Officers in Flight Suits: The Story of American Air Force Fighter Pilots in the Korean War 9780814788875

Citation preview

iters i n Flijli i Suit s

— • • liter s io • • — ILlUlll J U l l J The Stor y o f America n Ai r Forc e Fighter Pilot s i n the Korea n Wa r John Darrell Sherwood

H I YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New York and London

Copyright © 199 6 b y New Yor k Universit y All rights reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Sherwood, John Darrell , 1966 Officers i n flight suit s : the stor y o f American Ai r Force fighter pilots i n the Korea n Wa r / John Darrel l Sherwood , p. cm . Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . Contents: Introduction—An absenc e o f ring-knockers : the socia l background an d educatio n o f flight sui t officers—Stic k an d rudde r university : training an d th e creation o f th e fligh t sui t officer — MiG alle y : air-to-air comba t i n Korea—Headhunters an d fighting cocks : the fighter-bomber i n Korea—Thunderboxes an d sabr e dancers : base life an d recreatio n i n the Korea n War—Lif e afte r Korea—Epilogue. ISBN 0-8147-8038-5 (alk . paper ) 1. Korea n War , 1950-1953—Aeria l operations , American. 2 . Fighte r pilots—United States . 3 . Unite d States . Air Force—History . 4. Fighte r planes—Unite d States—History . I . Title . S920.2.U2S53 199 6 95i.904'2—dc2o 96-1002 1 CIP Manufactured i n the United State s of Americ a New Yor k University Pres s book s ar e printe d o n acid-fre e paper, an d thei r bindin g material s ar e chosen fo r strengt h an d durability. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

1

Contents List of Photographs vii List of Tables and Maps ix Acknowledgments xi 1 • Introductio n i L • A n Absence o f Ring-Knockers : The Socia l Background an d Educatio n o f Flight Sui t Officers 1 J • Stic k an d Rudde r University : Training an d th e Creation o f th e Fligh t Sui t Office r 3 \ • Mi G Alley : Air-to-Air comba t i n Korea 7 J • Headhunter s an d Fightin g Cocks : The Fighter Bomber i n Korea 9 0 • Thunderboxe s an d Sabr e Dancers : Base Lif e and Recreatio n i n the Korea n Wa r 11 1 • Lif e afte r Kore a 14 0 • Epilogu e 16 I • Ai r Interdictio n i n Korea: An Operationa l Overview 1 APPENDIX L • Korea n Conflic t Aeria l Victor y Credit s 18 APPENDIX J • Fa r Eas t Air Force s Table o f Equipmen t an d Sorties b y Aircraft Type , 195 2 18 APPENDIX i • Tabulatio n o f Sortie s Flow n b y the Air Force , Navy, Marine Corps , an d Allie d Ai r Service s in Korea 18 APPENDIX J • Ai r Force , Marine, an d Allie d Aircraft Losse s i n Korea 19

1 7 0 5 6 3 4

APPENDIX

Notes 191 Bibliography 221 Index 229 V

69 0 6

9 0

Photographs The following photograph s appea r a s a group afte r pag e 18 : i. Trainin g Classroo m 2. Th e Training Flight Line 3. Headhunter s o f the 80t h Squadro n Eatin g Breakfas t 4. Mornin g Briefin g 5. Fighte r Pilots on Standb y Alert 6. F-8 4 Pilo t Relaxes before a Mission 7. F-8 6 Pilots Come Of f Aler t 8. A Flight of F-84 S 9. A Flight of F-86 s 10. A Captured MiG-1 5 11. Unidentifie d Villag e under Napal m Attac k 12. H-1 9 Rescu e Helicopter 13. F-8 0 with Battl e Damag e 14. Jame s Hagerstro m 15. M . J . Baile y The following photograph s appea r a s a group afte r pag e 82 : 16. Pilot s of the 51s t Wing Go Ove r Tactics 17. Interio r o f a Typical Hootc h 18. Auge r Inn: A Typical officers' clu b 19. Interio r o f the Auger In n 20. A Closeup of a Squadron Ca p 21. Pak , On e o f the 80t h Squadron' s Houseboy s 22. Typica l Red Cros s Clu b 23. Re d Cros s Clubmobil e 24. Fligh t Suit Easter

vii

Tallies ao d l i s Tables i. Response s t o th e Aviation Cade t Shortage , August 1951 - 4 May 195 2 2. Korea n Conflict—Alphabetica l Listin g 18 3. Fa r Eas t Air Forces ' Aircraft Strengt h fo r Selecte d Months , 18

1 1 7

1951-1952

4. USA F Sorties b y Aircraft Typ e for Selecte d Months , 1951 - 18

8

1952

5. Tabulatio n o f Sortie s Flow n b y the Air Force , Navy, Marine 18 Corps, an d Allie d Service s i n Kore a 6. Ai r Force , Marine, an d Allie d Aircraf t Losse s in Korea 19

9 0

Maps 1. Kore a Frontispiece 2. Dispositio n o f Fift h Ai r Forc e Units , 1 June 195 2 6 3. Area s o f Mi G Operation s 69

ix

8

Acknowledgments During th e Korea n War , Ai r Forc e pilot s receive d a n ai r meda l afte r every twenty-fiv e comba t mission s flown , a Distinguishe d Flyin g Cros s after a on e hundred-missio n wa r tour , an d a Silve r Sta r fo r herois m above an d beyon d th e cal l o f duty . Durin g th e cours e o f th e writin g o f this book , score s o f individual s flew a t leas t on e comba t missio n i n support o f the campaign. Therefore , I will limit m y acknowledgment s t o those wh o deserv e a n ai r meda l o r bette r fo r thei r efforts . Special thank s t o Georg e Washingto n Universit y (GWU ) an d th e Center fo r Ai r Forc e History (CAFH ) fo r researc h support . The ide a o f a socia l histor y o f Ai r Forc e pilot s originate d i n Jame s Horton's graduat e semina r o n socia l history a t GWU . Among thos e wh o helped m e fine-tun e thi s projec t wer e Willia m Becker , Edwar d McCord , and Richar d Stott . Additionally , Cynd y Donnel l an d Michae l Week s graciously allowe d m e acces s t o thei r computer s o n weekend s fo r print ing and editin g purposes . The research fo r thi s project wa s facilitate d greatl y b y CAFH . Durin g my year ther e a s a visiting scholar , I received valuabl e advic e from Vanc e Mitchell an d Bernar d Nalty . Specia l thank s t o Eduar d Mar k an d Vanc e Mitchell fo r allowin g me to read an d cit e their unpublishe d manuscripts . For archiva l assistance , Wal t Grudzinskas , Mar k Ridley , an d Willia m Heimdahl wer e indispensable . Althoug h heavil y burdene d b y congres sional an d militar y request s fo r information , thes e staf f member s wen t out o f thei r wa y t o find obscur e uni t records , psychological reports , an d base historie s fo r me . They als o allowe d m e to us e their persona l micro film readers whe n th e CAF H librar y reader s wer e i n use . Other helpfu l archiv e staff s include d thos e o f th e Suitlan d Referenc e Branch o f the National Archives , and th e Red Cros s Archive in Washington, D.C . Fo r photographs , thank s g o t o M . J . Bailey , Virgini a Hagers trom, an d Jerry an d Mart y Minton . As fo r libraries , th e staf f o f th e U.S . Arm y Librar y a t th e Pentago n xi

xii • Acknowledgments allowed m e t o cop y hundred s o f page s o f th e Air Force Times fo r free , and Jaco b Neufel d o f CAF H sponsore d m e fo r a temporar y Pentago n badge: a necessar y prerequisit e fo r admittanc e int o tha t library . Addi tionally, the CAFH library an d th e Interlibrary Borrowin g unit o f GWU' s Gelman Librar y deserv e a fai r shar e o f kudo s fo r trackin g dow n a wide variet y o f dissertations , rar e books , an d Ai r Force-relate d fictional literature fro m th e 1950s . One o f th e highlight s o f thi s projec t wa s havin g th e opportunit y t o interview actua l fligh t sui t officers . However , finding thes e gentleme n often prove d ver y difficult . Fortunately , man y pilo t association s cam e t o my aid . Specia l thank s t o Th e Retire d Officer s Associatio n an d th e Ai r Force Associatio n fo r placin g fre e advertisement s i n thei r respectiv e magazines. Specia l thank s als o t o th e Orde r o f th e Daedalions , th e Mosquito Pilot s Association , th e F-8 6 Sabr e Pilot s Association , an d th e 58th Fighte r Associatio n fo r thei r assistanc e i n trackin g dow n Korea n War pilots . Finally , a "Distinguishe d Flyin g Cross " shoul d b e awarde d to ever y pilot who donate d a n afternoo n o r a morning to b e interviewed . In particular , specia l thank s t o M . J . Bailey , Georg e Berke , Ear l Brown , Hank Buttleman , Woodrow Crockett , Perri n Gower , James Hagerstrom , Howard Heiner , E . R . James , Kennet h Koon , Howar d Leaf , Ro y Lot tinger, Jerr y Minton , Rober t Pomeroy , Robinso n Risner , Curle y Sat terlee, Dewey Sturgeon , Fran k Tomlinson , an d Pau l Turner . Special recognitio n an d a "Silve r Star " ar e reserve d fo r th e peopl e who freel y donate d substantia l amount s o f thei r tim e t o thi s book . Yvonne Kinkaid , chie f libraria n o f CAF H an d th e wif e o f a n F-10 5 fighter pilot , obtaine d a beautifu l offic e fo r m e i n whic h t o conduc t interviews, an d sh e helpe d m e find a hos t o f documents . A t th e sam e time, she taught m e many valuabl e lesson s abou t Ai r Forc e etiquette an d granted m e acces s to he r extensiv e militar y an d governmen t networ k fo r the sak e o f trackin g dow n pilots . Without Ms . Kinkaid , m y ora l histor y project woul d neve r hav e gotte n of f th e ground . Danie l Mortensen , a historian wit h th e Ai r Staf f Histor y Office , an d Georg e Berke , a forme r F-84 pilo t an d Englis h professor a t the Air Force Academy, read throug h my entir e manuscrip t an d offere d a wid e rang e o f suggestions . Da n

Acknowledgments •

xii i

Mortensen an d Georg e Berke , i n particular , helpe d boos t m y moral e during the difficul t writin g stag e of the book . Shirley Turner , a technica l edito r a t Sandi a Nationa l Laboratory , provided technica l editin g suppor t fo r thi s project . Ronal d Specto r rea d through severa l draft s an d assiste d m e i n ever y wa y imaginable . Hi s guidance enable d m e t o strik e a carefu l balanc e betwee n ne w an d tradi tional militar y history . Rand y Papadopoulos , militar y histor y colleagu e and swimmin g partner , listene d t o m y researc h an d writin g problem s every da y betwee n lap s an d cam e u p wit h som e ver y usefu l suggestion s to improv e m y work . Timoth y Bartlett , o n a reconnaissanc e missio n t o Washington fro m hi s bas e a t Ne w Yor k Universit y Press , discovered thi s manuscript thank s t o a littl e forwar d ai r contro l fro m th e chairma n o f the histor y department , E d Berkowitz . Bartlet t ha s bee n a tireles s sup porter eve r since . Thanks g o t o m y parent s fo r encouragin g m e a t ever y step . Finally, a word o f thank s t o m y friend , histor y colleague , an d wingperson , Aime e Turner. No t onl y di d sh e rea d an d critiqu e ever y wor d I wrote, sh e als o steered m e awa y fro m numerou s fla k trap s an d stuc k wit h me—eve n when I decided t o cros s the Yalu .

• •I • • Introduction

The Essentia l Facto r At 060 0 o n 1 0 Octobe r 1952 , Majo r Robinso n "Robbie " Risner , a fighter pilo t statione d a t Kimp o Ai r Field , Sout h Korea , opene d hi s eye s and surveye d hi s quarters . H e note d th e draft y windows , th e ammuni tion crat e furniture , an d th e pot-bellie d stove . Excite d abou t th e day' s flight, Risne r jumpe d ou t o f bed , snatche d a fligh t suit , an d heade d ou t into th e forty-degre e air . A quic k showe r followe d b y a blan d breakfas t of powdered eggs , weak coffee , an d col d toas t wa s i n order. 1 After breakfast , Risne r proceede d t o th e operations hu t fo r th e intelli gence an d weathe r briefings . Th e intelligenc e office r wen t ove r th e stan dard escap e an d evasio n routes . The me n privatel y scoffe d a t th e notio n of escap e an d evasion : an y America n sho t dow n ove r th e Yal u Rive r would inevitabl y en d u p i n a PO W camp. 2 Next , th e weathe r office r reported clea r skie s ove r th e Yalu . The pilot s welcome d thi s goo d flyin g weather, s o to o di d 4t h Grou p leade r Roya l Baker— a fighter pilo t a s "thirsty fo r kills " a s th e youn g lieutenant s h e wa s briefing . O n thi s particular day , Colone l Bake r informe d th e me n tha t th e cod e wor d t o turn of f th e identification-friend-or-fo e signa l (IFF ) wa s "puss y willow. " Without bein g explicit , Bake r ha d jus t give n th e grou p taci t permissio n to disregar d th e standar d rule s o f engagement , an d cros s th e Yal u int o China. It was MiG hunting time. Risner smiled . With the IFF disengaged, the American rada r operator s woul d no t b e able to spo t hi m if he chase d a Mi G int o China . 1

2 • Introduction After th e hour-lon g briefing , Risne r followe d th e othe r pilot s t o th e squadron operation s roo m an d pu t o n hi s surviva l gear : a rubbe r suit , a "Mae West " inflatabl e lif e preserver , an d a Colt-4 5 pistol . H e ha d t o keep remindin g himsel f no t t o ge t to o excited , to o quickly . Ther e wa s still much wor k t o b e don e befor e h e coul d stra p o n th e F-8 6 an d barre l down th e runway . H e neede d t o confe r wit h th e crew chie f t o mak e sur e all was in order with plan e number 824 , "Robbie' s Hobby. " H e als o ha d to tak e a 360-degre e inspectio n wal k aroun d th e plane . Durin g th e inspection, h e noted wit h pleasur e th e five red star s stencile d underneat h the plane' s name . Today Risne r hope d t o ad d a sixth . At 090 0 Risne r an d hi s wingman, Joe Logan , taxie d dow n th e Kimp o runway. Th e othe r tw o pilot s followe d i n quic k succession . Thi s flight, code-named "Joh n Red, " mad e it s way t o th e Yalu , som e thirt y minute s from Kimpo. 3 Th e flight's missio n wa s t o protec t a squadro n o f USA F fighter-bombers tha t wa s schedule d t o attac k a chemica l plan t a t th e mouth o f th e river . Whe n th e flight arrive d a t "Mi G Alley," 4 Risne r immediately gav e the "puss y willow " comman d an d too k th e flight o n a sweep alon g th e Chines e sid e o f th e Yalu . Thi s preemptiv e maneuve r would giv e the fighter-bombers maximu m protectio n agains t an y poten tial Mi G attacks . The initia l swee p yielde d n o Mi G sightings . O n th e secon d sweep , however, Risne r sa w a glin t o f sunligh t a t hi s twelv e o'cloc k low . A s i f by instinct, h e kne w tha t thi s sparkl e mean t MiGs . He ordere d hi s flight to dro p thei r win g fue l tanks . The fou r MiG s di d th e sam e a s they mad e a 180-degre e turn an d retreate d bac k toward thei r bas e at Antung. Thes e MiGs wer e hungry fo r th e lowe r performanc e F-8 4 fighter-bombers, an d had n o intentio n o f tanglin g wit h th e top-of-the-lin e F-86s . Bu t Risne r had othe r plans . H e aligne d hi s pippe r o n th e tail-en d Charli e an d gav e his si x M- 3 .5 0 calibe r gun s a squeeze. 5 Th e incendiarie s shattere d th e MiG's canopy . In a n effor t t o escape , th e Mi G pilo t descende d a t maximu m speed . At on e poin t th e Mi G di d a half-rol l an d flew upsid e dow n fo r fifty seconds a s Risner pounded hi m with shor t burst s from hi s machine guns . The Mi G the n entere d int o a split-S, 6 an d Risne r though t t o himself , "This i s going t o b e the easies t kil l o f m y career. " Risner , convince d tha t

Introduction •

3

the Mi G woul d no t b e abl e t o pul l ou t o f th e S i n tim e t o avoi d hitting th e ground , mad e a n anglin g split- S an d brace d himsel f fo r th e impending explosion . Nothin g happened . The Mi G di d no t cras h a s Risne r ha d s o smugl y predicted . Instead , i t pulled ou t o f the div e just i n time, creating a billowing clou d o f dus t an d pebbles ove r a dry riverbed. Th e MiG , no w flying five feet ove r the deck , was too lo w to hit with th e F-86's guns , which fired slightl y upward . Bu t Risner ha d to o muc h driv e t o cu t of f th e chase . H e wa s no t abou t t o le t all thos e practic e dogfight s flown i n th e F-5 1 ove r th e Oklahom a skie s go t o waste . Finally , h e ha d me t hi s match— a pilo t wh o woul d forc e him t o dra w o n ever y skil l h e ha d eve r learned . Risne r wa s abou t t o embark o n th e ultimat e dogfight . At this point , Risne r coul d no t kil l the Mi G bu t a t leas t h e could tak e a goo d loo k a t hi s foe . H e maneuvere d hi s F-8 6 alongsid e th e MiG-15 . As the y coaste d wingti p t o wingtip , Risne r peere d int o th e no w ope n cockpit. H e could se e the eye s of the pilo t an d th e stitchin g o f hi s leathe r helmet. Risne r notice d tha t th e pilot' s oxyge n mas k wa s gone : i t ha d been sucke d of f whe n h e sho t awa y th e canopy . Th e Mi G pilo t returne d Risner's gaz e an d raise d hi s fist in defiance. 7 The Mi G the n throttle d bac k i n a n attemp t t o catc h Risne r of f guard . He hope d t o sli p behin d Risne r an d poun d hi m wit h hi s 20 - an d 37 millimeter cannons . Bu t Risne r ha d to o muc h situationa l awarenes s t o fall fo r suc h a trap ; h e di d a hig h G-forc e rol l ove r th e to p o f th e Mi G and cam e dow n behin d it . Simultaneously , th e Mi G brok e right , pullin g all th e G' s i t could . Bu t Risne r staye d behin d th e MiG . H e late r com mented, " I never though t abou t wha t I was doing , it was al l reflex. " After severa l minute s o f har d maneuvers , bot h plane s exite d th e dr y riverbed an d bega n t o clim b a heavil y woode d hill . To Risner' s surprise , the Mi G execute d on e o f th e crazies t maneuver s h e ha d eve r seen . I n a n effort t o gai n a smal l spee d advantage , th e Mi G di d a n inverte d rol l an d flew upsid e dow n ove r th e hill . Hi s ope n cockpi t wa s jus t a fe w fee t from th e treetops . Risner' s wingman , Jo e Logan , wh o ha d bee n flying high an d t o th e righ t th e entir e time , screame d int o th e headset : "Hi t him lead. Pound him! " 8 But Risner coul d not . H e was doin g al l he coul d just t o sta y behin d him .

4 • Introduction The plane s rounde d th e hil l at . 8 Mach, the n al l o f a sudde n th e Mi G cut his throttle an d Risne r rolle d ove r the top o f him. Wingtip t o wingti p now, th e Mi G pilo t agai n raise d hi s fist a t Risner . Next , th e Mi G mad e an abrupt , full-throttle , 90-degre e tur n t o th e left . Risne r kne w tha t thi s was hi s las t chanc e t o blo w thi s gu y ou t o f th e sky . H e le t hi s pippe r creep toward th e MiG' s tailpipe , an d jus t a s he was abou t t o fire, Risne r heard Logan' s voice : "Lead , they'r e shootin g a t us. " Th e tw o plane s were no w directl y ove r th e Chines e ai r bas e a t Tak Tun g Kau . Despite thi s warning, Risne r continue d th e chase : he was to o clos e t o let th e Mi G sli p away . Th e Mi G pilo t erroneousl y assume d tha t th e fla k from th e airfiel d woul d scar e him off . I t di d not . Risne r chase d th e Mi G in betwee n tw o hangars . When th e Mi G attempte d t o lan d o n th e dust y runway, Risne r hammere d hi m hard . H e ble w four fee t of f th e lef t wing . As the win g burned , th e Mi G pilo t desperatel y sough t ou t th e grass y side o f th e runwa y fo r a n emergenc y landing . Risne r stil l ha d n o inten tion o f lettin g th e plan e land ; h e fired al l o f hi s remainin g ammunitio n into its tailpipe. The MiG would no t give up: it leveled off an d attempte d a "bell y landing. " A t thi s point , hi s luc k ra n out . Th e Mi G burs t apar t in a tremendou s explosion , an d piece s o f flaming aircraf t flew al l ove r the airfield , ignitin g the parked aircraf t nearby . "Re d lead, " Loga n yelle d ecstatically, "yo u jus t destroye d th e whole Communis t ai r force. " Risne r chuckled bu t h e wa s mor e inten t o n gettin g hi s wingma n an d himsel f safely bac k t o bas e tha n revelin g i n hi s victory . Risne r an d Loga n thre w the coa l t o their engine s an d mad e a steep climb awa y fro m th e base . As th e F-86 s climbe d out , the y passe d ove r som e 25 0 anti-aircraf t guns whic h line d th e perimeter s o f bot h Ta k Tun g Ka u an d Antun g ai r bases. Flak explode d al l around the m a s the pilot s "jinked " t o avoi d it. 9 Just befor e Risne r an d Loga n crosse d th e Yal u bac k int o Nort h Korea , Logan radioe d Risner , "Lead , m y fue l gaug e i s down. " Risne r flew around Logan' s F-8 6 t o mak e sur e tha t th e fue l tan k ha d no t bee n hit . I t had. Fue l and hydrauli c fluid were streamin g ou t o f Logan's belly . Risne r radioed Logan , "I t look s lik e you've bee n hit. " Fearing tha t hi s wingma n woul d no t hav e enoug h fue l an d fluid t o make i t bac k t o Kimpo , Risne r decide d o n a bol d cours e o f action . H e ordered Loga n t o ope n th e throttl e up : "Migh t a s well us e i t befor e yo u

Introduction •

5

lose it , Red 2. " A s soon a s Logan ra n ou t o f fuel , Risne r woul d positio n his nos e behin d Logan' s stricke n aircraf t an d gentl y pus h i t periodicall y until the y reache d th e friendl y islan d o f Chodo , wher e Loga n coul d safely bai l out. 10 Risne r figure d tha t enoug h ai r woul d b e flowin g through Logan' s tailpip e an d th e ga p belo w Risner' s tailpip e t o preven t Risner's F-8 6 fro m stalling , bu t th e move was stil l risky. While executin g this maneuver , Risne r realize d tha t h e place d hi s ow n aircraf t i n danger . If h e sucke d i n an y damage d engin e part s fro m Logan' s plane , hi s ow n engine might quit , o r worse yet, explode. To the pilots' utter amazement , the emergency maneuve r worked . Risner successfull y pushe d Logan' s plan e t o a poin t te n mile s of f th e coast o f Chodo . A t thi s point , Loga n radioe d Risner , "OK , I a m goin g to bai l out . I'l l se e yo u i n a littl e whil e a s soo n a s the y pic k m e up. " Risner watche d Loga n bai l ou t an d the n turne d an d heade d fo r home . For a while , Risne r coul d hea r th e rescu e operatio n unfoldin g o n th e emergency channel . Th e las t thin g h e heard befor e h e lost th e signa l wa s the rescu e pilo t saying , "He' s i n trouble , I am goin g t o pu t a ma n i n th e water fo r him. " As Risne r fle w bac k t o Kimpo , th e adrenalin e bega n t o wea r of f an d a war m feelin g o f satisfactio n envelope d him . H e ha d jus t fough t th e most challengin g dogfigh t o f hi s caree r an d save d hi s wingman t o boot . While o n approach , Risne r considere d doin g hi s customar y lo w victor y roll pas t th e ai r traffi c contro l towe r bu t decide d agains t it . Afte r hi s thirty-five-mile jaun t int o China , h e di d no t hav e enoug h fuel . Risne r just wante d t o land , tak e a ho t shower , an d g o ove r th e missio n wit h Logan a t th e officers ' clu b when h e arrived . Two hour s later , Risne r wen t dow n t o th e runwa y t o mee t th e SA-1 6 seaplane fro m Chodo . The door s opene d an d a rescued pilo t emerged . I t was no t Logan . Joe Logan , forme r ail-America n swimmer , ha d drowne d when hi s parachut e cor d becam e tangle d aroun d hi s neck . Risne r wen t home an d recite d Psal m 23 , then h e went t o bed. 11 Th e previous feeling s of victor y an d triump h ha d vanished . Tw o day s later , Majo r Robinso n Risner sho t dow n anothe r MiG .

6 • Introduction

Flight Sui t Attitud e In 1987 , th e Ai r Forc e Historica l Foundatio n sough t t o identif y twelv e officers wh o helpe d mol d th e institutiona l cultur e o f th e Unite d State s Air Force . Predictably , mos t o f th e me n i n th e resultin g study , "Th e Makers o f th e Unite d State s Ai r Force, " wer e chose n fo r thei r rol e i n shaping Ai r Forc e strateg y an d transformin g th e servic e fro m a smal l branch o f the Army t o a fully independen t ai r arm . On e officer , however , was picke d no t base d o n hi s bureaucrati c achievements , bu t becaus e o f his warrio r spirit ; tha t ma n wa s Brigadie r Genera l Robbi e Risner . Ac cording t o th e study' s editors , h e reawakene d a "keene r appreciatio n o f our fundamenta l purpos e a s a service." That purpos e i s to fly and fight. 12 By choosin g Risner , th e Ai r Forc e Historica l Foundatio n hel d thi s pilo t up a s a model fo r other s t o emulate . In thi s book , th e warrio r spiri t o f fighter pilot s lik e Risne r wil l b e defined a s "fligh t sui t attitude. " Risne r ha d tha t "indispensabl e ingredi ent" whic h enable d hi m t o tak e risk s other s woul d no t drea m o f tak ing. 13 Jame s Hagerstrom , a fello w ac e fro m th e Korea n War , pu t i t i n simpler terms : "Robbi e Risne r ha d it!" Flight sui t attitude , i n it s basi c form , wa s a sens e o f self-confidenc e and prid e tha t verge d o n arrogance . Fo r a fligh t sui t officer , th e aircraf t of preference wa s the high-performance , single-sea t fighter, althoug h on e could find hi m i n almos t an y model . Thi s cultur e place d a premiu m o n cockiness an d informality . A flight sui t office r spen t mor e tim e in a fligh t suit than i n a uniform. I n his world, statu s was base d upo n flyin g ability , not degrees , rank , o r "officer " skills . Thi s world , no t surprisingly , wa s overwhelmingly male . When fligh t sui t officer s di d associat e wit h women , th e women gener ally fell int o two categories : officers' wive s and bar-roo m sluts. 14 A fligh t suit office r wa s mor e comfortabl e flyin g a t clos e t o Mac h 1 wit h th e guys than h e was a t a formal dinne r sponsore d b y the Air Forc e Officers ' Wives Association . In short , h e yearne d fo r a completel y operationa l environment devoi d o f wives , where wome n entere d th e pictur e onl y a s prostitutes. During th e 1950s , a critical mas s o f fligh t sui t officer s coul d b e foun d

Introduction •

7

in Kore a fighting th e ai r war . Thi s boo k wil l examin e thes e me n an d their conquests , bot h i n th e skie s an d i n th e "hotsy " bath s outsid e o f Tokyo. I t als o wil l explor e th e entir e contex t o f th e fligh t sui t officer' s life i n a n attemp t t o uneart h th e origin s an d meanin g o f fligh t sui t attitude. Question s whic h wil l b e considered ar e a s follows : • Fro m wha t socia l background s di d fligh t sui t officer s come ? How di d thei r educatio n an d economi c statu s contribut e t o their developmen t a s pilots ? Di d pilot s wit h colleg e o r militar y academy degree s perfor m bette r tha n thos e wh o entere d int o pilot trainin g wit h onl y tw o year s o f college ? • Ho w di d aviatio n trainin g hel p t o transfor m the m int o fligh t suit officers ? T o wha t degre e di d the y ente r th e ai r servic e wit h flight sui t attitude , an d ho w muc h o f i t was instille d i n the m b y their fligh t instructor s an d classmate s i n training ? • Wha t wa s th e relationshi p betwee n fligh t sui t cultur e an d com bat effectiveness ? Di d th e cultur e produc e superio r fighter-interceptor pilots ? What abou t fighter-bomber pilots ? Ho w di d fligh t suit officer s perfor m a s wartime leaders ? • Ho w di d thei r off-dut y activitie s effec t thei r missio n perfor mance? Di d fligh t sui t cultur e ten d t o produc e antisocia l an d misogynist officers , o r wer e th e off-hour s antic s o f thes e pilots a harmless wa y fo r the m t o escap e fro m th e pressure s o f wa r an d flying? The stud y conclude s wit h a brie f surve y o f th e post-Korea n Wa r careers o f th e principa l pilot s highlighte d i n th e earlie r chapter s o f th e book, an d explore s ho w thei r fligh t sui t experience s i n Kore a influence d their late r militar y an d civilia n careers .

Why Korea ? Korea wa s chose n a s th e centerpiec e o f thi s stud y fo r severa l reasons . First, I wa s anxiou s t o fill a significan t ga p i n th e historiograph y o f American ai r power . Rober t Futrel l an d Richar d Hallio n hav e eac h written ver y thorough operationa l historie s o f Ai r Forc e an d Nav y avia -

8 • Introduction tion durin g th e Korea n War; 15 however , ther e ar e n o socia l o r cultura l histories o f th e ai r wa r simila r t o Ronal d Schaffer' s o r Michae l Sherry' s works o n strategi c bombin g i n Worl d Wa r II. 16 Despit e th e limite d literature o n th e topic , th e ai r wa r i n Kore a remain s a ver y significan t chapter i n th e histor y o f America n ai r power . Durin g th e conflict , th e Soviet Union challenge d America n ai r supremac y wit h it s most advance d fighter o f th e time—th e MiG-15 . I n battle s ove r Mi G Alley , America n fighter pilot s woul d defea t th e "Mi G menace " i n som e o f th e mos t celebrated aeria l battle s o f th e Col d War . In additio n t o th e MiG battles , the U.S . Air Forc e burne d dow n virtuall y ever y majo r tow n an d cit y i n North Korea , demolishe d it s entir e cro p irrigatio n system , an d kille d close t o on e millio n civilians. 17 I n th e word s o f Korea n Wa r historia n Bruce Cumings , i t wa s "on e o f th e mos t appalling , unrestrained , geno cidal ai r campaign s i n ou r genocida l twentiet h century." 18 Yet , the stor y of th e me n wh o participate d i n these campaigns i s largely untold . In additio n t o elucidatin g historiographica l concerns , Korea , i n man y respects, i s a perfec t laborator y i n whic h t o stud y th e fligh t sui t attitud e of fighter pilots . Whil e a certai n pilo t cockines s ha s existe d sinc e th e dawn o f flight , i t becam e institutionalize d i n Korea . Kore a wa s th e first war wher e th e Ai r Forc e fough t a s a trul y independen t service . Pilots , for th e first time , coul d cultivat e a fligh t sui t attitud e fre e fro m th e Army's "Prussian " bureaucrac y an d lega l system. Not surprisingly , man y Air Forc e types fondl y refe r t o 194 7 a s the year o f "emancipation." 19 More significantly , Kore a wa s a fighter pilot' s wa r i n a wa y tha t World Wa r I I was not . Unlik e th e Secon d Worl d War , wher e th e effort s of fighter pilot s wer e ofte n eclipse d b y th e massive , strategi c bombin g raids o f th e Eight h an d Twentiet h Ai r Forces , fighter pilot s i n Kore a commanded cente r stage . No t onl y wa s strategi c bombin g severel y lim ited (i t was onl y employe d a t th e ver y beginnin g an d en d o f th e Korea n War), bu t fighters prove d les s vulnerabl e tha n bomber s t o enem y groundfire an d Mi G attacks . A s a result , fighters wer e use d fo r ever y type o f missio n imaginable : the y forme d th e ke y componen t i n th e Fa r Eastern Ai r Forces ' ai r orde r o f battle . In Jun e 1952 , fo r example , th e Far Eas t Ai r Forc e possesse d 50 7 fighter aircraft , compare d t o onl y 19 7

Introduction •

9

multiengine bombers. 20 A s Georg e Berke , a Korea n Wa r pilot , pu t it , "The fighter wa s what th e Air Force really did th e job with. "

A Note o n Source s As anyone who ha s worked i n the field of ai r power histor y will confirm , the Air Forc e i s very guarded wit h it s records: thousands o f cubi c fee t o f documents fro m th e Korea n Wa r ar e stil l marke d "To p Secret, " "Se cret," o r "Fo r Officia l Us e Only. " On e can' t hel p bu t wonde r i f thes e documents contai n informatio n vita l t o th e nationa l securit y o f th e nation o r i f th e Ai r Forc e simpl y want s t o contro l acces s t o it s history . Consequently, m y creativ e abilitie s becam e a significan t facto r i n thi s endeavor t o writ e a socia l histor y o f fighter pilots. 21 T o fill th e ga p i n sources, I relie d heavil y o n memoirs , diaries , uni t records , letters , an d personal papers . I als o cam e acros s tw o novel s abou t th e wa r whic h were o f particula r value : The Hunters (Ne w York : Harper , 1956 ) b y James Salte r (originall y know n a s James Horowitz) , an d Troubling of a Star (Ne w York : Lippincott, 1952 ) b y Walt Sheldon . The Hunters, base d on Salter' s ow n experienc e a s a fighter pilo t wit h th e 4t h Fighte r Inter ceptor Wing , is, in essence , a primary sourc e o n air-to-ai r combat : Salte r graduated fro m Wes t Point , spen t twelv e year s i n th e Ai r Forc e a s a fighter pilot , an d earne d on e Mi G kil l i n Korea. 22 Similarly , Sheldon' s book o n fighter-bomber pilot s i s based o n hi s extensive experienc e a s a n Army Ai r Forc e captai n i n Worl d Wa r II , an d a s a n Ai r Forc e comba t correspondent i n Korea. Durin g Korea , Sheldo n fle w twenty-fiv e comba t missions i n variou s aircraf t an d receive d a n Ai r Forc e Ai r Meda l fo r hi s service.23 Far an d awa y m y bes t source s o f informatio n o n th e war , however , were th e actua l livin g participants . Thes e me n coul d conve y emotion s and attitude s no t foun d i n th e bureaucrati c languag e o f officia l sources . They als o responde d immediatel y t o almos t ever y questio n I bombarde d them with . Overall , approximatel y fifty fligh t sui t officer s grante d m e interviews, bu t I chos e t o focu s mainl y o n eleve n centra l figures whos e experiences wer e representativ e o f th e group . Som e o f th e interview s

i o • Introduction took plac e a t Boilin g Ai r Forc e Bas e i n Washington , D.C. , bu t man y were hel d i n th e home s o f th e pilots . I t wa s no t unusua l fo r a pilo t t o spread ou t a n ol d fligh t ma p o n hi s coffe e tabl e an d sho w m e th e exac t flight pat h o f a forme r mission . A s I sat dow n t o writ e th e manuscript , I would ofte n telephon e th e centra l character s o f th e stor y t o clarif y a point o r gathe r additiona l information . I n essence , the y functione d a s living archives .

—.. I.,— An Absenc e o f Ring-Knockers : The Socia l Backgroun d and Educatio n o f Flight Sui t Officer s

At th e onse t o f th e Korea n War , th e Ai r Forc e wa s onl y thre e year s old . As a result , it s socia l compositio n resemble d tha t o f th e U.S . Army, th e service fro m whic h i t ha d recentl y detache d itself . Lik e th e Arm y office r corps, th e Ai r Forc e officer s cam e fro m a predominantl y white , Protes tant, rura l background . Th e Ai r Forc e office r corps , however , differe d from th e groun d servic e i n on e importan t aspect : education . Unlike hi s peer s i n th e Arm y an d Navy , th e averag e Ai r Forc e office r in th e 1950 s di d no t posses s a four-yea r colleg e degree . Whil e 75. 4 percent o f the Navy's regular officer s an d 62. 8 percent o f the Army' s ha d baccalaureate degree s i n 1948 , th e Ai r Forc e coul d clai m onl y 37.0 5 percent, a figure wel l abov e th e 1 3 percen t nationa l educationa l averag e for me n ove r th e ag e of twenty-fiv e a t th e time , bu t devastatin g t o a ne w service workin g t o establis h a n "elite " imag e durin g a perio d o f intens e interservice rivalry. 1 I n all , betwee n Jul y 194 6 an d Decembe r 1947 , 7 7 percent o f th e 14,00 0 regula r commission s hande d ou t wen t t o officer s without a four-year degree. 2 This educationa l defici t wa s partl y th e resul t o f a rapi d expansio n o f the Ai r Forc e betwee n 194 0 an d 1947 . Durin g thi s period , it s office r 11

12 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers corps gre w from 10,00 0 t o 40,000. 3 The Air Force pilot trainin g system , though, i s als o partl y t o blame . It s Aviatio n Cade t program , th e larges t Air Forc e commissionin g vehicl e (abou t 2,00 0 annuall y i n 194 8 an d 1949), washe d ou t a n averag e o f 5 0 percen t o f it s cadets ; therefore , educational level s had t o b e kept very low in order t o ensure an adequat e flow o f pilots. 4 Whe n th e Aviatio n Cade t progra m reopene d afte r a postwar hiatu s i n 1947 , a cade t ha d t o pas s onl y a two-yea r colleg e equivalency tes t an d a physica l t o b e admitted . Eventually , i n 1949 , two year s o f colleg e becam e mandatory ; nevertheless , educationa l level s remained low : onl y 2 percen t o f th e program' s graduate s i n 194 8 an d 1949 ha d a four-year colleg e degree. 5 In additio n t o havin g fewe r college-educate d officers , th e Ai r Forc e also ha d fewe r servic e academ y graduates . Sociologis t Morri s Janowitz , in hi s landmar k stud y o f militar y officer s durin g thi s period , foun d tha t only 4 8 percen t o f the Air Force generals i n 195 0 were militar y academ y graduates, compare d t o 9 7 percen t o f th e admirals. 6 Th e Arm y ha d a similar percentag e o f academ y graduate s i n it s fla g office r grade s a s th e Air Force i n 1950 , but the percentage o f academ y graduate s i n compan y and field grades was significantly greater . Between 194 7 (th e year the Air Force becam e a n independen t service ) an d 195 5 ( t n e y e a r t n e Ai r Forc e Academy wa s founded) , onl y 28. 8 percen t o f Wes t Poin t graduate s an d fewer tha n 7 percen t o f Annapoli s graduate s opte d t o accep t Ai r Forc e commissions. 7 Culturally, the Air Force's dearth o f academ y graduate s ha d profoun d implications. Militar y academies , abov e al l else , serv e a s indoctrinatio n centers fo r officers : the y ar e th e wellsprin g o f share d value s an d tradi tions. A s Janowit z states , the y "se t th e standard s fo r behavio r fo r th e whole militar y profession " an d ar e a "pervasiv e sourc e o f like-mind edness" an d conformity. 8 Th e hazing , th e endles s routines , an d th e cor e curriculum o f th e academ y creat e direc t link s amon g graduates , link s which i n turn ar e continually strengthene d throughou t a n officer's career . The bes t descriptio n o f thi s proces s ca n b e foun d i n th e introductio n to Stephe n Ambrose' s laudator y histor y o f Wes t Point , Duty, Honor, Country:

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

13

The lon g gra y lin e goe s b y constantly. Th e cade t see s th e veteran s wh o have gone before him and the new plebes who will follow. He realizes that the whol e i s greater tha n it s parts, tha t i t embodie s bot h pas t tradition s and new wars, and h e sees what i t takes t o b e a soldier. Academy gradu ates continually renew their contacts with the school; they often marr y in the chapel , serv e o n th e facult y a s instructor s o r tactica l officers , atten d class reunions, and finally are buried i n the cemetery. The constant funer als of the old graduates, with the flag over Trophy Point at half-mast, help the cade t visualiz e th e lon g gray line . When a graduate o f 192 5 meet s a graduate o f 195 5 i n som e Far Easter n outpost , th e discussio n ca n cente r around the same curriculum, subject material, traditions, and often teach ers. The two graduates probably shar e the same feelings abou t their alm a mater, and even some of the slang they use may be identical.9 In some cases, such indoctrination merel y creates a strong fraternal bon d and sens e of share d missio n amon g fello w academ y graduates. In others , though, i t instill s a sens e o f intellectua l an d mora l superiorit y tha t ca n influence decision-makin g an d creat e caste-lik e barrier s t o promotio n within a service . Th e influenc e o f a Wes t Poin t degre e i n th e Army , fo r example, i s epitomize d b y a practic e calle d "rin g knocking. " Rin g knockers ta p thei r clas s ring s o n furnitur e t o subtl y identif y themselve s as academ y graduates . The y ofte n assum e tha t suc h a displa y o f statu s will guarantee the m favorabl e treatment . The Ai r Forc e di d no t ye t hav e a "lon g gra y line " i n th e 1950s . On e did not nee d a West Point o r eve n a college degree to gain promotions i n the Ai r Force . I f a n office r coul d fl y wel l an d wa s fortunat e enoug h t o see comba t i n Korea , ther e wa s n o limi t t o ho w fa r h e coul d rise . Although thi s situatio n woul d chang e onc e th e Ai r Forc e establishe d its ow n militar y academ y i n 1955 , durin g th e Korea n Wa r th e majo r requirement fo r hig h ran k wa s a set o f silve r wings an d a flight suit . No t surprisingly, thi s servic e becam e a have n fo r middle - an d working-clas s youth anxiou s t o star t a militar y caree r bu t to o poo r t o pa y fo r fou r years o f college , an d unprepare d t o mee t th e servic e academies ' admis sions requirements . I n a surve y o f 11 5 Ai r Forc e general s an d colonel s from th e 1950 s period , sociologis t Irvin g Case y discovere d tha t 13. 5 percent o f th e general s an d 3 5 percent o f th e colonel s cam e fro m blue collar backgrounds. 10 B y comparison, a simila r surve y o f th e Arm y an d

14 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers Navy b y Morri s Janowit z foun d tha t onl y 5 percent o f it s leadershi p i n 1950 came fro m a working-class background. 11 A few representativ e biographie s o f Korea n Wa r fighte r pilot s follow . These bio s wil l revea l a grou p o f relativel y sh y individualist s who , fo r the mos t part , cam e fro m middle - an d working-clas s backgrounds . A s children, thes e me n wer e captivate d b y th e imag e o f th e pilo t a s see n i n films suc h a s Dawn Patrol wit h Erro l Flynn , o r i n Worl d Wa r I I new s reels abou t fighter pilots . A s youn g adults , the y joine d th e Ai r Forc e because the y could no t affor d colleg e an d wante d t o avoi d bein g drafte d as enliste d men . I n short , the y joine d becaus e the y wante d t o transfor m obligatory militar y servic e int o a glamorous adventure .

Robinson Risne r Born o n 1 6 January 1925 , Robinson Risner 12 gre w up i n the geographi c heart o f th e rura l depressio n o f th e 1930s : Tulsa, Oklahoma . Hi s fathe r struggled t o provid e fo r a famil y o f te n childre n b y workin g firs t a s a sharecropper, the n a s a day labore r wit h the Works Progress Administra tion. To mitigat e th e har d effect s o f rura l poverty , Robbi e worke d durin g most o f hi s childhood. H e starte d ou t a s a newspaper deliver y boy , the n ran errand s fo r th e loca l drugstore , an d finally ende d u p a s a sod a jerk . Risner als o spen t a great dea l o f hi s time wit h a youth grou p ru n b y th e Assemblies o f God . Thi s experienc e inculcate d hi m wit h a stron g belie f in Go d an d helpe d hi m ge t ove r hi s youthfu l shynes s an d insecurity . Sports wer e als o a refug e fo r Robbie : h e wrestle d bot h i n junio r hig h and hig h school . Hi s favorit e activities , however , wer e horses , motorcy cles, an d airplanes . H e bough t a motorcycl e durin g hi s senio r yea r o f high school , an d bega n flyin g ligh t aircraf t soo n afte r hi s graduatio n i n 1942. Flyin g becam e suc h a n addictio n tha t whe n h e turne d eightee n i n 1943, n e decide d t o enlis t i n th e Arm y Ai r Force s (AAF) . Thi s wa s a period whe n th e AA F wa s admittin g pilot s withou t colleg e degrees . Al l Risner ha d t o d o t o b e accepte d int o th e Aviatio n Cadet s progra m wa s pass a two-year colleg e equivalenc y tes t an d a physical . Risner desperatel y wante d t o fl y fighters i n Worl d Wa r II , bu t wa s

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

15

instead assigne d t o Panama. 13 Initially , h e flew P-40S and P-39 S out o f a small jungl e airstri p a t Aguadulce , nea r th e Colombia n border . Fo r Risner, th e 30t h Fighte r Squadro n a t Aguadulc e wa s th e epitom e o f a flight sui t outfit . Th e pilot s live d i n tarpape r shacks , flew every day , an d had ver y fe w othe r duties . Thi s lac k o f responsibilit y combine d wit h loose supervision allowe d nineteen-year-ol d pilot s like Risner t o go com pletely wild. "W e never passed a sailboat o r a kayak o r anythin g withou t turning i t over, " recalle d Risner . "W e als o tangle d fishing net s an d ble w roofs of f o f villag e huts. " Whe n hi s outfi t transferre d t o Howar d Ai r Base, the y brok e al l o f th e glasse s i n th e officers ' clu b durin g thei r first month there , an d wer e barre d fro m th e clu b fo r th e remainde r o f thei r tours. When Risne r wa s no t flying, h e wa s drivin g hi s motorcycl e a t breakneck speed s o n the narrow dir t roads o f Panama. On e day , a frien d insisted o n drivin g Risne r t o tow n o n th e bik e himself . A s luc k woul d have it , thi s frien d drov e th e motorcycl e lik e i t wa s a P-40 . O n a stee p mountain turn , h e decide d t o pas s a bu s an d ende d u p layin g th e bik e down i n th e process . Risne r wa s throw n stomac h first o n th e groun d and shattere d hi s wrist ; hi s frien d di d no t suffe r eve n a scratch . Thi s story, however , ha d a happ y ending . A t th e hospital , Risne r me t hi s future wife : " A cute , blond e Arm y nurs e name d Kathlee n Sha w fro m Ware Shoals , Sout h Carolina. " Femal e companionship , though , di d no t slow thi s youn g flight sui t office r dow n a bit . Instead , Kathlee n becam e his sidekick , an d th e tw o lover s spen t thei r off-hour s flying DD T spray ing mission s o r ridin g throug h th e countrysid e o n Risner' s motorcycle . Upon completio n o f thei r tours , a frien d o f Risner' s wh o wa s a general' s aide arrange d fo r Kathlee n an d Robbi e t o trave l hom e o n th e sam e troopship. Risne r claime d tha t "lyin g o n th e dec k unde r th e moonligh t with th e breez e blowin g acros s ou r bodie s di d it." 1 4 Th e tw o lover s became engage d o n shi p an d wer e marrie d i n Septembe r 1946 , afte r both wer e discharged . Following Panama , Risne r spen t th e nex t five year s workin g a t a variety o f dead-en d civilia n jobs . Initially , h e wen t t o trad e schoo l t o learn ho w t o b e a front-en d alignmen t mechanic . H e the n trie d runnin g a ga s statio n fo r a year , an d finally ende d u p runnin g a four-stor y

16 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers parking an d servic e garage . Fulfillmen t di d no t com e fro m work : i t came fro m flying P-51 S o n th e weekend s an d durin g vacation s wit h th e Oklahoma Ai r Nationa l Guard . Th e highligh t o f Risner' s Guar d caree r was a n unauthorize d flight mad e t o Brownsville , Texas , t o pic k u p shrimp for th e annual "Win g Ding" party. Risner, who lacked experienc e flying wit h instruments , go t los t i n heav y overcas t an d wa s force d t o make a n emergenc y landin g o n a dr y lak e be d i n Mexico . H e ende d u p spending th e nigh t i n hi s cockpi t whil e a hurrican e bombarde d th e Mexican coast , an d i f tha t wa s no t enough , a bul l nearl y gore d hi m th e next day . Whe n h e finally reache d th e comparativ e safet y o f Tampico , local bandito s attempte d t o ro b him . Throug h i t all , Risne r maintaine d a hig h degre e o f humor , eve n whe n th e U.S . Embass y berate d hi m fo r flying a n arme d fighter i n Mexic o an d warne d hi m t o "kee p a lo w profile." When h e returne d t o th e states , Risne r continue d t o trai n har d wit h the Ai r Guar d unti l 1950 , whe n th e Korea n Wa r brok e out . Afte r learning tha t hi s Guar d uni t woul d no t b e sen t over , h e volunteere d fo r service wit h th e 118t h Tactica l Reconnaissanc e Squadron . T o mee t th e jet time requirements fo r thi s position, Risne r flew every day for th e nex t twenty-five day s i n F-8 0 Shootin g Stars . On Risner' s las t da y i n Oklahoma , hi s famil y go t togethe r fo r a farewell picni c a t th e famil y farm . Durin g th e reunion , hi s brothe r brought ou t a beautiful, unbroke n mar e an d challenge d Risne r t o ride it . Although hi s fathe r pleade d wit h hi m no t t o ge t o n th e horse , Risner' s stubborn flight sui t natur e kep t hi m fro m backin g down . H e go t o n th e horse an d too k on e o f th e wors t spill s i n hi s equestria n career , breakin g his han d an d wrist . Bu t thi s wa s hardl y goin g t o sto p Risne r fro m fulfilling hi s drea m o f seein g aeria l comba t i n th e skie s ove r Korea . A t his point o f embarkatio n i n Sa n Francisco , Risne r thre w a raincoat ove r his cas t an d walke d righ t ont o th e transport . Onc e i n Korea , though , h e had t o pas s a physica l befor e h e coul d b e flight certified . Accordin g t o Risner, h e tol d th e docto r tha t th e cas t ha d bee n o n fo r month s an d convinced hi m t o replac e i t wit h a leathe r cove r eve n thoug h th e bone s had no t eve n begu n t o heal . The next day , Risner slippe d hi s wrist ou t o f its sling, put o n a flight suit, and flew his first combat missio n o f the war .

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

17

Earl Brow n Earl Brown's 15 lif e coul d hav e easil y take n a very differen t tur n i f it ha d not bee n fo r th e generosit y o f hi s uncl e an d aunt . Earl , actuall y Willia m Earl, wa s bor n i n th e Bron x o n 5 December 192 7 a t Lincol n Hospital , but soo n afte r hi s birt h hi s natura l parent s spli t u p an d hi s mothe r moved t o Sout h Carolina . Rathe r tha n hav e Ear l liv e with hi s mothe r i n the South , Earl's uncle , a letter carrie r fro m Englewood , Ne w Jersey, an d his aunt , a housekeeper , offere d t o tak e hi m in . Hi s natura l fathe r als o chose to live in the sam e town, where h e worked a s a chauffeur an d late r as the manager o f a small sewin g factory . Englewood wa s a middle-clas s bedroo m communit y o f Ne w Yor k City, complete with tree-line d streets , parks, and two-stor y bric k houses . Although hi s ward , th e 4th , wa s primaril y black , a s wa s Earl' s family , Earl's hous e wa s locate d o n a raciall y integrate d bloc k an d ha d a two car garage . Th e peopl e i n hi s neighborhoo d range d fro m professional s to tradesmen, bu t al l considered themselve s t o b e middle class . What wa s remarkabl e abou t Earl' s childhoo d wa s it s stability . Hi s uncle ha d a secur e civi l servan t positio n durin g a perio d o f grea t eco nomic uncertainty . Ear l could wal k t o school , to the park, t o town , o r t o church. Hi s doctor , th e onl y blac k physicia n i n town , live d acros s th e street, and th e community house , where h e attended scou t meetings, wa s only a bloc k away . In short , hi s entir e childhoo d worl d wa s self-con tained an d ordered . O n weekdays , Ear l attende d schoo l an d playe d i n the loca l park ; o n Sundays , h e wen t t o church . T o ear n money , Ear l helped hi s aun t clea n houses— a jo b whic h gav e hi m th e opportunit y t o borrow book s fro m th e persona l librarie s o f th e town' s wealth y citizens . Earl also delivered tw o majo r blac k weeklies : The Amsterdam News an d The African American. Durin g Worl d Wa r II , thes e paper s containe d many storie s o n black s i n th e military , especiall y Benjami n Davis , Jr. , and th e Tuskege e airmen . "Thei r trainin g a t Tuskegee , thei r mission s oversees, an d thei r individua l stories, " Ear l recalls , "provide d m e with a whole serie s o f rol e model s wh o wer e doin g somethin g tha t I neve r dreamed a blac k ma n woul d b e allowe d t o do. " Anothe r ma n wh o inspired Ear l wa s Charle s Lindbergh . Lindberg h marrie d a youn g gir l

18 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers from Englewoo d name d Ann e Morrow ; h e als o parke d hi s airplan e a t nearby Teterbor o Airpor t befor e hi s nonsto p fligh t t o Mexic o Cit y i n 1927.

During hig h school , Ear l becam e a sta r pole-vaulte r an d eve n se t a number o f stat e records . Thi s experienc e place d hi m i n th e athleti c clique, an d als o mad e hi m eligibl e fo r colleg e athleti c scholarships . Although hi s uncl e graduate d fro m th e prestigiou s Hampto n college , a black institution , a n alumnu s o f Pen n Stat e wh o ha d see n Brow n o n th e track tea m convince d hi m t o g o t o Pen n Stat e instead . Thus , Ear l woul d continue t o remai n i n a n integrated , middle-clas s environment . At Pen n State , Ear l too k pre-me d course s becaus e hi s natura l fathe r wanted hi m t o b e a doctor . Unfortunately , h e di d no t d o wel l i n chemis try an d theoretica l physics ; consequently , whe n h e applie d t o medica l schools i n 194 9 h e wa s rejecte d acros s th e board . Brow n blame s hi s poor academi c performanc e o n a n overextende d colleg e schedule . I n addition t o spendin g fou r year s o n th e trac k team , Brow n worke d a s a maintenance perso n i n fraternit y house s an d wa s a membe r o f th e Pen n State ROT C uni t fo r tw o years . Track participatio n wa s a conditio n o f hi s athleti c scholarship ; tw o years o f ROT C wa s a universit y requirement ; an d wor k wa s necessar y to supplemen t hi s incom e an d pa y fo r hi s roo m an d board . Brown , i n short, wa s ver y activ e i n college , bu t primaril y fo r financial reasons . I n fact, hi s onl y activit y whic h di d no t fulfil l som e requiremen t wa s hi s membership i n th e all-blac k fraternity , Omeg a S i Phi . Bu t h e wa s to o busy t o enjo y fraternit y lif e and , moreover , "neve r considere d himsel f t o be a joiner o r a fraternity typ e o f guy. " Considering tha t Brow n eventuall y ros e t o th e ran k o f three-sta r general i n th e Ai r Force , i t i s somewha t ironi c tha t h e di d no t continu e his ROT C training . H e wa s turne d awa y fro m a military caree r earl y o n by a forme r B-1 7 pilo t i n hi s boardinghous e name d Smitty . Smitt y ha d witnessed th e hig h los s rate s o f th e Eight h Ai r Forc e i n Europ e an d ha d become ver y anti-militar y a s a result . A t th e boardinghous e h e advise d all th e youn g student s t o "sta y awa y fro m th e ROTC! " Brow n heede d this advice , and i n the end , i t cost hi m tw o year s i n grade . Rather tha n flying airplane s afte r college , Brown ende d u p drivin g a n

While training demanded that aviation cadets wear clean, pressed uniforms, pilots, once in the field, would quickly jettison this regulation look. (Courtesy United States Air Force)

A chorus line on the flight line? These aviation cadets walk hand in hand down the flight line of Hondo Air Force Base, Texas, in 1952. Training initiated young pilots into the brotherhood of the flight suit. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Four Headbunters of the 8oth Fighter-Bomber Squadron eat their powdered eggs before another mission up north. The tension of the moment is evident in the expressions on the pilots' faces and the lack of conversation at the table. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Flight leader Captain John S. Stoer briefs an F-94 crew prior to an alert mission, August 1953. Note the laid-back atmosphere of this briefing room: wicker easy chairs and feet on the table. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

With the briefing over and the equipment checked and ready for takeoff, these pilots read while on standby alert. Note the baseball cap worn by the pilot on the left. These hats were an important part of unit pride and flight suit elan: each squadron in Korea had its own baseball caps custom made in Japan. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

With the eerie confidence that comes from having flown thirtyxe fighter-bomber missions, Lieutenant Louis A. Dupont, an F-84 pilot with the zyth Wing, calmly eats a carton of ice cream as a he waits for "start engine time." (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Four flight suit officers of the 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing walk back to their alert shack after pulling a two-minute alert on the flight pad at Kimpo field, December 1953- From left to right: Second Lieutenant Charles L. Jones, First Lieutenant Ken Soloman, Second Lieutenant D. N. Mooney, and Second Lieutenant Don Harryman. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

A formation of checker-tail F-86 Sabre jets from the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing turn over MiG Alley, October 1952. The F-86 was the Air Force's top-of-the-line fighter-interceptor during the Korean War. Although its chief rival, the MiG-15, could out-accelerate, out-climb, and out-zoom the F-86 at any altitude and enjoyed an estimated minimum 5,000-foot top ceiling advantage, the Sabre pilots generally defeated their Communist counterparts over the skies of MiG Alley. This was mainly due to superior pilot training and skills; however, certain technological advantages also contributed to the plane's legendary success. Although clearly slower, the Sabre could out-turn the MiG in level or diving turns below 30,000 feet, and could out-dive it in sustained dives. The Sabre also had a more sophisticated, radar-ranging gun sight, heavy armor plate, bulletproof glass, and adequate cockpit pressurization and temperature controls. It was truly the Cadillac of fighter aircraft during the Korean War. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

FACING PAGE : Air Force F-84 Thunderjets of the 447th Fighter-Bomber Wing set out on a bombing run against targets in North Korea. The Republic F-84 was the Air Force's workhorse fighter-bomber. Although much too slow to challenge the MiG-ij, it developed the reputation of being the best groundsupport fighter in the theater. By the end of the war, a total of 335 of these aircraft were lost, and more than 50 percent of these losses were due to ground fire. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Pictured here is a MiG-ij which was flown to Kimpo Air Force outside of Seoul on zi September 1953 by a North Korean defector. Air Force markings were painted on the plane so it could be safely flown to Japan. (Courtesy Far East Air Force)

Suspected troop concentration point or innocent civilian village* The fire at the top of this picture reveals the destructive power of napalm. These bombs, made from jellied gasoline, were a staple weapon in the air war against North Korea. January 1951. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

An Air Force H-19 helicopter of the 3rd Air Rescue Group is seen hoisting this unidentified airman from Far East waters. This airman was lucky. Pilots who hailed out over the North Korean peninsula were generally captured. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Lieutenant Donald P. Stretch inspects a basketball-size hole blown in the wing of his F-80 Shooting Star during a Fifth Air Force close air support mission in March 1951. Note Lieutenant Stretch's "Mae West"-style life jacket, his large survival knife, and flight suit hairstyle —long, unwashed, and uncombed. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Pilot James Hagerstrom's iootb mission photograph. (Courtesy Virginia Hagerstrom)

Pilot M. J. Bailey stands in front of his F-80, Pat's Pot. The name refers to his wife Pat, who was pregnant when he left for Korea. (Courtesy Jim Bailey)

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

19

ambulance fo r Harle m Hospita l o n th e graveyar d shift— a toug h jo b which involve d wearin g a whit e sui t an d pickin g u p diabetics , drunks , and th e homeles s a t al l hour s o f th e night . Hi s pla n wa s t o driv e a n ambulance unti l h e coul d ge t int o medica l school . "Instead , th e Korea n War brok e ou t tha t summer, " recall s Brown , "an d I applie d fo r th e Aviation Cade t progra m t o avoi d th e draft. " Th e Ai r Force , i n short , was no t par t o f hi s origina l caree r plans . Brow n wa s no t atypical . Onl y one pilo t i n th e stud y intende d t o mak e th e Ai r Forc e a caree r fro m th e very start , an d h e was a West Pointer .

Woodrow Crocket t While Ear l Brow n enjoye d a comfortable , middle-clas s childhood , Woodrow (Woody ) Crockett's 16 vacillate d betwee n lowe r middl e clas s and poor . Crocket t spen t hi s earl y childhoo d i n th e impoverishe d share cropper communit y o f Homan , Arkansas , abou t eigh t miles from Texar kana, an d thirty-fiv e mile s from Hope . Late r o n i n hig h schoo l h e woul d travel t o Littl e Rock , bu t throug h i t all , hi s exposur e t o rural , blac k poverty a t a formativ e ag e woul d leav e a n indelibl e impression . Wood y knew tha t h e ha d t o succee d a t al l cost s t o avoi d a lif e a s a plantatio n laborer. Fortunately, Crocket t ha d a mothe r wh o wa s jus t a s devote d t o hi s success a s h e was . Sh e ra n a two-roo m elementar y schoo l fo r blac k children an d taugh t th e first throug h fourt h grades . Becaus e mos t othe r professional occupation s wer e denie d t o Africa n Americans , teaching , like postal work, wa s a very prestigious professio n fo r black s in the earl y twentieth century . (I t i s interestin g tha t th e mothe r o f Chappi e James , the first four-sta r blac k genera l i n th e Ai r Force , als o ra n a schoo l fo r black children. ) No t surprisingly , Crockett' s mothe r wa s a pilla r o f he r community. Beside s teaching , sh e als o attende d teache r trainin g session s at Pin e Bluf f o n weekends , taugh t Sunda y school , an d ra n a molasse s mill t o supplemen t th e famil y income . Man y year s late r a t th e ag e o f sixty, she received he r B.A . from Texa s College . She died on e year later . If hi s mothe r provide d th e positiv e incentive s fo r Wood y t o succeed , his physica l surrounding s lef t muc h t o b e desired . Crockett , th e fifth

2o • An Absence of Ring-Knockers child i n a six-chil d family , gre w u p i n a three-roo m hous e whic h con sisted o f a kitchen, tw o bedrooms , an d a hallway i n between . Excep t fo r a smal l wood stove , this house had n o amenities—no centra l heating, n o telephone, n o insulation , n o bathroom , n o plumbing , an d n o electricity . Woody share d a be d wit h tw o olde r brother s an d wa s force d t o slee p i n the middle. To get to school , he relied o n a horse-drawn buggy . Woody' s material conditions , though , wer e fa r superio r t o th e averag e sharecrop pers, who live d i n true shacks . Because opportunitie s i n Homa n wer e s o blea k fo r Africa n Ameri cans, Crockett' s parent s decide d t o sen d hi m t o a ne w blac k hig h schoo l in Littl e Roc k calle d Pau l Lawrenc e Dunba r High . Fortunatel y fo r Woody, his basic livin g expenses whil e in Little Roc k woul d b e provide d for b y his sister, a nurse a t th e count y hospita l wh o earne d a n incom e o f sixty dollar s a month . However , soo n afte r h e starte d school , hi s siste r was lai d off , an d thing s becam e ver y difficult . Wood y an d hi s siste r moved int o a $i.23-a-wee k boardinghous e an d wer e force d t o starv e themselves i n order t o mee t the ren t payments . " I remember onl y havin g ten cent s a day for dinner, " recall s Woody, "an d s o we bough t five cents' worth o f por k an d five cents ' wort h o f bean s an d tha t wa s dinne r da y after da y afte r day. " Althoug h beans , pork , an d cor n brea d curbe d hi s hunger durin g thes e lea n years , clothin g need s becam e a mor e difficul t problem t o solve . Afte r h e go t dow n t o on e pai r o f trousers , Crocket t was s o ashamed tha t h e couldn't fac e hi s classmates, and bega n t o avoi d school—a difficul t crisi s for thi s straight- A student . Life improve d somewha t fo r Wood y towar d th e en d o f hig h schoo l when hi s siste r go t a jo b a s a housekeepe r fo r th e Webste r family . Mr. Webste r wa s a n enginee r fo r th e Roc k Islan d Railroad , an d h e paid Crockett' s siste r a smal l salar y o f five dollars a mont h an d allowe d her an d Wood y t o liv e in a one-room apartmen t ove r th e garage. Wood y cut gras s i n th e neighborhoo d fo r twenty-fiv e cent s a law n an d performed othe r housekeepin g duties . H e als o worke d a s a mes s atten dant fo r th e Nationa l Guar d a t For t Robinson . "Manua l labo r an d plantation life, " claim s Woody, "wer e prim e motivator s t o wor k har d i n school." Woody worke d s o har d tha t hi s siste r agree d t o pa y fo r par t o f hi s

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

21

college education . Becaus e Dunba r Hig h ha d a junio r college , Crocket t stayed ther e an d taugh t integra l calculu s t o hel p defra y hi s college costs : his goal wa s "t o becom e a Ph.D . i n mat h a t ag e twenty-five. " However , he fel t guilt y abou t "takin g mone y fro m hi s sister, " an d s o h e worke d twelve-hour day s a s a dishwashe r a t a loca l caf e i n a desperat e attemp t to pay fo r college . When thi s attemp t failed , Crocket t looke d t o the U.S. Army a s a n economi c solution : "M y pla n wa s t o sav e mone y fo r thre e years an d com e bac k an d finish m y education , bu t th e Pear l Harbo r attack occurre d durin g tha t perio d an d I never coul d ge t back. " Crockett, o n 1 8 Augus t 1940 , wa s assigne d t o th e 349t h Fiel d Artil lery Regiment a t For t Sill , Oklahoma. Th e 349t h wa s the first blac k field artillery regimen t i n th e regula r Army . I t wa s activate d tw o day s befor e Crockett arrived , an d wa s equippe d wit h th e twenty-four-mode l 191 8 French 155-millimete r guns , on e o f th e larges t single-loa d gun s i n th e army inventor y a t th e time . Thes e gun s weighe d mor e tha n 28,00 0 pounds an d coul d fire a ninety-five-poun d shel l 18,00 0 yards . A ten-to n International Harveste r tracto r wa s procure d t o mov e thes e massiv e weapons. 17 Needles s t o say , a n assignmen t t o thi s elit e uni t wa s presti gious, an d Crocket t excelle d a s a soldier . Hi s mat h skill s an d persona l discipline helpe d hi m ris e quickl y t o th e ran k o f sergean t b y Octobe r 1941, an d als o earne d hi m th e Mode l Soldie r o f th e Regimen t awar d i n 1942. Hi s commander , Lieutenan t Colone l Charle s Boyle , wrot e th e following abou t Crocket t i n hi s commendatio n order : "Thi s Mode l Soldier ha s hig h technica l skil l an d ha s exhibite d soldierl y qualitie s o f leadership, loyalt y an d initiative . Sergean t Crocket t ha s n o disciplinar y action agains t hi m an d ha s los t n o tim e unde r th e 107t h Articl e o f War . His servic e an d characte r se t a standar d fo r me n o f thi s regimen t t o attain." 18 Wit h thi s award , Crocket t als o received a recommendation t o attend Officers ' Candidat e Schoo l (OCS) . Crocket t woul d hav e entere d the standard Arm y OC S if it had no t bee n for a n Arm y Air Forces poste r in hi s orderl y roo m tha t encourage d me n t o joi n th e AA F pilo t corp s and ear n $24 5 a month . Tha t capture d Crockett' s attentio n becaus e second lieutenant s i n th e regula r arm y wer e earnin g onl y $125 , an d privates, $21 . "I f yo u ha d t o b e i n th e service, " figured Crockett , "wh y not g o fo r th e bes t an d mos t excitin g job. " Crockett , lik e Brown , wa s

22 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers not motivate d t o joi n th e Ai r Forc e fo r a career ; i t wa s simpl y th e bes t option availabl e fo r someon e anxiou s t o fulfil l hi s military obligatio n i n a prestigiou s manne r an d ear n mone y fo r schoo l i n the process .

Frank Tomlinso n As emphasized earlier , the young Air Force, on balance, was not officere d by me n fro m elit e backgrounds . However , ther e wer e exceptions , an d Frank Tomlinson 19 wa s on e o f them . No t onl y di d h e come fro m a lon g line o f Souther n plantatio n owners , bu t hi s famil y wer e Episcopalian s and h e could poin t t o relative s wh o ha d fough t i n ever y major America n war. Ironically , despit e thi s background , Tomlinso n joine d th e Ai r Forc e for th e sam e basi c reason s a s Crocket t an d Brown—t o avoi d th e draf t and fulfil l hi s military obligatio n unde r th e bes t o f circumstances . Tomlinson wa s bor n i n Pin e Bluff , Arkansas , i n 1929 . His fathe r wa s a civi l engineer-turne d cotto n broker , an d hi s mothe r wa s a n activ e member o f Arkansa s society . The Tomlinso n famil y coul d trac e it s root s back t o 1620 , whe n th e first Tomlinso n cam e ove r a s a n indenture d servant. John Knox , Georg e Washington's chie f o f artillery , was a distan t relative, an d Tomlinson' s great-grandfathe r Jenkin s wa s a cavalr y com mander i n the Texas cavalr y unde r Genera l John Hood , th e Confederat e general wh o unsuccessfull y defende d Atlant a agains t Sherman' s assaults . After th e Civi l War , Tomlinson' s famil y manage d t o hol d ont o it s posi tion a s part o f th e Arkansa s elit e b y retaining thre e plantations . Tomlin son's aun t eve n designe d th e Arkansas stat e seal . However, wit h th e Grea t Depression , th e Tomlinsons ' socia l standin g began t o decline . Th e famil y los t tw o o f it s plantations , an d Frank' s father los t hi s jo b a s a civi l engineer . Whil e th e senio r Tomlinso n wa s "devastated ove r havin g t o becom e a mer e mortal, " th e Depressio n di d not bothe r th e so n to o much . Th e famil y stil l manage d t o liv e i n a bi g house wit h fort y acre s an d tw o blac k sharecroppe r families . Foo d wa s never a proble m becaus e muc h o f i t was grow n o r hunte d o n th e famil y land. "Frankly , lif e wa s kin d o f fun, " h e recalled , " I spen t a lo t o f tim e in the woods, hunting an d fishing, an d sor t o f grew u p b y myself."

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

23

In hig h school , Tomlinso n kep t t o himsel f an d quietl y pursue d hi s studies; a t home , mos t o f th e famil y attentio n focuse d o n hi s sister , a debutante wh o wa s "th e darlin g o f society " i n Pin e Bluff . Becaus e sh e had the biggest house in town, Tomlinson's mother hoste d weekl y partie s for debutante s an d Aviatio n Cadet s fro m nearb y Greenvill e Field . A cadet (late r a B-2 9 pilot) name d Le s Helmes eventuall y marrie d Frank' s sister; however , accordin g t o Frank , h e ha d "n o influenc e whatsoever " on his decision t o join th e Air Force. Upon graduation , Tomlinson' s mothe r wante d hi m to pursue a bank ing caree r an d mak e money ; obediently , Tomlinso n becam e a finance major a t th e Universit y o f Oklahom a i n 1947 . Oklahom a wa s chea p (about thre e hundre d dollar s a semeste r total ) an d ha d a goo d footbal l team. " I als o go t the heck awa y fro m m y mother an d th e societ y tha t I didn't fee l a grea t par t o f anyway, " recalle d Tomlinson . "I t wa s a goo d choice. I enjoyed it. " Unfortunately fo r Tomlinson , colleg e lif e wa s cu t shor t afte r tw o years du e to a lac k o f money , an d Fran k lef t schoo l t o wor k a s a ban k clerk i n Pin e Bluff . A yea r late r i n 1950 , Tomlinson discovere d h e was number on e o n th e loca l draft . H e quickl y applie d t o th e Aviatio n Cadets. No t onl y di d th e Air Forc e solv e hi s draf t problem , bu t i t als o got hi m "th e heck ou t of Arkansas." I t enabled hi m to leav e a dead-en d job an d domineerin g mothe r fo r a n opportunit y t o fly one of the fastes t fighter aircraf t o f the period—the F-8 6 Sabre. He too k al l the tests in July 1950 , was accepted, an d then was told b y the loca l recruite r t o g o hom e an d wai t fo r orders . Fran k waite d an d waited unti l hi s defermen t ende d aroun d Januar y 1951 . He the n re turned t o the recruiter wh o told hi m the following: "Well , we can't find your paperwork , w e know they'r e goin g t o draf t you , and so we'll sen d you t o becom e a n enliste d man , an d the n we'l l find you r paperwork. " And tha t i s how Tomlinson entere d th e eight-week basi c trainin g cours e at Lacklan d Ai r Force Bas e in San Antonio, Texas. At Lacklan d a s a one-striper , Tomlinso n dreame d o f on e day makin g buck sergeant . T o him, it wa s al l a "gran d adventure. " I t wa s th e first time h e ha d eve r bee n o n a train , see n tal l buildings , an d watche d

24 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers television. 40,00 0 me n live d a t Lackland , som e i n tents , an d mos t ha d signed u p wit h th e Ai r Forc e t o avoi d th e draft . Tomlinso n remembere d the routin e a s follows : Initially, everybody go t u p a t fiv e i n the morning , an d yo u would shave , shower, clea n up , mak e you r bunk , ge t read y fo r inspection ; the n yo u would fal l out , usuall y abou t 6 o'clock. Hav e inspection , ge t inspected , march t o th e dinin g hall , eat , com e back , hav e a fe w minute s t o finish getting th e barrack s ready , an d the n yo u woul d b e ou t for , uh , eithe r calisthenics or a specific course: hygiene, medicine, all the basic things that they assum e nobod y knows , which i s probably righ t s o I can't complai n about anything . And then you learne d abou t chemica l warfare , an d the n you wen t t o th e rifl e rang e an d di d al l the basi c stuff tha t peopl e had t o know about. After basic , he was assigne d t o Perri n AFB , in Sherman , Texas, as a onestriper unti l hi s cadet clas s bega n i n November 1951 . "I neve r di d mak e buck sergeant, " h e laments. " I guess my initial caree r wa s a failure. "

Robert Pomero y Like Tomlinson, Robert Pomeroy 20 als o came from a n elite background . Because h e i s th e onl y Wes t Pointe r i n thi s study , hi s experiences , lik e Tomlinson's, provide a n interestin g contras t t o th e others . Pomeroy gre w u p i n Dalton , Massachusetts , a smal l mil l tow n i n th e western portio n o f th e state . His fathe r ra n th e Ba y State Mil l fo r Cran e Paper Company , a compan y famou s fo r makin g fin e stationar y an d currency pape r fo r U.S . dollar bills , stocks , an d bonds . H e als o wa s th e superintendent o f compan y housin g an d th e chairma n o f th e tow n fi nance committee . Althoug h Dalto n wa s ru n b y a boar d o f selectmen , "most peopl e considere d hi m t o b e the unofficia l mayor " becaus e o f hi s various title s an d becaus e "h e ha d th e ea r o f th e Cran e family. " Lik e many othe r mil l towns , corporat e paternalis m prevaile d i n Dalton : th e Crane company pai d fo r a portion o f the school budget , provided colleg e scholarships fo r youth , pave d th e roads , an d owne d mos t o f th e rea l estate i n town . A s th e chie f Cran e executiv e i n th e town , Mr . Pomero y had considerabl e influence . However , becaus e h e retire d fro m th e com -

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

25

pany whe n Rober t wa s i n hig h school , hi s influenc e wane d durin g Robert's adolescen t years . As woul d b e expecte d fo r a prominen t family , th e Pomeroy s live d i n the nices t par t o f town , i n thi s case , a n elevate d are a awa y fro m th e mills. Robert gre w u p playing the clarinet, buildin g model airplanes , an d playing sports . Although h e was neve r a great player , basketbal l wa s hi s passion, an d h e considered himsel f t o b e a n integra l membe r o f th e hig h school basketbal l clique . Rober t als o playe d clarine t fo r th e hig h schoo l band. H e eventuall y starte d a swin g ban d whic h toure d th e environ s o f western Massachusetts , includin g suc h spot s a s the Nort h Adam s Polis h American Clu b an d th e Grang e Hall . Unlike mos t o f th e othe r pilot s i n thi s study , Pomero y decide d o n a military caree r earl y i n life . A s a youn g man , h e gaine d earl y militar y exposure fro m a scoutmaste r wh o ra n th e Dalto n troo p "lik e a battal ion." Durin g World Wa r II, he served a s the high schoo l ai r raid warden , a spotter , an d a courie r fo r th e Dalto n civi l defens e organization . Mor e influential, though , wa s hi s brother, a n air-minde d youn g ma n wh o buil t model airplane s an d late r becam e a B-2 4 pilo t wit h th e 480t h Anti submarine Warfar e Command . On e o f Pomeroy' s greates t memorie s from childhoo d wa s watchin g hi s brothe r an d othe r youn g me n flying gas-powered mode l airplanes : "Befor e radi o control , peopl e woul d loa d a plan e u p with ga s and hav e car s chase i t for u p t o fiv e miles. " Another perso n wh o opene d Robert' s min d t o th e potentia l o f avia tion wa s Alexande r d e Seversky . Seversky' s book , Victory through Air Power, "wa s th e first book o n theory I had eve r read," recalle d Pomeroy . "It mad e ai r power accessibl e t o th e la y person. " Although aviatio n wa s hi s dream , a practica l desir e t o ear n a colleg e degree convince d Pomero y t o see k admissio n t o th e U.S . Military Acad emy a t West Point . Bu t the roa d t o West Poin t wa s impede d b y a variet y of cours e prerequisite s tha t coul d no t b e me t throug h a n ordinar y hig h school curriculum . Consequently , Pomero y ha d t o atten d a special , pri vate preparatory schoo l to take the special courses needed fo r admission . Fortunately fo r him , mone y wa s no t a grea t proble m an d hi s fathe r chose t o sen d hi m t o Peekskil l Militar y Academ y (PMA ) i n Peekskill ,

z6 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers New York . Coincidentally , Peekskill' s mai n squar e i s grace d wit h a statue o f Robert' s distan t relative , Genera l Set h Pomeroy , a Revolution ary Wa r genera l wh o fough t a t th e battl e o f Bunke r Hill . Pomero y lef t his bes t friends , hi s girlfriend , an d a n opportunit y t o pla y wit h th e Dalton basebal l team i n the state championships a t Fenway Park (Dalto n lost) i n orde r t o atten d PM A fo r hi s senio r year . Wha t Pomero y discov ered whe n h e go t ther e wa s a n elitis t schoo l wit h n o blacks , a plac e where Puert o Rican s an d Mexica n American s wer e calle d "spies, " an d Jews, "kikes. " Whil e a t PMA , Pomero y me t hi s futur e wif e a t a loca l dance an d me t a gay man fo r th e first time, an English teache r wh o wor e his neckti e ove r hi s shoulder . PMA , i n short , opene d Pomeroy' s eye s t o the real world . At PMA , Rober t als o joine d th e basketbal l an d footbal l teams , bu t was ver y muc h a "middlin g athlete. " O n th e firs t da y o f footbal l prac tice, he wa s first-string varsity ; a week later , h e was second-strin g junio r varsity. Sports , however , woul d alway s b e a par t o f hi s life : late r i n hi s career, Pomero y coache d a n intramura l tea m a t th e Ai r Forc e Academy , and a championshi p tea m a t th e Roya l Ai r Forc e Colleg e a t Cranwell , England. After a yea r a t PMA , Pomero y passe d th e entranc e examinatio n an d was mad e a principa l alternat e t o atten d th e U.S . Militar y Academ y a t West Point. At his academy intervie w i n New York City , the interviewin g officer aske d hi m i f h e ha d eve r ha d a "homosexua l experience, " t o which h e replied: "Homosexua l experience ? I never ha d a sexual experi ence!" Pomeroy's militar y academ y year s wer e typical. 21 A s h e admit s him self, "Yo u ha d t o b e craz y t o enjo y lif e a t a servic e academy , bu t yo u stick t o i t becaus e o f th e reward s a t th e end—career , knowledge , an d good officership. " Besides , i f i t ha d no t bee n fo r Wes t Point , Pomero y "might hav e ende d u p a s a glider pilot. " In th e end , h e graduated 139t h in a clas s o f 301 , and lik e 11 1 o f hi s classmates , pursue d aviatio n a s a military career . Th e clas s o f '4 8 wa s th e las t clas s t o sen d mor e tha n 2 5 percent o f it s graduates t o th e Air Force .

