHQWUHGLVFRYHULQJWKHDFWLYHUROHRIWKHRU JDQLVPLQWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSDQGUHVSRQGLQJWRWKH¿UVWVWXG\TXHVWLRQ 7KHVXJJHVWLRQGHYHORSHGLVWKDWWKHLGHDWKDWHSLJHQHWLFVKDVRIWKHRUJD QLVPVFLHQWL¿FDOO\VXSSRUWVDVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDOFRQFHSWLRQRIPDQDVD real being-in-the-world, namely an intentional body that lives out a relation VKLSRIUHFLSURFLW\ZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJ SK\VLFDODQGVRFLDO HQYLURQPHQW 7KLVWKHUHIRUHUHIHUVWRDEHLQJRQWRORJLFDOO\JURXQGHGLQH[SHULHQFH,Q GHHGWKHHSLJHQHWLFLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIPDQGLVPDQWOHVWKHLQIRUPDWLRQDOPR del and suggests, analogously and DIRUWLRUL, that in the cultural dimension WRRWKHKXPDQEHLQJPXVWQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDQRUJDQLVPZLWKDQLQIRUPD WLYHFRGHHQFDSVXODWHGLQKLV³PLQG´7KHUHDVRQLQJIROORZHGWKXVXVHVWKH HSLJHQHWLFSDUDGLJPLQRUGHUWRFKDOOHQJHLQIRUPDWLRQDOGHWHUPLQLVPERWK RQWKHELRORJLFDODVZHOODVVRFLDOOHYHO(VVHQWLDOO\DQHSLJHQHWLFDQDO\VLV RIIHUVVFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUWIRUDVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDOLGHDRIPDQDVDUHDO EHLQJLQWKHZRUOGDEHLQJWKDWIDFLQJSURFHVVHVRIJURZWKGHYHORSPHQW DQGDOVRGHFD\LQFRUSRUDWHVLQKLVYHU\DQDWRP\ PXVFOHVQHXURORJ\HWF particular skills and habits that lend him a plasticity in respect to the sur URXQGLQJSK\VLFDODQGVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQV :LWKFKDSWHU,DWWHPSWWRLOOXVWUDWHWKDWPRGHUQWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ WHFKQR ORJ\ KDVOLPLWHGEXWQRWHOLPLQDWHGWKHDQWKURSRORJLFDODQGVRFLDOIHDWXUHV DWWKHURRWVRIWHFKQLTXHVXFKDVSHUFHSWLRQDFWLRQLQWHQWLRQDOLW\FRUSRUHL W\DQGFRQWH[WXDOLW\,QDWWHPSWLQJWRDQVZHUWKHVHFRQGVWXG\TXHVWLRQ²RQ VRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDO GDWD VXSSRUWLQJ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ FRUSRUHDO H[SHULHQFHDQGPDWHULDOUHDOLW\DVVWLOOUHOHYDQWLQGH¿QLQJDQLGHDRIWHFKQL FLW\²,VKRZWKDWLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHVFLHQWL¿FOLWHUDWXUHYDULRXV WHFKQR
The concept of experience
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Chapter one
EHFRQFHSWXDOO\DSSOLHGWRWKHFRQWURYHUVLDODQGHPEOHPDWLFFDVHRIELRWH FKQRORJLHV 7KHEXUGHQRI&KDSWHULVWREULQJWRJHWKHUWKHDQDO\VHVRIWKHPDLQFKDS WHUVVHWWLQJRXWWKHNH\LVVXHVREMHFWLYHVDQGFRQFHSWVGLVFXVVHGLQWKHHV say and presenting the main conceptual results in response to the various reVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVPRWLYDWLQJWKLVZRUN$VHPDQWLFPDSLVSURYLGHG)LQDOO\ WKHPDLQDLPLVWRGHYHORSDJHQHUDOGLVFXVVLRQWRVNHWFKHVVRPHRIWKHQHZ TXHVWLRQVUHSUHVHQWLQJRWKHUSRVVLEOHSURSRVDOVIRUIXWXUHOLQHVRIUHVHDUFK
CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ON TECHNOLOGY: ESSENCE, PRAXIS, EXPERIENCE
2.1 Introduction 7KHPDLQDLPRIWKLVFKDSWHULVWRSUHVHQWDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHWKHRUHWLFDO EDFNJURXQGRIWKHSKLORVRSKLFDODQGVRFLRORJLFDOGHEDWHEHKLQGWKLVUHVH DUFK)LUVWO\,VKRZWKDWWKHSKLORVRSK\DQGVRFLRORJ\RIWHFKQLTXHKDYH EHHQFRQGLWLRQHGDQGXQGHUPLQHGE\DQHVVHQWLDOLVWSDUDGLJPRIDQDO\VLV, DOVRVKRZWKDWWKLVSDUDGLJPKDVEHHQ¿HUFHO\FRXQWHUDFWHGE\WZRRSSRVHG approaches, critical theory and pragmatism, usually considered mutually in FRPSDWLEOH6HFRQGO\,VXJJHVWWKDWLQRUGHUWRRYHUFRPHWKHOLPLWVRIWKHVH DSSURDFKHV LW LV SRVVLEOH WR DGRSW D WKHRUHWLFDO JD]H DEOH WR FRQWHPSOD WHWKHLUPXWXDOFRQWDPLQDWLRQ7KLVFRQWDPLQDWLRQLVSURYLGHGE\D³QHZ´ SKLORVRSKLFDOFXUUHQW³FULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVP´ZKLFKFDQLQIRUPDUHQHZHG LGHDRIWKHSKLORVRSK\RISUD[LV in order to instigate a constructive lecture RIWHFKQRORJ\,QWKLVZRUN,GRQRWWU\WRGHYHORSWKLVQHZSKLORVRSK\RI SUD[LVEXWUDWKHULQGLFDWHKRZWKLVWKHRUHWLFDOJD]HKDVVWURQJO\LQÀXHQFHG PHLQVHOHFWLQJWKHRULHVDQGDXWKRUV,QWKLVFKDSWHUWKHUHDGHUZLOO¿QG¿YH SDUDJUDSKV 7KH¿UVWVXEVHFWLRQ LQWURGXFHVWKHGHWHUPLQLVWDQGDSRFDO\SWLFKH JHPRQLFSDUDGLJPRSHUDWLYHZLWKLQWKHGRPDLQRIWKHSKLORVRSK\RIWHFK QLTXHDSDUDGLJPWKDWKDVGLUHFWHGRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKRZWKHSDVVDJH IURP WHFKQLTXH WR WHFKQRORJ\ IURP DQFLHQW WR PRGHUQ VRFLHW\ EURXJKW DERXWWKHHQGRIWKHUROHRIH[SHULHQFHDQGKXPDQDFWLRQ KHQFHRISHUFHS WLRQDFWLRQLQWHQWLRQDOLW\DQGSUD[LV $FFRUGLQJWRWKLVHVVHQWLDOLVWSDUD GLJPWKHDGYHQWRIPRGHUQWHFKQRORJ\KDVGLVHPEHGGHGWHFKQLTXHIURP WKHVRFLRFXOWXUDOIDEULFWKDWKDGVDIHJXDUGHGLWIRUFHQWXULHVDQGUHQGHUHG it an autonomous corpusGLUHFWHGRQO\E\LQWHUQDOO\GH¿QHGSDUDPHWHUVRI HI¿FLHQF\IXQFWLRQDOLW\DQGUDWLRQDOLW\
Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
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2.2 Theoretical background 2.2.1 Technique and technology: the advent of modernity and the end of experience? +XPDQDFWLRQLQFOXGLQJWKHWHFKQLFDOLQFUHDVLQJO\VHHPWREHWKHWHUPV RIDQLPSRVVLEOHELQRPLDORUSHUKDSVHYHQE\QRZWRUHIHUWRDP\WKLFDO DQGIRUJRWWHQSDVW7KHLQFUHDVLQJSDFHRIUHOHQWOHVVWHFKQRVFLHQWL¿FGHYH lopment witnessed over the last century or so in particular has, in the opi QLRQRIPDQ\VXEVWDQWLDOO\XSURRWHGWHFKQLTXHIURPWKHVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO IDEULF LQ ZKLFK LW KDG EHHQ HPEHGGHG IRU FHQWXULHV LQ RUGHU WR FUHDWH DQ autonomous corpus, namely, a neutral and independent ensemble, bound to ³LQQHU´ORJLFVDQGG\QDPLFVDQGUHVSRQGLQJH[FOXVLYHO\WROLQHDUSULQFLSOHV RIHI¿FLHQF\HIIHFWLYHQHVVIXQFWLRQDOLW\DQGUDWLRQDOLW\ $FFRUGLQJWRDZLGHVSUHDGKHJHPRQLFLQWHUSUHWDWLRQZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRIWKH SKLORVRSK\RIWHFKQLTXHWRGD\WKLVSURFHVVKDVEHHQFRQVROLGDWHGLQUHOD WLYHO\UHFHQWWLPHVZLWKWKHDGYHQWRIPRGHUQLW\7KHWKLQNLQJRI8PEHUWR *DOLPEHUWLLQ,WDO\H[SUHVVHVWKLVSKLORVRSKLFDOSUHMXGLFHHPEOHPDWLFDOO\ 6WDUWLQJIURPDGHHSO\URRWHGSURSRVLWLRQLQFODVVLFSKLORVRSKLFDOWKRXJKW WKDWFDQEHWUDFHGIURP3ODWRWKURXJK$TXLQDVDQGWKHQ.DQW+HUGHUDQG 6FKRSHQKDXHUWR1LHW]VFKH%HUJVRQDQG*HKOHQ*DOLPEHUWL DV VHUWVWKDWWHFKQLTXH XQGHUVWRRGERWKDVDXQLYHUVHRIUHVRXUFHVDVZHOODV UDWLRQDOLW\ VKRXOGEHXQGHUVWRRGDVWKHHVVHQFHRIPDQ, in that it arises as a ³UHPHG\´WRWKHELRORJLFDOLQFRPSOHWHQHVVRIWKHKXPDQEHLQJWRWKHGH¿ FLHQF\WKDWLVRIKLVJHQHWLFDQGLQVWLQFWXDOHQGRZPHQW,QWKLVYLVLRQWKH XQVXFFHVVIXOVWDELOL]DWLRQRIWKHZRUOGWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVDQLPDOH[SHULHQFH LVRYHUFRPHE\WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIFXOWXUDOSURFHGXUHVRIWHFKQLFDOVWDEL OL]DWLRQEDVHGRQ DQWLFLSDWLRQLQYHQWLRQSODQQLQJSUHGLFWLRQIUHHGRPRI DFWLRQDQGRIPRYHPHQW )RU *DOLPEHUWL SUHFLVHO\ EHFDXVH LW LV WKH ³HVVHQFH RI PDQ´ WHFKQLTXH VKRXOGQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDVLPSOH³WRRO´LQWKHKDQGVRID³VXEMHFW´ PDQ 7KLV³LQVWUXPHQWDO´FRQGLWLRQFODLPV*DOLPEHUWLDQGZLWKKLPDODUJHSDUW RIWUDGLWLRQDOSKLORVRSKLFDOWKRXJKWFKDUDFWHUL]HGSUHPRGHUQVRFLHWLHVLQ
Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
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Chapter two
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2.2.2 The philosophy of praxis $Q DQWLGRWH WR WKLV GHWHUPLQLVP LV RIIHUHG E\ WKH SKLORVRSK\ RI SUD [LV ,QGHHG WKH DSRFDO\SWLF HVVHQWLDOLVW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DVVHUWLQJ WKH HQG RIPDQ¶VH[SHULHQFHGHFUHHVWKHVXEVWDQWLDOFRQFOXVLRQRIKXPDQLVPWKH HOLPLQDWLRQRIVLJQL¿FDQWPDUJLQVRIKXPDQDFWLQJDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKH WHFKQLFDO VXERUGLQDWLRQ RI DOO WKH H[LVWHQWLDO ¿HOGV RI PDQ UHDVRQ WUXWK SROLWLFVHWKLFVLGHRORJ\UHOLJLRQQDWXUHDQGKLVWRU\LWVHOI:HKHQFH¿QG RXUVHOYHVIDFHGZLWKDYLVLRQWKDWJRHVHYHQIXUWKHUZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHYHU\ 0DU[LDQFRQFHSWRIDOLHQDWLRQ ,QGHHG0DU[ZKRKDGSHUIHFWO\XQGHUVWRRGWKHULVNVRIWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQV LQWURGXFHGE\ZKDWKHGH¿QHGWKHQHZ³FLYLOL]DWLRQRIPDFKLQHV´DVFULEHG alienation exclusively to a technical development rooted in capitalist means RI SURGXFWLRQ )RU WKLV UHDVRQ KH DGYRFDWHG WKH DGYHQW RI D FRPPXQLVW VRFLHW\WKDWRYHUFRPLQJWKHLQWHUQDOFRQWUDGLFWLRQVRIFDSLWDOLVPDQGWKH LQLTXLWRXVGLYLVLRQRIVRFLHW\LQWRFODVVHVZRXOGKDYHDOLHQDWLRQGRQHDZD\ ZLWK)RUWKRVHVXEVFULELQJWRWKHQRWLRQRIWKHHQGRIH[SHULHQFHKRZHYHU 0DU[SUHVHQWHGDURPDQWLFNLQGRIXWRSLDQLOOXVLRQ)RUWKHPERWKFDSLWD OLVPDQGFRPPXQLVPUHPDLQHG³SUHWHFKQRORJLFDO´KXPDQLVWLFFDWHJRULHV WKDWSUHVXSSRVHGDYLVLRQIRXQGHGRQWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIFRQWUROOLQJWKHWH FKQLFDO LQVWUXPHQW E\ WKH KXPDQ VXEMHFW 7KH SKLORVRSKLFDO WUDGLWLRQ QR ORQJHUHQYLVDJHGVXFKDSRVVLELOLW\ZLWKWKHDGYHQWRIPRGHUQLW\2QWKLV Galimberti had this to say: $WWKLVSRLQWDOVRWKH0DU[LDQFRQFHSWRI³DOLHQDWLRQ´DSSHDUVLQVXI¿FLHQW EHFDXVH RQH FDQ RQO\ VSHDN RI DOLHQDWLRQ LQ D KXPDQLVWLF VFHQDULR ZKHQ WKHUHLVDQDQWKURSRORJ\WKDWZLVKHVWREHUHWULHYHGIURPLWVHVWUDQJHPHQWLQ SURGXFWLRQDQGLQDFRQWH[WFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHFRQÀLFWRIWZRZLOOVRIWZR VXEMHFWVWKDWVWLOOEHOLHYHWKHPVHOYHVWREHWKHRZQHUVRIWKHLUDFWLRQVQRW ZKHQWKHUHLVDVLQJOHVXEMHFWQDPHO\WKHWHFKQLFDODSSDUDWXVZLWKUHVSHFW WRZKLFKLQGLYLGXDOVXEMHFWVDUHVLPSO\LWVSUHGLFDWHV *DOLPEHUWL
Theoretical background.
