Northwest California: A Natural History 9780520928367

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Northwest California

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Northwest California A Natural History

John 0. Sawyer

UNIVERSITY O F CALIFORNIA PRESS Berlzeley

Los Angeles

London

University of California Press, one of the most distinguished universih presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities are supported hy the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions. For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu. Universih of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd London, England

O 2006 b) The Regents of the Universit\ of California Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sawyer,John O., I 939North~vestCalifornia : a natural history /John 0. Sawyer. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN o- 520-23286-0 (cloth : alk. paper) 1 . N a t ~ ~ rhistory-California, al Northern I. Title.

Manufactured in the United States of America

The paper used in this p~lblicationmeets the minimum requirements of A N S I / K I S O z/39.48- 1992 ( R 1997) (Pmmanence ofPapm) .m

To mq'wife, Jane

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CONTENTS

PREFACE PROLOGUE

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The Klamath: Land of Mountains and Canyons The North Coast: Land of Towering Trees

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High and Low: Looking for Patterns in Vegetation

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The Status of Northwest California Today

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Bevond the Ancient Meeting Ground

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Regimes of Fire Agents of Change

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Northwest California's Biological Future SELECTED READINGS

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I N D E X O F P L A N T NAMES GENERAL INDEX

Plates follow page

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PREFACE

My interest in the mountains of northwest California began even before I arrived at Humboldt State College in 1966. I had read many articles that told of the magnificent redwoods, but it was two papers by Robert Whittaker, "Vegetational History of the Pacific Coast States" and the "Central Significance of the Klamath Region and Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California," that really piqued my interest. The next summer, Dale A. Thornburgh introduced me to the Klamath Mountains and its rare conifers. It has been a treat to get to know these mountain ranges and their vegetation patterns. As a plant ecologist, my interests expanded well beyond conifers, but the question that I invariably ask is "Why does this area look that way?" Answers have come over the years, as I became acquainted with the land and its inhabitants. This book is my answer to why the region looks the way it does. Much of northwest California is far from where most people live. Even from Arcata, it seems as if "everthing" is at least three hours away, but making an extra effort is well worth the trip. To assist the reader to gain a better familiarity with these lands, I have highlighted many specific places in the book, especially in the national and state parks and wilderness areas. They are well worth visiting, as are the many other areas that I discuss. Maps issued by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management provide additional detail. Agency lands are open for you to enjoy, but heed the "No Trespassing" signs posted on private lands, especially in the ranch lands on the North Coast. These parcels may hide marijuana gardens; stay on the roads, and respect owner rights. Northwest California contains a great deal of open land to satisfyyour wanderlust. Natural history books typically supply short descriptions of the common plants and animals found in the region, but I am breaking from that tradition. The descriptions would differ little from those in a Natural History of

X

PREFACE

California and the revised edition of Sierra Nmada Natural History. I have listed these and other useful books in the References and Selected Readings section. Plant names follow A Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Northwestern California that James P. Smith and I have been working on for nearly 40 years. The last edition is available at the Humboldt State University Herbarium Web site http://www.humboldt.edu/%7Eherb/. The list includes many recent nomenclatural and taxonomic changes from the current botanical literature, so my scientific names may differ from those in The Jepson Manual. Photographs in the book are mine. Thanks to Sherrie Navarro for the dust jacket photograph. I am especially grateful to R. Jane Cole and James P. Smith for their invaluable help with the drafts of the manuscript and their continuing support throughout the project. I have always appreciated my time with Dale A. Thornburgh and James P. Smith in the field. They have helped me, in their own, very different ways, in better understanding northwest California. 1 mention my many graduate students who worked on projects in northwest California. They opened my eyes in many ways over the years. They tested our ideas, sometimes with surprising results. It has been a pleasure to work with so many talented people over the years. The advice of friends and colleagues has greatly improved the book: John Bair (Trinity River restoration), Ronald A. Fritzsche (fish), Erik S. Jules (ecological history), Todd Keeler-Wolf, Timothy E. Lawlor (mammals),John Longshore (geology), S h a r p B. Marks (amphibians and reptiles), Paul F. Springer (birds), John D. Stuart (fire ecology), Dale A. Thornburgh (forest issues), and the staff of the University of California Press, especially Doris Kretschmer for helping launch the undertaking, Scott Norton for suggesting major improvements, and C. R. Crumly for seeing it to completion.