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

27

Paul Turne r Paul Turner 22 applie d t o a militar y academ y (th e U.S . Naval Academy) , but h e di d no t ge t in . Unlik e Pomeroy , h e neve r ha d th e opportunit y t o attend pre p schoo l o r pla y basketball , no r wa s hi s fathe r a n importan t figure i n local politics. Instead, Pau l worked hi s way through junio r hig h school, high school , and junio r college . Turner, in short, live d a workingclass existenc e durin g childhood—a n experienc e mor e commo n amon g pilots than Pomeroy' s privilege d background . Turner wa s bor n i n Sacramento , California , i n 1929 . Hi s mother , a nurse, ha d immigrate d fro m Liverpool , England , whe n sh e wa s fifteen, and settle d o n th e Wes t Coast . In California , sh e me t he r husband , a switchman wh o "boomed " aroun d th e countr y wit h th e railroads . H e also wa s a n officia l wit h th e SNAKES , the Switchman' s Unio n o f Nort h America. Thi s combinatio n o f labo r activis m an d railroa d wor k mean t that Paul' s fathe r wa s rarely home . At one point, th e father eve n got int o dispute wit h Samue l Gomper s an d wa s force d t o g o int o hidin g fo r tw o years. When hi s father wa s home, he would allo w laid-off worker s to live in th e garag e o f thei r smal l two-bedroo m ranch . "H e didn' t se e the m as hobos, h e saw the m a s men dow n o n thei r luck, " recalle d Turner . Paul gained exposur e to working-class lif e not onl y through hi s father , he als o experienced i t personally a s a railroad callboy . Hi s job wa s t o g o around tow n a t od d hour s o f nigh t an d roun d u p trai n crews . Late r i n high school , he left th e railroad s t o becom e a printer's "devil"— a mess y job which involve d makin g matte s fo r advertisement s an d puttin g al l th e type i n th e printin g plates . Wor k wa s necessar y becaus e mone y wa s extremely tight . Da d woul d scroung e fo r potatoe s i n railroa d cars , an d the Turner s woul d observ e meatles s day s o n countles s occasions . Through i t all , Pau l develope d a profoun d respec t fo r th e pligh t o f th e worker an d workers ' movements— a respec t tha t woul d late r sav e hi s life durin g interrogatio n session s nea r Pyokton g Numbe r 2 PO W cam p in North Korea . Although lif e wa s certainl y har d fo r Pau l a s a child , ther e wer e a fe w bright spots . His father' s positio n i n th e railroad s allowe d Pau l t o trave l free t o local Californi a sk i spots. He would ge t up at two i n the morning ,

28 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers travel t o Sugarbow l i n the Sierras , work th e sk i lifts i n the morning , an d then sk i all afternoon. Skiing , in turn, becam e a lifelong passion . "Skiin g is much lik e flying," Pau l believes . "Yo u ar e al l alone u p there an d whe n things ge t mixe d up , it' s al l u p t o you. " Throug h skiing , Pau l me t man y Army Ai r Force pilots. Because AAF pilot salarie s were relativel y hig h i n the 1940s , these men ha d plent y o f spendin g money . Seein g these men i n their smar t uniform s an d hearin g thei r storie s o n th e lon g lif t ride s inspired Paul : he dreame d o f becomin g a pilot himself . One non-pilo t wh o influence d Pau l wa s Dic k Buick , th e sk i race r whose stor y i s depicte d i n th e film The Other Side of the Mountain. 23 Dick helpe d Pau l becom e a proficient enoug h race r t o ear n a ski scholar ship t o atten d Colorad o College . Unfortunatel y eve n wit h th e scholar ship, expense s wer e to o hig h a t thi s elite , privat e college , an d Turne r instead live d at home an d attende d Sacrament o Cit y College (no w Sacra mento State) . Years later, Dick would tel l Paul that h e would gladl y hav e given u p hi s racing career jus t t o hav e flow n th e F-86 . In additio n t o skiing , Paul als o had a keen interes t i n aviation . On e of his earliest memories wa s hearing a plane i n the ai r an d wonderin g wha t it was . A s a child , Turne r buil t model s an d gre w u p o n movie s lik e Dawn Patrol. T o him, aviatio n represente d "th e chanc e t o d o you r ow n thing without limits. " In high school , he "followe d Worl d War II in grea t detail, an d enjoye d ever y minut e o f it. " Late r a s a colleg e student , Paul worke d a s a n aviatio n mechani c a t McClella n AF B in Sacrament o installing communication s equipmen t i n B-29S. Eventually, work an d schoo l becam e too difficul t t o balance , and Pau l left Sacrament o Cit y Colleg e with a n associate' s degre e to work ful l tim e as a n aviatio n mechanic . Th e yea r wa s 1950 , an d soo n Americ a wa s embroiled i n th e Korea n War . A s a youn g ma n wit h n o deferment , th e draft appeare d inevitabl e t o Paul , an d so , like Tomlinson, Crockett , an d Brown, h e said "t o hel l with this, " an d applie d fo r th e Aviation Cadets .

M. J. Bailey Like Turner, M. J. Bailey 24 cam e fro m a humble background , worke d a s an aircraf t mechanic , an d joine d th e Ai r Forc e primaril y t o avoi d bein g drafted int o the Army .

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

29

Bailey wa s bor n i n Winona , Wisconsin , o n 2 2 Septembe r 1922 , bu t was raised i n Huntington Park , California , wher e hi s father worke d a s a barber. H e attende d Bel l Hig h Schoo l an d enjoye d science . A s a futur e flight sui t officer , i t i s not surprisin g tha t hi s favorit e hobb y wa s drivin g hot rod s (Mode l A Ford s equippe d wit h V- 8 engines ) o n dr y lak e beds , places where h e would late r fl y F-8os a s a test pilot . After graduatin g fro m hig h school , Baile y too k a civi l servic e tes t i n aircraft mechanic s an d the n wen t t o wor k a t McClella n Fiel d a s a civi l service P-38 mechanic . In 1942 , Baile y enliste d i n th e Aviatio n Cade t progra m a t Mathe r Field near Sacramento , California , an d graduate d i n class 44G i n Augus t 1944 a s a P-4 0 fighter pilot . Fo r th e remainde r o f Worl d Wa r II , Baile y flew groun d suppor t mission s i n P-40 S for th e 6t h Fighte r Squadron , 1s t Air Command o Grou p i n Assansal , India . Th e 1s t Ai r Commando , under Phi l Cochran, was a composite group consisting of fighters, bomb ers, transports , an d liaiso n aircraft . Mos t o f it s wor k wa s i n Burm a i n support o f Genera l Joseph Stillwell' s operations . After th e war , Baile y fle w P-8o s an d Bel l P-5 9 jet s a s a tes t pilo t a t Mather Fiel d an d late r wit h th e 412t h an d the n th e 445t h Squadron . When th e Korean War erupted , Baile y was a reserve office r wh o ha d jus t been cu t fro m th e forc e an d awaitin g discharg e a t Sheppar d Ai r Forc e Base in Wichita Falls , Texas. In earl y July 1950 , Bailey was schedule d t o go befor e a pilo t evaluatio n boar d an d wa s expectin g t o los e hi s wing s and b e discharge d becaus e th e Ai r Forc e wa s "gettin g ri d o f surplu s reserve officer s a t th e time. " Instead , o n th e mornin g o f 4 Jul y 1950 , Bailey was awakene d a t 070 0 an d tol d t o repor t t o Nelli s AFB, near La s Vegas, Nevada . H e wa s goin g t o gunner y school . Korea , i n short , gav e Bailey a new "leas e o n life. " Rathe r tha n havin g t o leav e the servic e an d face th e civilia n jo b marke t withou t a colleg e degree , Kore a gav e Baile y the opportunit y t o fly F-8os with th e 7t h Squadron , 49t h Group .

George Berk e Most o f th e pilot s i n thi s stud y hav e fon d childhoo d memorie s o f avia tion, bu t fe w joine d th e Ai r Forc e solel y t o becom e a pilot—draf t avoidance, salary , an d statu s wer e equall y importan t aspect s o f thei r

30 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers decision-making calculus . Bu t fo r Georg e Berke, 25 flyin g wa s th e onl y goal, and th e Air Force was a natural wa y t o achiev e it . Born i n Plainfield , Ne w Jersey , o n 8 June 1927 , Berk e gre w u p a s a "nonobservant Jew " i n the middle-class "WASP " town o f Westfield. Hi s father ra n a gas station, an d Georg e worke d ther e part-tim e "t o kee p u p with hi s wealthie r friends. " Lik e Turner , Georg e pai d clos e attentio n t o World Wa r II—especiall y th e ai r war. All of hi s friends' brother s wer e i n the AA F a t th e time , an d th e hig h poin t o f hi s day s i n hig h schoo l wa s watching the m buz z th e schoo l i n fighters an d bombers . "Everyon e would ru n ou t an d gawk, " recalle d George . "Th e principa l woul d the n call out th e name o f the plane an d identif y th e pilot b y the tail markings : 'Its a B-24; it must b e Malcolm!' " So inspired wa s Georg e b y thes e incident s tha t h e too k flying lesson s with mone y h e save d fro m hi s ga s statio n jo b an d earne d hi s pilot' s license a t sixteen . Fro m tha t poin t on , hi s nicknam e wa s "Ace. " " I would fly around th e town i n a Piper Cub, " Georg e declared , "an d dro p notes askin g variou s girl s fo r dates. " Flying , i n short , wa s a definin g event fo r George : a s h e himsel f admitted , " I couldn' t joi n th e countr y club becaus e o f anti-Semitism , bu t flying wa s somethin g I coul d do ; i t was a great equalizer. " When Georg e turne d seventee n i n lat e 1944 , h e immediatel y sough t and gaine d parenta l permissio n t o join th e AAF as an Aviatio n Cade t (a t that time , n o colleg e credi t wa s necessary) . Unfortunatel y fo r him , tim e was no t o n hi s side . In 1945 , Berk e entere d th e AA F a s a privat e an d attended basi c a t Keesler AFB , Biloxi , Mississippi ; whil e there , th e wa r ended. Berk e remembere d th e da y vividl y becaus e hi s bunkmat e an d many other s slotte d fo r pilo t trainin g brok e dow n an d cried . Berk e di d not giv e up ; instead , h e signe d u p fo r cre w trainin g a t Scot t AFB , nea r Belleville, Illinois . When h e arrive d a t Scott , however , th e first thin g h e saw wa s a bulleti n boar d wit h row s o f names—everyon e whos e nam e began wit h a n A , B , o r C wa s schedule d t o b e "RIFed " (shor t fo r reduction i n force) . Berk e stil l didn' t giv e up ! Whe n h e go t t o th e out processing center , he volunteered t o b e a medic there . As a medic, Berke's first assignmen t wa s a s venereal diseas e inspector . He woul d si t behin d a tabl e an d as k th e GI s t o "tak e i t ou t an d mil k i t

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

31

down." Later , h e graduate d t o urinalysis , an d finally, t o serology — giving laborator y test s fo r syphilis . I n between , h e di d everythin g fro m drawing bloo d t o checkin g pulses . "Th e whol e process, " accordin g t o Berke, "wa s a complet e disaster. " Thre e hundre d an d fifty me n ha d t o be out-processe d pe r day , an d rarel y wa s a docto r availabl e t o supervis e the site : "W e mad e everythin g u p a s w e wen t along. " The y filed thei r own fingernails t o chec k pulses , sharpene d thei r ow n needles , an d cam e up wit h a relie f syste m fo r drawin g blood : afte r s o man y misses , yo u were yanke d ou t o f th e lin e a s a bloo d sampl e collector . B y th e en d o f the day , everyon e wa s drenche d wit h blood , bu t thi s di d no t bothe r George. H e pride d himsel f o n hi s work , an d t o thi s da y insist s o n drawing his own bloo d a t the doctor's office . Th e Army as an institution , though, trouble d hi m greatly : "Peopl e wer e dyin g i n militar y hospital s for lac k o f prope r car e an d disorganizatio n an d chao s rule d th e day. " After Berk e wa s honorabl y discharged , h e entere d Rutger s Universit y on the G I bill in 1947 . Time away fro m schoo l had lef t hi m academicall y unprepared, bu t wit h th e hel p o f a n understandin g Englis h professor , Berke managed t o d o quit e well . After h e flunked severa l Englis h assign ments, thi s professor , wh o wa s a n exper t i n Persia n poetry , pulle d hi m aside an d said : "George , I wil l mak e a dea l wit h you—I f yo u ge t a n A for th e final, I will giv e you a n A for th e course." Thi s kin d o f academi c motivation no t onl y enabled hi m to get through Rutgers , but als o helpe d him secur e a teaching pos t a t th e Ai r Forc e Academ y towar d th e middl e of hi s career , the n a n M.A . i n Englis h an d a Ph.D . i n education. 26 Rutgers, then , transforme d a fun-lovin g flye r an d close t intellectua l int o a self-proclaime d "iconoclasti c officer. " While h e wa s i n college , though, flyin g stil l ha d a tremendou s appea l and whe n th e Korea n Wa r began , Berk e di d no t hesitat e t o reenlis t an d make a second g o of it . As he put it , "Flyin g jus t sucke d m e up. "

Howard Heine r Howard Heiner 27 wa s bor n i n Sandpoint , Idaho , o n 2 2 July 1929 , an d came fro m wha t h e describe s a s a blue-colla r background . Hi s fathe r was a farme r an d late r th e tow n wate r supervisor , an d hi s mothe r ra n a

32 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers sewing shop . A s a child , Heine r wa s "deepl y religiou s an d attende d church ever y Sunday. " Durin g Worl d Wa r II , hi s father , th e so n o f German immigrants , qui t hi s job an d move d t o Spokane . Thi s wa s ver y hard o n Heiner—s o hard , i n fact , tha t h e chos e t o sta y i n San d Poin t and liv e at the local fire department. While attending high school, Heine r joined th e fores t service , fought fires, an d drov e mule s t o fire spotter s i n remote locations . Thi s wor k earne d hi m enoug h mone y t o atten d th e University o f Idaho , and mad e hi m very "independen t an d stubborn. " In college , Heine r majore d i n forestry , edite d th e colleg e forestr y magazine, an d becam e ver y activ e i n intramura l sports . H e als o dran k beer wit h Worl d Wa r I I veteran s an d listene d intentl y t o thei r stories . Heiner wa s twelv e year s ol d whe n Americ a ha d entere d Worl d Wa r I I and wa s "prou d o f th e countr y fo r entering. " H e wa s als o prou d tha t his tw o brothers-in-la w ha d serve d i n th e Arm y an d Nav y durin g th e war. Hence , whe n th e Korea n Wa r began , h e joine d th e Ai r Forc e Reserve Officer s Trainin g Corp s (AROTC ) becaus e h e "fel t [he ] neede d to d o [his ] patrioti c duty. " A s h e pu t it , " I signe d u p t o fight i n Kore a out o f th e patriotism o f World Wa r II. " Having hear d abou t flying, Heine r wa s intereste d i n th e Ai r Forc e even thoug h h e ha d neve r flown. H e too k th e Aviatio n Cade t tes t an d passed. Th e cade t program , however , woul d no t allo w hi m t o marr y hi s college sweethear t unti l afte r receivin g hi s commission . AROTC , o n th e other hand , promise d t o giv e hi m a commissio n afte r onl y a year , an d allowed hi m to marr y befor e aviatio n training . A s a result, h e graduate d from college , receive d hi s commission , an d go t married—al l i n on e weekend.

Raymond "Dewey " Sturgeo n Like Heiner , "Dewey " Sturgeon 28 cam e fro m humbl e root s i n rura l America. He grew up in Templeton, Indiana , o n a farm: "I t was just Da d and I an d tw o tractors. " Sturgeo n attende d hig h schoo l i n Oxford , Indiana, an d graduate d i n 1942 . Becaus e h e worke d o n a farm , h e wa s deferred fro m th e draft , bu t h e fel t "s o guilt y abou t i t that h e decided t o go anywa y i n 1944. " Sturgeo n joine d th e Marine s becaus e the y "ha d

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

33

such nic e uniforms." Unfortunately , th e week befor e h e was suppose d t o enlist, Sturgeon' s combin e go t choke d wit h soybeans , an d hi s leg s wer e sucked i n tryin g t o unclo g it . Eve n thoug h bot h leg s wer e broken , h e was abl e t o pul l th e pi n o n th e combine , clambe r int o hi s tractor , an d slowly mak e hi s wa y home . Sturgeo n ende d u p i n th e hospita l fo r eigh t days and i n leg casts for si x months . Although World War II was over by the time Sturgeon full y recovered , he decide d t o enlis t i n th e Ai r Forc e i n 1946 . Althoug h flyin g seeme d completely "ou t o f reach, " h e love d th e ide a o f bein g aroun d aircraf t and di d no t wan t t o b e an infantryma n wit h ba d legs . As a n enliste d man , Sturgeo n wen t t o engin e mechani c school— a program h e claim s "helpe d hi m ge t throug h th e technica l aspect s o f cadet training. " T o graduate , yo u ha d t o assembl e a n engin e "fro m scratch." Afte r graduation , h e wa s assigne d t o Chanut e Field , nea r Rantoul, Illinois , to teac h mechanic s t o othe r students . As a n instructor , Sturgeon impresse d no t onl y hi s students , bu t man y o f hi s sergeant s a s well. Thes e senio r NCOs , i n turn , coache d hi m fo r th e pilo t exa m an d the two-yea r colleg e equivalenc y test . Sturgeo n claimed , "Unti l tha t point, I neve r though t bein g a pilo t wa s i n m y reac h bu t lad y luc k wa s smiling o n me, " an d h e passed . Sturgeon wa s sen t t o primar y trainin g a t Goodfello w AFB , i n Sa n Angelo, Texas , an d the n t o multi-engin e schoo l a t Barksdal e AFB , nea r Bossier City , Louisiana. However , i n early 1950 , a year afte r graduation , he wa s cu t fro m th e Ai r Forc e i n a RIF . "Gettin g cu t afte r a yea r wa s one o f m y bigges t blows, " h e recalled. " I thought I was don e an d woul d never se e a plan e again. " Althoug h h e wante d t o ge t int o cro p dusting , his parents convince d hi m t o com e bac k hom e an d wor k o n th e farm fo r a hundre d dollar s a month : " I wa s plantin g cor n an d bean s an d whe n I saw a plane fl y ove r I said 'Boy , that i s where I am suppose d t o be. ' " S o in Decembe r 1951 , when th e Ai r Forc e Reserv e aske d hi m i f h e wante d to b e recalle d voluntarily , ther e wa s n o hesitation : " I kne w whe n I wa s recalled tha t I would mak e a caree r o f th e Ai r Force. " H e als o kne w h e wanted t o transfer t o jets. However, the Air Force Reserves told hi m tha t if h e wante d t o fl y jets , h e woul d hav e t o g o t o Korea . I n typica l fligh t suit manner, Sturgeo n said , "Fine , I want t o go—it' s righ t u p m y alley. "

34 * An Absence of Ring-Knockers

James Hagerstro m James Hagerstrom 29 wa s bor n o n 2 1 January 192 1 int o a Midwestern , working-class family . Hi s fathe r wa s a n electricia n wit h th e Iow a Publi c Service Compan y an d th e so n o f Swedis h immigrants . H e gre w u p i n a three-bedroom woode n hous e i n Waterloo, Iowa, an d firs t becam e inter ested i n aviatio n i n 1934 , whe n h e pai d fifty cent s fo r a rid e i n a For d Tri-Motor. During hig h school , Hagerstrom , lik e man y futur e pilots , wa s to o small t o pla y football , an d s o h e wrestle d an d swa m instea d a s a n "adrenaline release. " H e wa s als o a n avi d mode l airplan e builder . In 1941 , Hagerstrom attende d th e University of Iowa an d participate d in Arm y ROTC . A yea r later , h e transferre d t o Iow a Stat e Teacher' s College i n Ceda r Fall s an d helpe d t o establis h a n aer o clu b there . B y Thanksgiving o f hi s sophomor e year , h e joine d th e Aviatio n Cadet s an d was swor n i n o n 1 5 Januar y 1942 . Nex t cam e primar y trainin g a t Bakersfield i n California , wher e h e wor e coverall s an d a civilia n sui t because th e schoo l ha d n o uniforms . H e graduate d fro m flyin g trainin g in Jul y 1942 , an d wa s sen t t o th e Pacifi c t o fl y P-40 S wit h th e 8t h Fighter Squadron , 49t h Fighte r Grou p i n Ne w Guinea . "Ne w Guinea, " remembered Hagerstrom , wa s a "terribl e place" : " I slep t i n a ten t wit h dirt floors, washe d i n the river, and contracte d malaria. " I n spite o f thes e hardships, Hagerstro m manage d t o shoo t dow n si x Japanes e fighter planes. On e missio n wa s particularl y emblemati c o f th e aggressiv e atti tude o f th e ace . Hagerstro m an d anothe r pilo t too k o n fifteen Japanes e fighters i n a n attemp t t o rescu e tw o P-38S . During thi s mission , Hagers trom sho t dow n fou r planes , establishing himsel f a s a young ac e ( a pilo t achieves ac e status afte r five kills). After 17 0 combat missions , Hagerstrom wa s transferred t o the States , and i n June 194 5 n e w a s discharge d fro m th e Army Air Forces. The nex t day, a Sunday , h e drov e t o Iow a Stat e Teacher' s Colleg e an d di d wha t any fligh t sui t office r woul d do : he knocke d o n th e president' s doo r an d told hi m h e wante d t o finish school . Th e presiden t personall y opene d the registrar's offic e an d enrolle d hi m o n th e spot . After receivin g a degre e i n economic s i n 1948 , Hagerstro m entere d

An Absence of Ring-Knockers •

35

the municipal bond s marke t i n Texas. He als o joined th e Texas Nationa l Guard—a uni t h e described a s "th e botto m o f th e heap." Botto m o f th e heap o r not , th e uni t (whic h eventuall y name d a hanga r afte r him ) kep t him i n "th e flying business" unti l th e Korea n War . Onc e the war started , Hagerstrom secure d a recal l t o fl y F-86 s wit h th e 4t h Wing—"th e assignment I had spen t m y life preparin g for. " Although som e o f th e pilot s surveye d cam e fro m well-of f families , a s a group thei r background s wer e hardl y elite . Non e cam e fro m familie s listed i n th e socia l register s o f Ne w York , Baltimore , Sa n Francisco , Chicago, Philadelphia , Boston , o r Washington . No r di d an y atten d a n elite four-yea r boardin g schoo l suc h a s Choate , St . Mark's , St . Paul's , Andover, o r Exeter . Finally , non e attende d a n Iv y Leagu e college . I n short, non e ca n b e classified a s what sociologis t C . Wright Mill s define d as th e "Metropolita n 400" : "th e soli d cor e o f wealth y families " whic h together represen t a nationall y recognizabl e uppe r clas s i n th e Unite d States.30 Instead, mos t cam e fro m middle - an d lower-middle-clas s families , families tha t emphasize d upwar d mobilit y bu t rarel y ha d th e mean s t o provide thei r son s wit h acces s t o th e traditiona l mobilit y elevators — elite privat e school s an d colleges . Non e o f th e pilot s i n thi s grou p attended a privat e college , an d onl y on e attende d a privat e pre p schoo l (Pomeroy). Furthermore , o f th e fou r wh o di d ear n a baccalaureat e be fore enterin g th e Ai r Force , th e degree s o f tw o wer e pai d fo r b y th e military.31 I n ever y othe r case , there wa s no t eve n enoug h famil y mone y available t o ge t thes e me n throug h stat e school s suc h a s th e Universit y of Oklahoma , Louisian a Stat e University , an d Sacrament o Cit y College . In othe r words , i f thi s latte r grou p wer e t o ris e i n society , the y ha d t o find a n alternativ e t o education . The Ai r Forc e becam e tha t alternative . I t go t the m ou t o f dead-en d jobs—be i t drivin g a n ambulanc e i n Harlem , workin g a s a railroa d machinist, o r clerkin g i n a small-tow n bank—an d ont o a professiona l career path . In the sociall y competitive , white-collar worl d o f th e 1950s , the Ai r Forc e offere d the m tangibl e statu s symbols : gol d lieutenant' s bars, silve r wings , an d a state-of-the-ar t fighter wit h thei r nam e painte d

36 • An Absence of Ring-Knockers right on the fuselage. "Th e reward o f the Air Force," accordin g to Berke, "was no t a larg e offic e an d al l tha t bureaucrati c stuff , bu t you r ow n airplane; that' s wha t peopl e want : a plan e wit h you r nam e o n i t s o wherever yo u go people kno w wh o you are!" For Berke an d others lik e him, therefore , flying offere d statu s an d freedo m unobtainabl e i n th e increasingly bureaucrati c marketplac e o f the 1950s . A final them e wort h considerin g i s Michael Sherry' s "entrepreneuria l model o f service." According to Sherry: "Th e status, rewards, and duties of comba t airme n move d the m towar d a n entrepreneuria l o r occupa tional mode l o f service . Self-interes t wa s define d a s distinc t fro m th e war-winning purpos e o f th e organization; reward s wer e define d b y and carried ove r int o the civilian marketplace ; the rituals o f military lif e wer e subordinated t o th e attainmen t o f skill s an d statu s usefu l i n a large r world." 3 2 Sherr y i s accurate i n emphasizing th e link betwee n statu s and the ai r service . T o a man , the pilot s i n thi s stud y joine d th e Ai r Forc e because i t wa s a "first-class " wa y t o perfor m a militar y obligation . Contrary t o the Sherry thesis, though, they did not seek skills which the y could the n "marke t i n th e outsid e world " onc e thei r enlistment s wer e up; rather, for these men, the Air Force would becom e an end unto itself , Although onl y one of the pilots entere d th e Air Force to become a career officer, al l bu t on e woul d choos e a n Ai r Forc e caree r afte r th e Korea n War ended .

n —•

•

^

•

u

•

—

Stick an d Rudde r University : Training an d th e Creatio n of th e Fligh t Sui t Office r Some peopl e sa t dow n whe n th e Ai r Forc e becam e a ne w service and decided that hey, we are the Air Force. We are not the Army' s airborn e cavalry , w e d o no t hav e centurie s an d centuries of traditions to hamper our progress, we're going to do things ou r way . And the y deliberatel y se t out a t Nellis t o produce th e best-trained , best-equippe d fighter pilot s i n th e world. And they did! —Fran k Tomlinson 1

The Ai r Force' s emphasi s i n th e 1950 s o n th e singula r skil l o f pilotin g distinguished i t from th e othe r services . During th e Korea n War , over 5 0 percent o f th e Ai r Forc e Office r Corp s ha d silve r pilot' s wings , an d almost al l commander s wer e pilots : 20 0 o f th e 20 7 Ai r Forc e genera l officers i n 195 0 wer e pilots. 2 Furthermore , unlik e th e Arm y an d th e Navy, wher e mos t officer s receive d thei r commissio n fro m ROT C o r the militar y academies , two-third s o f Ai r Forc e officer s receive d thei r commission directl y through th e Aviation Cadets— a progra m tha t com bined office r candidat e schoo l wit h pilo t school . Pilo t training , i n short , was th e primary militar y initiatio n fo r th e majorit y o f Ai r Forc e officers . Even if you were a West Point graduate , your first substantive experienc e with th e Ai r Force , inevitably , wa s pilo t training . Pilo t trainin g define d 37

3 8 * Stick and Rudder University the Ai r Forc e office r an d presente d hi m wit h skill s an d value s necessar y to flouris h withi n th e Ai r Forc e environment . I n bot h a physica l an d psychological sense , i t lifte d hi m fro m th e groun d an d transforme d hi m into a n "air-minded " individua l an d a member o f th e Ai r Force' s "flyin g elite." At th e sam e time , trainin g wa s als o a gruelin g initiatio n proces s complete wit h hazing , washouts , accidents , an d eve n death . A n averag e of onl y 61. 6 percen t o f thos e wh o entere d th e trainin g progra m earne d their wings. 3 Furthermore , a majorit y o f th e washout s wer e du e t o "flying deficiencies " rathe r tha n academi c o r disciplinar y problems. 4 S o difficult wa s th e proces s o f learnin g t o fl y militar y aircraf t tha t th e Ai r Force Training Command , despit e it s dual missio n t o creat e officer s an d flyers, actuall y emphasize d th e latte r mor e s o tha n th e former . Hal f o f each trainin g da y wa s spen t o n th e fligh t lin e o r i n th e air , one-on-one , with instructor s wh o wer e ofte n civilia n contractor s wit h n o prio r mili tary experience. 5 Whil e o n th e line , student s wor e fligh t suit s an d wer e told no t t o salut e officer s o r worr y abou t standar d militar y discipline : flying an d al l tha t goe s wit h it , the y wer e told , wer e t o b e thei r onl y concerns. 6 The en d resul t o f thi s intensive , flight-oriente d progra m wa s a mor e casual office r tha n th e averag e Arm y secon d lieutenan t o r Nav y ensign . "The impressio n o f th e Ai r Forc e tha t I ha d i n th e lat e '40 s an d earl y '50s," recall s Rober t Pomeroy , "wa s a gu y wit h a crushe d ha t an d a cavalier attitude . In thos e days , flyin g wa s riskie r tha n i t i s now : w e learned t o eat , drink , an d b e merr y becaus e tomorro w yo u ma y die." 7 In short , t o surviv e fligh t training , on e ha d t o b e "cockpit-minded" : technique ha d t o tak e precedenc e ove r militar y discipline , leadership , and hierarchy . A fligh t sui t attitud e wa s no t simpl y a n expressio n o f machismo, i t wa s a mean s o f psychologica l surviva l i n a danger-fille d environment. Pilot trainin g define d th e youn g Ai r Forc e office r o f th e 1940 s an d 1950s an d create d th e fligh t sui t persona . A s muc h a n initiatio n ritua l for thes e me n a s a plac e t o develo p practica l skills , pilo t trainin g wa s a critical indoctrinatio n perio d fo r th e youn g officer . I f a traine e coul d overcome th e variou s barrier s t o becomin g a pilo t (washouts , accidents ,

Stick and Rudder University • 3 9 fear o f flying, an d th e possibilit y o f death) , h e coul d ente r th e brother hood o f th e flight suit . Ancestry , education , an d prio r militar y trainin g or militar y academ y experienc e ha d ver y littl e t o d o wit h one' s statu s i n the Ai r Force : wings , th e flight suit , an d eventually , th e on e hundred mission Distinguished Flyin g Cross was what trul y define d on e as "elite " in thi s service . Trainin g teste d a youn g man' s skil l an d courage ; i t als o taught hi m tha t h e woul d "sin k o r swim " i n th e Ai r Forc e base d o n hi s ability t o fly, and tha t lif e outsid e th e "fligh t suit " wa s secondary .

Selection an d Testin g The proces s o f choosin g pilot s wa s hardl y a scienc e i n th e 1950s , bu t i t was no t a s rando m a s i t ha d bee n i n earlie r years . Durin g Worl d Wa r I , applicants wer e "spu n i n a spin chair t o test their equilibrium, " an d me n "who coul d rid e well , sai l a fas t boat , an d handl e a motorcycl e wer e considered goo d prospects." 8 I t wa s no t unti l 194 1 tha t th e Arm y decided t o implemen t a mor e "scientific " test , know n a s th e "Standar d Nine," o r "stanine " fo r short . Becaus e thi s tes t dictate d wh o woul d become a pilo t i n a n organizatio n dominate d b y pilots , i t playe d a crucial rol e i n shapin g th e entir e natur e o f th e Ai r Forc e office r corp s during it s early history . The "stanine, " whic h change d littl e fro m Worl d Wa r I I to th e Korea n War, teste d a pilo t o n a broa d rang e o f intellectua l an d physica l skills . But becaus e flying wa s considere d a mechanica l skill , abov e al l else , th e test emphasize d hand-ey e coordination , excellen t vision , an d soun d mo tor skill s more tha n an y othe r abilities. 9 Thos e wh o passe d tende d t o b e athletic, bu t no t necessaril y intelligen t i n th e traditiona l academi c sense . Training Comman d studie s suggeste d tha t "othe r tha n perhap s increas ing self-confidence , educatio n an d academi c attainmen t coul d no t . . . improve [ a pilot's ] chance s o f finishing training. " Consequently , th e humanities an d socia l science s section s o f th e tes t wer e "rate d next-to last, jus t ahea d o f vocationa l skills." 10 A pilot coul d b e deficien t i n bot h of thos e area s an d stil l pass . When thi s facto r i s combined wit h th e lo w educational requirement s fo r aviatio n trainin g (i.e. , two years of college), it become s clea r tha t th e Ai r Forc e ha d th e least-educate d office r corp s

40 • Stick and Rudder University in the 1950s . This was a serious proble m fo r a servic e that too k prid e i n its ability to field some of the most technologicall y advance d weapon s i n the military . At th e hear t o f th e proble m wa s th e fac t tha t deman d fo r pilot s wa s outstripping th e supply . Whe n th e Aviatio n Cade t progra m reopene d i n 1947 afte r a postwa r hiatus , i t ha d t o trai n onl y 3,00 0 pilot s annually ; in 1950 , thi s numbe r ha d increase d t o 4,000 ; an d b y 1952 , wit h de mands brough t o n b y the Korean War , the Air Force needed 7,20 0 pilot s a year. 11 T o meet thes e larg e productio n goals , the Ai r Forc e sen t twelv e traveling Aviatio n Cade t selectio n team s aroun d th e countr y i n a n at tempt t o recrui t colleg e students . Loca l Ai r Forc e base s als o arrange d base tour s fo r hig h schoo l senior s an d colleg e students . Recruitmen t letters wer e eve n sen t ou t t o al l acquaintance s o f cadets , officers , an d instructors. 12 These effort s wer e not enough : betwee n 3 8 percent an d 5 0 percent o f thos e accepte d int o th e progra m i n th e earl y 1950 s wer e washing out. 13 Th e Ai r Forc e neede d mor e pilo t recruits . On e o f th e major problem s wit h colleg e recruitmen t wa s tha t initiall y colleg e stu dents use d th e Aviation Cade t progra m a s a loophole t o avoi d th e draft . Before 1951 , th e Ai r Forc e grante d immunit y fro m furthe r militar y service t o al l aviatio n washout s i n a n attemp t t o mak e pilo t trainin g more attractiv e t o civilia n recruits . Thi s polic y encourage d man y youn g men t o sig n u p fo r Aviatio n Cadets , an d the n resig n afte r th e first wee k or tw o o f training . Betwee n 194 9 an d 1950 , fo r example , 1 8 percen t o f Aviation Cadet s resigne d durin g thi s initia l period . Althoug h thi s num ber migh t reflec t th e initia l shoc k cadet s fel t upo n enterin g a rigorou s training program, th e Air Force suspected draf t avoidanc e a s the primar y cause. 14 Consequently , Genera l Disosway , th e Ai r Staf f Directo r o f Training, "ordere d al l civilia n Aviatio n Cade t applicant s enliste d a s privates, USAF, for a period o f fou r years." 15 Cadet s wh o resigne d afte r February 1 9 51 woul d serv e ou t th e res t o f thei r militar y tim e a s Ai r Force privates . Despite th e effort s o f Disoswa y an d others , cade t shortage s persiste d during th e Korea n War . Table 1 describes th e effort s o f th e Ai r Forc e t o rectify th e problem. 16 Clearly , th e knee-jer k reactio n o f th e Ai r Forc e t o cadet shortage s wa s t o lowe r th e entranc e requirements— a solutio n which serve d to further wate r dow n th e intellectual calibe r o f its officers .

Stick and Rudder University • 4 1 Responses to

TABLE I . the Aviation Cadet Shortage, August

1951-May

1952

September —Me n wit h prio r servic e wh o wer e eliminate d fro m trainin g excuse d fro m further service . —Minimum qualifyin g ai r cre w batter y (stanine ) tes t scor e reduce d fro m si x (out o f nine ) t o five. November —Requiremen t tha t enliste d me n serv e eightee n month s befor e applyin g fo r flight trainin g waived . December —Applicant s wit h tw o o r mor e year s o f colleg e obligate d t o onl y tw o year s of enliste d servic e if eliminated fro m training . January —Tim

e betwee n testin g an d notificatio n o f th e applican t o f tes t result s wa s streamlined an d reduced . —Flight trainin g applicant s give n priority handling . —Minimum educationa l leve l fo r enliste d applicant s reduced to high school diploma.

February —Minimu

m ag e for applicant s lowere d fro m twent y t o nineteen .

April —Numbe r o f Aviatio n Cade t selectio n team s increased . —Minimum qualifyin g stanin e scor e reduce d t o three. 16

Another deficienc y whic h th e Ai r Forc e ha d difficult y addressin g i n the selectio n proces s wa s it s lac k o f blac k pilots . Whe n i t integrate d i n 1949, 7. 2 percen t o f th e enliste d personne l wer e black , bu t th e percent age o f blac k officer s wa s fa r lower : onl y 36 8 o f 25,523 , or 0. 6 percent . In fligh t training , th e number s wer e equall y low : onl y 1 1 o f 1,35 6 (0. 8 percent) ROT C studen t officer s an d 2 2 o f 2,08 5 i 1-1 percent ) Aviatio n Cadets were blac k i n 1949. 17 These number s di d no t improv e muc h a s educationa l standard s wer e lowered fo r th e program . B y th e en d o f 1952 , black s stil l represente d only 1 percen t o f th e Ai r Forc e office r corps. 18 O f th e 9 3 cadet s an d student officer s i n pilo t Georg e Berke' s clas s 53- E a t Hond o AFB , onl y one studen t (a n Aviatio n Cadet ) wa s blac k an d al l th e instructor s wer e white; a t William s AFB , hi s basi c school , 2 o f th e 10 6 student s wer e black, a s were 4 of 6 4 instructors. 19 Clearly, th e Air Forc e was no t workin g har d enoug h t o recrui t black s during thi s period . When i t becam e a separat e servic e i n 1947 , only 24 7 (.4 percent ) o f it s 49,52 9 officer s wer e black. 20 B y 1950 , tha t numbe r increased t o 411 , but blac k officer s stil l represente d onl y . 6 percent o f a total Ai r Forc e office r corp s o f 69,901. 2 1 I n fact , blac k officer s di d no t reach th e 1 percent mar k unti l 1953 , an d remaine d unde r 2 percen t o f the officer corp s eve n a s late as 1972. 22

42 • Stick and Rudder University A 194 8 stud y b y th e Industria l Colleg e o f th e Arme d Force s (ICAF) , entitled "Trainin g an d Utilizatio n o f Manpower, " theorize d tha t thi s racial disparit y stemme d fro m th e lowe r educationa l an d healt h level s of blacks—factors i t blame d o n discrimination . I t wen t o n t o argu e tha t i t was no t th e military' s responsibilit y t o promot e racia l justice : "Onl y a s society change d coul d th e militar y emplo y mor e blacks. " Furthermore , "a divisio n int o whit e an d Negr o unit s wa s no t th e answer, " no r wa s placing black s i n servic e an d mes s units. 23 I n th e end , th e ICA F repor t recommended tha t nothin g mor e shoul d b e don e excep t additiona l studies. 24 Although educationa l deficiencie s ma y hav e barre d black s from man y high-skill militar y jobs , pilo t trainin g shoul d no t hav e bee n greatl y af fected give n tha t th e stanin e ranke d academi c achievemen t i n it s secon d lowest category . A far mor e plausibl e reaso n fo r th e deficienc y i s the Ai r Training Command' s quot a system . In a mov e designe d t o decreas e racial tension s a t it s man y souther n trainin g facilitie s durin g th e 194 9 Air Force integration, th e ATC "o n it s own institute d a 1 0 percent quot a to preven t base s fro m becomin g overpopulate d wit h blacks. " Th e AT C attempted t o furthe r appeas e whit e civilia n contractor s an d th e whit e communities surroundin g thes e bases b y only sendin g them black s of th e "highest caliber " t o "eas e th e shoc k o f integration." 25 Accordin g t o th e ATC history: " A nucleus o f high type, well trained an d properl y oriente d Negro airme n woul d serv e as a forerunner i n establishin g th e confidenc e necessary t o facilitat e increase d assimilatio n o f Negro personnel." 26

Preflight The basi c curriculu m o f fligh t trainin g change d littl e betwee n th e en d o f World Wa r I I an d th e Korea n War . Aviatio n Cadet s wer e give n fou r weeks o f "Preflight " office r trainin g a t Lacklan d AF B an d the n sen t t o one o f te n "Primary " schools , wher e the y wer e joine d b y ROT C an d military academ y graduates. 27 Primar y laste d eightee n week s an d con sisted o f groun d course s i n basi c navigatio n an d instrument s plu s 12 0 hours o f elementary flying . Afte r Primary , student s attende d a n eighteen week "Basic " cours e whic h consiste d o f je t transitio n fo r fighter pilot s

Stick and Rudder University * 4 3 and two-engin e transitio n fo r bombe r pilots . Pilots were als o introduce d to th e dangerou s bu t crucia l ar t o f formatio n flyin g an d give n advance d instruction i n instrument s an d navigation . Th e final stag e o f prerate d training wa s "Advanced, " a twelve-week cours e tha t traine d th e pilo t i n his specialt y area—fighte r tactics , gunnery , rocketry , bombing , an d s o forth. 28 Of al l thes e stages , Primar y wa s th e greates t hurdle : th e pressure s o f learning t o fl y fo r th e first tim e straine d eve n th e bes t students . Eighty six percen t o f thos e wh o washe d ou t i n trainin g di d s o i n Primary. 29 "I t was a commo n sigh t afte r a har d da y o f trainin g t o retur n t o th e barracks an d find anothe r cade t packin g hi s bags, " remembere d Pau l Turner. "I t wa s murder." 30 Paradoxically , rathe r tha n assignin g it s to p military instructor s t o thes e schools, the Air Force chose to staf f nin e ou t of ten with civilian contractors. 31 Originally , the contractor school s wer e set u p durin g Worl d Wa r I I a s a mean s o f conservin g militar y pilot s fo r war duty . However , whe n th e Aviatio n Cade t progra m reopene d i n 1947, th e Ai r Forc e reinstate d man y o f thes e school s a s a cost-cuttin g measure. 32 Hence , civilians not onl y becam e significan t "gatekeepers " i n the pilo t trainin g program , bu t als o playe d a ver y importan t rol e i n shaping th e value s an d idea s o f th e youn g pilot . No t surprisingly , thes e values tended t o relat e more t o th e ar t o f flying than t o th e profession o f arms. A repor t writte n b y th e Ai r Trainin g Comman d summarize d th e situation well : Contractors are too prone to emphasize the flyingphase and minimize the importance o f th e other s [i.e. , the militar y an d academi c phases ] t o th e extreme of being uncooperative an d unsympathetic to the problems of the military an d academi c trainin g organization . Man y o f thes e me n d o no t actively suppor t an d respec t th e individual objective s o f al l of th e phases of trainin g [and ] ar e no t reall y cognizan t o f thei r job s a t th e Primar y schools.33 As civilians , though, ho w coul d thes e me n b e expecte d t o impar t cadet s and studen t officer s wit h militar y value s an d office r skills ? Mos t ha d neither th e trainin g no r th e interes t t o accomplis h suc h a mission . A s professional pilots , thei r onl y concer n wa s wit h flyin g an d al l tha t wen t with it .

44 * Stick and Rudder University Initially, th e Ai r Forc e attempte d t o cop e wit h th e proble m b y settin g up a Prefligh t progra m a t Lacklan d AF B in 194 9 fo r Aviatio n Cadets. 34 Actually, prefligh t trainin g date s bac k t o Novembe r 1940 , when th e Ai r Corps establishe d four-wee k boo t camp s fo r pilo t trainee s a t receptio n centers a t Maxwel l Field , Alabama ; Kell y Field , Texas ; an d Sant a An a Field, California . Thes e programs , however , wer e eliminate d alon g wit h Aviation Cadet s i n 1946 , an d did not resum e i n 194 7 whe n Aviatio n Cadets reopened . Apparentl y th e Ai r Force , i n it s initia l hast e t o buil d up it s Col d War-rate d force , di d no t conside r militar y indoctrinatio n t o be a priority fo r pilots . It set up a "stopgap " four-wee k progra m i n 194 9 only afte r tw o separat e panel s recommende d a n extensiv e program. 35 For th e four-wee k Prefligh t program , th e Aviatio n Cade t di d no t fl y or eve n take classes on flying. Instead , h e was processe d int o military lif e and taugh t al l th e basi c militar y skills : "Drills , Ceremonies , an d Inspec tion, Physical Training, an d Effectiv e Expression." 36 I t was here tha t th e cadet bega n t o lear n abou t th e man y ritual s o f militar y life . H e wa s tol d to addres s hi s classmate s no t b y thei r firs t name s bu t b y "Mister " followed b y thei r las t name . H e wa s als o instructe d t o maintai n a n impeccable appearanc e a t al l time s o r fac e demerits : shoe s an d buttons , for example , ha d t o b e shine d befor e eac h breakfas t formation . Finally , he was subjecte d t o a host o f stringen t rules . The following ar e a sample: • Cadets , upo n leavin g th e barrack s t o g o anywher e excep t t o a scheduled formatio n o r t o meals , wil l sig n th e sign-ou t boo k with th e exac t tim e o f departur e an d th e exac t tim e o f retur n t o the barracks , no matte r wher e th e destination . • Cadet s wil l not rea d o r loite r i n the latrines . • Cadet s wil l no t procee d throug h th e barrack s i n th e nud e o r b e in the latrin e nud e unles s taking a shower . • Cadet s will not han g picture s o n th e walls, make an y changes o r additions t o thei r room s o r barracks . • Cadet s wil l no t creat e a disturbanc e o r mak e unnecessar y nois e at an y time . • Cadet s will not short-stop foo d bein g passed to another Aviatio n Cadet, withou t tha t Aviatio n Cadet' s specifi c permission. 37

Stick and Rudder University • 4 5 The Aviatio n Cade t als o ha d t o adher e t o a stric t hono r code . Under th e code, anyon e caugh t "cheating , stealing , o r lying " wa s trie d b y th e Honor Council , a collectio n o f officer s an d generall y a t leas t on e cadet . The cod e als o stipulate d tha t "anyon e wh o withhold s th e knowledg e o f any honor cod e violations . . . will receive the same penalty a s the perso n who actuall y committe d th e offense"—generally dismissa l from th e program. 38 Th e sam e honor cod e als o applie d t o cadet s an d studen t officer s in the Primary , Basic , and Advance d schools. 39 Overall, th e hono r code , th e othe r regulations , an d th e genera l mili tary disciplin e o f Prefligh t wer e suppose d t o "provid e cadet s wit h th e fundamental knowledg e require d fo r thei r late r developmen t a s Ai r Force officers, " an d "eliminat e thos e student s a t onc e wh o wer e men tally, physically , o r emotionall y unsuited " t o b e Ai r Forc e officers. 40 I n practice, prefligh t trainin g wa s to o shor t t o d o either . Mos t o f th e pilot s I spoke wit h eithe r di d no t atten d o r di d no t remembe r thi s phas e o f th e training. T o a man, th e pilot s considere d Primar y t o b e the mos t memo rable initiatio n experience . As Tomlinson pointe d out , "I t was where th e rubber me t th e road." 4 1 It wa s i n Primar y wher e cadet s wer e first expose d t o th e disciplin e and hazin g o f "upperclassmen, " a fa r mor e incorrigibl e grou p tha n th e drill instructors a t Preflight. Mor e important , Primar y blende d th e rigor s of militar y initiatio n wit h thos e o f fligh t initiation . I n Primary , cadet s and studen t officer s learne d al l the basic s o f flight : ho w t o take off , land , and fly simpl e maneuvers . I t wa s ther e tha t the y first discovere d th e jo y and fea r o f flying.

Primary The metapho r whic h Pomero y use d t o describ e th e socia l compositio n of Primar y i s a three-cornere d hat : o n on e corne r wer e th e militar y academy graduates , o n another , th e ROT C officers , an d o n th e third , the Aviatio n Cadets . Flyin g officer s (th e ROT C an d militar y academ y graduates) represente d abou t a third o f the Primary class . They live d an d ate separatel y fro m th e Aviatio n Cadets , earne d abou t ninet y dollar s extra a month, wer e allowe d t o drin k alcoho l a t th e loca l officers ' clubs ,

46 • Stick and Rudder University and wer e no t "require d t o spen d s o much tim e in drills , ceremonies, an d inspections a s wer e th e cadets." 42 Furthermore , i f a studen t office r washed out , h e would stil l b e an officer , bu t i f the sam e occurre d fo r th e Aviation Cadet , hi s Ai r Forc e caree r wa s essentiall y finished: befor e 1951, h e would b e discharged; afte r tha t date , he would b e compelled t o serve ou t hi s term a s a n enliste d man . No t surprisingly , th e relationshi p between Aviatio n Cadet s an d studen t officer s tende d t o b e tens e a t first. However, a s tim e wen t b y an d th e me n go t t o kno w eac h other , a mor e casual fligh t sui t relationship developed . While o n the flight line , military rank distinction s an d disciplin e wer e minimized : salutin g wa s forbidde n and hazin g wa s a n absolut e "no-no. " A s fello w students , Aviatio n Ca dets an d studen t officer s neede d al l th e suppor t an d camaraderi e the y could muste r fro m o n another ; the y coul d ill-affor d t o jeopardiz e th e relationship wit h traditiona l militar y rigmarole . "Yo u share d successe s and failures, " claim s Pomeroy , "an d afte r a whil e som e cadet s an d officers eve n bega n referrin g t o eac h othe r b y thei r first names." 4 3 Th e fear, th e challenges , an d danger s o f learnin g t o fly , i n th e end , woul d enable thes e men t o transcen d distinction s i n military statu s an d becom e a unifie d ban d o f brothers . Symbolizin g thi s unit y wer e th e silve r wing s each ma n woul d receiv e a t th e en d o f Advance d training. 44 In spit e o f th e casua l natur e o f th e fligh t line , the Aviatio n Cade t stil l had t o underg o a certai n amoun t o f traditiona l militar y initiatio n i n Primary. Som e o f i t consiste d o f drill s an d formation s describe d i n th e Preflight section , bu t anothe r par t o f i t wa s th e hazin g the y inevitabl y received fro m upper-clas s Aviatio n Cadet s i n th e barrack s an d th e mes s halls. Th e mos t commo n for m o f hazin g wa s th e "brace, " a n exagger ated an d highl y uncomfortabl e for m o f attentio n whic h junio r cadet s were force d t o assum e fo r a lon g perio d o f time . Crockett , a Tuskege e airman, remember s ho w upperclassme n woul d ofte n tur n o n th e light s in th e middl e o f th e nigh t an d brac e th e junio r cadet s o r mak e the m ru n in place. He als o recalled ho w on e upperclassman , Pric e D. Rice, "calle d him int o hi s roo m an d mad e hi m si t o n a n imaginar y stoo l wit h hi s arms ou t agains t th e wall , lik e wings , whil e h e studie d navigation. " A s Crockett's example s reveal , hazing was actuall y quit e mild i n Primary. I n fact, th e mos t perniciou s for m o f hazin g wa s th e "squar e meal"— a

Stick and Rudder University • 4 7 practice whereb y a cade t wa s force d t o ea t hi s mea l a t attentio n i n a rigidly prescribed format . However , when i t became so severe that cadet s were unabl e t o ea t an d wer e constantl y see n rummaging fo r foo d durin g their spar e time , AT C eliminate d i t i n Septembe r 1950 , alon g wit h excessive bracing. 45 Perhaps mor e seriou s tha n standar d hazin g wa s th e abus e som e stu dents receive d du e t o thei r religion , sexua l preference , o r race . "Nobod y wanted t o b e ethni c i n th e military, " claime d Berke , a Jewish America n who eve n wen t t o Christia n chape l i n a n attemp t t o fit in . Nevertheless , he wa s stil l "mad e fu n o f a lot. " Par t o f th e proble m wa s tha t a s th e senior studen t officer , Berk e ha d t o marc h othe r studen t officers , includ ing som e Wes t Poin t an d Annapoli s men , t o class , bu t h e als o believe s that hi s religio n wa s partl y t o blame . "Th e guy s i n m y clas s se t u p a washout pool , an d wer e bettin g tha t I would was h ou t first." 46 Like religion , racia l difference s coul d als o pos e problem s fo r th e young cadet . A t man y o f th e contrac t fields i n th e South , black s simpl y could no t leav e bas e du e t o fear s o f bein g attacke d b y th e loca l whit e population. Tomlinso n remember s tha t blac k pilot s wer e tol d t o sta y o n base a t hi s civilia n contracto r schoo l a t Bainbridge , Georgia , becaus e i t was "cracke r country " bac k then. 47 Crockett , fo r instance , never lef t th e Tuskegee trainin g bas e durin g hi s entir e trainin g perio d i n th e earl y 1940s. 48 Eve n a s lat e a s th e 1960s , a t nearb y Maxwel l AF B i n Mont gomery, Alabama , hom e o f th e Ai r Comman d an d Staf f Schoo l an d the Ai r Wa r College , blac k student s wer e officiall y discourage d fro m socializing i n whit e homes : "Student s wh o stil l desire d t o entertai n o r study wit h Negr o classmate s wer e tol d t o infor m thei r neighbor s tha t a fellow student , a Negro, was coming to call , and wer e advise d t o b e sur e that white s kne w jus t wh o h e i s an d wh y h e i s coming." 49 Abuse , incidentally, wa s no t confine d t o th e off-base activitie s o f blac k trainees . At Tuskegee, Crocket t remember s on e civilian instructo r wh o woul d no t pass a single black studen t fo r si x months. White instructor s a t Tuskege e also refuse d t o ea t i n th e sam e dinin g roo m wit h blacks. 50 Eve n afte r integration i n 1949 , ther e wer e stil l noncommissione d officers ' clubs , officers' clubs , an d othe r facilitie s wher e black s wer e no t welcome. 51 According t o historia n Ala n Gropman , "Th e practic e wa s introduce d t o

48 • Stick and Rudder University establish branc h club s o n th e sam e bas e an d i t wa s tacitl y understoo d that on e club was for white s and th e other fo r blacks . Such arrangement s have persiste d t o 1985. " 52 Although student s o f differen t racia l an d religiou s background s ofte n suffered fro m variou s form s o f harassmen t whil e o n an d of f base , thei r presence i n trainin g wa s officiall y tolerated—bu t suc h wa s no t th e cas e for ga y men . Homosexualit y wa s banne d b y th e Unifor m Cod e o f Mili tary Conduct , bu t enforcemen t wa s no t alway s standar d o r uniform . When a ga y ma n mad e a n advanc e t o anothe r cade t i n Turner' s class , vigilante justic e prevailed : cadet s forcefull y remove d th e suspecte d ga y man fro m th e barrack s i n the middl e o f th e nigh t whil e h e was sleeping . None o f th e cadet s wer e punishe d fo r thei r behavio r an d th e ga y ma n was quietl y kicke d ou t o f th e program. 53 Hazing an d othe r form s o f emotiona l an d psychologica l harassmen t could indee d b e excessiv e i n certai n cases , bu t fo r mos t pilots , i t wa s a minor aspec t o f th e overal l trainin g experience . I f on e coul d surviv e th e rigors o f fligh t training , on e coul d certainl y endur e a bi t o f hazin g an d military discipline . In fact, a s Berke recalls: "You simpl y didn't hav e tim e to worr y abou t tha t kin d o f stuff . I n training , yo u wer e alway s unde r the gun , an d ther e wa s alway s a n instructo r i n th e flight . Yo u wer e interested i n mechanica l type s o f things , an d yo u wer e alway s bein g evaluated o n that . The y didn' t teac h yo u managemen t o r office r skills , they were onl y intereste d i n turning ou t canno n fodde r fo r th e war." 54 The basi c trainer i n Primary wa s th e North America n AT- 6 Texan, " a single-engine, propeller-driven , two-plac e trainer " wit h a to p spee d o f 210 mph. 55 Whe n Tomlinso n first sa t i n th e cockpit , wha t struc k hi m was ho w man y dial s an d switche s ther e wer e i n thi s "relativel y simpl e aircraft." H e di d no t hav e to o muc h tim e t o thin k abou t i t becaus e hi s instructor the n go t i n th e bac k seat , an d th e nex t thin g h e kne w h e wa s up i n th e air . "Gee , thi s i s absolutel y marvelous, " h e recalled . "Thi s i s the funnest thin g I've eve r done in my life. I always thought i t was gonn a be fun , an d yo u bet , i t wa s fun." 56 Fo r others , lik e Ear l Brown , flying took som e getting use d to : After looking forward t o my first flight for so long, I was devastated when I got airsick. Fortunately, we had been warned b y the upperclassmen, s o I had a n empt y potat o chi p ba g i n m y pocket int o whic h I deposite d m y

Stick and Rudder University • 4 9 breakfast. Afte r th e secon d tim e I got sick , m y instructor pilo t (IP ) said , "Brown, it's that dam n ba g you carry. You expect to get sick an d s o you do. Leave that bag behind and you won't get sick." So I left the bag behind and on the next flight, I had to throw up in my hat. 57 Brown, in the end, conquered hi s sickness problem an d becam e a very proficient fighte r pilot , bu t h e wa s fortunat e t o hav e ha d a sympatheti c instructor, a n Ai r Forc e office r name d Phili p Plotkin . Captai n Plotki n volunteered t o tak e fou r o f th e si x blac k pilot s i n clas s 51- H becaus e h e was " a littl e gu y an d ha d som e ide a wha t thes e guy s wer e goin g through." Despit e Plotkin' s bes t efforts , though , Brow n wa s th e onl y black pilo t t o graduat e i n class 51-H. 58 Although man y pilot s ha d fon d memorie s o f thei r instructors , no t al l did. Fo r Berke , "Th e instructo r wa s no t you r friend : ever y rid e wa s a check ride , an d the y wer e tryin g t o was h yo u ou t th e entir e time. " Pomeroy's secon d instructo r wa s a n extremel y overbearin g perso n wh o would yel l a t a cade t ove r th e interco m fo r th e entir e flying lesson : "I f you di d somethin g right , i t wa s jus t luck. " Thi s instructo r washe d ou t five students , an d Pomero y claim s h e woul d hav e bee n on e o f the m i f i t had no t bee n fo r Wes t Point : "Yo u ha d t o hav e rock s i n you r hea d t o enjoy th e academy , bu t i t di d giv e yo u a n emotiona l reserv e an d teac h you ho w t o le t verba l abus e rol l of f you r back!" 59 O n on e memorabl e training flight, Pomero y wa s place d unde r a hoo d an d tol d t o fly wit h instruments only , a standar d bu t ver y stressfu l exercise . A s th e flight progressed, hi s instructo r go t increasingl y rile d a t hi m ove r a serie s o f small errors, and i n the end the instructor forgo t t o put dow n the landin g gear, forcing Pomero y t o mak e a n unplanne d bell y landing . Fortunately , this inciden t wa s a n instructo r error , an d Pomero y wa s no t washe d out . In retrospect , recalle d Pomeroy , i t wa s " a nic e learnin g experience." 60 Pomeroy wa s lucky , but other s were ofte n not . Because th e Ai r Forc e wante d t o eliminat e peopl e earl y t o sav e tim e and money , i t grante d it s Primar y instructor s tremendou s latitud e t o wash ou t candidates . I n 1952 , fo r instance , th e Trainin g Comman d planned t o was h ou t a tota l o f 2 9 percen t o f th e pilots , 2 5 percen t i n Primary. I n th e end , i t washe d ou t 36. 5 percent , 30. 8 percen t i n Pri mary. 61 Give n the candidate shortage s fo r aviatio n training , washing ou t large number s o f cadet s appear s t o b e a somewha t contradictor y policy .

50 • Stick and Rudder University The "washout, " however , wa s a fundamenta l barrie r t o entr y int o th e rated Ai r Forc e an d ver y muc h a par t o f th e practica l Socia l Darwinis m which define d pilo t training . The majorit y (approximatel y 5 7 percent ) o f al l washout s i n Primar y were fo r flyin g deficiencies . Onl y a n averag e o f 1. 5 percen t washe d ou t for academi c reasons , an d i t wa s believe d tha t thes e pilot s faile d th e ridiculously simpl e academic tests on purpose. 62 Inevitably, flying prove d to b e the greates t hurdle . Bu t flyin g wa s als o th e hardes t skil l to judge — evaluation standard s tende d t o b e capriciou s a t bes t an d arbitrar y a t worst. 63 Instructor s coul d fai l a pilo t fo r everythin g fro m ver y straight forward criteri a lik e no t knowin g procedure s t o ver y subjectiv e one s such a s "ho w wel l yo u contro l th e aircraf t o r th e aircraf t control s you." 6 4 Gainin g th e prope r "feel " fo r th e aircraf t mad e al l th e differ ence, a s one cade t explained : As th e plan e climbed , h e [th e instructor ] explaine d abou t coordinatin g rudder an d ailero n pressure s i n turns , abou t th e "feel " o f th e airplane , about ho w to o muc h rudde r withou t ailero n contro l mad e th e airplan e skid t o th e outsid e o f th e tur n an d to o muc h ailero n contro l withou t rudder made it slip to the inside. Demonstrating, he told me how to feel it in the seat of my pants when we slipped o r skidded, an d to note how the wind cam e throug h th e sid e o f th e cockpi t whe n a tur n wa s uncoordi nated. Hanging o n grimly, with increasin g queasiness, I tried to feel what I should. 65 During th e first phas e o f th e eighteen-wee k Primar y program , a pilo t learned ho w t o "shoot " norma l an d force d landings , ho w t o turn , an d how t o recove r fro m stall s an d spins . I n th e secon d phase , h e learne d figure eight s an d "chandelles , o r abrup t climbin g turns." 6 6 Th e thir d phase, or "accurac y phase, " emphasize d precision , powe r on , power off , and short-fiel d landings , an d th e las t phase , "th e diversifie d stage, " stressed "loops , turns , an d rolls." 6 7 Th e flying curriculu m wa s foreve r being refine d b y th e Trainin g Comman d headquarter s i n Waco , Texas , but n o matte r ho w muc h headquarter s attempte d t o micromanag e th e course, i t wa s th e individua l instructo r i n th e en d wh o ha d th e mos t control ove r standards . H e wa s th e on e wh o decide d whethe r you r performance o n variou s maneuver s wa s "abov e average , average , belo w

Stick and Rudder University • 5 1 average, o r failing." 68 Thes e grades , i n turn , wen t int o a folde r whic h followed a pilo t fo r hi s entir e career , an d i n man y cases , determine d hi s entire futur e a s an Ai r Forc e officer . Accordin g t o Tomlinson , "I f i n late r life yo u decid e yo u wan t t o fly such an d suc h a plane , they g o bac k an d look a t you r basi c grade s t o se e i f yo u ha d troubl e wit h an y o f th e characteristics deeme d necessar y fo r tha t plane." 6 9 Getting a ba d grad e wa s on e thin g bu t a "washout " wa s tantamoun t to complet e an d utte r failure . A s on e airma n pu t it , "I t sounde d a s though yo u turne d colorles s an d jus t fade d away , lik e a guilt y spirit. " Another explaine d th e proces s i n Socia l Darwinis t terms : "I f yo u wer e a flier, yo u passed ; if you weren't , yo u washe d out—fel l ou t o f the air , an d became a lowe r orde r o f being." 70 Pomero y remember s vividl y th e da y when on e o f th e cadet s i n hi s grou p o f fou r washe d out : "Whe n h e go t out o f th e cockpit tha t day , he looked completel y beaten. " Lik e a pariah , anyone washe d ou t wa s immediatel y isolate d fro m th e grou p an d transferred t o anothe r base. 71 Berk e explaine d tha t "i f yo u coul d fly, w e accepte d you , an d i f yo u couldn't , out!! ! W e didn' t wan t yo u around." Clearly, washing ou t wa s a n emasculatio n o f sorts , but wh o tende d t o wash out ? Tomlinso n speculate d tha t som e "eithe r couldn' t hac k i t o r found tha t the y didn' t reall y hav e tha t initia l desire." 72 A World Wa r I I pilot divide d washout s int o tw o groups : "First , ther e wer e thos e wh o had previou s civilia n fligh t training , who evidentl y had troubl e flying th e Army way." The second group were the ROTC and West Point graduate s who "di d no t see m a s motivate d a s wer e Aviatio n Cadets." 7 3 Berke , who fel l squarel y int o th e first group , i n som e respect s fits thi s forme r characterization. "Everythin g t o m e wa s unfai r an d chicke n shit ; I con sidered mysel f a superio r pilo t fro m th e wor d go , an d a s fa r a s th e niceties went , I le t i t al l slide. " Slid e o r not , Berk e no t onl y mad e i t through th e program , bu t graduate d secon d i n hi s class . I f anything , prior flying experienc e appeare d t o improv e a cadet's chance s o f makin g it throug h th e program . However , whe n th e Ai r Forc e se t u p a course i n light plan e trainin g i n lat e 195 2 t o provid e cadet s wit h som e flying experience befor e Primary , attritio n rate s stil l hovere d aroun d 38. 4 per cent, a muc h highe r figure tha n th e planne d 2 9 percent . Th e Ai r Force ,

5 2 • Stick and Rudder University in th e end , blame d th e continue d hig h attritio n o n th e lowe r stanin e score o f it s applicants. 74 A bette r exampl e o f a grou p whic h ma y hav e benefite d fro m prio r flight trainin g wa s servic e academ y graduates . A n Ai r Trainin g Com mand analysi s o f clas s 53- E foun d tha t whil e 14 9 ou t o f 77 3 Aviatio n Cadets (19. 3 percent ) wer e eliminated , onl y 9 ou t o f 10 9 Nava l Acad emy student s (8. 3 percent) , an d 1 3 ou t i n Wes t Pointe r cadet s (11. 7 percent) washe d out. 75 Pomeroy , wh o bitterl y rejecte d th e contentio n that Wes t Poin t graduate s wer e no t a s motivate d a s Aviatio n Cadets , claimed tha t servic e academ y graduate s performe d bette r becaus e the y had alread y "bee n throug h a pressure-fille d indoctrination." 76 Whe n other office r group s accustome d t o militar y lif e ar e examined , however , Pomeroy's argumen t appear s specious . Th e sam e stud y o f 53- E foun d that 23. 5 percen t (1 9 ou t o f 81 ) o f ROT C an d Office r Candidat e Schoo l officers i n th e clas s washe d out , compare d t o 19. 3 percen t o f th e Avia tion Cadets. 77 A mor e plausibl e explanatio n fo r th e bette r performanc e of th e academ y type s wa s th e flyin g indoctrinatio n progra m whic h al l Air Force-boun d Wes t Poin t an d Nava l Academ y cadet s attende d durin g the summe r o f thei r junio r year . Durin g thi s introductor y course , cadet s not onl y receive d academi c instructio n o n flying , bu t wer e als o give n actual flyin g tim e o n T- 6 an d T-3 3 (jet) aircraft. 78 Pomero y receive d te n hours o f T- 6 trainin g durin g hi s tou r an d eve n droppe d dumm y bomb s from a n AT- 8 int o th e Quaba n Reservoir—Massachusetts' s chie f fresh water source! 79 All othe r factor s bein g equal , additiona l fligh t trainin g ma y hav e marginally improve d som e pilot' s chance s o f graduatin g fro m Primary , but i n th e end , a s th e Ai r Force' s experienc e wit h th e stanin e tes t sug gests, one' s abilit y t o succeed , mor e tha n an y othe r factors , reste d o n individual moto r skill s an d a capacit y t o cop e wit h th e stres s o f flying . The stres s o f flying , i n particular , wa s a rud e awakenin g fo r man y a young Aviatio n Cadet . Occasionally , thos e wh o bega n t o fea r climbin g into th e cockpit woul d approac h thei r commander s an d declar e "lac k o f motivation" a s thei r reaso n fo r resigning . Pau l Turner' s brothe r washe d himself ou t i n jus t suc h a manner . On e day , h e simpl y wen t t o th e bas e commander an d tol d him : " I don' t enjo y goin g dow n t o th e fligh t line ,

Stick and Rudder University • 5 3 and I don' t enjo y flying planes. " Mor e often , though , flying anxiet y manifested itsel f i n a rather bizarr e conditio n know n a s fea r o f flying o r FOE Ai r Trainin g Comman d analyse s o f classe s 52-E , F , and G reveal s that a n averag e o f 7. 5 percen t o f thos e eliminate d wer e washe d ou t du e to FO E Mor e significantly , thes e sam e studie s revea l tha t FO F wa s th e third greates t caus e o f elimination s afte r flying deficiencie s an d physica l deficiencies.80 FOF wa s no t a ne w psychologica l conditio n i n th e 1950s ; i n fact , documented case s ca n b e foun d a s earl y a s Worl d Wa r I . H . G . Ander son, a Worl d Wa r I Roya l Ai r Forc e flight surgeon , wa s on e o f th e first physicians t o stud y th e phenomeno n extensively . H e define d FOF , o r "aeroneurosis" a s he labeled it , as "unhappines s i n the air, introspection , and morbi d thoughts. " Aeroneurosis, he claimed, could b e caused b y the stress o f flight training , th e shoc k o f a n aviatio n accident , o r th e anxiet y of combat flying. Through hi s experiences i n treating patients a t a British flight trainin g center , h e conclude d tha t "experience d pilot s wer e th e most likel y to overcom e aeroneurosis. " 81 During Worl d Wa r II , mor e investigation s o f FO F wer e undertaken , but genera l definition s remaine d vague . Dougla s C . Bond , a psychiatris t with th e Eight h Ai r Forc e i n Europe , posite d tha t FO F patient s fel l int o three distinc t groups : 1) fliers wit h childhoo d predisposition s t o phobi c behavio r tha t resulte d from unresolve d oedipa l conflicts—thei r phobi c symptom s gre w an d (i f untreated) eventuall y rendere d the m unabl e t o perfor m thei r duties ; z) fliers wh o exhibite d a mor e restricte d phobi c pattern—notin g tha t on e could fin d a neurotic patter n i n anyon e i f on e looke d deepl y enough , he said th e reluctanc e o f hi s secon d grou p t o fl y wa s precipitate d b y mor e personal an d intense circumstances than the first group ; and 3 ) fliers who were simply physically exhausted, and treatable with a week's rest. 82 P. F . Eggerston, disputin g Bond' s claim s abou t unresolve d oedipa l con flicts, argue d tha t FO F relate d t o a propensit y fo r suicid e i n pilots , o r a "suicidal dynamic." 83 Finally , R . R . Grinke r an d J . R Spiegel , tw o doctors wh o worke d wit h AA F fliers durin g th e Nort h Africa n cam paign, describe d th e phenomeno n a s "th e anticipatio n o f danger , experi enced b y the ego, which le d the flier to behav e a s if formerly experience d

54 • Stick and Rudder University dangers wer e present. " The y als o dre w a distinctio n betwee n pilot s suffering fro m simpl e exhaustio n an d thos e sufferin g fro m th e FO F neurosis. 84 During th e Korea n War , Dr . Luci o Gatt o conducte d wha t woul d become a widel y cite d stud y o f FOF . H e identifie d tw o form s o f FOF : "Basic Universal," an d "Fea r o f Flying Syndrome." Basi c Universal FOF, he believed, was the "inheren t fea r o f bein g maimed, mutilated , o r kille d by fallin g throug h spac e an d hittin g th e groun d wit h grea t force. " B y comparison, FO F Syndrom e wa s " a comple x reactio n occurrin g amon g previously adjuste d flying personnel , an d characterize d b y various defen sive an d maladaptiv e behaviora l processe s whic h expres s anxiet y ove r various externa l an d interna l conflicts , frustrations , insecurities , an d dangers." 85 FO F Syndrome , i n othe r words , was a for m o f anxiet y tha t manifested itsel f a s FOF bu t wa s no t necessaril y linke d t o an y particula r aspect o f it . Flyers who develope d FO F later o n i n their career s generall y suffered fro m FO F Syndrome, whereas thos e who develope d FO F durin g their first trainin g flights i n al l likelihoo d suffere d fro m Basi c Universa l FOF. While Gatto's definition o f FOF is somewhat vague, his understandin g of FOF' s symptom s i s muc h clearer. 86 The y include d sleeplessness , ner vousness, agitation , somati c complaints , nightmares , passiv e an d o r ag gressive reactions , claustrophobia , alcoholism , an d phobi c response s t o planes. 87 I n short , the y include d symptom s whic h directl y interfere d with a pilot' s abilit y t o operat e aircraft . Th e Ai r Forc e hierarchy , how ever, tended t o trea t FO F a s a personne l proble m rathe r tha n a medica l condition. 88 At th e beginnin g o f th e war , officer s o r thos e wh o expresse d a fear o f flying were immediately grounde d an d compelle d t o fac e a review board , consisting o f thei r squadro n commander , thei r bas e commander , an d other officer s a t their loca l bas e o r trainin g facility . Althoug h a discharg e from flying dutie s wa s practicall y guaranteed , th e board , t o discourag e others fro m usin g FO F a s a mean s t o avoi d flying, woul d subjec t th e officer t o a serie s o f humiliatin g question s relatin g t o th e individual' s patriotism an d self-wort h befor e reassignin g hi m to a nonrated job. 89

Stick and Rudder University • 5 5 In orde r t o ensur e impartiality , decision s o f loca l board s wer e the n reviewed "al l th e wa y u p th e chai n o f comman d wit h th e final decisio n made b y Headquarters , USA R Highe r officer s tende d t o b e eve n les s sympathetic tha n th e loca l boards . SA C commande r Curti s LeMay' s reaction t o FOF , in man y respects , typifie d th e attitud e o f th e Ai r Forc e leadership. H e ha d n o us e fo r pilot s wh o coul d no t "cu t th e mustard, " and believe d anyon e professin g FO F wa s a "contaminatin g influence " who shoul d immediatel y b e court-martiale d an d dismisse d fro m th e service.90 Ai r Forc e Chie f o f Staf f Hoy t Vandenber g similarl y favore d some form o f punishment, an d believe d tha t FO F represented a desertio n from a "swor n duty. " Vandenberg' s view s bega n t o softe n somewha t a s more an d mor e experience d pilots , includin g comba t veterans , bega n t o complain o f FOF . It was on e thing t o court-martia l Aviatio n Cadets , bu t quite anothe r t o tr y a n office r wh o ha d alread y serve d hi s countr y honorably i n a war. 91 When Vandenber g finally issue d a polic y directiv e i n Apri l 1952 , h e rejected LeMay' s draconia n suggestion s an d opte d instea d fo r a ne w two-category FO F policy . A flier declarin g FO F woul d receiv e a medica l examination, an d "i f diagnose d a s havin g a psychoneurosi s tha t mani fested itsel f a s FOF , h e woul d b e treate d a s a patient , grounded , an d given prope r psychiatri c care." 9 2 Interestingly , th e treatmen t woul d fo cus o n specifi c symptom s o f FO F becaus e th e polic y di d no t recogniz e FOF a s a medical condition. 93 On th e othe r hand , i f a fligh t surgeo n foun d tha t th e flie r di d no t have a "disablin g psychoneurosis, " th e entir e matte r woul d b e handle d administratively. Trainee s an d pilot s wit h les s tha n te n year s o f servic e were automaticall y give n a general discharg e "fo r th e convenience o f th e government": a "general " discharg e wa s "neithe r honorabl e o r dishon orable." 94 Fo r thos e wit h mor e tha n te n year s o f service , exception s t o this discharg e polic y coul d b e made , bu t "onl y i n unusua l instance s an d where th e individual possesse d a critically needed non-rate d skill." 95 It i s har d t o kno w th e exac t numbe r o f trainee s wh o opte d ou t o f flying b y professin g FOF . Wha t i s clea r i s tha t betwee n Jun e 195 0 an d November 1952 , over 88 0 cases were reported. 96 O f thi s number, onl y a

56 • Stick and Rudder University small group o f 13 4 lieutenant s an d captain s wa s thoroughly analyze d b y the Ai r Trainin g Command . On e hundre d an d thirty-on e wer e recalle d reservists, thre e wer e regulars , an d non e wer e "green " Aviatio n Cadets . Most o f th e me n (101 ) wer e "observer s undergoin g trainin g fo r assign ments t o th e Strategi c Ai r Comman d an d cre w dutie s i n th e B-29, " an d at leas t eighty-on e ha d flow n comba t mission s i n Worl d Wa r II . Finally , a majorit y ha d wive s an d children. 97 Clearly , thes e vetera n airme n un derstood wa r an d it s many dangers . As Vance Mitchell write s i n Personnel Policy History of the Air Force Officer Corps, 1944-1974, "No w older, more settled , and face d wit h the prospect o f combat i n an unpopu lar war, they had neithe r th e emotional reserve s nor th e will to fac e agai n the threat o f violen t death. " 98 Gatto , similarly , discovere d tha t abou t 5 0 percent o f th e FO F patient s h e treate d i n Kore a wer e Worl d Wa r I I veterans, an d mos t "wer e marrie d me n wit h definit e hom e responsibili ties." 9 9 Hi s belie f wa s tha t thes e me n fel t a degre e o f conflic t ove r thei r combat dutie s an d wer e therefor e highl y susceptibl e t o stres s reac tions. 100 Despite th e considerabl e number s o f case s o f FO F i n Primar y an d Basic trainin g (approximatel y twenty-on e pe r clas s i n 1952) , however , neither Gatt o no r th e AT C attempte d systematicall y t o analyz e FO F cases a t thi s level. 101 Par t o f th e problem , accordin g t o a 195 2 AT C Conference report , wa s tha t fligh t surgeon s foun d "i t har d t o evaluat e fear o f flyin g a t thi s stag e o f th e game , particularl y i f th e individua l ha s never flow n before. " Anothe r proble m wa s tha t th e AT C believe d tha t FOF wa s simpl y a "made-to-order " excus e fo r me n wishin g t o reduc e their tou r fro m fou r year s t o two . Finally , Aviatio n Cadet s an d studen t officers coul d resig n fro m aviatio n trainin g a t an y point i n their progra m with ver y fe w question s asked ; consequently , th e Ai r Forc e wa s no t compelled t o investigat e o r review them i n a systematic way—they wer e simply cast out into a nonrated o r an enlisted job and forgotte n about. 102 In al l likelihood , therefore , th e numbe r o f FO F case s i n trainin g wa s larger tha n ATC records suggest. However, insufficient follow-u p investi gation make s i t difficult t o characterize th e type of individua l wh o migh t have bee n particularly susceptible. 103

Stick and Rudder University • 5 7 What w e d o kno w i s tha t FO F i s th e cleares t manifestatio n o f th e stress fro m whic h ever y cade t an d studen t office r suffered . Primary' s emphasis o n sol o flying guarantee d tha t eac h aviatio n student , a t som e point, woul d hav e t o confron t al l o f hi s innermost fear s an d insecurities . Alone i n a smal l airplane , h e woul d hav e t o tak e off , land , an d perfor m a myria d o f technica l functions , al l withou t losin g hi s nerve—on e smal l mistake coul d resul t i n washou t o r eve n death . No t surprisingly , man y men di d no t mak e it : Turner' s brothe r "didn' t se e flying a s wort h th e risk." Anothe r frien d o f Turner' s too k drug s t o hel p hi m ge t through , but eventuall y smashe d hi s aircraft int o a mountain a t Nellis AFB. Those pilot trainee s wh o di d mak e it , though , coul d loose n u p a bi t an d begi n to assum e th e swaggerin g way s o f a USA F pilot . Afte r all , the y ha d conquered th e disciplin e o f Primary , it s hos t o f ofte n hostil e instructors , and, mos t important , flying itself . Althoug h silve r wing s wer e fo r th e future, th e Primar y graduat e kne w i n his heart h e could fly an airplane .