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Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
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2.2.3 The crisis of the philosophy of praxis: the essentialism of the “left” 7KH)UDQNIXUW6FKRROZDVDSKLORVRSKLFDODQGVRFLRORJLFDOFXUUHQWFRQ VWLWXWHGE\DJURXSRIVFKRODUVRULJLQDOO\XQLWHG LQWKH V DURXQGWKH ,QVWLWXWHIRU6RFLDO5HVHDUFKDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI)UDQNIXUWDP0DLQLQ*HU PDQ\XQGHUWKHJXLGDQFHRIWKH0DU[LVWKLVWRULDQ.DUO*UQEHUJ With $GRUQR+RUNHLPHU%HQMDPLQ0DUFXVH+DEHUPDVDQG)URPPDPRQJLWV PRVWZHOONQRZQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVHVVHQWLDOO\WKLVJURXSVRXJKWWRZLGHQWKH
Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
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2.2.4 Feenberg’s critical constructivism: the concept of Code and the return of the philosophy of praxis $VUHFRJQL]HGWKHHVVHQWLDOLVWKHJHPRQ\LQWKHSKLORVRSK\RIWHFKQLTXH ZDV FKDOOHQJHG DQG TXHVWLRQHG E\ D WKHRUHWLFDO DQG HPSLULFDO SURGXFWLRQ RIWKHKLVWRU\DQGVRFLRORJ\RIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQLTXHWKDWZDVDEOHWRVKRZ KRZWHFKQLFDODFWLRQLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VRFLRFXOWXUDOFRPSOH[LW\DQGGL YHUVLW\ )RU SUHVHQW SXUSRVHV WKLV SURGXFWLRQ ZKRVH LQQHU DUWLFXODWLRQ LV KLJKO\FRPSOH[FDQEHGH¿QHGLQJHQHUDOWHUPVDVFRQVWUXFWLYLVP 5HIXWLQJWKHSULQFLSOHVRIQHXWUDOLW\DQGDXWRQRP\FRQVWUXFWLYLVPUHFRJQL ]HVWKHIXQGDPHQWDOUROHSOD\HGE\VRFLHW\LQGHWHUPLQLQJWKHYHU\QDWXUH RI WHFKQLTXH 7KLV LV QRW VR PXFK RQH RI WKH HI¿FLHQF\ HIIHFWLYHQHVV RU IXQFWLRQDOLW\ WKDW H[SODLQV WKH VXFFHVV RU IDLOXUH RI DUWHIDFWV EXW UDWKHU WKHYDULHW\RIWKHORFDODQGFRQWH[WXDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIDVRFLDODQGFXO WXUDO NLQG 7KXV OLNH DOO VRFLDO LQVWLWXWLRQV WHFKQRVFLHQWL¿F LQQRYDWLRQV DOVRSURYHVXFFHVVIXOZKHQWKH\HQMR\WKHVXSSRUWRIWKHVXUURXQGLQJVRFLDO HQYLURQPHQW 3LQFK %LMNHU )RUFRQVWUXFWLYLVPDUWHIDFWVDUHWKH
Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
ULWDWLYHSURSRVDORIDFULWLFDOFRQVWUXFWLYLVPDSSOLHGWRWKHVRFLDOVWXG\RI WHFKQRORJ\ %\ FULWLFDO FRQVWUXFWLYLVP , PHDQ WKH DWWHPSW WR HODERUDWH D NLQGRIWKLUGSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQHVVHQWLDOLVPDQGFRQVWUXFWLYLVP,QWKLVZD\ DV ZH VKDOO VHH )HHQEHUJ KDV VXFFHHGHG LQ WKH GLI¿FXOW WDVN RI HQDEOLQJ the SKLORVRSK\RISUD[LVWRUHHPHUJHIURPWKHREOLYLRQWRZKLFKWKHVDPH 0DU[LVWWKLQNHUVVHHPHGWRKDYHUHOHJDWHGLW ,QVSLUHGE\WKH0DUFXVLDQSULQFLSOHRIWKHVRFLDOQDWXUHRIUDWLRQDOV\VWHPV Feenberg developed the optimistic côtéRIKLVPDVWHUXVLQJDQLQWHUSUHWD tion that sets the critical perspective alongside the constructive elaborated in DQXPEHURIVWHSVRIVRFLRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKDSSOLHGWRVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQLTXH We cannot deny that the balance Feenberg seeks between critical analysis and constructivism is rather precarious, but due to their common roots there DUH PHHWLQJ SRLQWV EHWZHHQ WKH WZR DSSURDFKHV (YHQ LI RIWHQ QRW H[SOL citly recognised by his supporters, constructivism does originate precisely IURP0DU[¶VFULWLTXHRILGHRORJ\¿OWHUHGE\ERWK0DQQKHLPDQG/XNiFV¶ VRFLRORJ\RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ7KLVDI¿QLW\LVYLVLEOHLQWKHFRPPRQLQWHUHVW LQHSLVWHPRORJLFDOTXHVWLRQVLQWKHJUHDWDWWHQWLRQDFFRUGHGWR³HPSLULFDO SKLORVRSK\´LQWKHFULWLFLVPRIWKH³UHL¿FDWLRQ´RIFRQFHSWVDQGLQWKHIRFXV RQVRFLDOSUDFWLFHV+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHPDQ\SRLQWVRIDSSDUHQWO\LUUHFRQ FLODEOHGLYHUJHQFH WKHFRQFHSWRIWRWDOLW\WKHUROHRIGLDOHFWLFVHWF 0DQ\ RI WKHVH GHULYH IURP WKH SRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVW LQÀXHQFH WKDW KDV VKDSHG FRQ VWUXFWLYLVWWKLQNLQJVLQFHWKHEHJLQQLQJGLVWDQFLQJLWIURPRUWKRGR[0DU[L VP7RHVFDSHWKHVHOLPLWV)HHQEHUJKDVWXUQHGWRWKHSROLWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQV RIFRQVWUXFWLYLVPLQRUGHUWRUHYHDOWKHGHPRFUDWLFDQGOLEHUDWLQJSRWHQWLDO LWRIIHUVDQGWKDWH[SRQHQWVRIFRQVWUXFWLYLVPKDGJLYHQXSRQGHYHORSLQJ 7DNLQJ WKH QDPH ³FULWLFDOFRQVWUXFWLYLVP´KLV SKLORVRSKLFDOVRFLRORJLFDO DQGSROLWLFDOSURJUDPPHUHSUHVHQWVRQHRIWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJFRQWHPSR UDU\H[SHULPHQWVRIWKHSKLORVRSK\RISUD[LV+LVFRQFHSWRI&RGHEHLQJDQ HPEOHPDWLFH[DPSOH $QGUHZ)HHQEHUJUHIXWHVWKHYLVLRQWKDWVXSSRUWVWKHQHXWUDOLW\DQGDXWR QRP\RIWHFKQLTXHDQGRQWKHFRQWUDU\HVWHHPLQJ$QWRQLR*UDPVFL¶VWHD FKLQJVRIKHWHURGR[0DU[LVPUHFRJQL]HVDOOWKHKHJHPRQLFFRQWHQWWKDWLV HQFDSVXODWHGZLWKLQWHFKQRORJLFDOREMHFWV 7HFKQLFDOGHVLJQUHVSRQGVQRWRQO\WRWKHVRFLDOPHDQLQJRIEURDGHUDVVX PSWLRQVDERXWVRFLDOYDOXHV7KHFXOWXUDOKRUL]RQRIWHFKQRORJ\WKHUHIRUH FRQVWLWXWHV D VHFRQG KHUPHQHXWLF GLPHQVLRQ ,W LV RQH RI WKH IRXQGDWLRQV RIPRGHUQIRUPVRIVRFLDOKHJHPRQ\$V,ZLOOXVHWKHWHUPKHJHPRQ\LV GRPLQDWLRQVRGHHSO\URRWHGLQVRFLDOOLIHWKDWLWVHHPVQDWXUDOWRWKRVHLW
Chapter two
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Feenberg reminds us that technologies are as they are not because there is DQ\DEVROXWH WHFKQLFDORUHFRQRPLF ODZLPSRVLQJWKHP2QWKHFRQWUDU\ WKHUH DUH GLIIHUHQW SRVVLEOH SDWKV DQG RXWFRPHV RI GHYHORSPHQW RI HYHU\ WHFKQRORJ\$PRQJWKHVHYHUDOSRVVLEOHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVWKHRQHWKDWLVUH DOL]HGLVWKDWZKLFKLVVHOHFWHGE\SUHGRPLQDQWLQWHUHVWV2QFHLQWURGXFHG H[SRVWHYHU\WHFKQRORJ\DSSHDUVIXQFWLRQDOSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHLWRIIHUVD PDWHULDOVXSSRUWWRDFHUWDLQFXOWXUDOKRUL]RQ)RUWKLVUHDVRQ)HHQEHUJLQ WURGXFHVWKHFRQFHSWRItechnical codeRIWHFKQRORJ\DVDFRGHWKDWGH¿QHV ³WKHREMHFWLQVWULFWO\WHFKQLFDOWHUPVLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKHVRFLDOPHDQLQJ WKDWLWKDVDFTXLUHG´ )HHQEHUJ &RGHV DUH ³LQYLVLEOH´ EHFDXVH VHOIHYLGHQW EXW WKH\ H[SUHVV KHJHPRQLF LQWHUHVWVDQGYLVLRQVLQDJLYHQVRFLRKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[W)URPWKH%LUPLQ JKDP 6FKRRO RI &XOWXUDO 6WXGLHV DQG LWV *UDPVFLDQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH SURFHVVHV RI SURGXFWLRQ DQG XVDJH RI PDVVPHGLD FRPPXQLFDWLRQ )HHQ berg learns that in order to have a meaning, every hegemonic code must also EHGHFRGHGDQGGRPHVWLFDWHGRYHUWLPHE\LWVXVHUV6LPLODUO\UHIHUULQJ DOVRWRWKHZRUNRI)RXFDXOW /DWRXU > @ DQGGH&HUWDX )HHQEHUJVKRZVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIUHVLVWDQFHWDFWLFV WRXVHGH&HU WDX¶VWHUPV WKDWDUHDLPHGDWUHHQFRGLQJWKHVRFLDORUGHULQFRUSRUDWHGKH JHPRQLFDOO\LQWHFKQRORJLFDOREMHFWV 7KLVDVSHFWRIUHHQFRGLQJLVIXQGDPHQWDOLQXQKLQJLQJGHWHUPLQLVWDVVX PSWLRQV DERXW WHFKQRORJ\ VXFK DV WKRVH FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH SHVVLPLVP RI G\VWRSLDQ YLVLRQV )LUVW WKH FRGH LV D VRFLDO SURGXFW KHJHPRQLF EXW ZKLFK FDQ EH UHLQWHUSUHWHG DQG HYHQ UHGHVLJQHG DQG UHFRQVWUXFWHG7KH UH DUH QR QDWXUDO DQG XQFKDQJHDEOH FRQGLWLRQV VXSSRUWLQJ LWV KHJHPRQ\ 7KLVLV PHUHO\ WKHH[SUHVVLRQRID³KLVWRULFDOEORF´ and as such it can EHRYHUFRPHE\PHDQVRIDQDFWLRQWKDWLVSKLORVRSKLFDOSUDFWLFDODLPHGDW GHPRFUDWL]LQJWKHVDPHFRGH6HFRQGWKHWHFKQRFUDWLFWHQGHQF\RIPRGHUQ VRFLHWLHVWKHPDWL]HGLQWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRRO¶VFRQFHSWVRI³WRWDODGPLQL VWUDWLRQ´ $GRUQR ³RQHGLPHQVLRQDOLW\´ 0DUFXVH DQG³WHFKQLFL]LQJWKH OLIHZRUOG´ +DEHUPDV LVUHDOEXWQRWLQYLQFLEOH2QHPD\VWLOOFRQFHLYH RISROLWLFDODFWLRQVWDUWLQJZLWKWKHDFWLRQVRIPLFURSROLWLFVORFDOSROLWLFV EDVHGRQORFDONQRZKRZDQGSUDFWLFHVWKDWVHHNWRDFKLHYHUHVXOWVLQWKH ORQJWHUP
Theoretical background.