Prologue The Green Prison

Jedediah Strong Smith was one of the famous mountain men who traveled the west in search of beaver in the decades before the California gold rush. In 1826, he reached the Mexican province that was to become California, and two years later, he traveled through northwest California on his second expedition. While in the Sacramento Valley, he and his party of 2 0 men and 300 horses and mules turned west off the Great Indian Trail near Red Bluff and headed for an inviting gap in the mountains. He reasoned that the mountains to the west held the river that would take them to Trinidad Bay. From there he planned to follow the coast north to the Columbia River. Trinidad Bay was a prominent feature on maps of Smith's day, based on the landings of Bruno Heceta and Juan Francisco Bodega y Cadra in

'775Jedediah Smith knew that trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company were finding beaver and other furbearers in Oregon in the early 1800s. Would northwest California be next? Indeed, trappers entered the upper Klamath River watershed in 1826. The next year Fran~oisPeyette led a small band of trappers downstream to the Yurok village of wec@es (Weitchpec), which will play an important role in the coming gold rush years. After leaving the Great Indian Trail, the Smith party left the deep grasslands of the Sacramento Valley and entered the eastern foothills of northwest California. They encountered woodlands and chaparral similar to that of the Sierra Nevada and to those they had encountered on leaving the Presidio of Monterey at the beginning of their trip (Map 1 ) . (Today you can experience this part of the trip by driving State Route 36 west from Red Bluff to Platina.) The land they entered in the spring of 1828 was well populated. They used the trails of the Wintu, Tsnungwe, Hupa, Chilula, Yurok, and Tolowa peoples during the 72-day sojourn in the vastness of northwest California.

xii

PKOI.OGUE

--- Jedediah Smith route

50 miles 0

50 kilometea

Map I . Thc route ol'tlic,Jcc~ctli;~l~ Smith party though northwest (:alif'ornia in 1828 showing thc Klamatli Mountains ; u ~ t the l North (:oast in tiorthwest

California. T h e party passed though summer settlenicnts, villages of distinctive plank houses, meadows containing useful plants, and saw men fishing for spring Chinook. The ease of travel changed dramatically o n April 17, 1828, when the men crossed the divide, near- present-day Wildwood, between the Sacr-amento Ki\w and a river that Smith assi~medran t o the sea at Trinidad Ray (Pierson B. Keading would name it the Trinity Kiver in 1848). They were now in the Klamath Mountains, which Harrison Kogers described ;is a "maze of'woods, ritlgcs, gullics, cliffs, a n d ravines" in his journal. The party continued down a tributary of what Smith called "Indian Scalp River," to Hayfbrk \'alley, the land of the Nor-El-Muk Wintu. From

here, they followed Hayfork Creek north and west to the South Fork of the Trinity River at the village of xayiin$om (Hyampom). Here extensive forests of stately pine and fir mixed with small patches of chaparral and grass, very different from the open oak woodlands east of the mountains. At Hyampom, the river turned north and proceeded quickly through a set of deep canyons of the Tsnungwe people, until the south fork met the main fork of the Trinity River near present-day Salyer. This area is roadless even today. Like the travelers of old, hikers today must use the South Fork Trail to climb steep slopes to ridges, only to drop into new drainages whose streams flow precipitously into the canyon below (Pl. l ) . When the Smith party reached the main stem of the Trinity River, they looked down at the river almost 1,000 feet below. Fortunately, trails existed high on the shoulder above the canyons, allowing them to access Hoopa Valley, land of the Hupa. After turning west up Supply Creek, and going northwest toward the ridgeline, they entered a new world: the hills of the North Coast. At the summit of the coastal mountains, dense forests gave way to open woodlands of oaks and extensive prairies in the lands of the Chilula. The tall, rich grass offered abundant forage for the stock after the sparseness of the Trinity River lands. Slopes were gentler and the summits more rounded than were those on the first leg of the journey. Going north, they reached the Klamath River at the village of kime'l (Kanick or Kenick on today's maps), home to the Yurok. Our travelers missed the important meeting of the Trinity River with the larger Klamath River at Weitchpec. At kime'L. they were well north of Trinidad Bay but tantalizingly close to the ocean. Unfortunately, the land was impassable, so they headed southwest on ridges until they reached Gans Prairie. Imagine theirjoy when they got their first look at the Pacific Ocean. However, it was short-lived. Upon leaving Gans Prairie, the travelers experienced the world of the redwood forest. It would take an entire month to reach the coastal grasslands of the Tolowa only 40 miles to the north. M'hile some redwood stands were open, others presented the Smith party with the greatest obstacles that they had met on their way to Oregon. Here the soils were deep and rich, and they supported massive trees-ones that, when they fall, take other trees with them, leavingjackstraws of massive logs over older piles of rot-resistant logs. Often the forest floor was such a tangled mass that the men could not see the ground. They scrambled over the logs, but the horses had to be led around them. The soft rock was eroded into an impermeable maze of smaller ridges, gullies, and ravines that were even harder to traverse than those of the Trinity River. Again, foiled in their attempt to reach the ocean, they retreated northeast to the Klamath River, crossing it at the Yurok village of pe$kwan (Pecwan). Continuing north and west, they finally reached the coastline at