Basic In on e respec t Basi c wa s ver y simila r t o Primary : fundamenta l flying maneuvers an d technique s wer e stil l emphasized . However , Basi c dif fered i n severa l significan t respects . First , th e eliminatio n rat e droppe d precipitously. Th e averag e attritio n rat e fo r clas s 52-E , F , G , an d H i n Primary wa s 26.7 5 percent , bu t i n Basic , i t wa s onl y 8.0 8 percent . Similarly, 27. 5 percen t o f classe s 53-A , B , C, D washe d ou t i n Primary , compared t o onl y 11.3 8 percen t i n Basic. 104 Second , th e acciden t rat e increased: durin g th e first si x months o f 1952 , seven pilots were killed i n Primary, compare d t o thirty-tw o i n Basic. 105 Ver y fe w pilot s wen t through Basi c without seein g a t leas t on e colleagu e killed . I t was a plac e where youn g me n jus t beginnin g t o cop e wit h th e exhilaratio n o f flying began t o understan d it s many dangers . At the hear t o f th e "acciden t problem " wer e th e jet aircraft . Fo r mos t of thes e pilots , Basi c wa s thei r first initiatio n t o jets . Althoug h som e pilots destine d fo r th e Korea n Wa r attende d multi-engin e Basi c school s to lear n th e rudiments o f bombe r flying, th e majority attende d je t transi -

$8 • Stick and Rudder University tion Basi c schools . I n Septembe r 1952 , fo r instance , th e Ai r Forc e ha d 2,392 student s enrolle d i n je t transitio n schools , an d onl y 9 8 7 i n multi engine schools.

106

Th e difficult y wit h jet s i n th e 1950 s wa s tha t the y

were neithe r eas y t o fl y no r particularl y safe . Fo r th e youn g studen t aviator, the y wer e als o alien . "Pro p planes, " remembere d Berke , "ha d all th e goo d smell s an d wer e familia r . . . [but ] jet s wer e uncomfortable , and smelle d lousy. " The y wer e als o famou s fo r killin g pilot s w h o di d not pa y clos e attentio n t o w h a t the y wer e doing.

107

The aircraf t use d i n th e transitio n o f student s fro m propeller-drive n planes t o jet s wa s th e Lockhee d T-33 , a two-sea t versio n o f th e Lockhee d F-80 Shootin g Sta r (famou s fo r killin g si x tes t pilots , includin g America' s number-one Worl d Wa r I I ace , Richar d Bong). 1 0 8 Th e T-33 ,

or

T-Bir d a s

it wa s called , wa s powere d b y a Genera l M o t o r s Alliso n engin e an d could fl y 60 0 mile s pe r hour , abou t 15 0 mile s pe r hou r faste r tha n top rated p r o p plane s lik e th e F - 5 1 . 1 0 9 Beside s bein g somewha t unstabl e i n level flight, th e T-3 3 coul d no t fl y straigh t u p an d ha d a n extremel y tricky throttle . Unlik e a T- 6 o r a n F - 5 1 , wher e on e coul d "mov e th e throttle rapidl y fro m idl e t o ful l p o w e r " an d ge t a decen t response , recalls Brown , "thi s engin e ha d t o b e carefull y an d slowly coaxe d t o full power level , [and ] i f th e pilo t advance d th e throttl e to o quickly , th e sudden additio n o f fue l woul d caus e th e engin e temperatur e t o ris e above limits " an d explode.

110

Sudde n throttl e movement , i n flight ,

could als o caus e a compresso r stall— a dangerou s situatio n whic h ofte n required th e pilo t t o bai l ou t i f h e coul d no t restar t th e engin e o r i f h e was simpl y to o clos e t o th e ground . Brow n describe d th e "bailout " a s follows: [The bailout ] presente d th e pilo t wit h a n arra y o f possibilities . Ejectio n seats wer e a necessar y featur e becaus e th e speed s a t whic h jet s fle w mad e manual bailout s extremely risky . Ejectio n sea t bailout s wer e onl y . . . risky. Fo r talle r pilots , ejectio n raise d th e hazar d o f knee s hittin g o n th e windshield rai l whil e leavin g th e plane , whic h woul d reall y smart . Pilot s could wea r tw o type s o f parachute s i n th e T-33 ; eithe r th e bac k pack , which fi t betwee n th e pilot' s bac k an d th e bac k o f th e seat , o r th e sea t pack, o n which th e pilot would sit , leaving more roo m t o pus h bac k i n th e seat. The lengt h o f th e pilot' s thig h wa s measured , an d i f it went beyon d a certain length , h e ha d t o wea r th e sea t pack . Thi s gav e hi m a fe w extr a

Stick and Rudder University • 5 9 inches to keep them from strikin g his knees as he ejected. But in the early days, I neve r kne w a fighte r pilo t t o tur n dow n a chanc e t o fl y simpl y because the right parachute was not available. Some guys were so big that even with the seat chute, there was no room for a safe ejection. 111 In additio n t o confrontin g th e T-33' s mechanica l idiosyncrasies , a student flying i t fo r th e firs t tim e als o ha d t o adjus t t o muc h highe r G forces tha n i n th e T-6 . Si x G' s wer e routin e i n comba t maneuvers— a state whic h mad e "you r ten-poun d hea d weig h sixt y pounds." 1 1 2 Pilot s had t o wea r inflatabl e G suit s t o preven t "bloo d fro m poolin g i n th e lower par t o f th e bod y an d mak e i t easie r fo r you r hear t t o work." 1 1 3 Nevertheless, a pilo t unaccustome d t o th e strai n o f constan t G' s coul d easily los e hi s orientatio n i n th e air , a s di d on e o f Brown' s classmates . I t was towar d th e en d o f th e da y an d th e su n wa s visibl e a t altitude , bu t not a t groun d level . In a n effor t t o conserv e fuel , Brown' s flight wa s letting dow n a t a horrendously fas t rate . Everyone wa s becomin g disori ented fro m th e G force s an d changin g ligh t conditions , bu t on e pilo t became s o disoriente d tha t h e flew hi s plan e righ t int o th e ground . According t o Brown , "Thi s pu t a dampe r o n thing s fo r a while , bu t w e were soo n bac k a t trainin g wit h adde d motivatio n t o lear n al l w e coul d to preven t somethin g lik e thi s fro m happenin g t o us." 1 1 4 Th e Ai r Forc e did no t give pilots a n opportunit y t o grieve: "Yo u were thrown fro m on e lesson to the next without muc h reflection , an d neve r give n time to wor k out problems." 115 Partly responsibl e fo r th e frenetic stat e o f affair s tha t Brow n describe s were th e instructors . Basi c instructor s insiste d o n pushin g student s t o their limits . "Th e whol e philosoph y o f flight schoo l wa s sin k o r swim, " recalled Turner . "The y thre w yo u int o th e mele e withou t muc h instruc tion." 1 1 6 Berke , wh o los t 4 o f hi s clas s o f 106 , coul d no t believ e ho w instructors coul d deman d tigh t pattern s fo r landing— a practic e tha t enabled the m t o se e students bette r bu t als o "increase d th e possibilit y o f a low-altitud e stall." 117 Instructor s als o insiste d o n ver y tigh t forma tions—a difficul t skil l t o acquir e fo r th e novic e flyer, a s Charle s Watr y described i n his World Wa r I I aviation trainin g memoir : Beginners i n formatio n flyin g alway s ove r control , fighting to hol d th e proper formation positio n with wild burst s of power, followed b y sudden

6o • Stick and Rudder University frantic yankin g the throttles rearward when it appears that the wing of the lead plane is about to be chewed up by the propeller of the airplanes flying the win g position . Beginner s als o tr y t o hol d latera l positio n usin g onl y rudders. Th e airplan e i s likel y t o wallo w throug h th e ai r lik e a goos e waddling to its pond. 118 Although no t i n a je t a t th e time , Crockett' s first acciden t occurre d i n just suc h a manner. He was flying close formation o n a final approach i n P-39S and gettin g closer an d close r unti l a classmate name d Othe l Dixo n reported tha t Crockett' s pro p wa s comin g int o hi s cockpit. 119 Crocket t immediately "dumpe d th e stic k forward , brok e of f hi s vertical fin under neath" Dixon' s airplane , an d slice d Dixon' s wingti p off . Bot h pilot s survived, wit h Dixo n receivin g a mil d cu t abov e hi s right eye. 120 Crock ett an d Dixo n wer e lucky , bu t othe r pilot s wer e not ; i n fact , midai r collisions durin g formatio n flights an d traffi c pattern s wer e th e mos t common for m o f trainin g accidents. 121 Accident s durin g takeoff s an d landings wer e als o common . On e o f Berke' s wors t trainin g memorie s was tryin g desperatel y t o ge t a classmat e ou t o f a plan e tha t crashe d during a takeoff , bein g overcom e b y th e hea t an d fumes , an d finally watching hi s friend bur n up. 1 2 2 Painful experience s lik e these tested eve n the strongest , bu t the y als o bonde d an d unifie d th e men . A good exampl e o f this bonding was the warm relationship s th e pilot s developed wit h foreig n students . Th e Ai r Forc e Trainin g Comman d trained student s fro m a numbe r o f allie d countries , includin g Belgium , the Netherlands , Denmark , France , Italy , an d Thailand . Clas s 52-E , fo r example, ha d 18 8 foreig n student s ou t o f a tota l o f 745. 1 2 3 Georg e Berke's section o f 53- E at Williams had 2 1 foreign student s ou t o f a tota l of 10 8 students. 124 Earl Brow n forme d a lasting friendshi p wit h hi s roommate i n Basic , a French Ai r Forc e Academ y cade t name d Pierr e Claude . Late r i n thei r careers, the two would serv e side b y side in Europe: Brown a s the NAT O Air Commande r i n the Mediterranean, an d Pierr e Claud e a s commande r of th e Frenc h Ai r Force s i n southeaster n France. 125 Althoug h Pau l Turner di d not bun k with a foreign student , he "befriende d the m becaus e they wer e a lo t o f fun. " Turne r eve n invite d a Danis h cade t t o spen d Christmas with hi s family afte r th e Danish studen t washe d out : "H e wa s

Stick and Rudder University • 6 1 in my group," declare d Paul , "an d I felt responsibl e fo r him." 1 2 6 Studen t solidarity, i n short , coul d eve n transcend difference s o f nationality . Language differences , o n th e othe r hand , wer e mor e difficul t t o bridge. The instructor pilot s tried t o spea k i n short sentence s to facilitat e communication, bu t tha t di d no t alway s help . On e da y durin g Brown' s training, a Frenc h studen t forgo t t o perfor m a standar d T- 6 tes t know n as the GUM P check : • Gas : to th e fulles t tan k • Undercarriage : dow n • Mixture : ful l ric h • Prop : full forwar d Well, th e instructo r yelle d "GUMP " severa l time s ove r th e radi o ne t t o remind him , an d th e Frenc h studen t baile d out. 127 Despite languag e barriers , ther e i s very littl e evidenc e suggestin g tha t foreigners wer e mor e likel y t o was h ou t tha n cadets . In fact , a n analysi s of clas s 52- E b y th e AT C eve n suggest s that , a s a group , foreigner s performed bette r tha n Aviatio n Cadets . In all , 32. 2 percen t o f th e allie d students washe d ou t i n Primar y an d Basic , compared t o 41. 2 percen t o f the Aviation Cadets. 128 At th e conclusio n o f Basic , Aviatio n Cadet s receive d thei r commis sions a s secon d lieutenants , bu t th e trial s o f trainin g di d no t en d there . Future pilot s stil l ha d t o endur e anothe r twelv e gruelin g week s o f Ad vanced befor e the y wer e full y certifie d a s Ai r Forc e pilot s an d coul d wear th e covete d silve r wings . Top-ranked student s wen t o n t o Nelli s t o learn t o fly and fight i n the top-of-the-line F-8 6 Sabr e fighter-interceptor; others wen t t o Luk e AFB , nea r Phoenix , Arizona , t o becom e F-8 4 fighter-bomber pilots , an d th e res t wen t t o base s lik e Wichita Municipa l Airport t o becom e bombe r pilots .

Advanced Each Dawn Nellis AFB, Nev., comes to life with a roar—th e roar o f jet s takin g of f fo r th e first day' s man y schedule d

62 • Stick and Rudder University missions. I n nearb y La s Vegas , many a red-eye d gamble r i s still pressing his luck at a gaming table. But at Nellis the men jockeying th e F-8o s o r th e F-86 s ar e clear-eyed , aggressive , and alert. They have less need for artificia l stimulu s to lighten their lives.129 —Everett Dodd, "The Tale of Tiger,' " Air Force Magazine, July 1953. Air Force Magazine an d othe r popula r aviatio n journal s glorifie d th e Nellis trainin g progra m i n advance d fighter tactics . Nellis gav e pilot s a n unprecedented opportunit y t o practic e aeria l tactics with actua l "aggres sor" aircraft : a tremendousl y costl y an d dangerou s metho d o f training , but on e which gave U.S. fighter pilots a clear advantag e i n dogfights ove r MiG Alle y i n Korea . "Althoug h th e F-8 6 wa s a splendi d fighter," write s Air Force historian Wayne Thompson, "it s overwhelming succes s agains t the Mi G i n Korea resulte d i n larg e measur e fro m it s superio r pilots." 130 Nellis, however , wa s no t th e onl y Advance d trainin g program , no r wa s it th e onl y on e wher e pilot s confronte d realisti c an d dangerou s trainin g conditions. A t th e Luk e AF B Advanced Gunner y school , pilot s als o los t their live s o n a regula r basi s practicin g div e bombin g an d othe r tactic s in th e F-84 . Overall , jet s lik e th e F-8 6 an d th e F-8 4 wer e complicate d planes tha t require d a grea t dea l o f practic e t o fl y properly . Unfortu nately fo r th e novic e trainees, Advanced di d no t giv e them muc h tim e t o get acquainte d wit h ne w aircraft ; instead , i t emphasize d th e advance d aerial technique s a pilo t neede d t o kno w i n orde r t o perfor m hi s give n role i n combat . I n short , Advanced , althoug h par t o f th e basi c trainin g cycle, was mor e o f a graduat e progra m fo r th e variou s flyin g discipline s than a cours e i n fundamentals . Th e onl y thin g th e variou s Advance d schools ha d i n common wa s their fligh t sui t orientation , aggressiv e pace , and hazardou s nature . When Georg e Berk e got t o Luke , for example , he received n o instruc tion o n th e Republi c F-84 : he was simpl y tol d t o ge t i n the airplan e an d fly it. Th e F-84 , lik e th e T-33 , was a temperamenta l an d underpowere d aircraft. Th e 586-mile-per-hou r plan e wa s designe d t o b e a fighter-interceptor, bu t becaus e o f it s slo w spee d relativ e t o th e Mi G 15 , it ended u p being use d primaril y a s a fighter-bomber. Pilot s ha d t o "carefull y calcu -

Stick and Rudder University • 6 3 late th e temperature , barometri c pressure , an d lengt h o f th e runwa y before flying, " an d o n ho t days , n o plane s coul d tak e off. 131 Neverthe less, man y pilot s faile d t o follo w th e direction s an d crashe d a s a result . Students als o ha d troubl e dive-bombin g wit h it . In dive-bombin g prac tice, yo u woul d lin e u p a certai n targe t o n th e groun d wit h you r gu n sight an d whe n the y matched , yo u woul d "pickl e of f you r bombs. " Bu t if you go t distracted , th e targe t woul d neve r lin e up , an d yo u coul d en d up flyin g you r plan e int o th e ground , stil l trying t o lin e u p you r target — a situatio n know n a s targe t fixation. 132 Despit e thes e risk s an d dangers , Berke fel l i n lov e wit h th e plan e afte r hi s first takeoff . Unlik e th e condi tionally stabl e T-33 , "th e F-8 4 fel t lik e a stabl e rock—i t wa s a rea l fighter." Like th e F-84 , t n e F"8< £ wa s als o a complicate d plan e t o fly , bu t certainly no t underpowere d lik e th e F-84 . Th e fastes t model s coul d fl y over 71 2 mile s pe r hour. 133 Th e F-8 6 als o ha d man y uniqu e feature s which pilot s appreciated , suc h a s a larg e bubbl e canop y fo r enhance d visibility, an d a movabl e horizonta l stabilize r fo r improve d contro l a t high speed s ( a first for a production-line aircraft). 134 At Nellis , F-8 6 pilot s spen t mos t o f thei r tim e practicin g th e comba t formation know n a s "flui d four " o r "finge r four. " Durin g th e Korea n War, i t was discovere d tha t fou r wa s th e optimu m numbe r fo r a comba t formation o f high-speed je t fighters. Formation s greate r tha n fou r tende d to ge t separate d to o easil y i n combat , an d smalle r formation s wer e no t as mutuall y protective . I n a fligh t o f four , th e fligh t leade r wa s th e "shooter," an d al l othe r plane s protecte d hi m an d acte d a s additiona l eyes. 135 Althoug h th e leade r o f th e secon d pai r wa s allowe d t o shoo t i f for som e reaso n th e formatio n spli t up , th e tw o wingme n wer e neve r supposed t o shoot , an d th e wingme n neve r lef t th e shooters. 136 Thi s i s one reaso n wh y onl y 4. 8 percen t o f th e Sabr e pilot s accounte d fo r ove r 38 percent o f th e kill s in Korea. 137 As pilot s transitione d t o faste r an d mor e sophisticate d aircraft , no t only di d thei r flyin g skill s improv e bu t s o di d thei r self-esteem . Withou t the constant fea r o f bein g washed out , pilot s i n Advanced coul d begi n t o assume th e swagge r o f th e Ai r Forc e pilot . B y th e tim e Turne r go t t o Advanced, h e believed h e was a s good a pilot a s many o f th e instructors :

64 • Stick and Rudder University "People jus t didn' t see m t o realiz e tha t ther e wer e differen t way s o f flying thi s airplan e [th e F-86]. " Tomlinson , likewise , though t h e wa s entering a n elit e club: "Everybod y tha t wante d t o fl y a fighter wante d t o fly th e hottest , fastest , bes t thing , an d tha t wa s th e F-8 6 a t tha t time . And w e ha d a numbe r o f peopl e that , uh , di d ge t sen t t o F-84S , and F 80s, bu t the y wer e tras h haulers , yo u know , I mea n w e wer e th e elite . We wer e th e crem e d e la creme . Everybod y wante d t o b e a je t pilot . I mean yo u g o t o th e ba r downtow n i n La s Vegas , yo u kno w . . ." 1 3 8 A t Advanced, pilot s not onl y had enoug h libert y time to explor e loca l socia l venues, bu t wer e als o generall y statione d i n citie s suc h a s La s Vega s and Phoenix , whic h wer e ver y "accommodating. " "Chasin g women, " declared Berke , "wa s on e o f th e things yo u di d a s a fighter pilot—i t wa s part o f th e cach e an d mar k o f things." 139 Accordin g t o Tomlinson , "Al l the girls wante d th e je t pilots, absolutely!" 140 Bu t what kin d o f girl s di d pilots want ? A 195 0 article , entitled "Sarg e Look s a t Today' s Cadet, " i n the Air Force Times attempte d t o answe r thi s question : He's 2 2 year s old , an d prett y wel l se t o n wha t h e expect s o f a girl . Brunettes wit h ligh t blu e eye s an d health y tan s hav e a sligh t edge , bu t physical characteristic s ar e no t s o importan t t o hi m as , first , a sens e of humor, an d second , th e abilit y t o "mix " well . . . . On e characteristi c o f the pilot o f yesteryea r h e will retain—he' s somethin g special . Somethin g unique—and h e wants his date to match him. He wants to have her have, for him , somethin g n o on e els e ha s o r coul d have , an d h e want s t o b e proud—even a littl e vain—o f her . That' s no t to o muc h t o expec t fo r a young man with worlds to conquer, is it?141 As th e popula r Ai r Forc e literatur e suggests , no t onl y di d trainin g constantly stres s "aggressivenes s an d confidence, " i t als o mad e thes e men fee l specia l b y smotherin g the m wit h arresting , masculin e compli ments. Adjective s use d t o describ e the m i n Air Force Magazine an d th e Air Force Times include d "unique, " "special, " "different, " an d "har d living." 142 The y wer e als o tol d tha t the y wer e "conqueror s o f ne w worlds"; the "thi n blu e lin e that stand s betwee n worldwid e tyrann y an d freedom"; an d "th e answer s t o th e dar k hint s tha t America' s yout h isn' t fulfilling it s obligations , tha t youth s ar e afrai d t o fly." 143 No t surpris ingly, men lik e Tomlinson wh o considere d themselve s sh y befor e becom -

Stick and Rudder University • 6 5 ing pilot s emerge d fro m trainin g a s th e me n "al l th e girl s wanted." 1 4 4 After all , i f the y coul d overcom e fea r o f flyin g an d "conquer " th e air , they could certainl y conque r th e American woman . This fligh t sui t cockines s whic h trainin g produce d di d hav e a down side a s fa r a s th e Ai r Forc e wa s concerned : i t di d no t necessaril y serv e these me n wel l i n thei r rol e a s professiona l officer s i n th e U.S . Arme d Forces. In 1952 , th e Ai r Forc e Trainin g Command , afte r conductin g a series o f bas e inspections , interview s wit h students , an d review s o f re ports b y eliminatio n boards , conclude d tha t th e averag e studen t i n th e training progra m wa s "no t properl y motivated " an d "no t willin g t o accept hi s ful l responsibilit y a s a n officer , leader , an d a fighter." 145 Th e investigation als o found tha t mor e tha n 7 5 percen t o f Primar y graduate s wanted t o b e assigned t o propeller-drive n aircraf t rathe r tha n jets. 146 To counteract thi s trend , th e Ai r Forc e implemented a program calle d Project Tiger . Startin g a t Nelli s i n earl y 195 3 an d late r spreadin g t o thirty-six othe r trainin g bases , Tige r attempte d t o instil l student s wit h officer skill s b y "emphasizin g crew , weapon, an d firepower philosophy " at ever y stag e o f recruitmen t an d training. 147 Ol d recruitmen t poster s luring cadet s with promise s o f gol f an d swimmin g i n the afternoo n wer e replaced wit h one s featurin g je t fighters an d th e caption : "Ca n yo u tak e it?" 1 4 8 Prefligh t wa s extende d fro m fou r week s t o thre e month s an d more emphasi s wa s place d o n "leadershi p an d discipline , th e develop ment o f a competitiv e spirit , an d publicit y o f outstandin g comba t an d training accomplishments." 149 Throughou t al l phase s o f training , stu dents wer e constantl y "steepe d i n Ai r Forc e lore , history, an d customs" : a bi t o f a parado x give n tha t th e Ai r Forc e wa s onl y si x years ol d a t th e time. 150 Othe r measure s include d improvin g instructo r quality , indoctri nating Primar y instructor s i n je t aircraf t operation , givin g al l pilot s in Primar y a "9-hou r revie w i n whic h single-engin e je t trainin g wa s emphasized," an d buildin g "espri t d e corp s an d competitiv e spirit " through th e following : • Fligh t room s wer e converte d int o "wa r rooms. " • Studen t flight s wer e assigne d area s i n the dinin g hall a s a unit . • Studen t quarter s wer e assigne d accordin g t o flight .

66 • Stick and Rudder University • Academi c subject s wer e attende d b y flight units . • Distinctiv e insigni a wa s develope d an d publicized. 151 Finally, Advance d course s wer e staffe d wit h a s man y Korea n Wa r vet eran pilot s an d ace s as possible. 152 Although Tige r migh t hav e appeale d t o me n lik e SA C commande r Curtis LeMa y o r Genera l Jack D . Ripper , th e fictional genera l i n Stanle y Kubrick's Doctor Strangelove, th e program ende d u p bein g more ho t ai r than substance . Instructor s reacte d t o th e progra m b y placin g mor e pressure o n student s to perform in-fligh t maneuver s an d makin g trainin g more o f a "sin k o r swi m routine." 1 5 3 Mor e aggressio n an d competitio n in training , i n turn , di d littl e t o tur n student s int o bette r officers . I f anything, Projec t Tige r encourage d the m t o embrac e th e cock y pilo t persona eve n more . Berke , wh o graduate d fro m a Tige r progra m a t Luke, sum s i t u p well : trainin g produce d a n "Ai r Forc e ful l o f fighter pilots wh o wer e absolut e guerrilla s whe n i t cam e t o anythin g els e an d whose career s ende d i n disgrace." 154 When th e studen t pilo t finally graduate d fro m Advance d training , h e gained mor e tha n th e titl e o f Ai r Forc e "pilot, " h e gained immeasurabl e status a s well . Onl y h e ha d th e "rated " title ; al l othe r officer s wer e "nonrated," i n othe r words , insignificant . Symbolizin g hi s ne w statu s were th e silve r wings he received upo n graduation . H e woul d wea r thes e wings o n ever y unifor m fo r th e rest o f his career, including hi s shirts an d flight suits . Furthermore , a s th e pilo t advance d i n th e Ai r Force , thes e wings, lik e badge s o f rank , woul d change . Afte r seve n years , a "senio r pilot" sta r woul d b e affixe d t o th e to p o f th e wings . Eigh t year s later , a "command pilot " wreat h woul d encircl e tha t star . Command , i n short , was directl y linke d t o piloting : onl y pilot s coul d hav e th e prefix , "com mand," i n their officia l title s because onl y they could contro l operationa l units suc h a s squadrons , wings , an d groups. 155 Navigator s wit h fifteen years o f experience , b y comparison, wer e called "maste r navigators. " S o important wer e wing s tha t i f yo u wal k int o th e hom e o f an y forme r Ai r Force pilo t (a s I hav e don e o n numerou s occasions ) an d as k t o se e hi s first se t o f wings , inevitabl y h e wil l produc e the m fo r you . Sometime s

Stick and Rudder University • 6j they wil l b e frame d i n th e den , sometime s mounte d o n a desk , bu t mor e often tha n not , the y wil l b e hidde n awa y i n a to p des k drawe r wher e they ca n b e easily accesse d bu t neve r lost . With wings , a pilo t als o acquire d a collectio n o f attitudes , ideas , an d values tha t mad e hi m differen t fro m othe r type s o f officers . Unlik e Pete r Karsten's "nava l aristocrat, " th e Ai r Forc e pilo t di d no t ente r a "social " elite upon bein g rated. Militar y ancestr y an d institutiona l tradition s wer e irrelevant t o him ; instead , elitis m i n th e Ai r Forc e wa s define d b y skill , courage, an d plan e type . I f on e coul d overcom e th e variou s barrier s t o becoming a pilot—washouts , accidents , fear , death—on e coul d defin e oneself a s elite , an d b e a par t o f th e team . Withi n th e Ai r Forc e flyin g elite, the degre e o f one' s elitis m the n depende d o n th e plan e on e flew : F 86 pilot s wer e th e mos t elite , followe d b y F-84S , F-8os , F-51S , B-26S , and s o forth . Unlike Samue l Huntington' s o r Morri s Janowitz' s "professiona l sol dier," trainin g als o di d no t creat e a n anti-individualistic , "corporat e spirit," o r a n "organizatio n man " i n uniform; instead , i t brought ou t th e reverse. Bureaucrati c concern s ha d littl e meanin g fo r a pilo t strugglin g to maste r th e complexities , dangers , an d fear s associate d wit h flight . That civilian s playe d a n integra l rol e i n the trainin g proces s di d no t hel p matters, no r di d th e egalitarianis m o f th e fligh t line . Lik e hi s fligh t sui t (a jum p sui t wit h lot s o f zipper s an d pocket s bu t fe w militar y marking s of an y kind) , th e pilo t graduatin g fro m trainin g wa s specialized , infor mal, and thoroughl y functional . Militar y regimentatio n an d institutiona l concerns ha d littl e meaning . Yes , h e ha d t o disciplin e himsel f whil e i n the air , bu t whil e o n th e ground , h e coul d le t thing s slid e a bi t an d assume a more casua l demeanor . Trainin g ha d taugh t hi m tha t h e woul d "sink o r swim " base d o n hi s abilit y t o fly , an d tha t lif e outsid e th e fligh t suit was secondary .

MiG Alley : Air-to-Air Comba t in Kore a Getting ahead i n the Fighte r Air Force meant shootin g down MiGs. —Jame s Hagerstrom, Korean War pilot and ace In battle , yo u ma y dra w a smal l circl e aroun d a soldier , in cluding within it only those persons and objects which he sees or whic h h e believe s wil l influenc e hi s immediat e fortunes . These primaril y wil l determin e whethe r h e rallie s o r fails , advances or falls back . —S. L. A. Marshall, Men against Fire

In 1950 , James Hagerstro m wa s promote d t o major ; b y 1958 , he wa s a full colonel . Ho w doe s on e ris e tw o rank s i n th e Ai r Forc e i n th e spac e of eigh t years ? Fo r Hagerstrom , suc h advancemen t wa s achieve d b y shooting dow n eigh t an d a hal f Chines e MiG-i5 S durin g th e Korea n War.1 A s soo n a s h e foun d ou t h e wa s goin g t o Korea , Hagerstro m understood implicitl y tha t al l o f hi s futur e assignment s an d promotion s would depen d no t onl y o n hi s flyin g comba t missions , bu t killin g MiG s as well. Consequently , h e di d everythin g h e could t o prepar e himsel f fo r such a task : h e starte d runnin g o n th e beach , takin g course s ove r an d over agai n o n th e A- 4 gu n sight , an d readin g al l th e intelligenc e report s he coul d get hi s hand s o n a t Nelli s AFB. For Hagerstrom , goin g t o wa r was no t a gri m dut y t o whic h h e submitte d reluctantly , bu t th e caree r opportunity o f a lifetime . 70

MiG Alley • 7 1 During th e Korea n War , fighter-interceptor pilot s lik e Hagerstro m were motivate d t o fight fo r ver y differen t reason s tha n thei r infantr y comrades o n th e 38t h parallel . On e cannot , a s historia n S . L . A . Mar shall di d wit h infantrymen, 2 dra w a circl e aroun d a four-plan e elemen t of F-86 s an d argu e tha t a pilo t kill s primaril y t o protec t hi s buddies ; aerial killin g wa s almos t entirel y offensiv e i n nature . Element s o f F-86 s took t o th e skie s o f Nort h Kore a an d Chin a t o hun t an d kil l MiGs , an d the tactics they employe d reflecte d a philosophy o f extrem e aggression — not on e o f mutua l surviva l an d grou p protection . Generally , onl y on e plane, th e designate d shooter , i n a n elemen t o f fou r actuall y di d th e killing: the remainin g plane s acte d a s extr a set s o f eye s an d gun s fo r th e lead. In fact , th e shoote r rarel y eve n sa w hi s wingme n i n action—ofte n his onl y assuranc e tha t the y wer e behin d hi m wa s th e radio . Pilots , however, generall y wer e unde r order s t o maintai n stric t radi o silenc e while flying t o an d fro m a comba t area. 3 Aviatio n technolog y an d th e need t o maintai n stealth , i n short , disconnecte d th e pilo t fro m hi s com rades. Pilots flew with wingmen , bu t wingme n wer e physicall y separate d from th e pilo t b y ai r an d metal : the y wer e no t a livin g an d breathin g moral presenc e lik e a fello w soldie r fo r th e infantryman . I n th e hea t o f combat, furthermore , i t was no t unusua l fo r a pilot t o becom e separate d from hi s wingman . Accordin g t o pilo t Bu d Mahurin , gettin g separate d during a fight wa s suc h a commo n experienc e tha t h e instructe d hi s wingman t o forge t abou t attemptin g a rendezvou s i f h e los t visua l contact wit h hi m durin g combat . Instead , Bu d instructe d hi s wingma n to "mak e an y attack s a s he saw fit" wheneve r the y got separated. 4 Group dynamics , in short, playe d onl y a small role in fighter-interceptor comba t motivatio n i n Korea . Th e technolog y o f th e perio d militate d against th e formatio n o f fighting groups . In th e end , a s Mahuri n writes , "A jet-fighter pilo t i s responsible to himself alone. " 5 James Salter , a pilo t with th e 4t h Wing , pu t i t eve n mor e eloquentl y i n hi s autobiographica l novel, The Hunters: You live d an d die d alone , especiall y i n fighters. . . . You slippe d int o th e hollow cockpit an d strappe d an d plugge d yoursel f int o the machine. The canopy groun d shu t an d seale d yo u off . You r oxygen , you r breath , yo u carried wit h yo u i n a stee l bottle . I f yo u wante d t o speak , yo u use d th e

72 • MiG Alley radio. Yo u were a s isolate d a s a deep-se a diver , onl y yo u wen t up , int o nothing, instead of down. You were accompanied . . . but they were really no help. At the end, there was no one you could touch. 6 Because o f th e highl y individualisti c natur e o f ai r combat , pilot s found othe r reason s t o fight beside s mutua l survival , the chie f on e bein g status. Fo r fligh t sui t officers , killin g MiG s i n Korea , lik e flyin g F-86 s a t Nellis, represented ye t another opportunity , i n fact th e ultimate opportu nity, t o displa y thei r skill s an d ear n kudo s withi n th e ai r organization . As Georg e Berk e explains , a pilot's ques t fo r statu s di d no t en d onc e hi s wings wer e pinne d on : "Mos t peopl e though t tha t bein g a fighter pilo t was a n epitom e o f sorts , bu t th e realit y wa s tha t i t was jus t th e startin g rung o f a n astonishin g meritocrac y o f skill , brains , an d pur e guts . Wor d got aroun d th e communit y abou t wh o yo u were . There wer e n o ballots , but everyon e voted." 7 I n th e fighter-interceptor business , medals, futur e promotions, an d goo d flyin g assignment s al l depende d o n flyin g comba t missions an d shootin g dow n MiGs . In additio n t o a desir e t o clim b th e Ai r Forc e statu s ladder , som e pilots wer e als o motivate d t o kil l fo r th e "thril l o f it. " Tim e an d tim e again, whethe r i n interview s o r writte n memoirs , aeria l comba t wa s described b y pilots as an exhilarating o r "pea k experience" : the languag e associated wit h killin g wa s ofte n highl y sexua l an d occasionall y or gasmic.8 Killing , i t appears , presente d America n me n wit h th e opportu nity t o escap e briefl y fro m middle-clas s suburba n culture , wit h it s lov e of domesticit y an d harmony , an d engag e i n highl y stimulatin g act s o f legal violenc e a t th e ver y fringe s o f Wester n civilization . Fo r thos e wh o managed t o indulg e th e "inne r warrior " i n themselves , Kore a wa s a transcendent experience . As ace Robinson Risne r explained , "Kore a wa s probably th e hig h poin t o f m y whole caree r a s far a s real gratificatio n i s concerned—to b e able to participat e i n air-to-ai r comba t wa s a thrill." 9

The Wa r agains t th e MiGs : A n Overvie w The struggl e fo r U.S . ai r superiorit y ove r Kore a wa s a comparativel y minor par t o f th e ai r wa r i n term s o f sortie s flown . I n all , onl y 18. 6 percent o f al l U.S . Ai r Force , Navy , an d Marin e Corp s comba t sortie s

MiG Alley • 7 3 were devote d t o th e counter-ai r mission ; b y comparison , 47. 8 percen t were dedicate d t o interdiction , 18. 5 percen t t o clos e ai r support , 13. 1 percent t o reconnaissance , 1. 8 percen t t o antisubmarin e patrol , an d 0. 2 percent t o strategi c bombing. 10 However , i n term s o f th e popula r mem ory of the war, the fight for ai r superiority commands cente r stage . Muc h of th e literatur e o n th e wa r an d movie s lik e Sabre Jet (1953) , The McConnell Story (1955), Jet Attack ( 195%)-> a n d The Hunters (1958 ) al l celebrate th e epi c struggl e betwee n th e F-8 6 an d th e Mi G i n th e skie s of North Kore a an d China . Th e Ai r Forc e view s thi s chapte r o f th e wa r t o be o f th e utmos t significanc e i n it s institutiona l memory . Whe n on e enters th e fron t gat e o f Nelli s AFB , Nevada, th e Ai r Force' s premie r je t school, on e i s greete d b y a Korea n Wa r F-8 6 mounte d o n a pedestal ; similarly, i n th e Ai r Forc e are a o f th e Pentagon , on e ca n vie w larg e paintings o f MiG s an d Sabre s duelin g i n the sky . Why ha s s o much bee n said, drawn , written , an d produce d o n thi s aspec t o f th e war ? First , th e image o f "aeria l knights " duelin g i n th e skie s i s muc h mor e romanti c than fighter-bombers droppin g napal m o n village s o r B-29 S destroyin g cities an d irrigatio n dams . Second , i n Kore a pilot s battle d thei r foe s a t relatively clos e quarter s usin g gun s rathe r tha n missiles—a n allurin g image fo r a natio n tha t relishe d gu n fighting an d th e frontier . Mor e important, i t wa s als o th e las t America n ai r wa r tha t produce d ace s i n large numbers : overall , Kore a produce d thirty-nin e ace s wherea s Viet nam, b y comparison , produce d onl y two . Finally , th e onl y campaig n i n Korea wher e America squarel y defeate d it s enemy was in the struggl e fo r air superiority . Unlik e th e groun d war , whic h ende d i n a stalemate , o r the bombin g campaigns , whic h als o yielde d rathe r mixe d results , th e U.S. wa r agains t th e MiGs , wit h it s impressiv e 7: 1 kil l ratio , wa s a n undisputable victor y o f America n technolog y an d manhoo d ove r Com munism. 11 When th e USAF first engaged i n fighting th e Communis t force s o n th e Korean peninsul a i n June 1950 , i t di d no t hav e t o confron t th e moder n MiG-15 jet s o f th e Chines e Ai r Force . Instead , i t merel y ha d t o defea t the small , 132-airplan e Nort h Korea n Ai r Forc e (NKAF) crewe d b y eighty inexperience d pilots . Althoug h th e NKA F sho t dow n severa l American B-2 6 bomber s an d eve n damage d a Britis h Roya l Nav y de -

74 * MiG Alley stroyer, i t wa s n o matc h fo r th e USAF' s Fift h Ai r Force . I n air-to-ai r combat, Fift h Ai r Forc e F-5 1 Mustang s an d F-8 0 Shootin g Star s easil y defeated inferio r NKA F Yak-9s, a World War II vintage, 415-mph Sovie t fighter simila r i n appearanc e an d capabilitie s t o th e U.S . P-3 9 o r th e British Spitfire. 12 However, th e earl y battl e fo r ai r superiorit y i n Korea wa s no t wo n b y Air Forc e fighters i n th e air , bu t rathe r b y bomber s an d fighter-bombers which destroye d mos t o f th e NKA F o n th e ground . O n 2 9 June , fo r example, a fligh t o f eightee n B-26 S destroye d twenty-fiv e NKA F plane s on th e groun d an d on e i n th e ai r durin g a dus k rai d agains t Yonp o Airfield.13 Similarly , o n 5 August , a fligh t o f Mustang s destroye d nin e Yaks o n th e groun d a t Pyongyang. 14 Effort s lik e these , alon g wit h B-2 9 airfield craterin g attacks , secure d almos t tota l ai r superiorit y fo r th e USAF's Fa r Eas t Ai r Forces (FEAF ) b y the beginnin g o f August 1950 . On 1 Novembe r 1950 , however , th e entir e Korea n ai r situatio n changed. O n thi s date , si x Chines e MiG-i5 S crosse d th e Yal u Rive r an d attacked a fligh t o f Mustang s an d a T- 6 Mosquit o forwar d ai r contro l aircraft. Fortunately , th e FEA F plane s manage d t o evad e th e MiGs , bu t the appearanc e o f MiG-i5 S i n th e Korea n War , a s Ai r Forc e historia n Robert Futrel l writes , a t onc e "rendere d obsolet e ever y America n plan e in the Fa r East." 15 The smal l cigar-shape d Soviet-buil t je t had bee n develope d i n th e lat e 1940s b y th e desig n tea m o f Arte m Mikoya n an d Michae l Gurevitch , hence th e nam e MiG-15 . It s famou s swept-win g desig n wa s believe d t o be th e resul t o f dat a capture d fro m th e Germans , an d it s 5,000-poun d thrust engine , the resul t o f a close stud y o f th e Britis h Roll s Royc e Nen e engine. Whether i t wa s a n origina l conceptio n o r simpl y a derivativ e o f pirated technology , th e 660-mp h Mi G coul d fl y ove r 10 0 mp h faste r than th e F-80C , FEAF' s primar y je t intercepto r i n th e theate r a s o f November 1950 . To counte r th e Mi G threat , th e Ai r Forc e transferre d top-of-the-lin e North America n F-8 6 Sabre s t o Korea . I n term s o f capability , th e MiG 15 wa s vastl y superio r t o th e F-8 6 i n th e crucia l area s o f spee d an d altitude. On e intelligenc e repor t writte n b y th e 4t h Win g stresse d tha t the Mi G coul d "out-accelerate , out-clim b an d out-zoo m th e F-8 6 a t

MiG Alley • 7 5 any altitude , an d enjoye d a n estimate d minimu m 5,00 0 fee t to p ceilin g advantage." 16 Despit e thes e seemingl y overwhelmin g advantages , th e MiG-15 an d F-8 6 wer e relativel y evenl y matche d a s fa r a s technolog y was concerned . Althoug h clearl y slower , th e Sabr e coul d out-tur n th e MiG i n leve l o r divin g turn s belo w 30,00 0 feet , an d coul d out-div e i t in sustaine d dives. 17 Becaus e o f it s hydraulicall y booste d aileron s an d adjustable horizonta l stabilizer , th e F-8 6 als o ha d superio r latera l an d longitudinal contro l a t speeds above .8 5 Mach. 18 Anothe r specia l featur e found o n th e Sabr e bu t no t o n th e Mi G wa s th e A i C M radar-rangin g gun sight : a sigh t whic h determine d distanc e fro m a targe t wit h a n AP30 radar , an d the n compute d "th e prope r lea d gyroscopically , s o tha t steering a n indicato r o n th e windshiel d aime d th e gun s fo r th e pilot." 19 Finally, i n contras t t o th e MiG , th e Sabr e ha d "heav y armo r plate , bulletproof glass , an d adequat e cockpi t pressurizatio n an d temperatur e controls." 20 In short , t o achiev e a highe r rati o o f powe r t o weight , th e Mikoyan/Gurevitch desig n burea u sacrifice d man y feature s whic h Nort h American Aviatio n considere d essentia l fo r a n ai r superiorit y fighter. A s F-86 pilot Bu d Mahuri n asserted , "W e were drivin g Cadillac s while the y had Fords." 2 1 The super b capabilit y o f th e Sabr e combine d wit h well-traine d an d experienced U.S . pilots—many o f whom wer e aces from Worl d War II— compelled th e Communis t pilot s t o fly ver y conservativel y durin g th e initial month s o f engagement. 22 Mos t attack s wer e mad e fro m hig h altitudes an d agains t th e rea r o f th e Sabres . In general , th e Communis t pilots als o restricte d thei r operation s t o Mi G Alley—a n are a "lyin g between th e Chongcho n an d Yal u River s an d bounde d o n th e wes t b y the Korea n Ba y an d o n th e Eas t b y a lin e runnin g roughl y betwee n th e Sui-Ho reservoi r an d th e cit y o f Huichon." 2 3 Thi s conservatis m wa s partly du e to th e short , 100-mil e rang e o f th e MiGs , which operate d ou t of base s i n China ; however , i t was als o du e t o th e desir e o f th e Commu nist leadershi p t o hid e th e identitie s o f thei r pilots . I f th e Mi G pilot s operated i n area s controlle d b y th e U.N. , ther e wa s alway s th e dange r that shot-dow n pilot s woul d b e recovere d b y th e Unite d Nations , an d their Sovie t identitie s discovered . I n all , roughl y 15 0 MiG s wer e flown by Soviet pilots, and al l operate d ou t o f th e Chines e bas e a t Antung , bu t

j6 • MiG Alley under Sovie t control . Initially , th e Sovie t Ai r Forc e (an d th e Chines e a s well) use d th e Korea n Wa r a s "on-the-jo b training " fo r ne w pilots. 24 To maintain plausibl e deniability , th e plane s wer e forbidde n t o fl y withi n sixty mile s o f th e United Nation s line s o r ove r th e sea—restriction s tha t often prevente d th e MiGs from pursuin g damage d planes . Chinese color s were painte d o n th e planes , an d pilot s wer e compelle d t o wea r Chines e flight suit s an d us e Chines e cal l sign s whil e i n th e air— a difficul t orde r to follo w durin g th e hea t o f battle . Overall , roughl y 34 5 o f th e 1,00 0 Communist plane s sho t dow n i n Kore a wer e Soviet ; th e res t wer e Chi nese an d Nort h Korean . B y comparison, th e U.S . lost ove r 3,33 5 planes , but mos t o f thes e losse s wer e attribute d t o groun d fire an d mechanica l problems, not MiGs. 25 Beginning in late June an d earl y July of 1 9 51, th e Communists revise d their tactic s an d starte d replacin g traine e pilots , o r "nimwits " a s th e Sabre pilot s calle d them , wit h "honchos" : instructor s an d othe r highl y experienced pilots. 26 B y autumn, Genera l Li u Ya-lou, th e commande r o f the Chines e Ai r Force , als o bega n t o focu s les s o n engagin g Sabre s an d more o n attackin g FEA F formation s o f fighter-bombers an d B-29S . T o elude th e Sabres , Li u Ya-lo u sen t hi s MiG s u p i n "Mi G trains " o f between sixt y an d eight y planes. As one of these formations encountere d Sabres, flights woul d brea k of f an d battl e th e F-86 s whil e th e main trai n kept headin g sout h i n searc h o f fighter-bombers o r bombers. 27 By September , th e train s compelle d th e Fift h Ai r Forc e t o hal t al l fighter-bomber operation s nort h o f th e Chongcho n River , an d b y lat e October, afte r losin g five B-29 S i n thre e days , th e FEA F Bombe r Com mand decide d t o halt al l daylight bombin g raid s with B-29S , a feat whic h even th e Germa n Luftwaff e ha d neve r bee n abl e t o accomplis h durin g World Wa r II. 28 In it s missio n reports , th e 307t h Bombe r Win g con cluded tha t "nothin g les s than 15 0 F-86' s woul d hav e bee n a n adequat e escort fo r th e bombers" ; th e Fift h Ai r Force , though , onl y ha d 12 7 i n the entir e theater. 29 For abou t a year , th e MiG s continue d t o concentrat e thei r effort s against fighter-bombers an d use d thei r spee d an d altitud e advantage s t o avoid Sabr e patrol s o r MIGCAP s (Mi G Comba t Ai r Patrols) , a s th e Americans calle d them . In lat e Decembe r 1952 , th e MiG s onc e agai n

MiG Alley • JJ altered ther e tactic s an d starte d t o challeng e Sabres , thi s tim e wit h ne w "box-in" tactics . Whe n a MIGCA P woul d cal l "bingo, " th e low-fue l state tha t signale d al l Sabre s t o depar t fo r thei r bases , on e Mi G fligh t would cros s th e Yal u Rive r an d pursu e th e Sabre s whil e anothe r flight , positioned ove r th e Chongchon , woul d attemp t t o mee t th e retreatin g Sabres head on , thereby boxin g them in. 30 Box-i n tactics were eventuall y thwarted b y having MIGCAPs return vi a the Yellow Sea—an are a wher e MiG pilot s refuse d t o fl y becaus e o f fear s tha t i n th e even t o f bein g sho t down, FEAF' s highl y efficien t air-se a rescu e woul d pic k the m u p an d discover thei r Sovie t identities. 31 However , th e aggressivenes s o f th e MiGs di d no t subside , an d th e final month s o f th e conflic t wer e amon g the most activ e o f th e ai r war . During Ma y 1953 , th e combine d numbe r o f air-to-ai r sortie s flow n by bot h side s peake d a t 21 9 fo r th e month . Wha t i s more , betwee n 8 and 3 1 May, F-8 6 patrols sho t dow n fifty-six MiG s a t a loss o f onl y on e F-86, an d i n June , sho t dow n a recor d seventy-seve n wit h n o losses . Partly responsibl e fo r thes e lat e successe s wa s ne w technology . Th e USAF Research an d Developmen t Comman d an d Nort h America n Avia tion ha d reduce d win d dra g o n th e F-8 6 b y eliminatin g leading-edg e wing slat s an d introducin g a soli d leadin g edg e lik e tha t foun d o n th e MiG. 32 The y als o improved th e thrust o f th e F-86 b y 700 pounds wit h a new J-47-GE-27 engine , an d extende d th e plane's rang e b y replacing th e 120-gallon dro p tank s wit h 20 0 gallo n tanks . These basi c improvement s increased th e F-86' s ceilin g fro m 49,60 0 fee t t o 52,00 0 feet , an d it s speed fro m . 9 t o 1.0 5 Mach. 33 Technologica l improvements , though , only reduce d th e majo r performanc e gap s betwee n th e Mi G an d th e F 86—they di d no t clos e them. I n the end , wha t reall y tippe d th e scale s i n the battle s ove r Mi G Alle y wer e th e superio r skill s o f a selec t grou p o f American pilots . The aces , not th e averag e pilots , were the critical ingredien t i n America's succes s becaus e simpl y put , the y wer e th e one s wh o sho t dow n th e most MiGs . Th e to p eigh t pilot s sho t dow n 9 8 o f th e 75 7 MiG s de stroyed i n th e conflict . I n othe r words , fewe r tha n on e percen t o f th e F 86 pilot s sho t dow n 1 3 percen t o f th e destroye d MiGs . Further , th e thirty-nine Ai r Forc e ace s score d ove r 28 7 aeria l victories—3 8 percen t

78

• MiG Alley

of th e total . Thi s mean t tha t roughl y 5 percen t o f th e pilot s wer e destroying clos e to 4 0 percen t o f th e MiGs. 34 There ar e severa l reason s wh y a smal l numbe r o f pilot s di d mos t o f the killing : the natur e o f fighter tactics , rank, situationa l awareness , an d combat motivation . I t wa s determine d ver y earl y o n i n th e wa r tha t th e most effectiv e formatio n fo r Mi G killin g wa s th e four-plan e "finge r four" formation : th e hig h spee d o f th e F-8 6 mad e large r formation s to o difficult t o manag e effectively . Th e finger fou r resemble d th e fou r fingers of th e huma n hand , wit h th e inde x finger bein g th e lea d fighter. Th e intention o f the formation wa s to maximize the defensive an d acquisitio n capabilities o f th e flight . I n theory , onl y th e lea d plan e woul d fire o n enemy MiGs: the othe r member s o f the formation woul d ac t a s lookout s and guar d th e lead from Mi G attacks . Generally, the second most experi enced pilo t woul d fly i n th e numbe r thre e positio n (th e rin g finger) an d act a s a n alternat e shooter . Ne w pilot s woul d b e assigne d a s th e wing men fo r th e on e an d thre e men. 35 The ne t effec t o f suc h conservativ e tactic s was tha t a small numbe r o f shooters an d alternat e shooter s wer e abl e t o monopoliz e th e kills , while the vas t majorit y o f pilot s wer e compelle d t o perfor m les s glamorou s wingman roles. 36 No t surprisingly , shooter s wer e ofte n "ol d heads, " experienced captain s o r majors , an d th e wingme n wer e younger , secon d lieutenants. In fact , a s a junio r office r yo u coul d ver y easil y serv e a n entire tour o f one hundred mission s and neve r get a MiG. 37 For example , despite seein g si x MiGs g o dow n whil e flying wingman fo r suc h famou s aces as James Jabara, Pet e Fernandez, and Frederic k "Boots " Blesse , Earl Brown flew 12 5 mission s wit h th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Win g betwee n April an d Octobe r 1952 , an d onl y damage d on e MiG. 38 Fran k Tomlin son, similarly , complaine d tha t th e "ol d guy s wante d t o fl y th e mos t missions, an d i n th e patro l sector s wher e the y wer e mos t likel y t o ge t a MiG." Th e pressur e t o ge t MiG s was , a s h e pu t it , "absolutel y intense ! Uh, it' s jus t lik e an y war , yo u wan t t o b e a killer , an d th e ol d head s ha d all the advantages!" 39 Besides thes e tactics , anothe r reaso n wh y a smal l grou p o f me n sho t down s o man y MiG s i s bes t describe d a s "situationa l awareness " (SA) . A ter m coine d durin g th e Vietna m Wa r t o describ e th e variou s physica l

MiG Alley • 7 9 capabilities o f th e ace , S A is th e abilit y t o perceiv e quickl y an d analyz e moving object s i n a three-dimensiona l environment . Robi n Olds , th e commander o f th e 8t h Win g (th e "Wolfpack" ) i n Thailan d durin g th e Vietnam War , claimed tha t th e key to SA is wha t yo u ca n see , retain , anticipate , estimat e i n a three-dimensiona l movement of many aircraft. Ca n you look at an enemy aircraft an d know the odds—to ge t him befor e someon e else if he can get behind yo u first , and s o on? I t is a three-dimensional impressio n yo u mus t get in seconds. This is essential in aerial combat. The guy you don't see will kill you. You must ac t instantly, anticipat e the other fellow' s motives , know that whe n you do this, he must do one of several things.40 Blesse's first kil l i n Kore a o n 2 5 Ma y 195 2 wa s a n exampl e o f S A i n action. O n this day, Blesse spotted tw o MiG-i5S a t a higher altitud e tha n he and hi s wingman. In the nex t coupl e o f moments, Blesse attempted t o close i n o n th e MiG s an d comput e a "fir e solution " befor e th e MiG s spotted him . Whe n the y finally did , Bless e wa s nearl y withi n rang e t o take a shot . Th e fight, though , wa s hardl y ove r becaus e a t tha t poin t th e faster Mi G coul d hav e easil y outru n th e Sabr e b y straightenin g ou t an d continuing t o dive . Instead , th e Mi G turne d int o Blesse , a mov e tha t enabled th e slower , heavie r F-8 6 t o easil y out-tur n th e Mi G an d ge t a clear sho t a t th e plane' s rea r side. 41 Blesse , i n short , ha d SA , th e Mi G pilot di d not . No t onl y wa s Bless e abl e t o se e the Mi G first, bu t h e wa s able to compute a workable fire solution faste r an d mor e efficientl y tha n his adversary . A s Randal l Cunningham , on e o f tw o ace s o f th e Vietna m conflict, woul d say , Bless e ha d a "three-dimensiona l sens e o f awarenes s and fee l o f time , distance , an d relativ e motio n a s if they wer e par t o f hi s soul." 4 2 Unquestionably, situationa l awarenes s playe d a n importan t rol e i n determining wh o was to becom e a n ac e and wh o was to becom e "snake bit" durin g th e Korea n War . However, i t took mor e tha n S A to mak e a n ace—it als o took desir e an d motivatio n t o kil l othe r people . This desire , as we shall see from description s o f aerial combat tha t follow , wa s fuele d primarily b y tw o factors : a n intens e driv e fo r succes s an d statu s an d a n adrenaline-driven desir e t o "thrill " onesel f an d achiev e a pea k experi ence similar t o climbing a mountain, skydiving , o r havin g orgasmi c sex .

8o • MiG Alley

A Typical Fighter-Intercepto r Missio n i n Kore a A standard missio n woul d begi n a t first light . Afte r quickl y throwin g o n a uniform , th e pilot s woul d wol f dow n breakfast , typicall y powdere d eggs an d blac k coffee . A s unappetizin g a s thi s foo d was—especiall y fo r those hun g ove r fro m to o muc h drinkin g th e nigh t before—mos t pilot s would forc e themselve s t o eat . "Yo u alway s at e breakfast, " recalle d Tomlinson, "becaus e yo u migh t no t ge t anothe r mea l fo r a while , espe cially if you ha d t o bai l out." 4 3 After breakfast , th e entir e missio n woul d b e briefe d i n th e Comba t Operations Briefin g Room . First , th e groun d situatio n wa s describe d b y the groun d liaiso n officer . Then , a n intelligenc e office r briefe d everyon e on flak , escap e an d evasion , an d rescu e procedures . Th e basi c rul e o f thumb i f you wer e hi t wa s t o tr y t o bai l ou t ove r th e Yello w Se a or nea r the friendl y islan d o f Chodo . Thes e area s wer e patrolle d b y th e U.S . Navy's Sevent h Flee t an d wer e therefore muc h safe r fo r th e slow-movin g rescue helicopters t o operat e ove r tha n th e mainland. Fo r thos e who ha d to bai l ou t ove r th e mainland , trave l instructions , surviva l tips , an d contact list s were provided , bu t th e chance s o f avoidin g captur e i n thes e cases wer e extremel y slim. 44 FEA F Intelligence instructe d pilot s t o hea d toward th e coast , an d the n paddl e ou t t o se a i n thei r surviva l raft s s o that air-se a rescu e coul d pic k the m up . No t surprisingly , n o pilot s sho t down ove r th e lan d portion s o f Mi G Alle y escaped capture. 45 After th e intelligenc e briefing , a weathe r office r woul d giv e th e weather forecas t ove r th e base , th e missio n areas , an d th e islan d o f Chodo. H e als o gave the pilots a list of alternativ e airfield s t o b e used i n the even t o f emergenc y landings . Finally , th e missio n leade r woul d ex plain th e orde r o f th e day , o r th e FRA G orde r a s i t was called : "FRAG " literally mean s a "fragment " o f FEAF' s dail y ai r orde r o f battle . H e would als o assig n "start-engin e times , area s an d altitude s t o b e flown , and specia l dutie s t o b e accomplished." 46 A t th e en d o f th e meeting , pilots woul d ge t fligh t maps , paste d o n cardboar d mat s fo r eas e o f use , and cod e word s t o b e use d i n th e even t o f a bailout . Pilot s woul d the n break u p int o smalle r group s an d conduc t informa l meeting s t o discus s their individua l role s i n the mission. 47

MiG Alley • 8 1 The briefing , overall , not onl y informe d th e pilot o f the day' s mission , but i t als o wa s ver y muc h a part o f th e ritua l o f aviatio n combat . Man y of thes e me n ha d see n ai r comba t movie s suc h a s Dawn Patrol (1936 ) and implicitl y understoo d th e symbolis m o f th e predaw n briefing : th e danger, th e patriotism , and , mos t important , th e fac t tha t som e o f th e men i n th e roo m migh t no t return . Th e emphasi s o n escape , survival , and evasio n reinforce d thi s danger . If sho t down , the y woul d b e expecte d t o leav e th e securit y o f th e cockpit an d surviv e alon e i n a hars h an d dangerou s environment . Ac cording to Bud Mahurin, "Ther e were no known friendl y civilian s abov e the bom b line. " Nort h Kore a wa s "India n country " fo r thes e men— a harsh an d dangerou s frontie r inhabite d b y a "savage " foe . T o survive i n this environment , al l me n wer e issue d a standar d surviva l ki t whic h contained suc h item s a s food , a first-aid kit , an d a .45-pistol . However , most me n customize d thei r kit s t o reflec t thei r ow n personalit y an d fetishes. Mahurin , fo r example , adde d "tw o pair s o f heav y whit e sox , a change o f underwear , a .2 2 calibe r Savag e foldin g rifle , an d a rol l o f toilet paper." 48 Fo r Hagerstrom , th e surviva l ki t an d hi s persona l fligh t suit becam e a n obsessio n an d a mechanis m fo r managin g fear . Befor e h e left th e U.S., Hagerstrom purchase d a pair o f felt-line d Russel l moccasi n boots an d a white bird-clot h flying suit lined wit h ra w sil k for maximu m insulation. H e als o carried drie d milk , berries , nuts, oatmeal, ten pound s of rice , sterno , a pot , a fold-up cam p stove , a monocular, maps , shavin g equipment, a sleeping-bag vacuu m packed i n a picnic-ham can , a shelter half, an d enoug h sulf a t o cur e pneumoni a thre e times . I n addition , h e packed a radio , thre e batteries , an d a specia l SA C issu e .2 2 calibe r Hornet rifl e wit h a muzzl e velocit y o f 400 0 fee t pe r second , a rang e o f 100 yards , almos t n o bulle t drop , an d n o smoke . "Th e Horne t wa s th e first thing i n my backpack, " Ji m explained , " a pisto l won' t d o i t becaus e a patro l wit h rifle s woul d jus t stan d of f a t 5 0 yard s an d shoo t a t you. " If sho t down , Hagerstro m planne d t o fight of f an y patrol s whic h cam e after hi m unti l dark , whe n h e coul d sli p away . H e ha d enoug h foo d t o last thirt y day s an d h e planne d t o hik e te n mile s a da y unti l h e reache d the DMZ . Wh y di d h e pla n s o carefull y fo r a bailout ? Hagerstro m claims i t helpe d hi m no t t o worry : "Th e differenc e betwee n pani c an d

8z • MiG Alley fear i s pretty tight , an d yo u ca n sprea d tha t lin e a bi t b y having on e las t chance." 49 After anothe r cu p o f coffee , man y pilot s too k a trip t o th e latrine s t o relieve themselves befor e th e flight . Fligh t suit s ha d acquire d th e unenvi able nicknam e o f "poo p suits, " an d i t wa s certainl y mor e desirabl e t o dispose o f wast e befor e a fligh t rathe r tha n durin g it . I t wa s als o no t unusual fo r anxiou s o r hung-ove r pilot s t o thro w u p befor e battle. 50 Before on e mission , fo r example , Leonar d "Bill " Lill y leane d ove r th e side o f hi s F-86 o n th e taxiwa y an d thre w up ; he the n wen t u p an d sho t down tw o MiGs. 51 After th e latrines , al l pilots proceede d t o thei r aircraf t t o examin e th e maintenance logs , talk t o th e groun d cre w chief , an d perfor m a prefligh t inspection. 52 Fro m there , the pilot woul d joi n hi s comrades i n the locke r room t o sui t up . The atmospher e befor e a mission wa s simila r t o a hig h school varsit y locke r roo m befor e th e bi g game. "I t wa s almos t joyful, " claims Ear l Brown , "an d guy s woul d star t t o sin g whil e the y wer e suiting up" : "O h w e sing , we sing , we sin g o f Lydi a Pinkham , Pinkham , Pinkham, an d he r lov e fo r th e huma n race . Wonderfu l compound , a dollar a bottle , an d ever y labe l bear s he r face , he r fuckin g face." 53 The y would als o teas e on e anothe r wit h suc h line s as : "Today' s th e da y I' m going t o ge t som e MiGs. " "Ho w ar e yo u goin g t o d o it? " anothe r pilo t would respond . "You'l l neve r know!" 5 4 The joking , though , ende d a s soo n a s the pilot s hi t th e fligh t lin e an d performed thei r final stationar y check , a 360-degre e wal k aroun d thei r aircraft. B y thi s time , ove r thre e hour s ha d passe d sinc e reveille , bu t there wa s stil l mor e t o focu s o n befor e takeoff : al l gauges , instruments , brakes, an d surfac e control s ha d t o b e checke d whil e taxiin g out . Take offs wer e the n conducte d i n four-plan e formation s "approximatel y five to eigh t second s apart." 5 5 Once airborne , th e clim b t o altitud e i s mad e a t "nea r maximu m power setting s an d th e elemen t doe s no t mov e int o clos e formatio n except t o penetrat e a n overcast." 56 Th e objec t her e wa s t o achiev e a high spee d o f Mac h .8 8 o r abov e an d a n altitud e o f 43,50 0 fee t befor e hitting Mi G Alley . Becaus e th e Mi G coul d ge t abov e th e Sabr e a t an y altitude, spee d wa s tacticall y mor e valuabl e t o a fligh t tha n altitude , fo r

Flight suit banter. Second Lieutenant William R. Bowman, First Lieutenant Harold E. Fischer, and Second Lieutenant Edward Sanet of the jist Wing go over tactics in the barracks. Lieutenant Sanet is "palming" his cigarette in the warrior style. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

First Lieutenant Joseph A. Caple of the yist Wing composes a letter to his wife. Note the rustic conditions of Lieutenant Caple's hootch: dirty underwear in the background, a homemade pine desk, and a tin can ink well. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Pilots of the 49th Fighter-Bomber Group kick back in front of their officers' club, "Auger Inn," April 1951. Note the casual reference to death and danger: in pilot parlance, to auger in means to crash in a tail spin. From left to right: Captain Martin N. Nay, Captain Frederick F. Champlin, First Lieutenant Edward H. Warne, and First Lieutenant Robert M. Allen. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Demon mugs for firewater. First Lieutenant Franklin G. Putney doles out mission whiskey to fellow pilots of the "Screamin Demon" squadron in the "Auger Inn." This unit just returned from attacking a supply area in North Korea, September 1952. From left to right: First Lieutenant Franklin B. Putney, First Lieutenant William G. Fuller, Captain Theodore Upland, Major Clifford C. Gould, Second Lieutenant Raymond H. Johnson, and First Lieutenant Reed C . Jansen. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Jerry Minion's squadron baseball cap. After every mission flown, Minton made a hash mark on his visor: pilots were sent home after having flown one hundred missions. (Courtesy Jerry Minton)

Pilot Jerry Minton's house boy, Pak. According to Minton, he swept, did laundry, filled canteens, and polished boots. Each of the pilots in Minton's hootch chipped in a few dollars a week to support him and his sister. "I think he ended up getting paid more than a South Korean general," recalled Minton, "but he was worth more." Minton claims that Pak did not want his picture taken with any pilots because when the North Korean troops captured Suwon early on in the war, they shot the houseboys who could be identified as having worked for American pilots. These troops also broke the backs of several houseboys with their rifle butts. (Courtesy Jerry Minton)

Miss Winnie Wildman, Red Cross canteen supervisor, turns the newly opened Red Cross Club over to Lieutenant Colonel Joseph E. McNally of the 49th Fighter-Bomber Wing, August 1951. The canteen will serve free coffee, ice tea, and doughnuts, but pilots will have to go to the o club for more potent refreshments. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

Staff Sergeant Richard Crowell takes time out of his busy schedule as an F-80 crew chief with the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing to grab a cup of hot coffee from Red Cross girl Elizabeth Truner. November 1951. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

In this picture, members of Fifth Air Force units in Korea attend Easter services. In the foreground, an F-86 pilot gets ready to taxi down the runway and continue destructive attacks against North Korea. (Courtesy Far East Air Forces)

MiG Alley • 8 3 it emphasized th e Sabre' s rate o f closur e when attackin g an d reduce d th e MiG's rat e o f closur e when th e table s wer e turned. 57 A basi c MIGCA P o r "fighte r sweep " containe d eithe r nin e o r twelv e elements sprea d acros s Mi G Alley . A t leas t tw o element s woul d fly directly opposit e th e larg e Chines e ai r bas e a t Antung , nickname d "An tung Ai r University" ; othe r element s migh t b e place d betwee n Antun g and th e Su i Ho Reservoir ; an d stil l others, east of the reservoir o r farthe r south a s a backup. 58 Thes e sweep s wer e ofte n vectore d t o Mi G flights by two rada r stations—on e jus t abov e Kimp o Ai r Forc e Bas e known a s Dentist, an d anothe r o n Ch o Do , known a s Dentist Charlie. 59 There wer e severa l tactica l problem s th e Sabre s confronte d whil e i n MiG Alley . First, their patro l tim e was extremel y limite d du e t o th e 200 mile distanc e betwee n th e F-8 6 base s nea r Seou l an d Mi G Alley . F-86s , consequently, onl y carrie d enoug h fue l t o loite r ove r th e Yal u Rive r fo r twenty minutes ; however, aggressiv e pilots lik e Hagerstrom woul d tr y t o "whittle down " thei r "bingo " state . When a pilot transmitte d th e bing o code wor d t o hi s flight, i t mean t tha t h e ha d onl y enoug h fue l t o ge t back t o th e base , an d woul d hav e t o brea k of f fro m a comba t patrol . A high bing o wa s 1,50 0 pound s o f fue l an d a lo w bing o wa s 1,10 0 pounds, bu t Hagerstro m quickl y discovere d tha t thes e guideline s wer e conservative. "I t wa s ridiculou s t o com e u p an d onl y spen d twent y minutes ove r th e Yalu, " h e explained , "s o I made a fe w calculation s o f my ow n an d determine d tha t I coul d mak e i t bac k t o bas e wit h 60 0 pounds: just t o b e safe, though , I used a n alar m cloc k t o tel l me when t o head o n home. " Nevertheless , Hagerstro m ofte n "pushe d th e envelope " well beyon d hi s ow n self-impose d 600-poun d limit : o n a missio n wher e he sho t dow n a MiG , h e pushe d i t t o 30 0 pounds , an d o n another , h e actually ra n ou t o f ga s taxiing awa y fro m th e main runway. 60 Another proble m whic h th e Sabre s face d wa s limite d maneuverabilit y at hig h altitudes . In the thin ai r o f the stratosphere , oxygen-breathin g je t engines begi n t o los e power , an d a quic k tur n o r a burs t o f gunfir e fro m the 50-calibe r gun s coul d caus e a n F-8 6 t o los e spee d an d altitud e i n a hurry. Consequently, MIGCAPs flew racetrack pattern s an d mad e broad , 90-degree turns. 61 The final an d perhap s th e mos t vexin g proble m fo r th e Sabr e pilot s

84 • MiG Alley was targe t acquisition . I n general, the MiG s wer e ver y reluctan t t o "mi x it up " wit h Sabres . Th e Sabres , therefore , ofte n ha d t o snea k u p o n th e MiGs fro m behin d t o ge t a sho t in , bu t thi s wa s n o simpl e task . Clea r air an d lot s o f sunshin e mad e spottin g a Mi G extremel y difficult . With out visua l references , th e huma n ey e tend s t o focu s o n a poin t eightee n inches i n fron t o f th e nose . Often , sunligh t reflectin g of f a n aluminu m fuselage wa s th e onl y visua l cu e tha t a Mi G wa s nearby , an d you r eye s constantly playe d trick s o n you: a speck o f dir t o n the Plexiglas s canopy , for example , coul d easil y b e mistake n fo r a distan t MiG . Som e pilot s carried binocular s t o improv e thei r chance s o f spottin g MiGs . Hagers trom, befor e h e lef t th e States , ha d a specia l pai r o f half-mirrored , distance glasse s mad e whic h enable d hi m t o se e a t twent y fee t wha t a n ordinary perso n woul d se e a t ten . Th e optometris t tol d hi m the y migh t permanently rui n hi s eyes, and h e replied: " I don' t giv e a shit." 62 As soo n a s a Mi G wa s spotted , i t becam e a rac e agains t tim e t o maneuver t o withi n 2,00 0 yard s o f th e MiG , positio n th e gu n sight , an d get a kil l i n befor e th e bing o poin t wa s reached . F-86 s onl y ha d enoug h fuel t o patrol Mi G alle y for twent y minutes , an d an y dogfightin g limite d that tim e eve n further . Upon retur n t o base , a pilo t woul d immediatel y b e debriefe d o n th e day's activities . I f th e nos e o f hi s plan e wa s blac k fro m gu n smok e (a n indication tha t a n aeria l battl e ha d bee n fought) , h e would ofte n b e me t on th e tarma c b y the squadro n leade r o r eve n th e win g commande r an d be asked t o go over the kil l as he emerged fro m th e airplane . Later , mor e formal debriefing s woul d occu r i n th e operation s hut , an d o n occasio n "mission whiskey " o r othe r spirit s woul d b e offere d t o th e pilo t b y th e flight surgeo n t o settl e hi s nerves . Th e fligh t surgeo n gav e th e pilo t several ounce s o f whiske y fo r ever y missio n flown , an d generall y thi s whiskey woul d b e awarde d t o th e pilo t i n larg e volume s a t th e en d o f every month; bu t occasionally , th e spirit s wer e actuall y dole d ou t afte r a mission. "Than k Go d the doctors were also aware o f the limits of huma n endurance an d gav e u s a ration o f whiske y t o b e use d a t th e completio n of ever y mission," recalle d Mahurin . "I f i t had no t bee n fo r th e whiske y ration an d th e res t leave s i n Japan, " h e claimed , "w e woul d hav e ha d frequent crack-ups. " 63

MiG Alley • 8 5 F-86 pilot s fle w roughl y thre e mission s a wee k an d on e hundre d missions pe r tour . Whe n a pilo t complete d hi s hundred-missio n tour , h e was immediatel y sen t home. 64 Afte r ever y thirt y mission s flown , a pilo t was given an Air Medal, and afte r on e hundred missions , a Distinguishe d Flying Cross . I f a pilo t manage d t o d o somethin g spectacula r lik e shoo t down five MiGs, a Silve r Sta r was awarded. 65 Statu s i n the Air Force , in short, was directly related t o performance i n combat an d mission s flown .