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Chapter two
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Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
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2.3 A different perspective on praxis: an overview of “critical-pragmatism” 2IFRXUVHFULWLFDOWKHRU\KDVQRWEHHQWKHRQO\SKLORVRSKLFDOPRYHPHQW WRFRXQWHUDFWHVVHQWLDOLVP³LQWKHQDPHRISUD[LV´3KLORVRSKLFDOSUDJPD WLVPKDGDGLIIHUHQWEXWHTXDOO\HIIHFWLYHUROH$SKLORVRSKLFDOPRYHPHQW WKDWGHYHORSHGLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWRZDUGVWKHHQGRIWKH th century and ODWHUVSUHDGWR(XURSHSUDJPDWLVPUHPDLQVRQHRIWKHPRVWLQQRYDWLYHFRQ WULEXWLRQVRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLQWKHSKLORVRSKLFDO¿HOG7KHFKLHIPHULWRI SUDJPDWLVPFRQVLVWVLQKDYLQJUHFRYHUHGDQGYDORUL]HGWKHFRQFHSWRIpra[LVWRRVRRQIRUJRWWHQE\SKLORVRSKHUVDQGVRFLRORJLVWVZKRKDYHDQDO\]HG WHFKQLFDOSKHQRPHQD$VDOUHDG\VXJJHVWHGWKLVFRQFHSWPD\EHHPSOR\HG to demonstrate the role and importance that human experience has played DQGVWLOOSOD\VLQWKHVHQVHRISUDFWLFDODELOLW\FUHDWLYLW\DQGVRFLDOLW\LQ WHFKQLFDODQGWHFKQRORJLFDODFWLRQ DERYH 1RQHWKHOHVVLWLVULJKWWR SRLQWRXWWKDWSUDJPDWLVPKDVDOVRKDGWKHGHPHULWRIQRWDOZD\VJLYLQJGXH importance to the turbulent political and social processes that technological GHYHORSPHQWHQWDLOVDQGWKDWDUHJURXQGHGLQWKHG\QDPLFVRISRZHUDQG FODVVGLIIHUHQFHV²ZKLFKFULWLFDOWKHRU\RQWKHRWKHUKDQGKDVEHHQDEOHWR GRYHU\ZHOO Nonetheless, the philosophical landscape, over the last century, has also EHHQFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VHYHUDOFULWLFDOYHUVLRQVRISUDJPDWLVP7KHVHYHU VLRQV UHGLVFRYHU WKH UDGLFDO SROLWLFDO VSLULW RI FODVVLFDO SUDJPDWLVP DQG PDNHDQHIIRUWWRHODERUDWHDQXSGDWHGSURJUHVVLYHYHUVLRQDEOHWRFULWLFL]H WKHVKRUWFRPLQJVRIOLEHUDOGHPRFUDF\DQGWKHJOREDOL]HGFDSLWDOLVP&UL WLFDO SUDJPDWLVP KDV WKH SRWHQWLDO WR LQWHJUDWH MXVW ZKDW SUDJPDWLVP DQG FULWLFDOWKHRU\KDVEHVWEHHQDEOHWRSURGXFHLQWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOUHÀHFWLRQ DSSOLHGWRWHFKQRORJ\ 8QIRUWXQDWHO\WKLVPLQRULWDULDQSKLORVRSKLFDOPRYHPHQWLVRIWHQFRQVLGH red as heretical, as many obstinately consider pragmatism as antithetical WR 0DU[LVP ,Q P\ YLHZ WKH GLIIHUHQFHV²ZKLFK XQGRXEWHGO\ GR H[LVW² KDYHEHHQRYHUHPSKDVL]HGIRULGHRORJLFDOPRUHWKDQVFLHQWL¿FUHDVRQV,WLV WUXHWKDW$PHULFDQSUDJPDWLVPHVSHFLDOO\WKDWOLQNHGWRWKHZRUNRI-RKQ
Chapter two
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Theoretical background.
RQGLDOHFWLFV LQUHIXWLQJWKHPHWDSK\VLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHZRUOGDQG SUDJPDWLF HSLVWHPRORJ\ DV EDVHG RQ D YDORUL]DWLRQ RI WKH ³H[SHULPHQWDO VLWXDWLRQ´RYHUH[WHUQDOIRUPDOV\VWHPVRIYDOLGDWLRQ OLNHORJLFRUPDWKH PDWLFV KDYHDFRPPRQYLVLRQIRXQGHGRQWKHXQLW\EHWZHHQWKHRU\DQG practice and the principle that it is what man does that determines what PD\EHFRQVLGHUHG³UHDO´)RUWKLVUHDVRQGLDOHFWLFDOPDWHULDOLVPDQGSUDJ PDWLVP LPSO\ DQ DFWLYLVWLF FULWHULRQ RI WUXWK KLQJLQJ RQ D ORJLFDO V\VWHP GHSHQGLQJRQVRFLDODFWLRQ 'HZH\¶VWKLQNLQJZLWKLWV 'DUZLQLVW HPSKDVLVRQWKHDELOLW\RIPHQWR DGDSWWRWKHFRQWH[WXDOFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHH[WHUQDOZRUOGZLWKWKHLURZQLQ WHOOLJHQFHXQGRXEWHGO\PD\KDYHOHGVRPHRIKLVLQWHUSUHWHUVWRPLQLPL]H WKHTXHVWLRQRIWKHGLYLVLRQVRISRZHULQVRFLHW\DQGDOORWUHODWHGLVVXHVWR the space between man and nature (rather than between man and man, as GRHV0DU[LVPLQVLVWLQJRQWKHFODVVVWUXJJOH 7RUHVROYHVRFLDOSUREOHPV 'HZH\FRXQWVHQWLUHO\RQWKHUROHWKDWHGXFDWLRQDOSURFHVVHVSHUIRUP,IWKH ZRUOGLVXQMXVWLWFDQEHFKDQJHG$OOWKDWLVQHHGHGKHWKLQNVSHUKDSVQDL YHO\LVDJUHDWHU³GLIIXVLRQ´RILQWHOOLJHQFH)RUWKLVUHDVRQKLVSHUVSHFWLYH LVQRWUHYROXWLRQDU\EXWUHIRUPLVWDQGSURJUHVVLYHFRKHUHQWO\ZLWKDQHSL VWHPRORJ\WKDWFRQVLGHUVUHDOLW\DSURFHVVXDOSKHQRPHQRQ $QXPEHURIDXWKRUVIRUH[DPSOH:KLWH FODLPWKDWSUDJPD WLVPDOEHLWLQDSRVLWLRQWRXVHIXOO\UHYLWDOL]HFULWLFDOWKHRU\FDQQRWLQKH UHQWO\EHFRQVLGHUHGDQDXWKHQWLFFXUUHQWRIVRFLDOFULWLFLVP7KLVLVEHFDXVH pragmatism, being a social philosophy based on contingency and multipli city, represents an ethos that expresses a sensibility rather more than a tra GLWLRQEXLOWVROLGO\RQDQRUPDWLYHRUGHU6XFKDVHQVLELOLW\LVVXEVWDQWLDOO\ ³SUREOHPGULYHQ´DQGWKHUHIRUH:KLWHFRQWLQXHVLQFDSDEOHRIEHLQJ³VX VSLFLRXV´ZLWKUHJDUGWRSRZHUVWUXFWXUHV$QG\HWWKDQNVDOVRWRWKHLQWH UHVWVKRZQE\DXWKRUVZLWKDFULWLFDOEDFNJURXQGVXFKDV-UJHQ+DEHUPDV WKLVGLOHPPD FDQSUDJPDWLVPEHDIHFXQGFULWLFDOWKHRU\" FDQDQGPXVWLQ P\YLHZQRZEHVXEMHFWWRUHYLHZ .DGOHF LVRQHZULWHUZKRFOHDULQJWKH¿HOGRIWKHXQMXVWL¿HGDFFX VDWLRQVRISRVLWLYLVPWKDWYDULRXVDXWKRUVRIWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRRO +RUNKHL PHULQSDUWLFXODU KDYHOHYHOOHGDW'HZH\FOHDUO\VKRZVKRZLWLVSRVVLEOH WRVSHDNRIWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDFULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVPRUDWWKHYHU\OHDVWUH GXFHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHWZRWUDGLWLRQVRIUHVHDUFK$FFRUGLQJWR.DGOHF WKHPXWXDOLQFRPSUHKHQVLRQEHWZHHQWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRRODQGSUDJPDWLVP PD\EHDVFULEHGWRWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQWKDW$QWRQLR*UDPVFLPDGHRIWKHODW
Chapter two
WHUGHFODULQJWKDWSUDJPDWLVWVZHUHLQFDSDEOHRIVHHLQJKHJHPRQLFVWUXFWX UHVDWZRUNLQWKHFUHDWLRQRI³FRPPRQVHQVH´ thereby undermining their FULWLFDOUHÀHFWLYLW\IURPWKHRXWVHW Gramsci, impetuously, believed that pragmatist intellectuals would certainly EHDEOHWRLPSURYHWKHFRQGLWLRQVRIZRUNHUVWKURXJKWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQRI XQLRQV±ZKLFKHIIHFWLYHO\WKH\GLG8QLRQVFRXOGRQO\PDUJLQDOO\LPSUR YHFRQGLWLRQVLQWKHIDFWRU\KRZHYHUZKLOHWKHPRYHPHQWRIWKH)DFWRU\ Councils (&RQVLJOLGL)DEEULFD WKDWKHPRWLYDWHGZDVLQWHQGHGRSHUDWHRQ DPRUHSURIRXQGVFDOHWRUHFUHDWHWKHIDFWRU\DVWKHQXFOHXVIRUWKHIXWXUH SUROHWDULDQVWDWH)RU*UDPVFLSUDJPDWLVWVFRQVWLWXWHXQLRQVZKLOHWKHSXU SRVHRIWKHSKLORVRSK\RISUD[LVZDVWRIRPHQWWKHUHYROXWLRQ ,WLVFOHDUWKDW*UDPVFL¶VFULWLTXHLVEDVHGRQDGLIIHUHQWFRQFHSWLRQRIKL VWRU\7KLVGLYHUVLW\LVDOVRIRXQGHGRQWKHJHQXLQHO\DQWLIRXQGDWLRQDOLVW QDWXUHFKDUDFWHUL]LQJSUDJPDWLVWSKLORVRSK\DQGWKDWUHQGHUHGWKHXQLYHUVDO ODZVRIKLVWRU\WKDW0DU[LVWKLVWRULFLVPSURPRWHGLQFRPSUHKHQVLEOH$V .DGOHF VHHV LW KRZHYHU WKH GH¿FLHQF\ RI FULWLFDO UHÀHFWLYLW\ GHQRXQFHG E\*UDPVFLLVXQIRXQGHG,QSDUWLFXODUWKHWZRNH\FDWHJRULHVRI'HZH\¶V WKLQNLQJ³UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ´DQG³LQGLYLGXDO´UHIXWHWKLV 5HJDUGLQJ UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ 'HZH\ FODLPV WKDW VFLHQFH FDQ FRQWULEXWH WR D UHEXLOGLQJRIWKHORVWUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUHDVRQDQGH[SHULHQFHIUHHLQJ KXPDQ EHLQJV IURP D VWDWLF YLVLRQ RI WKH ZRUOG DQG HQDEOLQJ D SRVVLEOH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHVWDWXVTXR,QHIIHFWWKLVZRXOGFRPSULVHWKHHQGRI WKH IRXQGLQJ GXDOLVP RI WKH *UHHN WKRXJKW²SDUWLFXODUO\ WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQH[SHULHQFHDQGUHDVRQSRVWXODWHGE\$ULVWRWOH²ZKLFKKDVVHYHUHO\ DQGQHJDWLYHO\FRQGLWLRQHGWKHZKROHWUDGLWLRQRIWKH:HVWHUQWKRXJKWDQG VKRXOGEHUHYHDOHGDQGGLVPDQWOHG 'HZH\ H[SODLQVWKHRULJLQRIWKLVGXDOLVPLQWKHQHHGWKDW*UHHNSKL ORVRSKHUVKDGWRMXVWLI\DFRQFHSWXDOV\VWHPWKDWPLJKWSUHVHUYHWUDGLWLRQDO EHOLHIVLQDQ XOWLPDWHO\UDWKHUH[WUHPH DWWHPSWWRFRQVHUYHWKHWUDGLWLRQDO IRUPV RI DXWKRULW\ WKHLUV ,Q WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI D ¿QDO DQG QRUPDWLYH GLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQUHDVRQDQGH[SHULHQFHWKHIRUPHU 7UXWK ZDVWUDQVIRU PHGLQWRDORFXVRIWKHKLJKHVWDQGPRVWGH¿QLWLYHUHDOLW\WKDWVXEMXJDWHG DQGGLVFLSOLQHGWKHODWWHU7KLVFODVVL¿FDWLRQFDPHWRFRQGLWLRQDOO:HVWHUQ WKRXJKWE\HQDEOLQJWUDQVFHQGHQWDOUHÀHFWLRQWRUHYHDOUHDOLW\VROHO\WKURX JK 5HDVRQ WKRXJKW SKLORVRSK\ ,W ZDV D IDOVH GXDOLVP 'HZH\ DUJXHG KDQGHGGRZQWRXVLQWKHIRUPRIWKHGHFLGHGO\DQWLGHPRFUDWSURSHQVLW\
Theoretical background.