xiv

PROLOGUE

the villages of o&menand oQmen hipu&rat False Klamath Cove, only to have to scramble over more rough country covered with forests of massive trees before attaining the grassy terrace of the Tolowa around present-day Crescent City. At last, the Smith party had an easier coastal route as they made their way to Oregon. What interests me the most are observations made by Smith and his companions concerning the landscapes in the early i 8oos, a time before the gold miners and others arrived. They suggest two very different worlds: the craggy lands of what we call the Klamath Mountains and the rolling hills of the North Coast. Could two landscapes be more different? While much of the answer lies in the geology and other environmental factors, the ecological history of the landscapes plays an equally important role. The early i 800s represent a divide between the old ways of the native peoples and those of the new settlers. Understanding the diverse influences that have affected the land since that settlement will also assist our interpreting the current landscapes of northwest California. NORTHWEST CALIFORNIA

Early geologists described the natural areas of North America as physiographic provinces. Charles Hunt in Physiography of the United States defined a prouince as "a distinctive structural framework giving rise to distinctive land forms expressing their structure and, for the most part, distinctive climates, vegetation, soils, water, and other resources." C. Hart Merriam at the end of the 19th century used similar thinking in creating his famous life zone classification that many naturalists learned early in their study of nature. Robert Bailey updated this approach in his Ecosystem Geography. The sections of his Northern California Mountains Province-the Klamath Mountains, Northern California Coast Ranges, Cascades, and Sierra Nevadaare comparable to those of other geographers and geologists. I will follow in the footsteps of Bailey in using the Cascades and Central Valley Provinces as the eastern boundary of northwest California, but I break from convention by using the watershed boundaries of Stony Creek and Eel River as my southern limit. It is not geologically distinct or topographically dramatic, but instead it is ecologically and culturally important. Snow Mountain is the last of the high peaks of the North Coast Ranges, and the southern border represents the divide between the north-trending Eel River and the south-trending Russian River. It also separates the timberlands to the north from the towns and vineyards to the south. The Pacific Ocean and the California-Oregon border form the western and northern boundaries, respectively. Northwest California is an extremely complex part of the state, even by California standards. Its mountain ranges are spectacular, as are its plenti-

PROLOGUE

Klamath Mountains 1. Middle Sacrament0 River country

2. 3. 4. 5.

Middle Klamath River country Scott R~vercountry Salmon River country Trinity River country 6. Upper Smith River country

Map

2.

North Coast 7. Eastside country

-r?l

0 0

8. Eel R~vercountry 9. Mattole-Bear River country 10. Humboldt Bay-Mad River country 11. Redwood Creek-Lower Klamath River country 12. Lower Smith River country

XV

50 miles 50 kilometers

Watersheds of northwest California.

ful rivers that twist and turn on their way to the Pacific Ocean or to the plains of Central Valley. Climates are foggy and maritime on the coast, sunny and continental inland. The region is one of the least populated parts of the state, and much of its natural heritage is still intact. People interested in its natural history must wade through a huge quantity of names, descriptions, maps, charts, and graphs before getting a feel for the place. It is worth the effort, for names are rich in heritage, mountain ranges are abundant in biota, rivers are filled with riches, and the land is amazing in detail. The names of the major towns and highways are easy

to learn, as they are few: Crescent City, Eureka, Weaverville, Interstate 5, US 199 and State Route 299.