The Characteristic s o f th e Ac e As mentioned previously , seniorit y an d ran k di d indee d improv e a pilot' s chances o f gettin g a kill : th e highe r you r rank , th e bette r you r chance s of bein g assigned t o the number on e "shooter " slo t in the flight. Anothe r characteristic whic h facilitate d Mi G killin g wa s th e abilit y t o discrimi nate object s a t fa r distance s an d thin k i n a three-dimensiona l manner . However, SA , rank , an d seniorit y alon e di d no t mak e a n ace . Mos t Korean Wa r pilot s ha d excellen t vision , bu t onl y a selec t fe w foun d an d killed MiGs . Conversely , no t ever y ac e wa s a n "ol d head. " Jame s Lo w was jus t si x month s ou t o f flyin g schoo l whe n h e becam e America' s seventeenth je t ace. 66 Killing , i n short , too k mor e tha n luck , rank , o r even pilot skill ; it took desir e an d intens e aggression . The intens e desir e t o get kill s i s bes t demonstrate d b y th e pilots ' willingness t o pus h th e capabilitie s o f th e aircraf t t o th e limit , a limi t wingmen woul d ofte n no t cross . O n 3 Octobe r 1952 , fo r example , th e two wingme n i n Majo r Blesse' s flight withdre w fro m a chase , ostensibl y due t o lac k o f fuel . Bless e an d hi s alternat e shooter , however , presse d o n until a dangerousl y lo w fue l stat e force d the m t o withdra w fro m th e attack. Whil e returning , Bless e encountere d tw o additiona l MiGs , pur sued them , an d go t a kill ; hi s alternate , though , heade d home . I n th e end, Bless e ha d t o bai l ou t ove r Paengnyon g D o whe n h e ra n ou t o f fuel.67 Blesse , in short , wa s willin g t o expen d al l o f hi s fuel , sacrific e a n airplane, an d endur e th e danger s inheren t i n a bai l ou t jus t t o "ge t a MiG." Similarly, Captai n Willia m Guss , a Marin e attache d t o th e 4t h Wing , was als o willin g t o "pus h th e envelope " t o get kills . O n 4 Novembe r

86 • MiG Alley 1951, Gus s observe d tw o MiG s a t hi s 9 o'cloc k position . H e the n maneuvered behin d th e aircraf t an d fired a shor t burs t a t th e numbe r two MiG . Next , Gus s pursued tha t plan e fo r "fiftee n minute s throug h a violent an d continuou s lufber y [ a tight, vertical spiral] , firing throughout the encounter " unti l th e Mi G finally "snappe d int o a flat spi n an d th e pilot ejected." 68 Another exampl e o f ho w muc h determinatio n i t too k t o ge t a kil l i s the ac e Robinso n Risner . Afte r tw o month s o f servic e i n Korea , Risne r departed fo r Toky o fo r a three-da y leave . Tha t nigh t h e learne d fro m another pilo t tha t th e MiG s wer e flying agai n i n Korea : th e MiG s flew in cycle s an d woul d ofte n stan d dow n fo r a wee k befor e flying again . Rather tha n enjo y hi s res t an d relaxation , Risne r too k th e nex t plan e back t o Kore a an d arrive d a t Kimp o Ai r Forc e Bas e a t tw o i n th e morning. H e slep t fo r on e hou r an d the n heade d ou t t o th e aler t shac k to ge t o n th e nex t flight. Becaus e Risner' s flight wa s a quic k reaction , "hot-shot" flight, ever y pilo t i n th e flight wa s alread y a t hi s aircraft , ready t o rol l when th e klaxon finally sounded . When th e flight reache d Pyongyang , fou r MiG s crosse d unde r thei r noses, but the American attac k was soo n interrupted b y another flight o f MiGs whic h attacke d the m fro m th e rear . Rathe r tha n breakin g of f th e fight, Risne r allowe d th e attacker s t o bea r dow n o n hi m an d use d a scissor maneuve r t o forc e the m t o overshoo t him. 69 Onc e a Mi G wa s i n his gu n sight , Risne r "at e hi m up " wit h hi s 50-calibe r guns , causing th e MiG t o stall . I n orde r t o simpl y sta y behin d th e MiG , Risne r ha d t o chop hi s engin e t o idl e an d thro w hi s spee d brakes— a mov e whic h i n turn cause d Risne r t o stal l an d star t spinning . A s Risne r recalled , " I managed t o control the rudders jus t enough t o recover an d plant anothe r machine-gun burs t i n th e tai l pip e o f th e MiG— a burs t whic h tor e th e tail of f th e Mi G an d force d th e pilo t t o bai l ou t a t 31,00 0 feet. " Risne r remembered thinkin g t o himself , "Thi s i s m y first kill ; I reall y naile d him, an d i t wa s almos t b y accident. " Bu t i t was not b y accident ; Risne r made thi s kil l happen . H e cu t hi s leav e short , misse d a goo d night' s sleep, an d onc e i n battle , refuse d t o brea k of f th e fight n o matte r ho w dangerous i t became. 70 Risner , i n short , ha d tha t ke y ingredien t neces sary to becom e a n ace : desire! As fellow ac e Frederick Bless e put i t in his

MiG Alley • 8 7 famous pamphle t o n Korea n Wa r fighter tactics , "N o Guts , No Glory, " Risner ha d th e wil l to "ge t i n there an d mi x i t up." 71 H e ha d th e gut s t o achieve the glory . The notio n tha t Mi G killin g ha d mor e t o d o wit h desir e an d courag e than luc k o r seniorit y i s a centra l them e o f Jame s Salter' s novel , The Hunters. A t on e poin t i n th e story , a n establishe d ac e i n th e outfit , Ausman, explain s t o th e novel' s protagonist , Cleve Saville , tha t a pilo t "can pla y i t saf e an d neve r ge t int o a tigh t spot, " an d probabl y "g o home afte r a hundre d mission s wit h th e usua l medal s and , wh o knows , maybe a couple o f victories , just b y waiting fo r th e sur e things. " O n th e other hand , h e continues , "Yo u ca n tak e chances , an d you'l l probabl y be a her o whe n yo u ge t back . An d you'l l probabl y g o back . I t jus t depends o n wha t yo u wan t most . You'l l se e fo r yourself . Afte r te n missions everybod y i s an expert." 72 As Ausman alludes , there were quit e a few me n who chos e not t o mi x it up. In fact, pilo t Bu d Mahurin complaine d tha t ou t o f the one hundre d pilots who attende d an y given pre-mission briefing , onl y eightee n "coul d actually b e depende d upo n t o mi x i t u p wit h th e enem y an d perhap s d o some shooting. " Th e othe r eighty-tw o "woul d fl y int o th e comba t zon e but fo r som e strange reaso n neve r se e the enem y o r fire a gun." 73 Hagerstrom onc e flew wit h a vic e commande r o f th e 4t h Wing , a South Africa n colonel , wh o calle d a n attac k of f a s soo n a s Hagerstro m spotted MiGs. 74 Accordin g t o Hagerstrom , thi s ma n jus t wante d t o ge t his on e hundre d mission s i n an d di d no t wan t t o ge t "hi s pin k body " anywhere nea r actua l shooting. 75 "I t sound s grea t t o b e a fighter pilot, " Hagerstrom complained , "bu t whe n yo u se e those 30-millimete r canno n balls coming a t you (an d i t only takes on e to blo w th e tail o f a n airplan e off), the n peopl e sa y wait a minute, this i s a little too sport y fo r me , an d then the y bac k off." 76 Fo r Pau l Turner , similarly , a lac k o f "sportiness " in on e o f hi s wingme n cause d Turne r t o ge t sho t down . Turne r wa s maneuvering t o shoo t dow n a MiG an d though t hi s wingman, wh o ha d withdrawn, wa s coverin g hi s "tail" : "H e neve r calle d m e o r di d a goddamn thin g an d s o her e I wa s pullin g behin d numbe r tw o an d expecting t o b e tol d whe n ther e wa s an y dange r o r anythin g an d thi s dog foo d manufacture r decide d h e wa s goin g t o tur n aroun d an d g o

88 • MiG Alley home, an d didn' t eve n sa y bullshi t o r anythin g else." 77 I n th e end , Turner wa s shocke d tha t a wingma n woul d abando n hi s shooter , bu t incidents lik e thi s on e wer e no t a s unusua l a s Turne r imagined . Hagers trom experience d thi s typ e o f behavio r twice , an d Salter , als o a pilo t with th e 4th , wrot e extensivel y abou t i t i n hi s nove l The Hunters. According t o Salter' s protagonist , Cleve Saville , pilot s "wer e accompa nied [b y wingmen] . . . but the y were reall y o f n o help. " 78 Not onl y wa s i t dangerou s whe n a wingma n abandone d you , bu t i t also greatl y complicate d th e kil l confirmatio n process . Ordinarily , a wingman woul d confir m a kill if it did no t sho w u p o n th e shooter' s gu n camera film, a commo n occurrence . However , i f a wingma n wa s no t around t o witnes s a kill, as was ofte n th e cas e wit h aggressiv e flyer s lik e Hagerstrom an d Turner , kill s woul d no t b e entere d ont o th e squadro n claims board . Afte r Turner' s wingma n retreated , h e manage d t o pul l a quick scisso r maneuve r an d "nail " th e horizonta l stabilize r o f th e Mi G that sho t him. 79 Unfortunately fo r Turner , his ship eventually caught fire, forcing hi m t o bai l out , an d h e neve r go t th e clai m confirmed . Further more, this was no t th e onl y occasio n wher e confirmatio n wa s a proble m for Turner : "A s fa r a s the Air Forc e i s concerned I never go t a MiG, bu t as fa r a s I' m concerned , I go t three." 8 0 Hagerstrom , afte r on e missio n where h e got separate d fro m hi s wingman, wa s tol d b y Royal Baker , th e Wing commander , tha t h e "wa s no t goin g t o ge t a confirmatio n unles s he had goo d film." Abou t tha t time , the crew chief, who wa s putting th e chocks unde r th e airplane , said , "Colonel , le t m e sho w yo u this, " an d there was a chunk o f MiG-15 wedge d i n the leading edge of the airplane . Baker looke d u p an d replied : "I'l l confir m it. " 81 As Hagerstrom's an d Turner' s experiences demonstrate , aeria l comba t often require d on e t o ris k becomin g separate d fro m a wingma n t o ge t a kill. Ace s wer e no t onl y willin g t o "go-it-alone, " bu t wer e eve n willin g to brea k standar d rule s o f engagemen t fo r th e sak e o f a kill . Althoug h pilots wer e directe d no t t o cros s th e Yal u Rive r int o Chin a unles s the y were i n "ho t pursuit, " som e o f th e mor e aggressiv e pilot s regularl y patrolled nort h o f th e Yalu . In 195 2 an d earl y 1953 , U.S. planes woul d often attac k MiG s a s the y wer e takin g of f o r landin g fro m Antung. 82 Blesse described th e "unofficial " rule s of engagement fo r ace s as follows :

MiG Alley • 8 9 "We wer e forbidde n t o cros s th e Yal u Rive r bu t w e di d i t anyway ; w e had t o i f we were goin g to protec t th e fighter-bombers. On e rul e specifi cally ordere d u s no t t o straf e MiG s o n thei r airfields , al l o f whic h wer e across th e river—a n absolut e no-no . I f h e wa s flying, OK , shoo t hi m down, bu t i f h e wa s eve n rollin g dow n th e runway , n o dice , becaus e that's reall y ground attack." 83 Hagerstro m onc e flew fifteen fee t ove r th e alert pa d a t Antun g a t nine-tenth s th e spee d o f soun d jus t "tryin g t o ge t the MiGs of f th e ground." 8 4 In addition t o breakin g rules , aces were alway s willing to exten d thei r tours an d fly o n holiday s fo r a n extr a opportunit y t o kil l a MiG . Eve n though Bless e complained tha t th e huts , roaches, poor food , uncomfort able bunks , an d lac k o f wome n mad e Kore a a "lousy " plac e t o be , h e "put i n fo r anothe r twenty-fiv e missions " o f overtim e i n a n attemp t t o become a n ace. 85 Fo r aces , aggressivenes s als o extende d t o sacre d holi days. O n Christmas , fo r example , Hagerstro m volunteere d t o b e o n defense aler t becaus e h e ha d a hunc h tha t th e MiG s migh t fly o n tha t day. Sur e enough , hi s elemen t go t a rada r plot , an d Hagerstro m go t a MiG o n Christma s Day . He ha d hi s "pippe r line d u p o n th e tail pipe " o f a Mi G a t 50,00 0 feet , bu t h e kne w tha t i f h e shot , h e woul d stall . Suddenly, th e Mi G pilo t looke d ove r hi s shoulder , sa w Hagerstrom' s F 86, an d kicke d hi s plane int o a spin . Befor e Hagerstro m coul d fire, "th e guy baile d ou t a t 45,00 0 fee t o n a 20-degre e belo w zer o day , an d froze t o deat h o n th e wa y down." 8 6 Th e wind-chil l factor , accordin g t o Hagerstrom, woul d hav e made i t feel lik e 10 0 degree s belo w zero . Wind chill o r not , ther e woul d b e n o "peac e o n eart h an d goodwil l toward s men" fo r Hagerstro m o n tha t Christma s Day ; instead , ther e wa s merel y the image o f a MiG pilo t slowl y freezin g t o deat h durin g a thirty-minut e parachute rid e to earth . In Marc h 1953 , Hagerstro m kne w h e woul d b e transferre d ou t o f theater o r t o fighter-bombers i n a coupl e o f days . H e refuse d t o g o quietly. Wit h onl y 4. 5 Mi G kill s t o hi s credit , ther e wa s stil l huntin g t o be done. He needed a kill and th e ace status it would confer . H e delivere d the followin g speec h t o hi s men: "Gentleman , I'v e bee n livin g o n coffee ; I haven't bee n sleeping ; I'v e go t t o d o thi s thing ; I'm gonn a d o it ; an d i f you don' t wan t t o g o wit h me , that's fine, I'l l understand . W e ar e goin g

5>o • MiG Alley to g o u p ther e an d giv e i t on e goo d colleg e tr y sout h o f th e Yalu , an d i f we don' t scar e anythin g up , I'm goin g afte r the m today." 87 A s it turne d out, h e sho t dow n tw o tha t da y jus t outsid e o f th e Antun g ai r comple x in China . However , h e di d no t sto p there . O n hi s las t da y i n Korea , Hagerstrom wa s i n th e operation s hu t i n hi s dress-blu e unifor m waitin g for hi s C-4 7 fligh t t o Tachikaw a t o arrive . A frien d i n "ops " suddenl y came ove r t o hi m an d tol d hi m tha t fou r aircraf t wer e neede d ove r a sensitive area . "I'l l d o it, " sai d Hagerstrom , "an d I turne d t o th e op s officers an d tol d the m w e hav e a n instan t mission : you'r e two , you'r e three, you'r e four , an d Sa m Krat z wil l b e th e leader—that' s me. " Th e radar operato r the n vectore d the m int o a flight o f twenty-five MiGs , an d Hagerstrom go t one. 88

The Dynamic s o f th e Kil l We se e fro m th e experience s o f fighter pilot s lik e Hagerstrom , Turner , Mahurin, an d Bless e tha t non e o f the m wer e full y cognizan t o f th e fac t that wha t the y wer e doin g ove r Mi G Alle y wa s killin g people, no t planes. Fast-moving aeria l warfar e i n jet s tende d t o remov e th e individ ual fro m th e proces s o f killing . Risner , wh o believe d tha t Kore a wa s th e "high poin t o f hi s entir e career, " describe s i t a s a "clean , impersonal " form o f combat : "It' s no t dirty , lik e dow n i n th e trenches , an d ther e i s no hand-to-hand combat . Whe n peopl e die , you don' t se e it. I saw a fe w buddies g o down , an d I saw Mi G pilot s g o down , bu t you'r e no t awar e of th e bloo d an d pain." 8 9 Bless e i s eve n mor e blunt : "Later , afte r thre e or fou r victories , I was surprised ho w cold an d calculatin g I had become . At times , I almos t fel t ashamed . I never though t I' d ge t tha t wa y bu t t o be honest, I never wante d i t an y different . I could com e bac k wit h ever y detail, altitudes, maneuvers, su n position, clouds , everything! Better still , it wasn' t instinc t flying . I was thinkin g m y wa y throug h eac h flight." 90 For Blesse , th e mechanic s o f comba t flyin g wer e s o comple x tha t h e could psychologicall y distanc e himsel f fro m th e ac t of killin g by immersing himsel f i n technica l details . Hagerstro m als o rationalize d th e killin g process b y disconnectin g th e enem y pilo t fro m hi s machine : " I neve r shot directl y a t th e pilot , no r di d I shoo t anyon e danglin g fro m a

MiG Alley • 9 1 parachute." 91 Fo r Hagerstrom , ther e wa s a distinc t differenc e betwee n blowing a plan e t o piece s wit h you r gun s an d firin g a t a pilot . Aviatio n technology depersonalize d killin g an d allowe d Hagerstro m t o absolv e himself o f an y an d al l responsibilit y fo r hi s actions . S o pervasiv e wa s Hagerstrom's obsessio n wit h th e technica l aspect s o f killin g tha t eve n when on e o f th e me n i n hi s ow n win g go t sho t down , h e focuse d o n th e technical mistake s whic h cause d tha t pilot' s deat h rathe r tha n grievin g for th e los s o f a frien d an d comrade : "Scre w it , i t happens , get o n with it . Lear n somethin g fro m everythin g tha t happens . That' s th e mos t important thin g to do. " 92 Another pilo t wh o chos e t o se e killing i n technica l rathe r tha n mora l terms wa s Bu d Mahurin . Afte r hi s firs t aeria l victorie s i n World Wa r II , he claimed : " I wa s s o excite d tha t th e though t o f havin g kille d tw o human being s didn't ente r m y mind. In the first place, I had bee n spurre d to actio n ou t o f anger ; i n th e secon d place , th e plane s I ha d jus t sho t down wer e objects , no t people." 93 Mahurin , lik e Hagerstrom , wa s to o elated ove r th e though t o f joinin g "th e charme d circl e o f aces " t o worr y about deat h an d killing. 94 Given this detachmen t fro m th e darke r sid e of war, it is not surprisin g that Hagerstro m an d othe r pilot s actuall y enjoye d comba t an d th e adrenaline rus h i t gav e them . Bless e describe s thi s pea k experienc e a s follows: "Th e on e thin g tha t neve r lef t m e wa s th e intense , grippin g anxiety an d excitemen t tha t occurre d whe n I sa w som e kin d o f move ment whic h indicate d th e enem y pilo t ha d see n m e an d on e o f u s wasn' t going home . Tha t remaine d an d ha s t o thi s da y bee n th e greates t thril l of my life." 95 A significant clu e that many pilots derive d intens e pleasur e and excitemen t fro m aeria l kill s i s th e sexua l languag e the y us e t o describe it. Scholars in the field of cultural studie s argu e that connection s between "seemingl y unrelate d categorie s o f experience " ca n b e found i n the symboli c code s o f cultura l phenomena , language , an d discourse. 96 For example , Elain e Tyle r Ma y an d Alla n Brand t sho w a lin k betwee n sexual powe r an d militar y powe r durin g World War I I by analyzing nos e art. Scantil y clad o r naked wome n o n fighter planes , these authors claim , suggest " a powe r t o destro y th e enemy. " I n th e contex t o f th e ai r wa r i n Korea, a simila r interrelationshi p betwee n wa r an d sexualit y ca n b e

92 • MiG Alley found no t onl y i n nos e art , bu t i n th e languag e tha t fighter pilot s us e t o describe combat . No t onl y ar e plan e part s an d plane s compare d t o genitalia, bu t rape , sodomy , an d violatio n imager y directl y lin k killin g with mal e dominance , homoeroticism , an d power . Orgasmi c language , similarly, connect s killin g t o th e adrenalin e rus h o r thril l man y fel t afte r getting a kill . Feeling s o f sexua l frustratio n an d impotence , b y contrast , relate t o th e failure t o ge t a kill. Hagerstrom an d others , fo r example , constantl y talke d abou t "vio lating" Chines e ai r spac e i n "ho t pursuit " o f MiGs—a s i f shootin g down a Mi G i n Chin a wa s someho w th e equivalen t o f a violen t rape . Some kil l imager y eve n ha d homoeroti c an d sadomasochisti c overtones : "Three o r fou r scissor s later, " exclaime d Hagerstrom , " I wa s o n hi s as s and hi t him." 9 7 Becaus e violatio n coul d als o occu r i n reverse , a pilot' s own wingma n wa s expecte d t o cove r hi s "rear " a t al l times. Once a Mi G wa s sighted , th e proces s o f maneuverin g i n fo r th e kil l was describe d i n term s o f "lining " th e pippe r u p wit h th e othe r guy' s "tail pipe. " Tha t "pipper " i s als o a slan g wor d fo r peni s ca n hardl y b e ignored, no r fo r tha t matter , ca n th e connectio n betwee n th e tai l pip e and th e anus . Like plane parts , occasionall y entir e planes too k o n a n anthropomor phic sexua l identity . Th e lowe r performanc e F-84 , fo r example , wa s described b y George Berk e in a novel abou t fighter pilot s i n the 1950 s a s a second-rat e prostitute : Oh don't— Give me an F-84; That bitch is a ground lovin' whore; She'll tumble and roll; And dig a deep hole; Don't give me an F-84.98 In anothe r sectio n o f th e novel , role s ar e reversed , an d a n actua l sexua l act wit h a prostitut e become s aeronautical : "H e la y dow n o n th e be d spread-eagled. Marce y knel t betwee n his . . . . The y wer e dow n i n th e quick chec k area , gettin g th e las t loo k over . H e watche d the m mov e th e control surfaces . The crew chief gav e the thumbs up. " " Jus t a s a takeof f is roughly equivalen t t o sexua l climax , s o to o ar e kills . In The Hunters,

MiG Alley •

9 3

the physica l sensation s Clev e Savill e feel s whe n h e get s a kill—namely , a "wild pipper, " senseles s cries , an d a balloonin g h e a r t — b e a r a n uncann y resemblance t o sexua l climax : Cleve wa s behin d him , o n th e inside , turnin g a s har d a s h e could . Th e bright pippe r o f hi s sight wa s creepin g u p o n th e MiG , jerkily , bu t movin g slowly u p t o th e tail , th e fuselage , th e win g root . H e squeeze d th e trigger . The tracer s arce d [sic] out, fallin g mostl y behind . Ther e wer e a few strike s near th e tail . H e coul d hardl y hol d th e wil d pippe r wher e i t wa s bu t somehow h e move d i t forward , i t seeme d onl y inche s more . . . . He fire d again. Hi s hear t balloone d i n hi s throat . H e shoute d int o th e mask , no t words, bu t a senseles s cry . Soli d strike s alon g th e fuselage . Ther e wa s a burst o f whit e flam e an d a sudde n floo d o f smoke . Th e Mi G pulle d u p sharply, climbing . I t was slippin g awa y fro m him , bu t a s i t did , h e lace d i t with hits . Finally, trailin g a curtai n o f fire , i t rolle d ove r o n on e win g an d started down. 100 In anothe r instance , Imil , th e win g commander , draw s a direc t connec tion betwee n aggressiv e se x an d gettin g a fift h kill : "I remembe r whe n I cam e dow n tha t day . Wha t a feeling ! Th e whol e world wasn' t bi g enough fo r me . You know wha t I mean. " "Right," Pel l agreed impulsively . "I had thi s girl. Know wha t sh e said? " "No." "Be a blood y ac e tonight, that' s all. " H e hel d hi s fist an d forear m u p [ a locker roo m symbo l fo r sex ] an d laughed. 101 Sex an d deat h wer e inextricabl y linke d i n thi s highl y charged , mal e environment o f fighter "jocks. " I t wa s a s i f th e ac t o f creatio n an d killin g had becom e on e an d th e same . Like chasin g w o m e n , a failur e o f a pilo t t o catc h a M i G wa s tanta m o u n t t o sexua l failure . W h e n Charle s "Chick " Clevelan d wa s "snake bit" durin g on e particularl y intens e da y ove r M i G Alley , h e lamente d t o Blesse: "I f the y sawe d a w o m a n i n t w o , I' d ge t th e hal f tha t e a t s . "

102

Failure t o ge t a kill , i n short , wa s equate d t o bein g denie d th e genital s o f a woman . In The Hunters, Clev e Saville , th e book' s hero , als o wa s tormente d over no t gettin g M i G s . Fo r Saville , hi s courag e an d skil l wer e th e mos t important thing s i n hi s life . Everythin g els e tha t h e v a l u e d — " t h e goo d women, th e crewme n eage r t o serve , th e r e s p e c t " — d e p e n d e d o n hi s

94 • MiG Alley ability t o demonstrat e thes e fighter qualitie s b y shooting dow n MiGs. 103 When h e coul d no t accomplis h tha t end , "h e coul d sens e th e ebbin g respect," especiall y fro m women. 104 However , whe n h e finally di d mak e a kill , he "neve r fel t s o fine." I n on e brie f moment , hi s entir e reaso n fo r existence was confirmed: "H e kne w the n tha t h e would neve r lose." 1 0 5 In the clear-cut world o f the fighter-interceptor squadron , success , simply put, wa s define d b y killing . A s Salte r writes : "Ther e wer e n o othe r values. I t wa s lik e money. . . . MiG s wer e everything . I f yo u ha d MiG s you wer e a standar d o f excellence . Th e su n shon e upo n you . Th e cre w chiefs wer e happ y t o hav e yo u fly thei r ships . Th e tourin g actresse s wanted t o mee t you . Yo u wer e th e cente r o f everything—th e praise , th e excitement, th e enviers." 106 O n th e othe r hand , i f you di d not kil l MiGs, "you wer e nothing." 1 0 7 Clearly , suc h a worl d appear s vapi d t o th e outsider, bu t a t th e sam e tim e ther e wa s a liberatin g Nietzschia n appea l to it . I n contras t t o th e white-colla r worl d o f th e 1950 s describe d b y C . Wright Mill s an d othe r cultura l critics , on e di d no t ris e i n th e "fighte r business" b y one' s abilit y t o patroniz e one' s bos s an d sel l onesel f i n th e "great salesroom" ; rather , th e Korea n Wa r fighter Ai r Forc e wa s almos t a pur e meritocracy . I f yo u coul d kil l MiGs , i t di d no t matte r whethe r you wer e a James Lo w fres h ou t o f fligh t school , o r a mor e experience d pilot lik e Frederic k Bless e o r Jame s Hagerstrom—yo u stil l ros e withi n the organization . Fe w pilot s wh o sho t dow n five MiG s o r mor e lef t Korea belo w th e ran k o f colonel. 108 Rank , i n th e en d though , wa s no t all tha t thes e flight sui t officer s wer e after . Kudos , status , an d pea k experiences wer e fa r mor e important . Pilo t James Brook s explaine d i t i n this manner : "I t feel s extremel y goo d t o saddl e u p t o tha t officers ' clu b and kno w yo u hav e applie d yoursel f a little beyon d normal ; you stan d a bit talle r tha n mos t o f you r peers." 1 0 9 Blesse , afte r h e go t hi s fifth kill , claimed tha t i t wa s th e "realizatio n o f a drea m I had sinc e I was a kid , and ove r th e year s cam e t o mea n mor e t o m e tha n becomin g a genera l officer i n the Air Force." 1 1 0

—•• S

,,—

Headhunters an d Fightin g Cocks : The Fighter-Bombe r i n Kore a

In Jame s Salter' s nove l The Hunters (1956) , Cleve Saville , a n F-8 6 fighter-interceptor pilot , i s obsesse d wit h on e thing : killin g MiGs . Al though Savill e had alread y distinguishe d himsel f a s a fighter pilo t durin g World Wa r II , h e realize d whe n h e go t t o Kore a tha t h e woul d hav e t o shoot dow n MiG s t o maintai n hi s statu s a s a superio r pilot . H e was no t arriving i n Kore a a s a second lieutenan t straigh t ou t o f fligh t school , bu t as a veteran captain an d fligh t commander . Consequently , i t was impera tive fo r hi m t o shoo t dow n a t leas t a s man y MiG s a s an y othe r pilo t i n his flight . "I f h e di d no t ge t MiG s h e woul d hav e failed , no t onl y i n hi s own eye s bu t i n everyone's . Talkin g t o Corona , t o Daughters , t o any body, it was onl y too plain . They sai d i t meant nothing , bu t thei r denial s were a confession. The y expecte d a great dea l fro m him . H e wa s th e ol d hand." 1 T o ensur e succes s i n thi s quest , Savill e chos e hi s mission s ver y carefully an d onl y fle w whe n h e thought h e might se e combat, "decidin g often a t th e las t minute , trustin g wha t wa s no w a hardened , viciou s instinct." 2 When h e managed t o ge t a MiG, h e was literall y o n to p o f th e world , but whe n h e faile d an d othe r pilot s go t kills , he coul d "sens e th e ebbin g respect": "Clev e ha d com e t o see , s o ha d everyon e else , ho w rigi d wa s that casting . Ther e wer e n o othe r values . I t wa s lik e money : i t di d no t matter ho w i t had bee n acquired , bu t onl y that i t had. That wa s the final judgment. I t wa s magisterial . MiG s wer e everything . I f yo u ha d MiG s 95

$6 • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks you wer e a standar d o f excellence." 3 Eve n th e prospec t o f sex wit h a beautiful woma n i n Toky o wa s n o substitut e fo r gettin g kills . Jus t a s Cleve i s abou t t o embar k upo n a romanti c interlud e wit h a youn g Japanese woma n i n Tokyo , h e discover s tha t ther e ha d bee n a bi g ai r fight whil e h e wa s o n leave ; immediately , Savill e leave s th e woma n t o return t o hi s unit . Afte r missin g suc h a bi g fight, "h e fel t lik e a ma n washed overboar d a thousand mile s from shore." 4 Despite hi s obsessio n wit h MiGs , Savill e i n th e en d fail s t o shoo t down a tota l o f five MiG s an d becom e a n ace . Unlik e Pell , a younge r pilot i n his flight, Savill e lacks the ruthlessness t o becom e a successful je t ace. Saville , i n severa l instances , i s unwillin g t o abando n a wingma n i n trouble t o ge t a MiG . Fo r Saville , lookin g ou t fo r th e welfar e o f hi s fellow pilot s i s more importan t tha n persona l gain . Good intention s in the end, however, get Saville nowhere. After shoot ing dow n hi s fifth MiG , Savill e i s denie d th e victor y becaus e hi s wing man, Hunter , th e onl y perso n wh o ca n confir m th e kill , crash-lands an d dies. I n a bitte r twis t o f irony , Savill e the n confirm s th e victor y fo r Hunter, an d Hunte r i s awarde d a posthumou s Silve r Star . O n hi s nex t mission, Cleve Savill e i s killed whe n Pell , his wingma n fo r thi s mission , abandons hi m t o shoo t dow n a MiG. Th e boo k conclude s wit h th e ne w ace Pel l disingenuousl y tellin g a reporte r tha t Savill e wa s a "grea t guy, " and a "brother " t o him. 5 Like Saville , Tindle, th e protagonis t i n Walt Sheldon' s Troubling of a Star (1953) , i s equall y trouble d b y hi s persona l predicamen t i n Korea. 6 However, Tindl e i s a n F-8 0 fighter-bomber pilot , an d thu s hi s trouble s are quit e differen t tha n Saville's . Whereas Savill e i s statu s anxious , Tin dle is distraught ove r hi s job a s a kille r o f men , women, an d childre n o n the ground . Sheldon' s nove l begin s wit h Tindl e returnin g fro m forwar d air contro l (FAC ) duty o n the mai n battl e line. 7 As a ground-based FAC , Tindle ha d th e opportunit y t o witnes s napal m attack s a t clos e han d and wa s ver y disturbe d b y wha t h e saw : me n simila r t o himsel f bein g slaughtered i n a n inhuman e fashion . Hence , whe n h e return s t o hi s outfit, h e doe s not loo k upo n hi s remaining mission s a s opportunities t o get kills ; rather, h e see s the m a s tryin g ordeal s whic h h e mus t endur e a t all costs . Throughou t th e res t o f th e novel , Tindl e trie s t o reconcil e hi s

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • yy desire to be a good fighter-bomber pilo t with his angst over the holocaus t he feels h e is inflicting upo n hi s fellow man . Immediately upo n hi s return fro m FA C duty, Tindle worrie s i f he wil l even b e abl e t o kill , bu t the n assure s himsel f tha t h e would : "Ther e would b e n o othe r choice . Lik e th e woma n ha d sai d whe n rap e wa s inevitable—that wa s lieutenan t Rossi' s remar k tha t da y h e couldn' t pul l out an d kne w h e was abou t t o crea m int o a mountain—'It's inevitable, ' Rossi ha d said , ' I migh t a s wel l rela x an d enjo y it. ' " 8 Lik e Saville , though, Tindl e learn s that simpl e rationalizations d o no t alway s work i n war. O n hi s first missio n afte r returning , Tindl e discover s tha t inflictin g death i s indee d a persona l choice : on e ca n easil y allo w one' s rocket s o r napalm t o mis s a target . However , "liv e an d le t live " strategie s lik e thi s carry penaltie s o f thei r own . Whe n Tindl e fail s t o hi t hi s targets o n tha t mission, h e i s immediatel y confronte d b y a n angr y win g commander , who accuse s hi m o f bein g jitter y an d afrai d t o fly : i t take s stead y nerve s to la y dow n a bom b loa d o n target . Thus , Tindl e i s trapped . H e ca n either continu e t o fl y an d engag e i n "immoral " killing , o r h e can submi t to a n FO F charg e an d neve r fly again . I f h e choose s a n FO F discharge , though, h e would en d u p denyin g himself o f th e onl y thing h e was goo d at—flying a n airplane . "Th e fac t was , h e wasn' t fit fo r muc h anythin g except flyin g a comba t airplane . He' d spen t mor e tim e learnin g that , after all . And h e had th e feeling tha t h e had neve r reall y properly learne d another goddam n thin g i n hi s twenty-nin e year s o f existence . S o wha t kind o f lif e wa s that , wher e a man learne d onl y on e thing, an d spen t hi s whole lif e doin g jus t that , doin g nothin g bu t gettin g bette r a t on e thing." 9 Allowin g himsel f t o b e labele d a s a n FO F cowar d woul d als o place hi m i n th e sam e categor y a s Major Ronsdale , a man wh o ha d los t all respec t fo r himsel f an d wh o literall y an d figuratively wa s impotent . For Tindle to maintai n hi s individuality an d manhood , h e must liv e with his turmoil an d continu e t o dro p bomb s o n innocen t people . Onl y deat h or a n honorabl e transfe r t o a noncomba t assignmen t ca n full y resolv e his inner turmoil . In th e end , Sheldon' s nove l fall s victi m t o a Hollywood-styl e ending , and Tindl e i s spare d fro m hi s predicamen t b y circumstance . Afte r Tin die's aggressiv e win g commande r barel y escape s death , h e decide s t o

98 • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks leave th e Ai r Forc e an d tak e a n administrativ e positio n wit h a church . However, befor e leaving , h e offer s Tindl e a des k jo b a s a final ac t o f Christian charit y an d goodwill , and Tindl e accept s i t without gratitude . As thi s brie f literar y compariso n reveals , th e lo t o f th e fighter-bomber was muc h differen t tha n tha t o f th e fighter-interceptor. Bot h type s wer e casual, individualistic , fligh t sui t officers . However , fighter-bombers lik e Tindle wer e muc h mor e concerne d wit h survivin g thei r comba t tou r honorably tha n competin g wit h fello w pilot s fo r statu s symbols . Unlik e fighter-interceptor pilots , fighter-bombers pilot s were not ranked individ ually b y numbe r o f kill s achieved . Rather , thei r self-wort h wa s ver y much connecte d t o th e accomplishment s o f thei r units : number o f brid ges destroyed , troop s killed , railroa d track s cut , an d s o on . On e coul d not pain t a red sta r o n one' s aircraf t o r cal l oneself a n ac e for napalmin g a concentratio n o f railroad laborers . All a fighter-bomber coul d hop e fo r was t o surviv e hi s tou r an d retur n t o th e U.S . wit h a Distinguishe d Flying Cross—th e standar d rewar d fo r flyin g on e hundred missions . A clos e stud y o f th e fighter-bomber raise s a numbe r o f interestin g questions. Why was the mission o f the fighter-bomber mor e difficul t an d dangerous tha n tha t o f th e fighter-interceptor? Ho w di d th e fighterbomber pilot s motivat e themselve s t o fight an d kil l i n th e absenc e o f tangible reward s an d statu s symbols ? Ho w di d thi s situatio n affec t morale, an d ho w di d commander s attemp t t o offse t potentia l an d actua l moral problem s b y buildin g uni t pride ? Thes e question s wil l b e exam ined i n thi s chapter . Reader s unfamilia r wit h th e operationa l histor y o f the fighter-bomber campaign s i n Korea , however , ma y wis h t o rea d Appendix i befor e readin g on .

The Hazard s o f th e Jo b The lif e o f a fighter-bomber pilo t wa s hazardou s an d ofte n short . Typi cally, fighter-bomber pilot s fle w lower-performanc e plane s an d expose d themselves dail y t o mor e hostil e groun d fire tha n th e typica l fighterinterceptor. Overall , onl y 14 7 Ai r Forc e plane s wer e los t i n air-to-ai r

Headbunters and Fighting Cocks • yy combat; b y comparison , ove r 81 6 plane s wer e sho t dow n b y groun d fire.10 A s Raymond Sturgeon , a pilo t wit h th e 35t h squadro n o f th e 8t h Group, pu t it , " I ha d friend s i n 86 s wh o neve r sa w a Mi G thei r entir e tour, but we got fired o n ever y mission with high-powere d gun s that sho t golf ball s a t you." 1 1 Sturgeon' s squadro n los t " a pilo t o r two " ever y week, an d losse s lik e thes e wer e no t unusual . Perri n Gower , anothe r pilot i n Sturgeon' s squadron , claime d tha t fiv e o f th e te n pilot s h e shared hi s hu t wit h wer e killed , an d Howar d Heiner , a pilo t i n th e 12t h Squadron o f th e 18t h Wing, remembered on e week whe n seve n pilot s i n his squadron wer e sho t down. 12 Far an d awa y th e greates t dange r t o th e fighter-bombe r wer e anti aircraft (AA ) weapons. 13 The Communis t A A effort wa s concentrated t o cover th e area s sout h o f th e Chongcho n Rive r tha t th e MiG s di d no t patrol. Bridge s wer e especiall y wel l defended , bu t eve n alon g standar d stretches o f track , th e Communis t force s deploye d anti-aircraf t emplace ments ever y fou r miles . Communis t anti-aircraf t artiller y include d So viet-built, rada r ranging , 8 5-millimeter gun s capabl e o f hittin g target s a s high a s 25,00 0 feet . Accordin g t o FEA F intelligence reports , a s man y a s four Sovie t A A division s wer e operatin g thes e gun s throughou t Nort h Korea. 14 However , th e weapon s tha t pilot s feare d mos t wer e no t thes e big guns , bu t smal l calibe r 37-millimete r automati c weapon s operate d by regula r Chines e an d Nort h Korea n troops . A s Perri n Gowe r ex plained: "I n Korea , mos t peopl e wer e kille d b y fla k an d automati c weapons fire . N o membe r o f [my ] outfi t wa s eve r sho t dow n b y a MiG . On on e missio n agains t Sinanju , w e woul d sen d seventy-tw o airplane s against a target . Th e bi g blac k puff s a t 30,00 0 fee t didn' t bothe r us . What bothere d u s wa s th e 37-millimete r stuff . Yo u woul d dro p you r bombs an d fl y ou t a t th e dec k leve l to avoi d automati c weapon s fire." 15 M. J . Bailey , a pilo t wit h th e 7t h Squadron , 49t h Wing , similarl y claimed tha t i t was no t th e MiG s tha t bothere d him , bu t th e A A fire . I n his 2 2 Jun e 195 2 diar y entry , h e wrote : " A fligh t o f 1 6 o f u s wen t t o Sinuiju airfiel d o n a bombin g job . I took m y fligh t i n secon d an d thing s were reall y gettin g hot . Th e F-86 s wer e keepin g th e MiG s bus y fo r us . At 11,00 0 fee t w e ha d on e laye r o f blac k fla k an d a laye r o f whit e a t

ioo • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks 6,000. I tried t o kee p th e fligh t ou t o f a s much a s possible. Everyone go t out withou t a hole. This mission reall y had m e scared—it's bee n s o lon g since I've bee n u p north." 1 6 MiGs, in spite o f th e trains, were kep t awa y fro m th e fighter-bombers by larg e patrol s o f F-8 6 fighter-interceptors: th e interceptor s woul d fl y at hig h altitude s abov e th e fighter-bombers an d attac k an y MiG s whic h attempted t o attack . "W e basicall y hel d th e Mi G pilot s i n contemp t because they never came down t o fight," recalle d Howar d Heiner . "The y didn't wan t t o fight becaus e i t was alway s fifteen t o one." 1 7 Small caliber anti-aircraf t weapon s presente d suc h a dangerous threa t for th e fighter-bomber becaus e the y wer e indiscriminat e an d easil y hid den i n so-calle d fla k traps . Regiona l militi a an d repai r troop s woul d guard importan t interdictio n route s b y creatin g larg e barrier s o f small arms fire. Thes e troop s als o strun g wir e cable s betwee n hill s t o thwar t low-level attacks , an d create d elaborat e ambushe s usin g tank s a s bai t t o lure U.N . aircraf t int o carefull y configure d "kil l zone s o f automati c weapons." 18 I n June 1953 , for example , Heiner's fligh t fel l victi m to jus t such a fla k tra p o n a standar d arme d reconnaissanc e mission . Hi s fligh t leader, Do n Forbes , spotte d a truc k an d starte d a 4 5-degree bom b ru n with hi s numbe r tw o ma n (Heine r wa s thre e i n thi s flight) . Automati c weapons suddenl y poppe d ou t fro m behin d camouflage d foxhole s an d commenced firing upo n Forbe s an d hi s wingman . Th e numbe r tw o ma n went straigh t in , an d Forbe s go t hi t i n severa l places , bu t manage d t o crash-land hi s plane safel y behin d friendl y lines. 19 After th e mission, a staff office r trie d t o blam e Forbe s fo r th e deat h o f his wingman, bu t Heine r immediatel y jumpe d i n and tol d thi s particula r major tha t "h e wa s ver y muc h ou t o f order, " a remar k whic h unde r ordinary circumstance s coul d hav e earne d Heine r a n Articl e 1 5 o r eve n a cour t martial . However , rathe r tha n punishin g Heine r an d Forbes , their win g commande r ordere d the m t o Toky o t o "coo l off." 20 In a combat environment , th e rule s ar e different : fligh t sui t attitud e wa s tolerable. Heine r believe d h e wa s th e "bes t pilo t i n Korea, " an d viewe d operations officer s a s "administrators " wh o ha d n o busines s tellin g either hi m o r Forbes ho w t o fly. 21

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • 10 1 Unlike Heiner' s win g commander , thi s operation s majo r di d no t full y understand tha t deat h i n a fighter-bomber outfi t ofte n cam e i n a n indis criminate fashion , an d tha t pilo t erro r wa s rarel y i f eve r involved . Supe rior flyin g coul d no t war n yo u o f hidde n flak , no r coul d i t necessaril y save yo u i n a typica l bom b run . Al l a pilo t coul d d o wa s minimiz e hi s exposure t o fire b y employin g a stee p angl e o f attac k i n a bom b run ; however, exposur e wa s stil l unavoidable . Suc h daily , involuntar y ris k taking mad e fighter-bombers muc h mor e fatalisti c tha n thei r fighterinterceptor brethren . Wherea s pilot s lik e Hagerstro m coul d maintai n a level o f optimis m i f the y considere d thei r ow n pilo t skill s t o b e bette r than thei r adversary's , fighter-bombers lik e Baile y live d a lif e o f uncer tainty, prayin g ever y da y tha t thei r luc k woul d hol d out . O n leav e i n Tokyo, he wrote: "Returne d t o th e BO Q an d though t o f yo u ver y muc h darling. Wonde r i f an d whe n I'l l se e yo u again . Yes , 'i f enter s int o i t more tha n yo u realize." 22 Tw o day s later , Baile y returne d t o bas e "jus t to find ou t tha t th e squadro n los t tw o me n i n thre e days. " On e pilot , who wa s hi t b y flak an d wen t righ t in , had bee n expectin g hi s first chil d very soon. 23 Raymon d Sturgeo n (35t h Squadron , 8t h Group ) similarl y believed wit h "absolut e certainty " tha t h e woul d di e i n Kore a whe n h e found ou t h e woul d b e flying fighter-bombers. Hence , whe n Sturgeo n left, h e brok e of f hi s engagemen t wit h hi s fiancee: "N o wa y wa s I going into comba t wit h a wife. When I said good-by e t o m y mother an d dad , I didn't thin k I would eve r b e back—n o doub t i n m y min d tha t I woul d ever b e back." 2 4 In additio n t o groun d fire, slowe r plane s an d dangerou s payload s made th e lif e o f th e fighter-bomber pilo t mor e hazardou s tha n tha t o f the fighter-interceptor. Th e first generatio n o f comba t je t aircraf t ha d more tha n a few bug s i n them, an d fighter-bomber detachment s receive d the oldes t an d leas t mechanicall y soun d aircraf t i n th e inventory . Th e F 80, fo r example , require d a n elaborat e wate r injectio n syste m jus t t o take of f fro m man y o f th e rathe r shor t runway s i n Japa n an d Korea . Water injectio n worke d lik e a primitiv e after-burner : wate r wa s injecte d into th e combustibl e mixtur e o f th e engine , givin g i t thre e o r fou r hundred mor e pound s o f thrust . Th e F-80' s win g tank s als o ha d a

I O 2 • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks propensity no t t o fee d well . Bailey , o n on e mission , ha d t o shoo t drai n holes i n them wit h hi s Col t 4 5 so that h e could lan d withou t th e dange r of blowin g up. 25 Like th e F-80 , th e F-84 , th e othe r workhors e fo r fighter-bomber outfits, ha d mor e tha n a fe w mechanica l problems . E . R . Jame s (182n d Squadron, 136t h Group ) remembere d on e wee k whe n hi s squadro n lost tw o aircraf t du e t o win g collapses—on e plan e carrie d th e win g commander an d th e othe r carrie d hi s deputy . Becaus e o f thi s accident , James's win g wa s grounde d fo r fou r week s unti l thei r earl y mode l F-8 4 Ds coul d b e replace d wit h F-8 4 Gs , an improve d mode l wit h a stronge r wing.

Not onl y wer e man y fighter-bomber aircraf t mor e dangerou s t o fl y than th e state-of-the-ar t F-86 , the y wer e als o les s forgivin g du e t o th e dangerous payload s the y carried . Bailey , fo r instance , describe d ho w a tire blowou t upo n takeof f create d a spar k whic h i n tur n ignite d th e napalm bomb s o f hi s friend' s F-80 . This pilot , Lieutenan t Reacer , ende d up with burn s o n 7 0 percent o f hi s body an d die d a week later. 27

The Unrewardin g Missio n o f th e Fighter-Bombe r In additio n t o bein g mor e dangerous , th e missio n o f th e fighter-bomber tended t o b e less rewarding tha n tha t o f th e fighter-interceptor. A village bombed wa s no t th e sam e a s a Mi G destroyed—n o visibl e statu s sym bols were awarded an d rarel y was the press interested i n hearing bombe r stories. Ace s suc h a s Jame s Jabar a an d Josep h McConnel l ha d thei r pictures plastere d i n suc h nationa l magazine s a s Life, Look, an d Time, and McConnell' s stor y wa s eve n turne d int o a majo r motio n picture . Fighter-bombers, o n th e othe r hand , onl y receive d attentio n i n service oriented journals , suc h a s th e Air Force Times an d Air Force Magazine: napalming a villag e o r a suspecte d troo p concentratio n wa s hardl y a s romantic a s shootin g dow n a slee k MiG . N o titles , parties , o r award s were give n fo r bombin g five villages . I n fact , a fighter-bomber onl y received a part y afte r hi s deat h o r hi s hundredt h mission—whicheve r came first. The hundredth-mission part y varied fro m squadro n t o squad ron, bu t i t generall y consiste d o f a "victor y pass " ove r th e bas e b y th e

Headbunters and Fighting Cocks • 10 3 hundredth-mission pilot , followe d b y a phot o sessio n an d a champaig n reception on the tarmac. The more common party , though, was a "shoot down party. " Accordin g t o Perrin Gower : "Ever y time someone got sho t down, they threw a party an d go t completely stoned . Ostensibl y i t was a wake, bu t reall y i t wa s a celebratio n t o celebrat e th e fac t tha t i t wasn' t you." 2 8 Survival , i n short , wa s th e majo r rewar d fo r th e fighter-bomber and the only status symbol he could look forwar d t o during his tour. The difference s betwee n th e tw o type s o f mission s ar e perhap s bes t illustrated b y th e pilots ' description s o f combat . Dougla s Evans , a pilo t with th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Group , wrot e a glowin g moment-by moment accoun t o f hi s first brus h wit h a Mi G i n hi s memoir , Sabre Jets over Korea: I closed in and positively identified th e T-tails and mid-wings, then picked on the number three man, who was straggling, and spanned hi m with my manual Mark 1 8 sight. A short burst and hits! The jerk never moved, so I held the trigger steady , and di d tha t buzzar d ligh t up. There were flashes all ove r hi m wit h rip s appearin g i n th e meta l ski n alon g wit h puff s o f smoke and hunks of metal flying off. I can't really describe the sensations I felt, bu t I suppose they were the same as those experience d i n al l air wars a t their first kill. I was tremendously excited—tigh t a s a knot i n th e guts, mingled wit h a n od d feelin g of aw e tha t al l thi s wa s happening . A s i f I was sawin g woo d I just sa t behind hi m ( I was trying t o d o everythin g a t onc e and didn' t spa n properly), held the trigger, and clobbered him as my nose moved around. 29 Bailey, b y comparison, describe d hi s first successfu l bombin g missio n in rathe r lackluste r terms : "Napalme d an d strafe d tw o village s nort h west o f Pohang . Thi s i s guerrill a activit y are a an d ma y hav e bee n thei r headquarters. W e destroye d 4 0 houses , 10 0 troops , an d a smal l amm o dump." 3 0 Clearly , Baile y viewe d hi s first comba t missio n i n fa r les s heroic term s tha n Evans ; in fact , hi s attitud e towar d th e fighter-bomber mission wa s ambivalen t a t best . Bailey , however , wa s no t alon e i n hi s ambivalence. Heine r describe d hi s DF C (Distinguishe d Flyin g Cross ) mission a s a "massacre" : " I sa w troop s runnin g an d peopl e wh o I wa s about t o eliminat e an d w e jus t wen t u p an d dow n thi s ro w o f trenche s killing everyone i n ou r path." 3 1 As Baile y an d Heiner' s remark s reveal , i t too k effor t o n th e par t o f

I O 4 • Headbunters and Fighting Cocks the individua l pilo t t o perceiv e th e "people " the y wer e killin g a s "tar gets." Baile y rationalize d th e destructio n o f a civilian villag e b y definin g it a s a guerrilla headquarters . H e als o rarel y use d th e wor d "kill " i n hi s descriptions. Baile y describe d anothe r attac k o n civilian s a s follows : "Let dow n jus t N E o f rout e an d hi t 5 o x carts , 5 cows , 1 truck , an d about 1 0 laborer s repairin g a road." 3 2 Ironically , despit e th e lac k o f remorse whic h Baile y showe d towar d "enemy " civilians , hi s feeling s toward civilian s o n th e othe r sid e o f th e battl e lin e wer e quit e compas sionate: "It' s bee n ho t a s hell an d jus t a s dusty . Hope fo r rai n a s the ric e crop i s failin g fast . I wonder ho w thes e peopl e ar e goin g t o mak e ou t i f the crop fails?" 33 Bailey, though , wa s no t alon e i n perceivin g civilian s nort h o f th e bombline a s "th e enemy. " Othe r pilot s justifie d thei r attack s b y labelin g civilians as "disguise d troops " o r a s "supporters " o f enem y activity . On e pilot interviewe d b y th e Operation s Analysi s Offic e o f th e Fift h Ai r Force state d tha t civilian s wer e bein g use d a s huma n shields . "I f I sa w any sign s o f civilia n activit y i n th e village , I assume d tha t ther e wer e enemy troop s ther e a s well . I'v e see n instance s wher e ther e migh t b e a s many a s 10 0 civilian s dresse d i n whit e usually . Th e majorit y o f thes e would b e men , an d I d o believ e tha t th e enem y di d us e th e civilia n population a s cover an d mingle d wit h the m i n villages." 34 Another pilo t use d a series of crude syllogism s to justify hi s slaughter ing o f innocents : "I f w e sa w civilian s i n th e village—jus t becaus e the y look lik e civilians—fro m a n airplan e yo u can' t tel l whethe r he' s a civil ian o r a soldier . Anythin g i n Nort h Kore a I consider a n enemy . They'r e definitely no t o n ou r side , therefore I have n o mercy . If I saw peopl e i n a village, why , I conside r the m troop s o r supportin g troops . Anythin g supporting enem y troop s i s a n enem y o f ours ; therefore , I conside r i t worthwhile t o strik e it. " 35 Clearly , th e distinction s betwee n combatant s and civilian s were blurred o n purpose b y pilots in an attempt t o rational ize their ofte n gruesom e job . In Troubling of a Star, Sheldo n capture s th e dilemm a o f th e fighterbomber wel l an d reveal s ho w languag e wa s a n importan t mean s fo r pilots t o justif y thei r actions . Fo r example , a "mas s o f huddled , terrifie d human beings " becam e a "target, " an d a "bewildere d poo r slo b o f a

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • 10 5 man wh o neve r wante d anythin g bu t a fe w meal s an d a woman t o slee p with" becam e a "troo p concentration." 36 Similarly , Jerr y Minton , a pilot with th e 80t h Squadro n (th e "Headhunters") , insiste d severa l time s that a littl e tow n alon g th e Chinnamp o estuar y h e napalme d wa s a "troop concentratio n point " eve n thoug h h e ha d "n o ide a wher e th e intelligence cam e from." 37 " I kno w tha t sound s horribl e t o someon e who hadn' t ha d tha t experience , an d yo u probabl y ge t visions o f M y La i and everything, " recalle d Minton , "bu t believ e m e ther e wa s heav y flak there an d i t was a concentration point." 3 8 As Minton's referenc e t o My La i alludes, the job of the fighter-bomber was ofte n mess y an d brutal . Napalm , fo r instance , will stic k t o anythin g it touche s an d bur n fles h straigh t dow n t o th e bone . Upo n impact , i t sounds lik e "tearin g sil k amplifie d a thousan d times, " an d ther e i s almost n o escap e fro m it : it will flow behin d parapet s an d int o foxholes , burning everythin g i n it s path. 39 A s low-level attackers , fighter-bombers generally witnesse d muc h o f thei r attack s close-hand . Accordin g t o on e pilot interviewe d b y th e Fift h Ai r Forc e Operation s Analysi s Office : " I have bee n aroun d village s that didn' t appea r t o hav e an y lif e whatsoeve r and droppe d tw o napalm s i n there, and sa w a lot of activit y immediatel y in th e buildings . Peopl e woul d leav e th e cove r o f th e building s an d surrounding hills." 40 Raymond Sturgeo n als o confirme d tha t "up-close-and-personal " views o f "mas s killings " wer e routine : " I can' t sa y I enjoye d it . You'r e there an d that' s wha t yo u do , bu t som e guy s absolutel y love d it . I'v e seen guy s com e bac k an d bra g abou t shootin g a woman wit h a packag e on he r hea d an d watchin g he r blo w up . W e wer e instructe d t o hi t civilians becaus e the y di d a lo t o f th e work , bu t I jus t couldn' t d o it . Other guy s di d an d i t jus t turne d the m on . I t wa s nothin g t o ge t 15 0 KIAs [kille d i n action ] i n a strafin g run." 4 1 Fo r Sturgeon , droppin g napalm an d strafin g peopl e wa s a difficul t job ; ye t h e wa s highl y moti vated t o fly mission s an d finish hi s tour . "W e wante d t o ge t ou t ther e and d o th e bes t jo b w e coul d do, " exclaime d Sturgeon . "Yo u neve r heard o f a gu y jus t goin g u p an d droppin g hi s bomb s an d gettin g th e hell ou t an d countin g anothe r mission." 42

io6 • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks

Combat Motivatio n Sturgeon an d mos t fighter-bombe r pilot s wer e highl y motivate d t o fight and fly fo r caree r reasons . Fo r th e mos t part , thes e me n wer e reserv e pilots whos e onl y hop e o f securin g a permanen t commissio n i n th e Ai r Force was to successfull y complet e a combat tour . Like Tindl e i n Troubling of a Star, Sturgeo n believe d h e wa s no t fit for muc h els e excep t flying; therefore , h e volunteere d fo r comba t t o secure a place fo r himsel f i n th e postwar Ai r Force : " I was caree r al l th e way, an d a comba t tou r i n Kore a wa s a necessar y ticke t punch." 4 3 William Elder, the commander o f the 8t h Fighter-Bomber Win g in Korea , also understoo d tha t comba t flying i n Kore a woul d b e pivota l t o hi s career: " I a m convince d tha t m y checkou t i n je t aircraf t i n Kore a wa s the turnin g poin t i n m y career , a t almos t th e midpoin t o f tha t caree r (15.5 years) . Fo r withou t i t I woul d no t hav e bee n considere d no r assigned th e 8t h Fighter-Bombe r Win g o r th e ai r division s whic h fol lowed. Durin g th e las t hal f o f m y 32-plu s year s o f activ e service , I wa s assigned t o comman d position s a t ai r divisio n leve l o r higher , th e onl y exception bein g a two-year tou r a s Inspector General , Air Defense Com mand." 4 4 Althoug h servic e i n fighter-interceptors wa s preferable , "i t was known tha t i f you cam e out o f fighter-bombers alive , you ha d serve d your purpose." 45 Besides careers , anothe r motiv e fo r fighter-bombers t o perfor m thei r job wa s pee r pressure . I n th e tight-kni t flight sui t cultur e o f th e fighterbomber wing , on e coul d no t easil y shir k one' s duty . Fighter-bomber s attacked target s on e afte r anothe r i n formation s o f four . Onc e yo u wer e lined u p t o attack , i t was ver y difficul t t o avoi d comba t withou t makin g a complet e spectacl e o f yoursel f t o you r clos e friends . O n th e missio n i n which Do n Forbe s wa s sho t down , fo r example , Heine r kne w h e woul d probably ge t hi t a s soo n a s h e sa w Forbes' s wingma n plo w int o a mountain; nevertheless , h e followe d Forbe s i n becaus e Forbe s ordere d him to , an d t o disobe y suc h a n orde r woul d hav e disgrace d Heine r i n the eye s o f hi s flight. Lik e Tindl e i n Troubling of a Star, Heiner sa w n o way ou t o f hi s predicament ; onl y th e flight leade r ha d th e powe r t o cal l off a n attack .

Headbunters and Fighting Cocks • 10 7 Because o f th e fligh t leader' s pivota l role , h e wa s chose n no t o n th e basis o f rank , bu t o n th e basi s o f experience . "Th e comba t vetera n wa s respected i n Korea, " remembere d Georg e Berke , a n F-8 4 pilot , "an d h e not onl y le d th e fligh t regardles s o f rank , bu t als o helpe d pla n th e operation." Fligh t sui t values , i n short , ofte n too k precedenc e ove r institutional rule s an d regulations . A s Berk e pu t it , "Th e spiri t o f Kore a was 'Let' s d o i t the bes t way, and forge t th e bureaucrati c stuff. ' " 4 6 In additio n t o succumbin g t o pee r pressure , man y o f th e pilot s inter viewed too k prid e i n directl y aidin g U.S . troops o n th e groun d b y flyin g close-air suppor t missions . Robert Pomeroy , a T-6 forward ai r controlle r who wa s hi t thirtee n time s i n sixty-fou r missions , compared hi s lo t wit h that o f th e groun d soldie r an d conclude d tha t h e ha d n o excus e t o complain: I knew ho w t o di g foxholes an d I had see n lot s o f movie s o f guy s being burned t o deat h b y flame thrower s an d thei r gut s torn apar t b y artiller y shells. And i n a lot o f ways what we were doing was cleaner an d neater , less messy and les s dangerous tha n what th e front-line soldier s had t o do 24 hours a day. I also had a cowboy streak i n me to support th e Army in the bes t an d mos t first-class way i t coul d b e done , an d tha t involve d exposure and that was just part of it. 47 Bailey, similarly , claime d tha t i t wa s a "ver y wonderfu l sight " t o napalm Communis t soldier s nea r a n advancin g colum n o f America n troops. Ironically, give n the Ai r Force' s nea r obsessio n wit h interdiction , Bailey foun d thes e mission s t o b e fruitless : " I fle w th e mos t useles s mission o f th e wa r today . Wen t t o th e Yal u jus t b y Chin a t o bom b a portion o f a bridge . Th e phot o wa s take n jus t twent y day s befor e bu t there wa s a beautifu l pile-typ e bridg e a quarte r o f a mil e u p th e rive r which wa s bran d new . W e hi t th e targe t bu t didn' t eve r giv e the m 'on e way traffic' Fou r me n an d fou r plane s to knoc k ou t a bridge that ca n b e repaired i n tw o hours." 4 8 Minton , similarly , complaine d abou t rail cutting missions , anothe r a stapl e o f th e Ai r Force' s interdictio n effort : "The whol e squadro n coul d g o i n an d tr y t o cu t a railroa d trac k an d might no t ge t one good cut." 4 9 Despite thei r belie f i n th e futilit y o f interdiction , Baile y an d Minto n completed thei r hundred-missio n tour s becaus e i n the final analysi s the y

io8 • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks believed i n the U.N. cause. They als o understood implicitl y that thei r Ai r Force career s depende d o n completin g thei r hundred-missio n tour s an d having a Distinguished Flyin g Cros s abov e thei r pocket s t o prove it .

Fear o f Flyin g Not everyone , though , mad e i t t o hi s hundredt h mission . I n additio n t o being sho t down , man y soldier s ha d t o b e transferred bac k t o th e State s because o f FO F an d othe r menta l illnesses . Due i n part t o thei r mor e dangerou s an d les s rewarding mission , FO F and othe r menta l illnesse s wer e fa r mor e prevalen t i n fighter-bomber pilots tha n fighter-interceptor pilots . Accordin g t o fligh t surgeo n Luci o Gatto, FOF was a vehicle fo r thes e men t o receiv e attentio n i n what wa s otherwise a thankless job. 50 It was als o a n outwar d manifestatio n o f th e stress an d hazard s o f th e job . A s Pomero y pu t it , thes e me n "wer e no t afraid o f flying, the y were afrai d o f dying. " In general , FO F case s tende d t o b e olde r reservist s wit h wive s an d families a t home. In a study of 18 6 Korean War FOF cases, H. A. Schult z noted tha t al l bu t thre e wer e reservist s recalle d t o activ e duty , an d 9 0 percent ha d bee n traine d i n World Wa r II. 51 In terms o f rank , mos t case s were first lieutenant s an d captain s wit h a fe w major s an d lieutenan t colonels. Th e averag e numbe r o f comba t mission s flow n befor e FO F struck wa s eighteen . Additionally , mos t pilot s ha d serve d tw o t o thre e months i n Korea befor e bein g referred fo r psychiatri c treatment. 52 In short, pilots afflicted wit h FOF were not "green " troop s bu t experi enced comba t aviator s wh o "cracked " unde r th e pressure s o f sustaine d combat i n fighter-bombers. In on e case , a pilo t wit h thirtee n mission s complete d ra n int o th e flight surgeon' s ten t i n the middl e o f th e nigh t an d bega n actin g agitate d and delusional . Th e fligh t surgeo n "institute d immediat e supportiv e treatment whic h include d heav y sedation , complet e reassurance , and , a s the patien t recovered , eg o strengthenin g discussions." 53 Thi s patien t recovered afte r tw o day s o f intensiv e therapy . Another cas e involve d a twenty-five-year-ol d pilo t wh o ha d flow n twenty-six comba t mission s o n a temporary-dut y status . H e the n wen t

Headbunters and Fighting Cocks • 10 9 on inactiv e statu s fo r si x weeks . Whe n h e returned , h e expresse d " a great dea l o f verba l anxiet y abou t returnin g immediatel y t o regula r flying." H e als o aske d fo r a coupl e o f chec k ride s wit h a vetera n pilot , and fle w erraticall y durin g comba t flights . Thi s ma n wa s the n referre d to psychiatri c revie w an d diagnose d wit h anxiety. 54 A thir d interestin g cas e involve d a twenty-nine-year-ol d marrie d fighter-bomber pilo t who had flow n thirty-fiv e comba t mission s and the n requested t o b e grounde d (a n actio n whic h eventuall y helpe d reliev e hi s symptoms). This ma n ha d los t tw o o f hi s bes t friends—on e i n a missio n on whic h h e ha d flown . Th e pilo t subsequentl y becam e depressed , los t weight, an d coul d no t sleep . Finally , h e requeste d leav e t o ponde r hi s situation. Whil e o n leave , h e becam e mor e anxiou s an d depressed . H e also contracte d gonorrhe a fro m a prostitute an d "crie d bitterl y whe n h e came to th e flight surgeo n fo r treatment. " 5 5 In all three of these examples, FOF resulted afte r a substantial numbe r of comba t mission s ha d bee n flown . Period s o f idlenes s als o appea r t o be a contributin g caus e o f FOF . I n th e latte r tw o examples , tim e spen t away fro m flyin g exacerbate d FO F symptoms . A s fligh t surgeo n Rober t Lifton pu t it : "I n Korea , ou r experienc e ha s bee n tha t enforce d idlenes s is an external facto r muc h more damaging to morale than enem y activity . . . . Mos t pilot s ar e anxiou s t o complet e thei r mission s an d ge t hom e quickly. Whe n grounde d b y poo r weathe r fo r an y lengt h o f time , the y feel a sharp los s of thei r 'shar p edge ' an d fea r gettin g 'stale. ' " 5 6 To comba t FO F an d othe r form s o f menta l illness , som e squadron s assigned a fligh t surgeo n t o liv e wit h eac h flight . Accordin g t o E . R . James, thi s allowe d pilot s t o hav e "acces s t o hi m o n off-hours , an d conversations wit h hi m wer e quit e soothing." 57 Conversatio n alone , however, was ofte n insufficient . Fligh t surgeon s als o supplie d pilot s wit h liberal supplie s o f "missio n whiskey " t o kee p thei r nerve s a t res t whil e they wer e no t flying . Accordin g t o pilo t Dea n Pric e o f th e 80t h Fighter Bomber squadron : "A t th e beginnin g o f th e war , th e fligh t doc s wer e handing ou t one-ounc e bourbon s a t th e en d o f eac h mission . I t wa s claimed i t wa s neede d t o stead y th e pilots ' nerves . Bu t the y wer e als o flying 5-6 + mission s a day , an d b y midafternoo n the y couldn' t find anyone sobe r enoug h t o fly ! Tha t polic y didn' t las t to o lon g befor e the y

n o • Headhunters and Fighting Cocks started t o giv e yo u a whol e bottl e fo r eac h 2 5 missions." 58 A s thi s example illustrates , alcoho l wa s th e psychiatri c dru g o f choic e durin g the Korea n War : i t wa s use d b y fligh t surgeons , wh o ofte n ha d n o training i n psychiatry, to cur e everythin g fro m anxiet y t o depression . Another strateg y fo r bolsterin g morale an d motivatin g fighter-bomber pilots wa s t o instil l i n the m a sens e o f uni t pride : commandin g officer s accomplished thi s en d throug h th e skillfu l manipulatio n o f uni t logos , folklore, an d history .

Morale Buildin g For fighter-interceptor uni t commanders , uni t prid e wa s no t a n issue — pilots knew tha t the y were "ho t stuff " an d receive d confirmatio n o f thi s status bot h throug h th e press and b y the reverential treatmen t offere d b y the Ai r Forc e community . Fighter-intercepto r pilo t Dougla s Evans , fo r example, ha d th e followin g receptio n whe n h e lande d a t Komak i ai r base i n Japan: When we got out o f ou r 86 s at Komaki an d walked int o bas e ops to file for Kimpo , everybody just gaped in awe at us. After all , we were the only 86 Sabre outfit i n the war, the big MiG hunters, and considered ver y hot stuff whereve r w e went—especiall y headin g bac k fo r combat . I had o n my new boots with my flyingsuit tucked in them and felt like I was really hot stuff—in th e best outfit an d best assignment in the world. Boy, it was a great feeling, and I made the most of it. 59 Fighter-bomber pilots , b y comparison , wer e referre d t o derogatoril y as "straigh t wings " a t th e office r club s i n Japa n an d Seoul . Thi s nick name came from th e straight wings of their F-84 S and F-8os : by contrast , the highe r spee d F-86 s ha d th e mor e aerodynami c swept-win g configuration. 60 Because fighter-bomber pilot s di d no t hav e th e hig h statu s tha t cam e with flying th e mos t advance d fighter o f th e wa r an d shootin g dow n MiGs, uni t prid e too k o n a muc h mor e significan t meanin g fo r thes e men. To bolster uni t pride , some squadron s develope d colorfu l an d sex y logos fo r thei r aircraf t an d flight suits . Squadron s als o ha d specia l base -

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • 11 1 ball cap s an d bee r stein s made . Finally , uni t histor y an d lor e wer e carefully recorde d an d use d b y unit commanders . While fighter-interceptor pilot s als o sporte d basebal l cap s i n Korea , the phenomeno n wa s eve n mor e popula r i n th e fighter-bomber units . Each squadro n custom-designe d an d ordere d it s own ca p fro m Japanes e manufacturers. Jerr y Minton , a pilo t wit h th e 8ot h Squadron , stil l dis plays hi s ca p i n hi s den : th e ca p feature s hi s "Headhunter " squadro n patch, hi s fligh t designation , an d on e hundre d blac k has h mark s t o denote mission s flown. 61 Like caps , colorfu l an d eroti c uni t logo s wer e a vita l par t o f moral e building. Som e squadrons , fo r example , chos e animal s o f prey : th e symbol fo r Sturgeon' s squadro n wa s a blac k panther ; fo r th e Sout h African squadron , a "Flyin g Cheetah. " Othe r squadron s adopte d a sex ual them e suc h a s "th e Fox y Few, " th e log o o f th e izt h Squadro n o f th e 18th Fighter-Bombe r Wing . Heiner' s squadron , th e "Fightin g Cocks, " went s o fa r a s t o hav e Wal t Disne y desig n it s logo— a rooste r wit h boxing gloves . This log o was emblazone d o n aircraft , fligh t sui t patches , and eve n squadro n bee r mugs—mugs whic h were proudly hun g i n "Th e Cockpit" (th e Osa n officers ' club). 62 Walt Sheldon , i n Troubling of a Star, poke s fu n a t thes e "sacre d cows" i n th e characte r o f Colone l Straker , th e win g commander . I n a Patton-like speec h t o th e outfit , Strake r announce s hi s plan s t o develo p a log o tha t woul d improv e moral e an d remin d th e win g o f it s majo r mission—killing. Afte r muc h though t an d contemplation , Strake r chooses "th e Manhunters " a s th e log o an d order s i t t o b e displaye d o n all bas e signs , aircraft , an d uniforms. 63 "Th e Manhunters, " argue s Straker, would motivat e hi s men to kill more people than an y othe r win g in the war . The Manhunter s log o i s a thinl y veile d allusio n t o th e 8ot h Squad ron's Headhunte r logo . Durin g Worl d Wa r II , Captai n Edwar d "Porky " Cragg, th e squadro n commande r i n Ne w Guinea , commissione d cre w chief Yal e Saffro , wh o ha d worke d befor e th e wa r a s a n artis t fo r Wal t Disney, to design a symbol for th e unit. Saffr o promptl y designe d a patch which supposedl y resemble d a Ne w Guine a headhunter . I n Korea , thi s

i i 2 • Headbunters and Fighting Cocks symbol wa s ubiquitous : i t wa s emblazone d o n caps , signs , bee r mugs , jackets, an d fligh t suits . S o popular an d sacre d wa s th e patc h tha t whe n the Ai r Forc e attempte d t o ad d th e mott o "Audente s Fortun a Juvat " (Fortune Favor s th e Bold ) t o i t in 1971 , Headhunters rebelle d b y tearin g all bu t th e Juvat wor d o f the motto of f thei r patches . For thes e flight sui t officers, a chang e i n thei r squadro n patc h wa s acceptabl e onl y i f i t wa s done o n thei r terms . In fact, th e harde r th e higher echelon s attempte d t o keep th e ful l mott o o n th e patches , th e "mor e entrenche d th e single word Juvat title became (t o the point o f covering the Wing Commander' s flight sui t wit h Juva t patche s eac h tim e h e hun g on e o n th e lin e t o dry)." 6 4 In additio n t o patches , fighter-bomber commander s als o attempte d t o build moral e b y decoratin g thei r aircraft s wit h uniqu e an d unorthodo x paint schemes . Raymon d Sturgeon' s commander , Lev i Chase— a gruf f World Wa r I I vetera n wh o gav e al l ne w pilot s a speec h abou t ho w h e had "fiv e hundre d mission s i n Worl d Wa r II " an d kne w wha t h e wa s doing—had hi s persona l plan e painte d i n garis h colors : on e colo r fo r each squadro n i n his wing. 65 Chas e then flew thi s colorful plan e o n thre e "max effort " mission s agains t Pyongyang ; h e won th e Silve r Sta r fo r hi s efforts; th e othe r member s o f hi s flight merel y receive d ai r medals. 66 Chase wa s no t alon e i n hi s attempt s t o instil l prid e b y sharin g risk s with hi s pilots . Fift h Ai r Forc e commande r Glen n O . Barcu s booste d morale considerabl y b y flying a mission agains t Pyongyan g Radio . O n 1 May 1953 , Barcu s broadcas t th e followin g messag e fro m hi s F-86 , appropriately labele d "Barcu s Carcass" : Attention al l Communist s i n the Pyongyang area . This is General Barcu s speaking. I have a message for yo u fro m th e Fifth Ai r Force . These littl e attacks toda y agains t militar y target s i n th e Pyongyan g are a ar e ou r re sponse t o you r insultin g lie s ove r Pyongyan g radio . I n th e future , ever y time yo u mak e derogator y remark s abou t th e Fift h Ai r Forc e yo u ca n expect ou r answe r with bomb s agains t militar y target s i n your area . The attacks will be with ever-increasing severity. This is all now, but we will be back every time you broadcast filthy lies about the Fifth Ai r Force. Goodbye now. This is General Glenn O. Barcus.67 In additio n t o developin g colorfu l logo s an d flying missions , fighterbomber wing , group , an d squadro n commander s relie d heavil y o n uni t

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • 11 3 folklore a s a vehicl e fo r instillin g thei r outfit s wit h pride . Th e 67t h Fighter-Bomber Squadron , fo r example , too k prid e i n th e fac t tha t thei r unit wa s organize d explicitl y fo r dut y i n th e Korea n War . Accordin g t o their squadro n newsletter , th e Fightin g Cock s wer e "conceive d i n haste , born i n obscurity , an d hav e rise n fro m th e unknow n t o writ e a fatefu l page i n history." 68 Interestingl y enough , thi s fatefu l pag e concentrate s more o n th e squadron' s clos e ai r suppor t mission s tha n it s interdictio n attacks. Fo r th e fighter-bomber, supportin g front-lin e troop s wa s see n a s much mor e honorabl e tha n napalmin g Korea n village s o r cuttin g rail road tracks . The newsletter emphasize s throughou t tha t the contributio n of the squadron "canno t b e expressed i n words o f praise, but onl y in th e hearts o f th e me n i n th e fron t lines , wh o dail y watche d th e squadron' s relentless attack s agains t th e enem y weake n an d driv e him t o cover." 69 The Fightin g Cock s wer e prou d o f thei r first commander , Majo r Lo u Sebille o f Pontiac , Michigan . O n hi s fifth mission , Sebille' s plan e wa s heavily damaged i n an attac k o n a n armore d uni t near th e Pusan perime ter. Rathe r tha n bailin g out , h e dov e hi s plane ont o a n enem y halftrack , destroying himself , th e halftrack , an d numerou s troop s i n th e process. 70 To honor Sebille , who posthumousl y receive d a Medal o f Hono r fo r hi s efforts, th e squadro n create d a troph y i n hi s memor y t o b e awarde d t o the "uni t credite d wit h makin g th e most accurat e bombin g runs. " 71 Like th e 67t h Squadron , th e Fox y Fe w o f th e 12t h Squadro n relie d heavily o n uni t histor y t o uphol d th e moral e o f th e group . They boaste d that their s wa s th e first officia l USA F combat squadro n t o se e actio n i n Korea. 72 Th e Fox y Fe w als o trace d thei r lineag e bac k t o th e Worl d Wa r II Flyin g Tigers . Consequently , the y painte d tigers ' teet h o n thei r air craft—a traditio n tha t wa s als o carrie d ove r t o th e Vietna m an d Gul f wars. Legends lik e Sebill e an d th e Flyin g Tigers wer e a n integra l par t o f th e institutional memor y o f squadron s lik e th e 67t h becaus e the y provide d members o f thes e group s wit h a sens e o f histor y an d mission . However , when histor y failed , direc t competitio n wit h F-8 6 pilot s ofte n provide d the necessar y toni c t o kee p a fighter-bomber outfi t i n hig h spirits . Stur geon recalle d ho w on e F-80 pilo t traile d th e ac e Francis Gabresk i durin g a victor y pas s ove r th e Suwo n ai r base— a traditio n tha t Franci s Ga -

i i 4 * Headhunters and Fighting Cocks breski indulge d i n afte r man y o f hi s kills . Althoug h h e flew a vastl y inferior plan e tha n Gabreski' s F-86 , th e F-8 0 manage d t o sta y righ t o n his tai l durin g th e entir e performance—an d mad e Gabresk i th e laugh ingstock o f th e 8t h Wing. 73 On anothe r occasion , th e 8 th Win g compete d wit h th e 51s t t o se e who coul d ge t a flight o f fighters t o K-1 4 faste r i n th e even t o f a n alert . Pilots o f th e 8t h sa t i n their F-8o s al l da y unti l th e aler t finally cam e an d they launched . Th e 51s t Wing , b y comparison, wa s s o confiden t tha t it s faster F-86 s would wi n tha t the y waited fo r th e aler t i n their hammocks . In th e end , th e F-8o s carrie d th e day—a n even t tha t di d wonder s fo r unit pride . A s Heine r pu t it , i t "wa s al l thes e craz y thing s tha t helpe d you survive." 74 Thes e thing s range d fro m beatin g fighter-interceptor pilots i n competitions t o wearin g re d scarve s an d blowin g sampan s ove r with je t exhaus t fo r "sport " afte r missions . However , fa r an d awa y th e greatest pressur e relie f valv e wa s th e drinkin g i n th e officers ' club—on e of th e many base-lif e issue s that wil l b e explored i n the nex t chapter . When Georg e Berke , Raymon d Sturgeon , Howar d Heiner , M . J . Bailey , and a great man y othe r pilot s joine d th e Air Forc e i n the lat e forties an d early fifties, the y trul y believe d tha t the y woul d eventuall y fly top-of the-line fighter-interceptors agains t th e bes t plane s i n th e Communis t inventory. Fo r th e luck y fe w i n th e 4t h an d 51s t Wings , thei r drea m came true , bu t fo r mos t je t pilots , droppin g bomb s an d napalmin g villages becam e the orde r o f the day . The da y Berk e discovered h e woul d be flying fighter-bombers i n Korea , h e storme d int o hi s commander' s office a t William s an d said : " I didn' t joi n th e Ai r Forc e t o bur n gooks. " His commande r replied : "Ge t use d t o th e idea! " Althoug h take n abac k at th e time , a s Berk e mad e hi s wa y u p throug h th e rank s h e cam e t o realize the "tremendou s wisdom in that statement" : "Th e fighter-bomber was th e rea l Ai r Force—i t wa s wha t w e reall y di d th e jo b with." 7 5 Th e most commo n je t fighter experienc e i n Kore a wa s a n interdictio n attac k against a heavil y defende d railroa d bridge , no t a due l t o th e deat h wit h an angr y MiG-15 . I n fact , man y o f thes e fighter pilot s neve r ha d th e privilege o f gettin g a kill , le t alon e becomin g a n ace . Som e neve r eve n saw a MiG. Instead , fighter-bomber pilot s were sho t a t o n ever y missio n

Headhunters and Fighting Cocks • 11 5 and los t man y o f thei r comrades . However , the y coul d boas t o f killin g more enem y troop s pe r missio n tha n mos t ace s kille d durin g thei r entir e tours. In retur n fo r thei r efforts , fighter-bomber pilot s receive d a Distin guished Flyin g Cros s an d a party . Throug h i t all , mos t fighter-bomber pilots remaine d prou d an d le t thei r fligh t sui t attitude s sustai n them . I n the end , the y kne w tha t i f the y mad e it , ther e woul d b e a rol e fo r the m to pla y i n the Air Forc e an d it s future wars .