RIIDLOLQJWRFUHGLWWRH[SHULHQFHDVDFRPSOHWHFULWLFDOIDFXOW\WKDWLQWXUQ MXVWL¿HGWKHPRQRSROL]DWLRQRISRZHULQWKHKDQGVRIDVHOHFWIHZ,QGHHG DFFRUGLQJWR'HZH\WKHUHDVRQH[SHULHQFHGXDOLW\KDVHFKRHGWKURXJKWKH YDULRXV OHLVXUHODERU WKLQNLQJGRLQJ HWF GLFKRWRPLHV DW WKH URRW RI WKH IDLOXUHRI GHPRFUDF\LQ:HVWHUQVRFLHWLHVXQGHUZULWLQJD SRZHU VWUXFWXUH WKDWPRQRSROL]HVWKHEHQH¿WVRILQWHOOLJHQFHDQGEHVWPHWKRGVIRUWKHSUR¿W RIWKHSULYLOHJHGIHZ 7KHTXHVWLRQ'HZH\WDNHVKLVDQDO\VLVWRUDLVHLVWKDWRIKRZLWPLJKWEH SRVVLEOHWRUHDOL]HWKHFULWLFDOSRWHQWLDORIGDLO\H[SHULHQFHDQGWUDQVIRUP LWLQWRDQDFWLYHUHVHUYRLUIRUVRFLDOFKDQJH+LVDQVZHUOLHVLQWKHUROHWKDW VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ FDQ SOD\ For Dewey, we are indebted to the VFLHQWL¿F UHYROXWLRQ VLQFH LWV GHYHORSPHQW KDV UHYHDOHG WKDW UHDVRQ GRHV QRWRFFXS\DVHSDUDWHNLQJGRPIURPH[SHULHQFHDQGWKDWLQWHOOLJHQFHLVQRW VRPHWKLQJSRVVHVVHG RUQRW RQFHDQGIRUDOO+HUHWKHFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQ 'HZH\DQG+RUNKHLPHULVSOD\HGRXWLQWKDWIRUWKH*HUPDQWKLVYLHZOHDGV WRVXSSRUWRIWKHVWDWXVTXRZKHUHDVIRUWKH$PHULFDQLWUHSUHVHQWVDUHYR OXWLRQDU\YLVLRQZLWKUHVSHFWWRHOLWLVWFRQFHSWLRQVWKDWXOWLPDWHO\OHJLWLPL]H ROLJDUFKLHV This emphasis on experience given by pragmatist philosophy does not mean WKDWLWVDGYRFDWHV SURPLQHQWO\3HLUFHDQG0HDGDVZHOODV'HZH\ LQWHQ GHGWRGLPLQLVKSKLORVRSK\2QWKHFRQWUDU\WKH\VXSSRUWHGLWEXWDSKLOR VRSK\WKDWZRUNHGLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIUHDOL]LQJWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVRIH[SHULHQ FHDVWKHG\QDPLFVRFLDOPHGLXPRIFULWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQ .DGOHF 2QHPLJKWVD\FRQWUDU\WR+RUNKHLPHUWKDW'HZH\¶VSRVLWLRQLVPXFKQHD UHU*UDPVFL¶VSKLORVRSK\RISUD[LVWKDQ%HQWKDP¶VXWLOLWDULDQLVP,WZDVQRW E\FKDQFHWKDWWKHWKHQ\RXQJ$PHULFDQ0DU[LVWSKLORVRSKHU6LGQH\+RRN VKRXOGKDYHEHHQFRQYHUWHGWRSUDJPDWLVPRQHQFRXQWHULQJ'HZH\¶VZRUN GH¿QHGDVDEULOOLDQWDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHSULQFLSOHVRIKLVWRULFDOPDWHULDOLVP +RRN 0RUHRYHUIRU'HZH\WKLVVRFLDODQGOLEHUDWLQJGLPHQVLRQRIIUHHFRJQLWLYH HQWHUSULVHPXVWDOZD\VEHYDOXHGIRULWVGHHSHUVRFLHWDOLPSOLFDWLRQV,IWKHVH DUHIRUJRWWHQWKHQLQGHHGWKHUHLVDULVNRIIDOOLQJLQWRWKHXWLOLWDULDQLVPWKDW VHUYHVWKHLQWHUHVWVRIRQHFODVV VRFLDOFDWHJRU\ DWWKHH[SHQVHRIRWKHUV ,WLVWKLVVRFLDOSXUSRVHRISKLORVRSK\WKDWJLYHVSUDJPDWLVPLWVQRUPDWLYH VLJQL¿FDQFHDQGPRUDOIRUFH7KHVRFLDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDORUGHUVKRXOGQRW EHFRQVLGHUHGDPHDQVWRREWDLQ³WKLQJV´WRWKHDGYDQWDJHRILQGLYLGXDOV 5DWKHULWVKRXOGEHDQLQVWUXPHQWIRUWKH³FUHDWLRQ´RILQGLYLGXDOV
Chapter two
$XWKRULWDWLYHFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDQDI¿QLW\EHWZHHQFULWLFDO WKHRU\DQGSUDJPDWLVPLVDOVRJLYHQE\.DUO2WWR$SHOPXFKRIZKRVHWKLQ NLQJGHYHORSHGWKURXJKDQRQJRLQJGHEDWHZLWKDXWKRUVVXFKDV:LWWJHQ VWHLQDQG3HLUFH,QDVLJQL¿FDQWRYHUYLHZ$SHO DVVHUWVWKDWLQWKH ZRUOGRILQGXVWULDOVRFLHWLHVWKHUHDUHRQO\WKUHHSKLORVRSKLHVWKDW³ZRUN´ LQWKHVHQVHWKDWWKH\PDQDJHWRPHGLDWHEHWZHHQWKHWKHRU\DQGSUDFWLFHRI OLIH 0DU[LVPH[LVWHQWLDOLVPDQGSUDJPDWLVPWKUHHFXUUHQWVRIWKLQNLQJ WKDWLVZKLFKRIIHUDPHGLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHRU\DQGSUD[LVUHSUHVHQWLQJWKH PRVWLPSRUWDQWRXWFRPHRIWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOUHVSRQVHWRWKH³GLVLQWHJUD WLRQ´ RIWKLVPHGLDWLRQ FDXVHGE\+HJHOLDQLGHDOLVP FRPPRQO\NQRZQDV DEVROXWHLGHDOLVP 0RUHRYHU3HLUFH¶VSUDJPDWLVPZLWKKLVWKHRU\RIVLJQV VHPLRWLFV DQGRIUDWLRQDOLW\UHSUHVHQWVIRU$SHORQHRIWKHEHQFKPDUNV RIDFULWLFDOWKHRU\RIVRFLHW\ 6WU\GRP 7KLVFRQQHFWLRQRQHPLJKW DGGKDVOHGVRPHDXWKRUV HJ6PLWK WRVSHDNRIWKHHIIHFWLYHRU SRWHQWLDOH[LVWHQFHRID³FULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVP´DQGRIDVRFDOOHGWKLUGJHQH UDWLRQRIWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRRO/DUU\$+LFNPDQ IRUH[DPSOHKDV H[SOLFLWO\DVVHUWHGWKDWVRPHRIWKHSLHFHVRIWKH)HHQEHUJLDQSKLORVRSKLFDO SX]]OHVHHPLQKLVYLHZWRFOHDUO\KLQJHRQWKHFXUUHQWRISUDJPDWLVP )H enberg explicitly cites Dewey in Questioning Technology 7KHOLQNEHWZHHQFULWLFDOWKHRU\DQGSUDJPDWLVPDOVRHPHUJHVIURPRWKHU VRXUFHVLQFOXGLQJWKHH[SOLFLWDFNQRZOHGJHPHQWWKDW+DEHUPDVDPRQJWKH IHZ(XURSHDQSKLORVRSKHUVWRGRVRKDVSXEOLFO\SDLGWRZDUGVSUDJPDWLVP DQGDOVRIURPWKHLPSRUWDQWZRUNRIUHFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHLQÀXHQFHVRI$PH ULFDQ SUDJPDWLVP RQ (XURSHDQ WKLQNLQJ PDGH E\ +DQV -RDV In DQLQWHUHVWLQJDUWLFOHWKDWUHFDOOV+DEHUPDV¶WULEXWH6KDOLQ KDVVRX ght to show that integrating the pragmatist perspective on experience and RSHQHQGHGQHVVFDQIDYRUDFRUUHFWLYHUHPHG\WRWKHHPDQFLSDWRU\DJHQGD VXSSRUWHGE\FULWLFDOWKHRULVWV,QSDUWLFXODU6KDOLQ¶VDUWLFOHKLJKOLJKWVWKH JDLQIXOFRPSDULVRQEHWZHHQWKHGLVHPERGLHG5HDVRQRI+DEHUPDVDQGWKH HPERGLHGUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRISUDJPDWLVWWKRXJKW$YHU\VWURQJOLQNEHWZHHQ SUDJPDWLVWWKLQNLQJDQGFULWLFDODQDO\VLVRIVRFLHW\LQDVRFLRORJLFDOIUDPH PD\ DOVR EH XQGHUVWRRG DV HPHUJLQJ IURP WKH VRFLRORJLFDO ZRUN DQG WKH VRFLDOFRPPLWPHQWRI3LHUUH%RXUGLHX 6KXVWHPDQ
2.4 Conclusion &ULWLFDOWKHRU\DQGSUDJPDWLVPDUHQRWDVRIWHQFODLPHGLQFRPSDWLEOH 2QWKHFRQWUDU\WKHHQFRXQWHURIWKHVHWZRWUDGLWLRQVLVKHUHDUJXHGDVH[ tremely rewarding, not least because pragmatism may represent a valid anti
Theoretical background.
dote to the venom represented by the essentialist and determinist temptation DQGZKLFKLVDOZD\VSRWHQWLDOO\SUHVHQWZLWKLQFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJ/LNHZLVH critical thinking can provide pragmatism with the tools and an attitude to a VRFLDODQDO\VLVWKDWPD\HQDEOHLWVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHFRQÀLFWDQGGLVWUL EXWLRQ RI LQWHUHVWV EHWZHHQ JURXSV DQG FODVVHV LQ D PRUH V\VWHPDWLF DQG GLDOHFWLFDO IDVKLRQ ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV WKH IXQGDPHQWDOO\ organic DWWLWXGH RI SUDJPDWLVPWKDWWHQGVWRSURGXFHDQH[FHVVLYHIDLWKLQWKHIDFWWKDWDOOFRQ ÀLFWVFDQLQVRPHZD\EHUHFRQFLOHGLQDVRFLDOZKROHPD\EHIDYRUDEO\ FRXQWHUEDODQFHGZLWKDIRFXVRQWKHG\QDPLFVRIGRPLQLRQWKDWSRZHUSUH VWLJHDQGZHDOWKHQDFWLQDFRQÀLFWLQJPDQQHUZLWKLQDVRFLDOFRQWH[W +RZHYHUFULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVPKDVWKHSRWHQWLDOWRLQWHJUDWHMXVWZKDWSUDJ matism and critical theory has best been able to produce in the philosophical UHÀHFWLRQDSSOLHGWRWHFKQRORJ\,VXJJHVWWKDWWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHPLJKWVXS SRUWDSKLORVRSKLFDOUHIRXQGDWLRQRIDQHZSKLORVRSK\RISUD[LV in order WR LQVWLJDWH D FRQVWUXFWLYH OHFWXUH RI WHFKQRORJ\ :LWK WKH ZRUN RI VRPH DXWKRUVVXFKDV+DQV-RDVWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHGRHVVHHPWREHJDLQLQJJURXQG $WOHDVWWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOQXDQFHVKRZQE\FULWLFDOSUDJPDWLVPPD\KHOS WKH SKLORVRSK\ DQG VRFLRORJ\ RI WHFKQRORJ\ LQ VXSSRUWLQJ D WKHRUHWLFDO DQWLGHWHUPLQLVWLFDSSURDFKWRWHFKQRORJ\EDVHGRQWKHFRQFHSWRISUD[LV 7KLVFRXOGEH,ZRXOGVD\WKHEDVLVRIDQHZPDWHULDOLVPZLWKDGHHSO\ SUDJPDWLVWSKLORVRSKLFDOLQÀXHQFH,WLVSUHFLVHO\WKLVWKHRUHWLFDOJD]HDQG VHQVLELOLW\WKDWKDVJXLGHGLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVSUHVHQWHG $FWXDOO\WKHFRQYLFWLRQSURPSWLQJP\GHYHORSPHQWRIWKLVERRNGUDZVRQ WKHZRUNRIDXWKRUVLQÀXHQFHGE\SUDJPDWLVPZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRIUHVHDU FKWHUPHG³&ULWLFDO&RQVWUXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\´ &7& 7KLVVWHPVIURPDQ DZDUHQHVVWKDWLWLVSRVVLEOHDQGLQGHHGXVHIXOWR¿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ded in shared and participatory social practices (what I named re-skilling practices, tailor-made practicesHWF DVZHOODVWKHFKRLFHWRDQFKRUWKHVH practices within the open sourceORJLFDQGDFWLRQPRGHODUHGHHSO\LQIRUPHG E\WKLVFULWLFDOSUDJPDWLFQXDQFHDVHODERUDWHGLQWKHIROORZLQJFKDSWHUV
CHAPTER THREE THE BIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL ROOTS OF EXPERIENCE: AN EPIGENETIC INSIGHT
3.1 Introduction ,QKXPDQOLIH³VNLOOV´DUHDQLQHOLPLQDEOHDQWKURSRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVLQ FHWKH\DUHERXQGWRWKHYHU\ELRORJLFDOVWDWXVRIPDQ:LWKVNLOOVWKURXJK OHDUQHGLQWHQWLRQDODQGSODVWLFERG\URRWHGH[SHULHQFHPDQHQWHUVFUHDWL YHO\LQWRUHODWLRQZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJHQYLURQPHQW0DQWKHUHE\FKDQJHV and is changed by the environment in a mutual exchange where it is not SRVVLEOH LI QRW LQ DQ DEVWUDFW DQDO\WLFDO ZD\ VHSDUDWH WKH PDQ IURP WKH ZRUOG7KHSUREOHPLVWKDWKHJHPRQLFVFLHQWL¿FFXOWXUHDQGSXEOLFRSLQLRQ DUHQRWDOLJQHGZLWKWKLV 0DLQVWUHDPVFLHQFHDQGSRSXODUFXOWXUHDUHJURXQGHGWRGD\LQDJHQRFHQWULF FXOWXUDOSDUDGLJPLWVHOIGH¿QHGE\DGHWHUPLQLVW³LQIRUPDWLRQDO´P\WKRORJ\ ZKHUH³VNLOOV´DQG³H[SHULHQFH´KDYHDYHU\PDUJLQDOSRVLWLRQDVFRPSDUHG WRWKHUROHSOD\HGE\IRUPDOO\GH¿QHGLQVFULEHGLQVWUXFWLRQVERWKSK\VLFDO JHQHV DQGPHQWDO IRUH[DPSOH5LFKDUG'DZNLQV¶PHPHV :KDWLVQHZ today is that a corpusRIDGYDQFHGDQDO\VHVKDVUHYHDOHGVRPHÀDZVLQWKLV P\WKRORJ\ 7KHPDLQDLPRIWKLVFKDSWHULVWRGLVFXVVWKHIROORZLQJ H[WHQGHG UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQ :KDWLVWKHELRDQWKURSRORJLFDOH[SODQDWLRQDQGMXVWL¿FDWLRQRI WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIH[SHULHQFHLQKXPDQFXOWXUH"$QGLVWKHUHDQHSLVWHPR ORJLFDOSDUDGLJPDEOHWRUHSUHVHQWVXFKDIRXQGDWLRQLQWKHOLIHVFLHQFHVWR GD\"7KHUHVSRQVHSUHVHQWHGKHUHLVWRVXJJHVWWKDWWKHLGHDWKDWHSLJHQHWLFV KDVRIWKHRUJDQLVPVFLHQWL¿FDOO\VXSSRUWVDVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDOLGHDRI man as a real being-in-the-world, namely an intentional body that lives out D UHODWLRQVKLS RI UHFLSURFLW\ ZLWK WKH VXUURXQGLQJ HQYLURQPHQW SK\VLFDO DQGVRFLDO