The Klamath Mountains Geologists recognize mountain ranges in northwest California and southwest Oregon, with their ancient Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks, as the Klamath Mountains. They contrast strongly with the neighboring younger, volcanic rocks of the Cascades (Map 2 ) . The eastern boundary starts east of Interstate 5 and continues north from Redding to the volcanic rocks just south of Mount Shasta City. Farther north, the town of Yreka sits on the region's eastern boundary; still farther north the line slides slightly to the east as the highway approaches Oregon. The North Yolla Bolly Mountains define the southern boundary, and the western boundary follows roughly the crest of South Fork Mountain and the westernmost ridges of the Siskiyou Mountains to the California-Oregon border. The Klamath Mountains encompass much of Shasta County, all of Trinity County, the western part of Siskiyou County, eastern Humboldt County, and much of Del Norte County.

The North Coast The many rock types of the Franciscan and Great Valley formations distinguish the North Coast. The eastern boundary abuts the western ridges of the Siskiyou Mountains north of the Klamath River and South Fork Mountain to the south. South Fork Mountain at its southernmost point merges into the North Yolla Bolly Mountains. Here, the eastern boundary shifts to the base of the North Coast Ranges. The watershed divides of the Stony and Cache creeks and of the Eel and Russian rivers form a southern boundary, and I include the creeks west of the Eel River and south of the Mattole River watersheds north of Cape Vizcaino. The coastline to Oregon forms the western boundary. The northern boundary is also the California-Oregon border. The North Coast includes the coastline of Del Norte County; much of Humboldt and Mendocino counties west of the crest of the North Coast Ranges andYolla Bolly Mountains; and Shasta, Tehama, Glenn, and Colusa counties to the east. While most of northwest California is sparsely populated, we might call Eureka and Crescent City the "metropolitan" areas on the coast. The larger Redding metropolitan area is just south and east of the boundary, with its western and northern suburbs spilling into both subregions of northwest California.

The Klamath Land of Mountains and Canyons

The Klamath Mountains are the home of one of the most exceptional temperate coniferous forest regions in the world. The area's rich plant and animal life draws naturalists from all over the world. Outdoor enthusiasts enjoy its rugged mountains, its many lakes, its wildernesses, and its wild rivers. Geologists come here to refine the theory of plate tectonics. Yet, the Klamath Mountains are one of the least-known parts of the state. The region's complex pattern of mountains and rivers creates a bewildering set of landscapes. Its mountains have a geological history similar to those of the ancient Appalachians in the East. Rocks laid in the distant past tell stories of ancient seas, of landmasses from throughout the world that have been added to North America, and of lofty mountain ranges that have worn down only to rise again. Pleistocene ice and now today's events mold the area's rivers and mountains. No wonder the area is confusing. The history of the Klamath Mountains begins 450 million years ago with rocks found today in the Trinity Mountains, the highest range in the region. Rock outcrops surrounding Mount Eddy (9,025 ft.) are the oldest and among the largest on the North American continent. These deep-sea basement rocks and associated sedimentary and volcanic rocks occupy the Sacrament0 and Klamath river watersheds, two of the three master rivers that flow through the Klamath Mountains.

EARLY TIMES IN T H E KLAMATH MOUNTAINS

The Klamath Mountains are internationally famous in geological circles. Here geologists began testing the new theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which suggests that hot molten rocks well up from the interior of the Earth at midocean spreading centers, where they form rigid tectonic