_ . . h..

_

Thunderboxes an d Sabr e Dancers : Base Lif e an d Recreatio n i n th e Korean Wa r

Every morning i n Korea, Georg e Berk e an d th e twelve othe r pilot s i n hi s barracks would wak e up and yel l in unison, "1-2-3 : We hate this fuckin g place!" Wha t thes e me n hate d wa s livin g i n unfurnished , poorl y heate d huts, defecatin g i n sli t trenches , an d showerin g outdoor s i n th e middl e of th e winter . The y als o despise d th e dusty , dirty , bombed-ou t Korea n countryside. However, despit e thei r primitiv e conditions , Berk e an d othe r fligh t suit officer s di d no t suffe r fro m extrem e deprivatio n i n Korea . Chea p Asian labo r alleviate d man y o f th e majo r hardship s o f bas e living . For example , "hous e boys " cleane d barrack s an d latrines , laundere d everyone's uniforms , an d staye d u p al l nigh t t o ensur e tha t oil-burnin g heaters kep t burning . Korea n waitresse s serve d pilot s i n th e mess , di d their dishes , and tende d ba r a t thei r clubs . In addition t o cheap labor, pilots received extr a pa y an d othe r benefit s that enable d the m t o compensat e fo r bas e hardship s wit h lavis h vaca tions i n Japan. Thes e benefit s include d fre e meals , free medica l attention , and bas e exchange s loade d wit h inexpensiv e jewelry , liquor , an d elec tronic good s fro m Japan . Whil e o n leave , pilot s staye d a t Ai r Force subsidized hotel s and at e inexpensively a t officers' clubs . In fact, th e onl y popular "commodity " whic h wa s no t subsidize d wa s prostitution , bu t 116

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 11 7 even tha t wa s chea p du e t o th e wea k economie s o f Japa n an d Kore a i n the 1950s . Finally an d mos t importantly , Kore a represente d a n escap e fro m th e ceremonious an d increasingl y rigi d environmen t o f continenta l U.S . Air Force bases . Although th e Ai r Forc e wa s stil l th e mos t informa l service , air base s i n th e continenta l Unite d State s wer e becomin g increasingl y more forma l durin g th e 1950s . Fo r example , th e ol d militar y traditio n of "calling " wa s bein g revived : whe n a n office r arrive d a t a new station , the othe r officer s o n bas e wer e expecte d t o cal l formall y upo n th e ne w arrival a t hi s hous e an d presen t a n engrave d callin g card . Man y U.S . bases als o ha d dres s code s tha t prohibite d officer s fro m wearin g T-shirt s and othe r informa l attir e whe n the y wer e off-duty . Coa t an d tie s wer e mandatory i n officers ' clubs. 1 Korea , b y contrast , demande d n o suc h formalities. Whe n a n office r arrive d o n station , h e wa s assigne d a bun k and expecte d t o scroung e fo r a blanke t o r sleepin g bag . Furthermore , the bes t descriptio n o f th e Korea n Wa r dres s cod e wa s eclectic . A pilo t could wea r anythin g fro m fatigue s t o flannel shirts—whateve r suite d hi s needs. H e coul d sho w u p a t th e officers ' clu b afte r a mission , smellin g like a goa t i n a n ol d fligh t sui t an d b e welcomed. I f h e wished, h e coul d drink himsel f drunk , an d n o on e woul d thin k an y les s o f hi m th e nex t day. Similarly , whil e o n leave , h e coul d slee p wit h prostitute s eve n i f h e was married . In short , hi s onl y responsibilit y wa s t o fl y an d fight: base s were merel y a plac e t o par k one' s aircraft , rest , recuperate , an d prepar e oneself fo r th e next mission .

Korea: It s Climat e an d Topograph y The Korea n peninsul a combine s rugge d mountainou s territor y wit h a n extreme climate . Shape d lik e Florid a an d containin g abou t th e sam e amount o f territor y a s Minnesot a (85,00 0 squar e miles) , th e Korea n peninsula i s 54 0 mile s lon g a t it s longes t poin t an d a n averag e o f 15 0 miles wid e sout h o f Seoul . Japan lie s 34 0 mile s awa y acros s th e Se a o f Japan. Chin a an d Russi a borde r i t on th e north. 2 The lan d itsel f consist s primaril y o f mountains . In th e north , peak s can b e foun d a s hig h a s 9,00 0 feet , an d i n th e south , a s hig h a s 6,00 0

118 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers feet. I n betwee n th e mountain s ar e narro w valleys , coasta l mu d flats , and ric e paddies . Kore a als o ha s a hos t o f rivers : th e Yal u form s it s northern borde r wit h China , th e Ha n flow s throug h Seoul , an d th e Naktong flow s "wes t an d sout h aroun d th e town o f Taegu an d the n eas t to empt y int o th e Korea n Strai t nea r Pusan." 3 Th e latitude s o f Kore a are th e sam e a s th e easter n seaboar d o f th e Unite d State s betwee n Ne w York an d Nort h Carolina . Th e seasona l temperature s i n Sout h Kore a are simila r t o thos e i n Connecticu t o r Ne w Jersey : hot an d humi d i n th e summer an d col d i n th e winter . Th e majo r differenc e betwee n th e tw o regions i s th e Korea n monsoo n period— a ver y rain y spel l tha t occur s during th e summer. 4 Upon arrivin g i n Korea , th e pilot , fres h fro m je t trainin g i n Arizon a or Nevada , wa s no t onl y shocke d b y this climate bu t als o b y the povert y of th e countr y an d it s wartim e devastation . Raymon d Sturgeon' s first impression wa s typical : "Th e countr y wa s horrible . I f yo u ha d a shovel , you wer e rich . Seou l looke d lik e somethin g ou t o f World Wa r II . When I got ove r there , I kne w wh y I wa s there—t o sto p the m [th e Commu nists]!" 5 George Berke , similarly , wa s struc k b y the barenes s o f th e landscape : "The countr y wa s completel y deforeste d an d ugl y an d the y use d shi t fo r everything." 6 Majo r Dea n Hess , an F-5 1 pilo t wh o founde d th e first Ai r Force-sponsored orphanag e i n Korea , complaine d o f th e man y orphan s near hi s bas e a t Yongdungpo : The orphans would cluster lik e flies around ou r garbage cans, into which the me n scrape d thei r tray s thre e time s a day. It was bot h heartbreakin g and nauseatin g t o se e these ragge d childre n lea n ove r an d di p their swil l with tin cans , trying to scoo p up choice morsels from ou r garbage . Most of the m ha d scab s an d ski n infection s o n thei r faces , an d inflame d an d running eyes. . . . They were all over the field durin g the day, but at night they disappeared, probably back to the ruins of Seoul. 7 Paul Turner , wh o used t o driv e on e o f th e mes s hal l girl s t o he r hom e every night, wa s appalle d b y her "bombed-ou t nothin g o f a house" nea r his base a t K-13 i n Suwon. 8 Mos t Korea n towns , in short , ha d ver y littl e to offe r i n th e wa y o f amenitie s fo r th e typica l pilot . A s Berk e pu t it , "You coul d g o int o Taeg u bu t th e povert y wa s suc h tha t yo u wouldn' t

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 11 9 go—if the y serve d yo u meat , i t was probably dog. " 9 S o underdevelope d was the countrysid e tha t th e Air Forc e actuall y warne d it s airme n no t t o eat the local food . Th e huma n excremen t use d t o fertiliz e vegetable s wa s known t o caus e intestina l cysts . Th e unsanitar y slaughterin g technique s of th e Koreans mad e mea t equall y hazardous. 10 Like th e loca l food , th e Korea n countrysid e wa s als o dangerous . During 1950 , guerrill a activitie s tie d dow n 3 0 percen t o f U.N . militar y forces.11 Dewe y Sturgeon , wh o lef t hi s bas e a t Suwo n onl y twic e durin g his entir e tour , remember s drivin g t o a nearb y bas e a t Yongdungp o an d worrying abou t sniper s durin g th e entir e drive . Dea n Hess , a pilo t an d base commande r wh o arrive d a t Taeg u earl y i n th e war , ordere d th e ai r police a t hi s bas e t o se t u p fou r .50-calibe r machin e gu n emplacement s around th e perimete r o f th e bas e t o guar d agains t guerrillas . Afte r h e noticed guerrilla s signalin g t o eac h othe r wit h mirror s i n th e nearb y hills, Hes s personall y le d a compan y o f ai r polic e o n a patro l o f th e territory aroun d th e base . After thi s faile d t o flus h ou t th e guerrillas , h e asked a 40-millimete r anti-aircraf t gu n uni t t o hel p hi m out : " I pointe d out thi s mountain , an d the y lai d a doze n shell s righ t o n it s top—n o more light s ever flashed fro m it." 1 2 Because of the dange r o f guerrillas an d sniper s a s well as the impover ished condition s o f th e countryside , mos t pilot s rarel y venture d fort h from thei r bases . Whe n the y ha d leave , the y wen t t o Tokyo ; whe n the y were o n duty , the y tende d t o remai n o n thei r "blu e island. " I n fact , fo r many fligh t sui t officers , th e bas e an d Kore a wer e synonymous : "Whe n you wer e i n Korea, " exclaime d Sturgeon , "ther e wa s nothin g excep t th e base." 1 3 Almos t everythin g on e neede d t o liv e coul d b e foun d there : shelter, food , sports , movies , variet y shows , shopping , education , hob bies, bars , an d eve n a few Wester n wome n o r "cam p followers, " a s the y were ofte n called .

The Base s When th e Korea n Wa r began , ther e wer e onl y tw o airfield s i n Kore a suitable fo r je t aircraft—Suwo n an d Kimp o (bot h wer e nea r Seoul) . These fields, alon g wit h th e eigh t smalle r fields i n th e country , ha d bee n

120 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers built b y th e Japanes e durin g Worl d Wa r II . Kimp o an d Suwo n ha d modern concret e runways ; anothe r airfield , Pusan , ha d a 4,900-foo t runway o f concret e was h o n fou r inche s o f rubble , an d Taeg u ha d a 3,800-foot cla y an d grave l strip . Th e remainde r o f th e fields, however , were sod— a surfac e suitabl e onl y fo r ligh t propeller-drive n aircraft. 14 Although je t aircraft coul d operat e fro m base s in Japan, th e extra fue l spent travelin g ove r th e Se a o f Japa n mean t tha t thes e plane s ha d onl y ten minute s t o find an d destro y target s o n th e Korea n peninsula . Hence , the developmen t o f Korea n airfield s wa s on e o f th e Ai r Force' s highes t priorities i n 1950 , bu t th e obstacle s t o suc h developmen t wer e ofte n tremendous. Becaus e man y fields wer e buil t o n ric e paddie s an d sof t clay, drainag e an d soi l stabilit y wer e a majo r problem . Whe n Taeg u was improve d i n th e summe r o f 1950 , th e 822n d Enginee r Aviatio n Construction Battalio n an d five hundre d Korea n laborer s ha d t o exca vate five to te n fee t o f cla y alon g the entir e lengt h o f the 4,300-foot-lon g runway. The n the y ha d t o fill this excavatio n wit h crushe d grave l befor e concrete coul d finally b e lai d down. 15 Othe r hindrance s include d short ages of construction materials , engineering troops , an d equipment . Despite thes e obstacles , th e Fift h Ai r Force , i n Ma y 1951 , launche d major constructio n program s a t five ai r bases . Thi s initiativ e include d the constructio n o f 9,000-foo t runway s a t Taegu , Kunsan , an d Suwon . Logistically, i t wa s cheape r t o hir e Korea n laborer s an d buil d moder n runways tha n t o rel y o n expensiv e jet-assiste d takeof f bottles— a devic e that enable d jet s t o tak e of f fro m shorte r runway s b y increasin g thei r thrust. 16 However , newe r an d longe r runway s alon e di d no t solv e th e operational problem s involve d wit h je t aircraft . A jet wing consume d a s much a s 125,00 0 gallon s o f fue l eac h day . Hence , tan k farm s an d fue l pipelines wer e als o required . T o maintai n thes e aircraft , hangar s ha d t o be built . T o guar d th e hangar s agains t sabotage , base s ha d t o b e encir cled wit h barbed-wir e fences , guar d towers , an d min e fields. Finally , control towers , operations huts , parking stands , revetments, anti-aircraf t positions, radar sites , and a host o f othe r miscellaneou s building s ha d t o be constructe d befor e a bas e coul d becom e full y operational . Conse quently, Korea-base d wing s conducte d mos t o f thei r aircraf t mainte nance a t rear-echelo n base s i n Japan. Fo r example , the 4t h Win g house d

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 12 1 a maintenance squadro n a t Johnson Ai r Force Base near Tokyo, the 27t h and 51s t Wings used Tsuiki (a n old Japanese nava l field on Kyushu); an d the 49t h Win g statione d it s maintenanc e grou p a t Itazuke. 17 Whe n a plane required seriou s maintenance, a pilot woul d b e assigned t o fly it t o one o f thes e base s fo r a n overhaul . Thi s syste m no t onl y ease d th e logistical demand s i n Korea , bu t enable d pilot s t o trave l t o Japa n mor e frequently. Life in the Hootches Given th e intensiv e runwa y constructio n demand s o f th e ne w fighter bases i n Korea , th e lowes t priorit y projec t fo r Ai r Forc e an d Korea n construction crew s wa s livin g quarter s an d latrines . Earl y i n th e war , conditions wer e ver y primitive . Ranal d Adams , wh o flew F-8 2 Twi n Mustangs fro m th e beginnin g o f th e wa r unti l earl y 1951 , live d i n a n unheated ten t an d slep t i n al l o f hi s clothe s t o sta y warm. 18 Dea n Hess , likewise, slep t o n th e groun d i n a smal l tent , an d stuffe d clothin g int o his sleeping ba g to enhanc e it s insulating properties. 19 As th e fron t stabilized , th e Ai r Forc e graduall y constructe d mor e permanent livin g quarters, or "hootches " a s they were commonly called . At Taegu , th e Ai r Forc e contracte d Korea n laborer s t o buil d stucc o buildings, bu t thes e structure s quickl y deteriorate d unde r th e extrem e climate o f Korea . Hence , th e Ai r Forc e switche d t o stee l Worl d Wa r II style Quonse t hut s an d "tropica l shell " prefabricate d woode n hut s buil t in Japan. 20 Tomlinso n define d hi s tropica l shel l a s a "chicke n coop " because i t ha d a bar e woo d interio r an d lot s o f screen s alon g it s sides. 21 Turner's hut , b y comparison, wa s a Quonse t hu t wit h sandbag s alon g it s sides to protect th e occupant s fro m ai r attack. 22 Unless the y wer e major s o r highe r i n rank , pilot s share d hootche s with anywher e fro m si x t o twelv e othe r pilots . T o creat e a modicu m o f privacy in these single-room, ope n structures , each pilot woul d construc t a cubicl e fo r himsel f wit h packin g crate s an d othe r debris . Fo r a bed , pilots slep t o n ai r mattresse s ove r Gl-issu e cot s an d use d Arm y blanket s or sleepin g bag s t o sta y war m a t night . Hea t wa s provide d b y a n oil burning stov e tha t stoo d i n th e cente r o f th e hootch . Decoration s con -

122 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers sisted o f pictures o f wives, sweethearts, and pin-u p girls or, as Tomlinso n put it , "th e usua l graffit i tha t warrior s tak e t o war." 2 3 Jame s Salter , i n The Hunters, offer s a particularl y graphi c descriptio n o f th e hootc h o f his protagonist, Cleve Saville: It was a large room, but crowded, with a wall of sooty white. There was a debris of furniture tha t ha d bee n made from th e wood o f packing crates: wardrobes, cabinets , a ponderou s table , an d severa l awkwar d chairs . A mosaic o f wome n i n clipping s o f ever y siz e wa s o n on e wal l fro m th e ceiling dow n almos t t o th e floor , an d fou r o r five feet wide . Clev e wa s overwhelmed b y the litter . The windows ha d occasiona l square s o f card board fo r missin g panes , an d no t muc h ligh t cam e throug h them . . .. I t made entering the room like coming into a den.24 Whether the y live d i n tent s o r huts , pilot s constantl y complaine d o f the poo r heat , ba d ventilation , an d poo r furnishings . Furthermore , eve n newer accommodation s lacke d suc h amenitie s a s electricit y an d runnin g water: shower s an d latrine s were strictl y outdoo r affairs . Howard Heine r describe d hi s latrin e a s a troug h wit h n o partition s and a "bi g ti n whic h wa s dumpe d ever y onc e i n a while." 25 Dougla s Evans's latrin e ha d shoulder-leve l board s t o ensur e som e privacy , bu t i t was stil l "torture " t o use . Th e col d ai r encourage d "yo u t o hol d i t an d bake i t a s lon g a s possible." 26 A t K-io , a strea m flowe d underneat h th e latrine an d carrie d it s contents t o th e nearb y ric e paddies. 27 This latrine , incidentally, wa s a "40-seate r thunderbox " wher e pilot s sa t "shoulde r to shoulder , chee k t o jowl, " o n a long wooden benc h wit h hole s i n it. 28 Because o f th e impose d intimac y o f th e latrines , joke s an d humo r flourished i n them . Micke y Rorke , a Sout h Africa n pilo t attache d t o the 18t h Wing , constructe d a woode n boa t filled wit h paraffin-soake d newspapers, li t i t o n fire, an d launche d i t o n th e strea m whic h passe d under th e latrine. 29 Anothe r Sout h Africa n pilot , Bria n Martin , claime d that th e 18t h Wing' s Korea n cleanin g woma n insiste d o n cleanin g thei r latrine durin g th e mornin g "rus h hour" : "Sh e woul d arriv e a t tha t critical perio d wit h he r mo p an d bucke t t o clea n th e block . Withou t fai l she would sto p i n fron t o f eac h occupan t wh o wa s seate d o n th e latrin e and bo w i n a polit e an d dignifie d manner . Th e me n eac h returne d th e compliment b y risin g of f th e roughl y constructe d boghole s wit h thei r

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 12 3 trousers roun d thei r ankle s an d bowin g t o he r wit h grea t aplom b an d solemnity!" 30 Some foun d tha t th e rusti c condition s o f th e base s brough t th e unit s closer together . Dougla s Evan s actuall y preferre d hi s Korea n bas e t o ones h e ha d serve d a t i n th e Unite d States : " I like d th e feelin g o f livin g in a tent community, " Evan s explained, "th e simple , friendly closeness — like campin g out—tha t jus t doesn' t exis t o n a fanc y 'established ' base." 3 1 H e als o enjoye d wearin g fatigues—"th e onl y sensibl e wa y t o go in this alternating dus t an d mud. " 32 Tomlinson , likewise , enjoyed th e casual natur e o f life : "Everybod y wa s o n a first-name basis , an d every body partie d togethe r i n everybody else' s houses." 33 Dayrooms and O Clubs Two institution s (beside s th e latrines ) tha t helpe d foste r thi s casual , flight sui t collegiality were the squadron dayroom s and the officers' clubs . The dayroo m wa s th e buildin g wher e individua l squadron s poste d flying assignment s an d uni t statistics . Statistic s consiste d o f categorie s such a s numbe r o f kills , target s destroyed , an d ordnanc e expended . I t was als o a place where pilot s receive d briefing s an d waite d fo r a missio n when o n "read y alert. " Radio s i n the room allowe d pilot s t o liste n i n o n air battle s i n progres s an d als o warne d the m o f Mi G infiltrations . Som e dayrooms eve n ha d equipmen t room s wher e pilot s coul d chang e int o their fligh t suits . Not surprisingly , thi s hu t wa s a nexu s fo r on - an d off duty pilot s durin g th e day . I t wa s als o on e o f th e fe w place s o n bas e reserved fo r squadro n activitie s alone : the officers ' club s wer e share d b y all the officer s o f a wing. As a consequence, eac h squadro n attempte d t o fix up its dayrooms an d transfor m the m fro m dra b operationa l building s to comfortabl e fligh t lounges . The 16t h Squadro n o f the 51s t Fighter-Interceptor Wing , for example , organized a n a d ho c constructio n cre w consistin g o f pilots , off-dut y members o f th e suppl y squadron , an d severa l Japanes e carpenter s t o build thei r ne w hu t a t Tsuik i i n Decembe r 1951 . This a d ho c cre w use d two ten t frame s a s th e foundatio n an d constructe d th e res t o f th e build ing from salvage d rock , wood , cloth , an d paint . The y als o constructe d a

124 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers front porc h o n th e outsid e an d equippe d th e insid e wit h " a smal l bar , writing tables , car d tables , an d plent y o f chairs." 34 Dewe y Sturgeon' s squadron, th e 35t h o f th e 18t h Group , improve d it s dayroo m wit h a n enlarged pictur e o f Marilyn Monro e an d a Ping-Pong table: "It was righ t out o f M*A*S*H." 3 5 Kennet h Koo n actuall y haule d i n ston e an d buil t a workin g fireplace an d a corne r ba r fo r th e 67t h Squadron' s dayroom . He the n fle w t o Toky o an d purchase d a refrigerato r an d viny l uphol stered chair s t o "mak e i t eve n mor e desirable. " "W e couldn' t serv e alcoholic beverage s i n ther e becaus e tha t i s wher e w e go t read y fo r missions," recalle d Koon , "bu t w e had soda , juices, etc." 3 6 In additio n t o usin g i t a s a lounge , dayroom s wer e use d fo r parties , promotion ceremonies , Ping-Pon g tournaments , o r simpl y a s a comfort able plac e t o rea d o r writ e letter s home . Heiner' s loung e o n th e fligh t line of Osa n hoste d man y after-hour s parties : "Th e officers ' clu b was fo r all th e squadron s bu t ou r loung e wa s fo r th e 12t h Squadro n only." 37 The 4t h Win g hel d al l promotio n ceremonie s i n th e lounges . Afte r th e ceremony i t wa s customar y fo r th e newl y promote d officer s t o brac e officers o f lesse r ran k an d "bar k cris p clea r order s t o thei r les s fortunat e colleagues." Rank , i n short , wa s no t somethin g t o tak e to o seriousl y i n a fligh t sui t environment. 38 Everyon e relaxe d together , dran k together , and playe d Ping-Pon g together . Accordin g t o Tomlinson , onl y colonel s and high-rankin g operation s officer s wer e bestowe d wit h th e traditiona l military titl e o f "sir." 39 Epitomizing th e casua l environmen t o f th e dayroo m wa s th e custom ary Ping-Pong table. The 4th Wing dayroom wa s equipped no t onl y wit h a table , bu t als o wit h benche s fo r spectators. 40 Pilots , suite d u p an d waiting fo r missions , enjoyed Ping-Pon g becaus e th e game relieved stres s and demande d goo d hand-ey e coordination—qualitie s tha t wer e critica l in flyin g a fighter aircraft . No t surprisingly , th e bes t Ping-Pon g player s tended t o b e th e bes t pilots . "Boot s Bless e an d Chic k Cleveland, " ac cording t o Ear l Brown , "wer e th e bes t Ping-Pon g player s an d th e bes t pilots" i n the 4t h Wing. 41 Accordin g t o Cleveland : " I could bea t anyon e in th e squadro n excep t Boots , an d h e too k grea t pleasur e i n whippin g me i n fron t o f othe r pilots . I f I was readin g o r drinkin g coffe e whe n h e marched in , I knew wha t wa s coming . H e woul d pic k u p a paddl e an d

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 12 5 ask m e with a smirk, "How' s you r Ping-Pon g today , Lieutenant?" I t wa s good bu t no t goo d enough , an d I though t I kne w ho w thos e enem y pilots fel t whe n Boot s got behin d them . I t was kil l o r b e killed." 42 Although Ping-Pong , conversation , an d relaxatio n wer e th e mos t common activitie s i n th e dayroom , man y pilot s als o read . Eac h fligh t i n the 4t h Win g collecte d it s ow n assortmen t o f magazine s an d paperbac k books an d would trad e reading material wit h othe r flights. 43 Mos t wing s also ha d smal l librarie s tha t wer e ru n b y Ai r Forc e specia l service s personnel. A s of Octobe r 1952 , the bas e librar y a t Kimp o ha d ove r fou r thousand books , an d a monthl y withdrawa l o f nearl y fiftee n hundre d books b y 54 2 borrowers. 44 Th e 51s t Wing' s librar y institute d a paper back boo k exchang e i n Decembe r 1951 . Unde r thi s policy , i f yo u brought a paperbac k boo k t o th e library , yo u coul d exchang e i t fo r another one. 45 Accordin g t o Dougla s Evan s o f th e 4t h Wing , pilot s i n his fligh t wer e s o involve d i n thei r book s tha t "al l conversatio n woul d cease while eac h on e was burie d i n som e story." 46 While th e dayroo m wa s a primar y plac e fo r pilot s t o rela x an d socialize durin g th e day , th e officers ' club , o r " o club, " wa s wher e mos t pilots spen t thei r evenin g hours . Unlik e th e dayroom , th e o clu b serve d no operationa l purpose—i t wa s use d solel y fo r drinking , eating , an d socializing. In fact, i t was the central part y plac e on most bases— a plac e to indulg e i n the primary off-hour s ritua l o f fligh t sui t culture: drinking . On Kennet h Koon' s first da y a t Osan , Colone l Martin , hi s win g commander, tol d hi m tha t "Kore a wa s th e easies t plac e i n th e worl d t o become a n alcoholic : i t wa s extremel y chea p an d availabl e every where." 4 7 Lac k o f othe r activitie s a s wel l a s a shortag e o f wome n o n bases mad e "booz e th e primar y recreationa l activity." 48 Wherea s bee r was bough t locally , liquo r wa s importe d t o base s fro m th e rear-echelo n maintenance base s i n Japan. Th e 4t h Win g woul d hir e C-4 7 pilot s t o fl y plane load s o f liquo r fro m it s rear-echelo n bas e a t Tsuik i t o Kimpo . Pilots ferryin g plane s bac k t o Tsuik i fo r maintenanc e woul d als o brin g back a s man y fifths o f liquo r a s thei r fligh t suit s woul d carry . Th e 80t h Squadron wen t s o far a s to cu t door s i n a spar e se t o f wingti p fue l tank s to carry booz e from it s rear bas e at Itazuke to its forward bas e at Suwon . According t o Pilo t Dea n Price , "Ou r F-8o s didn' t hav e enoug h fue l t o

126 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers make i t fro m K-1 3 (Suwon ) t o Itazuk e withou t ti p fuel , s o we' d lan d a t Pusan t o refuel . O n th e tri p bac k we' d loa d th e tip s wit h ric e beer , usually Asahi , an d lan d agai n a t Pusa n fo r fue l fo r th e tri p home . Yo u could ge t abou t fou r case s o f bee r i n eac h trip . Afte r abou t thre e trip s we'd hav e enoug h fo r a squadro n party." 49 The y woul d als o stic k the m in baggag e win g tanks. 50 Th e o club s woul d pa y fo r liquo r an d othe r supplies b y collectin g due s fro m user s an d als o b y chargin g smal l fee s for drinks . At most bases , all drinks wer e twenty-fiv e cents. 51 In additio n t o servin g drinks , som e club s double d a s officers ' messes . Woodrow Crocket t ofte n woul d hav e a stea k dinne r wit h al l th e fixings at hi s o clu b a t Suwon. 52 B y comparison , Kennet h Koo n woul d spen d most o f th e tim e a t hi s squadron' s club , "Th e Cockpit, " drinking . Ac cording to Koon, "That' s al l there was—the mes s hall was for eating. " 53 In Koon's wing, the 18th , each squadro n ha d it s own bee r mugs with th e squadron insigni a emblazone d o n them. 54 Ace Jame s Hagerstro m di d no t partak e i n th e drinking : " I wasn' t going to go up an d pla y with th e MiGs unles s I was 10 0 percent!" 55 Fo r Hagerstrom, th e pilot s wh o dran k a lo t wer e "insecure. " Hagerstrom' s teetotaling wa s th e exceptio n rathe r tha n th e rule . Mos t fligh t sui t officers dran k regularly . Kennet h Koon , a ligh t drinker , typicall y woul d have a coupl e o f martini s a t hi s clu b whe n h e wa s no t flying . Perri n Gower, b y comparison , woul d ofte n drin k unti l thre e i n th e mornin g and fl y a t six-thirty . According t o Ear l Brown , Leonar d "Bill " Lilly , afte r one heav y nigh t o f drinking , leane d ove r th e sid e o f hi s F-8 6 an d thre w up. 56 H e the n wen t u p an d sho t dow n tw o MiGs. 57 Hungove r pilot s would comba t thei r queasines s b y adjustin g th e oxyge n settin g o n thei r breathing apparatu s t o 10 0 percent . "Oxyge n wa s pur e medicine, " re members Sturgeon . "I t coul d cur e queasines s an d hangover s in stantly." 58 No grou p o f flyer s ha d a mor e notoriou s reputatio n fo r drinkin g than th e Sout h Africa n Cheeta h Squadro n attache d t o th e 18t h Fighter Bomber Wing . "Th e Sout h Af s definitel y consume d th e mos t booze, " recalled Kennet h Koon , "bu t the y seeme d t o hav e a bette r innat e con sumptive capacity." 59 The Cheetah s not onl y turned mos t o f their squad ron debriefing s int o two o r three mission-whiskey bottl e parties, but als o

Thunderboxes and

Sabre Dancers •

12 7

built thei r ow n clu b k n o w n a s "Rorke' s Inn. " Micke y Rork e founde d the clu b becaus e h e though t th e 18t h Wing' s clu b "lacke d atmosphere " and charge d to o muc h fo r drinks . Hence , h e buil t a ba r ou t o f ammuni tion case s nex t t o hi s be d an d initiall y stocke d i t wit h te n dollar s w o r t h of liquo r purchase d a t th e Britis h exchang e i n Pusan . Later , th e Cheeta h squadron buil t a smal l w o o d an d corrugated-stee l buildin g fo r th e estab lishment. Charle s Scot t Shaw , a chaplai n wit h th e squadron , describe d i t as follows : We ha d ou r ow n pilots ' pub , a coz y littl e roo m starte d b y on e o f ou r gallant pilots , Mickey Rorke . There was a storm wate r drai n adjoinin g th e pub, an d t o gai n acces s on e ha d t o cros s Rorke' s Drift , a s it was called , o n a narro w plank . Durin g winte r night s Rorke' s Inn , wit h it s dartboar d an d good companionship , ran g wit h musi c an d laughter , bu t i t was a soberin g thought t o remembe r tha t on e ha d t o wal k bac k acros s th e plan k i n th e chilly nigh t ai r afte r a fe w drinks ! I f yo u fel l int o th e drift , yo u lande d i n the ooz e an d slime . On e o r tw o fellow s di d fal l i n an d wer e no t give n a chance t o forge t it . They wer e ostracize d fo r a week afterwards ! A doctor , so the stor y goes , was throw n int o Rorke' s Drift . Th e pilot s were feelin g a little touch y an d tende r afte r returnin g fro m a particularl y gri m mission . The doctor , wit h a complet e lac k o f tact , ha d entere d th e pu b an d trium phantly announce d tha t he' d acquire d a canvas ba g fo r th e bit s an d piece s of the bod y o f th e nex t pilot t o crash . The docto r an d hi s canvas ba g wer e thrown int o th e slim e o f Rorke' s Drift. 60 Sadly, Rorke' s In n outlaste d it s owner . O n 1 5 M a y 1 9 5 1 , Rork e crashed int o a B-2 6 parke d a t th e en d o f th e runwa y o f Pusa n o n hi s third missio n o f th e day . Rorke' s napal m bomb s the n ignited , killin g hi m and envelopin g bot h aircraf t i n a larg e fireball.

61

Given th e youn g ag e o f man y o f th e pilot s an d thei r lac k o f respon sibilities othe r tha n flying , drinkin g an d partyin g ofte n go t ou t o f hand , as th e Rorke' s In n episod e demonstrates . Perri n Gowe r describe s thes e episodes a s follows : "W e ha d partie s an d brok e ever y glas s an d bea t u p the clu b officer . W e woul d ge t o n th e win g commander' s hous e an d yell, 'W e hat e thi s fuckin g place. ' I jus t couldn' t imagin e tha t kin d o f environment bein g re-created . Fighte r pilot s ha d ver y littl e responsibil ity—they wer e onl y responsibl e fo r themselve s an d thei r wingmen . Thi s is ver y differen t fro m th e infantry. " 6 2 In a n environmen t wher e pilot s wer e sho t d o w n daily , drinkin g pro -

128 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers vided a n importan t escap e fro m th e dange r an d boredo m o f th e war . Douglas Evan s an d member s o f th e 4t h Win g woul d occasionall y pla y kick th e ca n wit h empt y bee r can s i n thei r club , know n a s "Swi g Alley." 63 I n on e famou s game , "Th e stov e go t hi t an d th e chimne y fel l down—oh, wonderful . Someon e thre w u p ou t th e windo w (a n activit y referred t o a s 'laughin g a t th e ground' ) an d anothe r barel y mad e th e door befor e 'laughing, ' whic h mad e a rathe r slipper y entrance . On e o f the boys spun in , so we parked hi s carcass on a mattress i n the corner." 64 On anothe r occasion , member s o f th e 4t h engage d i n a full-fledge d barroom brawl , complet e wit h bodie s flying through th e ai r an d broke n furniture. Evans , wh o calle d th e behavio r GC A (gon e completel y ape) , "got gashe s o n th e sid e an d bac k tha t looke d lik e [h e had ] falle n i n barbed wire." 6 5 Brown , wh o sa t o n th e boar d o f th e 4t h Wing' s club , claimed th e rowdines s go t s o ou t o f han d tha t th e boar d stoppe d order ing glasse s an d mad e everyon e drin k ou t o f ti n cans. 66 Th e o clu b i n Korea, unlik e th e dayroom , wa s no t a plac e accorde d muc h respect . Rather, i t wa s mor e aki n t o a gymnasiu m o r a locke r room— a star k contrast t o officers ' club s o n statesid e Ai r Force bases . In th e 1 9 51 editio n o f The Air Force Wife, a n etiquett e manua l fo r young militar y brides , Nanc y She a describe s th e typica l Ai r Forc e offi cers' clu b a s a plac e fo r dances , bing o games , famil y nigh t buffets , private parties , an d othe r form s o f entertainment. 67 Accordin g t o Shea , the club was a place where a pilot coul d tak e hi s wife fo r fine dinin g an d genteel company . "Clu b partie s an d dinne r dances, " sh e writes, "ar e no t USO parties ; the y ar e dignifie d form s o f entertainmen t wher e al l socia l amenities, includin g prope r dress , ar e observed." 68 Club s whic h hol d "informal dance s with juke-box musi c borde r o n the honky-tonk variet y of roa d hous e entertainmen t an d ar e certainly no t u p to th e standard s o f officers an d thei r wives." 69 The Kore a club , b y comparison , wa s strictl y a flight sui t affair : a casual, male-onl y drinkin g lai r unadulterate d b y Ai r Forc e wive s an d military rigmarole . As Salter describe d Kimpo' s Swi g Alley in The Hunters: "N o tw o me n wer e dresse d alike . Ther e wer e overcoats , leathe r jackets, woole n sweaters , an d eve n a fe w plai d shirts . Th e roo m wa s a small on e filled wit h smok e an d shouting . Bee r can s an d glasse s wer e

Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers - 1 2 9 strewn o n th e tables." 70 No t surprisingly , man y pilot s preferre d th e culture o f th e Fa r Eas t Ai r Forc e t o it s statesid e equivalent . Howar d Heiner enjoye d hi s "independen t an d belligerent " lifestyl e i n Korea, bu t decided t o qui t th e Air Forc e as soon a s he returned t o the United States . "When I go t bac k t o th e States, " h e recalled , " I ra n acros s a socia l element whic h I a s a n individua l couldn' t stan d an d totall y rejected : everyone ha d t o giv e a comman d cal l t o th e officers ' clu b an d so cialize." 71 "Round Eyes" The casua l an d occasionall y excessiv e lifestyl e o f th e Korea n Wa r fighter pilo t was the product o f many factors , includin g the stress of war , ample fre e time , and th e primitive condition s o f most bases . However, a s both She a an d Heine r suggest , th e absenc e o f America n wome n i n general an d Ai r Forc e wive s i n particula r enable d pilot s t o engag e i n many excessiv e activitie s wit h nea r impunity . Excep t fo r th e Korea n women domestics , Korea n Wa r ai r base s wer e populate d almos t exclu sively b y men . Th e onl y America n wome n o n bas e wer e th e occasiona l Red Cros s doughnu t girl , th e Ai r Forc e o r Arm y nurse , an d th e Unite d Service Organizations (USO ) showgirl. These women wer e called "roun d eyes," 72 a racia l slu r whic h contraste d thei r roun d eye s wit h th e nar rower Korea n variety . The mos t typica l "roun d eye " wa s th e Re d Cros s woman . Durin g World Wa r II , th e Re d Cros s recruite d thre e thousan d wome n t o assis t in improvin g th e moral e o f oversea s troops . Thes e wome n serve d coffe e and doughnuts , performe d skits , organize d parties , an d playe d boar d games wit h GIs . Som e wer e statione d a t Re d Cros s club s o n militar y bases, bu t man y serve d i n th e ove r 31 9 clubmobile s tha t travele d t o isolated units . A clubmobile wa s a mobil e cantee n equippe d wit h coffe e urns, doughnu t ovens , an d a n audi o syste m fo r music . Som e eve n ha d movie projectors . Durin g th e D-Da y invasion , thes e mobil e club s serve d 200,000 doughnut s an d ove r 5,00 0 gallon s o f coffe e t o participatin g soldiers.73 When th e Korea n Wa r brok e out , th e Re d Cros s continue d thi s

130 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers tradition b y opening a club a t Pusan i n November 1950 . In the spring of 1951, additiona l club s wer e establishe d a t Pusa n East , Suwon , Kimpo , Taegu, an d Kunsa n ai r bases. 74 Eac h o f thes e club s ha d a n averag e o f three clubmobile s an d a staf f o f ten—tw o wome n fo r eac h clubmobil e and fou r t o staf f th e club . Durin g th e first twent y month s o f th e war , sixty wome n wer e recruite d a s Re d Cros s clu b workers ; severa l month s later, the staf f peake d a t eighty. 75 After breakfas t i n th e mes s hall , Re d Cros s wome n lef t th e bas e fo r the forwar d positions . They woul d driv e th e clubmobil e fro m on e front line positio n t o th e next , handin g ou t doughnuts , performin g skits , playing games , an d talkin g t o th e GIs . The clubmobil e woul d retur n t o base b y five; th e wome n woul d the n ea t dinner , complet e thei r dail y paperwork, an d g o t o bed . I f a Re d Cros s woma n worke d i n a club, sh e would perfor m task s simila r t o th e clubmobil e worker . Th e onl y differ ence wa s tha t he r wor k wa s continuous . Eac h stationar y clu b serve d a s many a s tw o thousan d peopl e a day . A t K-9 , th e 10 0 b y 20-foo t clu b had blu e leathe r chairs , five writin g tables , si x lamps , a piano , an d a Ping-Pong table . It s plaste r wall s wer e painte d " a soft , coo l green, " an d decorations consiste d o f "re d an d whit e constructio n pape r abov e th e windows an d o n th e lam p shades." 76 A t th e club , Re d Cros s worker s served coffee , le d sing-alongs , hoste d Ping-Pon g tournaments , an d pu t on them e show s suc h a s "Mont e Carl o Night, " "Carniva l Night, " an d the "Ai r Race " (a n adaptatio n o f hors e racing). 77 The hecti c schedul e o f th e Re d Cros s wome n mad e socializin g wit h officers ver y difficult . A t mos t bases , th e "roun d eye " quarter s wer e strictly off-limit s t o fligh t sui t personnel . Som e bas e commander s wen t so fa r a s t o erec t barbe d wir e fence s aroun d th e quarter s an d assig n ai r police t o guar d them. 78 Moreover , al l o f thes e women ha d a n obligatio n to th e Re d Cros s t o refrai n fro m an y activit y whic h migh t b e considere d morally improper . Accordin g t o a recruitmen t flyer , th e Re d Cros s re cruited th e "highes t typ e o f America n gir l fo r Clubmobil e unit s i n Ko rea," an d eac h wa s expecte d t o b e a "responsibl e representativ e afte r working hour s a s wel l a s o n dut y time." 7 9 Whe n thei r behavio r fel l short o f exemplary , controvers y coul d erupt . Fo r example , a rumo r about a Re d Cros s woma n wh o allegedl y infecte d a n office r wit h a

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 13 1 venereal diseas e wa s investigate d b y th e Re d Cros s an d th e Departmen t of Defense fo r on e year . Concerne d abou t th e Re d Cross' s reputation , Robert Lewis , the vice president o f th e American Re d Cross , tracked th e rumor t o a n artiller y office r name d Franci s Stevens , and sen t representa tives t o intervie w Steven s personally . Th e stor y wa s determine d t o b e a rumor, an d a written statemen t wa s take n fro m Steven s to exonerat e th e Red Cross. 80 In another instance , a U.S. Army soldie r accuse d Re d Cros s club wome n o f drinkin g excessivel y a t a Christma s part y fo r Korea n orphans a t a Red Cros s clu b i n Korea : I really felt ashamed that I was an American. Several reasons, I guess. The thing that irke d me was the drunken shrieks , curses, and ravings of those Red Cros s bitches . They wer e souse d t o th e gill s an d mad e fool s ou t of themselves. It seeme d t o m e that on e da y ou t o f th e yea r the y coul d ac t decent and sober, especially in the presence of a nun who had devoted her ideals and wa s sacrificing s o much fo r others . I wonder what th e Korean sisters thought of those species of American women. 81 This lette r sparke d a n investigatio n b y th e presiden t o f th e America n Red Cross . Althoug h thi s investigatio n als o faile d t o uncove r an y inap propriate behavio r b y Re d Cros s staf f members , ever y staf f perso n wh o attended th e party wa s interviewe d befor e th e case was finally closed. 82 As these two example s illustrate , Re d Cros s women wer e hel d t o ver y stringent mora l standards : an y mora l breac h coul d resul t i n a broad based investigation . Consequently , Re d Cros s worker s tende d t o b e cautious i n thei r socia l relation s wit h men . O n night s tha t sh e di d no t work, Re d Cros s worke r Jessic a Hunte r "woul d g o t o a movie , a choi r practice, hav e a living-roo m date , o r jus t was h an d writ e home." 8 3 Drinking a t th e o clu b wa s definitel y no t o n Hunter' s lis t o f after-hou r recreational activities , despite th e fac t tha t th e club was th e socia l cente r of an y base . A final factor tha t discourage d datin g wa s th e ag e o f mos t Re d Cros s women. Fo r th e mos t part , Re d Cros s wome n wer e olde r tha n man y o f the younge r fligh t sui t officers . Thirt y o f th e sixt y wome n sen t b y th e Red Cros s t o Kore a betwee n Novembe r 195 0 an d June 195 2 ha d Worl d War I I experience , al l wer e ove r twenty-fiv e year s old , an d mos t wer e over thirty. 84 Hence, most were interested onl y in the older, commandin g

132 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers officers. Pau l Turne r claime d tha t th e Re d Cros s wome n a t Suwo n "usually hun g ou t i n Colone l Gabreski' s room . The y sol d u s doughnut s and coffee , talke d t o us , and i t was nic e to se e a round ey e around there ; they were cam p followers." 85 The othe r typ e o f Wester n woma n t o whic h pilot s wer e expose d wa s the US O showgirl . The 4t h Wing , for example , would typicall y hos t on e or tw o show s a month . I n Februar y 1952 , Bett y Hutto n performe d i n her bathin g sui t i n th e middl e o f th e frigi d Korea n winter. 86 In October , Danny Kay e highlighte d a show , an d i n Februar y 1953 , tw o show s entitled "Breezin g Along " an d "Roo m Service " wer e performe d fo r a crowd o f five hundre d onlookers. 87 Pilo t Curle e Satterle e enjoye d th e USO show s s o muc h tha t h e woul d shoo t picture s o f th e entertainer s and the n giv e th e photograph s t o the m th e nex t day . Unfortunately, no t all o f th e star s wer e alway s gratefu l fo r hi s efforts . Durin g on e sho w headlined b y Micke y Rooney , Satterle e staye d u p al l nigh t developin g pictures fo r Rooney . Th e nex t day , h e presente d th e five-by-seven pic tures t o Roone y onl y t o hea r hi m say , "They'r e to o dam n small, " an d throw the m o n th e floor . "Tha t wa s th e mos t distastefu l momen t i n m y career," recalle d Satterlee. 88 Although star s lik e Roone y ofte n headline d US O shows , the standar d USO entertainmen t worker s pu t o n memorabl e shows , too. William Va n den Bos , a Sout h Africa n pilot , recalle d on e sho w wher e US O wome n sang "popula r song s i n the style of th e singer s who mad e the m famous" : "Julie acte d a s M C . . . Peggy combine d singin g an d dancing ; Rosann e was a n acrobati c dancer , while Terry accompanie d the m al l on th e pian o accordion. Th e applaus e tha t the y receive d wa s wel l deserved." 89 Tha t evening, Van den Bos and severa l othe r pilot s managed t o persuade thes e four wome n t o accompan y the m t o a part y a t a nearb y base : "W e an d the four girl s piled into a jeep and heade d fo r th e thrash. Whiskey flowe d freely an d ther e wa s muc h singin g b y th e girls , th e America n officers , and ourselves." 90 Va n de n Bos' s experience , i n th e end , wa s rare . Mos t USO wome n wer e o n bas e fo r onl y a da y o r so , an d socia l tim e wa s limited an d circumscribed . A s wa s th e cas e wit h Re d Cros s women , there wer e neve r enoug h US O girl s t o g o around . A s Turne r pu t it ,

Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 13 3 "They wer e nic e t o se e an d tal k to , bu t tha t wa s th e exten t o f it : ther e were jus t too fe w o f them." 9 1

Prostitution Because o f th e shortag e o f women , pilot s wh o desire d sexua l relation s often turne d t o prostitutes . Whil e man y pilot s refraine d fro m openl y discussing the issue , evidence o f prostitution ca n b e found i n the medica l reports o f th e variou s wings . Durin g th e first five month s o f 1951 , th e venereal diseas e rat e o f th e 51s t Win g range d a s hig h a s 7.1 4 percen t i n January t o a lo w o f 2.3 5 percen t i n May. 92 In Januar y 1952 , th e rat e soared t o 8.1 2 percent . Ninety-five o f the 11 7 cases were know n t o hav e been contracte d i n Japan— a fac t whic h lea d th e bas e fligh t surgeo n t o conclude "th e res t an d relaxatio n leav e syste m i s contributory, i n tha t i t allows frequen t exposur e o f Suwo n Ai r Bas e personne l i n Japan." 9 3 Despite th e prevalenc e o f V D i n Japan , fligh t sui t officer s an d eve n enlisted me n actuall y considere d Japa n t o b e a bette r plac e t o solici t th e services o f a prostitute . "I t wa s looke d dow n upo n eve n fo r a n enliste d man t o g o wit h a Korea n prostitute, " recalle d Georg e Berke. 94 Further more, man y wing s place d surroundin g Korea n village s "off-limits. " Th e 51st Win g place d Suwo n off-limit s an d ordere d Pau l Turne r t o patro l the cit y i n a jeep an d hun t fo r violators— a jo b calle d "puss y patrol." 9 5 The 18t h Wing di d no t plac e its nearby villag e o f Osa n "on-limits " unti l May 1953 ; i t di d s o onl y afte r al l bas e personne l an d "probabl e con tacts" wer e administere d antibiotic s a s a prophylaxis. 96 Clearly , th e Ai r Force believe d Korea n prostitute s t o b e diseas e ridde n eve n towar d th e end o f th e war. Consequently , Japan remaine d th e favore d spo t fo r illici t sexual activity . Res t an d recuperatio n (R&R ) leav e becam e know n a s I&I—intoxication an d intercourse. 97 Flight crew s generall y receive d si x day s o f leav e i n Japa n ever y si x weeks. Fo r pilots , leave s wer e staggere d o n a n individua l basis . Som e pilots lik e Hagerstro m rarel y too k leave , whil e others , lik e Satterlee , went t o Japan almos t weekly. 98 Th e mos t frequente d house s o f prostitu tion wer e i n Toky o an d a t rear-echelo n maintenanc e bases . Tsuiki , fo r

134 * Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers instance, ha d a famou s whorehous e appropriatel y calle d th e "Sabr e Dancer." Ever y pilo t interviewe d i n thi s stud y ha d a t leas t hear d o f th e Sabre Dance r an d man y admitte d t o frequentin g th e place . Pau l Turne r remembers th e Sabr e Dance r a s a "gorgeous " plac e onl y tw o stop s fro m Tsuiki b y train : "Ther e wer e lot s o f nic e peopl e there , th e girl s wer e a lot o f fun , an d ther e wa s alway s dancing , singing , etc." 9 9 Turne r claim s that on e o f th e girl s eve n len t hi m mone y whe n h e ra n out . "I t wa s thoroughly enjoyable . I t wa s jus t lik e a bunc h o f peopl e hangin g ou t i n a single s bar . At Tsuiki, the officers recommende d i t as the place to go . It was just fo r officer s an d transien t pilots. " 10 ° As thi s statemen t implies , th e lin e betwee n girlfrien d an d prostitut e often blurre d i n Japan . Joh n Verd i wen t s o fa r a s t o write , "Thes e girls wer e no t prostitutes." 101 Georg e Berke , wh o wrot e a fictitious manuscript abou t fligh t sui t officer s durin g th e 1950s , describe d Ai r Force whorehouse s a s "clubs. " "Yo u coul d kee p a bottl e there, " write s Berke, an d "th e madam e poure d you r drink s an d dispense d chat." 1 0 2 I f you wer e a squadro n commander , th e madam e migh t eve n slee p wit h you, a s wa s th e cas e wit h Sam , Berke' s protagonist . Sam , however , no t only slep t wit h th e mada m bu t treate d he r lik e a "wife" : "H e wa s a good husban d an d treate d he r lik e a goo d wife . Whe n h e wa s don e [ejaculating] an d sh e wa s nic e an d slipper y h e brough t he r of f wit h hi s hand. . . . Th e nex t tim e the y wen t sh e gav e hi m a frenc h anywa y an d they made lov e like real people." 103 To heighte n th e realis m o f thes e "marriage s o f convenience, " officer s would ren t a singl e prostitut e fo r thei r entir e leav e an d tak e the m t o country resor t hotels . Perri n Gower , wh o visite d Myoshi' s Bordell o i n Tokyo a s soo n a s h e arrive d fro m th e States , woul d g o o n R& R ever y three months . First , h e woul d sto p i n Toky o an d find a beautifu l "girl " (a prostitute) ; the n h e woul d g o "t o som e suburban , smal l hote l wit h maybe si x rooms, an d jus t rela x ther e i n th e beautifu l setting. " 104 Fo r a nominal fee , Gowe r coul d fle e fro m th e war an d re-creat e domesti c life . Interestingly enough , thi s domesti c interlud e i s a theme foun d i n bot h The Hunters an d The Troubling of a Star. In The Troubling of a Star, Tindle spen t hi s R& R sittin g wit h hi s "girlfriend " b y a slidin g Japanes e window, smokin g quietl y an d lookin g a t th e rain. I n The Hunters, Clev e

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 13 5 Saville similarl y spen t hi s vacatio n wit h a nineteen-year-ol d gir l i n a n artist's hous e i n the hills outside o f Tokyo. 105 To facilitat e thes e idylli c experiences , th e Ai r Forc e lease d hotel s i n the countryside . Th e 4t h Win g lease d a total o f 13 6 space s i n res t hotel s for enliste d me n an d 8 4 space s fo r officers. 106 Th e 18t h Win g lease d a hotel calle d th e Fujiy a fo r officer s only . Th e Fujiy a ha d 22 1 room s an d was locate d i n the heart o f Hokon e Nationa l Park , a park famou s fo r it s natural ho t springs. 107 The 18t h Win g als o reserve d a C-12 4 Globemas ter, appropriatel y labele d "th e cocktai l courier, " t o transpor t th e tw o hundred servic e personne l wh o too k leav e ever y week . Th e Globemas ter's weekl y run s continue d unti l th e plan e crashe d o n 1 8 Jun e 1953 , killing 12 9 airme n i n the world's wors t ai r disaste r t o date. 108 Although man y pilot s wante d t o d o nothin g bu t find a n attractiv e prostitute an d rela x i n a countrysid e resor t hotel , som e refraine d fro m prostitution altogethe r an d chos e t o rela x a t a rear-echelo n bas e o r Tokyo. Berke , a newl y marrie d pilo t wit h a pregnan t wif e i n th e States , claimed t o tal k t o girls , bu t tha t wa s it : " I wa s wit h a bunc h o f guy s who wer e goin g t o b e faithfu l t o thei r wives." 109 M . J. Bailey , similarly , not onl y refuse d t o engag e i n prostitution, bu t was morally outraged . A t Tachikawa, h e wa s appalle d t o se e "girl s hangin g aroun d tryin g t o pic k any on e up , whit e o r black , fo r 1,00 0 Ye n (abou t $2.75), " an d guy s "grabbing the m an d bein g s o publi c abou t th e whol e thing—i t sur e looks dar k an d dirty." 110 Me n lik e Berk e an d Bailey , i n short , ha d t o find alternativ e form s o f entertainmen t whil e o n leave . Baile y spen t hi s leave shoppin g an d sightseein g i n Tokyo. 111 Howar d Heine r staye d a t an Ai r Forc e hote l i n th e countrysid e an d rea d novels. 112 Othe r pilot s visited th e Turkis h bath s a t Onsa n o r enjoye d "th e Nick i Gieke , o r Round Theate r simila r t o th e Lid o i n Paris." The Nicki ra n twenty-thre e hours a day an d wa s neve r empty. 113 Because food a t many base s in Korea lef t a lot to b e desired, a priorit y for man y pilot s o n R& R wa s t o escap e th e powdere d egg s an d gristl y stews o f Kore a an d find a goo d America n meal. 114 In thi s regard , th e o clubs i n Japa n wer e ver y accommodating . Th e clu b i n Toky o serve d steak an d lobster. 115 Brow n boaste d o f th e goo d foo d serve d a t th e Tsuiki club. 116

136 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers In additio n t o o clubs , pilots , anxiou s t o avoi d an y typ e o f Asia n food, als o frequente d othe r America n club s i n Tokyo . Th e Universit y Club feature d a roof-garde n terrac e an d live , big-band-styl e music . Douglas Evan s recalled , "Th e vie w o f th e cit y an d expans e o f light s a t night fro m th e roof-garden terrac e mad e a much mor e agreeabl e impres sion tha n th e daytime' s street-leve l madhouse. " Evan s als o though t tha t the "swell " Japanes e ban d sounde d jus t lik e th e Glen n Mille r Or chestra. 117 Another popula r pastim e i n Toky o wa s shopping . Cameras , radi o equipment, an d pearl s wer e al l popula r items . Fo r a s littl e a s tw o hun dred dollars , a pilo t coul d bu y a doubl e strin g o f "perfectl y matche d cultured pearls " fro m travelin g Mikimot o pear l salesman. 118 Mos t pi lots, however , purchase d jewelr y an d othe r gift s a t thei r loca l bas e exchanges, wher e discount s wer e eve n greater . Kimpo' s B X ofte n sol d over seve n hundre d dollar s wort h o f jewelr y a mont h durin g th e war. 119 Whenever a ne w lin e o f stoc k cam e int o th e BXs , me n woul d lin e u p several hour s befor e stor e openin g t o purchas e choic e items. 120 Lik e similar establishment s i n th e continenta l Unite d States , som e bas e ex changes als o ha d snac k bar s attache d t o them . Th e snac k ba r a t Kimp o served "hamburgers , sandwiches , ho t breakfast s o f ha m an d eggs , an d ice cream wit h it s companio n product s o f mil k shake s an d sundaes." 121 The Kimp o B X als o sol d bee r b y the case , and lot s o f it . A s o f Februar y 1952, i t wa s sellin g a n averag e o f 75 0 case s a mont h t o a bas e popula tion o f on e thousand. 122 Because o f perquisites , suc h a s bas e exchang e discount s an d subsi dized hotels , money was rarely a problem fo r pilot s o n leave . In additio n to thei r standar d office r salaries , pilot s als o receive d tw o hundre d extr a dollars a mont h i n fligh t pay . Tomlinso n an d James , bot h o f who m sen t most o f thei r mone y hom e t o suppor t dependents , stil l ha d enoug h money lef t ove r t o purchas e ne w automobile s whe n the y returne d t o th e States. 123 "Mone y wa s neve r a problem, " remember s Ro y Lottinger . " I never spen t a penny o f m y flight pay—i t al l went t o investments. " 12 4

Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 13 7

Indigenous Worker s The gracious , albei t rustic , lifestyle o f th e fligh t sui t office r wa s no t onl y the resul t o f hig h income s an d lo w expenses , bu t als o th e product o f th e colonial relationshi p thes e me n establishe d wit h th e loca l population s i n Japan an d Korea . I n additio n t o performin g prostitutio n services , low paid, indigenou s worker s buil t ai r fields, worke d i n messes , cleane d barracks, an d di d laundr y fo r officers . Thes e workers , i n essence , liber ated fligh t sui t officer s fro m th e everyda y drudgerie s o f militar y lif e an d enabled the m t o liv e a life reminiscen t o f the nineteenth-centur y colonia l experiences o f Britis h officer s i n India an d Africa . In Ma y 1951 , the 51s t Win g employe d 1,74 8 indigenou s worker s a t its Tsuik i base . Mos t o f thes e employee s (1,381 ) worke d o n th e opera tional area s o f th e base—namely , th e runway ; 10 4 i n the mess ; and 26 3 in th e officers ' barracks. 125 Th e 4t h Win g employe d ove r five thousan d Koreans i n Octobe r 1 9 51—mostly t o improv e runways . Thes e worker s were house d i n a labo r cam p adjacen t t o Kimp o field whic h bor e a n uncanny resemblanc e t o a force d labo r camp : a barbed-wir e fenc e sur rounded th e camp, and passe s were require d t o ente r an d leav e it. 126 I f a worker wa s fired, th e pas s woul d b e give n a specia l stam p t o preven t him o r he r fro m eve r bein g employe d agai n b y the U.N . o r b y the Sout h Korean government. 127 Ostensibly, action s suc h a s thes e wer e designe d t o preven t thef t an d sabotage. Turner , fo r instance , ha d a lo t o f film stolen , an d Berk e sus pected tha t man y o f th e Korean s wer e "u p t o n o good" : "W e didn' t mind callin g mos t Korean s 'Gooks ' becaus e the y didn' t lik e us , an d w e didn't lik e them. They had a colonial mentality : anythin g you coul d stea l from American s wa s okay. " 12 8 In particular, Berk e was upse t with th e Koreans fo r stealin g th e walle t and ring s o f a pilot wh o crashe d jus t outsid e hi s base. 129 Dic k Clifton , a South Africa n pilot , remembere d on e occasio n whe n a Korea n worke r removed th e safet y cli p o n th e armin g wir e o f on e o f hi s bombs— a move which arme d th e bom b an d nearl y ble w u p him an d hi s plane. Th e air polic e caugh t th e saboteu r soo n afte r thi s episod e an d "deal t wit h him appropriately." 130 Presumably , the y sho t him . Similarly , a "neat -

138 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers looking woman " wh o ra n Berke' s o club wa s suspecte d o f spyin g b y th e Korean Army . "On e day, " recalle d Berke , "th e Korea n Arm y cam e i n and too k thi s woman behin d th e clu b an d sho t her. " 13 1 Despite occasiona l spyin g an d thievery , mos t pilot s greatl y appreci ated th e wor k Korean s performe d an d the y treate d the m well , albei t paternalistically. Fo r hi s Quonse t hu t o f twelve , Turner ha d tw o teenag e houseboys t o kee p th e plac e clean . Th e pilot s adopte d boy s a s "par t o f the family. " The y wer e invite d t o al l parties , an d foo d an d clothin g would b e given t o the m o n a regular basis. 132 Tomlinson bough t hi s bo y a bicycle. 133 Accordin g t o Crockett , hi s houseboy s wer e pai d thirt y dollars a month, six dollars more than a Korean colone l received. Crock ett als o kep t hi s messbo y i n hi s hu t becaus e th e bo y claime d th e labo r camp a t Kimp o wa s unsafe. 134 Th e exten t t o whic h man y pilot s like d the children , man y o f who m wer e orphans , wa s demonstrate d no t onl y by th e pa y an d gift s the y gav e them , bu t als o th e compliment s the y lavished upo n them . Douglas Evans' s comment s ar e typical : Kim has shown u s all a lot b y his diligent efforts wit h hi s schoolbooks in his spare time . That ki d want s t o get someplac e whe n h e grows u p afte r this war i s over. Sometimes when I'd watc h him studying, I'd thin k abou t some American kids, how they take their comforts fo r grante d an d barely try i n school. Here is this Korean kid wit h n o home, his country tor n u p by war, takin g car e o f himself , studyin g hi s book s an d ful l o f ambitio n and hope . I feel tha t his attitude is probably th e best reward we'l l get fo r being over there.135 Clearly, Evans hel d hi s houseboy Ki m i n the highes t esteem . Paternal ism, though , wa s no t alway s benevolent . Despit e givin g gift s t o thei r boys, Turner's hu t insiste d o n calling them "Leak y Dick " an d "Po m Po m Wa." Turne r though t nothin g o f it : "Everyon e ha d America n nickname s because everyon e wa s name d Kim." 1 3 6 Berke' s hu t pai d thei r housebo y extra no t t o ea t kimch i becaus e i t smelled ; however , non e o f the m realized tha t kimch i ( a mixtur e o f pickle d cabbage , ho t pepper , an d fish paste) wa s th e nationa l dis h o f Korea. 137 Cultura l sensitivity , i n short , was sorel y lacking , an d man y pilot s easil y adopte d a colonia l attitud e toward th e indigenou s population . Dea n Hess , wh o hire d seve n girls , aged fourtee n t o sixteen , t o wor k i n th e officer' s mes s a t K-2 4 (Pyongy -

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 13 9 ang East) , wa s prou d tha t hi s "me n coul d si t a t table s an d b e waite d upon lik e time-honore d warrior s o f old." 1 3 8 H e als o fel t n o remors e about workin g thes e childre n "lik e beavers " o r abou t th e fac t tha t the y gave u p thei r Korea n name s fo r America n ones. 139 Exploitation , fo r Hess, only existe d i n the sexua l sphere . As long a s Hess ordere d hi s me n not t o mak e an y sexua l advance s towar d th e girls , h e fel t perfectl y comforted wit h th e fac t tha t h e employe d youn g childre n fo r menia l tasks eve n thoug h law s tha t forbad e suc h practice s existe d i n the Unite d States. Hess sa w i t a s a mutuall y beneficia l relationship : "W e develope d an affectionat e an d protectiv e attitud e towar d thes e gay, giggling young sters that someho w mellowe d ou r harsh , col d mal e world." 14 0

Base Job s In th e Unite d States , pilot s wer e ofte n assigne d demandin g nonflyin g jobs t o fill thei r tim e whe n the y wer e no t flying. Befor e th e war , fo r example, Ranal d Adam s wa s a suppl y office r an d wa s personall y liabl e for al l th e supplie s a t hi s base . "Th e jo b wa s s o difficult, " complaine d Adams, "tha t th e office r befor e m e ha d a nervou s breakdow n an d ha d to b e carted of f i n a straight jacket." 141 I n Korea, b y contrast, thes e job s were neithe r demandin g no r tim e consuming . Fre e time , therefore , als o contributed t o th e pilots ' excessiv e partyin g an d recreation . Tomlinson spen t a fe w hour s a da y a s a uni t historian . Howar d Heiner di d occasiona l paperwor k fo r th e maintenanc e squadron . Ear l Brown helpe d manag e th e officers ' clu b an d worke d i n intelligence . Perrin Gowe r wa s i n charg e o f on-the-job-trainin g fo r enliste d men. 142 However, Chic k Clevelan d hel d th e mos t creativ e jo b title : "squadro n athletic officer. " Clevelan d wa s i n charg e o f dutie s suc h a s buildin g an d painting a Ping-Pon g tabl e i n th e squadro n read y room. 143 Excep t fo r squadron leader s an d operation s officer s wh o planne d missions , th e extra dutie s assigne d t o "junio r birdmen, " a s Tomlinso n explained , "were designe d t o kee p yo u busy , an d kee p yo u ou t o f trouble." 1 4 4 Gower's attitud e towar d hi s job wa s typical : " I didn' t understan d i t an d didn't spen d muc h tim e o n it." 1 4 5 Overall , mos t pilot s performe d thei r nonflying job s onl y o n day s the y wer e no t flying, an d eve n the n woul d

140 • Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers never spen d mor e tha n five hour s a t it. 146 Fo r flight sui t officers , flying was their job , and th e ground wa s a place to pla y an d relax .

Bedcheck Charli e No examinatio n o f bas e lif e i n Kore a woul d b e complet e withou t a discussion o f the "Bedchec k Charlie " raids—raids late r made famou s b y their appearanc e i n severa l episode s o f M *A *S *H. Th e ter m "Bedchec k Charlie" wa s coine d i n World Wa r I I and originall y referre d t o th e ligh t German aircraf t tha t bombe d Allie d airfield s i n England unde r th e cove r of darkness . In Korea , Bedchec k Charlie s wer e propeller-drive n biplane s that attacke d U.N . airfield s a t night . The y wer e a sourc e o f bot h amuse ment an d ange r o n bases . Nightl y Charli e raid s denie d pilot s o f much needed res t an d als o occasionall y damage d equipmen t wit h th e worked over morta r shell s an d han d grenade s the y dropped . However , mos t officers foun d humo r i n th e raid s an d looke d upo n the m a s thei r ow n personal "firework s show. " The Bedchec k Charli e raid s bega n i n Jun e 195 1 an d continue d throughout th e war . Th e basi c plan e use d wa s a PO-2 , a Russian manufactured aircraf t tha t wa s first develope d i n 192 7 a s a two-sea t trainer an d late r use d a s " a reconnaissanc e bomber , a n ambulance , freighter, cro p duster , an d glide r tug." 1 4 7 These vintage planes ha d a to p speed o f 9 6 mile s pe r hou r an d wer e mad e o f fabric , paint , an d wood . Because o f thes e antiqu e qualities , th e plane s wer e ver y har d t o trac k and shoo t down . Jet interceptor s wer e too fas t t o shoo t the m down , an d the PO-2 , flying at tree-to p level , could navigat e dow n narro w valley s t o avoid radar . Rada r als o ha d grea t difficult y pickin g the m u p becaus e their fuselage s consiste d mainl y o f woo d an d painte d canvas , which ar e undetectable b y radar . To comba t Charlies , th e Ai r Forc e adde d mor e anti-aircraf t weapon s around airfield s an d experimente d wit h severa l differen t "Charli e Kill ers" durin g th e cours e o f th e war . A t Kimpo , th e bas e commande r attempted t o intercep t th e PO-2 S wit h Marin e A D Skyraide r aircraft , a "hard nose " B-2 6 wit h fourtee n forwar d firing machin e guns , an d a n armed T- 6 trainer. 148 Je t F-9 4 nigh t fighters wer e als o use d unti l on e crashed i n a n Apri l 195 3 intercep t mission . However , th e bes t Charlie -

Thunderboxes and Sabre Dancers • 14 1 killing aircraf t wer e th e Nav y an d Marin e F4 U Corsairs . I n Jul y 1953 , Navy Lieutenan t Gu y Bordelo n sho t dow n five Charlie s i n a ground based Corsai r an d becam e th e first "Charli e ace " a s wel l a s th e onl y Navy ac e of the war. 149 In additio n t o sendin g specia l interceptor s afte r Bedchec k Charlies , the Air Force also launched severa l intensiv e bombin g campaign s agains t small airfield s i n an d aroun d Pyongyang . Durin g Jun e 1951 , B-29S, B26s, an d F-8o s attacke d al l fifteen o f th e airfield s aroun d Pyongyang . I n July 1953 , Sabres o f the 8t h Wing destroye d tw o Charlie s o n th e groun d at an airfiel d nea r Pyongyang . S o intensive was the U.N. airfield-suppres sion effor t tha t th e Nort h Korean s ha d t o maintai n sixty-nin e airfield s just t o operat e thirt y aircraft . Thi s effort , accordin g t o a Chines e inspec tion group , wa s "fa r beyon d th e financial powe r o f Re d Chin a t o sup port." 1 5 0 Although costl y fo r th e Nort h Korean s an d Chinese , these raid s wer e occasionally quit e effective . O n 1 6 Jun e 1952 , Baile y witnesse d a rai d against Suwo n tha t destroye d on e F-86 , damage d nin e othe r Sabres , killed on e officer, an d wounde d five airmen. 151 In Octobe r 1952 , a PO- 2 raid o n th e friendl y islan d o f Chod o kille d five Korean s an d wounde d one American . O n 1 5 June 1953 , a Charli e eve n bombe d Sout h Korea n president Syngma n Rhee' s mansion. 152 A typica l raid , however , cause d very littl e damage . Fo r example , o n Ne w Year' s Ev e 1952 , thre e PO-2 S bombed Kimpo , create d lot s o f nois e an d confusion , bu t cause d n o serious destruction . Th e 4t h Wing' s after-actio n repor t read s a s follows : "The entir e rai d wa s quit e a spectacl e especiall y whe n th e ack-ac k opened up . Th e blac k sk y looke d lik e Cone y Islan d o n th e Fourt h o f July bu t non e o f th e raider s wer e hit . Fo r al l the good h e did, 'Bedcheck ' should hav e stayed o n the ground an d enjoye d hi s vodka. Except fo r los t sleep, damage t o th e bas e an d equipmen t wa s negligible." 153 As Tomlinso n recalled , "H e woul d com e ove r an d you' d hea r th e grenades g o off , bu t h e neve r di d an y damag e t o anything , jus t kep t yo u awake an d tha t sor t o f stuff." 154 Perri n Gowe r eve n looke d forwar d to Charli e attacks . "W e love d Charlie, " h e exclaimed . "H e wa s grea t sport." 1 5 5 Whe n th e alar m sounded , Gowe r an d hi s companion s woul d go ou t wit h thei r drink s an d watc h th e AA A an d tracers . To Gowe r an d other fligh t sui t officer s wh o wer e accustome d t o riskin g thei r lives ,

142 • Tbunderboxes and Sabre Dancers "Bedcheck Charli e wa s largel y a joke—a harassmen t thing." 1 5 6 Th e Ai r Force, though , neve r wa s abl e t o solv e th e proble m completely . Fo r future wars , th e Fa r Eas t Ai r Forc e woul d hav e t o devis e a muc h mor e sophisticated ai r defens e syste m t o dea l wit h heckle r raid s tha n th e on e that existe d i n Korea . Sinc e je t interceptor s wer e largel y useles s agains t these planes, the Air Forc e concluded tha t i t would hav e to rel y mor e o n radar-guided anti-aircraf t artiller y i n th e future . I t als o learne d tha t i t would hav e t o develo p a bette r aircraf t identificatio n syste m s o tha t th e guns could fire as soon a s possible. 157 Whether a pilo t fle w fighter-interceptors o r fighter-bombers, tim e spen t on bas e and o n R&R wa s an obviou s brea k fro m th e war. Unlike groun d troops, who fough t aroun d th e clock, aviator s returne d t o relativel y saf e and comfortabl e base s a t th e en d o f eac h mission . I t wa s becaus e o f these intermission s fro m th e wa r tha t pilot s coul d indulg e i n s o man y recreational activities . Militar y perquisite s an d chea p indigenou s labo r not onl y facilitate d thi s indulgen t lifestyle , bu t i n man y respect s wer e it s linchpins. Withou t indigenou s worker s t o perfor m persona l services , flight sui t officer s woul d no t hav e ha d nearl y a s muc h tim e t o drin k o r play Ping-Pong . Chea p prostitutio n eve n enable d pilot s t o purchas e women fo r lon g period s o f time—period s s o lon g tha t man y o f th e pilots mistoo k thes e busines s deal s fo r rea l relationships . Finally , chea p liquor purchase d a t bas e exchange s i n Japa n an d Korea , couple d wit h lots o f boredom , fuele d th e excessiv e drinkin g i n whic h man y pilot s indulged a t their o clubs. Additional component s t o th e fligh t sui t lifestyl e o f th e Korea n Wa r pilot beside s time , labor , an d benefit s wer e th e lac k o f supervisio n an d the casua l natur e o f cam p life . Ther e wer e n o Ai r Forc e wive s t o cur b the roadhous e atmospher e o f th e o club. Military convention s an d disci pline wer e ou t o f plac e i n a bas e wher e everyon e walke d aroun d i n fatigues o r flight suits , shared a forty-sea t thunderbox , an d playe d Ping Pong in the ready room. Bu t then again , military rigmarole i n the Korea n War Ai r Force was secondary . As long as pilots performe d thei r mission s well, they could partak e i n rowdy off-hour s partying—an d man y did .

—•

•

/

•

•

Life afte r Kore a

In 1969 , a gray-haire d Fran k Tomlinso n climbe d int o th e cockpi t o f a Special Force s AD- i Skyraide r a t Nakho n Phano m ai r bas e i n Norther n Thailand an d too k of f fo r wha t woul d b e th e las t missio n o f hi s South east Asi a tour . Th e missio n wa s a pre-daw n strik e agains t Communis t forces i n the Plai n d u Jars are a o f Laos . Although Tomlinso n wa s no w a full colone l an d coul d hav e retire d fro m th e Ai r Forc e year s ago , he wa s flying a propeller-driven , Korea n War-er a fighter i n on e o f th e mos t hazardous area s o f operatio n i n Southeas t Asia . H e wa s havin g th e tim e of hi s life . A s h e put s it : " I wa s a t th e tail-en d o f m y tou r an d I wa s invincible!" 1 Tomlinso n wa s havin g "s o muc h fun " tha t h e decide d t o go for severa l passes ove r a suppl y targe t a s the su n wa s comin g u p ove r the horizon . O n hi s thir d pass , h e wa s "zapped" : " I go t tw o round s right i n th e fron t o f th e engine , an d th e oi l starte d comin g out . So , I cleaned th e wing s an d heade d fo r Udorn . I ha d t o shu t th e engin e of f right ove r th e field. An d ther e wa s a clou d laye r belo w me , s o I set u p a big turn , wen t dow n t o th e cloud s an d rolle d ou t righ t wher e I wa s supposed t o be." 2 Althoug h Tomlinso n kne w i t wa s agains t regulation s for hi m t o attac k Laotia n target s durin g dayligh t i n a slow-flyin g AD-i , his flight suit bravad o go t th e bes t o f him , an d h e made a "dumb " error . Tomlinson, however , wa s no t alon e i n allowin g flight sui t attitud e t o influence hi s behavio r a s wel l a s hi s caree r afte r Korea . A s w e shal l see , the flight suit culture resonate d i n the post-Korean Wa r career s o f the 1 2 flight sui t officer s whos e socia l background s wer e explore d i n chapter 2 . Although Ai r Force careerism i s not th e focus o f this book, I will explor e 143

144 • Life after Korea this them e eve n thoug h th e primar y purpos e o f th e chapte r i s t o le t th e reader kno w wha t som e o f thes e officers di d afte r Korea .

Robinson Risne r Robinson Risner 3 lef t Kore a wit h eigh t MiG s t o hi s credit, an d a stron g determination t o remai n i n th e Ai r Force . O n hi s firs t postwa r assign ment wit h th e 50t h Win g i n Hahn , Germany , h e receive d a covete d regular commission . Fro m the n o n out , Risne r woul d n o longe r hav e t o worry abou t reduction s i n forc e becaus e a s a n ac e wit h a regula r com mission, hi s future i n the Air Force was secure . In 1956 , Risner transferre d t o Georg e AFB , Victorville, California , t o fly th e follow-o n fighter t o th e F-86—th e F-10 0 Supe r Sabre . Risner' s unit, th e 34t h Fighter-Da y Squadron , wa s chose n t o evaluat e th e Supe r Sabre's high-altitud e capabilities . O n on e suc h mission , th e valve s o n Risner's pressur e sui t malfunctioned , an d th e sui t accidentall y inflate d a t about 60,00 0 feet . Risne r coul d barel y mov e hi s arms , an d ha d t o us e every bi t o f hi s strengt h t o contro l th e plan e an d mak e a n emergenc y landing. A t th e hospital , doctor s discovere d tha t thi s misha p ha d rup tured on e o f hi s hear t valves . The y explaine d t o hi m tha t h e woul d probably neve r fl y again . However , th e injur y heale d i n time , an d thi s flight sui t office r onc e agai n requeste d t o b e put o n fligh t status . In 1957 , Risner wa s selecte d to fly the Charle s A. Lindberg Commem oration fligh t fro m Ne w Yor k t o Paris . Flyin g th e F-10 0 Supe r Sabre , Risner mad e i t to Pari s in 6 hours an d 3 8 minutes. This flight coul d hav e been th e crownin g momen t o f Risner' s career , bu t ther e woul d b e man y more interestin g episode s fo r thi s officer . After attendin g th e Air War Colleg e an d servin g a s a staff office r wit h the Commande r i n Chief , Pacifi c (CINPAC) , th e no w thirty-nine-year old Risne r manage d onc e agai n t o get bac k int o th e fighter business . The year wa s 1964 , an d Risne r wa s assigne d t o th e fl y F-10 5 Thunderchie f as a squadro n commande r wit h th e 18t h Fighter-Bombe r Win g a t Ka dena Ai r Base , Okinawa . Thi s wa s Risner' s first experienc e wit h fighterbombers, but h e did no t sh y away fro m th e challenge. Instead, h e set ou t to b e the mos t aggressiv e pilo t i n his unit .