The bio-anthropological roots of experience
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Chapter three
LVKRZHYHULQFUHDVLQJO\FKDOOHQJHG7KURXJKHSLJHQHWLFVUHQHZHGLQWHUHVW KDVGHYHORSHGLQWKHUHOHYDQFHRIUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQRUJDQLVPVDQGWKH H[WHUQDOHQYLURQPHQW,QDOLQHRILQYHVWLJDWLRQIXUWKHURXWOLQHGEHORZOD boratory research has shown that environmental stimuli can be genetically DVVLPLODWHGDQGWUDQVPLWWHGWRVXEVHTXHQWJHQHUDWLRQVDQGHYHQZKHQWKH VWLPXOXVWKDWJHQHUDWHGWKHPLVQRORQJHUDFWLYH :DGGLQJWRQ 7KLVFKDSWHUWKXVUHIHUVWRYDULRXVELRVFLHQWL¿FVWXGLHVWKDWFKDOOHQJHWKH FXUUHQWO\GRPLQDQWJHQHFHQWULFSDUDGLJP 7KHIROORZLQJ¿UVWVHFWLRQSUHVHQWVVRPHRIWKHFRUHVFLHQWL¿FDVVXPSWLRQV XSRQ ZKLFK WKH KHJHPRQ\ RI D XQLGLUHFWLRQDO DQG LQIRUPDWLRQDO EDVLV RI OLIHUHVWV,WVKRZVWKDWWKHVWDQGDUGGRPLQDQWUHDGLQJRI'1$GHULYHVIURP DORQJKLVWRULFDODQGHSLVWHPRORJLFDOWUDGLWLRQ7KHVHFRQGVHFWLRQSUHVHQ WV ELRVFLHQWL¿F DUJXPHQWV DURXQG ZKLFK DQ DOWHUQDWLYH SDUDGLJP LV FRQ structed, considering the genome as an embedded and plasticHQWLW\7KLV VHFWLRQGLVFXVVHVYDULRXVQHZURXWHVWKDWDUHEHLQJIROORZHGLQUHDGLQJWKH UROH RI WKH JHQRPH LQ OLIH SURFHVVHV URXWHV UHFRJQL]LQJ WKH FUHDWLYH UROH RIWKHRUJDQLVPZLWKLQDQHQYLURQPHQWDQGZKLFKWKXVKDYHWKHHIIHFWRI H[SORGLQJWKHWUDGLWLRQDOQDWXUHQXUWXUHGLFKRWRP\(VWDEOLVKLQJWKHSRLQW RIGHSDUWXUHIRUWKHQH[WFKDSWHUWKHFRQFOXGLQJVHFWLRQDUJXHVWKDWVXFKD QHZ RUUHQHZHG FRQFHSWLRQRIOLIHKDVLPSRUWDQWLPSOLFDWLRQVWKDWFDQDOVR LQIRUPWKHVRFLDOVFLHQFHVLQDUHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHLUHSLVWHPRORJLFDOEDVLV DQGOHDGWKHPWRDGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKWRWHFKQRORJ\GHYHORSPHQW ,W ZLOO DSSHDU FOHDU LQGHHG WKDW WKH SLFWXUH RI PDQ WR EH VNHWFKHG KHUH LVEDVHGRQDEHLQJELRRQWRORJLFDOO\JURXQGHGLQH[SHULHQFH,QGHHGWKH HSLJHQHWLF LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI PDQ GLVPDQWOHV WKH LQIRUPDWLRQDO PRGHO DQG suggests that, analogously and a IRUWLRUL, in the cultural dimension also, the human being must be considered not as an organism controlled by an in IRUPDWLYHFRGLQJORGJHGLQKLVPLQGEXWLPSRUWDQWO\DVLQWHUDFWLQJZLWKLWV HQYLURQPHQW/RRNLQJIRUZDUGWKLVOLQHRIUHDVRQLQJZLOOWKXVHPSOR\WKH HSLJHQHWLF SDUDGLJP VR DV WR FKDOOHQJH LQIRUPDWLRQDO GHWHUPLQLVP RQ WKH VRFLDODVZHOODVWKHELRORJLFDOOHYHO,QGHHGLWZLOOEHDUJXHGWKHHSLJHQHWLF DQDO\VLVGRHVRIIHU³KDUG´VFLHQWL¿FDOO\VXSSRUWIRUDVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDO LGHD RI PDQ DV D UHDO EHLQJLQWKHZRUOG D EHLQJ WKDW LV ZKLFK IDFLQJ SURFHVVHVRIJURZWKGHYHORSPHQWDQGGHFD\LQFRUSRUDWHVLQKLVYHU\DQD WRP\ PXVFOHVQHXURORJ\HWF SDUWLFXODUVNLOOVDQGKDELWVWKDWUHQGHUKLP SODVWLFDOO\LQWHUWZLQHGZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJSK\VLFDODQGVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQV
44
The bio-anthropological roots of experience
3.2 The gene-centric approach: the hegemonic paradigm Watson and Crick’s 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA led to the formulation of the protein synthesis—the equation of one gene, one proWHLQ7KLVZDVLQWHUSUHWHGDVWKHXQFRQWURYHUVLDOFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKH0RGHUQ Synthesis, or neo-Darwinism, presenting a picture of the human genome as an ordered and sequential ensemble of basic mechanisms, the genes, seen as informational bricks governing the “functioning” of our body just as programming languages direct the operation of computers. David Le Breton has dubbed this interpretation “genetic fundamentalism”, or the informational myth (Le Breton, 2004). The reading and interpreting of biological proFHVVHVDUHVWURQJO\LQÀXHQFHGE\WKLVP\WKDQGWKHWDFLWUXOHVRIVFLHQWL¿F communities as elaborated within the hegemonic social-historical context (Kuhn, 1962). Essentially, the modern development of science (biology) development has led to a disconnection of the DNA from the developmental processes of organism and to the perception of DNA as merely an informational mode, independent of its environment.
3.2.1 DNA as a code: the informational metaphor Lily E. Kay (2000) has described the socio-historical process through which the DNA-based protein synthesis was transformed into a very powerful informational metaphor, as the code RU WKH ERRN RI OLIH 0HWDSKRUV are very powerful tools in determining “knowledge dynamics´ 0DDVHQDQG Weingart, 2000) and like other successful representations used and assumed ZLWKLQVFLHQWL¿FDQGZLGHUSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHV ³WKHELJEDQJ´³EODFNKROHV´ etc.), this informational metaphor has played a vital role in the imaginings RIDQGDERXWJHQRPLFV&RLQHGLQWKH¿HOGLQWKH VWKHFRGHPHWDSKRU KDVKHDYLO\LQÀXHQFHGWKHVXEVHTXHQWGHYHORSPHQWRIPROHFXODUELRORJ\ even though many scientists at the time of its development protested against this biasing analogy. Kay showed that the idea of encoded information was strongly shaped by the development of communication techno-sciences at that time, which facilitated the embedding of “information thinking” in PDQ\VFLHQWL¿FGLVFLSOLQHV7KLVLQFOXGHGWKHOLIHVFLHQFHVZKHUHLWGHWHUmined a paradigm shift from proteins to DNA. Today, as Kay notes, it is GLI¿FXOWWRWKLQNDERXWSURWHLQV\QWKHVLVZLWKRXWUHIHUULQJGLUHFWO\DQGLPmediately to information codes and writing technologies - previously, up until the 1940s biology had been characterized by the predominance of a very different metaphor, that of VSHFL¿FLW\49 (Kay, 2000).
Chapter three
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3.2.2 The body as a machine: philosophical background of the form/substance dualism :HFDQWUDFHWKHIRXQGDWLRQDOIRUPVXEVWDQFHGXDOLVPEDFNWR3ODWRDQG $ULVWRWOH¶V DQFLHQW VSHFXODWLRQV EXW ZH ¿QG LQ 'HVFDUWHV LWV IXOO PRGHUQ H[SUHVVLRQ$V&DUOR6LQL Y[[ UHPDUNVWKHUHDUHZRUNVPDUNLQJ WKHSDVVDJHWRDQHZHUDDQG'HVFDUWHV¶Discourse on the Method is pro EDEO\RQHRIWKHKLJKHVWDQGFHUWDLQO\RQHRIWKHPRVWHPEOHPDWLFH[DPSOH RIWKHVH$OWKRXJK'HVFDUWHVGHYHORSHGLGHDVWKDWZHFDQQRWFRQVLGHURUL JLQDOIRUWKHWLPH²&RSHUQLFXV%UXQR.HSOHUDQG*DOLOHRZHUHSUREDEO\ LQIDFWWKHRXWVWDQGLQJSURWDJRQLVWVRIWKHPRGHUQRU³:HVWHUQ´HSLVWHPR ORJLFDO UHYROXWLRQ²'HVFDUWHV¶ ZRUN LV ZLGHO\ FRQVLGHUHG WKH IRXQGDWLRQ RIPRGHUQWKRXJKWEHFDXVHLWZDVDQRUJDQLFV\VWHPDWL]DWLRQRIDUDGLFDOO\ QHZFXOWXUDOFOLPDWH,WZDVDPDQLIHVWROHDGLQJWRDQHZmechanistic philosophy 7KHQHZ³&DUWHVLDQLVP´JDYHH[SUHVVLRQWRWKHULVHRIDQHZscientia activaRULHQWHGWRPDQ¶Vintervention in nature, coupling knowledge to action, ZLVGRPWRSRZHU7KLVQHZVFLHQFHFRQWUDVWHGWKHROGscolastica scientia contemplativaZKLFKZDVPHUHO\RULHQWHGWRFRQWHPSODWHWKHJUDQGHXURI 1DWXUHFUHDWHGE\*RG7KH³PDFKLQH´EHFDPHWKHSDUDGLJPDWLF¿JXUHRI WKLVQHZSKLORVRSK\DSSOLHGWRQDWXUH WKHH[WHUQDOZRUOG DVZHOODVWRKX
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Chapter three
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Chapter three
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WKH WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP D FHOO RU PXOWLFHOOXODU RUJDQLVP WR its descendants without WKDW LQIRUPDWLRQ EHLQJ HQFRGHG LQ WKH QXFOHRWLGH VHTXHQFHRIWKHJHQH²WKLVFHUWDLQO\VHHPVWRUHSUHVHQWDUDGLFDODOWHUQDWLYH WRQHR'DUZLQLVPUDWKHUWKDQMXVWDQH[WHQVLRQRIWKH0RGHUQ6\QWKHVLV Combining Darwinism, Lamarckism DQG 3XQFWXDWHG (TXLOLEULXP 7KH ory, EIS drives genetic selection, it is suggested, producing mutational ELDVHVDQGPRYLQJWRZDUGVV\VWHPLFPXWDWLRQ)RU-DEORQNDDQG/DPEGH YHORSPHQWDODQGHYROXWLRQDU\DGDSWDWLRQDUHQRWDOZD\VWKHH[SUHVVLRQVRI RSSRVLWHSDWKV While it is true that development implies instruction and evolution implies selection, certain inherited variations are clearly controlled by physiology DQGGHYHORSPHQW-DEORQNDDQG/DPEVXJJHVWWKDWH[FHSWIRUIHZFDVHV allVSHFLDOL]HGFHOOV OLYHUVNLQNLGQH\HWF DUHGLIIHUHQWLDWHGRQWKHEDVLV RIHSLJHQHWLFGLIIHUHQFHV$OWKRXJKWKH\KDYHWKHVDPHJHQHWLFLQIRUPDWLRQ WKH\ZRUNGLIIHUHQWO\,WLVWKHVSHFL¿FGHYHORSPHQWDOKLVWRU\ that determi QHVZKLFKJHQHVDUHDFWLYHDQGKRZWKHLUSURGXFWVZLOOLQWHUDFW -DEORQND /DPE :KDWLVUHDOO\LPSRUWDQWLQWKHDUJXPHQWKHUHLVWKDWVH YHUDOVSHFLDOL]HGFHOOVDUHDEOHWRWUDQVPLWWKHLUSKHQRW\SHWRWKHLUGDXJKWHU FHOOVZLWKRXWFKDQJLQJ'1$VHTXHQFHV -DEORQND DQG /DPE GHVFULEH IRXU GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI (,6V VHOIVXVWDLQLQJ loops, structural inheritance,WKHFKURPDWLQPDUNLQJV\VWHP DQG51$ LQWHUIHUHQFH RUWKH³VLOHQFLQJ´RIWKHJHQHV )ROORZLQJWKHOHDGRIPDQ\ PLFURELRORJLVWV-DEORQNDDQG/DPEEHOLHYHWKDWWKH(,6VSUHVHQWO\NQRZQ DUHRQO\WKH³WLSRIDYHU\ODUJHLFHEHUJ´ -DEORQND /DPE This claim may be overemphatic, but to support the idea they do present VRPH YHU\ LQWHUHVWLQJ FDVHV RI PHWK\ODWLRQ able to cause inherited phe notype variations both in vegetal (Linaria vulgaris FDVHV DQG PDPPDOV :KLWHODZ¶VPXWDQWPRXVHVWUDLQ (SLJHQHWLF ,QKHULWDQFH 6\VWHPV (,6V DUH ERWK RQWRJHQHWLFDOO\ DQG SK\ORJHQHWLFDOO\UHOHYDQW7KH\SOD\DNH\UROHZLWKLQGHYHORSPHQW RQ WRJHQHVLV DQG ZLWKLQ HYROXWLRQ )RU WKLV UHDVRQ LW LV SRVVLEOH WR XVH WKH QHRORJLVP³evo-devo´WRLQGLFDWHSURFHVVHVWKH\LPSO\DQGWRVWDUWWKLQNLQJ DERXWDQHZZD\RIUHDGLQJDQGOLYLQJOLIH