2

T H E RI.AMA'I'H

plates of oceanic crust and upper mantle. As these rocks cool and crystallize, they form a characteristic sequence of rock types (peridotite, gabbro, sheeted dikes, and submarine basalt) on which sediments collect over time. This rock series makes up an ophiolite suit? (orjust ophiolite). It becomes part of the rigid plate that moves slowly from the spreading center and interacts with other plates. When two plates converge, one may descend below the other in a process called subduction (Fig. 1 ) . It is a zone of great geological activity, as the lighter continental plate slips over the heavier oceanic plate. A deep ocean trench marks the point where they converge. Here a part of the ocean's crust and its upper mantle may separate and become attached (accreted) to the continental plate, as the rest of the oceanic plate descends back into the mantle. The scraped rock assemblage makes up an accreted torane or t o rune (note the spelling). This process results in mountain building through associated earthquake activity, along with buckling, faulting, and folding of rocks at the plate boundary. Today's earthquakes tell us that the process is still active along the coast of northwest California. Geologists studying the Klamath Mountains a century ago recognized four belts whose rock units had similar makeup. The belts are younger from east to west, and major faults separate them. Today's geologists interpret the pattern as a set of plates and sutures. They also noticed that the belts were associated with granitic plutons (bodies of crystallized magma) younger than the surrounding rocks. We now know that the belts and fault systems represent a sequence of plate convergence and subduction events, called accretionary episodes, which added pieces of land to the western edge of North America during periods of mountain building. Plate tectonic theory also explains the associated granitic plutons. Granitic rocks-diorite, quartzdiorite, and granodiorite-commonly form the core of many of the world's mountains. As a plate descends, the rocks are heated, and parts become molten magma. Some magma reaches the surface, creating a chain of active volcanoes. Some magma forced (intruded) into the overlying rocks and fractures forms dikes, plutons, and batholiths. Dikes are magma that solidified in fractures. Plutons are pools of molten rock that never made it through an overburden rock and crystallize in place as the mountain building continues. A batholith is a group of plutons of differing age and chemical makeup. Plutons exist throughout the Klamath Mountains (Table 1). Most of the sedimentary and volcanic rock types seen today in the Klamath Mountains are altered (metamorphosed). Past mountain-building processes heated the area's rocks to high temperatures, put them under intense pressures, compressed them, subjected them to other stresses, and changed them when they met hot fluids. These processes altered the original rock texture and mineral content. Typically, rock minerals rearrange

Figure I . Plate tectonic setting for the West Coast. A-A' indicates the location of the profile of the Gorda Plate being subducted under the North American Plate between Eureka and Mount Shasta. From California Geology (35: 40).

Plutons listed by mountain ranges and by lithic belts.

TABLE 1.

Trinity Mountains EASTERN KLAMATH BELT

Bonanza King gabbro Castle Crags Mule Mountain Porcupine Lake gabbro Shasta Bally WESTERN PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT

Wildwood Scott Mountains EASTERN KLAMATH BELT

Craggy Peak China Mountain gabbro Trinity Alps EASTERN KLAMATH BELT

Granite Peak Sugar Pine Lake CENTRAL METAMORPHIC BELT

Canyon Creek Monument Peak WESTERN PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT

Ironside Mountain Salmon Mountains CENTRAL METAMORPHIC BELT

Caribou Mountain China Creek Deadman Peak Russian Peak Salmon Mountains WESTERN PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT

English Peak Orleans Mountain Youngs Peak

THE KLAMATH

TABLE 1.

5

(continued)

Marble Mountains CENTRAL METAMORPHIC BELT

Shelley Lake WESTERN PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT

Heather Lake Slinkard Ridge Wooley Creek Siskiyou Mountains WESTERN PAIXOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT

Ashland Bear Mountain Grayback Pony Peak Slinkard Summit Valley Thompson Ridge Vesa Bluffs WESTERN KLAMATH BELT

Buckskin Peak South Fork Mountain WESTERN KLAMATH BELT

Arnmon Ridge Glenn Creek SOURCE: Most plutons contain granitic rocks, especially granodiorite. Outcrops of gabbro occur in the Eastern Klamath Belt. A detailed map is available at http://geopubs.wr .usgs.gov/open-file/ofon-4go/.

into parallel planes, causing the rock to shatter into flat pieces. The resulting slates (metamorphosed mudstones) and schists (metamorphosed sandstones) make up metasedimentary rocks (or just metasediments). Similarly altered volcanic rock types are metavolcanic rocks (or metavolcanics). For example, greenstone represents basalt altered under low temperature and pressure. There are other altered igneous rocks (Table 2 ) . Crystallization of magma rich in magnesium iron silicates forms peridotite, the basement rock of every terrane. Serpentine, California's official state rock, is a

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THE

KI.AMArH TABLE 2.