Life after Korea • 14 5 In 1965 , Risne r transferre d t o Korat , Thailand , t o participate d i n President Lyndon Johnson's ai r campaign agains t North Vietnam dubbe d Operation Rollin g Thunder . On Risner' s last day in Okinawa o n 1 9 August 1965 , he had a strange premonition fo r the first time in his twenty-two-year flying career , whic h convinced hi m t o settl e hi s affair s an d mak e a tap e fo r hi s wif e an d children. O n it, he told hi s wife an d four son s "neve r t o give up hope" if he got shot dow n becaus e h e "woul d d o everything withi n hi s power t o get back." Indeed , Risne r woul d retur n t o the States, but it would no t be for anothe r seve n an d a half years . At Korat , Risner' s flight sui t attitud e quickl y mad e hi m unpopula r with hi s cre w chief . Durin g on e week , hi s aircraf t wa s hi t o n fou r missions ou t o f five. O n a missio n agains t a rada r statio n i n Nort h Vietnam, Risner' s plan e too k a ba d hi t behin d th e cockpit, forcin g hi m to bailou t ove r th e South Chin a Sea . Fortunately, a rescue seaplan e was nearby an d picked hi m up within minute s o f the bailout . The nex t day , General Josep h Moore , th e commande r o f th e Secon d Air Division , ordere d hi m to Saigon . A t Saigon , Moor e me t Risne r o n the tarma c an d immediatel y ordere d hi m int o th e bac k sea t o f a T-39. Moore kne w tha t desperat e measure s wer e require d t o kee p thi s flight suit office r fro m pushin g himself to o hard. Moor e ende d u p flying Risner personally t o Clar k Ai r Forc e Bas e i n th e Philippines, fo r thre e day s of golf, steaks , an d air-conditione d quarters . However , thi s ticke t t o para dise did not have the desired mellowin g effect . When Risne r returne d t o Korat , h e wen t righ t bac k t o th e sam e grueling routin e unti l finally hi s luc k ra n out . O n a routin e missio n against a surface-air-missil e sigh t nea r Tha n Hoa , Risner flew lo w ove r the target an d took a bellyful o f 23-millimete r canno n rounds . He ended up i n a low-altitud e ejectio n ove r Nort h Vietnam . Risne r woul d spen d the nex t seve n an d a hal f year s o f hi s lif e a t th e Ho a L o Priso n i n Hanoi, mor e commonl y know n a s the Hanoi Hilton . Whil e i n Hoa Lo, Risner serve d a s th e senio r officer , an d wa s severel y persecute d fo r petitioning th e Vietnamese authoritie s fo r bette r livin g conditions fo r his men. Not only di d the Vietnamese bea t an d torture Risner , bu t they als o subjected hi m t o fou r year s o f solitar y confinement . Throug h i t all ,

146 • Life after Korea according t o Risner , h e neve r los t hop e tha t h e woul d on e da y se e hi s family. H e woul d ofte n ta p Psal m 2 3 i n cod e t o chee r o n th e flyer s i n adjacent cells . I n th e las t month s o f imprisonment , h e helpe d organiz e church service s for th e men . Risner wa s repatriate d i n Februar y 1973 , a n d happil y foun d himsel f flying F- 4 Phantom s b y August . Risne r ende d hi s Ai r Forc e caree r a s a brigadier genera l i n 197 6 a t th e Fighte r Weapon s Schoo l a t Nelli s Ai r Force Base , where h e served a s vice commander . Risner retire d i n Texas , an d bega n workin g closel y wit h Ros s Perot , first a s a motivational speake r i n th e Texa s War Agains t Drug s progra m and late r a s the campaign manage r fo r veteran s i n Ros s Perot's presiden tial campaign . Risner' s las t fligh t i n a fighter plan e occurre d i n 1990 ; h e was sixty-fiv e year s old . A frien d sen t a n F-1 6 t o fl y hi m t o a forma l dinner a t Nelli s AFB . Not on e t o b e a mer e passenger , Risne r convince d the pilo t t o le t hi m fl y th e aircraf t bot h ways . Afte r th e journey , Risne r fondly reflected , "Th e F-1 6 wa s a tremendous aircraft , bu t m y persona l favorite t o thi s da y i s the F-86. "

Earl Brow n Of al l the officer s interviewe d i n this study , Brown ha d th e mos t success ful militar y career . H e becam e a lieutenan t genera l an d attribute s hi s meteoric rise in the Air Force establishment t o two factors : fighter servic e in Korea an d Vietnam , an d pur e luck . After Korea , Brow n fle w F-86 s an d late r F-10 2 Delt a Dagger s a t McGuire AFB , in Wrightstown , Ne w Jersey . In i960 , h e wen t t o Zara goza AFB , Spain , wher e h e fle w F-102 S wit h th e 431s t Squadron . Th e 431st, know n a s th e Re d Devils , transitione d t o F- 4 Phantom s i n 196 4 at Georg e AFB , an d the n transferre d t o Ubon , Thailand , i n 1965 . In Thailand, Brow n fle w fifty interdiction mission s agains t target s i n Nort h Vietnam an d Laos . After fifty mission s i n th e Vietna m War , Brow n attende d th e Arme d Forces Staf f Colleg e i n Norfolk, Virginia . H e the n too k comman d o f th e 53 rd Tactica l Fighte r Squadro n a t Bitburg , Germany . Accordin g t o

Life after Korea • 14 7 Brown, "Commandin g a fighter squadro n wa s th e bes t jo b i n m y entir e career. In 1969 , however , Brown' s luc k ra n ou t an d h e wa s transferre d back t o Thailand , thi s tim e t o Udor n t o serv e i n th e 432n d Tactica l Reconnaissance Wing . With thi s wing, Brown flew another fifty mission s in F-4D S an d RF-4CS , a reconnaissance versio n o f th e F-4 . O n thi s tour , he sa w muc h mor e flak tha n durin g hi s earlier missions . During hi s one hundredth mission , Brown wa s escorting a reconnaissance flight nea r th e Mughia Pass , when hi s plane too k a round tha t knocke d ou t on e engin e and li t u p hi s instrumen t pane l wit h warnin g lights . Brown' s strateg y was t o fly th e disable d aircraf t towar d th e Tha i borde r an d the n bai l out. H e describe s th e episod e a s follows : We flew pas t a smal l village , dropping les s than 50 0 feet . Le n [hi s bac k seater] went out first and I followed. The system is almost idiot-proof. The seat eject s fro m th e airplane , th e pilo t i s ejecte d fro m th e seat , an d th e parachute opens, all automatically. Hanging in the chute, I saw the ball of flame where the F-4 impacted th e ground. Below me, Len appeared t o be drifting towar d th e fire. I was watching him when I realized ho w close to the ground I was. I landed on both feet, started to fall backwards , then sat down on the survival pack, which I had forgotten t o release, and came to rest wit h m y bac k agains t a tree . A helicopter ha d com e fro m Nakho n Phanom t o pick u s up. We were about thre e miles from th e base . As Len and I walked dow n th e roa d towar d th e chopper , h e turne d t o m e an d said: "You know something Brownie? We're too old for this stuff!" 5 That wa s hi s las t mission . A mont h later , h e lef t Udor n fo r Toky o an d then flew a refurbished F- 4 to Georg e AFB : "I pulled int o a parking spo t on the ramp, finally home saf e fro m th e war, and sto p cocked th e engine . Best o f all , ther e wa s Glori a wit h Nancy , Lou , an d Bil l [hi s wif e an d children] waitin g t o se e me home." 6 In 1970 , Brow n wa s assigne d t o b e th e assistan t t o th e Assistan t Secretary o f Defens e fo r Manpowe r Reserv e Affairs a t th e Pentagon an d promoted t o th e ran k o f ful l colonel . Whil e there , h e me t man y influen tial people , includin g Chappi e James , th e first blac k four-sta r genera l i n the Ai r Force . He als o se t u p a program fo r base s t o shar e underutilize d facilities wit h loca l communities .

148 • Life after Korea In 1973 , Brow n wa s transferre d t o th e Ai r Trainin g Comman d a t Reese AFB , in Lubbock , Texas , a s a n operation s director , fo r tw o years . He the n becam e bas e commande r o f William s AFB , where h e wa s pro moted t o brigadie r genera l i n 1975 . During hi s time a t Williams, he als o took th e Industria l Colleg e o f th e Arme d Service' s cours e b y correspon dence an d attende d th e Advance d Managemen t progra m a t th e Harvar d Business School . As a brigadie r general , Brown' s first assignmen t wa s a s bas e com mander a t Andrew s AF B fro m 197 5 t o 1978 . Durin g th e bicentennia l year, he hoste d ove r on e hundre d head s o f stat e a t Andrews . In 197 7 h e became hea d o f th e Ai r Forc e Securit y Polic e fo r eightee n months . H e then too k ove r th e Aerospac e Weapon s Cente r a t Tyndal l AFB , Florida . In this job, Brown oversa w th e testing of the Air Force's newest weapon s and live d i n bas e housin g righ t o n th e beach . A s he pu t it , " I kne w the n that I had die d an d gon e to heaven. " 7 Brown's nex t jo b a s hea d o f th e Seventeent h Ai r Forc e elevate d hi m to "a n eve n highe r leve l o f heaven—commandin g al l th e fighters i n Europe." Hi s final jo b wit h th e Ai r Forc e wa s a s hea d o f NAT O Ai r Forces i n th e Mediterranean , wher e h e worke d closel y wit h Admira l Crowe, th e futur e chairma n o f th e Joint Chiefs . Brow n retire d fro m th e Air Force in 198 5 as a lieutenant general after thirty-fou r year s of service, and now works as a docent with the National Air and Spac e Museum. 8

Woodrow Crocket t Like man y blac k officer s i n th e 1950s , Woodro w Crocket t chos e t o remain i n the military afte r th e Korean War . As an office r an d a pilot, h e believed h e woul d hav e a muc h mor e rewardin g caree r i n th e Ai r Forc e than i n th e civilia n sector . Th e Ai r Force , however , wa s no t devoi d o f racial stereotyping , an d Crocket t discovere d tha t th e highe r h e rose , th e more his skin color becam e a factor i n his assignments—especially thos e in the are a o f equa l opportunity . After Korea , Crocket t attende d th e Ai r Forc e Comman d an d Staf f College at Maxwell AFB , Alabama. When h e graduated, Majo r Crocket t was assigne d t o McGuir e AFB , Ne w Jersey , a s a win g installation s

Life after Korea • 14 9 officer. Thi s jo b place d hi m i n charg e o f thre e rada r site s an d eightee n units o f bas e housing—hardl y a choic e assignmen t fo r a vetera n fighter pilot o f tw o wars . Nevertheless , Crocket t pu t grea t effor t int o hi s jo b and soo n attracte d th e attentio n o f th e commande r o f th e 26t h Ai r Division, Brigadie r Genera l Thaye r Olds . Olds sa w potential i n Crocket t and chos e hi m t o b e th e deput y commande r o f th e 2n d All-Weathe r Fighter Squadron , a n F-86 D unit . Whe n Crocket t lef t th e uni t i n 1955 , he was squadro n commander . In 1957 , Old s assigne d Crocket t t o th e 26t h Ai r Divisio n Headquar ters a s a n operation s officer . A year later , Crocket t lande d a covete d slo t as a n F-10 6 tes t pilo t a t Edward s AFB , California . Th e F-10 6 Delt a Dart, par t o f th e Ai r Force' s "Centur y Series " o f fighters, wa s designe d to fly a t speed s i n exces s o f Mac h 2 , an d wa s dubbe d b y man y a t th e time a s the "ultimat e interceptor." 9 A s a tes t pilot , Crocket t flew on e o f the fastest fighters o f the time, had hi s own T-3 3 fo r persona l transporta tion needs , an d wa s slate d t o b e th e first F-10 6 squadro n commander . Unfortunately, hi s luck ra n ou t an d i n on e o f thos e strang e twist s o f fat e not uncommo n i n military careers, Crockett ende d u p at McGuire again , this time a s an ai r defens e operation s officer . When Joh n F . Kennedy wa s electe d presiden t i n i960 , Crocket t wa s assigned t o th e Nationa l Guar d Burea u i n th e Pentago n t o assis t i n integrating black s into the Air National Guard . Th e positio n calle d fo r a World Wa r I I veteran, a West Poin t graduate , an d a pilo t experience d i n Century Serie s aircraft . Becaus e Crocket t me t tw o ou t o f th e thre e qualifications, h e was chosen t o b e the first minority office r o n the Guar d Bureau Staff . Thi s jo b require d hi m t o trave l t o Guar d base s acros s th e country t o ensur e tha t adequat e effort s wer e bein g mad e t o recrui t blacks int o th e Air Guard . In 1965 , Crocket t wen t t o Osl o t o wor k i n th e headquarter s o f th e NATO Norther n Europea n Ai r Forces . Thre e year s later , th e Ai r Forc e asked hi m t o g o t o Vietna m t o fly th e AC-4 7 gunshi p know n a s "Puf f the Magic Dragon." A s a veteran fighter pilo t o f two wars, Crockett wa s not intereste d i n drivin g a multi-engine , Worl d Wa r I I vintag e aircraft . Instead, h e opte d t o retur n t o th e Guar d Burea u unti l hi s retirement a s a lieutenant colone l i n Septembe r 1970 .

150 • Life after Korea After hi s retirement , h e continue d t o wor k fo r th e Nationa l Guar d Bureau a s a civilia n Equa l Opportunit y Office r unti l 1977 . Sinc e then , Crockett ha s bee n activ e in the Washington, D.C. , area publi c school s a s a gues t lecture r o n th e Tuskegee airmen . H e als o i s an avi d tenni s playe r who twic e won th e senio r double s championshi p i n Virginia. In 1994 , as part o f the D-Day anniversar y celebrations, President Bill Clinton invite d Crockett t o escor t hi m an d Britis h prim e ministe r Joh n Majo r t o th e aviators' wal l a t Maddingl y Cemeter y i n Cambridge , England . A t th e celebration, CN N zoome d i n o n hi s re d Tuskege e Airme n Associatio n jacket an d beame d hi s imag e aroun d th e glob e whil e th e New York Times place d hi s pictur e o n th e fron t pag e o f it s Jun e 5 , 1994 , issue . Because o f thi s publicity , th e associatio n awarde d hi m wit h th e Noe l Parrish Awar d fo r th e Tuskege e airma n wh o ha d don e th e mos t fo r th e organization durin g th e year . Crocket t live s wit h hi s wif e i n norther n Virginia.10

Frank Tomlinso n After th e Korea n War , Fran k Tomlinso n wa s i n "ho g heaven. " H e ha d saved ove r seve n hundre d dollar s o f comba t pa y an d immediatel y pur chased a 194 9 Pontia c fo r thre e hundred . Wit h a car , mone y i n hi s pocket, an d wing s o n hi s uniform, h e als o becam e attractiv e t o th e loca l women wh o live d nea r Grandvie w AFB , i n Grandview , Missouri , hi s first dut y assignment . "I t wa s kin d o f nea t t o dat e a lieutenan t wh o ha d money, a car, an d wings , an d coul d tak e wome n t o th e Officer' s Clu b and othe r marvelou s things." 11 In additio n t o enjoyin g hi s ne w statu s as a vetera n fighter pilot , Tomlinso n worke d i n Grou p Operation s a t Grandview an d eventuall y flew wit h th e 326t h Fighter-Intercepto r Squadron, a n F-86 squadro n an d late r a n F-10 2 Delt a Dagge r squadron . In 1959 , Tomlinson attende d th e Squadro n Officers ' Schoo l a t th e Ai r University a t Maxwel l AFB . He the n fle w F-102 S with th e 317t h Squad ron i n Galena , Alaska . Mos t o f hi s mission s ther e involve d interceptin g Soviet bomber s whic h straye d int o U.S. air space . In 1965 , h e wen t t o wor k fo r th e Ai r Forc e Inspecto r Genera l a t

Life after Korea • 15 1 Norton AFB , in Sa n Bernardino , California . A t Norton, h e was assigne d to inspec t th e "plane s n o on e els e wante d t o inspect—O- i Bir d Dogs , A-i Skyraiders , C-47S, an d Defolian t Ranc h Han d planes." 12 Durin g this tour , Tomlinso n wen t TD Y (temporar y duty ) t o Vietna m i n 196 6 and 1967 , an d fle w thre e comba t mission s i n A-is . B y 196 8 Tomlinso n was "fe d up " wit h th e Inspecto r General' s office . A s a fligh t sui t officer , he wante d t o fl y comba t mission s i n fighters. Hence , h e volunteere d t o fly A-i s wit h th e 56t h Specia l Operation s Win g a t Nakho n Phano m Royal Tha i Ai r Forc e Bas e i n Thailand , affectionatel y referre d t o a s "Naked Fanny " b y the fligh t sui t officer s wh o serve d there . At "Nake d Fanny, " Tomlinso n "chase d truck s an d bombe d ele phants" i n Laos . H e als o fle w "Sandy/Firefly " mission s wit h th e 602n d Squadron. Sand y mission s involve d flyin g cove r fo r downe d pilots , an d Firefly mission s wer e nigh t interdictio n mission s i n norther n Laos . Tom linson wa s doin g a Firefl y whe n h e was nearl y sho t dow n ove r th e Plai n du Jars i n 1969 . As i n Korea , bas e lif e i n Thailan d wa s ver y comfortabl e fo r Tomlin son. Although Nakho n Phano m wa s a dusty, riverside ai r stri p with ver y few shed s whe n th e wa r began , b y 196 8 th e bas e ha d bee n completel y refurbished wit h a n 8000-foo t concret e runway , ne w buildings , part y hootches fo r th e squadrons , an d eve n a swimmin g pool . Tomlinso n shared hi s quarter s wit h on e othe r pilot , an d hire d a Thai woma n t o d o all his cleaning . After flyin g 14 5 missions , Tomlinso n finally accepte d a transfe r t o Oslo, Norway , i n 196 9 t o develo p a tactica l ai r contro l syste m fo r th e Royal Norwegia n Ai r Force . H e staye d i n Norwa y unti l 1973 , when h e was promote d t o ful l colone l an d transferre d t o Andrew s AFB . A t Andrews, he performed a variety o f administrativ e job s with th e comba t support group . Finall y i n 1978 , he wa s assigne d t o th e FA A a s Chie f o f the Emergenc y Operation s Staff . Whil e there , he develope d a command , control, an d communication s syste m (c 3 ). Tomlinson' s experienc e wit h the FA A helpe d hi m secur e hi s first an d onl y civilia n jo b i n 1983 : a position wit h Rockwel l Internationa l Civi l Governmen t Accounts . Thi s job involve s developin g simila r c 3 system s fo r th e U.S . Customs Service ,

152 • Life after Korea Border Patrol , Coas t Guard , an d FBI . With Rockwel l International , h e has travele d t o Lati n Americ a an d eve n visite d Lao s t o hel p se t u p dru g interdiction communication s systems . In additio n t o working , Tomlinso n i s a n activ e membe r o f th e F-8 6 Sabre Pilot s Association , th e A- i Association , an d th e Ai r Command o Association (a n associatio n fo r retire d Specia l Forces pilots). 13

Robert Pomero y After h e lef t th e Fa r East , Rober t Pomero y wa s transferre d t o a n F-8 0 unit a t Sha w AFB , Sout h Carolina . A yea r later , hi s uni t transferre d t o Sembach Ai r Base , Germany , wher e h e serve d a s a fligh t commander . I n 1954, Pomero y wa s i n lin e t o mov e u p t o th e positio n o f operation s officer, bu t instea d wa s assigne d t o Allie d Ai r Forces Souther n Europ e i n Italy t o b e th e aid e t o th e commander , Genera l Lawrenc e Craigie . A t Naples, Pomeroy attende d al l briefing s an d gav e opinion s whe n asked . In 1957 , Pomero y returne d t o Sha w AF B a s a n assistan t operation s officer fo r th e 432n d Tactica l Reconnaissanc e Wing , a n RF-10 1 Voodo o Unit. Pomero y wa s the n selecte d i n 195 8 t o joi n th e militar y studie s department a t th e Ai r Forc e Academ y a s a n instructor . Fro m there , h e attended th e Roya l Air Forc e Staf f Colleg e at Andover, England, i n 1 9 61 and the n taugh t fo r tw o year s a t th e Roya l Ai r Forc e Colleg e a t Cran well. This latte r assignmen t prove d detrimenta l t o hi s career becaus e th e Royal Ai r Forc e ha d a toughe r office r ratin g syste m tha n th e USAF . Nevertheless, h e too k th e assignment , coache d basketball , le d th e band , gave lecture s i n militar y history , an d wa s eve n mad e "Al l Cromwellian " when h e left. In short, i t was on e o f the "best " assignment s o f his career . From 196 4 unti l 1966 , Pomero y worke d a t th e Pentago n i n Recon naissance Operationa l Requirements . I n 1966 , h e wa s selecte d t o serv e as the deputy executiv e office r fo r th e Offic e o f the Undersecretary o f th e Air Force. While there, he worked fo r Norma n Paul , Townsend Hoopes , and Joh n McLucas . O f th e thre e undersecretaries , Hoope s prove d t o b e the mos t difficul t t o wor k for . Hoope s wa s on e o f th e fe w high-rankin g Pentagon official s wh o oppose d th e Vietna m War . Fo r Pomeroy , thi s position wa s untenable : "I f w e wer e goin g t o b e doves , we shoul d hav e

Life after Korea • 15 3 been dove s an d gotte n th e hel l ou t o f there , bu t i f w e wer e goin g t o b e hawks, I wante d t o dam n wel l d o it . I hate d th e piecemea l approach . I wanted t o ge t i n there an d fix i t and no t complain. 14 Althoug h Pomero y disagreed wit h Hoopes , the y di d hav e a cordial workin g relationshi p or , as Pomeroy pu t it , "W e agree d t o disagree. " In 1969 , Pomero y attende d th e Industria l Colleg e o f th e Arme d Ser vices an d als o wen t t o nigh t schoo l a t Georg e Washingto n University' s business school . A yea r later , h e finished hi s M.B.A . degre e an d als o trained i n the RF- 4 i n preparation fo r a tour i n Vietnam. "B y this time, " recalls Pomeroy , " I ha d los t man y o f m y friend s i n th e wa r an d wa s against it , bu t I felt I owed i t t o th e servic e t o go." 1 5 Pomero y serve d i n the Sevent h Ai r Forc e Headquarter s a t Ta n So n Nhu t Ai r Base , Saigon , as th e chie f o f reconnaissanc e i n electroni c warfare . I n thi s position , Pomeroy helpe d formulat e "FRAG " order s an d choos e target s fo r th e Seventh Ai r Force . Besides working i n headquarters, Pomeroy als o flew fourteen mission s in th e RF- 4 befor e a bou t wit h hepatiti s cause d hi m t o b e transferre d back t o the United States . Rather tha n returnin g hi m to Vietnam, the Air Force poste d Pomero y t o th e strategi c studie s departmen t o f th e U.S . Army Wa r Colleg e i n Carlisle , Pennsylvania , a s a professor . Fro m Car lisle, h e wen t t o th e Suprem e Headquarter s Allie d Power s Europ e (SHAPE) i n 197 5 a s a plan s an d polic y executiv e officer . Thre e year s later, h e wa s mad e U.S . Nationa l Militar y Representativ e (NMR ) t o SHAPE. A s th e NMR , h e wa s th e unofficia l mayo r o f th e U.S . commu nity a t SHAPE an d th e lin k betwee n tha t grou p an d th e internationa l community. Pomero y als o ra n th e dependen t schoo l syste m a t SHAP E as chairma n o f th e dependen t schoo l council , an d organize d al l larg e celebrations, including th e annua l Fourt h o f July picnic . Pomeroy retire d fro m th e militar y i n 197 9 a s a ful l colonel . H e accepted a positio n a s deput y directo r fo r th e Ai r Forc e Ai d Society , where he worked fo r seve n years. The Air Force Aid Societ y is supporte d by contributions fro m Ai r Forc e personnel , an d provide s emergency , no interest hardshi p loan s t o Air Forc e personnel .

154 * Life after Korea

Paul Turne r After approximatel y a yea r i n a Chinese-operate d PO W cam p i n Nort h Korea, Pau l Turne r wa s release d durin g th e "Littl e Switch " i n Jun e 1953. 16 Durin g hi s lon g rid e bac k t o th e U.S . o n a troo p ship , Turne r decided tha t h e wante d t o continu e hi s flying career . Hence , whe n h e arrived home , h e immediatel y volunteere d fo r a n assignmen t a s a n Ai r Force tes t pilo t fo r Nort h America n Aviatio n i n Inglewood , California . While there , h e fle w th e T-28B , bu t di d no t fl y fighter s becaus e Nort h American "though t h e was too young." 1 7 In 1955 , Turner finally go t bac k int o fighters a s a test pilot a t McClel lan AFB , where hi s test s include d th e F-86F , th e F-84F , an d th e F-100 . Turner als o fle w multiengin e aircraft , suc h a s th e C-47 , th e C-119 , an d the KC-97 . From McClellan , Turne r wen t t o Gua m i n 195 9 a s a tes t pilo t an d chief maintenanc e officer , bu t returne d a yea r late r t o wor k fo r th e Winter Olympic s i n Squa w Valley , California . Th e Ai r Forc e allowe d him t o tak e leav e fo r thi s even t becaus e i t believe d hi s involvemen t would b e goo d publicity . Hi s primar y responsibilit y wa s t o manag e th e athletes' sectio n o f th e arena . Following th e Olympics , Turne r worke d fo r a yea r a s a maintenanc e officer a t Mino t AFB , Sout h Dakota , an d the n attende d th e Universit y of Colorad o a s a n Ai r Forc e Institut e o f Technolog y (AFIT ) student ; h e received a n electrical engineerin g degre e in 1963 , and a master's i n 1964 . After h e graduated fro m AFIT , the Air Force asked Turne r i f he woul d go o n detache d dut y wit h th e Federa l Aviatio n Administratio n (FAA ) a s a major . Althoug h Turner' s first choic e wa s t o fl y fighters, h e too k th e assignment anywa y an d "thoroughl y enjoye d it." 1 8 Th e FA A allowe d Turner t o fl y civilia n jets , investigate accidents , an d writ e regulations . " I was their jack-of-all-trades," h e recalls, "an d I wrote papers o n ai r traffi c control, altimetry , an d maintenanc e whic h ar e still use d today. " 19 I t als o gave hi m civi l aviatio n training , whic h h e eventuall y woul d parla y int o a civilia n caree r wit h th e National Transportatio n Safet y Boar d (NTSB) . Turner wen t t o wor k fo r th e NTS B i n 197 0 afte r a final three-yea r tour a s a n operation s office r wit h th e Alask a Ai r Command . A t NTSB ,

Life after Korea • 15 5 he examine d th e performanc e o f aircraf t durin g acciden t sequences . In addition t o analyzin g plan e crashes , h e als o flew aircraf t an d inspecte d pipeline explosions , shipwrecks , an d trai n wrecks . In 1987 , h e retire d fro m th e NTS B an d se t u p a consultin g busines s for voic e cockpi t dat a recorders . Hi s company , calle d PiCiT , als o doe s forensic wor k i n audi o fo r th e FB I and th e Departmen t o f Justice—rap e cases, bribery, an d extortion . Despit e a history o f broke n rib s and bones , Turner stil l ski s tw o week s a year . H e als o fishes durin g th e summe r from hi s 28-foo t moto r boat. 20

Jim Bailey M. J. Baile y left th e Korean Wa r wit h thre e battl e stars , three ai r medals , a Distinguishe d Flyin g Cross , an d a stron g desir e t o sta y i n th e fighter business. His first postwa r assignmen t wa s wit h th e 9 3 rd Squadro n a t Albu querque flying aler t agains t UFOs . A year an d a hal f later , h e flew wit h the 15t h Squadro n ou t o f Davis-Montha n AFB , in Tucson , Arizona . In 1954, h e wa s transferre d t o NORA D (Nort h America n Ai r Defens e Command) a t Cheyenn e Mountain, Colorado , where he worked i n oper ations trackin g Sovie t aircraf t tha t violate d Nort h America n airspace . In 1958 , Baile y travele d t o Ottaw a t o serv e a s a rada r sit e inspecto r for th e Air Force . His las t assignmen t i n the Air Forc e was fro m 196 1 t o 1963 wit h th e Ai r Defens e Comman d a s a n operation s officer . Lik e Crockett, Baile y ha d a n opportunit y t o fight i n Vietna m bu t opte d instead fo r retirement . A s he recalled, " I fel t afte r Kore a an d Worl d Wa r II tha t I ha d pushe d m y luck— I ha d kid s an d my reactio n time s wer e getting slower." 21 After militar y retirement , Baile y worke d a s a n airpor t manage r a t Long Beac h Airpor t an d the n a s a real estat e agen t a t Whidbey Islan d i n Washington stat e unti l 1988 , whe n h e retire d fro m civilia n work . H e lives wit h hi s wif e i n Diamon d Bar , California , an d enjoy s huntin g an d fishing.22

156 • Life after Korea

George Berk e After Korea , Georg e Berk e opte d t o remai n i n th e Ai r Forc e an d pursu e a caree r i n fighter-bombers. His first postwa r assignmen t wa s a s flight commande r wit h th e 401s t Fighter-Bomber Grou p a t Englan d AFB , Louisiana . Afte r ferryin g a plane ove r t o Belgium , however , h e immediatel y pu t i n fo r a transfe r t o Europe. To him, Europe was where h e thought mos t o f the action woul d be, and h e was impresse d b y the caliber o f the tactical fighter unit s there , especially thos e i n England . When Berk e arrive d a t hi s first NAT O assignmen t a t th e Roya l Ai r Force Bas e (RAF ) i n Manston , England , i n 1956 , th e 92n d Squadro n (81st Wing ) wa s o n ful l aler t fo r th e Sue z crisis—eac h F-84 F wa s full y loaded wit h nuclea r ordnanc e an d guarde d b y a n ai r policema n an d a German shepherd . Th e squadro n commande r tol d Berk e t o cal l hi s wif e and tel l he r h e woul d b e sleepin g i n th e hanga r unti l th e crisi s ended . This was Berke's orientatio n t o lif e a s a NATO nuclea r strik e pilo t i n th e 1950s. Berke staye d wit h thi s uni t unti l Apri l 1958 , when hi s squadro n wa s transferred t o RA F Bentwaters . A t Bentwaters , Berk e als o bega n flying the F-101A Voodoo : a supersonic, nuclear strik e aircraf t noteworth y fo r the fac t tha t i t wa s incapabl e o f deliverin g conventiona l munitions . According t o Berke , "W e onl y planne d fo r a one-way , ma x penetratio n mission: we saw ourselves as the Top Guys." 2 3 This belief was confirme d by th e fac t tha t Robi n Olds , a famou s Worl d Wa r I I ace , an d Chappi e James becam e leader s o f the wing . In i960 , Berke' s caree r change d dramatically . Unde r th e Ai r Forc e Institute o f Technology Progra m (AFIT) , a program designe d t o improv e the educational qualit y o f the Air Force officer corps , Berke was assigne d to th e Universit y o f Wisconsi n a t Madiso n t o ear n a master' s degre e i n English. H e wa s thirty-thre e year s ol d whe n h e entere d th e program , and, a s h e recalled , "I t wa s a rea l shock— I wa s n o longe r o n cal l twenty-four hour s a day." 24 Fro m there , h e wa s assigne d t o th e Ai r Force Academy a s an Englis h professor . Although Berk e foun d hi s master' s degre e progra m stimulatin g an d

Life after Korea • 15 7 enjoyed teachin g cadets a t the Air Force Academy, his professorial caree r was a n anomal y fo r a fighter pilot . Around th e academy, he was referre d to b y hi s fello w professor s a s a "fighte r jock. " Paradoxically , whe n h e returned t o Bentwater s i n 1965 , his fello w fligh t sui t officer s nickname d him th e "poet " o r th e "professor. " Bac k a t Bentwaters , Berk e serve d a s an operation s office r fo r th e 92n d Squadro n an d assiste d th e squadro n in thei r transitio n t o th e F-4 C Phantom : th e "hottest " plan e o f th e Vietnam Wa r era . I n 1966 , h e becam e chie f o f operation s fo r th e 81s t Wing unti l 1968 , when h e was transferre d t o Vietnam . "A lot of people went to Vietnam becaus e it was good fo r thei r career , but I wasn't intereste d i n it for tha t reason, " recalle d Berke , He ha d bee n a fighter pilo t al l hi s lif e an d believe d tha t i t wa s hi s dut y t o accep t a combat tour . A s Berk e pu t it , "The y sa y tha t i f yo u tak e th e king' s shilling, yo u gott a g o t o war." 2 5 Berk e di d no t lobb y fo r an y particula r job becaus e h e wa s to o superstitiou s an d di d no t wan t an y persona l responsibility fo r hi s wa r assignment ; instead , h e allowe d th e compute r to assig n him . The compute r picke d th e 633r d Specia l Operation s Win g a t Pleik u i n South Vietnam . Whe n h e arrived , h e expecte d t o find a fighting outfi t similar t o th e 58t h Fighter-Bombe r Win g i n Korea ; instead , h e discov ered a miniatur e versio n o f th e Pentagon : "Ever y office r a t th e Pleik u tactical operation s cente r wa s a lieutenan t colonel , full y qualifie d t o direct th e entire ai r campaign." 26 While a t Pleiku , Berk e fle w th e C-4 7 "Goon y Bird" : i t "wa s th e lowest o f th e low " fo r a fighter pilot . Nevertheless , Berk e welcomed th e job o f drivin g a Worl d Wa r II-er a flyin g cab . In contras t t o th e overl y automated F-4 , th e C-4 7 w a s P u r e "brut e strengt h an d manua l con trols." In Octobe r 1968 , Berke finally receive d th e assignmen t fo r whic h ha d trained hi s entir e career— a comba t assignmen t i n F- 4 Phantom s a t Danang. A t Danang , Berk e fle w interdictio n an d close-ai r suppor t mis sions with th e 389t h Tactica l Fighte r Squadron . Berke lef t Danan g i n Februar y 196 9 an d wen t t o wor k a s a senio r duty office r a t Ta n So n Nhu t AFB , th e nerv e cente r fo r th e ai r wa r i n Vietnam. I t wa s thi s final headquarter s assignmen t whic h mos t disillu -

158 • Life after Korea sioned Berk e about th e war. As a flight suit officer , h e was frustrated tha t Air Forc e doctrine s o f "surprise , concentratio n o f force , an d mobilit y were bein g throw n ou t th e window." 27 H e wa s als o appalle d b y ho w officers lived . In contras t t o Korea , wher e everyon e live d i n draft y shacks, man y Ai r Forc e officer s i n Vietna m live d i n air-conditione d trailers an d swa m durin g thei r off-hour s i n Olympic-size d pools . Ther e were also more forty-year-old lieutenan t colonel s in this war tha n secon d lieutenants. Despit e hi s disgust , Berk e di d no t regre t hi s tour s i n Viet nam: "The y allowe d m e t o becom e par t o f a definin g even t fo r m y generation." 28 Berke left Vietna m i n August 196 9 t o serv e as an operation s office r a t Andrews AFB , Maryland, an d retire d fro m th e Ai r Forc e i n 1970 . Sinc e then, h e ha s worke d i n a variet y o f consultin g jobs—mos t i n defense related areas . At present, h e is the president o f Execuserv e International , Inc., a firm which assist s high-technology companie s i n conducting busi ness i n easter n Europe . H e als o i s activ e wit h th e 58t h Fighter-Bombe r Association an d th e Confederat e Ai r Force . O n weekends , Berk e don s a flight sui t an d flie s mission s fo r th e Civi l Air Patro l i n northern Virginia , where h e resides. 29

Howard Heine r Howard Heine r i s uniqu e amon g th e pilot s interviewe d fo r thi s stud y because h e is the onl y on e who chos e t o leav e the Air Forc e immediatel y after hi s Korea n Wa r enlistment . Unlik e man y o f th e pilots , though , Heiner ha d a four-yea r degre e whe n h e entere d th e servic e an d a stron g desire t o retur n t o hi s chose n profession : forestry . However , h e di d not completel y divorc e himsel f fro m th e Ai r Forc e upo n discharge . H e continued t o fl y fighters i n th e Ai r Nationa l Guar d unti l 1963 , when h e retired a s a major . Heiner starte d wor k a s a foreste r fo r a privat e lumbe r compan y i n 1955. H e lef t th e compan y i n 196 9 a s a n assistan t manage r responsibl e for finances an d production . In 1969 , he decided tha t h e wanted t o serv e overseas a s a forestr y consultan t wit h th e Unite d Methodis t Church . Between 196 9 an d 1992 , Heine r consulte d an d taugh t forestr y a t th e

Life after Korea • 15 9 college leve l i n Bolivia , Mexico , Libya , Chile , Somalia , an d Nicaragua . During thes e oversea s tours , he claim s h e "los t hi s innocence abou t U.S . foreign policy. " 30 H e witnesse d thre e civi l wars i n Bolivi a betwee n 196 9 and 1971 . He wa s i n Chil e durin g th e Pinoche t coup , an d wa s place d under hous e arres t fo r a yea r fo r aidin g politica l prisoner s tryin g t o escape Pinochet . Thes e experiences , claim s Heiner , compe l hi m "t o de fine himself a s antimilitary a t present. " 3 1 Currently, h e i s the Washington, D.C. , representativ e o n environmen tal issue s fo r th e Unite d Methodis t Church . H e als o recentl y attende d the Eart h Summi t i n Ri o D e Janeiro a s a delegat e fo r th e Unite d State s Department o f State . His specializatio n i s forestry an d deforestation. 32

Raymond "Dewey " Sturgeo n Raymond Sturgeo n neve r volunteere d t o fl y bomber s afte r Korea . How ever, a s luc k woul d hav e it , hi s first assignmen t afte r th e wa r wa s i n th e B-47 program a t Pinecastle AFB, Florida. Sturgeo n "fough t lik e mad" t o get ou t o f thi s assignmen t an d eve n wen t s o fa r a s t o fl y u p t o Albany , Georgia, to talk t o th e commander o f the 31s t Wing, a man name d Dav e Schillings. Afte r Sturgeo n storme d int o hi s offic e an d exclaime d tha t h e was a " a fighter pilo t an d wante d t o fl y fighters," Schillings , a Worl d War I I veteran , too k a n immediat e likin g t o Sturgeo n an d secure d a transfer fo r hi m t o Albany , Georgia , t o fl y F-84 S an d late r F-10 0 Supe r Sabres. In 1958 , Sturgeo n wa s transferre d t o Itazuke , Japan , t o fl y aler t missions fo r th e Formos a crisi s with th e 8t h Wing . Sturgeo n staye d wit h the 8t h Win g unti l 1962 , whe n h e wa s transferre d t o Seymou r Johnso n AFB, North Carolina , t o fl y th e F-10 5 Thunde r jet, o r "Thud " a s i t wa s often called . Originall y designe d a s a nuclea r strik e fighter, th e F-10 5 eventually becam e a workhors e fighter-bomber i n Vietnam . Th e F-105 , though, prove d t o b e extremely vulnerabl e t o groundfir e an d surface-to air missiles—ove r seve n hundred wer e los t durin g th e cours e o f the war . "If I had staye d i n the F-10 5 program," 3 3 explaine d Sturgeo n durin g hi s interview, " I probabl y woul d no t b e talkin g t o yo u righ t now." 3 4 Th e Thud wa s als o renowned fo r it s maintenance problems . During hi s thre e

160 • Life after Korea years a t Seymou r Johnson , Sturgeo n go t th e plan e o n th e runwa y onl y twice, and bot h time s he had t o abort . In Jul y 1965 , Sturgeo n transferre d t o F-4S , an d wa s slate d t o g o t o Vietnam. However , becaus e hi s tw o son s wer e blind , th e Ai r Forc e offered t o sen d hi m t o Hanscom AFB , Massachusetts, o n "humanitaria n grounds." Sturgeo n too k thi s assignmen t unde r th e convictio n tha t h e had alread y serve d hi s country durin g th e Korean War . Sturgeon retire d fro m th e Ai r Forc e a s a lieutenan t colone l i n 1967 . He the n worke d a s the chief tes t pilot fo r Raytheo n unti l 1983 . Sturgeon lives i n easter n Massachusett s wit h hi s wif e an d travel s aroun d th e western U.S . every two o r thre e years. 35

James Hagerstro m Hagerstrom sa w mor e aeria l comba t tha n an y pilo t i n thi s stud y wit h the exceptio n o f Robinso n Risner . In additio n t o shootin g dow n si x Japanese plane s i n Worl d Wa r I I an d 8. 5 MiG s i n Korea , Hagerstro m flew thirt y comba t mission s i n Vietna m wit h th e Sevent h Ai r Force . Despite these distinctions an d th e medals that came with them (includin g a Silve r Star and a Distinguished Flyin g Cross with five oak lea f clusters) , Hagerstrom neve r mad e i t to general . Unlike Brown , who m Hagerstro m once referre d t o a s on e "o f th e bes t damne d fighter pilot s I eve r met, " Hagerstrom wa s unabl e t o tempe r hi s fligh t sui t attitud e an d mak e th e transition fro m fighter pilo t t o Ai r Forc e bureaucrat . U p unti l hi s ver y last da y i n th e service , Hagerstro m neve r hesitate d t o le t hi s opinio n b e known eve n i f i t mean t ruinin g hi s chance s o f promotion . A s h e pu t it , "I had th e abilit y to spa r wit h fou r general s an d admiral s du e to th e fac t that I sho t dow n mor e tha n five aircraf t i n tw o war s an d mos t o f the m had neve r eve n see n a n enem y aircraft. " 3 6 When h e returned fro m Korea , Hagerstro m wa s promote d t o lieuten ant colone l an d place d i n charge o f a group o f F-86 s an d late r F-ioo s a t Foster AF B a t Victoria , Texas . In 195 6 h e becam e chie f o f th e fighter branch a t Fa r Eas t Ai r Force s i n F u Chu , Japan . On e yea r later , Tige r Wong, hea d o f th e Taiwanes e Ai r Force , invite d hi m t o Taiwa n t o teac h the Nationalist Chines e pilots ho w t o shoo t dow n MiGs . From Taiwan , Hagerstro m wen t t o Hawaii , wa s promote d t o ful l

Life after Korea • 16 1 colonel, an d wa s aske d t o evaluat e th e ai r force s o f U.S . allie s i n th e Pacific fo r Pacifi c Ai r Force s (PACAF) . H e als o se t u p a progra m t o evaluate th e ne w Sidewinde r air-to-ai r missile , an d becam e on e o f th e early advocate s fo r keepin g guns o n fighter aircraft . Thi s position place d him a t odd s wit h to p Ai r Forc e an d Nav y leadershi p wh o favore d equipping fighters suc h as the F-4 with missile s only. During the Vietna m War, Hagerstrom's positio n o n gun s was confirmed : afte r severa l aircraf t losses, th e Ai r Forc e reluctantl y bega n t o equi p it s top-of-the-lin e F- 4 with gun s i n addition t o th e missiles . Hagerstrom lef t PACA F in i96 0 an d joine d the Offic e o f the Inspecto r General a t Norto n AFB , California. A t Norton , h e heade d u p th e "Fly safe" progra m fo r fighters an d enrolle d i n la w schoo l a t Loyol a Univer sity i n Lo s Angeles . I n 196 2 h e attende d th e Industria l Colleg e o f th e Armed Service s an d finished hi s la w degre e a t Georgetown . Hagerstro m then serve d a s vic e win g commande r fo r a n F- 4 win g a t Georg e AF B before headin g t o Vietna m i n 1965 . In Vietnam , h e becam e th e directo r of th e combat operation s contro l cente r fo r th e Sevent h Air Force a t Ta n Son Nhut . Whil e i n thi s position , Hagerstro m becam e embroile d wit h General Willia m Westmorelan d ove r Ai r Forc e role s an d missions . Hag erstrom believe d tha t mor e ai r asset s shoul d b e devote d t o bombin g strategic target s suc h a s Hanoi . Westmoreland , o n th e othe r hand , wanted mor e ai r powe r fo r clos e ai r support . Hagerstro m complaine d that "w e use d t o bom b suspecte d V C thi s an d tha t an d i t wa s shee r bullshit. N o on e kne w wher e th e hel l th e target s were . Ho w ca n yo u count bodie s fro m th e air?" 3 7 Unfortunatel y fo r Hagerstrom , MiG s might hav e gotte n hi m promote d t o ful l colonel , bu t the y di d no t hel p him i n this argument, an d Westmorelan d ende d u p orderin g Hagerstro m out o f the theater . After spendin g Christma s o f 196 5 wit h hi s wif e i n Sa n Francisco , Hagerstrom ende d u p bac k i n Udor n i n 1966 . Brigadie r Genera l Joh n Murphy me t Hagerstro m o n th e flight lin e a t thre e i n th e mornin g an d said, "Goddam n Jim . W e nee d you. " Hagerstro m se t u p a n interdictio n operation i n four day s an d helpe d ru n th e cover t ai r war i n Laos . While i n Laos , Hagerstro m als o attempte d t o rescu e fello w Korea n War ac e Robinso n Risner , wh o wa s sho t dow n i n 1965 . Throug h a Filipino frien d name d Ton y Aquino , th e uncl e o f politicia n Corazo n

162 • Life after Korea Aquino, Hagerstro m discovere d tha t Risne r stil l wa s aliv e i n 1967 . H e then calle d anothe r friend , Walte r Cronkit e o f CB S News , an d aske d him t o hea d u p a fund-raise r t o bai l Risne r out . Jame s Donovan , th e lawyer wh o go t U- 2 pilo t Franci s Power s ou t o f th e Sovie t Union , wa s enlisted a s th e go-between . A t thi s point , th e Stat e Departmen t phone d Hagerstrom an d tol d hi m to bac k off . Fo r Hagerstrom, thi s was the fina l straw: " I got disgusted with the whole thing and resigned, " h e explained . "Vietnam wa s wrong, w e shouldn't hav e bee n there." 3 8 The firs t thin g h e di d upo n retiremen t wa s buil d a sailboa t an d sai l around th e Pacific . H e the n practice d la w i n Gua m an d serve d a s a n adviser t o th e island's leaders . In 1992 , Hagerstro m spok e o f purchasin g a n ultraligh t airplan e an d "flying 50 0 fee t fro m th e groun d chasin g buzzards , hawks , an d eagle s with th e win d blowin g i n you r face. " Flyin g use d t o b e "fun " fo r Hagerstrom, bu t a s his career progressed , i t became mor e controlled an d bureaucratic: "Peopl e don' t hav e muc h fu n flyin g anymore . The y aren' t allowed t o hav e fun . Everythin g i s modeled an d pre-planned. 39 Hagers trom die d o f cance r i n Jul y 199 4 an d wa s burie d wit h ful l militar y honors a t Arlingto n Nationa l Cemetery . Clearly, a s thes e vignette s illustrate , th e pilot s i n thi s stud y overwhelm ingly chos e t o continu e flyin g i n th e Ai r Forc e afte r Korea . A s a conse quence, the y als o attende d servic e schools , received Ai r Force-sponsore d schooling throug h AFI T o r Bootstrap , worke d i n othe r militar y job s besides flying , an d ros e withi n th e Air Forc e bureaucracy . Th e Ai r Forc e enabled mos t t o develo p marketabl e skill s outsid e o f piloting—skill s they coul d eventuall y parla y int o job s i n th e civilia n sector . Turner , fo r example, develope d a n expertis e i n civilia n aviatio n an d eventuall y landed a position wit h th e NTSB ; Pomeroy becam e a skilled administra tor an d eventuall y foun d wor k i n charitabl e foundations ; Berk e becam e a securit y polic y specialist ; Baile y secure d a positio n i n airfiel d manage ment; Hagerstro m earne d a la w degre e whil e i n th e Ai r Forc e an d eventually becam e a successfu l attorney ; an d Crocket t worke d i n th e area o f equa l opportunity . Despite diversification , maturation , an d education , mos t manage d t o

Life after Korea • 16 3 maintain thei r fligh t sui t attitud e eve n i f i t mean t losin g a promotio n o r two. Mos t hi t a "glas s ceiling " a t th e ran k o f colonel . However , a s Hagerstrom onc e remarked , i t i s a t tha t stag e wher e "MiG s star t t o matter les s and powe r politic s tak e over. " Unfortunatel y fo r Hagerstro m and man y others , thei r "wild-ass " time s i n Kore a di d no t prepar e the m for thi s "game. " Once retire d fro m th e military , however , man y pilot s foun d excellen t outlets fo r fligh t sui t panache . Crocket t play s tennis , Turne r skis , Berk e flies plane s wit h th e Confederat e Ai r Forc e an d th e Civi l Ai r Patrol , Tomlinson travel s t o exoti c land s wit h Rockwel l International , Sturgeo n travels th e West , Baile y hunt s game , Pomero y cruise s th e Eas t Coas t i n his powerboat, an d Hagerstro m planne d t o purchase a n ultralight befor e he died . Far an d awa y th e mos t importan t outle t fo r fligh t sui t attitude , though, ar e th e annua l reunion s thes e me n hav e wit h fello w pilots . These reunion s ar e organize d aroun d unit s (th e 58t h Fighter-Bombe r Association), aircraf t typ e (th e F-8 6 Sabr e Association) , an d eve n b y Aviation Cade t clas s (Clas s 52H) . Som e pilot s als o arrang e informa l reunions wit h clos e friends . O n Sturgeon' s traile r trips , he ofte n stop s t o visit ol d friend s i n the Ai r Force , an d Pomero y recentl y wen t t o Englan d to visi t friend s h e me t durin g hi s RA F tours . Throug h thes e reunions , pilots attemp t t o reliv e thei r glor y days , an d catc h u p wit h ol d friends . Interestingly enough , reunion s ar e alway s fligh t sui t affair s wher e statu s is base d upo n havin g flow n together , no t upo n a pilot' s ran k a t retire ment o r civilia n status . Th e F-8 6 Sabr e Pilot s Associatio n state s i n it s recruitment literatur e tha t "i t i s a 'Jock' s Club ' s o we mak e n o effor t t o cater t o th e elit e amon g u s [includin g sevent y retire d generals , tw o senators, on e congressman , an d tw o astronauts] . W e acknowledg e an d congratulate the m o n thei r achievement s bu t retai n th e camaraderi e shared b y airmen." 40 Thi s camaraderie, in turn, stems from th e collectiv e flight sui t belie f tha t "th e bes t dam n pilot s wh o eve r steppe d int o a cockpit belon g t o th e F-8 6 Sabr e Association." 41

—•

• n •

• —

Epilogue

Most o f th e pilot s interviewe d fo r thi s boo k lamen t th e en d o f th e fligh t suit era . Th e Ai r Forc e o f today , argu e pilot s suc h a s Hagerstro m an d Berke, i s to o big , to o bureaucratic , an d n o longe r encourage s initiativ e and independenc e i n it s pilots . Instead , al l missio n plannin g i s don e i n the Pentagon , an d mission s themselve s ar e closel y controlle d an d moni tored b y Airborne Earl y Warning Plane s (AWACS) . The pilo t wh o i s to o aggressive an d pursue s a plane int o unauthorize d ai r spac e i s summaril y court-martialed. Similarly , th e pilo t wh o display s hi s fligh t sui t attitud e at a pilot's convention i s immediately give n an Article 15 . After all , there are plent y o f othe r pilot s wh o wan t t o fly F-15 S an d ar e willin g t o behave themselve s fo r th e privilege : th e Ai r Force , i n short , n o longe r has t o tolerat e flight sui t excesses . Veteran flight sui t types , no t surpris ingly, argu e tha t thi s i s a travesty . "W e nee d t o encourag e thi s typ e o f behavior," claim s pilo t Jerr y Minton , "becaus e i n combat , thi s i s wha t motivates th e pilo t t o fight an d fly." Th e experience s o f th e Ai r Forc e i n the Korean War would ten d t o confirm Minton' s poin t o f view. However, there were definit e liabilitie s tha t cam e with flight sui t attitude . One suc h liability was alcoho l abuse . While officers i n the 1950 s wer e less wel l informe d abou t th e danger s o f drinkin g an d operatin g aircraf t than w e ar e today , mos t understoo d tha t hangover s di d no t enhanc e combat effectiveness . Hagerstro m neve r dran k becaus e h e wante d t o b e at 10 0 percen t whe n h e wen t u p t o fac e th e MiGs . Alcoho l wa s als o banned fro m man y dayrooms , an d commandin g officer s warne d junio r 164

Epilogue • 16 5 birdmen tha t "Kore a wa s th e easies t plac e i n th e worl d t o becom e a n alcoholic." Nevertheless , pilot s di d fl y drunk , an d som e lef t th e theate r as alcoholics. One pilot i n the stud y claimed tha t th e saddes t point o f hi s post-Korea caree r was running int o Jim Lowe , a famous Korea n War ac e who becam e a n alcoholic. 1 "H e wa s a los t soul, " remembere d th e pilot . "There was simpl y no plac e for thi s yahoo i n the moder n Ai r Force. " Another resul t o f fligh t sui t attitud e i n th e Korea n Wa r wa s tha t i t encouraged officer s t o visi t prostitutes. No t onl y di d suc h practice s se t a bad exampl e fo r enliste d me n an d facilitat e th e sprea d o f venerea l dis ease, bu t the y als o create d tension s fo r marrie d officers . M . J . Baile y looked dow n upo n th e officers i n Japan wh o solicite d prostitutes. Turner , on th e othe r hand , "thoroughl y enjoye d himsel f i n Japan," an d rational ized prostitutio n a s a basi c fac t o f lif e fo r th e warrior . T o reconcil e hi s guilt ove r sleepin g wit h prostitutes , h e eve n brough t hi s wif e t o Japa n after th e wa r t o mee t th e famou s ladie s o f th e Sabr e Dance r establish ment. Perri n Gower , likewise , ha d nothin g bu t fon d memorie s o f My oshi's Bordell o i n Tokyo . "I'l l neve r forge t m y first nigh t there, " h e exclaimed. "On e pilo t wen t fro m roo m t o room , breakin g throug h screen walls as he went. " Clearly, such behavio r woul d hav e bee n unacceptabl e fo r a n office r i n the Continenta l Unite d State s (CONUS) . Ye t fligh t sui t attitud e contin ued throug h th e Vietna m War ; i n fact , America' s first ac e i n tha t war , Randy Cunningham , wa s turne d dow n severa l time s fo r a regula r com mission becaus e o f "immaturity." 2 Durin g th e Col d War , th e Ai r Forc e hierarchy viewe d fligh t sui t attitud e a s a necessary evil . The Paul Turner s of th e servic e wer e to o usefu l t o discard . I f on e go t ou t o f hand , h e wa s transferred t o a fligh t sui t outpos t suc h a s Wheelu s Ai r Forc e Bas e i n Libya, Osa n i n Korea , Zaragoz a i n Spain , o r RA F Bensonhurs t i n En gland. Onc e remove d fro m CONUS , thes e me n wer e les s threatenin g t o the Ai r Forc e an d it s reputation. Furthermore , the y provide d th e servic e with a well-sprin g o f talen t fo r futur e wars . I t i s wort h rememberin g that man y o f th e pilot s i n thi s boo k serve d admirabl y i n Vietnam , an d that Mirama r an d Nellis , th e fighter school s tha t create d th e to p pilot s of th e Vietnam conflict , wer e staffe d wit h Korea n Wa r veterans . The fligh t sui t office r prove d t o b e s o valuable i n wa r becaus e h e wa s

166 • Epilogue willing t o perfor m almos t an y mission . Eve n whe n thei r les s spirite d wingmen chos e t o remai n behind , Hagerstro m an d Turne r neve r hesi tated t o cros s th e Yal u i n searc h o f MiGs . Baile y o r Heine r neve r shie d away fro m a heavily guarde d bridge , and Pomero y fle w hi s unarmed T- 6 over Nort h Korea n trenche s o n a dail y basis . Twent y year s late r i n Vietnam, man y o f thes e fligh t sui t officer s woul d continu e t o perfor m the mos t dangerou s missions : not e tha t Risner , Brown , an d Tomlinso n were sho t dow n fo r thei r overzealousnes s i n Southeas t Asia . More significantly , fligh t sui t attitud e instille d pilot s wit h a sens e o f purpose an d combat motivatio n tha t was sorely needed in the individual istic world o f fighter warfare . Whil e o n leave in Japan, M . J. Bailey kne w implicitly tha t hi s chance s o f surviva l wer e no t good ; bu t rathe r tha n request a des k assignmen t o r succum b t o th e fea r o f flying , h e returne d to Kore a t o continu e flyin g dangerou s an d ofte n futil e interdictio n mis sions. Likewise , Hagerstrom coul d easil y hav e lef t Kore a wit h seve n an d a hal f kills , bu t h e chos e t o violat e regulation s an d fl y on e las t missio n against th e MiGs . Fligh t sui t attitude , i n short , motivate d pilot s t o fight in muc h th e sam e wa y tha t grou p dynamic s motivat e th e ordinar y infantryman. At th e beginnin g o f th e Korea n War , th e Ai r Forc e ha d onl y 411,27 7 military personnel ; b y 1953 , tha t numbe r ha d increase d t o 977,593. 3 During thi s perio d o f wa r an d rapi d growth , th e Ai r Forc e gav e fligh t suit officer s a lon g leash . A s lon g a s the y continue d t o dow n MiG s an d bridges i n impressiv e numbers , thes e officer s coul d d o a s the y please d during thei r off-hours . Whe n th e wa r ended , however , s o to o di d th e "wild-ass days. " Fligh t sui t officer s woul d hav e t o scal e dow n thei r antics i n th e Unite d States . Thos e wh o wante d t o ris e i n th e Ai r Forc e would hav e t o tur n i n thei r fligh t suit s fo r Clas s B uniforms an d lear n how t o becom e goo d staf f officers . Fortunatel y fo r th e mos t recalcitrant , flight sui t assignment s di d exis t durin g th e Col d Wa r a t oversea s bases : George Berke , for example , doubte d h e would hav e bee n abl e t o surviv e in the post-Kore a Ai r Forc e i f it had no t bee n fo r a serie s of assignment s at RA F Bensonhurst . Furthermore , a s man y o f thes e me n reache d th e field grad e ranks , th e Vietna m Wa r onc e agai n provide d the m wit h a n outlet fo r thei r aggressio n an d a route t o futur e promotions . I t i s doubt -

Epilogue • 16 7 ful tha t eithe r Frederic k Blesse , Robinso n Risner , o r Ear l Brow n woul d have becom e flag officer s withou t th e Vietna m War . Thes e me n di d no t possess th e educationa l pedigre e t o mov e u p throug h staf f assignments : what spare d thes e pilot s an d other s lik e the m fro m obscurit y wer e goo d stick an d rudde r skills , ampl e courage , an d a health y dos e o f flight sui t attitude. As Virgil put it , "Fortun e favor s th e bold." 4

•~^~I

I

Appendi x 1 # #

•^— •

Air Interdictio n i n Korea : An Operationa l Overvie w

In th e year s followin g Worl d Wa r II , Air Chief s o f Staf f Car l Spaat z an d Hoyt Vandenber g encourage d thei r servic e t o focu s mos t o f it s attentio n upon developin g a credibl e strik e forc e o f intercontinenta l bombers . These me n believe d tha t th e nex t wa r woul d b e a full-fledge d nuclea r war wit h th e Sovie t Union , an d thei r grea t hop e wa s tha t ai r powe r would single-handedl y wi n tha t conflict . Muc h t o thei r dismay , Ameri ca's next wa r woul d b e a limited wa r i n a n agricultura l region , agains t a lesser develope d nation . Th e Korea n Wa r wa s th e ultimat e parado x fo r postwar America n ai r power , fo r i t wa s a struggl e wher e a Worl d Wa r II-style strategi c bombin g campaig n wa s no t feasible . A s a n agricultura l nation, Nort h Kore a possesse d ver y fe w citie s an d larg e industries , an d China, it s primar y sourc e fo r manufacture d goods , wa s off-limit s t o American bombing . Hence , th e Ai r Forc e ha d t o abando n it s strategi c bombing doctrin e an d develo p ne w mission s fo r thi s limited war . Close ai r suppor t o f groun d troop s wa s on e missio n whic h th e Ai r Force coul d perform , thoug h i t di d no t particularl y relis h thi s typ e o f bombing. Afte r fighting har d i n th e lat e fortie s t o gai n independenc e from th e Army , th e las t thin g th e ai r leadershi p wante d t o d o wa s t o provide secondary suppor t fo r th e Army i n the form o f airborne artillery . Consequently, the air leadership looked t o ai r interdiction a s the primar y air powe r missio n o f th e war . In hi s instruction s t o Genera l Stratemeyer , the 195 0 Fa r Eas t Ai r Force s (FEAF ) commander , Vandenber g stresse d 169

ijo • Appendix i "the vita l necessit y o f destructio n o f Nort h Korea n objective s nort h o f the 38t h parallel " eve n thoug h th e Suprem e U.N . commander , Genera l Douglas MacArthur , explicitl y forbad e suc h non-battlefiel d suppor t op erations durin g thi s period . Accordin g t o Vandenberg , "I t [was ] axiom atic tha t tactica l operation s o n th e battlefiel d canno t b e full y effectiv e unless ther e i s simultaneou s interdictio n an d destructio n o f source s be hind th e battlefield." x In short , th e stag e wa s se t fo r a single-service , ai r interdiction solutio n t o th e Korean War . In the end , ove r 47. 8 percen t o f all U.S . comba t ai r sortie s (USAF , USN , USMC ) woul d b e devote d t o interdiction missions . B y comparison , onl y 0. 2 percen t wer e dedicate d to strategi c bombing , 18. 5 percen t t o clos e ai r support , 18. 6 percen t t o counterair, 13. 1 percen t t o reconnaissance , an d 1. 8 percen t t o antisub marine patrol. 2

Air Interdictio n durin g th e Earl y Stage s o f th e War , June 1950-Novembe r 195 0 Initially, ai r interdictio n wa s employe d a s a mean s o f bluntin g th e ad vance o f th e Nort h Korea n People' s Arm y (NKPA ) towar d Pusan . Th e NKPA possesse d ove r 180,00 0 soldier s an d 30 0 Sovie t manufacture d T-34 tanks . Opposin g thi s forc e wa s th e 82,000-ma n Republi c o f Kore a Army (ROKA) : essentially a larg e militi a wit h poorl y traine d troops , n o tanks, an d ver y fe w piece s o f heav y equipment . T o reinforce thi s rabble , the U.S . sen t th e 24t h Divisio n t o Korea , bu t on e divisio n wa s hardl y enough t o tur n th e tide o f th e battle . What save d th e U.N . force s fro m a Dunkirk-type evacuatio n a t Pusa n wa s th e combinatio n o f tenaciou s fighting b y the groun d force s an d th e skillfu l employmen t o f ai r power . This ai r power , overall , consiste d mainl y o f single-engine , tactica l fighter plane s suc h a s th e jet-powere d F-80 C an d propelle r drive n F-5 1 fighter-bombers.3 Originall y designe d a s a n interceptor , th e F-8 0 wa s initially handicapped b y its short range an d lac k o f bombin g racks , but i t eventually becam e a workable fighter-bomber afte r certai n modification s were made . Fo r example , wit h th e additio n o f standar d win g tanks , it s operational radiu s jumpe d fro m 10 0 miles to 225 , and b y the en d o f th e campaign, th e rang e wa s increase d t o 35 0 mile s wit h enlarge d tank s

Appendix i • 17 1 built i n Misawa , Japan. 4 Th e bom b rac k proble m di d no t improv e during th e Pusa n fight, bu t wha t th e F-8 0 lacke d a s a bomber , i t mad e up fo r a s a strafer . Je t propulsio n eliminate d propelle r torqu e an d mad e this plane's gun s fa r mor e accurat e tha n th e F-51's. 5 The F-8 0 coul d als o carry u p t o sixtee n high-velocit y aeria l rocket s (HVAR) . A single 5-inc h HVAR coul d disabl e a T-3 4 i f aime d a t th e tank' s treads , bu t "mos t pilots go t th e bes t result s whe n the y fired a salv o o r rippl e o f al l fou r o f their rockets. " Bu t becaus e th e HVA R wa s not alway s successfu l agains t the front armo r o f a T-34, FEAF began usin g the more powerful antitan k aerial rocket s (ATAR ) b y the en d o f July. 6 Late r i n the war, the F-8 0 wa s modified t o carr y tw o 500-poun d bombs ; bu t fo r th e Pusa n fight, th e primary bom b delivere r wa s the F-51. 7 Although vulnerabl e to ground fire because o f its water-cooled engine , the F-5 1 prove d t o b e a n effectiv e groun d suppor t aircraf t becaus e i t could operat e clos e to the front line s from improvised , dir t ai r strip s an d carry u p t o si x 150-gallo n napal m bombs . Napal m prove d idea l agains t tanks. No t onl y di d i t easil y ignit e th e rubbe r i n a T-34' s treads , i t als o did no t requir e a direc t hi t t o destro y a target : on e 150-gallo n bom b could incinerat e a 2 7 5-foot-long b y 100-foot-wid e pear-shape d foot print. 8 In a metho d whic h late r becam e know n a s "battlefiel d ai r interdic tion," fighters an d B-2 6 mediu m bomber s attempte d t o wea r dow n th e NKPA b y strikin g reinforcements , supplies , an d othe r second-echelo n targets movin g towar d th e battlefiel d alon g various suppl y routes . Tank s and othe r target s wer e locate d b y mean s o f arme d reconnaissance . Ac cording t o on e pilot, yo u wer e "allotte d a stretch o f roa d t o patro l fo r a given perio d o f time , with instruction s t o shoo t u p anythin g tha t move d upon it." 9 Surprisingly , thi s approac h produce d excellen t results . Th e rough terrai n i n Sout h Kore a compelle d th e NKP A t o launc h thei r tan k thrusts alon g th e fe w road s tha t existed , makin g thes e vehicle s ver y eas y to locat e b y air . Th e NKP A als o generall y move d thei r convoy s b y da y and rarel y assigne d anti-aircraf t unit s t o protec t them . Whe n convoy s did trave l a t night , light s wer e carelessl y lef t on . Onc e discovered , troo p and tan k convoy s were generally poorly defended . A s a result, the effect s of interdictio n ofte n prove d devastating . O n 1 0 July , fo r example , a

172 • Appendix i flight o f F-8o s discovere d a large convoy "backe d u p bumpe r t o bumpe r behind a destroye d bridge " a t Pyongtaek , an d b y th e en d o f th e day , these pilots , alon g wit h reinforcements , manage d t o destro y 11 7 trucks , seven half-tracks, an d thirty-eigh t tanks. 10 By 23 Septembe r 1950 , the Fifth Ai r Force had flow n "21,97 9 sorties , of whic h 5224 , o r 24% , were devote d t o interdiction." 11 It , alon g wit h the FEA F Bomber Comman d an d Nav y units , claimed t o hav e destroye d 875 vehicles , 1,31 4 rai l cars , 28 0 locomotives , 14 0 bridges , an d "main tained 4 7 rai l cuts." 1 2 S o vita l wa s thi s ai r campaig n t o th e defens e o f Pusan tha t Genera l Walto n Walker , th e commande r o f th e U.S . Eight h Army i n Korea , mad e th e followin g statemen t t o th e USA F Evaluatio n Board i n Novembe r 1950 : " I wil l gladl y la y m y card s righ t o n th e tabl e and stat e that i f it had no t bee n for th e air suppor t tha t w e received fro m the Fift h Ai r Forc e w e woul d no t hav e bee n abl e t o sta y i n Korea." 13 During a time of acute interservic e rivalry betwee n th e Army an d th e Air Force, suc h prais e wa s unusua l bu t no t unfounded . In Septembe r an d October o f 1950 , afte r MacArthur' s Incho n invasio n ha d pushe d th e NKPA bac k acros s th e 38t h Parallel , U.N . researc h team s surveye d th e main axe s o f th e NKP A attack . Thes e team s locate d 18 0 destroye d NKPA tanks an d determine d tha t 10 2 of them ha d bee n destroye d b y ai r action, 3 9 b y tan k fire, an d anothe r 3 9 b y artiller y an d bazook a fire. In short , a clea r majorit y o f th e tank s ha d bee n incapacitate d b y ai r power. 14 Tank kill s alone , though , di d no t sto p th e NKP A advanc e o n Pusan . Interdiction straine d th e NKP A suppl y syste m nea r th e breakin g point . The record s o f a typica l NKP A divisio n revea l tha t fro m 2 5 June t o 1 5 July, i t receive d 1 8 ton s o f food , 1 2 ton s o f PO L (petroleum , oil , an d lubricants), an d 16 6 ton s o f ordnance ; b y contrast , th e sam e divisio n only receive d 2. 5 ton s o f food , 2 tons o f POL , an d 1 7 ton s o f ordnanc e in th e perio d fro m 1 6 Augus t t o 2 0 September . In individua l terms , thi s meant tha t th e averag e foo d ratio n droppe d fro m 80 0 gram s o f rice , dried fish, meat , an d vegetable s a t the beginnin g o f th e campaig n t o 40 0 grams o f straigh t ric e b y th e end. 15 S o acut e wa s thi s foo d shortag e problem tha t th e capture d chie f o f staf f o f th e NKPA' s 1 3 th Infantr y Division reporte d tha t "5 0 percen t o f th e personnel ha d los t th e stamin a necessary t o fight i n mountainou s terrain. " Th e sam e office r als o com -

Appendix i • 17 3 plained tha t hi s divisio n wa s dow n t o 200-25 0 shell s an d onl y a "ver y small amoun t o f gasoline " o n 2 1 Septembe r 1950 , th e da y h e wa s captured. 16 Clearly, interdiction ha d destroye d a large number o f NKPA "capital " weapons an d wa s havin g noticeabl e effect s o n NKP A performanc e b y the en d o f Septembe r 1950 . However , i t shoul d b e emphasize d tha t th e Battle o f th e Pusa n Perimete r wa s hardl y a single-servic e effort . Wha t ended th e Pusa n battl e wa s no t strategi c interdictio n pe r se , bu t th e destruction o f th e NKP A advanc e a t th e Nakton g Rive r betwee n 3 1 August an d 2 3 Septembe r b y th e Eight h Arm y an d b y Ma c Arthur's Inchon invasio n o f 1 5 September . I t wa s thes e action s tha t finally com pelled th e NKPA , weakene d significantl y b y ai r power , t o institut e a general withdrawa l fro m Sout h Korea .

Later Interdictio n Campaigns , December 1950-Ma y 195 2 During MacArthur' s driv e t o th e Yalu , FEA F continue d t o engag e i n close air suppor t an d battlefiel d ai r interdictio n missions . However, afte r the Chines e interventio n o n 2 6 November 1950 , FEAF began t o shif t it s focus fro m second-echelo n target s clos e to th e main battl e lin e to suppl y targets wel l t o th e Nort h Korea n rear . Th e basi c plan , whic h eventuall y became known a s "STRANGLE " an d late r "SATURATE, " calle d fo r ai r power t o isolat e completel y th e Communis t front-lin e forc e fro m it s supplies, an d compe l Communis t negotiator s a t Panmunjo m t o acqui esce quickly t o th e U.N . demand s fo r a n armistice . These demand s wer e as follows : 1. Th e establishmen t o f a cease-fir e alon g th e militaril y defensibl e line of contac t betwee n th e armies . 2. A joint commissio n t o supervis e th e truce . 3. Th e exclusio n o f al l politica l question s no t directl y relate d t o th e proposed cease-fire. 17 Unfortunately fo r FEA F planners , STRANGLE/SATURAT E faile d t o live u p t o it s hig h expectations . Lac k o f coordinatio n wit h groun d troops, inadequat e technology , highl y effectiv e Communis t countermea -

174 • Appendix i sures, an d th e lo w Communis t suppl y requirement s hindere d th e cam paign fro m da y i . The first concerte d attemp t b y FEA F t o single-handedl y isolat e th e battlefield wa s Interdictio n Pla n 4 ( 5 Decembe r 1950-3 0 Ma y 1952) , which ha d divide d Nort h Kore a int o a serie s o f eleve n prioritize d inter diction zones . I t calle d fo r FEA F B-29 S t o attac k th e mos t importan t zones first: th e rai l bridge s a t Sinuiju , th e chok e poin t a t Manpojin , an d the rail yards a t Pyongyang. The problem wit h thi s zone syste m was tha t it enable d th e Communis t logistician s t o mov e force s throug h lowe r priority zone s whil e th e hig h priorit y one s wer e bein g attacked . I t als o enabled the m t o concentrat e thei r ai r defense s i n th e highe r priorit y zones—a difficul t challenge , a s FEA F foun d ou t o n 1 2 Apri l 1952 . O n this day , "big " da y fo r th e campaign , a strik e forc e o f forty-eigh t B-29S attackin g th e transportatio n cente r o f Sinuij u encountere d be tween seventy-tw o an d eighty-fou r MiGs , an d los t thre e Superfortresse s in th e ensuin g melee . Afte r thi s encounter , FEA F commande r Georg e Stratemeyer cancele d furthe r Bombe r Comman d attack s agains t thes e vital bridges. 18 B y May , wit h B-2 9 losse s u p t o eigh t fo r th e month , Stratemeyer thre w i n his cards fo r goo d an d redirecte d hi s B-29S agains t airfield targets . Fo r th e remainde r o f th e war , interdictio n mission s would b e performe d primaril y b y th e fighter-bombers o f th e Fift h Ai r Force, the tactical aviatio n componen t o f FEAF. 19 The Fift h Ai r Force' s approac h t o interdictio n wa s differen t tha n Bomber Command' s ye t equall y problematic . Sinc e Februar y 1951 , i t had bee n concentratin g it s effort s agains t suppl y trucks , roads , an d highway bridge s betwee n railhead s nea r th e 39t h paralle l an d th e Com munist fron t line . By hitting th e vehicular suppl y syste m i n a zone whic h fell 5 0 mile s behin d th e Communis t fron t line , Fift h Ai r Forc e planner s believed the y ha d th e bes t interdictio n formul a fo r winnin g th e war . What the y faile d t o recogniz e wa s th e devastatin g consequence s tha t countermeasures coul d hav e o n minimizin g th e effectivenes s o f suc h a strategy, especiall y a s th e battl e lin e becam e increasingl y stati c i n Ma y 19 51 (th e dat e th e campaig n wa s formall y designate d a s STRANGL E I). 20 Flak trap s wreake d havo c o n slow-flyin g F-51 S an d B-26S . Suppl y

Appendix i • 17 5 bunkers, protecte d wit h anti-aircraf t artiller y (AAA) , prove d almos t invulnerable t o th e 150-gallo n napal m bomb s carrie d b y mos t F-51S . Finally, roa d repai r crews , statione d ever y 3 kilometer s alon g mai n routes, repaire d roads , detoure d truck s aroun d damage d bridges , an d removed unexplode d cluste r bomb s "b y detonatin g the m wit h rifl e fir e or draggin g rop e acros s th e stretc h o f roa d affected." 21 Th e Communis t forces als o stepped u p their us e of secondar y road s an d pac k animal s fo r transporting supplies . S o successfu l wer e th e Communist s i n thwartin g STRANGLE I tha t b y earl y July , th e U.N . Comman d calculate d tha t these forces wer e stockpilin g ove r 80 0 tons o f supplie s per day. 22 Hence , in Augus t 1951 , FEAF shifte d th e focu s o f interdictio n t o th e railway s but maintaine d objective s identica l t o thos e o f STRANGL E I . This ne w effort wa s appropriatel y code-name d STRANGL E II . Despite th e problem s encountere d wit h Interdictio n Pla n 4 , FEA F returned t o rai l bombin g i n the STRANGL E I I effort fo r severa l reasons : there were ver y fe w rai l lines , they wer e eas y t o identif y b y air , an d the y required heav y equipmen t t o repair. 23 Th e syste m als o transporte d th e bulk o f th e Communis t supplies : th e 3,00 0 ton s require d b y th e front line Communis t force s eac h da y coul d b e transporte d wit h onl y 12 0 boxcars; b y comparison , i t too k 6,00 0 truck s t o accomplis h th e sam e task—18.2 percen t o f the entir e Sovie t an d Chines e monthly productio n of 2-to n trucks. 24 Furthermore , FEA F calculate d tha t b y transferrin g from rai l t o trucks , th e Communis t force s woul d los e 5,00 0 truck s a month fro m mechanica l failur e an d ai r attack—1 5 percen t o f th e esti mated Chines e an d Russia n truc k production. 25 Thi s figure , FEA F be lieved, wa s muc h highe r tha n th e Chines e o r Soviet s wer e willin g t o bear.26 The specifi c goa l o f th e campaig n wa s t o reduc e dramaticall y th e capacity o f th e railroad s i n ninet y day s an d completel y shu t the m dow n in si x months. 27 B-29S , with heav y 2,000-poun d bombs , wer e assigne d to demolis h th e rai l bridge s a t Pyongyang , Sonchon , Sunchon , Sinanju , and Huichon. 28 Mor e accurat e fighter-bomber s wit h smalle r 500-poun d bombs wer e charge d wit h cuttin g th e mai n north-sout h line s betwee n Sonchon an d Sariwon , Huicho n an d Kunu-ri , an d Kunu-r i an d Son chon. 29 Th e Nav y ai r unit s allotte d t o STRANGL E I I agree d t o cu t th e

iy6 • Appendix i lateral rai l lin e betwee n Samdong-n i an d Kowon , an d th e mai n north south lin e between Kilchu an d Pyonggang . The Sevent h Fleet also agree d to kee p twenty-seve n previousl y destroye d highwa y an d rai l bridge s ou t of actio n shoul d th e Communis t force s attemp t t o repai r them . Finally , B-26 Night Intruder s an d Nav y F4U-5 N Nigh t Corsair s wer e ordere d t o maintain pressur e o n th e roa d syste m b y attackin g vehicl e convoy s a t night. 30 Initially, STRANGL E I I appeare d t o b e workin g well . Afte r th e first month o f th e campaign , 4 0 percen t o f th e rai l lin e fro m Pyongyan g t o Sariwon, 7 0 percen t o f th e lin e betwee n Sinuij u an d Sinanju , an d 9 0 percent fro m Sinanj u t o Pyongyan g wa s reduce d t o on e track. 31 How ever, as the campaig n developed , s o too di d enem y flak an d countermea sures. Durin g August , flak destroye d 3 0 Fift h Ai r Forc e aircraf t an d damaged anothe r 24 ; b y October , thi s figure jumpe d t o 3 3 an d 239 , respectively. A s a consequence , th e Fift h Ai r Force , a s o f October , wa s devoting 2 0 percent o f it s sorties to flak suppression. 32 Even worse , the MiG situatio n wa s als o becomin g mor e serious . Ne w drop tank s installe d i n Octobe r enable d th e MiG-1 5 t o fly a s fa r sout h as Pyongyang. "Trains " o f betwee n sixt y an d eight y MiGs would strea m across th e borde r hopin g t o evad e th e F-8 6 Mi G patrols , th e so-calle d MIGCAPs. A s train s encountere d U.N . Sabres , flights woul d brea k of f and battl e th e F-86 s whil e th e mai n trai n kep t headin g sout h i n searc h of fighter-bombers o r bombers . I n September , MiG s compelle d th e Fift h Air Forc e t o hal t fighter-bomber operation s nort h o f th e Chongcho n River; i n lat e October , th e los s o f five B-29S in thre e day s convince d th e FEAF Bombe r Comman d t o hal t al l dayligh t bombin g raid s wit h B-29S, a fea t whic h eve n th e Germa n Luftwaff e ha d neve r bee n abl e t o accomplish. 33 Given th e increasingl y hostil e comba t environment , FEA F decide d t o experiment wit h wha t becam e know n a s "saturation' 5 tactic s i n Januar y 1952 t o accelerat e th e collaps e o f th e Nort h Korea n rai l system . Th e rationale o f saturatio n tactic s wa s tha t b y concentratin g a bombin g effort agains t a rathe r smal l are a o f th e rai l system , FEA F could preven t all repair s fro m bein g accomplished , thereb y completel y denyin g th e enemy th e us e o f tha t area . Thi s tacti c wa s first employe d i n Januar y

Appendix i • 17 7 against "narro w defiles " wher e the main latera l railways crossed a majo r north-south roadwa y a t Wadong. 34 Know n a s th e Wadong chok e point , this area wa s bombe d round-the-cloc k b y B-29S and B-26 S for forty-fou r days, wit h roughl y fou r thousan d 500-poun d bombs. 35 Th e result s o f this operation , though , wer e meager . Th e rai l lin e wa s close d fo r onl y one week. 36 Although th e Wadon g effor t wa s les s tha n satisfactory , FEA F never theless implemente d saturatio n tactic s o n a broade r scal e o n 3 Marc h 1952. Thi s plan , code-name d "SATURATE, " focuse d Fift h Ai r Forc e and Nav y fighter bombe r attack s o n shor t section s o f th e trac k t o prevent thos e section s fro m bein g repaired . Additionally , nigh t bomber s were ordere d t o attac k th e sam e target s t o achiev e a round-the-cloc k effort.37 Despit e th e intensiv e effort s o f FEAF , however , SATURAT E failed t o achiev e significan t results : th e Communis t force s simpl y di verted supplie s aroun d chok e point s usin g porters an d trucks . By May 1952 , two thousan d militar y aircraf t ha d flow n ove r 87,55 2 interdiction mission s durin g th e STRANGL E II/SATURAT E campaign . FEAF claime d i t ha d destroye d 34,21 1 roa d vehicles , 27 6 locomotives , 3,820 railcars , an d two-third s o f al l rai l bridge s spannin g ove r 30 0 feet.38 FEA F als o claime d tha t 19,00 0 rai l cut s wer e made , an d 9 0 percent o f th e Communis t supplie s an d 9 5 percen t o f th e prewa r rai l traffic nort h o f th e 39t h paralle l wer e stopped. 39 Even i f thes e figures ar e true , whic h i s doubtful give n th e poo r bom b damage assessmen t capabilit y o f FEAF , STRANGLE II/SATURAT E ha d mixed results . During STRANGL E II/SATURATE, the Communists wer e never abl e t o launc h a n all-ou t assaul t o n th e U.N . Indirectly , interdic tion als o compelle d th e Communis t force s t o endur e innumerabl e hard ships. Troops comin g fro m Chin a ha d t o marc h th e entir e distanc e fro m the Yalu River t o the 38t h parallel . Troops marche d 17. 5 t o 2 0 miles pe r night, carrie d 75 - t o 90-poun d backpacks , an d wer e force d t o tak e isolated path s throug h ver y mountainou s areas . Lunc h wa s ofte n skipped durin g thes e marches , an d day s wer e spen t huddle d i n hastil y dug foxholes. 40 Accordin g t o on e Korea n prisone r o f war , "W e sweate d so muc h tha t ou r thic k quilte d clothe s wer e drenche d wit h swea t an d therefore man y o f u s ha d cold s an d caugh t disease. " Anothe r PO W

178 • Appendix 1 claimed tha t "abou t 1 0 percen t wer e lef t behin d wit h fros t bit e an d heavy colds." 41 I n short , i n orde r t o minimiz e th e dange r o f ai r attack , the Communis t force s subjecte d themselve s t o lon g an d arduou s nigh t marches throug h ver y difficult terrain . Despite thes e hardship s th e Communis t force s wer e abl e t o stockpil e thirty t o sixt y days ' wort h o f supplie s alon g th e front , buil d elaborat e fortifications, an d eve n launc h limite d attack s durin g th e campaign . Furthermore, th e Nort h Korea n an d Chines e unit s wer e firing 100,00 0 artillery round s i n Ma y 1952 , compare d t o onl y 8,00 0 whe n STRAN GLE II/SATURATE began. 42 I n short , STRANGL E II/SATURAT E neve r weakened th e Communis t fron t t o th e poin t wher e i t wa s read y t o collapse—the primar y goa l o f th e campaign . I n fact , th e Communis t forces actuall y increase d thei r offensiv e potentia l durin g th e campaign . More significantly , STRANGL E II/SATURAT E ha d almos t n o effec t on the armistice negotiations . Not onl y did i t fail t o compel th e Commu nists int o acceptin g th e armistic e o n U.N . terms , bu t i t als o faile d t o persuade the m t o softe n thei r demands . U.N . negotiators , i n th e mean time, offere d "concessio n afte r concessio n unti l th e U.N . coul d giv e little mor e tha n peac e wit h honor." 43 Thes e concession s range d fro m abandoning thei r clai m t o th e dispute d villag e o f Kaesong , t o agreein g to ceas e al l offensiv e groun d operation s large r tha n a battalio n i n size. 44 So frustratin g wa s thi s failur e o f ai r powe r t o influenc e th e peac e pro ceedings a t Kaeson g an d late r a t Panmunjo m tha t FEA F completel y altered it s bombing strateg y i n June o f 1952 . General Ott o Weyland , th e commanding office r o f FEAF , ordere d FEAF , an d aske d th e Navy , t o engage i n strategi c bombin g mission s agains t th e fe w strategi c target s left i n North Korea , namel y hydroelectri c plant s an d irrigatio n dams . According t o th e Operation s Analysi s Offic e o f th e Fift h Ai r Force , interdiction i n Korea wa s severel y hampere d fo r th e followin g reasons : a) The enem y relie d almos t exclusivel y upo n nigh t movemen t o f me n and supplies and FEAF only possessed a limited number of dedicated night attack planes (its 100 B-26 Night Intruders). b) Hi s need s ar e simpl e an d limited . On e Communis t divisio n o f 10,000, fo r example , coul d subsis t o n 5 0 ton s o f supplie s pe r day ; a n American division of 16,000 , by comparison, required over 50 0 tons.