Chapter three
3.4 Re-reading the genome as a place of potentialities, illustrating the creativity of living systems 7KHSKLORVRSKHURIELRORJ\6XVDQ2\DPDDSSHDUVWRKDYHH[FHOOHQWO\ LQWHUSUHWHGWKHQHZPRRG+HU ZRUNSUHVHQWHGDUDGLFDOUHLQWHUSUH WDWLRQRIWKHFRQFHSWRIRQWRJHQHWLFGHYHORSPHQWDVZHOODVRIELRORJLFDO evolution in general, adopting a view considering development as the inWHUVHFWLRQRIPDQ\LQWHUFRQQHFWHGOHYHOV2\DPDSURSRVHVDQH[LWIURPWUD GLWLRQDORSSRVLWLRQVLPSOLHGE\WKHQDWXUHQXUWXUHELQRPLDOGH¿QLQJHDFK V\VWHPDVD³QDWXUDOFXOWXUDO´DVZHOODV³HQYLURQPHQWDOJHQHWLFGHYHORS PHQWDOV\VWHP´,QIDFWIROORZLQJWKHH[SHULPHQWDOHYLGHQFHFROOHFWHGHYHQ E\WKHHQGRIWKH VVKHUHFRQFHSWXDOL]HVWKHJHQRPHSUHVHQWLQJLWQRWDV DEDUUHO²IXOORIGLVFUHWHXQLWVRIOLQHDUO\LQWHUFRQQHFWHGLQIRUPDWLRQ JH QHV ²EXWDVDQLQWHJUDWHGV\VWHPDQRQOLQHDUPXOWLOHYHOQHWZRUNUHODWHG WRFHOOVDQGRUJDQLVPV)URPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHWKHJHQRPHLVD³place´RI SRWHQWLDOLWLHVLQÀXHQFLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOSURFHVVZLWKGLIIHUHQWPRGDOL WLHVLQDFRQWH[WGHSHQGHQWIDVKLRQ7KHJHQRPHLVSUHFLVHO\WKHSODFHZKH re, contrary to common wisdom, living systems show their creativity 2\DPDVXSSRUWVKHUWKHVLVUHIHUULQJWRWKH'HYHORSPHQWDO6\VWHPV7KHRU\ '67 ,Q VXFK D V\VWHP WKHUH LV QR URRP IRU WKH ERG\PLQG RU QDWXUH FXOWXUHGXDOLVPV7KHVHDUHQRWUHJDUGHGDVSDLUVRIVRPHKRZ³LQWHUDFWLQJ´ HQWLWLHVEHFDXVHWKLVLQWHUDFWLRQORJLFDOO\DVVXPHVD SULRU GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ between these as GLVWLQFW +HUH RQ WKH FRQWUDU\ GHYHORSPHQW LV VHHQ DV DQ³interactive emergence´ZKHUHLQWKHV\VWHPLVVHOIRUJDQL]HGDQGWKH ³VHOI´QRWDprimum mobile but an entity-with-its-world )XQGDPHQWDOWRWKH'67DSSURDFKLVDQHPSKDVLVRQWKHQHHGWRVKLIWWKHIR FXVRIDQDO\VLVIURPSURFHVVHVRILQIRUPDWLRQWUDQVPLVVLRQWRWKHQHYHUHQ GLQJ FRFRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG FRWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVHV$V SRLQWHG RXW E\ .LP6WHUHOQ\ DQGLQOLQHZLWK/HZRQWLQ DERYH IRU'67LQKHULWDQ ce and learning are coupled concepts delineating interactive resources tran VIRUPLQJHQWLWLHVDQGFRQWH[WVWKURXJKRXWOLIHF\FOHV)XUWKHUPRUHEHFDXVH WKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQLQIRUPDWLRQDQGRQWRJHQ\LVLQYHUWHGZLWKLQ'67 DQGE\2\DPD WKH JHQHWLF programmePHWDSKRU²³H[SOLFLWO\LGHQWL¿HG DVWKHJHQRPH´DV(YHO\Q)R[.HOOHU QRWHG²ORVHVLWVPLVOHD GLQJSRZHU,WLVLQGLYLGXDORQWRJHQ\WKDWJLYHVSHUWLQHQFHWRLQIRUPDWLRQ 'HYHORSPHQWLVWKHSULPDU\GDWXP7KLVLVDQHZSDUDGLJPZKLFKLPSOLHVD UDGLFDOVKLIWWRDIRFXVRQLQGLYLGXDOSURFHVVDQGFRQWLQJHQF\&RQWLQJHQF\ does not mean unpredictability, however, as it here has an ontological sense:
The bio-anthropological roots of experience
LWLVDVSHFLDOFDVHRIFDXVDOGHWHUPLQDWLRQ In developmental systems, in IDFWZHUHJLVWHUDYHU\KLJKGHJUHHRIFRQWLQJHQF\DPRQJVWGLIIHUHQWOHYHOV RI FDXVDO GHWHUPLQDWLRQ ± ZKLFK SDUDGR[LFDOO\ SURGXFHV SUHGLFWDEOH DQG UHSHDWDEOHEXW\HWDWWKHVDPHWLPHQRWQHFHVVDU\RULQHOXFWDEOHWUDMHFWR ULHV Development is thus reconceived as a game between internal constraints DQGH[WHUQDOSRWHQWLDOLWLHV7KLVJDPHPDNHVOLIHFUHDWLYHDQGÀH[LEOH7KLV DPELYDOHQW TXDOLW\ RI GHYHORSPHQWDO V\VWHPV PDNHV OLIH SURFHVVHV ERWK UHOLDEOH DQG XQSUHGLFWDEOH DW WKH VDPH WLPH7KLV LV ZKDW 2\DPD PHDQV ZKHQ VKH VD\V WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO V\VWHPV DUH ³RUGHUHG´ EXW QRW ³SUHRUGHUHG´ 2\DPD¶V ZRUN²DV ZHOO DV WKDW RI /HZRQWLQ DQG 3DWULFN%DWHVRQ ²DQWLFLSDWHGDYHU\ULFKDQGLQÀXHQWLDODYHQXHRI UHVHDUFK )URP WKH VRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDO SHUVSHFWLYH SUREDEO\ WKH PRVW UHOHYDQWWUDFNWRHPHUJHIURPWKLVLVWKHVRFDOOHG³HFRORJLFDOQLFKHFRQ VWUXFWLRQDSSURDFK´LQZKLFKDQHFRORJLFDOLQKHULWDQFHLVHPSKDVL]HGDORQ JVLGHWKHJHQHWLF 2GOLQJ6PHHHWDO 7KLVLVKLJKO\SHUWLQHQWKHUH since it displays an important parallelism between development paradigms ERWKZLWKLQELRORJLFDODQGVRFLDOSURFHVVHV VHHEHORZ
3.4.1 The Ecological niche construction approach: re-discovering ecological inheritance :KHUH-DEORQNDDQG/DPESURSRVHGIRXUGLVWLQFWLQKHULWDQFHV\VWHPVLQ HYROXWLRQ DERYH 2GOLQJ6PHHHWDO GHOLYHUHGDQHZPRPHQ WXPWR/HZRQWLQ¶VWHDFKLQJZLWKWKHLUSURSRVDORIWZRJHQHUDOLQKHULWDQFH V\VWHPVLQHYROXWLRQ JHQHWLFLQKHULWDQFHDQGHFRORJLFDOLQKHULWDQFH6WDU WLQJIURP:DGGLQJWRQ¶VIXQGDPHQWDODVVXPSWLRQDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKRUJD nisms are not passive agents obliged only to react to external local selecti YHSUHVVXUHV2GOLQJ6PHHDQGFROOHDJXHVDUJXHWKDWRUJDQLVPVDUHDFWLYH agents perturbing and selecting (with metabolisms, movements, behaviors, FKRLFHVHWF WKHLURZQKDELWDW QLFKH 7KDWLVSODVWLFSKHQRW\SHVDUHDEOH WRFKDQJHWKHQDWXUDOVHOHFWLRQSUHVVXUHVRIORFDOHQYLURQPHQWVVLPSO\EH FDXVHWKH\KDYHWRXVHUHVRXUFHVIURPWKHLUHQYLURQPHQWVWKURXJKQRQUDQ GRPZRUNLQRUGHUWRVWD\DOLYH7KHVHFKDQJHVFDQ³DFWEDFNRQWKHSKH QRW\SHVDQGRQWKHLURIIVSULQJDQGYHU\OLNHO\RQRWKHUUHODWHGRUJDQLVPV WRR ZLWK ³EHWWHU´ RU ³ZRUVH´ FRQVHTXHQFHV IRU WKH JHQHWLF ¿WQHVV RI DOO WKHVHRUJDQLVPV´ 2GOLQJ6PHH
Chapter three
$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVYLHZDQFHVWUDORUJDQLVPVWUDQVPLWWRWKHLUGHVFHQGDQWV not only genes but also an ecological inheritance, that is, the inheritan FHRIQDWXUDOVHOHFWLRQSUHVVXUHVPRGL¿HGE\WKHORFDOL]HGHQYLURQPHQWDO FRQVWUXFWLRQDFWLYLWLHVRI RUJDQLVPV7KLV UHSUHVHQWVD PL[RI , LQGHSHQ GHQW VRXUFHV GHWHUPLQLQJ WKH JHQHUDOL]HG HQYLURQPHQW DQG DFWLQJ RQ WKH RUJDQLVP HJFOLPDWHWKHDFWLYLWLHVRIRWKHURUJDQLVPV DQG,, EHKDYLRU E\WKHRUJDQLVPDFWLQJRQWKHHQYLURQPHQWWKDWFUHDWHVVSHFL¿F IDYRUDEOH FRQGLWLRQV7KHHYROXWLRQRIRUJDQLVPVLQRWKHUZRUGVGHSHQGVRQDFRP ELQDWLRQRIQDWXUDOVHOHFWLRQDQGQLFKHFRQVWUXFWLRQ $FFRUGLQJWR3DXO*ULI¿WKV HFRORJLFDOLQKHULWDQFHLVDSKHQRPHQRQ WKDW JRHV EH\RQG WKH VRFDOOHG ³%DOGZLQ HIIHFW´66 +H DUJXHV WKDW QDWXUDO VFLHQWLVWVFRQWLQXHWRVKRZDJUHDWLQWHUHVWLQWKH%DOGZLQHIIHFWEHFDXVH they believe that without genetic traces, the epigenetic inheritance cannot OHDYHD VLJQL¿FDQWHYROXWLRQDU\FRQWULEXWLRQ*ULI¿WKV KRZHYHU FRXQWHUV WKDW WKLV EHOLHI LV PLVWDNHQ DQG WKDW WKH %DOGZLQLDQ KHWHURGR[\ RI VRFLDO KHUHGLW\ ¿QGV LQ HFRORJLFDO LQKHULWDQFH WKHRU\ D YHU\ JRRG ³HSLJHQHWLF´ FRQWLQXLW\7KHUHDUHDWOHDVWIRXUUHDVRQVIRUGLIIHUHQWLDWLQJHFRORJLFDOIURP JHQHWLF LQKHULWDQFH 2GOLQJ6PHH LW LV WUDQVPLWWHG E\ DQ H[WHUQDO PHGLXP WKH HQYLURQPHQW LW GRHV QRW LPSO\ WKH WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI GLVFUHWH UHSOLFDWRUV LWLQYROYHVVHYHUDORUJDQLVPV QRWRQO\WZRSDUHQWV ZLWKLQDQG between generations; and it does not involve only genetic relatives, but all RUJDQLVPVVKDULQJDVSHFL¿FHFRV\VWHP ZLWKDQHFRORJLFDOUHODWLRQVKLS ,Q WKHZRUGVRI/XFD&DYDOOL6IRU]DHFRORJLFDOLQKHULWDQFHPD\EH³YHUWLFDO KRUL]RQWDO RU REOLTXH´ 2GOLQJ6PHH ± ZKLFK OHDYHV KLP WR SURSRVH D UHYLVHG VRFLRELRORJLFDO DSSURDFK EDVHG RQ D PRGHO RI RUJDQL VPHQYLURQPHQWFRHYROXWLRQ +XPDQFXOWXUHLVRIFRXUVHORFDWHGZLWKLQWKHVHQLFKHFRQVWUXFWLRQSURFHV VHV+HUHWKHKXPDQPRGL¿FDWLRQRIQDWXUDOVHOHFWLRQSUHVVXUHVDUHUHJDU GHGDVDSDUWRIDPRUHJHQHUDO³KHUHGLW\´RIPRGL¿HGVHOHFWLRQSUHVVXUHV FDXVHGE\WKHQLFKHPRGL¿FDWLRQDFWLRQRIFRQVWUXFWLQJDQFHVWRUV&XOWXUH IURP WKLV SHUVSHFWLYH LQÀXHQFHV JHQHV LQ WZR ZD\V )LUVWO\ LW LQÀXHQFHV GLIIHUHQWLDOVXUYLYDODQGUHSURGXFWLRQDVDOUHDG\DVVXPHGE\KXPDQEHKD YLRUDOHFRORJLVWVRULQDULFKHUYHUVLRQWKHJHQHFXOWXUHFRHYROXWLRQWKH RULVWV HJ &DYDOOL6IRU]D )HOGPDQ 6HFRQGO\ LW FRQWULEXWHV WR QLFKHFRQVWUXFWLRQ)URPQRZRQZHWKXVKDYHWRLQFOXGHZLWKLQWKHKXPDQ HFRORJLFDO LQKHULWDQFH WKH FXOWXUDOO\ PRGL¿HG QDWXUDO VHOHFWLRQ SUHVVXUHV DUWHIDFWVLQFOXGHG
The bio-anthropological roots of experience
3.4.2 Exaptation and the organism as a “bricoleur” :LWKLQWKLVDOWHUQDWLYHSRVW'DUZLQLDQIUDPHZRUNZHDOVR¿QGDQLP SRUWDQWUHDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHFRQFHSWRIH[DSWDWLRQ7KLVFRQFHSWKDVDORQJ KLVWRU\GDWLQJEDFNWRZKHQ&KDUOHV'DUZLQUHVSRQGHGWRWKH]RR ORJLVW*HRUJH0LYDUW¶VREMHFWLRQVWRWKHSUHVXPHGLQDELOLW\RIQDWXUDOVH OHFWLRQWRDFFRXQWIRUWKHLQFLSLHQWVWDJHVRISDUWLFXODUO\FRPSOH[ELRORJLFDO VWUXFWXUHV'DUZLQXVHGWKHQHRORJLVP³pre-adaptation´DQGLQWURGXFHGWKH SRVVLELOLW\RIredundancy in nature within the relationship between organs DQGIXQFWLRQV'DUZLQHQYLVDJHGWKLVUHGXQGDQF\DVDOORZLQJIRUWUDLWVGH YHORSHGIRUSDUWLFXODUUHDVRQVWREHFRRSWHGRUFRQYHUWHGIRUQHZDQGLQGH SHQGHQWIXQFWLRQV²DIXQFWLRQDOFRRSWLRQGXEEHG³H[DSWDWLRQ´E\*RXOG DQG9UED WRLQGLFDWHKRZRUJDQLVPVRIWHQRSSRUWXQLVWLFDOO\UHDGDSW DYDLODEOHVWUXFWXUHVIRUQHZIXQFWLRQV ,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWLFHWKDWWKHFRQFHSWRIH[DSWDWLRQ evidences an intere VWLQJDQDORJ\EHWZHHQRUJDQLFDQGWHFKQLFDOFKDQJH,WVKRZVLQIDFWWKDW QHZVWUXFWXUHVLQQDWXUHGRQRWDSSHDUIURPQRZKHUHDUHQRWGHVLJQHGIRU DVSHFL¿FDLP³de novo´ ³QDWXUDOVHOHFWLRQFDQRQO\ZRUNRQWKHVWRFNRI PDWHULDOVWKDWDUHDOUHDG\DYDLODEOH´ ,QJROG &KDQJHVZLWKLQDQ HFRORJLFDOQLFKHFDQOHDGWKHRUJDQLVPWRFRRSWRQHVWUXFWXUHHYROYHGIRUD VSHFL¿FDLPWRGRDTXLWHGLIIHUHQWMRE,QWKLVYLHZWKHUHIRUHWKHRUJDQLVP LVFRQVLGHUHGDVDVRUWRI³SODVWLF´bricoleurZKLFKIDFHVFKDQJHE\SXWWLQJ WRWKHEHVWXVHWKDWRIZKLFKLWDOUHDG\KDV,QWKLVVHQVHÀH[LELOLW\LVWKH main strategy available to the organism in order to guarantee its survival, DQGWKLVLVHQDEOHGE\LPSHUIHFWLRQPXOWLSOLFLW\DQGUHGXQGDQF\ 3LHYDQL 3DWULFN%DWHVRQ JRHVIXUWKHURQWKLVIXQGDPHQWDODVSHFW+HVKRZV WKDWWKHWUDGLWLRQDO'DUZLQLDQLPDJHRIVHOHFWLRQOHDGVWRDFRQFHSWRIHYR OXWLRQGRZQSOD\LQJWKHUROHRIRUJDQLVPVZLWKLQWKHHYROXWLRQDU\SURFHVV ,QGHHG%DWHVRQFRQVLGHUVWKH'DUZLQLDQPHWDSKRURIWKH³H[WHUQDOKDQG´ DVZHOODVWKH'DUZLQLDQLPDJHRI³VHOHFWLRQ´DV³HQFXPEUDQFHV´+HGH VFULEHVIRXUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKDWYDORUL]HRUJDQLVPV D E F G
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Chapter three
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3.5 Conclusion 7KHPDLQDLPRIWKLVFKDSWHUKDVEHHQWRFRQVLGHUWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIa bio-anWKURSRORJLFDOOLQNWKDWFDQH[SODLQDQGMXVWLI\WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIH[SHULHQFH in human culture and an epistemological paradigm able to represent such OLQNLQWKHOLIHVFLHQFHV (SLJHQHWLFVDSSHDUVWRUHSUHVHQWVXFKDELRDQWKURSRORJLFDODQGHSLVWHPR ORJLFDOOLQNZKLFKLVKRZLWVKRZVWKHRUJDQLVPDVELRORJLFDOO\IRXQGHG RQDUDGLFDORSHQQHVVWRDQGLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKWKHH[WHUQDOZRUOG7KHUHLV QRQHHGKRZLWLVRIWHQGRQHWRUHIHUWRELRORJLFDOSUHGH¿QHGLQVWUXFWLRQV JHQHV DVWKHNH\LQVWUXPHQWVIRUOLIHGHYHORSPHQW6LQFHWKLVELRORJLFDO RSHQQHVVHVWDEOLVKHVDOOWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIOLIH LQFOXGLQJWKHSV\FKRORJLFDO DQG VRFLDO OLIH 8OWLPDWHO\ WKHUH DUH QR SUHGH¿QHG LQIRUPDWLRQDO FRGHV GHWHUPLQLQJKXPDQOLIH 7KHSKLORVRSKHURIVFLHQFH/HQQ\0RVVDUJXHVWKDWSDOHRDQWKURSRORJ\DQG FRPSDUDWLYHJHQRPLFVVKRZWKDWWKHQHZSDVVZRUGVRIELRORJ\DUHÀH[LELlity and plasticityLQIDFWQRRUJDQLVPVDUHOLPLWHGWRVLQJOHUHVSRQVHSDW WHUQVDOEHLWZLWKYDU\LQJGHJUHHVRIIUHHGRP 0RVV 3DYHVLFK $Q RUJDQLVP¶VDFWLYLW\LVPXOWLFRQWLQJHQWZKLFKLVWRVD\WKDWLWFDQDQGPXVW GHYHORSFRPSOH[PHGLDWHGUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKLWVHQYLURQPHQW8QIRUWXQD WHO\ KRZHYHU JHQHUDWLRQV RI \RXQJ VFLHQWLVWV KDYH EHHQ HGXFDWHG LQ WKH GRJPDDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIELRORJLFDOQRYHOW\LVMXVWDVVX PHGWREHGXHWRUDQGRPDQGDFFLGHQWDOJHQHWLFPXWDWLRQVZLWKQRURRPIRU WKHFUHDWLYHRUDGDSWLYHSRZHUVRILQGLYLGXDORUJDQLVPVLQVSHFL¿FVHWWLQJV 7KHSRZHURIWKLVGRJPDLVUHYHDOHGE\WKHH[WHQVLYHUHVRXUFHVHPSOR\HG IRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVRFDOOHG+XPDQ*HQRPH3URMHFW +*3 :HDUH probably now in a position to conclude that the high expectations generated
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CHAPTER FOUR SYMMETRY AND ASYMMETRY BETWEEN BODY AND TOOL: FROM TECHNIQUE TO TECHNOLOGY73
4.1 Introduction The opposition between utopia and dystopia (e.g. Galimberti, 1999; Feenberg, 2010; etc.) or “apocalyptic and integrated” (Eco, 1964), has often characterized philosophical and anthropological debate on the issue of technological development (similar contrasts may also be found in current public debate).74,QWKHFRQWH[WRIVFLHQWL¿FOLWHUDWXUHWKHUHDUHYDULRXV WHFKQR SHVVLPLVWLFUHDGLQJVJURXQGHGLQZKDWZHPLJKWGH¿QHD³UHJUHVVLYH´ interpretation of the Man-Technology relationship.75 One implicit, though sometimes explicit, assumption of such readings is the notion that the advent of technology in modern society has caused the deterioration of the relationship between perception and action. Particularly, within non-dualistic currents of philosophy, psychology, biology and anthropology looking at the body/mind relationship, there is a wide consensus that action and body perception are two sides of the same coin.76 It has often been assumed that modern technology would radically mediate human action provoking a degradation of the direct body perception of reality. This process has been considered as the core issue of the so-called autonomy of technology from human and social skills, and has often been taken to the point of postulating an absolute separation of material reality from bodily experience with catastrophic psychological and social outcomes (e.g. Virilio, 1988; Baudrilliard, 2005). An important element of this interpretation may be traced back to the deeply rooted epistemological union between mind/body dualism (Le Breton, 1990) and an “instrumentalist” prejudice in GH¿QLQJPRGHUQ:HVWHUQWKRXJKWPHDQLQJE\³LQVWUXPHQWDOLVW´SUHMXGLFH the tendency to interpret technical action in the light of a presumed “depen-
Chapter four
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4.2 Intentional acting as integral aspect of the relation between organism and environment $WWKHRXWVHWRIWKHVWXG\RISHUFHSWLRQZH¿QGLQODQJXDJHWKHQRWLRQRI sensation, which seems immediate and obvious […]. It will, however, be seen WKDWQRWKLQJFRXOGLQIDFWEHPRUHFRQIXVHGDQGWKDWEHFDXVHWKH\DFFHSWHG LWUHDGLO\WUDGLWLRQDODQDO\VHVPLVVHGWKHSKHQRPHQRQRISHUFHSWLRQ 0HUODX3RQW\
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Chapter four
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66
Symmetry and asymmetry between body and tool
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4.3 Technical action as a junction of body, tool and skill 'HPDQG IRU GH[WHULW\ LV QRW LQ WKH PRYHPHQWV WKHPVHOYHV EXW LQ WKH surrounding conditions. %HUQVWHLQ
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Chapter four
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Chapter four
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Chapter four
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Symmetry and asymmetry between body and tool
cal production DORQJVLPLODUOLQHVZLWKLWVURRWVLQWKHULFK$PHULFDQSUDJ PDWLVWWUDGLWLRQ 3HLUFH0HDG'HZH\-DPHVHWF 6XFFLQFWO\FKDUDFWHUL ]HGE\+DQV-RDV DVD³WKHRU\RIVLWXDWHGFUHDWLYLW\´DQGUHIXWLQJWKH DQDO\WLFDOWKHRU\RI UDWLRQDO DFWLRQDQGLWVVHYHUDOHFRQRPLFVRFLRORJLFDO DQGSV\FKRORJLFDOGHULYDWLYHVWKLV¿UPO\UHIXVHVWRFRQVLGHUWKHDJHQWVH SDUDWHGIURPKLVKHUSDUWLFXODUVLWXDWLRQDODQGELRJUDSKLFDOFRQWH[W7KLVLV SUHFLVHO\ZKDWHQDEOHVWKHXQGHUVWDWLQJRIWKHFRUSRUHDOGLPHQVLRQRIDFWLRQ WRWULJJHUWKHSHUVSHFWLYDOGLVWRUWLRQRIWKHUDWLRQDOWKHRU\RIDFWLRQ,QWKH pragmatist view, the body is not a simple instrument RIDFWLRQRUFRPPX QLFDWLRQ DOZD\V DW WKH GLVSRVDO RI LQWHQWLRQDOLW\ ,W LV WKLV VDPH ³LQVWUX PHQWDOLVW´WKDWFRQVWLWXWHVWKHXQGHUO\LQJHSLVWHPRORJLFDOHUURUZLWKZKLFK SUDJPDWLVWVDOVRWDNHPDMRUDXWKRUVOLNH(OLDVRU)RXFDXOWWRWDVN *LGGHQV 2QWKHFRQWUDU\EHDULQJLQPLQGWKHUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHERG\DQGRQ LQWHUFRUSRUHLW\ 0HUODX3RQW\ 0HDG SUDJPDWLVPGHPRQVWUD tes how it is not that action is contingent on context but that the context SK\VLFDORUVRFLDO FRQVWLWXWHVWKHDFWLRQ -RDV ,QWHUPVRIWKH676GHEDWHLWPD\VXI¿FHKHUHWRUHFDOOE\ZD\RIH[DPSOH WKHPDVWHUIXOZRUNRI/XF\6XFKPDQ &ULWLFL]LQJDFHUWDLQZLGHVSUH ad tendency in the same STS literature to overestimate the rational dimen VLRQRIWKHDFWRUGHVLJQHUDQGDERYHDOOWKHDELOLW\RIWKHODWWHUWRLQVFULEH LQWKHDUWHIDFWWKHGH¿QLWLRQWKDWLWKDVRIWKHXVHUDQGWKHXVH HJ$NULFK :RROJDU 6XFKPDQLQVLVWVWKDWZLWKUHVSHFWWRDUWHIDFWVZH DUH ³HPERGLHG XVHUV´ FRQGLWLRQHG PRUH LQ RXU XVDJH E\ WKH VSHFL¿F HI IHFWLYHDQGKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WVWKDQE\WKHVFULSWVFRGL¿HGDQGLQVFULEHGLQ WKHWHFKQRORJLFDOREMHFW )LQDOO\GUDZLQJRQWKLVWUDGLWLRQWKH$PHULFDQVRFLRORJLVW5LFKDUG6HQQHWW KDV UHFHQWO\ VKRZQ WKDW WKH IRXQGDWLRQV RI KDQGLFUDIW WHFKQLFDO FUHDWLYLW\ P\WKRORJLFDOO\UHSUHVHQWHGDV+HSKDHVWXV FDQDOVREHUHGLVFRYHUHG ZLWK ULVNVDQGQHZRSSRUWXQLWLHV LQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSZHHVWDEOLVKZLWKQHZWH FKQRORJLHV,QSXUVXLQJWKLVOLQH6HQQHWWKDVSUHIHUUHGWRUHSODFHWKHWHUP ³VNLOO´ZLWKWKDWRI³FUDIWVPDQVKLS´DKLJKO\VLJQL¿FDQWFKRLFHWKDWFOHDUO\ HYRNHVWKHZLOORIWKHDXWKRUWRJREH\RQGWKHULVNRIDUHGXFWLYHXVDJHRI WKHFRQFHSWRIH[SHUWH[SHULHQFH VNLOO ,QGHHGFUDIWVPDQVKLSLVDTXDOLW\ RIWKHUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWWKHZRUNHUHVWDEOLVKHVZLWKKLVWDVNDQGKLVDFWLYLW\ WLHGWR³DQHQGXULQJEDVLFKXPDQLPSXOVHWKHGHVLUHWRGRDMREZHOOIRU LWVRZQVDNH´ 6HQQHWW LWFDQQRWEHUHGXFHGWRDQH[FOXVLYHO\ PDQXDODFWLYLW\%HVLGHVFUDIWVPDQVKLSLVDTXDOLW\RIZRUNWKDWGHSHQGV PRUHRQWKHVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHFRQWH[WVXUURXQGLQJWKHZRUNHUWKDQWKH