Appendix i • 17 9 c) He relies upon manpower, to a large extent, both fo r transportatio n and in front-line combat . d) The rugged character of much of the terrain provides unusual opportunities for cover which the enemy cleverly exploits. 45 Not mentione d i n thi s report , bu t equall y important , wa s th e impres sive abilit y o f th e Communist s t o repai r an d defen d thei r line s o f com munication. Th e Nort h Korea n Militar y Highwa y Administratio n an d Railway Recover y Burea u pre-positione d fifty repai r troop s a t ever y major rai l station , an d te n a t post s ever y fou r mile s alon g th e 60 0 mile s of Nort h Korea n track . Thes e crew s repaire d mino r cut s i n tw o t o si x hours, bridge s i n tw o t o fou r days , an d "saturation " effort s i n fou r t o seven days. 46 Alon g roads , repai r crew s wer e positione d a t 2.5 - t o 3 kilometer interval s an d repaire d road s usin g simpl e tool s suc h a s "shov els, picks, axes, and wir e cutters." 47 For th e fighter pilot s o f th e Fift h Ai r Force , however , th e primar y menace wa s th e Communis t ai r defens e system . B y the en d o f STRAN GLE II/SATURATE, ove r 5 0 percent o f Communis t AA A resources wer e guarding rai l line s an d bridges , " a threa t estimate d a t 13 2 heav y gun s (such a s 85-m m an d 76-m m artillery ) an d upward s o f 70 0 automati c weapons (rangin g fro m 37-m m artiller y dow n t o 12-m m an d 7.62-m m machine guns)." 48 Place d alon g mos t rai l lines , thes e guns , combine d with Mi G sorties , downe d ove r 24 3 fighter bomber s o f th e Fift h Ai r Force an d damage d anothe r 290. 49 I n fact , Communis t activ e counter measures wer e destroyin g aircraf t faste r tha n th e U.N . coul d replac e them: th e diminutiv e Fift h Ai r Forc e wa s s o smal l tha t i t coul d no t eve n absorb losse s of betwee n twent y an d thirt y plane s a month. 50

•——• I

I

Appendi x 2 I I

•^

—

Korean Conflic t Aeria l Victory Credit s

(The followin g i s a n excerp t fro m th e repor t b y Dr . Danie l L . Haulma n an d Colonel William C . Stancik, USAFR, "Ai r Force Victory Credits : World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam," United States Air Force Historical Research Center, 1988) Headquarters Fa r Eas t Ai r Force s (H Q FEAF) , the organizatio n respon sible fo r awardin g victor y credit s durin g th e Korea n Conflict , require d proof o f th e destructio n o f enem y aircraf t befor e issuin g genera l order s to confir m claims . Thi s proo f usuall y consiste d o f witnes s statements , gun camer a film, o r th e sightin g o f aircraf t wreckage . Criteria fo r awardin g credi t fo r victorie s i n th e Korea n Conflic t wer e originally mor e libera l tha n th e criteri a employe d i n Worl d Wa r II . Fa r East Air Forces at first awarded credi t fo r destructio n o f enemy airplane s on th e ground . I t als o awarde d credi t t o member s o f othe r service s eve n if they di d no t belon g to Ai r Force units . These credits hav e bee n delete d from th e current list , which counts only United State s Air Force member s who achieve d aeria l victories . Fo r a n accountin g o f th e personne l origi nally awarde d victor y credit s b y H Q FEAF , consul t USA F Historica l Study No. 81. Aerial victor y credit s wer e denie d t o gunner s aboar d bombardmen t aircraft durin g Worl d Wa r I I becaus e th e bomber s fle w i n suc h larg e formations tha t i t wa s impossibl e t o tel l wit h certaint y whic h gunner s deserved credit . Officia l credit s wer e awarde d t o gunner s aboar d B-2 9 180

Appendix 2 • 18 1 aircraft i n th e Korea n conflic t becaus e a typica l bombe r formatio n con sisted o f onl y fou r aircraf t an d thei r claim s could b e verified . Following th e polic y use d fo r apportionin g victor y credit s i n Worl d War II , FEA F divide d int o fraction s eac h credi t awarde d t o mor e tha n one flyer . Fo r example , i f tw o fighter pilot s fired o n an d destroye d one enem y plane , eac h receive d one-hal f credit . Korea n victor y credits , however, were neve r divide d amon g mor e tha n tw o men . (To conserve space , the alphabetical lis t in table 2 only contains the nam e of th e pilo t an d th e number s o f credit s t o hi s name . Thos e intereste d i n the ran k o f th e pilot , hi s seria l number , hi s uni t designation , th e typ e o f aircraft flown , th e typ e o f aircraf t destroyed , th e dat e o f eac h kill , an d the FEAF general orde r numbe r fo r eac h credit shoul d consul t th e sourc e listed abov e o r contac t th e Ai r Forc e Historica l Suppor t Agency , Boilin g Air Force Base , Washington, D C 20332 , telephone 202-767-0412 ) TABLE 2

Korean Conflict—Alphabetical Listing Name Adams, Donal d E . Akin, Rober t W . Aldrin, Edwi n E . Amell, Zan e S . Anderson, Rosco e E . Anderson, Sabi n L . Anderson, Simo n K . Angle, Willia m D . Arbuckle, Fran k H . M . Arnold, Jame s E . Ashby, Ralp h H . Asia, Feli x Jr . Atkinson, Gordo n W . Austin, Co y L . Ayersman, Richar d L . Babb, Marshal l F . Baker, Roya l N . Baldwin, Rober t P Ballinger, Edwar d R Bambrick, Marti n J . Banks, Ralp h E . Barnes, Rober t E . Barrett, Fre d H . Barton, Raymon d O . Jr . Beach, Bill y G .

Kills

Name

6.5 1 2 3 1 2.5 2 .5 1 .5 1 4 .5 2 2 .5 13 .5 1 1 4 1 1 2 2

Beck, Garol d R . Becker, Richar d S . Berdoy, Ronal d A. l Bertram, Willia m E . Best, Jack R . Bettinger, Stephe n L . Blakeney, Lewi s L . Blesse, Frederic k C . Borders, Willia m S . Bouchard, Alvi n R . Bowman, Willia m R . Box, Norma n L . Brietenstein, Ala n P . Brossart, Cliffor d F . Brown, Russel l J . Brown, Stuar t L . Jr. Brueland, Lowel l K . Bryant, Duan e K . Bryce, Pau l W Burke, Joh n J . Burns, Richar d J . Butler, Hebe r M . Butler, Josep h R . Buttelmann, Henr y Canady, Crai g R .

Kills 5 1 1 5

.5 .5

.5 10 1.5 2 2 3 .5 1.5 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 7 .5

182 • Appendix 2 TABLE 2 (continued) Name Caple, Joe A. Carl, Charle s G . Jr. Carley, Curti s N. Carlile, Homer J. Carr, Charle s C. Carter, Lelan d W. Carter, Rober t D. Cams, Glen n A. Chandler, Kennet h D. Chandler, Van E. Charlton, Home r R . Jr. Christison, Charle s B. Clark, Franci s B. Cleveland, Charle s G. Coberly, Theodore S. Colman, Phili p E. Condrick, Richar d J. Cook, Willia m W. Cooke, Robert G. Cooley, Kenneth C. Copeland, Davi d P. Copeland, Walter R. Cosby, William L . Jr. Cox, Al B. Craig, William B. Craig, WilliamL. Creighton, Richar d D. Crescibene, Henry A. Curtin, Clyd e A. Davey, Calvi n G. Davidson, Davi d T. Davis, Georg e A. Jr. Davis, James C. Davis, Philip C. Davis, Robert L. Dawson, Willia m R. Dennehy, Danie l J. Dewald, Rober t H. Dewey, Ryland T. Dittmer, Kar l K. Dobbs, Billy B. Dunlap, Elmer W. Dunn, Georg e W. Dupree, Forist G. Dye, Ercel S. Dymock, Alfre d W Jr. Eagleston, Glen n T. Eisenhut, Van C. Ellis, Joseph R. Ely, Ivan J. Jr. Emmert, Benjami n H . Jr.

Kills 1 2 1 1 1.5 1 1 1.5 1 3 1 2 1 4 2 4 1.5 .5 1 .5 1 1 3 1 1 2 5 1 5 2 2 14 1 1.5 .5 1 1 1 2 3 4 .5 2.5 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1

Name Erdmann, Rober t H. Erikson, Leste r A. Evans, Douglas K. Evans, Raymond E. Eversole, Leonard B. Farris, Joe B. Fellman, Walter W. Jr. Fernandez, Manue l J. Jr. Fields, Joseph E . Jr. Fincher, Delti s H. Finnegan, William H. Fischer, Harold E. Fischer, Franklin L. Fisher, Richard W. Fithian, Be n L. Flake, Alma R. Fletcher, Edwar d C. Fletcher, Westwood H . Jr. Forbes, Don R. Fortner, Farri e D. Foster, Ceci l G. Fox, Orri n R. Frailey, Richard W Frazier, Frank D. Frazier, Henry W. Frederick, Pete r J. Freeland, Davi d B. Friend, John C. Gabreski, Franci s S. Gabriel, Charle s A. Garrison, Vermon t Garvin, Tom P. Gately, Frank J. Gibson, Harold C. Gibson, Ralp h D. Gilbert, Clyd e R. Giordano, Bruno A. Giraudo, John C. Glessner, James L . Jr. Golf, Merle A. Goodnough, Davi d H. Goodridge, Rober t L. Goodwill, John W Gordon, Mos e W. Jr. Gordon, Oti s Jr. Gray, Fred W. Green, John P.Jr . Green, Loui s A. Greene, Norman S. Griffith, Donal d Q. Groening, Samue l A.

Kills 1~~ 1 2 1 1 .5 4 14.5 1.5 .5 1 10 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 9 2 1 .5 1 3 1 1 6.5 2 10 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1.5 1 1 .5 1 4 1 1 .5

Appendix 2 • 18 3 TABLE z (continued) Name Guidroz, Richar d P. Guinther, William M. Hagerstrom, James P. Harris, Elmer W. Harrison, James B. Hartrim, Ronal d W . Harvey, Julian A. Hatzenbuehler, Edwi n J. Jr. Heard, John M. Heckman, James E. Heller, Edwi n L. Hemmer, Donal d J. Henderson, Pau l R. Jr. Hepner, Edmun d G. Herrick, Harol d J. Hesse, Erwin A. Hewett, John M. Jr. Heyman, Richar d M. Hinton, Bruc e H. Hockery, John J. Hodge, Rober t R. Hoelscher, William B. Holker, Boot h T. Honaker, John W Hooten, Donal d H. Horowitz (Salter) , James A. Hovde, William J. Howell, Georg e W. Jr. Howell, Ronal d B . Jr. Howerton, James M . Jr. Hroch, Merly n E. Hudson, William G. Humphreys, Franci s A. Inferrera, Joh n A. Jabara, James Jensen, Georg e W. Johns, Richar d S. Johnson, James K. Johnson, Samue l R. Johnson, William O. Jolley, Cliffor d D . Jones, Georg e L. Jones, Harry A . Jr. Jones, John H. Jones, Paul E.

Juhlin, Lloyd D.

Kanop, Earl A. Kasler, James H. Kauttu, Pau l A. Kees, Elwood A. Keller, Frank O.

Kills 1 2 8.5 3 1 .5 .5 .5 2 1 3.5 1.5 3 1 2 1 .5 1 2 1 .5 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 .5 1 3 2 15 1 1 10 1 1 7 6.5 1.5 1 2 2 1 6 2.5 1 1

Name Kelley, Georg e P. Ill Kelley, Albert S. Keyes, Ralph E. Kincheloe, Iven C . Jr. Kinsey, Raymond A. Knoy, William C. Koenig, Ramon L. Korbel, William A. Kozack, Thoma s F. Kratt, Jacob Jr. Kulengosky, Anthon y Jr. Kumpf, James W. Landry, Howard J. Lane, Howard M. Latshaw, Rober t T . Jr. Lavene, Harry J. Lee, Robert L. Lefevers, Ceci l E. Lewis, Jere J. Liles, Brooks J. Liley, Leonard W Little, Donald E. Little, James W. Livingston, Justin W. Love, George W. Love, Robert J. Low, James F. Loyd, Charle s F. Loyd, William F. Ludwig, John H. Lyle, Vernon J. Lyvere, Gerald E. Mahurin, Walke r M. Mailloux, William P. Malone, Clev e P. Mamerow, Frederic k E . W. Mann, Howar d P. Markham, Theo n E. Marsh, Ro y W. Marshall, Winto n W. Martin, James F. Martin, Mauric e L. Martin, Richar d R. Martocchia, Michae l R. Marvin, John M. Mass, Jack E. Mathews, Freelan d K. Matthews, Georg e D. Mattson, Conra d E. Maxwell, Earl e P. McAllister, Willia m W

Kills

i-

2.5 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 .5 1 1 5 1 1 .5 2 4 7 1 1 2 1.5 6 9 1 1 .5 2 1 3.5 1 1 1 2 1.5 1 6.5 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 1 4 1 1

184 • Appendix 2 TABLE 2

Name McBride, Robert W . McCarthy, Arthu r H . McConnell, Joseph M . Jr. McCulley, James A . McElroy, Carrol l B. McHale, Rober t V. Mcintosh, Rober t H . McKee, John L . McKee, Robert D . McKittrick, Rober t W . McLain, Ro y W. McLean, Donal d A . McQuade, Thomas H . Metten, John L . Meyer, John C . Miller, Alfred M . Miller, Russell H . Mitchell, John W . Mitchell, Paul C . Mitson, Claud e C . Moore, John H . Moore, Lonnie R . Moore, Robert H . Moorman, Alvi n R . Moran, Charle s B. Morton, Dunca n M . Moulton, Aubre y C . Jr. Moyle, Richard B . Mullins, Arnol d Nelson, Milto n E . Neubert, Ernes t F. Nichols, James G . Nott, Thoma s E . Novak, Michae l J . Nutt, Waymon d C . Nystrum, Conra d P. Ober, Georg e W. Ochs, Robert C . O'Connor, Arthur L . Odiorne, John M . Ohlinger, Orre n H . Ola, Georg e J . Oligher, Arthur E . Opfer, Gu s C . Overton, Dolphi n D . Il l Owens, Charle s D . Palmer, Kenneth L . Parker, Jerald D . Parr, Ralph S . Jr. Patterson, Lyl e R . Payne, Earl S .

Kills

1 2 16 3 2 1 1 1.5 1 1 .5 .5 2 1 2 1 1 4 1 2 2 10 5 2.5 1 1 1 1 1 4 .5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 .5 2 5 2 1 1 10 1 1

{continued) Name Pena, Alphonso R . Perdue, Robert E . Perkins, Leon B . Jr. Pesacreta, Samue l Phillips, John R . Pierce, Jimmie Pincoski, Richard A . Pittman, Biffl e O . Pogreba, Dea n A . Porter, Ira M . Powell, Edgar N . Powers, Lewis W. Powers, William E . Preston, Benjami n S . Jr. Price, Howard I . Raebel, James B. Ragland, Dayto n W . Ransbottom, Richar d O . Rapp, Kenneth H . Redpath, Phili p A. Reeder, Samue l J . Reeves, Theil M . Reynolds, Henry S . Ricker, Merton E . Riester, Charle s O . Jr. Risner, Robinso n Roach, Pau l E . Roberts, James O . Robinson, Jack A . Robison, Fran k P. Roesler, Lawrenc e Rogge, Gene F. Rohrer, Samue l T. Ronca, Rober t F. Ruch, Harr y E . Ruddell, Georg e I . Russell, Len C . Ryan, William J . Salze, Floyd W. Sandlin, Harry T . Sands, Robert L . Saunders, Jesse L. Saunders, Percy L . Savage, Walter G . Schillereff, Raymon d E . Schinz, Albert W. Schmidt, Harol d B . Schoeneman, Richar d H . Schrimsher, William E . Schwab, Jack C . Setters, Harold M .

Kills

i~.5

1.5 3 2

.5

.5 4 1.5 3 1 1 1 1

1 1

.5 3 1 8 2.5 1 1 1 2 1 .5 1 1 8 1 2 2 1 3 2 .5 1.5 1 .5 .5 3 .5 1 1

Appendix 2 * 1 8 5 TABLE 2 (continued) Name Seuffert, Thoma s W. Sheaffer, Willia m E Shealy, Kenneth A. Shofner, Willia m C. Simmons, Alfred C . Skeen, Kenneth L. Slaughter, William W Smiley, Albert B. Smiley, Dale W Smith, Bobbie L. Smith, Foster L. Smith, Richard B . Jr. Smith, Robert E. Smith, Robert W Sommerich, Eugen e M. Spalding, John R. Spataro, Georg e J. Spath, Charle s R. Spitzer, Herschel D. Spivey, Fred R. Stacy, Vincent E. Stange, Laverne G. Staudte, Raymond W Steinbis, Raymond E. Stime, David R. Stogdill, Maynard E. Stone, Stephen A . Jr. Straub, Robert L. Strozier, Rober t L. Summers, Charles W. Swift, Kennet h L. Tankersley, Leema n M. Taylor, John E . Jr. Thomas, John B. Thomas, William K. Thompson, James L. Thompson, Lloy d J.

Kills

Name

1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 4.5 1 1 2 .5 1 2 .5 1 1 1.5 1 1 .5 1 1 1 2 1.5 1 1 1 2.5 1 1 2 1

Thresher, Rober t D. Thyng, Harriso n R. Tilton, James E. Tuel, Houston N. Underwood, Harr y L. Van Etten , Cheste r L. Van Sickle , Philip H. Vandeventer, Kir k Veatch, Roya l A. Vetort, Franci s J. Visscher, Herman W Wade, Clyde L. Watson, Clev e B. Wayne, Robert E. Webb, Jerry M. Weber, Herber t Webster, Edward H. Wescott, William H. Whisner, William T Jr. White, Thomas R. Whitehead, As a S. Whitehurst, Elber t W Wilcox, Stanton G. Willard, Garr y A . Jr. Williams, Francis A. Wilson, Nelton R. Windoffer, Rober t A. Winslow, Murray A. Winslow, Rober t A. Winters, John D. Wood, Georg e J. Woodworth, Gen e H. Wright, Vernon L. Wurster, Charle s A. Yancey, William B . Jr. Young, Sam R Zistte, Walter G.

Kills 1~~ 5 1 3 .5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 5 5.5 1 1.5 1 1 1 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 .5 1 2 1.5 1 1

^^"™" I I Appendi x 3 I I

mmmmmmm

Far Eas t Ai r Force s Tabl e o f Equipment an d Sortie s b y Aircraf t Type, 195 2

Tables 3 and 4 illustrate th e exten t t o which Kore a wa s a fighter war . A t no poin t durin g th e perio d 1951-195 2 di d th e Fa r Eas t Ai r Force s deploy mor e bomber s tha n fighter s (se e tabl e 3) . However , th e tru e extent o f th e fighte r effor t i s revealed i n tabl e 4 . O n average , ther e wer e four fighte r sortie s to ever y bombe r sorti e durin g thi s period. 1 Another significan t tren d illustrate d b y the table s i s FEAF's increasin g emphasis o n th e hig h performanc e ¥-86. In Jul y 1951 , FEAF ha d onl y 41 o f thes e planes , an d thi s smal l flee t onl y fle w 73 4 sorties . B y Ma y 1952, those number s ha d increase d t o 13 1 an d 5,190 , respectively .

186

Appendix 3

• 18 7

TABLE 3

Far East Air Forces' Aircraft Strength for Selected Months, 1951-1952

Aircraft— -Total Bomber—-Total B-26 B-29 Fighter— Total F-51 F-80 F-82 F-84 F-86 F-94 Cargo—Total C-46 C-47 C-54 C-119 C-124 Recon—Total RB-26 RB-29 RB-45 RB-50 WB-29 RF-51 RF-80 RF-86 FAC 1-6 Miscellaneous

1951

July

September 1951

November 1951

January 1952

March 1952

May 1952

990 198 103 95 380 95 136 5 103 41

1,038 201 104 97 415 110 118 6 137 44

1,004 186 97 89 381 96 98 6 125 56

1,086 211 106 105 398 60 81

1,031 209 107 102 367 47 79

244 55 52 59 78

242 61 46 58 77

88 133 36 245 65 51 62 67

87 131 23 225 54 42 63 66

72 17 13 2

245 59 46 59 80 1 85 22 11 2

1,101 200 104 96 421 71 69 10 123 133 15 240 60 51 61 68

14 5 21

14 6 30

15 20 29

117 21 12 3 2 14 31 33 1 123 60 63

104 22 12 3 3 12 23 27 1 128 63 65

108 25 14 3 3 12 22 25 4 122 57 65

—

—

— — 54 54 42

—

— — 92 52 44

—

—

100 22 11 3

— — 95 48 47

—

—

—

—

—

188 • Appendix 3 TABLE 4

USAF Sorties by Aircraft Type for Selected Months, 1951-1952 Sorties—Total Bomber— Total B-26 B-29 Fighter— Total F-51 F-80 F-82 F-84 F-86 F-94 Cargo—Total C-46 C-47 C-54 C-119 C-124 Recon—Total RB-26 RB-29 RB-45 RB-50 WB-29 RF-51 RF-80 RF-86 FAC T-6 Miscellaneous

1951

July

September 1951

November 1951

January 1952

March 1952

May 1952

15,914

19,311

19,166

18,581

19,653

23,954

1,998 1,499 499

2,482 1,962 520

2,298 1,868 430

2,168 1,653 515

2,027 1,552 475

2,231 1,825 406

6,796 2,370 2,289 75 1,328 734

9,650 2,811 2,777 135 2,808 1,119

9,187 2,070 2,678 87 3,349 1,003

9,412 1,172 2,438

12,758 1,421 3,460

5,072 850 927 66 2,379

5,058 1,041 1,144 2,235 465

2,289 3,359 154 5,392 966 1,578 2,256 499

2,418 5,190 269 4,682 887 1,158 2,015 588

851 358 39 9

4,790 535 1,268 2,548 400 4 1,152 467 56 1

7,997 1,333 1,600 101 2,577 2,340 46 5,333 1,100 1,324 2,298 551

1,383 343 47 8

1,549 190 30 6

1,604 429 44 28

32 93 320

30 98 500

30 411 544

833 833 12

942 942 2

945 945

31 775 515 2 1,009 1,009 71

31 624 447 1 769 769 54

2,443 498 62 9 3 32 988 815 36 1,210 1,210 101

—

—

— —

—

— —

—

—

— —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—•

• Appendi x 4 • • —

Tabulation o f Sortie s Flow n b y th e Air Force , Navy , Marin e Corps , an d Allied Ai r Service s i n Kore a

TABLE 5

Korean War: Total Sorties (1,040,708)

Total USAF : 720,98 c Total USN : 167,55 2 Total USMC: 107,30 3 Total Allied : 44,87 3 S O U R C E : Rober t F . Futrell , The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (Washington , D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, 1987) , p. 690 .

189

——I

I Appendi x 5 1 1 •—

—

Air Force , Marine , an d Allie d Aircraft Losse s i n Kore a

TABLE 6

Korean War: Operational Losses

Total USAF: 1,44 6 Total USMC : 36 8 Total Allied : 15 2 S O U R C E : Rober t F . Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea, 195 0-1953 (Washington, D.C.: Center fo r Ai r Force History, 1987) , p. 691.

190

Notes Notes t o Chapte r i i. Unles s noted , al l materia l fro m thi s sectio n i s fro m autho r interview , 2 1 May 1995 . 2. Overall , som e 24 9 Ai r Forc e personne l (mostl y pilots ) wer e capture d an d held a s POW s b y th e Nort h Koreans . Se e Rober t R Futrell , The United States Air Force in Korea: 1950-1953, rev . ed. (Washington , D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, 1983) , p. 692 . 3. Whil e Risne r di d no t kno w th e origi n o f th e call-sig n "Joh n Red, " i t wa s popular durin g th e Korea n Wa r fo r flight s t o b e name d afte r variou s alcoholi c beverages. "J°h n Red " was , i n al l likelihood , shor t fo r Johnni e Walke r Re d Label, a popular bran d o f scotc h whiskey . 4. Mi G Alle y wa s a squar e secto r jus t sout h o f th e Yal u Rive r bordere d b y the town s o f Sinuiju , Changju , Sinanju , an d Huichon . Becaus e o f it s clos e proximity t o th e larg e Chines e ai r bas e a t Antung , mos t Mi G kill s achieve d i n Korea occurre d i n this area . 5. A pipper i s a spot o f light projected ont o th e windshield o f the F-86 b y th e plane's computin g gu n sight . Whe n th e spo t o f ligh t illuminate s a target , th e pilot ca n tak e a shot . 6. I n a split- S maneuver , a n aircraf t make s a half-rol l ont o it s bac k an d the n dives, eithe r levelin g of f o n a reverse d headin g afte r completin g a hal f loop , o r continuing th e dive . 7. Risne r late r note d tha t thi s pilot definitel y di d no t loo k Korean , bu t coul d not tel l whether th e pilot wa s Russia n o r Chinese . According t o Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 419, approximately 15 0 Sovie t pilots fle w i n th e Korea n War . All o f thes e pilot s operate d ou t o f Antun g ai r base . Fo r additiona l informatio n on Sovie t pilot s who fough t i n Korea , se e Jon Halliday , " A Secre t War: U.S. and Soviet Air Force s Clashe d Directl y i n Korea, " Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 2 April 1993 , pp. 32-36 . 8. Durin g th e initia l engagemen t wit h th e MiGs , Risne r ha d ordere d th e other tw o pilot s i n hi s flight t o engag e th e 1 , 2 , an d 3 MiGs. Thes e pilot s late r reported tha t th e MiGs evade d thei r pursuit . 9. T o "jink " a n aircraf t mean s t o jer k th e aircraf t abou t i n evasive action . 10. Chod o wa s a Sout h Korean-controlle d islan d i n th e Yello w Se a nea r the 38t h parallel . Th e USA F maintaine d rada r facilitie s there , an d kep t SA-1 6 "Dumbo" rescu e se a planes an d helicopters . 191

19 2 • Notes to Chapter i i i . Th e familia r psal m goe s a s follows : "Th e Lor d i s m y shepherd . I shal l not b e i n want . H e make s m e li e dow n i n gree n pastures , h e lead s m e besid e quiet waters , he restores m y soul . He guide s m e in paths o f righteousnes s fo r hi s name's sake . Eve n thoug h I wal k throug h th e valle y o f th e shado w o f death , I will fea r n o evil , for yo u ar e with me ; your ro d an d you r staff , the y comfor t me . You prepar e a tabl e befor e m e i n th e presenc e o f m y enemies . Yo u anoin t m y head wit h oil ; my cup overflows . Surel y goodness an d lov e will follo w m e all th e days o f m y life, an d I will dwel l i n the house o f th e lor d forever. " 12. T . R. Milton , "Robinso n Risner : Th e Indispensabl e Ingredient, " i n Joh n L. Frisbee, ed., Makers of the United States Air Force (Washington, D.C. : Cente r for Ai r Force History, 1987) , p. v. 13. Durin g th e Vietnam War , for example , Risner easil y could hav e opted fo r a des k jo b i n th e Pentagon , bu t instea d chos e t o fl y th e F-10 5 fighter-bombe r missions agains t target s i n the most heavil y defende d section s o f Nort h Vietnam . On 1 6 Septembe r 1965 , h e wa s sho t down , an d eventuall y spen t seve n an d a half lon g year s i n th e Hano i Hilton . Thes e experience s ar e recounte d i n hi s book, The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of the North Vietnamese (Ne w York : Random House , 1973) . 14. Thes e categorie s ar e no t necessaril y mutuall y exclusive . 15. Se e Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea; Richar d Hallion , The Naval Air War in Korea (Baltimore : Nautical an d Aviatio n Publishing , 1986) . 16. Se e Michae l Sherry , The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (Ne w Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1987); Ronald Schaffer , Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (Ne w York : Oxfor d University Press , 1986) . 17. Source s o n th e exac t numbe r o f Nort h Korea n civilian s kille d b y Ameri can ai r powe r ar e sketchy . Th e Ai r Forc e Historica l Suppor t Offic e doe s no t maintain a n officia l numbe r o n civilia n casualties . Mar k Clodfelter , i n Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618-1991, vol . 2 (Jefferson , N.C. : McFarland , 1992) , pp . 1215-1216 , esti mates fro m Departmen t o f Defens e source s tha t ove r on e millio n Nort h Korea n civilians wer e kille d durin g th e cours e o f th e conflict , bu t doe s no t indicat e ho w many o f thos e death s wer e cause d b y ai r power . Finally , Bruc e Cumings , i n War and Television (Ne w York : Verso, 1991) , p. 158 , claims tha t th e Air Force kille d two millio n civilians . 18. Cumings , War and Television, p . 158 . Cumings' s assertion s ar e sup ported b y Air Force Genera l Curti s LeMay . According to LeMay , "W e went ove r there an d fough t th e wa r an d eventuall y burne d dow n ever y tow n i n Nort h Korea anyway , som e wa y o r another , an d som e i n Sout h Kore a too . W e eve n burned dow n Pusan—a n accident , bu t w e burne d i t dow n anyway . . . . Ove r a period o f thre e years, we killed off—what—twent y percen t o f the population o f

Notes to Chapter 2 • 19 3 Korea a s direc t casualtie s o f war , o r fro m starvatio n an d exposure? " Se e Curti s E. LeMay , Richar d H . Kohn , an d Josep h Harahan , Strategic Air Warfare: An Interview with Generals Curtis E. LeMay, Leon W. Johnson, David A. Burchinal, and Jack]. Catton (Washington , D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , 1988) , p. 88 . 19. Th e phras e "emancipatio n o f America n ai r power " wa s popularize d b y the ai r powe r theoris t Alexande r D e Seversk y i n hi s book , Air Power: The Key to Survival (London : Jenkins, 1952) . 20. Operation s Statistic s Division , Departmen t o f Statistica l Service , Offic e of th e Comptroller , "Unite d State s Ai r Forc e Statistica l Digest : Fisca l Yea r 1952," (Washington , D.C. , 1952) , tabl e 18 : "FEAF—Aircraf t i n Committe d Units Possessed an d Comba t Ready, " p . 34 . 21. Som e historian s ma y questio n th e "socia l history " labe l tha t I attac h t o this book . Ho w ca n a stud y o f pilot s b e considere d socia l history ? B y conven tional definition s o f the field, social historians shoul d b e concerned wit h examin ing the history o f underrepresente d groups , namely Africa n Americans , workers , and women . I n thi s study , I wil l expan d th e traditiona l boundarie s o f socia l history b y explorin g a n all-male , predominatel y white , warrio r culture . Wha t will mak e thi s stud y socia l histor y i s it s emphasi s o n th e socia l background , individual experiences , an d mentalit e o f pilots . M y relianc e upo n unofficia l sources suc h a s ora l histor y an d memoir s als o place s thi s stud y squarel y i n th e category o f socia l history . 22. Fo r mor e o n th e lif e o f James Salter , se e William Dowie , "Jame s Salter, " in Patric k Meanor , ed. , American Short-Story Writers since World War II (De troit: Gal e Research, 1993) , pp. 282-287 . 23. An n Evor y an d Lind a Metzger , Contemporary Authors, Ne w Revisio n Series, vol. 1 0 (Detroit : Gal e Research, 1983) , p. 415. Notes t o Chapte r 2 1. Vanc e Mitchell , "Th e Firs t Generation : A Personnel Polic y Histor y o f th e Air Forc e Office r Corps , 1944-1974 " (unpublishe d manuscript , Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. , 1992) , p. 97. 2. Ibid. , p. 96. 3. Ibid. , p. 99. 4. Ibid. , p. 103 . 5. Thi s academi c deficienc y wa s s o seriou s tha t th e Ai r Forc e launche d several educationa l program s designe d t o remed y th e situation . I n 1946 , i t opened th e Ai r Forc e Institut e o f Technolog y (AFIT) , a progra m whic h literall y paid officer s t o obtai n colleg e and graduate degree s in designated technica l fields. Officers enrolle d i n AFI T received ful l academi c scholarship s (al l tuition, books ,

194 • Notes to Chapter 2 and fees ) an d wer e pai d thei r entir e Ai r Forc e salar y while attendin g schoo l o n a full-time basis . The program starte d ou t with 18 9 students an d gre w to 1,20 0 b y 1951. Besides AFIT , th e Ai r Forc e als o institute d a progra m calle d "Bootstrap. " Bootstrap wa s designe d t o rais e th e genera l educationa l leve l o f th e Ai r Force b y providing som e financia l suppor t fo r tuitio n expense s relate d t o off-dut y colleg e and graduat e schoo l education . I t als o brough t colleg e course s directl y t o th e airman throug h "on-bas e campuses. " School s whic h contribute d facult y mem bers t o thi s progra m include d UCLA , th e Universit y o f Maryland , th e Stat e University o f Washington , an d th e Universit y o f Alabama . A n additiona l incen tive program , appropriatel y calle d "Operatio n Midnigh t Oil, " pai d fo r warran t officers an d commissione d officer s belo w th e ran k o f lieutenan t colone l t o g o o n temporary dut y a s full-time student s durin g th e final semeste r o f thei r Bootstra p baccalaureate program . I n return , th e officer s ha d t o agre e t o serv e o n activ e duty fo r tw o year s afte r completio n o f thei r degrees . By th e sprin g o f 1950 , AFIT , Bootstrap , Midnigh t Oil , th e G I Bill , an d correspondence course s ha d entice d ove r 2 0 percen t o f Ai r Forc e personne l t o seek a colleg e degree . Thi s number , though , droppe d precipitousl y onc e th e Korean Wa r began , an d new , undereducated recruit s onc e agai n bega n t o fill the Air Forc e ranks . Se e Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " pp . 99- 1 n; Air Force Officer's Guide, 5t h ed . (Harrisburg , Pa. : Militar y Servic e Publishin g Co. , 1952) , p . 298; Irving Casey, "Socia l Origin s and Caree r Patterns o f United State s Air Forc e Generals an d Colonels " (Ph.D . diss, American University , 1967) , p. 132 ; and Air Force Times, 1 April 1950 , p. 1 . 6. Morri s Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, i960) , p. 106 . 7. Georg e Cullum , Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy, Supplement , vol . 9 , ed . Charle s Branha m (West Point , N.Y. : Association o f Graduates , U.S. Military Academy , 1950) , pp. 1498-1598; Julia n Olejniczak , ed. , 1992 Register of Graduates and Former Cadets: United States Military Academy (Wes t Point, N.Y. : Association o f Grad uates, U.S. Military Academy, 1992) , pp. 400-475; Mitchell, "Firs t Generation, " pp. 114-118 . Overall , classe s 47-5 4 o f Wes t Poin t graduate d 3,52 7 cadets , o f which 1,01 5 accepte d USA F commissions. 8. Janowitz , Professional Soldier, p. 127 . 9. Stephe n Ambrose , Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point (Balti more: Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1966) , pp. xiii-xiv. 10. Casey , "Socia l Origins, " p . 77. 11. Janowitz , Professional Soldier, pp. 19 , 100 . 12. Th e source s fo r thi s sectio n o n Risne r ar e a s follows : autho r interview , 21 Ma y 1995 ; Mar k C . Cleary , "Intervie w o f Brigadie r Genera l Robinso n

Notes to Chapter 2 • 19 5 Risner," Austin , Texas , 1- 2 Marc h 1983 , United State s Ai r Forc e Ora l Histor y Program, Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. ; and Robinso n Risner , The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of the North Vietnamese (New York: Random House , 1973) . 13. Th e Arm y statione d severa l squadron s o f fighters i n Panam a durin g th e war t o guar d th e Panama Canal . 14. Risner , Passing of the Night, p . 36 . 15. Th e source s fo r thi s sectio n o n Brow n ar e a s follows : Willia m Ear l Brown, intervie w b y author, tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Wash ington, D.C. , 7 Apri l 1993 ; Willia m Ear l Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " Charles A . Lindbergh Memoria l Lecture , 2 1 Ma y 1992 , National Ai r an d Spac e Museum Occasiona l Pape r Series , no. 4. 16. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Crocket t i s Woodrow Crockett , intervie w with author , tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington, D.C. , 3 1 March 1993 . 17. "Histor y o f th e 349t h Fiel d Artillery, " Headquarters : 349t h Fiel d Artil lery, Fort Sill , Okla., 1942 . 18. Charle s Boyle , Genera l Order s No . 3 , Headquarters : 349t h Fiel d Artil lery, Fort Sill , Okla., 8 January 1942 . 19. Th e sourc e o f thi s sectio n o n Tomlinso n i s Fran k Tomlinson , intervie w with author , tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. , 9 December 1992 . 20. Th e sourc e o f thi s sectio n o n Pomero y i s Rober t Pomeroy , intervie w with author , tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. , 2 February 1993 . 21. Fo r a goo d descriptio n o f militar y academ y life , se e Joseph Ellis , School for Soldiers: West Point and the Profession of Arms (Ne w York : Oxfor d Univer sity Press , 1974) , an d Stephe n Ambrose , Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point (Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1966) . 22. Th e sourc e fo r th e sectio n o n Turne r i s Pau l Turner , intervie w wit h author, tape recording, Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. , 3 March 1993. 23. Interestingl y enough , th e characte r o f th e pilo t i n th e movi e i s loosel y modeled afte r Turner . 24. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Baile y i s M . J . Bailey , intervie w wit h author, telephon e interview , Washington, D.C. , 9 Septembe r 1994 . 25. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Berk e i s Georg e Berke , intervie w wit h author, tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. , 2 2 March 1993 . 26. Al l thre e degree s wer e pai d fo r b y th e military : th e B.A . throug h th e G I bill, and th e M.A. an d Ph.D . through AFIT .

196 • Notes to Chapter 3 27. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Heine r i s Howar d Heiner , intervie w wit h author, tap e recording , Washington, D.C. , 1 4 December 1992 . 28. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Sturgeo n i s Raymond Sturgeon , intervie w with author , tap e recording , Bedford , Mass. , 2 1 June 1994 . 29. Th e sourc e fo r thi s sectio n o n Hagerstro m i s James Hagerstrom , inter view wit h author , tap e recording , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C., 3 February 1993 . 30. C . Wrigh t Mills , The Power Elite (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1956), p. 47. 31. Berke' s degre e wa s pai d fo r b y th e G I bill , an d Pomeroy' s b y th e U.S . Military Academy . 32. Michae l Sherry , The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (Ne w Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press , 1987) , p. 217 . Notes t o Chapte r 3 1. Durin g th e Korea n War , Nelli s AF B wa s th e hom e o f th e Ai r Force' s advanced single-engin e fighte r an d aeria l gunner y schools . I n short , i t wa s th e final sto p i n th e fighter pilo t trainin g cycle—th e plac e wher e th e Ai r Forc e transformed pilot s int o Mi G killers . For mor e o n th e earl y histor y o f Nellis , see Thomas A . Manning, History of Air Training Command, 1943-1993 (Randolp h AFB, Texas : Offic e o f Histor y an d Research , Headquarters , Ai r Educatio n an d Training Command , 1993) , pp. 18 , 19 , 26, 31, 32, 39 , 43, 46, 47, 63. 2. Vanc e Mitchell , "Th e Firs t Generation : A Persona l Polic y Histor y o f th e Air Forc e Office r Corps , 1944-1974 " (unpublishe d manuscript , Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. , 1992) , p. 736, pp. 183-184 , p. 767. 3. Historica l Division , Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force , "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Training Air Force," 1 January-30 June 1953 , vol. 1 , Waco, Texas, 1 0 Septembe r 1953, Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. , p. 83. 4. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 733. 5. Civilia n contractor s wer e traine d a s fligh t instructor s a t Crai g Ai r Forc e Base. See "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Training Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , pp. 80-85 . 6. Pomero y interview . 7. Ibid . 8. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " pp . 731-732 . 9. Ibid. , p. 733. 10. Mitchell , pp. 733-734 . 11. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 41; Mitchell, "Firs t Generation, " p . 203.

Notes to Chapter 3 • 19 7 12. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 65. 13. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 205. 14. Ibid . 15. Ibid. , pp. 205-206 . 16. Ibid. , p. 208 . 17. Ala n Gropman , The Air Force Integrates 1945-1964 (Washington , D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Forc e History , 1985) , p . 121 . Th e percentag e o f black s i n th e general populatio n i n 194 9 wa s approximatel y 1 0 percent . 18. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 784 . 19. Persona l Paper s o f Georg e Berke , Reston, Virginia . Berk e complete d thi s analysis wit h th e hel p o f Hondo Final, 53- E an d Contrails, 53E , Williams AFB , Arizona (hi s class yearbooks) . 20. Directo r o f Statistica l Services , United States Air Force Statistical Digest (Washington, D.C. : Office o f Statistica l Services , 1947) , tables 8 , 11. 21. Statistica l Services , United States Air Force Statistical Digest (Washing ton, D.C. : Offic e o f Statistica l Services , January 1949-Jun e 1950) , tables 20 , 21, 23. 22. Se e Gropman, Air Force Integrates, Appendi x 1 , table 2 , p. 223. 23. Ibid. , p. 132 . 24. Ibid. , p. 132 . 25. Ibid. , pp. 135-136 . 26. "Histor y o f th e Ai r Trainin g Command, " 1 July t o 3 1 Decembe r 1949 , pp. 29-31 , a s cited i n ibid., p. 136 . 27. Thes e school s wer e locate d a t th e followin g bases : Bainbridge , Bartow , Columbus, Goodfellow , Greenville , Hondo, Maiden , Marana , Spence , and Stall ings. See "Flying Training Air Force Statistica l Digest, " 3 1 July 1952 , in Record s of the Flying Training Air Force, Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . 28. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , pp 49-57 , an d vol . 2 , pp. 484-549 . 29. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 61. 30. Turne r interview . 31. The y include d Bainbridge , Bartow , Columbus , Greenville , Hondo , Mai den, Marana, Spence , and Stallings . Only the Primary schoo l at Goodfello w AF B was staffe d b y militar y instructors . "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 2 , p. 670 . 32. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 2 , pp. 45-46 . 33. "Repor t o f Conference , Primar y Training , Headquarter s Flyin g Trainin g

198 • Notes to Chapter 3 Air Force , Roosevelt Hotel , Waco, Texas, 4-5 Decembe r 1952, " in "Th e Histor y of th e Flying Training Ai r Force," 1 July-31 December 1952 , vol. 2 , p. 579 . 34. I t wa s assume d tha t ROTC , Wes t Point , an d Annapoli s graduate s wer e already familia r wit h militar y way s an d di d no t nee d thi s additiona l training . When thes e officer s joine d th e Aviatio n Cadet s i n Primary , the y live d apar t fro m the Aviatio n Cadet s an d participate d onl y i n fligh t trainin g an d groun d schoo l with them . 35. I n Octobe r 1947 , th e Aviatio n Cade t Examinin g Boar d a t Randolp h AFB, Texas , recommende d a one-to-fiv e mont h prefligh t trainin g program , an d the Flyin g Divisio n o f th e Ai r Trainin g Comman d recommende d a twelve-wee k program i n Decembe r 1948 . "Th e Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 46. 36. Thi s segmen t wa s late r increase d t o twelv e week s i n Octobe r 1952 . "History o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 January-30 Jun e 1953 , vol . 1 , p . 38. 37. Ibid. , vol. 2 , pp. 375-400 . 38. Ibid. , pp. 375-400 . 39. Accordin g t o Georg e Berke , militar y academ y graduate s too k th e cod e much les s seriousl y tha n th e Aviatio n Cadets . Althoug h Pomero y vehementl y disagrees with thi s claim, Berke remembered seein g West Point graduates passin g test answer s bac k an d forth . "Th e mott o o f thes e guy s wa s cooperat e an d graduate," Berk e claimed . "T o the m th e Hono r Cod e wa s lik e th e ta x code — you loo k fo r loopholes. " Berk e interview; Pomeroy interview . 40. "Histor y o f the Flying Training Air Force, " 1 January-30 June 1953 , vol. 1, p. 38 ; "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , pp. 46-47 . 41. Tomlinso n interview . 42. "Histor y o f Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 January-30 Jun e 1953 , vol. 1 , p. 40 . 43. Pomero y interview . 44. Pomero y interview . 45. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 206 . 46. Berk e interview . 47. Tomlinso n interview . 48. Crocket t interview . 49. Gropman , Air Force Integrates, p . 156 . 50. Crocket t interview . 51. Gropman , Air Force Integrates, p . 135 . 52. Ibid . 5 3. Turne r interview . 54. Berk e interview .

Notes to Chapter 3 • 19 9 55. Brown , " A Fighter Pilot' s Story, " p . 5 . 56. Tomlinso n interview . 57. Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " pp . 5-6 . 58. Brow n interview . 59. Pomero y interview . 60. Pomero y interview . 61. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 2 , p . 6 7 0 .

62. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 733. 63. Rebecc a Hancoc k Cameron , "T o Fly : Militar y Fligh t Training , 1907 1945" (draft , historica l manuscript , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C., 1993) , p. 449. 64. Tomlinso n interview . 65. Cameron , "T o Fly, " pp. 446-447 . 66. A chandelle i s an abrup t an d stee p climbing tur n mad e i n a n airplane , i n which th e airplane' s momentu m provide s additiona l acceleratio n fo r th e climb . The purpos e o f th e candel a i s t o chang e th e directio n o f fligh t an d chang e altitude a t th e same time . 67. Cameron , "T o Fly, " p. 450. 68. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 84 . 69. Tomlinso n interview . yo. Cameron , "T o Fly," pp. 446, 454 . 71. Suc h was not th e case at th e segregate d Worl d Wa r I I Tuskegee field. Du e to the lack o f othe r blac k AA F facilities, man y washout s wer e made private s an d stationed a t Tuskegee , "depressin g morale. " Se e Stanle y Sandler , Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WW II (Washington , D.C. : Smithsonia n Institution Press , 1992) , p. 32 . 72. Tomlinso n interview . 73. Cameron , "T o Fly," p . 453. 74. Th e plan e use d fo r thi s trainin g wa s th e Pipe r PA-18 . "Histor y o f th e Flying Training Ai r Force, " 1 January-30 June 1953 , vol. 1 , p. 83. 75. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 78. j6. Pomeroy , i n general, wa s ver y sensitiv e t o an y critica l remark s abou t th e U.S. Militar y Academy . "Wes t Pointers, " h e claimed , "wante d thei r wing s jus t as muc h a s th e nex t guy ; on e o f m y classmate s washe d ou t an d h e wa s no t a happy camper—h e kne w hi s militar y caree r wa s ove r with , an d jus t marke d time unti l h e could ge t out. " Pomero y interview . y-j. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 78.

2oo • Notes to Chapter 3 78. Ibid. , p. 77. 79. Pomero y interview . 80. "Histor y o f the Flying Training Air Force, " 1 January-10 June 1952 , vol. 2, pp. 600-660 . 81. Timoth y Strongin , " A Historica l Revie w o f th e Fea r o f Flyin g amon g Aircrewmen," Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, vol . 58 , no . 2 (1987), p. 264 . 82. Ibid. , p . 265. 83. Ibid. , p. 264 . 84. Ibid. , pp. 264-265 . 85. Luci o Gatto , "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 8 (1954), p. 1100 . 86. Eve n today , th e conditio n i s poorl y understood . I n "Flyin g an d Danger , Joy an d Fear, " Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, vol . 57 , no . 9 (February 1986) , pp . 131-136 , Dr . Davi d Jones o f th e Neuropsychiatri c Branc h of th e USAF School o f Aerospac e Medicine , Brook s AFB , Texas, defined FO F a s a "comple x phenomenon , mixin g element s o f menta l healt h an d neuroti c roots , childhood dream s an d fears , rea l danger s an d imaginar y threats , an d al l th e varieties o f lif e experience s whic h ma y befal l a flie r a s h e o r sh e ages. " I n short , FOF coul d b e almos t anything : al l tha t i s clear fro m thi s definitio n i s that i t i s a complex psychiatri c condition . 87. Luci o Gatto , "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 8 (1954), p. 1100 . Timothy Strongin , a researche r a t th e Neuropsychiatr y Branc h o f th e USA F Schoo l o f Aerospac e Medicine, offered th e following symptomati c definitio n o f FOF in a 198 7 histori cal revie w o f FO F in Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine: Its cleares t manifestatio n i s the fran k refusa l t o fl y o r fea r o f th e plan e o r the possibl e consequence s o f flying. Mor e subtl e i s the cas e o f a flie r wh o says h e woul d b e willin g t o fly , i f onl y h e wer e abl e t o concentrate , relax , get som e sleep , o r overcom e som e othe r manifestatio n o f inne r turmoil . Depending o n th e flier s personality , on e observe s tha t dissociativ e symp toms (sleepwalking , amnesia) , restlessness , substance s abus e (drugs , food , and alcohol) , emotiona l regression , somatizatio n (ulcers , gastritis , colitis , headaches, dermatitis) , o r conversio n (hearin g loss , bac k pain , weakness ) may als o indicate underlyin g anxiety . Clearly, agreemen t betwee n thes e specialist s no t onl y exist s wit h respec t t o th e primary sympto m o f FOF , a refusa l t o fly , bu t als o wit h othe r symptoms , including anxiet y an d a rang e o f psychosomati c conditions . Furthermore , Gatto's an d Strongin' s symptomati c description s ar e nearl y equivalent : th e jar gon i s somewha t differen t bu t th e basi c symptom s ar e th e same . Se e Strongin , "Historical Review, " p . 264 .

Notes to Chapter 3 • 20 1 88. Jone s suggest s tha t man y case s o f FO F coul d hav e bee n cure d throug h basic therapy. Se e Jones, "Flyin g an d Danger, " pp . 131-1 3 6. 89. Mitchell , "Firs t Generation, " p . 185 . 90. Ibid. , pp. 190-191 91. Ibid. , pp . 191-192 . 92. Ibid. , p. 193 . 93. Ibid. , p. 193 . 94. Ibid. , p. 192 . 95. Ibid . 96. Ibid. , p . 186 . 97. Ibid. , pp. 187-188 . 98. Ibid. , p. 189 . 99. Luci o Gatto , "Understandin g th e 'Fea r o f Flying ' Syndrome , II : Psychosomatic Aspect s an d Treatment, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 9 (1954) , p. 1285 . 100. Strongin , "Historica l Review, " p . 265 . 101. A n analysi s o f classe s 52-E , F , an d G , reveal s tha t a n averag e o f 7. 5 percent o f thos e eliminate d wer e washe d ou t du e t o fea r o f flying . "Histor y o f the Flying Training Ai r Force," 1 January-30 June 1952 , vol. 2 , pp. 627-670 . 102. Repor t o f th e Conference , Primar y Pilo t Training , Headquarter s Flyin g Training Ai r Force , Roosevel t Hotel , Waco , Texas , i n "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Training Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , pp. 578-585 . 103. A mor e recen t stud y b y th e Nava l Aviatio n Medica l Institut e i n 196 4 suggests tha t aviatio n student s afflicte d wit h FO F d o no t wan t t o fl y "no t s o much becaus e o f a fea r o f deat h bu t becaus e o f thei r inabilit y t o dea l wit h conflicts precipitate d b y th e mor e mundan e aspect s o f learnin g t o fl y (e.g. , frequent tests , an d relationship s wit h instructors) . Thes e student s ofte n ex pressed thei r FO F overtl y throug h motio n sickness . Strongin , "Historica l Re view," p . 266 . 104. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p . 63 ; "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 January-30 Jun e 1953, vol. 1 , p. 83. 105. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p. 98. 106. Headquarter s Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force , "Statistica l Digest, " 3 0 Sep tember 1952 , p . 1 6 i n "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-3 1 December 1952 , vol. 2 , p. j6$. 107. Berk e interview . 108. Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " p . 8 . 109. Ibid . n o . Ibid. , p. 9; Berke interview .

202 • Notes to Chapter 3 i n . Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " p . 10 . 112. Ibid. , p . 1 1 .

113. Ibid . 114. Althoug h thi s acciden t actuall y occurre d a t Brown' s Advance d trainin g at Nellis , I included i t here becaus e i t is a good exampl e o f ho w G forces ca n kil l a novic e pilot. Brow n interview ; Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " p . 16 . 115. Berk e interview . 116. Turne r interview . 117. Berk e papers, "William s Analysis" ; Berke interview . 118. Charle s Watry , Washout: The Aviation Cadet Story (Carlsbad : Califor nia Aer o Press , 1983) , p. 118 . 119. Dixo n wa s late r kille d i n a plan e cras h a t Rametell i i n Italy . Crocket t interview. 120. Crocket t interview . 121. "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force, " 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 , vol. 1 , p . 35-453. Breakin g radi o silenc e wa s considere d a ver y seriou s breac h o f discipline . In one particular incident , pilo t Fran k Bake r "raise d mor e than eyebrows " whe n he accidentall y brok e radi o silenc e an d san g "Daddy' s Littl e Girl " i n a dee p Southern bariton e ove r th e radi o net . Accordin g t o anothe r pilo t wh o wa s flyin g that day , "I t wa s absolutel y hairy. " Se e "Bake r Break s Silenc e wit h Cradl e Song," Air Force Times, 1 September 1951 , p. 14 . 4. Walke r Mahurin , Honest John (Ne w York : Putnam, 1962) , p. 50 . 5. Ibid. , p. 30 . 6. Jame s Salter , The Hunters (Ne w York : Bantam, 1956) , p. 152 . 7. Georg e Berke , "Greenfields " (unpublishe d manuscript , Reston , Virginia , 1992), p . 4 2 .

8. Th e ter m "pea k experience " wa s coine d b y th e psychologis t Abraha m Maslow an d refer s t o th e transcenden t experience s whic h on e occasionall y feel s during intens e lovemaking , moment s o f religiou s ecstasy , o r eve n whil e viewin g a natura l wonde r suc h a s a sunse t o n a clea r evening . Se e Abraha m Maslow , Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences (Columbus : Ohi o Stat e Universit y Press, 1964) . 9. Robinso n Risner , The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of the North Vietnamese (Ne w York : Random House , 1973) , p. 53. 10. Joh n Sherwood , "Ai r Interdictio n durin g th e Korea n War : A n America n Solution t o War in the Developing World" (Master' s thesis, Columbia University , 1991), p . 6 .

11. Mik e Spick , The Ace Factor: Air Combat and the Role of Situational Awareness (Annapolis , Md.: Naval Institut e Press) , p. 29 . 12. Richar d Hallion , The Naval Air War in Korea (Baltimore : Nautica l an d Aviation Publishing , 1986) , pp. 28-29 . 13. Rober t Futrell , The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (Wash ington, D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Force History, 1983) , p. 98. 14. Ibid. , p . 102 . 15. Ibid. , p p . 219 , 244 .

16. Thoma s Jarnette , "4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Grou p Operation s i n Mi G Alley," 1 7 June 1953 , Records o f th e Fourt h Fighte r Wing , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington D.C. , pp. 13-14 . Hereafter, "Operation s i n MiG Alley. " 17. Hallion , Naval Air War in Korea, p . 151. 18. Ibid . 19. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 177 .

Notes to Chapter 4 • 20 5 20. Ibid. , p. 33. 21. Ibid . 22. Hallion , Naval Air War in Korea, p . 151. 23. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 3. 24. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 419. 25. Jo n Halliday , " A Secre t War: U.S. and Sovie t Air Forces Clashe d Directl y in Korea," Far Easter Economic Review, 2 2 April 1993 , pp. 32-36 . 26. I t wa s suspecte d tha t thes e "honchos " wer e mostl y Sovie t veteran s o f World Wa r II ; Brown interview . 27. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 414-415; Hagerstrom interview . 28. Fift h Ai r Force , "Intelligenc e Summary, " 2 8 Decembe r 1951 , as cite d b y Eduard Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction : Ai r Powe r an d th e Lan d Battl e i n Thre e American Wars " (unpublishe d manuscript , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Wash ington, D.C. , 1992) , pp. 313-314 . 29. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 411, 414. 30. Ibid. , pp. 608-609 . 31. I n on e particula r instance , a flight o f MiG s eve n strafe d a comrad e wh o had baile d ou t ove r th e Yello w Se a i n a n effor t t o kee p hi s identit y a secret . Se e Hallion, Naval Air War in Korea, pp . 152-153 . 32. A leadin g edg e i s th e edg e o f a n airfoil , a s o f a wing , propeller , o r stabilizer, whic h firs t meet s o r bite s the air . 33. Marcell e Siz e Knaack , Post-World War II Fighters: 1945-19 73 (Wash ington, D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , 1986) , pp . 61 , 80-81 ; Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 512 . 34. Spick , The Ace Factor, pp. 28-29 . 35. Autho r intervie w wit h Blak e Morrison , editor , USAF Fighter Weapons Review (57TSS/TSM) , 426 9 Tyndal l Avenue , Suit e 104 , Nelli s AFB , Nevad a 89191-6074, 1 9 Jun e 1995 . Mr . Morriso n i s on e o f th e leadin g Ai r Forc e experts i n fighter tactics . 36. Spick , The Ace Factor, p. 129 . 37. Frederic k C . Blesse , "N o Guts—N o Glory, " a s reprinte d i n Spick , The Ace Factor, pp. 177-202 . 38. Brow n interview . 39. Tomlinso n interview . 40. Robi n Old s a s cited b y Spick, The Ace Factor, p. 150 . 41. Frederic k Blesse , Check Six: A Fighter Pilot Looks Back (Mesa , Ariz. : Champlin Fighte r Museu m Press) , pp. 63-64 . 42. Randal l Cunningha m a s cited b y Spick, The Ace Factor, p. 152 . 43. Tomlinso n interview . 44. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 31. 45. Mahurin , Honest John, pp . 34-35 .

2o6 • Notes to Chapter 4 46. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 18 . 47. Brow n interview ; "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 18 . 48. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 34 . 49. Hagerstro m interview . 50. Th e subjec t o f pilo t alcoholis m wil l b e examine d i n greate r detai l i n chapter 5 . 51. Brow n interview . 52. Ibid. ; Tomlinson interview . 5 3. Brow n interview . 54. Ibid . 55. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 18 . 56. Ibid . 57. Manue l "Pete " Fernandez , Jr., Foreword, "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . iii. 58. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " pp . 5-6 ; Risner , Passing of the Night, p . 50 . 59. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 35. 60. Hagerstro m interview . 61. "Operation s i n MiG Alley, " p . 21. 62. Spick , The Ace Factor, p. 126 ; Hagerstrom interview . 63. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 31. 64. Ibid. , p. 62 . 65. Pomero y interview . 66. Specia l Report , Th e Record s o f th e 4t h Fighte r Wing , June 1952 , Cente r for Ai r Forc e History , Washington, D.C . 67. After-Actio n Report , Record s o f th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Wing , Octo ber 1952 , Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . 68. Missio n Report , HQ , 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Group , 4 Novembe r 1951 , Records o f th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Group . 69. Thi s maneuve r i s a serie s o f tur n reversal s performe d i n a n effor t t o achieve a n offensiv e positio n afte r a n attacke r ha s bee n force d int o a flight pat h overshoot. 70. Mar k C . Cleary , "Intervie w o f Brigadie r Genera l Robinso n Risner, " Austin, Texas , 1- 2 Marc h 1983 , United State s Ai r Forc e Ora l Histor y Program , Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D . C , pp . 33-35 . 71. "N o Guts , No Glory " a s cited b y Spick, The Ace Factor, p. 191. 72. Salter , The Hunters, p . 26 . 73. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 31. 74. Durin g th e Korea n War , i t wa s no t unusua l fo r pilot s fro m othe r U.N . nations t o b e integrate d int o a wing o r eve n a squadron. Marine s als o occasion ally serve d i n temporar y additiona l dut y (TAD ) slot s wit h suc h wing s a s th e Fourth.

Notes to Chapter 4 • 20 7 75. Hagerstro m interview . 76. Hagerstro m interview . JJ. Turne r interview . 78. Salter , The Hunter, pp . 152-153 . 79. Turne r interview . 80. Ibid . 81. Hagerstro m interview . 8z. Jo n Halliday , " A Secre t War: U.S. and Sovie t Air Forces Clashe d Directl y over Korea, " Far Eastern Econ. Rev., 2 2 April 1993 . 83. Blesse , Check Six, p . 67 . 84. Hagerstro m interview . 85. Blesse , Check Six, p . 71. 86. Hagerstro m interview . 87. Ibid . 88. A previous kil l o f Hagerstrom' s wa s late r confirmed , bringin g hi s overal l total t o 8.5 ; Hagerstrom interview . 89. Risner , Passing of the Night, p . 53. 90. Blesse , Check Six, p . 65. 91. Hagerstro m interview . 92. Ibid . 93. Mahurin , Honest John, p . 125 . 94. Ibid. , p. 126 . 95. Blesse , Check Six, p . 65. 96. "Cultura l studies, " claim s historia n Emil y Rosenberg , "i s no t a method ology bu t a n approach , base d upo n interrelationship s an d context , tha t i s con cerned wit h rethinkin g categorie s o f knowledg e an d examinin g form s o f power . . . . The boundarie s o f suc h conventional binarie s ma y b e bridged b y the concep t of 'discourse, ' whic h deal s wit h interrelationship s betwee n th e constructio n o f institutions tha t embod y powe r an d th e symboli c code s tha t constitut e 'truth ' o r 'naturalness.' Discursiv e analysi s ca n highligh t connection s betwee n seemingl y unrelated categorie s o f experience" ; se e " 'Foreig n Affairs ' afte r Worl d Wa r II, " Diplomatic History, vol . 18 , no. 1 (Winter 1994) , p. 60 . 97. Hagerstro m interview . 98. Berke , "Greenfields, " p . 140 . ^ . Ibid. , p. 87 . 100. Salter , The Hunters, p . 173 . 101. Ibid . 102. Blesse , Check Six, p . 69. 103. Salter , The Hunters, p . 57 . 104. Ibid . 105. Ibid. , p. 55 .

2o8 • Notes to Chapter 5 106. Ibid. , p. 66. 107. Ibid . 108. Hagerstro m interview . 109. Jame s Brooks , intervie w wit h Joh n Dick , Jr., 5 February 1977 , Unite d States Air Force Ora l Histor y Collection , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washing ton D.C . n o . Blesse , Check Six, p . 71. Notes t o Chapte r 5 1. Jame s Salter , The Hunters (Ne w York: Bantam, 1956) , p. 128 . 2. Ibid. , p. 154 . 3. Ibid. , p. 47. 4. Ibid. , p. 109 . 5. Ibid. , pp. 183-184 . 6. Lik e Salte r ( a pilo t wit h th e 4t h Wing) , Wal t Sheldo n ha d extensiv e firsthand experienc e wit h fighter pilots . A s a comba t journalis t i n Korea , no t only di d h e liv e wit h pilots , bu t h e eve n fle w mission s i n a T- 6 forwar d ai r controller. 7. Forwar d ai r contro l dut y involve d travelin g i n a jee p nea r th e fron t lin e and callin g i n ai r strike s a s they wer e needed . Jets wer e to o fas t an d carrie d to o little fuel t o search out targets for themselves . Thus, they needed FACs to identif y targets an d guid e them t o them . 8. Wal t Sheldon , Troubling of a Star (Chicago : Sear s Boo k Club , 1953) , p . 70. 9. Ibid. , p. 33. 10. Rober t F . Futrell , The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-195 3 (Washington, D . C : Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , 1983) , p. 692 . 11. Sturgeo n interview . 12. Heine r interview ; M . J . Bailey , diar y fo r 1952 , origina l wit h author , Diamond Bar , Calif. 13. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighter-Intercepto r Grou p assigne d t o th e 51st Fighter-Intercepto r Win g for Octobe r 1951 , p. 3. 14. FEA F Comman d Report , vol . 1 , Augus t 1951 , Record s o f th e Unite d Nations Fa r Easter n Command , Recor d Grou p 407 , National Archives , Suitlan d Annex, Washington, D . C , p . 4. 15. Perri n Gower , intervie w wit h author , 3 Februar y 1993 , Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D . C 16. Bailey , 22 June 1952 . 17. Heine r interview .

Notes to Chapter 5 • 20 9 18. FEA F Command Report , vol . 1 , February 1951 , Tab B. 19. Heine r interview ; Summar y o f Aircraf t Los s (Forbes) , 18t h Fighte r Bomber Wing , 5t h Ai r Force , Fa r Eas t Ai r Forces , Historica l Report , January June 1953 , Record s o f th e 18t h Fighte r Bombe r Wing , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . 20. Heine r interview ; Summar y o f Aircraf t Los s (Forbes) . 21. Heine r interview . 22. Bailey , 2 3 April 1952 . 23. Bailey , 2 5 April 1952 . 24. Sturgeo n interview . 25. Bailey , 1 2 April 52 . 26. E . R. James, taped dictatio n fo r author , St . Louis, MO, 2 2 April 1993 . 27. Baile y diary, 2 0 May 1952 . 28. Gowe r interview . 29. Dougla s Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea: A Firsthand Account (Blu e Ridg e Summit, Pa. : Ta b Books , 1984) , pp . 84-85 . Thi s boo k i s base d o n th e diar y Evans kept a s a Sabre pilot i n Korea . 30. Bailey , n Februar y 52 . 31. Heine r interview . 32. Bailey , 1 4 May 52 . 33. Bailey , 3 0 June 52 . 34. Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 , p. 67 . 35. Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 , p. 68 . 36. Sheldon , Troubling of a Star, p. 42. Ironically, Baile y met Sheldo n durin g the wa r an d too k hi m u p i n a two-sea t T-3 3 t o recor d a battl e betwee n F-86 s and MiGs . Sheldo n go t som e "goo d stuff , bu t brok e on e o f hi s eardrums lettin g down a t K-2. " Baile y "sur e fel t badl y abou t i t bu t couldn' t le t dow n an y othe r way." Bailey , 2 3 June 1952 . 37. Jerr y Minton , tape d dictation , For t Worth , Texas , 1 May 1995 . 38. Ibid . 39. Sheldon , Troubling of a Star, p. 28 . 40. Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 , pp. 42-44 . 41. Sturgeo n interview . 42. Ibid . 43. Ibid . 44. Willia m Elder , intervie w wit h Jame s Hasdorff , 1 3 Septembe r 1984 , United State s Ai r Forc e Ora l Histor y Collection , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington, D . C , p . 93. 45. Sturgeo n interview . 46. Berk e interview .

2io • Notes to Chapter j 47. Pomero y interview . 48. Bailey , 1 4 April 52 . 49. Minto n dictation . 50. Luci o Gatto , "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome , II, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 9 (1954) , p. 1285 . 51. H . A. Schultz, "Fea r o f Flying," USAF Medical Service Digest, Novembe r 1952, pp . 29-31 . 52. Gatto , "Understandin g th e 'Fea r o f Flying ' Syndrome , II," p. 1285 . 53. Luci o E . Gatto , "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 8 (1954), p. n 10 . 54. Ibid. , p. 1114 . 55. Rober t Lifton , "Psychotherap y wit h Comba t Fliers, " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 4, no. 4 (Apri l 1953) , p. 529 . 56. Ibid. , p. 530 . 57. Jame s dictation . 58. Dea n Price , lette r t o 80t h Squadro n Association , a s reprinte d i n "80t h Squadron Headhunter s Squadro n History " (80t h Squadro n Association , 1 6 Ma y 1995)59. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 140 . 60. Lat e i n th e war , th e Ai r Forc e di d deplo y a n F-8 4 varian t wit h swep t wings; the vast majorit y o f F-84 S in Kore a wer e th e straight-win g variety . Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 138 . 61. Minto n interview . 62. Kennet h Koon , intervie w wit h author , tap e recording , Danvers , Mass., 7 January 1993 . 63. Sheldon , Troubling of a Star, p. 144 . 64. "80t h Fighte r Squadro n Headhunter s Squadro n History, " p . 6. 65. Sturgeo n interview . 66. Ibid . Th e Silve r Sta r wa s grante d fo r gallantr y t o person s servin g i n an y capacity wit h th e Air Force when a n actio n di d no t warran t th e Medal o f Hono r or th e Distinguishe d Servic e Cross . Fo r mor e o n Ai r Forc e medal s durin g thi s period, se e Air Force Regulatio n AFR-35-50 , Service Medals. 67. Histor y o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 January-30 Jun e 1953 . 68. The Truckbuster, vol . 1 , no . 2 0 (1 5 Apri l 1952) , 18t h Fighter-Bombe r Wing, Dogpatch , Korea , Record s o f th e 18t h Fighter-Bombe r Wing , Cente r fo r Air Forc e History, Washington , D.C. , p. 3.

69. 70. 71. 72. 73.

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Sturgeon interview.

Notes to Chapter 6 • 21 1 74. Heine r interview . 75. Berk e interview . Notes t o Chapte r 6 1. Nanc y Shea , The Air Force Wife (Ne w York: Harper, 1951) , pp. 4-5 . 2. Rober t Futrell , The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (Wash ington, D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, 1983) , pp. 62-63 . 3. Ibid. , p. 63. 4. Ibid. , p. 66. 5. Sturgeo n interview . 6. Berk e interview . 7. Dea n Hess , Battle Hymn (Ne w York : McGraw-Hill, 1956) , p. 148 . 8. Turne r interview . 9. Berk e interview . 10. Hess , Battle Hymn, pp . 80-81 . 11. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 233. 12. Hess , Battle Hymn, p . 93-94 . 13. Sturgeo n interview . 14. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 65. 15. Ibid. , p. n o . 16. Ibid. , p. 394 . 17. Ibid. , pp. 112 , 399-400 . 18. Ranal d Adams , intervie w wit h author , tap e recording , Alexandria , Vir ginia, 2 1 Octobe r 1993 . 19. Hess , Battle Hymn, p . 94. 20. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 395. 21. Tomlinso n interview . 22. Turne r interview . 23. Tomlinso n interview . 24. Jame s Salter , The Hunters (Ne w York: Bantam, 1956) , p. 34 . 25. Heine r interview . 26. Dougla s Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea (Blu e Ridg e Summit , Pa. : Ta b Books, 1984) , p. 120 . 27. Do n Parke r a s cite d i n Dermo t Moor e an d Pete r Bagshawe , South Africa's Flying Cheetahs in Korea (Johannesburg : Ashant i Publishing , 1991) , pp . 237-238. 28. Do n Parke r a s cited i n ibid. , pp. 237-238 . 29. Ibid . 30. Bria n Marti n a s cited i n ibid., p. 250 . 31. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 86 .

212 • Notes to Chapter 6 32. Ibid. , p . 65. 3 3. Tomlinso n interview . 34. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Twentiet h Ai r Force, Far Eas t Air Forces fo r Decembe r 1951 . 3 5. Sturgeo n interview . 36. Koo n interview . 37. Heine r interview . 38. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 Decembe r 1951 . 39. Tomlinso n interview . 40. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 . 41. Brow n interview . 42. Blesse , Check Six, p . 61. 43. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 141. 44. Histor y o f th e 4th Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Octobe r 1952 . 45. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Twentiet h Ai r Force, Far Eas t Air Force s fo r Decembe r 1951 . 46. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 141. 47. Koo n interview . 48. Ibid . 49. Lette r fro m Dea n Pric e t o th e 80t h Squadro n Association , "80t h Squad ron Headhunte r Squadro n History, " p . 28. 50. Tomlinso n interview . 51. Wal t Sheldon , Troubling of a Star (Chicago : Sear s Boo k Club , 1953) , p . 64. 52. Crocket t interview . 5 3. Koo n interview . 54. Ibid . 5 5. Hagerstro m interview . 56. Brown , who ofte n go t sic k durin g training , never dran k befor e flying . 57. Brow n interview . 5 8. Sturgeo n interview . 59. Koo n interview . 60. Rober t Scot t Sha w a s cite d i n Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, pp. 87-88 . 61. Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, p . 88 . 62. Gowe r interview . 63. Histor y o f th e 4th Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 . 64. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 199 . 65. Ibid. , p . 19 . 66. Brow n interview . 67. Shea , Air Force Wife, p . 67.