Chapter four
tools or machinery used—a sociological conclusion that originates in the LQWLPDWHO\DQWKURSRORJLFDOUHODWLRQVKLS DVXEVWDQWLDOXQLW\ EHWZHHQKDQG DQGKHDG PDWHULDOERG\DQGDEVWUDFWUHDVRQ Sennett shows that intellectual work must likewise deal with the same SUDFWLFHVFKDUDFWHUL]LQJPDQXDOODERU ZRUNLQJZLWKHQGXUDQFHDQGDPEL JXLW\FRRUGLQDWLRQDQGFROODERUDWLRQ³SUHKHQVLRQ´DQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQG VRRQ7KHVHKHDUJXHVHPHUJHSK\ORJHQHWLFDOO\DQGRQWRJHQHWLFDOO\IURP WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIKLJKO\VSHFLDOL]HGPDQXDODELOLWLHVDQGFUXFLDOO\SURYH DSSOLFDEOHDOVRWRWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVRFLDOUHODWLRQV,QGHHG6HQQHWWWDNHV up the pragmatist principle that establishes a continuity between the organic DQGWKHVRFLDO,QWKLVYLHZ³WKHFDSDFLWLHVRXUERGLHVKDYHWRVKDSHSK\VL FDOWKLQJVDUHWKHVDPHFDSDFLWLHVZHGUDZRQLQVRFLDOUHODWLRQV´ 6HQQHWW In conclusion, in considering work done with the hands, with an embodied PLQGDQGLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDVRFLDOUHODWLRQVZHDUHQRWGHDOLQJZLWKXQEUL GJHDEOHSDUDGLJPDWLFGLIIHUHQFHV)RU6HQQHWWDFDUSHQWHUDQRUFKHVWUDOGL UHFWRUDQGDVFLHQWL¿FODERUDWRU\WHFKQLFLDQDUHDOOFUDIWVPHQ7KHVLQJOHQH FHVVDU\FRQGLWLRQRQZKLFKDFRPSDULVRQFDQHIIHFWLYHO\EHPDGHLVWKDWLQ H[HUFLVLQJRXUFUDIWVZHOHDUQQRWWRDUWL¿FLDOO\VHSDUDWHWKDWXQLW\EHWZHHQ WKHKHDGDQGKDQGWKDWGH¿QHVWKHFUDIWVPDQVKLSRIDUWLVDQZRUN7KHUHIRUH LQ6HQQHWW¶VWKLQNLQJWKHDGYHQWRIWHFKQRORJ\GRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\LPSO\D PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQRIKDQGLFUDIWVNLOOVDVKLVWRULFDOO\FRQFHLYHG6WULNLQJO\LQ IDFWWKHDGYHQWRIWKHPRVWHYROYHGGLJLWDOWHFKQRORJLHVLVFXUUHQWO\PDNLQJ DUHFRYHU\RIVXFKDELOLWLHVSRVVLEOH 6NLOO FDQ EH GH¿QHG DV ³D SUDFWLFDO DELOLW\ DFKLHYHG ZLWK H[HUFLVH´ 6HQ QHWW DQG WKH QHZ LQIRUPDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV UHQGHU D G\QDPLF IHHGEDFNHQDEOLQJWKHOHDUQLQJIURPH[SHULHQFHHYHUPRUHSRVVLEOH7KXV DOO WKH HOHPHQWV SUHVHQW LQ 3ODWR¶V K\PQ WR +HSKDHVWXV LQ SDUWLFXODU WKH DVSLUDWLRQWRTXDOLW\WKHFRQWURORYHUSURFHVVHVWKHSDUWLFLSDWHGDQGVKDUHG dimension, and the unity between individual ability and social community EHFRPHSUHVHQWLQWKHQHZIRUPVRIRUJDQL]DWLRQRIZRUNXVHGWRGHYHORS IRUH[DPSOHRSHQVRXUFHVRIWZDUH HJ/LQX[ DQGPRUHJHQHUDOO\RIDOO WKH IRUPV RI FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH GHYHORSPHQW GH¿QHG DV ³ED]DDU´ E\ (ULF 5D\PRQG 2EYLRXVO\KHUHRQHLVUHIHUULQJWRDSRWHQWLDOWKDWLVQRW \HW IXO¿OOHG %\ LQGLFDWLQJ WKH RSSRUWXQLWLHV SURYLGHG E\ WKH QHZ GLJLWDO WHFKQRORJLHV²VXFKDVWKHGHVLJQRI&RPSXWHU$VVLVWHG'HVLJQ &$' V\ VWHPV²6HQQHWWHPSKDVL]HVKRZWKH\FDQDOVRLQGXFHWKHLU³LPSURSHU´ UH
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4.6 Conclusion 7KLV FKDSWHU KDV UHÀHFWHG RQ WKH VWXG\ TXHVWLRQ RI ZKDW NLQG RI VR FLRDQWKURSRORJLFDO GDWD FDQ KHOS XV LQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LI WKH UHODWLRQVKLS between corporeal experience and material reality is still relevant in de ¿QLQJ WKH LGHD RI WHFKQLFLW\ ,Q D QXWVKHOO LI ZH PXVW UHDOO\ FRQVLGHU WKH LQQRYDWLYHDQGVNLOOHGKDQGLFUDIWH[SHULHQFHRIWKHZRUOGWREHVRPHWKLQJ UHOHJDWHGWRDGLVWDQWSDVW , KDYH IRFXVVHG KHUH RQ WZR GLIIHUHQW WKHRUHWLFDO FRQWULEXWLRQV )LUVW WKH ZRUNRI%ULWLVKDQWKURSRORJLVW7LP,QJROGKDVEHHQXVHGWRKLJKOLJKWWKH ³HFRORJLFDO´ SULQFLSOH IROORZLQJ ZKLFK ZKLOH WKH KDQG DV D VLQJOH RUJDQ may represent the privileged locus RI WHFKQLFDO VNLOOV WKHVH DUH DFWXDOO\ PRUHJHQHUDOO\QHVWHGZLWKLQ³WHFKQLFLW\´QDPHO\LQWKHSDUWLFXODUDOLJQ PHQW WXQLQJ EHWZHHQFRUSRUHLW\WKHVLWXDWLRQDOFRQWH[WWKHPDWHULDODQG WRROVXVHG )LQDOO\ ZLWK WKH VXSSRUW RI WKHRUHWLFDO FRQWULEXWLRQV RI D SUDJPDWLVW DQG phenomenological inclination, I have sought to illustrate how the reduction RIWKHPDQXDOGLPHQVLRQRIZRUN LQRXUYLHZLWVGHPLVHLVKLJKO\LPSUR EDEOH GRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\LPSO\DUHJUHVVLRQRIWKHLQQRYDWLYHQDWXUHDQG WKHVLQJXODULW\RIDFWLRQSUHVHUYHGLQKXPDQH[SHULHQFH)RUWKLVUHDVRQWKH GHYHORSPHQWRIPHFKDQLFDODQGHOHFWURQLFWHFKQRORJ\DQGPRUHUHFHQWO\ RIWKHGLJLWDOKDVQRWEURXJKWDERXWPDQ\RIWKHSHVVLPLVWLFSURSKHFLHVWKDW RYHUWKH\HDUVKDYHIRUHWROGWKHHQGRIFUHDWLYHKDQGLFUDIWVNLOOVWLHGWRWKH H[SHUWXVHRIWRROV,KDYHVRXJKWWRKLJKOLJKWWKDWLILWLVQRWDVLQJOHRUJDQ representing the privileged locusRIWKHWHFKQLFDOVNLOOVWKHVHEHLQJOLQNHG WRWKHWXQLQJRIRXUERG\ZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJHQYLURQPHQWWKHQWKHDGYHQW RIPRGHUQWHFKQRORJLHVFDQQRWGRDZD\ZLWKVXFKORFXVLQDEVROXWHWHUPV WUDQVIHUULQJLWWRWHFKQRORJLFDOGHVLJQHQFDSVXODWHGLQDVHWRIUXOHVDQGGH¿ QHGDOJRULWKPV,QGHHGWKHXVHULVVWLOODQGZLOODOZD\VEHDERG\RSHUDWLQJ ZLWKLQDFRQWH[W $VLQGLFDWHGE\WKHZRUNRI6HQQHWWWKHDGYHQWRIQHZ GLJLWDO WHFKQROR JLHV LV RSHQLQJ XS LQWHUHVWLQJ SRWHQWLDO PDUJLQV RI UHFRYHULQJ D G\QDPLF IHHGEDFNEHWZHHQRSHUDWRUWRRODQGHQYLURQPHQW SK\VLFDODQGVRFLDO 8Q GRXEWHGO\WKLVIHHGEDFNLVQRORQJHUSUHYDOHQWO\FHQWUHGRQWKHPDQXDODQG
Chapter four
FRUSRUHDOGLPHQVLRQRIVNLOO ZKLFKQRQHWKHOHVVGRHVQRWYDQLVKDQGFDQ LQGHHGEHUHYDORUL]HG HPSKDVLVQRZDGD\VLVRQWKHLQWHOOHFWXDODQGVR FLRUHODWLRQDOGLPHQVLRQ7KHFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKLVDUJXPHQWZKLFKZLOOEH WKHWKHRUHWLFDOVWDUWLQJSRLQWIRUWKHQH[WFKDSWHULVWKDWWRGD\WKHUHDUH DW OHDVWSRWHQWLDOO\ UHOHYDQWWKHRUHWLFDODQGSUDFWLFDOPDUJLQVLQZKLFKWRVWL PXODWHDUHFRYHU\RIWKHYDOXHRIH[SHULHQFHGDQGVNLOOIXOWHFKQLFDODFWLRQ This clearly does not mean returning to the manual, but rather recreating the VRFLDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOFRQGLWLRQVWKDWUHQGHULWSRVVLEOH 7KHDSSHDORI$QWKRQ\*LGGHQV WRGHYHORSVRFLDOSUDFWLFHVRIUH DSSURSULDWLQJ WHFKQRORJ\ UHVNLOOLQJ SUDFWLFHV VKRXOG , ZRXOG VXEPLW SUHFLVHO\EHLQWHUSUHWHGLQWKLVOLJKW7KLVLQYROYHVSUDFWLFHVDLPHGDWHP powering individuals and communities due to the participatory and shared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world is not as something relegated to a distant past because: we still have URRP IRU PDQRHXYHU WR UHFRYHU WKH DSSDUHQWO\ HURGHG VNLOOHG DELOLWLHV LQ WHFKQLFDODFWLRQZKLFKZLOOEHHODERUDWHGIXUWKHULQWKHQH[WFKDSWHU
CHAPTER FIVE THE RECOVERY OF EXPERIENCE AND SOCIAL SKILLS IN MODERN TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Introduction +DYLQJL GLVFXVVHGWKHELRDQWKURSRORJLFDOSDUDGLJPRIHSLJHQHWLFVDV H[SODLQLQJDQGMXVWLI\LQJWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIH[SHULHQFHLQKXPDQOLIHDQG FXOWXUH &KDSWHU DQGLL VKLIWHGWRDVRFLRDQWKURSRORJLFDO¿HOGRIDQDO\ VLVZLWKDQHFRORJLFDODQGSUDJPDWLVWYLHZGH¿QLQJ³WHFKQLFLW\´DVDQLQ WHUZHDYLQJEHWZHHQRUJDQLVP WKHERG\ WRROVDQGHQYLURQPHQW &KDSWHU WKHSUHVHQWFKDSWHUDGGUHVVHVWKHWKLUGVWXG\TXHVWLRQUHJDUGLQJSUDFWL FHVRIWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYHORSPHQWWKDWDUHLQDSRVLWLRQWRFRQFUHWHO\UHFR ver human skills within technical innovation processes, and, moreover, give YRLFHWRDGYRFDWHVIRUDJUHDWHUGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQRIWHFKQRORJ\ $WWHPSWLQJWRDQVZHU WKH¿UVWSDUWRI WKLVTXHVWLRQRQUHFRYHULQJVNLOOV ZLOOKHOSWREHJLQWKHSURFHVVRIVNHWFKLQJDPRGHUQYHUVLRQRIWKHSKLOR VRSK\RISUD[LVDSSOLHGWRQHZWHFKQRORJLHV7KLVFKDSWHUZLOOFRQFHQWUDWH PRUH RQ D VRFLRSROLWLFDO DQDO\VLV EHFDXVH WKH UHGLVFRYHU\ RI VNLOOV DQG experience within technological innovation processes inevitably oblige us WRUHÀHFWRQWKHLVVXHRISDUWLFLSDWLRQ²ZKLFKLQWXUQUDLVHVLVVXHVDURXQG WKH SRVVLELOLWLHV IRU D GHPRFUDWL]DWLRQ RI WHFKQRORJ\ WKH VHFRQG SDUW RI WKH TXHVWLRQ 7KH IRFXV LV SODFHG RQ D SDUWLFXODU WHFKQRORJLFDO SUDFWLFH WKDW RI RSHQ VRXUFH VLQFH WKLV LV XQGHUVWRRG DV SDYLQJ WKH ZD\ WR D QHZ SDUWLFLSDWRU\GHYHORSPHQWPRGHORIWHFKQRORJ\RQHWKDWLVPRUHRSHQWR KXPDQDFWLRQPRUHGHPRFUDWLF7KLVPRGHOLWLVDUJXHGKDVWKHFDSDFLW\ WRHVWDEOLVKDSDUWLFLSDWRU\DSSURDFKWKDWPDNHVWKHKHJHPRQLF³WHFKQLFDO FRGH´GLVFXVVHGE\$QGUHZ)HHQEHUJDQRSHQHQWLW\ZKHUHLQLWLVSRVVLEOH WRUHDOL]HFUHDWLYHDSSURSULDWLRQSURFHVVHVGHVLJQHGWROLWHUDOO\ UH LQYHQW QHZDQGXVHGWHFKQRORJLHV,QWKLVFKDSWHU,ZLOOWU\WRDSSO\VXFKSULQFLSOHV WRWKHHPEOHPDWLFDQGFRQWURYHUVLDOFDVHRIELRWHFKQRORJ\GHYHORSPHQW
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