Notes to Chapter 6 • 21 3 68. Ibid. , pp. 191-192 . 69. Ibid . 70. Salter , T£? e Hunters, p . 17 . 71. Heine r interview . 72. "Roun d eyes " i s a derogator y ter m use d b y U.S . servicema n t o refe r t o Western wome n i n Asia . 73. "Clubmobil e Service, " statemen t prepare d b y American Re d Cros s o n it s Overseas Experienc e i n Worl d Wa r I I fo r us e o f th e Assembl y Committe e o n Service t o th e Arme d Forces , Gif t Collectio n Record s o f th e America n Re d Cross, 1947-1964 , 900.61 6 A T (FEA ) SRAO , 1952-57 , Bo x 1858 , Recor d Group 200 , Nationa l Archives , Suitlan d Annex . Fo r mor e informatio n o n Re d Cross activitie s durin g Worl d Wa r II , se e Osca r Whitela w Rexford , Battlestars and Doughnuts: World War II Clubmobile Experiences of Mary Metcalfe Rexford (St . Louis: Patrice Press , 1989) . 74. "Genera l Summar y Repor t America n Re d Cros s Clu b Program—Korea , November 1950-Jun e 1952, " 900.11/61 6 Recreatio n FETO—Korea , Record s of th e American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 2020 . 75. Brie f Summar y o f th e Supplementa l Recreationa l Activitie s Overseas , American Re d Cros s Clubmobil e Servic e in Korea, Octobe r 1953-Octobe r 1954 , Gift Collectio n Record s o f th e America n Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , 900.61 6 A T (FEA) SRAO , 1952-57 , Bo x 1858 . 76. Marie-Louis e Va n Vechten, "Narrativ e Report : K- 9 Canteen , Pusan , Ko rea," 3 0 April 1951 , 900.11/616 Clu b an d Recreatio n Progra m Establishmen t i n 1950 an d Histor y t o 3 1 Marc h 1952 , Record s o f th e America n Re d Cross , 1947-1964, Bo x 2020 .

JJ. Ibid .

78. "Th e 80t h Fighte r Squadro n Headhunte r Squadro n History, " p . 28 . 79. Lette r fro m Rober t C . Lewis, Red Cros s Vice President, to Major Genera l James Richardson , Deput y Chie f o f Staf f fo r Personnel , Departmen t o f th e Army, 1 3 April i960 , 900.11/9 1 FETO—Criticism s an d Controversia l Subjects , Records o f th e America n Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , NAR A Suitland , RG200 , Bo x 2021; Recruitmen t Flyer , 900.61 6 A T (FEA ) SRA O 1952-57 , Record s o f th e American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 1858 . 80. Memorandu m t o Rober t C . Lewi s fro m Rober t Wilson , n Apri l i960 , 900.11/91 FETO—Criticism s an d Controversia l Subjects , Record s o f the American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 2021. 81. G . B . Kuebler t o Basi l O'Connor , 1 4 January 1948 , 900.11/9 1 FET O — Criticisms an d Controversia l Subjects , Record s o f th e America n Re d Cross , 1947-1964, Bo x 2021. 82. Lette r fro m Fran k Cleverly , Administrato r fo r Foreig n Operations , American Re d Cross , t o Rober t Lewis , Commissioner , America n Re d Cross , 3

2 i 4 • Notes to Chapter 6 March 1948 , 900.11/91 FETO—Criticism s an d Controversia l Subjects , Record s of th e American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 2021. 83. Jessic a Hunter , " A Da y wit h th e Re d Cros s Clubmobil e Girl s i n Korea, " 900.11/616 Clu b an d Recreatio n Progra m Establishmen t i n 195 0 an d Histor y t o 31 March 1952 , Records o f th e American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 2020 . 84. "Genera l Summar y Report , American Re d Cros s Clu b Program—Korea , November 1950-Jun e 1952, " 900.11/61 6 Recreatio n FETO—Korea , Record s of th e American Re d Cross , 1947-1964 , Bo x 2020 . 8 5. Turne r interview . 86. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 Februar y 1952 . 87. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Octobe r 1952 , Februar y 195388. Whe n h e develope d th e pictures , Satterle e ha d considere d makin g Rooney eight-by-te n gloss y photos , bu t decide d o n five-by-sevens becaus e h e thought the y woul d b e easie r t o carry . Franci s Satterlee , intervie w wit h author , tape recording , Washington, D.C. , 1 9 February 1993 . 89. Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, pp . 221-222 . 90. Ibid . 91. Turne r interview . 92. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Twentiet h Ai r Force, Far Eas t Air Forces for Ma y 1951 . 93. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Twentiet h Ai r Force, Far Eas t Air Force s fo r Februar y 1952 . 94. Berk e interview . 95. Turne r interview . 96. 18t h Fighte r Bombe r Wing , Fifth Ai r Force, Far Eas t Ai r Forces , Histori cal Report, January-June 1953 . 9j. Joh n Mintur n Verdi , "Firs t Hundred : A Memoi r o f th e Korea n War , 1952-1953" (unpublishe d manuscript , Northport , Ala. , 1988) , p. 40. 98. Ibid. , p. 40; Tomlinson interview . 99. Turne r interview . 100. Ibid . 101. Verdi , "Firs t Hundred, " p . 41. 102. Berke , "Greenfields, " p . 88 . 103. Ibid . 104. Gowe r interview . 105. Sheldon , Troubling of a Star, p. 240-241 ; Salter , The Hunters, pp . 108 109. 106. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Octobe r 1951 . 107. The Truckhuster, vol . 1 , no. 1 8 (1 7 March 52) . 108. 18t h Fighte r Bombe r Wing, Fifth Ai r Force, Far East Air Forces, Histor ical Report, January-June 1953 .

Notes to Chapter 6 • 21 5 109. Berk e interview . n o . Baile y diary , 1 9 April 1951 . i n . Baile y diary , 1 7 April 1952 . 112. Heine r interview . 113. Joc k Lell o a s cite d i n Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, pp . 240 241. 114. Sturgeo n interview . 115. Jame s dictation . 116. Brow n interview . 117. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 10 . 118. Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, p . n . 119. Histor y o f th e 4th Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , January 1953 . 120. The Truckbuster, vol . 1 , no. 2 2 (1 6 May 52) . 121. Histor y o f th e 4t h Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 Decembe r 1952 . 122. Ibid . 123. Tomlinso n interview ; James dictation ; Lottinge r interview . 124. Ro y Lottinger , intervie w wit h author , tap e recording , 7 January 1993 , Amherst, N.H . 125. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Win g for Ma y 1951 . 126. Histor y o f th e 4th Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , Octobe r 1951 . 127. 18t h Fighte r Bombe r Wing, Fifth Ai r Force, Far East Air Forces, Histor ical Report, January-June 1953 . 128. Berk e interview . 129. Ibid . 130. Dic k Clifto n a s cite d i n Moor e an d Bagshawe , Flying Cheetahs, pp . 213-214. 131. Berk e interview . 132. Turne r interview . 133. Tomlinso n interview . 134. Crocket t interview . 135. Evans , Sabre Jets over Korea, p . 228 . 136. Turne r interview . 137. Berk e interview . 138. Hess , Battle Hymn, p . 159 . 139. Ibid . 140. Ibid . 141. Adam s interview . 142. Tomlinso n interview ; Heine r interview ; Brow n interview ; Gowe r inter view. 143. Blesse , Check Six, p . 61. 144. Tomlinso n interview . 145. Gowe r interview .

2 i 6 • Notes to Chapter 7 146. Tomlinso n interview . 147. Willia m Wallrich , "Bedchec k Charli e Flie s Again, " Air Force, vol . 36 , no. 9 (Septembe r 1953) , pp. 108-113 . 148. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 664 . 149. Wallrich , "Bedchec k Charlie, " pp . 108-113 ; Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 665. 150. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 310-312 , 66z-666. 151. Baile y diary, 1 6 June 1952 . 152. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 662-664 . 153. Histor y o f th e 4th Fighte r Intercepto r Wing , 1 July-31 January 1952 . 154. Tomlinso n interview . 155. Ibid . 156. Gowe r interview . 157. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 66$-666. Notes t o Chapte r 7 1. Tomlinso n interview . 2. Ibid . 3. Th e source s for thi s section ar e as follows: Risner interview , 2 1 May 1995 ; Mark C . Cleary , "Intervie w o f Brigadie r Genera l Robinso n Risner, " Austin , Texas, 1- 2 Marc h 1983 , United State s Ai r Forc e Ora l Histor y Program , Cente r for Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. ; T . R . Milton , "Robinso n Risner : Th e Indispensable Ingredient, " i n Joh n L . Frisbee , ed. , The Makers of the United States Air Force (Washington , D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , 1987) ; an d Robinson Risner , The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of the North Vietnamese (Ne w York : Random House , 1973) . 4. Brow n interview . 5. Willia m Ear l Brown , " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story, " Charle s A . Lindberg h Memorial Lecture , 2 1 Ma y 1992 , Nationa l Ai r an d Spac e Museu m Occasiona l Paper Serie s no. 4, pp. 35-36 . 6. Ibid . 7. Brow n interview . 8. Ibid . 9. Marcell e Siz e Knaack, Post-World War II Fighters: 1945-1973 (Washing ton, D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, 1986) , p. 207 . 10. Crocket t interview . 11. Tomlinso n interview . 12. Ibid . 13. Ibid . 14. Pomero y interview .

Notes to Chapter 8 • 21 7 15. Ibid . 16. "Littl e Switch " wa s th e swa p o f sic k an d wounde d POW s tha t occurre d between 2 0 Apri l an d 3 Ma y 1953 . Th e U.N . turne d ove r a tota l o f 6,67 0 Communist POWs , an d i n retur n receive d 68 4 POWs . Se e Cla y Blair , The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953 (Ne w York : Ancho r Books , 1987), p. 972. 17. Turne r interview . 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21. Baile y interview . 22. Ibid . 23. Berke interview. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Berk e interview ; 20 1 Fil e fo r Georg e Berk e an d "Wor k History, " per sonal paper s o f Georg e Berke , Reston, Virginia . 30. Heine r interview . 31. Ibid . 32. Ibid . 33. Risner , Passing of the Night, p . 5 . 34. Sturgeo n interview . 35. Ibid . 36. Hagerstro m interview . 37. Ibid . 38. Ibid . 39. Ibid . 40. De e Harper , F-8 6 Sabr e Pilot s Associatio n recruitmen t letter , 1 3 Septem ber 1994 . 41. Ibid . Notes t o Chapte r 8 1. Th e nam e o f th e pilot i s withheld a t th e pilot's request . 2. Rober t Wilcox , Scream of Eagles: The Creation of Top Gun and the U.S. Air Victory in Vietnam (Ne w York : John Wile y an d Sons , 1990) , pp . 212 , 288. 3. Departmen t o f Defense , Selected Manpower Statistics: Fiscal Year 1994

2i8 • Notes to Appendix i (Washington, D.C. : Directorat e fo r Information , Operations , an d Reports , 1994), p. 15 . 4. Erasmus , Adagia, 1588 . Thi s sayin g wa s adopte d b y th e 80t h Fighte r Squadron afte r th e Korea n Wa r an d placed , i n Latin , unde r th e Headhunte r patch. Notes t o Appendi x 1 1. Hoy t Vandenber g a s cite d i n Rober t Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (Washington , D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, 1983) , pp. 46-47 . 2. Richar d Hallion , The Naval Air War in Korea (Baltimore : Nautica l an d Aviation Publishing , 1983) , p. 205. 3. A s o f 2 8 Jun e 1950 , th e FEA F orde r o f battl e stoo d a s follows : "Tw o fighter-bomber wing s an d on e intercepto r win g (al l with F-80 C Shootin g Stars) , two all-weathe r fighte r squadron s (F-8 2 Twi n Mustangs) , an d a n understrengt h light bombardmen t win g o f B-2 6 Invaders . . . . I t als o ha d on e grou p o f B-2 9 Superfortresses, whic h b y 195 0 wer e classifie d a s mediu m bombers . FEA F als o had a n additiona l F-8 0 wing , an d on e F-8 2 squadron , bu t thes e 20t h Ai r Forc e units wer e reserve d fo r th e defens e o f Okinaw a an d th e Marianas. " Eduar d Mark, "Aeria l Interdiction " (unpublishe d manuscript , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e His tory, Washington, D.C. , 1982) , p. 316 . 4. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 272 . 5. Ibid. , p. 271. 6. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 88-89 ; Hallion , Naval Air War in Korea, p . 49. 7. Historica l Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighter-Intercepto r Wing , Twentiet h Ai r Force (Attache d t o Fift h Ai r Force ) fo r Septembe r 1 9 51, Record s o f th e 51s t Wing, Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C. , p. 6 . 8. I n all , napalm destroye d 7 1 percent o f th e observe d aeria l tan k kill s whil e rockets destroye d onl y 2 1 percent . Ai r Universit y Fa r Eas t Researc h Group , 2 d Logistical Command , AP O 59 , Interdictio n Bombin g Experience s o f Selecte d CCF and North Korea n Arm y Units, Report No . 3 , North Korea n 10t h Division , 6 Ma y 1951 , base d o n eightee n PO W replie s t o AUFER G Questionnair e 2b , planned b y Projec t RAN D i n collaboratio n wit h Operation s Analysis , 5t h Ai r Force, and Ai r University Fa r Eas t Researc h Grou p b y Alexander George , "Proj ect RAND, " Headquarter s USAF , Records o f th e 5t h Ai r Force , Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C. ; Hallion, Naval Air War in Korea, p . 49; Offic e of th e Secretar y o f Defense , "Ai r Wa r i n Korea, " Air University Quarterly Review, vol . 4, no. 2 (1953), p. 23. 9. Ma x Hastings , The Korean War (Ne w York : Simo n an d Schuster , 1987) , p. 257 .

Notes to Appendix i

•

21 9

10. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " pp . 273 , 278 ; Edmun d Dew s an d Feli x Kozaczka, "Lesson s fro m Pas t Campaigns, " RAN D #N-i74 3 (Sant a Monica : RAND, 1980) , p . 62 ; Rober t Jackson , The Air War over Korea (Ne w York : Charles Scribner' s Sons , 1973 , p. 23. 11. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 279 . 12. Ibid. , pp. 279-280 . 13. Dew s an d Kozaczka , "Lesson s fro m Pas t Campaigns, " p . 61. 14. Ibid. , p. 60 . 15. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 281. 16. Interrogatio n Report , H Q 8t h U.S . Army , Korea , Senio r Colone l Le e Hak Ku , 2 1 September 1950 , as cited b y Mark, "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 281. 17. Davi d Rees , Korea: The Limited War (Ne w York : St . Martin' s Press , 1964), p. 291. 18. FEA F Bombe r Command , "Heavyweight s ove r Korea, " a s reprinte d i n James Stewart , ed. , Airpower: The Decisive Force in Korea (Ne w York : Arno , 1980), pp. 82-85 . 19. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 299 . 20. Mar k Clodfelter , The Limits of Air Tower: Th e America n Bombin g o f North Vietna m (Ne w York : Free Press, 1989) , p. 17 . 21. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 307 . 22. Ibid . 23. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 437-442 . 24. Gregor y Carter , "Som e Historica l Note s o n Ai r Interdictio n i n Korea, " RAND #P345 2 (Sant a Monica : RAND , 1966) , p . 2 ; Feli x Kozaczka , "Ai r Wa r in Korea : VI . Enem y Bridgin g Techniques, " Air University Quarterly Review, vol. 5 , no. 4 (1954) , p . 50 ; M. J . Armitag e an d R . A . Mason , Air Tower in the Nuclear Age, 2 d ed. (Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press , 1985) , p. 38 . 25. Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 49 , 1 9 Novembe r 1951 , "An Evaluatio n o f th e Interdiction Progra m i n Korea," Donal d Schiller , Analyst , RG342, Box 3518 , National Archives , Suitland Annex , pp . 1-9 . 26. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 309 . 27. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 439. 28. Hallion , Naval Air War in Korea, p . 92; Futrell, U.S. Air Force in Korea, p. 440 . 29. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 408. 30. Ibid. , pp. 439-441 . 31. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 31 2 32. Ibid. , p. 313. 33. Ibid. , pp. 313-314 . 34. Jackson , Air War over Korea, p . 136 . 35. Ibid .

220 • Notes to Appendix 3 36. Ibid . 37. Ibid. , p. 138 ; Futrell, U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 447-453. 38. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 471-474; Kozaczka, "Enem y Bridg ing Techniques," p . 50 . 39. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp . 471-474 . 40. Headquarters , 5t h Ai r Force , Operation s Analysi s Office , AP O 970 , Operations Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 , 2 1 Ma y 1951 , Physical an d Psychological Effect s o f Interdictio n Ai r Attack s a s Determine d fro m PO W Interrogations, Analyst , Alexande r Georg e (TD Y fro m RAN D Corporation) , Records o f th e Fift h Ai r Force , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. , pp. 81-82 . Hereafter, Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43. 41. Ai r Universit y Fa r Eas t Researc h Group , 2 d Logistica l Command , AP O 59, Interdictio n Bombin g Experience s o f Selecte d CC F an d Nort h Korea n Arm y Units, Report No . 1 , 1 2 April 1951 , based o n eightee n PO W replies to AUFER G Questionnaire 2b , planne d b y Projec t RAN D i n collaboratio n wit h Operation s Analysis, Fift h Ai r Force , an d Ai r Universit y Fa r Eas t Researc h Group , Record s of th e Fift h Ai r Force , Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. , pp . 1 3 16.

42. Dew s an d Kozaczka , "Lesson s fro m Pas t Campaigns, " p . 57 . 43. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, pp.471-474 . 44. Davi d Rees , Korea: The Limited War (Ne w York : St . Martin' s Press , 1964), pp. 298-300 . 45. Operation s Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 , p . 2 ; Genera l Head quarters, United Nation s Command , Fa r Eas t Command , Ma y 1951 , Records of the Unite d Nation s Fa r Eas t Command , Recor d Grou p 407 , National Archives , Suitland Annex , p. 28 . 46. Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 473. 47. Carter , "Som e Historica l Note s o n Interdiction, " p . 14 . 48. Hallion , Naval Air War in Korea, p . 105 . 49. Althoug h thes e figures cover the period betwee n th e beginning o f the wa r and Marc h 1952 , mos t o f th e losse s wer e incurre d durin g th e rai l campaig n starting i n Augus t 1952 . Se e Jackson, Air War over Korea, p . 13 8 an d Futrell , U.S. Air Force in Korea, p . 446. 50. Mark , "Aeria l Interdiction, " p . 317 . N o t e t o Appendi x 3 1. Th e sourc e o f bot h table s i s Operation s Statistic s Division , Directorat e o f Statistical Services , Unite d State s Ai r Force , "Ai r Forc e Statistica l Diges t 1951 " (Washington, D.C. , 1952) .

Blbliograpbg I. Unpublishe d Source s After-Action Report . Record s o f th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Wing . Octobe r 1952. Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington, D.C . Air Universit y Fa r Eas t Researc h Group . 2 d Logistica l Command , AP O 59 . Interdiction Bombin g Experience s o f Selecte d CC F an d Nort h Korea n Arm y Units. Repor t No . 1 . 1 2 Apri l 1951 . Base d o n eightee n PO W replie s t o AUFERG Questionnair e 2b . Planned b y Project RAN D i n collaboratio n wit h Operations Analysis , Fift h Ai r Forc e an d Ai r Universit y Fa r Eas t Researc h Group. Records of the Fifth Ai r Force. Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . . Interdictio n Bombin g Experience s o f Selecte d CC F an d Nort h Korea n Army Units . Report No . 3 . North Korea n 10t h Division . 6 May 1951 . Based on eightee n PO W replie s t o AUFER G Questionnair e 2b . Planne d b y Projec t RAND i n collaboratio n wit h Operation s Analysis , Fift h Ai r Force , an d Ai r University Fa r Eas t Researc h Grou p b y Alexande r George . Headquarter s USAF. Records o f th e Fifth Ai r Force . Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washing ton, D.C . Bailey, M. J. Diar y fo r 1952 . Diamond Bar , Calif. Berke, George. "Greenfields. " Unpublishe d manuscript . 1992 . Reston, Va . . Personal papers . Reston, Va. Boyle, Charles . Genera l Order s No . 3 . Headquarters : 349t h Fiel d Artillery . 8 January 1942 . Fort Sill , Okla . Brown, Willia m Earl . " A Fighte r Pilot' s Story. " Charle s A . Lindberg h Memoria l Lecture. 2 1 Ma y 1992 . Nationa l Ai r an d Spac e Museu m Occasiona l Pape r Series No. 4 . Caddell, Josep h William . "Orpha n o f Unification : Th e Developmen t o f Unite d States Air Forc e Tactical Air Powe r Doctrine , 1945-1947. " Ph.D . diss., Duke University, 1984 . Cameron, Rebecc a Hancock . "T o Fly : Militar y Fligh t Training , 1907-1945. " Draft, historica l manuscript . 1993 . Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington , D.C. Carter, Gregory . "Som e Historica l Note s o n Ai r Interdictio n i n Korea. " RAN D #P3452. Sant a Monica : RAND , 1966 . Casey, Irving . "Socia l Origin s an d Caree r Pattern s o f Unite d State s Ai r Forc e Generals an d Colonels. " Ph.D . diss., American University , 1967 . 221

222 • Bibliography Dews, Edmund , an d Feli x Kozaczka . "Lesson s fro m Pas t Campaigns. " RAN D #Ni743« Sant a Monica : RAND , 1980 . 18th Fighte r Bombe r Wing . Fift h Ai r Force . Fa r Eas t Ai r Forces . Historica l Report, Januar y t o Jun e 1953 . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington , D.C. 80th Fighte r Bombe r Association . "Th e 80t h Fighte r Squadro n Headhunter s Squadron History. " Persona l papers o f Jerry Minton . For t Worth, Texas . FEAF Command Report . Volume I. August 1951 . Records o f the United Nation s Far Easter n Command . Recor d Grou p 407 . Nationa l Archives , Suitlan d Annex, Washington, D.C . "Flying Trainin g Ai r Forc e Statistica l Digest. " 3 1 Jul y 1952 . Record s o f th e Flying Training Ai r Force. Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . Harper, Dee . F-8 6 Sabr e Pilot s Associatio n recruitmen t letter . 1 3 Septembe r 1994. Headquarters, Fift h Ai r Force . Operation s Analysi s Office . AP O 970 . Opera tions Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 . 2 1 Ma y 1951 . "Physica l an d Psychological Effect s o f Interdictio n Ai r Attack s a s Determine d fro m PO W Interrogations." Analyst , Alexande r Georg e (TD Y fro m RAN D Corpora tion). Record s o f th e Fift h Ai r Force . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washing ton, D.C . Historical Division , Flyin g Trainin g Ai r Force . "Histor y o f th e Flyin g Trainin g Air Force, " 1 January-3 0 Jun e 1952 , vols . 1 an d 2 ; 1 July-3 1 Decembe r 1952, vols . 1 an d 2 ; 1 January-30 Jun e 1953 , vols . 1 an d 2 . Waco , Texas . Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Historical Repor t o f th e 51s t Fighter-Intercepto r Wing . Twentiet h Ai r Forc e (attached t o Fift h Ai r Force) . May, September , October , Decembe r 1951 , and February 1952 . Record s o f th e 51s t Wing . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington, D.C . History o f th e 51s t Fighte r Intercepto r Wing . 1 January 195 3 t o 3 0 June 1953 . History o f th e 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Wing . 1 July-31 Decembe r 1951 ; October 1952; 1 July-3 1 Decembe r 1952 ; January , February , an d Octobe r 1953 . Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . "History o f th e 349t h Fiel d Artillery. " Headquarters : 349t h Fiel d Artillery . 1942. Fort Sill , Okla . James, E. R. Taped dictatio n fo r author . St . Louis, Mo. 2 2 April 1993 . Jarnette, Thomas. "4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Grou p Operation s i n MiG Alley. " 1 7 June 1953 . Record s o f th e 4t h Fighte r Wing . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washington D.C . Mark, Eduard . "Aeria l Interdiction : Ai r Powe r an d th e Lan d Battl e i n Thre e American Wars. " Unpublishe d manuscript , 1992 . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e His tory, Washington, D.C .

Bibliography •

22 3

Mission Report . Headquarters : 4t h Fighter-Intercepto r Group . 4 Novembe r 1951. Record s o f th e 4th Fighter-Intercepto r Group . November 1951 . Center for Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . Mitchell, Vance . "Th e Firs t Generation : A Personne l Polic y Histor y o f th e Ai r Force Office r Corps , 1944-1974. " Unpublishe d manuscript . 1992 . Center fo r Air Forc e History , Washington, D.C . Nalty, Bernard , ed . "Histor y o f th e Unite d State s Ai r Force , 1907-1982. " Un published manuscript . 1992 . Center fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . Operations Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 43 . Genera l Headquarters . United Nation s Command . Fa r Eas t Command . Ma y 1951 . Records o f th e United Nation s Fa r Eas t Command . Recor d Grou p 407 . Nationa l Archives , Suitland Annex , Washington, D.C . Operations Analysi s Offic e Memorandu m No . 49 . 1 9 Novembe r 1951 . A n Evaluation o f th e Interdictio n Progra m i n Korea . Donal d Schiller , Analyst . RG342, Bo x 3518 . National Archives , Suitland Annex. , Washington, D.C . Records o f th e America n Re d Cross , 1947-1964 . 900.61 6 A T (FEA ) SRAO , 1952-57. Boxe s 1858 , 2020 , 2021 . Recor d Grou p 200 . Nationa l Archives , Suitland Annex , Washington, D.C . Sherwood, John . "Ai r Interdictio n durin g th e Korea n War : A n America n Solu tion t o Wa r i n th e Developin g World. " Master' s thesis , Columbi a University , 1991. Special Report . Th e Record s o f th e 4t h Fighte r Wing . June 1952 . Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Summary o f Aircraf t Los s (Forbes) . 18t h Fighte r Bombe r Wing . Fift h Ai r Force . Far Eas t Ai r Forces . Historica l Report . January-Jun e 1953 . Record s o f th e 18th Fighte r Bombe r Wing . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . "The Truckbuster. " Vol . 1 , no . 2 0 (1 5 Apri l 1952) ; vol . 1 , no . 1 8 (1 7 Marc h 1952); vol. 1 , no. 2 2 (1 6 Ma y 1952) . 18t h Fighter-Bombe r Wing . Dogpatch , Korea. Record s o f th e 18t h Fighter-Bombe r Wing . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, Washington, D.C . Verdi, Joh n Minturn . "Firs t Hundred : A Memoi r o f th e Korea n War , 1952 1953." Unpublishe d manuscript . 1988 . Northport, Ala . II. Autho r Interview s an d Ora l Historie s Adams, Ranald . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 2 1 Octobe r 1993 . Alexandria, Virginia . Bailey, M . J . Intervie w wit h author . Telephon e interview . 9 Septembe r 1994 . Washington, D.C . Berke, George . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 2 2 Marc h 93 . Cente r fo r Air Force History, Washington , D.C .

224 * Bibliography Brooks, James. Interview with John Dick , Jr. 5 February 1977 . United State s Ai r Force Ora l Histor y Collection . Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History , Washingto n D.C. Brown, Willia m Earl . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 7 Apri l 1993 . Center Fo r Air Force History, Washington, D.C . Crockett, Woodrow . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 3 1 Marc h 1993 . Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Elder, William . Intervie w wit h Jame s Hasdorff . 1 3 Septembe r 1984 . Unite d States Air Force Ora l Histor y Collection . Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Gower, Perrin. Interview with author . Tape recording. 2 1 October 1993 . Alexandria, Virginia . Hagerstrom, James . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 3 Februar y 1993 . Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Heiner, Howard . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 1 4 Decembe r 1992 . Washington, D.C . Koon, Kenneth . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 7 Januar y 1993 . Dan vers, Mass. Lottinger, Roy . Interview with author . Tape recording. 7 January 1993 . Amherst, N.H. Minton, Jerry. Tape dictation . 1 6 May 1995 . Fort Worth, Texas . Pomeroy, Robert . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 2 Februar y 1993 . Center fo r Ai r Force History, Washington, D.C . Risner, Robinson . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 2 1 Ma y 1995 . Wash ington, D.C . . Interview with Mar k Cleary . 1- 2 Marc h 1983 , Austin, Texas. Center fo r Air Forc e History, Washington, D.C . Satterlee, Francis . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 1 9 Februar y 1993 . Washington, D.C . Sturgeon, Raymond . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 2 1 Jun e 1994 . Bedford, Mass . Tomlinson, Frank . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 9 Decembe r 1992 . Center fo r Ai r Force History. Washington, D.C . Turner, Paul . Intervie w wit h author . Tap e recording . 3 March 1993 . Cente r fo r Air Forc e History, Washington, D.C . III. Newspape r an d Journa l Article s Air Force Times. 1 April 1950 . "Baker Break s Silenc e with Cradl e Song. " Air Force Times, 1 September 1951 . Dodd, Everett . "Th e Tal e of 'Tiger. ' " Air Force Magazine, Jul y 1953 .

Bibliography •

22 5

Gatto, Lucio . "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome. " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no. 8 (1954) . . "Understandin g th e Tea r o f Flying ' Syndrome , II : Psychosomati c As pects an d Treatment. " U.S . Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 5 , no . 9 (i954)Halliday, Jon . " A Secre t War : U.S . an d Sovie t Ai r Force s Clashe d Directl y i n Korea." Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 2 April 1993 . Jones, David. "Flyin g an d Danger , Joy an d Fear. " Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, vol . 57 , no. 2 (February 1986) . Kozaczka, Felix . "Ai r Wa r i n Korea : VI . Enem y Bridgin g Techniques. " Air University Quarterly Review, vol . 5 , no. 4 (1954) . Lifton, Robert . "Psychotherap y wit h Comba t Fliers. " U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal, vol . 4, no. 4 (Apri l 1953) . Office o f the Secretary o f Defense. "Ai r Wa r i n Korea." Air University Quarterly Review, vol . 4, no. 2 (1953) . Potter, J . G . "Serg e Look s a t Today' s Cadet. " Air Force Times, 16 Septembe r 1950. Proceedings o f th e symposiu m o n "Th e Histor y o f Wa r a s Par t o f Genera l History." Institut e fo r Advance d Study . Princeton , N.J . The Journal of Military History, vol . 57 , no. 5 (October 1993) . Rosenberg, Emily . " 'Foreig n Affairs ' afte r Worl d Wa r II. " Diplomatic History, vol. 18 , no. 1 (Winter 1994) . Schultz, H. A . "Fea r o f Flying. " USAF Medical Service Digest, Novembe r 1952 . Strongin, Timothy . " A Historica l Revie w o f th e Fea r o f Flyin g amon g Air crewmen." Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, vol . 58, no . 2 (1987). Wallrich, William . "Bedchec k Charli e Flie s Again. " Air Force, vol . 36 , no . 9 (September 1953) . IV. Book s Air Force Officer's Guide. 5t h ed . Harrisburg , Pa. : Militar y Servic e Publishin g Co., 1952 . Ambrose, Stephen . Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1966 . Armitage, M . J. , an d R . A . Mason . Air Power in the Nuclear Age. 2 d ed . Chicago: University o f Chicag o Press , 1985 . Blesse, Frederick. Check Six: A Fighter Pilot Looks Back. Mesa , Ariz.: Champli n Fighter Museu m Press . Clodfelter, Mark . The Limits of Air Power: The American Bombing of North Vietnam. Ne w York : Free Press, 1989 .

226 • Bibliography Cullum, George . Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy. Supplement , vol . 9 , ed. , Charle s Branham . West Point, N.Y.: Association o f Graduates , U.S. Military Academy , 1950 . Cumings, Bruce. War and Television. Ne w York : Verso, 1991. Cunliffe, Marcus . Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America, 1775186j. London : Greg g Revivals, 1973 . Ellis, Joseph. School for Soldiers: West Point and the Profession of Arms. Ne w York: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1974 . Evans, Douglas . Sabre Jets over Korea: A Firsthand Account. Blu e Ridg e Sum mit, Pa.: Tab Books , 1984 . Frisbee, Joh n L. , ed . The Makers of the United States Air Force. Washington , D.C.: Cente r fo r Ai r Forc e History, 1987 . Futrell, Rober t F . The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953. Rev . ed . Washington, D.C. : Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, 1983 . Gabreski, Francis , an d Car l Molesworth . Gabby: A Fighter Pilot's Life. Ne w York: Orio n Books , 1991. Gropman, Alan . The Air Force Integrates, 1945-1964. Washington , D.C. : Cen ter fo r Ai r Force History, 1985 . Gross, Charle s Joseph . Prelude to the Total Force: The Air National Guard, 1943-1969. Washington , D.C. : Center fo r Ai r Force History, 1985 . Hallion, Richard . The Naval Air War in Korea. Baltimore : Nautical an d Aviatio n Publishing, 1986 . . Storm over Iraq. Washington , D.C.: Smithsonian Institutio n Press , 1992 . Hastings, Max. The Korean War. New York : Simo n an d Schuster , 1987 . Hess, Dean. Battle Hymn. Ne w York : McGraw-Hill, 1956 . Huntington, Samuel . The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of CivilMilitary Relations. Cambridge , Mass.: Belknap Press , 1957 . Jackson, Robert . The Air War over Korea. Ne w York : Charle s Scribner' s Sons , 1973Janowitz, Morris . The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, i960 . Karsten, Peter . The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism. Ne w York : Free Press, 1972 . Knaack, Marcell e Size . Post-World War II Fighters: 1945-1973. Washington , D.C.: Cente r fo r Ai r Force History, 1986 . Linderman, Gerald . The Mirror of War. An n Arbor : Universit y o f Michiga n Press, 1974 . Mahurin, Walker . Honest John. Ne w York : Putnam, 1962 . Marshall, S . L. A. Men against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command in Future War. New York : William Morrow , 1947 . Maslow, Abraham . Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences. Columbus : Ohi o State University Press , 1964 .

Bibliography •

22 7

Mills, C . Wright. The Power Elite. Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1956 . Moore, Dermot , an d Pete r Bagshawe . South Africa's Flying Cheetahs in Korea. Johannesburg: Ashant i Publishing , 1991 . Nye, Roger . The Patton Mind: The Professional Development of an Extraordinary Leader. Garde n Cit y Park , N.Y. : Avery, 1993 . Olejniczak, Julian , ed . 1992 Register of Graduates and Former Cadets: United States Military Academy. Wes t Point , N.Y. : Associatio n o f Graduates , U.S . Military Academy , 1992 . Parkman, Francis . Montcalm and Wolfe. Vol . I. Boston: Little, Brown, 1924 . Perret, Geoffrey . Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II. Ne w York: Random House , 1993 . Rees, David. Korea: The Limited War. New York : St . Martin's Press , 1964 . Rexford, Osca r Whitelaw. Battlestars and Doughnuts: World War II Clubmobile Experiences of Mary Metcalfe P^exford. St. Louis: Patrice Press , 1989 . Ribuffo, Leo . Right Center Left. Ne w Brunswick , N.J. : Rutgers Universit y Press , 1992. Risner, Robinson. The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of the North Vietnamese. Ne w York : Random House , 1973 . Salter, James. The Hunters. Ne w York : Bantam, 1956 . Sandler, Stanley . Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WW II. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonia n Institutio n Press , 1992 . Schaffer, Ronald . Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II. Ne w York: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1986 . Shea, Nancy. The Air Force Wife. Ne w York : Harper, 1951 . Sheldon, Walt. Troubling of a Star. Chicago: Sears Book Club , 1953 . Sherry, Michael. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon. New Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press , 1987 . Spick, Mike. The Ace Factor: Air Combat and the Role of Situational Awareness. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institut e Press , 1988 . Stewart, James , ed . Airpower: The Decisive Force in Korea. Ne w York : Arno , 1980. Watry, Charles . Washout: The Aviation Cadet Story. Carlsbad : Californi a Aer o Press, 1983 . Wilcox, Robert . Scream of Eagles: The Creation of Top Gun and the U. S. Air Victory in Vietnam. Ne w York : John Wile y an d Sons , 1990 .

Index AC-47, "Puf f th e Magic Dragon, " 14 9 Accidents, Basic, 57-59, 60 ; Advanced, 6 3 Aces, 78, 156; characteristics of , 85-87 ; "Charlie ace, " 141 ; as flight instructors , 66; importance of , 77-78 ; Korean Wa r total, 73; sacrifices t o become , 89-90; situational awarenes s of , 7 9 AD-1 Skyraider, 140 , 15 1 Adams, Ranald, 121 , 139 Advanced, 43 , 61-67; graduation rate , 3 8 Aerial kills , confirmation of , 88 , 180-91 ; dynamics of , 90-91 ; importanc e of , t o career, 94-95 ; motivation t o get , 85 ; as a peak experience , 72 , 91-92; statistics, 77-78; victory credits, 180-85 . See also Aces Aeroneurosis, 53 . See also Fea r o f Flyin g Aerospace Weapons Center , 14 8 African-Americans. See Blacks Aguadulce, Panama, 1 5 Air Chie f o f Staff, 16 9 Air Comman d an d Staf f School , 4 7 Aircraft. See specific planes Aircraft, FEA F strength, 18 7 Aircraft losses , 76, 98-99, 19 0 Aircraft maintenance , 120-2 1 Air Defense Command , 15 5 Airfields, constructio n of , 119-2 0 Airfield suppression , 14 1 Air Force Aid Society , 15 3 Air Force Comman d an d Staf f College , 148 Air Force Historical Foundation , 6 Air Force Inspector General , 106 , 150-51 , 161 Air Force Institute o f Technology, 154 , 156, 162 ; description of , 193n . 5 Air Force Magazine, 62 , 10 2 Air Force Officers ' Wive s Association, 6 Air Force Reserve , 3 3 Air Force ROTC, 3 2 Air Force Times, 64 , 10 2

Air Force Wife, The, 12 8 Air National Guard , 149 , 158 ; Oklahoma , 148 Air orde r o f battle , 8 0 Air-sea rescue , 5, 77, 80, 83, 191n. 1 0 Air-to-air combat , romanti c imag e of , 73 ; sexual languag e to describe , 91-9 4 Air Training Command , 38 ; and blacks , 42-43; Brown , Earl , 148 ; class 52- E study, 60-61 ; clas s 53-E study , 52 ; flyin g curriculum, 50 ; FOF study, 53, 56; hazing, policy on , 47; officer professional ism study, 65; washout policy , 4 9 Air University, 15 0 Air War College , 47, 14 4 Alaska Ai r Command , 15 4 Albany, Georgia , 15 9 Albuquerque, New Mexico , 15 5 Alcohol, 125-28 ; abuse of , 164-65 ; "mis sion whiskey," 84 , 109-10 ; sales, 136 . See also Drinkin g Allied Ai r Forces Souther n Europe , 15 2 Ambrose, Stephen , 12 . See also Duty, Honor, Country Anderson, H . G. , 5 3 Andover, England , 15 2 Andrews AFB, Maryland, 148 , 151 , 158 Anti-aircraft artillery , 99-100 , 119 , 140 , 174-76, 17 9 Antung Ai r Base , China, 2 , 75 , 83, 88-8 9 Aquino, Corazon , 16 1 Aquino, Tony, 16 1 Arlington Nationa l Cemetery , 16 2 Armed Force s Staf f College , 14 6 Armistice, U.N., demands , 173 ; negotiations, 17 8 Article 15 , 16 4 Assansal, India, 2 9 Assemblies o f God , 1 4 Association(s): A-l, 152 ; Air Commando , 152; F-86 Sabre , 152 , 163 ; 58th Fighter Bomber, 158 , 16 3

229

230 • Index AT-6 Texan, 4 8 AT-8, 5 2 "Audentes Fortun a Juvat, " 11 2 Aviation Cade t program , 12 , 14 , 19 , 23, 28-30, 32 , 34, 37, 42, 44, 52, 64, 163, 198n. 34 ; admittance requirements , 12 , 40; cadet shortage , 40-41; commission ing, 61; honor code , 45; percent o f blacks in , 41; student officers , 46 ; typica l cadet, 6 4 AWACS, 16 4 Awards, 66, 85 , 155, 160; Air Medal, 85 ; Distinguished Flyin g Cross , 39, 85, 98, 103, 108 , 115 ; Silver Star, 85 , 96, 112 , 210n. 66 B-24 Liberator, 2 5 B-26 Invader , 67 , 73-74, 140-41 , 171 , 174, 176-7 7 B-29 Superfortress , 73-74 , 76 , 141 , 17475, 177 , 180-8 1 Bailey, M. J., 114 , 162-63 , 166; on anti aircraft weapons , 99-100 ; on Bedchec k Charlie, 141 ; biographical vignette , 2 8 29; on bombing , 104 , 107 ; on comba t motivation, 108 ; on death , 101 ; on first mission, 103 ; post-Korea vignette , 155 ; on problem s wit h F-80 , 102 ; on prostitu tion, 135 , 16 5 Bailout, descriptio n of , 58-5 9 Bainbridge, Georgia , 4 7 Baker, Royal, 1 , 8 8 Bakersfield, California , 3 4 Barcus, Glenn O. , 11 2 Barksdale AFB , Texas, 3 3 Baseball caps , 110-1 1 Base exchanges, 136 , 14 2 Base jobs, 139-4 0 Base life: in continental U.S. , 117, 128 , 165; in Korea, 116-17 , 119-42 ; in Thai land, 151 ; in Vietnam, 15 8 Bases. See specific bases Basic, 42, 57-6 1 Bedcheck Charlie , 140-4 2 Belleville, Illinois, 3 0 Berke, George, 9, 36, 4 1, 62, 162-63 , 166 ; on bas e life, 116 ; biographical vignette , 29-31; o n comba t veterans , 107 ; on flight instructors , 49, 59; on en d o f fligh t

suit era , 164 ; on hazing , 48; on impor tance o f fighter-bomber, 114 ; on indige nous food , 118-19 ; on Korea n country side, 118 ; on pilo t status , 72; post-Kore a vignette, 156-58 ; on Projec t Tiger , 66; on pro p planes , 58; on prostitution , 92 , 133-35; o n religiou s discrimination , 47 ; on spies , 138 ; on theft , 137 ; training memories, 60 ; on washouts , 51 ; on women, 6 4 Biloxi, Mississippi, 3 0 Bingo fuel condition , 8 3 Bitburg, Germany , 14 6 Blacks, 17-22 ; 147-49 ; Air Force recruit ment of , 41-42 ; Primary, 47-49; wash outs, 199n . 71 . See also Integration ; Tuskegee airme n Blesse, Frederick, 85-87 , 89-90 , 93-94 , 167; on pea k experience , 91 ; and Ping Pong, 124-25 ; and situationa l aware ness, 78-7 9 Boiling AFB, Maryland, 1 0 Bombing, napalm, 105 , 175, 218n. 8 ; pilot anguish about , 96 ; pilot rationalizatio n of, 104 ; strategy, 178 . See also Fighter bomber pilots ; F-51 Mustang, F-8 0 Shooting Star , F-84 Thunderje t Bond, Douglas, 5 3 Bong, Richard, 5 8 "Bootstrap" program , 162 , 193n . 5 Bordelon, Guy , 14 1 Bossier City , Louisiana, 3 3 Boyle, Charles, 2 1 Bracing, 46, 124 . See also Hazin g Brandt, Allan , 9 1 British Roya l Navy , 73-7 4 Brooks, James, 9 4 Brown, Earl , 61, 78, 82, 167 ; base jobs, 139; Basic, 58-60; biographica l vignette , 17-19; drinking , 126 , 128 ; on G forces , 59; on officers ' clubs , 135 ; on Ping Pong, 124-25 ; post-Korea vignette , 146 48; o n Primary , 48-4 9 Brownsville, Texas, 1 6 Buick, Dick, 2 8 Burma, 2 9 C 3 (system) , 151-5 2 C-47 Skytrain , 125 , 151, 154, 15 7

Index • C-119 Flyin g Boxcar, 15 4 C-124 Globemaster , 13 5 Cable News Network , 15 0 "Calling," 11 7 Cambridge, England, 15 0 Careerism, 106 , 143-4 4 Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 15 3 Casey, Irving, 1 3 CBS News, 16 2 Cedar Falls , Iowa, 3 4 "Century Series " fighters, 14 9 Chanute Field , Illinois, 3 3 Chase, Levi, 11 2 Cheyenne Mountain , Colorado , 15 5 China, 1 , 4-5, 154 , 169 , 175 , 177-78 ; an d AA effort, 99 ; Air Force , 73 , 76; and Bedcheck Charlie , 141 ; and Mi G bases , 75; and Mi G entr y into war, 74 ; U.S. violation o f ai r space , 88-90 , 9 2 Chinnampo estuary , 10 5 Chodo Island , Sout h Korea , 5 , 80 , 83 , 141, 191n. 1 0 Chongchon River , 75-77 , 99 , 17 6 Civil Air Patrol , 158 , 16 3 Clark AFB , Philippines, 14 5 Claude, Pierre, 6 0 Cleveland, Charles , 93 , 124, 13 9 Clifton, Dick , 13 7 Clinton, William, 15 0 Close ai r support , 169 , 17 3 Clubmobiles, 129-3 0 Cochran, Phil , 2 9 "Cockpit, The, " 111 , 126 Cold War , 16 6 Colorado College , 2 8 Combat motivation , 71-72 , 166 ; fighterbomber pilots , 106-8 , 110 ; fighter-interceptor pilots, 90-92, 9 4 Combat Operation s Briefin g Room , 8 0 Commissions, 3 7 Communist forces , ground troo p hard ships, 177-78 . See also China; North Ko rea; U.S.S.R . Confederate Ai r Force, 158 , 16 3 Contractor fligh t schools , 4 3 Cragg, Edward, 11 1 Craigie, Lawrence, 15 2 Crane Pape r Company , 2 4 Cranwell, England, 15 2

23 1

Crockett, Woodrow , 155 , 162-63 ; biographical vignette , 19-21 ; an d first acci dent, 60 ; and houseboys , 138 ; and offi cers' clubs , 126 ; post-Korea vignette , 148-50; and Primary , 46-4 7 Cronkite, Walter, 16 2 Crowe, William, J., 14 8 Cumings, Bruce, 8 Cunningham, Randall , 79 , 16 5 Dalton, Massachusetts , 24-2 5 Danang, Vietnam, 15 7 Davis, Benjamin, Jr., 1 7 Davis-Monthan AFB , Arizona, 15 5 Dawn Patrol, 1 4 , 2 8 , 8 1 D-Day, 15 0 Defoliant Ranc h Han d plane , 15 1 Department o f Defense, 13 1 De Seversky , Alexander, 25 . See also Victory Through Air Power Diamond Bar , California, 15 5 Discrimination, 47-4 8 Disney, Walt, 11 1 Dixon, Othel , 6 0 Doctor Strangelove, 66 Dodd, Everett , 6 2 Donovan, James, 16 2 Doughnut girls , 129 . See also Women, Re d Cross Drinking, 125-28,131-32. See also Alcohol Duty, Honor, Country (Ambrose) , 12-1 3 Education, 24 , 39, 194n . 5 ; Air Forc e offi cer deficit, 1 1 Edwards AFB , California, 14 9 Eggerston, P . E, 5 3 Eighth Ai r Force , 8 , 18 , 5 3 Elder, William, 10 6 Elimination rates . See Washout s Engagement, rule s of , 88-8 9 Engine, J-47-GE-27, 7 7 England AFB , Louisiana, 15 6 Englewood, Ne w Jersey, 1 7 "Entrepreneurial mode l o f service, " 3 6 Equal Employmen t Opportunity , 15 0 Escape an d evasion , 80-8 2 Evans, Douglas, 103 , 110, 136 ; on base life, 122-23 , 125, 128 , 138 . See also Sabre Jets over Korea

2 3 2 • Index F-4 Phantom, 146-47, 157, 160-61 F-4U Corsair, 141. F-4U-5N Night Corsair, 176 F-15Eagle, 164 F-16 Fighting Falcon, 146 F-51 Mustang, 58, 67, 74, 170-71, 17475 F-80 Shooting Star, 16, 29, 58, 67, 74, 141, 152, 172; description of, 11017071; lower status of, 64; water injection system, 101 F-82 Twin Mustang, 121 F-84 Thunder jet, 2, 61-62, 67, 102, 154, 156, 159; compared to a prostitute, 92; description of, 62, 110; lower status of, 64; mechanical problems with, 102 F-86 Sabre, 2-5, 23, 35, 61-62, 67, 71, 76, 79, 82, 95, 146, 149-50, 154, 160, 170, 186; comparison to MiG-15, 74-75; description, 75, 110; elite status of, 64; and formations, 78; and MiG Alley, 84; problems with, 83; as protection for F84, 100; redesign of, 77; transfer to Korean theatre, 74 F-94 Starfire, 140 F-100 Super Sabre, 144, 154, 160, 159 F-101 Voodoo, 156 F-102 Delta Dagger, 146, 150 F-105 Thunder chief, 144, 159-60 F-106 Delta Dart, 149 Far East Air Forces (FEAF), 74, 76-77, 80, 99, 160, 169, 172, 174-78, 180; strength in 1952, 8; total sorties flown, 186 FBI, 152, 155 Fear of Flying, 53-57, 97, 200-201nn. 86, 87, 88; in fighter bomber pilots, 108-9 Federal Aviation Administration, 151, 154 Fernandez, Pete, 78 Fifth Air Force, 74, 76, 104-5, 112, 120, 172, 174, 176, 178-79 Fighter-bomber pilots, 96, 98, 105; attitude towards killing, 97, 103-4; comparison to fighter-interceptor pilots, 98; competition with F-86 pilots, 113; fatalism of, 101; fear of flying, 108-9; hazards of job, 98-102; status of, 102, 110. See also F-5 1 Mustang ; F-80 Shootin g Star; F-84 Thunderjet; F-8 6 Sabr e

Fighter-interceptor pilots : comparison t o fighter-bomber pilots , 98 ; competitio n with F-8 0 pilots , 113 ; and failur e t o en gage, 87 ; and medi a attention , 102 ; status of , 110-11 . See also F-8 6 Sabr e Fighter Weapon s School , 146 . See also Nellis AFB, Nevada "Fighting Cocks, " The, 111 , 113. See also Squadrons, 67t h "Finger four " formation , 63 , 78 Flight instructors , civilians as , 67; Korean war pilot s as , 66, 165 ; student relation s with, 4 9 Flight pay , 13 6 Flight suit , descriptio n of , 6 7 Flight sui t attitude , 100 , 112 , 143 , 160, 166; and bureaucracy , 162-63 ; collegiality, 123 ; description, 6 , 67 ; outlets for , 163; a s a result o f Advanced , 65-66; a s survival strategy , 38 , 115 ; towards rank , 124; and Vietna m War , 165 ; and values , 107 Flight sui t era , end of , 164-6 7 Flight sui t lifestyle , summatio n of , 14 2 Flight surgeon , 84 , 108-10 , 13 3 Flight training . See Advanced; Basic ; Preflight; Primar y "The Flyin g Cheetahs, " 111 , 126-27. See also Sout h Africa , No . 2 Squadro n Flying Tigers, 11 3 Flynn, Errol , 1 4 "Flysafe" program , 16 1 Forbes, Don, 100 , 10 6 Formosa crisis , 15 9 Fort Sill , Oklahoma, 2 1 Foster AFB , Texas, 16 0 "Foxy Few , The," 111 , 113. See also Squadrons, 12t h FRAG, 80 , 15 3 French Ai r Forces , 6 0 Fu Chu , Japan, 16 0 Fujiya (hotel) , 13 5 Futrell, Robert, 7 Gabreski, Francis , 113-14 , 13 2 Galena, Alaska , 15 0 Gatto, Lucio, 54, 56, 10 8 Gays. See Homosexualit y George AFB , California, 144 , 146-47 , 16 1

Index • 23 3 Georgetown University , 16 1 George Washington University , 15 3 Germany, 152 ; aircraft of , 140 ; Luftwaffe , 76, 17 6 G forces , 5 9 Glen Mille r Orchestra , 13 6 Gompers, Samuel, 2 7 Goodfellow AFB , Texas, 3 3 Gower, Perrin, o n A A weapons, 99 ; and base jobs, 139 ; on Bedchec k Charlie , 141; an d drinking , 126-27 ; on prostitu tion, 134 , 165 ; on th e "shoot-dow n party," 10 3 Grandview AFB , Missouri, 15 0 Great Depression , 14 , 22 Greenville Field , Arkansas, 2 3 Grinker, R . R. , 5 3 Gropman, Alan , 4 7 Groups: 1s t Air Commando , 29 ; 4th, 103 ; 8th, 99 , 101 ; 18th, 124 ; 49th, 29 , 34; 136th, 102 ; 401st, 15 6 Guam, 154 , 16 2 GUMP check, 6 1 Gun sights , A1CM radar-ranging , 75 ; pipper, 2, 191n . 5 Gurevitch, Michael , 74-7 5 Guss, William, 85-8 6

31-32; o n killing , 103 ; post-Korea vi gnette, 158-5 9 Helmes, Less, 23 Hess, Dean, 118-19 , 121 , 138-3 9 Hoa L o Prison, 14 5 Hokone Nationa l Park , Japan, 13 5 Homan, Arkansas , 1 9 Homosexuality, 26 , 48 Hondo AFB , Texas, 4 1 Honor code , of Aviation Cadets , 4 5 Hood, John, 2 2 Hoopes, Townsend, 152-5 3 Hootches, 121-2 2 Horowitz, James. See Salter, James Houseboys, 116 , 13 8 Howard Ai r Base , Panama, 1 5 Huichon, Nort h Korea , 17 5 Hundredth mission , 102-3 , 10 8 Huntington, Samuel , 6 7 Huntington Park , California , 2 9 Hunter, Jessica, 13 1 Hunters, The (Salter) , 9, 71-73 ; an d drink ing, 128-29 ; and importanc e o f MiGs , 95-96; an d prostitution , 134-35 ; an d sexual language , 92-94 , 122 ; and wing men, 87-8 8 Hutton, Betty , 13 2

Hagerstrom, James, 6 , 83 , 94, 163 , 165 66; and aeria l kills , 87-91 ; an d attitude , 101; biographica l vignette , 34-35 ; on drinking, 126 ; on en d o f fligh t sui t era , 164; personal preparatio n fo r war , 70 ; post-Korea vignette , 160-62 ; and R&R , 133; and sexua l language , 92 ; on sur vival kit , 81-82 ; and targe t acquisition , 84 Hahn, Germany , 14 4 Hallion, Richard , 7 Hanoi Hilto n (Ho a L o Prison), 14 5 Hanscom AFB , Massachusetts, 16 0 Harvard Busines s School , 14 8 Hawaii, 16 1 Hazing, 46-4 8 "Headhunters," The , 105 , 111-12 . See also Squadrons , 80t h Heiner, Howard , 106 , 111 , 129, 135 , 166 ; on A A weapons, 99-100 ; an d bas e life , 122, 124 , 139 ; biographical vignette ,

Inchon, Sout h Korea , 17 2 Indigenous workers , 137-39 , 14 2 Indoctrination, 13 , 38, 65-66 Industrial Colleg e o f th e Armed Services , 42, 148 , 153 , 16 1 Inglewood, California , 15 4 Integration: o f U.S. Air Force , 41-42, 4 7 48; o f Ai r National Guard , 14 9 Intercontinental bombers , 16 9 Interdiction, 169-79 ; pilot attitud e to wards, 10 7 Iowa Stat e Teachers' College , 3 4 Itazuke, Japan, 121 , 125-26, 15 9 Jabara, James, 78 , 10 2 James, Chappie , 19 , 147 , 15 6 James, E. R., 102 , 109 , 13 6 Janowitz, Morris , 12 , 14 , 6 7 Japan, 110 , 120-21 ; prostitution , 133-34 ; rest an d recuperation , 86 , 116 , 135-3 6 Jet Attack, 7 3

234 * Index Johnson, Lyndon , 14 5 Johnson AFB , Japan, 12 1 Jones, David, 200n . 8 6 Juvat, 11 2 K-10 (Chinhae) , 12 2 K-13(Suwon), 113 , 118, 12 6 K-24 (Pyongyan g East) , 138-3 9 Kadena AFB , Japan, 14 4 Kaesong, North Korea , 17 8 Karsten, Peter , 6 7 Kaye, Danny, 13 2 KC-97, 15 4 Keesler AFB , Mississippi, 3 0 Kelly Field, Texas, 4 4 Kennedy, John F. , 14 9 Kilchu, North Korea , 17 6 Kimpo AFB , Korea, 1-2 , 4 , 5 , 83 , 86, 119 20, 125 , 130 , 136-37 , 140-4 1 Knox, John, 2 2 Komaki Ai r Base, Japan, 11 0 Koon, Kenneth , 124-2 6 Korat, Thailand , 14 5 Kubrick, Stanley , 66 Kunsan, Sout h Korea , 13 0 Kunu-ri, North Korea , 17 5 Kyushu, Japan, 12 1 Lackland AFB , Texas, 23-24, 42-4 4 Laos, 143 , 146, 151-52 , 16 1 Las Vegas, Nevada, 29 , 6 4 Latrines, 121-2 3 LeMay, Curtis , 55, 66, 192n . 1 8 Lewis, Robert, 13 1 Libraries, 12 5 Life, 10 2 Lifton, Robert , 10 9 Lilly, Leonard, 82 , 12 6 Lindbergh, Charles , 17-18 , 14 4 Little Rock, Arkansas , 2 0 "Little Switch, " 154 , 217n. 1 6 Liu Ya-lou, 7 6 Living quarters, 121 , 123 Logan, Joe, 2- 5 Look, 10 2 Lottinger, Roy , 13 6 Low, James, 85 , 94, 16 5 Loyola University , 16 1

Lubbock, Texas , 14 8 Luke AFB, Arizona, 61-6 2 MacArthur, Douglas , 170 , 172-7 3 Maddingly Cemetery , 15 0 Mahurin, Bud , 71 , 81; on th e F-86 , 75; on killing, 91; on "missio n whiskey, " 84 ; on pilots' failur e t o engage , 8 7 Major, John , 15 0 "Makers o f th e United State s Air Force," 6 "Manhunters, The, " 11 1 Manpojin, Nort h Korea , 17 4 Marshall, S . L. A., 70-71 , 203n . 2 . See also Men Against Fire Martin, Brian , 12 2 M*A*S*H, 124 , 14 0 Mather Field , California , 2 9 Maxwell AFB , Alabama, 44 , 148 , 15 0 May, Elaine Tyler, 9 1 McClellan Field , California , 28-29 , 15 4 McConnell, Joseph, 10 2 McConnell Story, The, 7 3 McGuire AFB , New Jersey, 146 , 14 8 McLucas, John, 15 2 Men Against Fire (Marshall), 7 0 Mental illness , 108-1 0 "Metropolitan 400, " 3 5 Mexico, 1 6 MiG-15, 1-4 , 62 , 70, 73, 79, 84 , 86, 100 , 103, 166 , 174 , 176 ; aerial kills , 85; Chinese MiG entr y int o war, 74 ; comparison t o the F-86, 74-75; description of , 74; restriction o n fligh t patterns , 76; total losses , 7 7 MiG Alley , 2, 8 , 62, 80, 83-84; definitio n of, 75 , 191n . 4 MIGCAP, 76 , 176 ; description of , 8 3 "MiG trains, " 76,17 6 Mikoyan, Artem , 74-7 5 Military academies . See Service academie s Mills, Wright C , 35 , 94 Minot AFB , South Dakota , 15 4 Minton, Jerry, on bombing , 105 ; and com bat motivation , 108 ; and fligh t sui t be havior, 164 ; and Headhunte r basebal l cap, 111 ; on rail-cuttin g missions , 10 7 Miramar Nava l Ai r Station , California , 165

Index • Misawa, Japan, 17 1 "Mission whiskey, " 109-1 0 Missions: close air support , 113 , 107; contemporary, 164 ; fighter-bomber vs . fighter-interceptor, 103 ; typical F-86 , 80-85; standar d arme d reconnissance , 100; against Sinanju , 9 9 Mitchell, Vance, 56 Monroe, Marilyn , 12 4 Montgomery, Alabama , 4 7 Moore, Joseph, 14 5 Morale, 110-1 5 Morrow, Anne , 1 8 Mughia Pass , 14 7 Murphy, John, 16 1 My Lai , 10 5 Myosin's Bordello , 134 , 16 5 Nakhon Phano m Roya l Tha i Ai r Base , Thailand, 143 , 147, 15 1 Naktong River , 17 3 National Ai r an d Spac e Museum, 14 8 National Guard , 149-50 ; Arkansas, 20 ; Texas, 3 5 National Transportatio n Safet y Board , 154-55 NATO, 60 , 148-49 , 15 6 "Naval aristocrat, " 6 7 Navigators, 66 New Guinea , 34 , 11 1 Nellis AFB, Nevada, 29 , 37 , 57, 61-62 , 65, 70 , 73, 146, 165 , 196n . 1 New York , 14 4 New York Times, The, 15 0 Nicaragua, 15 9 Nicki Gieke , 13 5 Noel Parris h Award , 15 0 NORAD, 15 5 Norfolk, Virginia , 14 6 North America n Aviation , 77 , 15 4 North Korea , 81 , 166, 169 , 178 ; AA ef fort, 99 ; aircraft losses , 76; Air Force , 73; Bedchec k Charlie , 141 ; food short age, 172 ; railways, 175-76 , 17 9 North Korea n People' s Army, 171-72 ; strength, 170 ; withdrawal fro m Sout h Korea, 173 ; Yak-9, 7 4 North Vietnam , 145-4 6

23 5

Norton AFB , California, 151,16 1 Nose art , 91-9 2 Nuclear weapons , 15 6 O-l Bir d Dog , 15 1 Officers' clubs , 111 , 114, 117 , 123-26 , 128-29, 138 , 142 ; in Japan, 135-3 6 Okinawa, Japan, 14 5 Olds, Robin, 79 , 15 6 Olds, Thayer, 14 9 Omega S i Phi, 1 8 "Operation Midnigh t Oil, " 193n . 5 Operation Rollin g Thunder, 14 5 Orphanages, 11 8 Osan, Sout h Korea , 124-25 , 133 , 135, 16 5 Oslo, Norway, 15 1 Ottawa, Canada , 15 5 Oxford, Indiana , 3 2 Other Side of the Mountain, The, 2 8 P-38 Lightning , 29, 3 4 P-39 Aerocobra , 15 , 60 P-40Warhawk, 15,29 , 3 4 P-51 Mustang , 16 , 7 4 P-59, 2 9 P-80, 2 9 Paengnyong Do , South Korea , 8 5 Panmunjom, Sout h Korea , 173 , 17 8 Paris, France, 14 4 Paternalism, 138-3 9 Paul, Norman, 15 2 Peak experience , 72 , 9 1, 204n. 8 Peekskill Militar y Academy , 25-2 6 Pennsylvania Stat e University, 1 8 Pentagon, 147 , 149 , 164 , 15 2 Perot, Ross , 14 6 Perrin AFB , Texas, 2 4 Phoenix, Arizona , 61 , 64 Pilot elitism , 6 7 Pilots. See Fighter-bomber pilots ; Fighter interceptor pilot s Pilot selection , 39-4 2 Pilot training . See Advanced; Basic ; Preflight; Primar y Pine Bluff, Arkansas , 22-2 3 Pinecastle AFB , Florida, 15 9 Ping-Pong, 124 , 139 , 14 2 Plain d u Jars, Laos, 143 , 15 1

236 • Index Plainfield, Ne w Jersey, 3 0 Pleiku, Sout h Vietnam, 15 7 Plotkin, Philip , 4 9 PO-2, 140-4 1 Pomeroy, Robert, 35 , 162-63 , 166 ; on th e Air Force , 38; on Aviatio n Cadets , 52; biographical vignette , 24-26; on FOF, 108; post-Korea vignette , 152-53 ; on Primary, 45-46, 49; on U.S. ground troops, 107 ; on washouts, 5 1 Pomeroy, Seth , 2 6 Pontiac, Michigan, 11 3 Powers, Francis, 16 2 Preflight, 42-45 , 65, 198n . 3 5 Price, Dean, 109 , 125-2 6 Primary, 42-51 , 57 , 61, 65 Primary grou p theory , 203n. 2 Prisoners o f War: Risner, 145-46 , 161-63 ; South Korean , 177-78 ; Turner, 27, 15 4 "Professional soldier, " 67 Project Tiger , 65-66 Promotions, 13 , 70, 7 2 Prostitution, 109 , 116-17 , 133-35 , 142 , 165 Pusan, Sout h Korea , 113 , 120, 130 , 170 72 Pyongtaek, Sout h Korea , 17 2 Pyongyang, Nort h Korea , 74 , 86 , 112 , 141, 138-39 , 174-7 6 Quonset huts , 12 1 Rank, 66; flight suit e attitud e towards , 12 4 Rantoul, Illinois, 3 3 Raytheon, 16 0 Recreation, 124-2 5 Recruitment, 39-42 , 65 Red Cross , 129-3 2 Red Devils , 14 6 Reese AFB, Texas, 14 8 Rescue procedures, 80 . See also Air-se a rescue Rest an d relaxation , 86 , 96, 100-101 , 116 , 119, 133-36 , 166 ; importance of , 84 , 142 Reunions, 16 3 RF-4, 147 , 15 3 RF-101 Voodoo, 15 2 Rhee, Syngman, 14 1

Rice, Price, D., 46 Ring knocking, 1 3 Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, 15 9 Ripper, Genera l Jack D. , 66 Risner, Robin, 160 , 166-67 ; biographica l vignette, 14-16 ; on hi s career, 72 ; dogfight, 1-5 ; firs t kill , 86 ; on killing , 90 ; in "Makers o f the United State s Air Force, " 6; post-Korea vignette , 144-46 ; as Vietnam POW , 161-6 2 Rockwell International , 151-52 , 16 3 Ronsdale, Pete, 9 7 Rooney, Mickey, 13 2 Rorke, Mickey, 122 , 12 7 ROTC, 18 , 51-5 2 "Round eyes, " 12 9 Royal Air Forc e Base : Bensonhurst, 165 66; Bentwaters, 156-57 ; Manston, 15 6 Royal Air Forc e College , 15 2 Royal Ai r Forc e Staf f College , 15 2 Royal Norwegia n Ai r Force , 15 1 Rutgers University, New Jersey, 3 1 SA-16, 5 Sabre. See F-86 Sabre ; F-100 Supe r Sabr e Sabre Dancer, 134 , 16 5 Sabre Jet, 7 3 Sabre Jets over Korea (Evans) , 10 3 Sacramento, California , 27-2 9 Sacramento Cit y College , 2 8 Saffro, Yale , 11 1 Saigon, Vietnam, 14 5 Salter, James, 9, 71-72 , 87-88 , 94, 122 , 128. Se e also Hunters, The San Angelo, Texas, 3 3 San Antonio, Texas, 2 3 San Bernardino, California , 15 1 Sandpoint, Idaho , 3 1 "Sandy/Firefly" missions , 15 1 Santa An a Field , California , 4 4 "Sarge Looks a t Today's Cadet, " 6 4 Satterlee, Curlee, 132-3 3 SATURATE, 173 , 176-7 7 Saville, Cleve, 87-88, 93-96; and livin g quarters, 122 ; and prostitution , 134-3 5 Schaffer, Ronald , 8 Schillings, Dave, 15 9 Schultz, H. A. , 10 8 Scott AFB, Illinois, 3 0

Index • Sea of Japan, 12 0 Sebille, Lou, 11 3 Security Police , Air Force , 14 8 Sembach, Germany , 15 2 Seoul, South Korea , 118-1 9 Service academies, 12 ; U.S. Air Force Acad emy, 31, 152, 156-57 ; U.S. Military Academy, 12-13 , 24-26 , 49, 51-52; U.S. Naval Academy , 27, 5 2 Seventeenth Ai r Force, 14 8 Seventh Air Force , 153 , 160-6 1 Sexual language , 91-9 4 Seymour Johnson AFB , North Carolina , 159-60 SHAPE, 15 3 Shaw AFB, South Carolina , 15 2 Shaw, Charles Scott , 12 7 Shaw, Kathleen, 1 5 Shea, Nancy, 128-2 9 Sheldon, Walt, 9 , 96-97 , 104 , 111 , 208n. 6. See also Troubling of a Star Sheppard AFB , Texas, 2 9 Sherman, Texas, 2 4 Sherry, Michael, 8 , 3 6 Shooters, 78 , 8 5 "Shoot-down party, " 10 3 Silver wings, 66-6 7 Sinanju, Nort h Korea , 99 , 174-7 6 Situational awareness , 78-9 , 8 5 SNAKES, 27 Sonchon, Nort h Korea , 17 5 Sorties, by aircraft type , 188 ; all services, 189; USAF statistics, 72-73, 7 7 Sources, discussion of , 9-1 0 South Africa , No . 2 Squadron , 87 , 111, 122, 126-27 , 132 , 13 7 South Chin a Sea , 14 5 South Korea , Air Forc e campaigns in , 169 79; Army, 138 , 170 ; base workers, 137 39; poverty, 118-1 9 Spaatz, Carl , 16 9 Spiegel, J. P., 53 Spies, 137-3 8 Spitfire, 7 4 Squadron dayroom , 123-2 5 Squadron Officers ' School , 15 0 Squadrons: 2nd, 149 ; 6th, 29; 7th, 29, 99; 8th, 34 ; 12th , 99 , 111 , 113, 124; 15th , 155; 16th , 123 ; 30th, 15 ; 34th, 144 ;

23 7

35th, 99 , 101 , 124; 53rd, 146 ; 67th , 113, 124 ; 80th, 105 , 109, 111 , 125; 92nd, 156-57 ; 93rd, 155 ; 118th, 16 ; 182nd, 102 ; 317th, 150 ; 326th, 150 ; 389th, 157 ; 412th, 29 ; 431st, 146 ; 445th, 29 ; 602nd, 15 1 Squaw Valley , California, 15 4 Stanine, 39 , 4 2 Stevens, Francis, 13 1 Stilwell, Joseph, 2 9 "Straight wings, " 11 0 Straker, William, 11 1 STRANGLE I , 173-7 5 STRANGLE II/SATURATE , 175-7 9 Strategic Air Command , 55-56 Strategic bombing , 169 , 17 8 Stratemeyer, George , 17 4 Strongin, Timothy, 200n. 8 7 Sturgeon, Dewey , 111 , 112, 114 , 163 ; on AA effort, 99 ; on bas e life, 119 ; biographical vignette , 32-33; o n comba t motivation, 106 ; on death , 101 ; on drinking, 126 ; impressions o f Korea , 118; on killin g civilians, 105 ; post-Korea vignette, 159-60 ; on squadro n day rooms, 12 4 Suez Crisis, 15 6 Sui-Ho Reservoir , 8 3 Sunchon, North Korea , 17 5 Suwon Ai r Base , South Korea , 113 , 118 20, 125-26 , 130 , 132-33 , 14 1 "Swig Alley," 12 8 T-6 Texan (Mosquito) , 52, 58-9, 74, 107 , 140, 16 6 T-28, 15 4 T-33, 52, 58-59, 62-63 , 14 9 T-39, 14 5 Tachikawa, Japan, 90 , 13 5 Tactics, 2, 4, 71 , 86-87, 191nn . 6 , 9 Tagegu, Sout h Korea , 118-21 , 13 0 Taiwanese Ai r Force, 16 0 Takeoff bottles , 12 0 Tak Tun g Ka u Ai r Base , China 4 "Tale o f th e 'Tiger' , The, " 6 2 Tan So n Nhut Ai r Base , Vietnam, 153 , 157, 16 1 Target acquisition , 8 4 Target fixation, 6 3

238 • Index Templeton, Indiana , 3 2 Test pilots, 29, 149 , 15 4 Texas War Agains t Drugs , 14 6 Thailand, 60 , 79, 143 , 147, 15 1 Than Hoa , Nort h Vietnam , 14 5 Thompson, Wayne , 6 2 Thunderbox, 122 , 14 2 Time, 10 2 Tindle, Richard, 106 ; anguish ove r bomb ing, 96-98 ; prostitution, 13 4 Tokyo, Japan, 121 ; prostitution, 96, 1 3 3 35, 165 ; rest an d relaxation , 100-101 , 119,136 Tomlinson, Frank , 37 , 163 , 166; and bas e jobs, 139 ; on bas e life , 121-23 ; on Bed check Charlie , 141 ; biographical vi gnette, 22-24; on importanc e o f break fast, 80 ; on pay , 136 ; post-Kore a vignette, 150-52 ; on pressur e to ge t MiGs, 78 ; on Primary , 45, 47-48, 51 ; on rank, 124 ; on statu s o f F-8 6 pilots, 64; on Vietna m Wa r service , 143 ; on women, 6 4 "Training an d Utilizatio n o f Manpower, " 42 Troubling of a Star (Sheldon) , 9, 96-98 , 104-6,111,134 Tsuiki, Japan, 121 , 123, 125 ; prostitution, 133-34; indigenous workers , 13 7 Tucson, Arizona, 15 5 Tulsa, Oklahoma , 1 4 Turner, Paul , 48, 52, 118 , 162-63, 166 ; bailout by , 87-88; on bas e theft, 137 ; biographical vignette , 27-28; on house boys, 138 ; on F-86 , 64; on fligh t instruc tors, 59 ; on internationa l studen t pilots , 60-61; an d livin g quarters, 121 ; postKorea vignette , 154-55 ; on prostitution , 133-34, 165 ; on Re d Cros s women , 132; on USO showgirls , 132-3 3 Tuskegee airmen , 17 , 47, 15 0 Twentieth Ai r Force , 8 Tyndall AFB , Florida, 14 8

Unit logos , 111-1 3 Unit pride , 110-1 4 United Methodis t Church , 158-5 9 United Servic e Organizations , 129 , 132-3 3 University Club , The, 13 6 University o f Colorado , 15 4 University o f Idaho , 3 2 University o f Iowa , 3 4 University o f Oklahoma , 2 3 University o f Wisconsin, 15 6 U.S. Air Force: career skill s imparted, 162 ; commissions, 11-12 ; creation of , 8 ; dress code, 117 ; education, 11 , 39-40; as a meritocracy, 94 ; as a mobility lad der, 35; officer corps , 37 , 39; social com position, 11 , 13, 35; strength, 166 ; Research an d Developmen t Command , 77 ; 26th Ai r Division , 149 . See also Fa r Eas t Air Force s (FEAF ) U.S. Air Force Academy, 31 , 152, 156-5 7 U.S. Air Forces, numbered. See individual listings U.S. Army, 131 , 169; commissions, 37 ; education, 11 ; Eighth Army , 172-73 ; ROTC, 34 ; social composition, 11 , 13; 349th Regiment , 2 1 ; 24th Division , 17 0 U.S. Army Ai r Forces , 14 , 28, 30, 34; Air Force separatio n from , 8 U.S. Army War College , 15 3 U.S. Border Patrol , 15 2 U.S. Coas t Guard , 15 2 U.S. Customs Service , 15 1 U.S. Department o f Justice, 15 5 U.S. Department o f State , 159 , 16 2 U.S. Marine Corps , 32 , 85, 140-4 1 U.S. Navy, 141 , 172, 175-76 , 178 ; commissions, 37; education, 11 ; 480th Anti submarine Warfar e Command , 25 ; Seventh Fleet , 80 , 176 ; social composition , 14 U.S.S.R, 8 , 150,155,162,169 , 175 ; AA divisions, 99; Soviet Air Force , 76; Soviets as MiG pilots , 75, 77, 191n . 7

U-2, 16 2 Ubon Ai r Base , Thailand, 14 6 Udorn Ai r Base , Thailand, 143 , 147, 16 1 UFOs, 15 3 Uniform Cod e o f Military Conduct , 4 8

Vandenberg, Hoyt , 55, 169-7 0 Van den Bos , William, 13 2 Venereal disease , 30-31 , 109 , 13 3 Verdi, John, 13 4 Victoria, Texas, 16 0

Index • 23 9 Victorville, California , 14 4 Victory Though Air Power (D e Seversky), 25 Vietnam War , 73 , 79, 143 , 145-47, 149 , 151-55, 157-58 , 160-6 2 Virgil, 16 7 Waco, Texas, 5 0 Wadong, North Korea , 17 7 Walker, Walton, 17 2 Washington, George , 2 2 Washouts, 49-52, 61 ; statistics, 5 7 Watry, Charles, 59-6 0 Weapons, 2 1, 99, 119 , 161 , 170-71, 179 ; napalm bombs , 105 , 171, 175, 218n. 8 . See also Anti-aircraft artiller y Westmoreland, William , 16 1 Weyland, Otto , 17 8 WheelusAFB, Libya, 16 5 Whidbey Island , Washington, 15 5 Wichita Falls , Texas, 2 9 Wichita Municipa l Airport , 6 1 Williams AFB , Arizona, 4 1, 60, 114 , 14 8 Wingmen, 71 , 96, 85 , 87-88, 10 0 Wings: 4th, 9 , 35 , 71, 74, 78 , 85, 87-88, 103, 114 , 120 , 124-25 , 128 , 132 , 135 , 137, 141 ; 8th , 106 , 141 , 159; 18th , 79 , 122, 126 , 133 , 135, 144 ; 27th, 121 ; 31st, 159 ; 49th, 121 ; 50th, 137 , 144 ;

51st, 121 , 123, 124-25 , 133 , 137; 56th , 151; 58th, 157 ; 81st, 156-57; 307th , 76 ; 432nd, 147 , 152 ; 633rd, 15 7 Winona, Wisconsin , 2 9 Women, 64-65 , 91-94, 96 , 119 ; Air Forc e wives, 128-29 , 142 ; as domestics, 138— 39; pilots' vision of , 6 ; Red Cross , 129 32; shortage of , 125 ; USO, 132-33 . See also Prostitutio n Wong, Tiger, 16 0 Works Progres s Administration , 1 4 World Wa r I , 5 3 World Wa r II, 14 , 25, 28, 32, 58, 75, 91, 95, 108 , 112, 120 , 160 , 169 ; aerial victo ries in, 180 ; aircraft, 149 , 157 ; aviatio n training, 59-60 ; Bedcheck Charlie , 140 ; D-Day, 129 ; Fear of Flying, 53; Flying Tigers, 113 ; German Luftwaffe , 76 , 176 ; Headhunters, 111 ; nose art , 91 ; Quonset huts, 121 ; Red Cros s women, 129-3 2 Wrightstown, Ne w Jersey, 14 6 Yak-9, 7 4 Yalu River , 1-2 , 4 , 74-75 , 77, 83, 88-89, 166, 173 , 17 7 Yellow Sea , 77, 8 0 Yonpo Air Field, Nort h Korea , 7 4 Zaragoza AFB , Spain, 146 , 16 5