Coarse-grained rocks Fine-grained rocks Mineral content Rock type Rock color

Identification of igneous rock types.

Granite Diorite Rhyolite Andesite < CaO, FeO, Mg0 Salic (felsic) Intermediate LightMedium-gray colored Medium-green

Gabbro Basalt

Mafic Dark gray Black

Peridotite Dunite SiO, > Ultramafic Green to black

NOTE,: Extrusive rocks form fine-grained rocks, since magma cools rapidly at the Earth's surface. They are associated with volcanic activity. Intrusive rocks form at considerable depth. They are coarsely grained, with large crystals interlocked in a mosaic pattern (adapted from Plummer, McGeary, and Carlson 1999).

metamorphosed peridotite. Serpentine has a special place in the natural history of northwest California.

WATERSHEDS O F THE KLAMATH MOUNTAINS

The headwaters of the Sacramento River commence on the slopes of Mount Eddy and at Cliff Lake in the Trinity Mountains, and as a set of springs on the lower slopes of Mount Shasta in the adjacent Cascades. Water flows from these sources into Siskiyou Lake and then down the canyon of the Sacramento River to Lake Shasta before entering the Sacramento Valley and finally San Francisco Bay. The headwaters of the Pit River, a major tributary of the Sacramento River, start far away on the shores of Goose Lake and in the Warner Mountains east of the Cascades. Water from these sources flows though the Pit River canyon that has cut through the lava flows of the Cascades, creating a water gap before entering Lake Shasta. The upper Sacramento lies east of the Klamath Mountains. The middle Sacramento includes the lands of streams that start or flow through the region. Those of the lower Sacramento are downstream from Lake Shasta. The Klamath River also has a long and circuitous route to the Pacific Ocean from its headwaters on the eastern slopes of the Cascades of southern Oregon. The stream flows from Upper Klamath Lake west through a water gap in Cascade lavas, entering the Klamath Mountains just west of Interstate 5 (I 5). The lands east and upstream from the highway make up the upper Klamath. The lands west and downstream are those of the middle Klamath, including those of the Scott, Salmon, and Trinity rivers. From the highway the stream travels west to Happy Camp, where it turns south until it reaches Weitchpec, where it flows through another water gap in the

T H E KLAMATH

7

Siskiyou Mountains, takes a hard turn to the north, and enters the North Coast region. These western lands are those of the ZowerKlamath. The lands of the Smith River are quite separate from those of either the Klamath or the Sacramento. The headwaters start high on the western and eastern slopes of the Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon and California. The stream's two major forks meet near the Klamath-North Coast boundary. The land of the last 17 miles to the mouth of the Smith River makes up the ecologically different lower Smith River watershed (Map 2 ) .

LANDS O F T H E MIDDLE SACRAMENT0 RIVER

Mount Shasta looms on the horizon when travelers drive north on I 5 toward Redding. The higher ridgeline to the west are the peaks of the Trinity Mountains, the divide between the Sacramento and Trinity rivers. To the southwest are the Yolla Bolly Mountains of the North Coast; to the east are the Cascade volcanoes of Lassen Peak and Burney Mountain. To the north are a set of "hills" that you scarcely notice; these are the lands of the middle Sacramento country (Map 3). Shasta Lake, more than any other feature, distinguishes this country. Shasta Dam, the hub of the Central Valley Project with its elaborate complex of dams and reservoirs, creates the 29,500-acre Lake Shasta with a shoreline of 365 miles at maximum storage-the largest reservoir in the state. The Sacramento River is only one of its various arms. The McCloud River arm, receiving water from the southern slopes of Mount Shasta, also flows into McCloud Lake, where an aqueduct system transfers about a third of its water to Indian Canyon Reservoir and then to the Pit River arm. Only two major highways, I 5 and State Route (SR) 299, traverse this 1.35-million acre watershed. The Southern Pacific Railroad and I 5 form an important corridor of interstate commerce, connecting the cities of California with those of Oregon and Washington. Most of the 17 1,000 people of Shasta County live near the interstate. Almost all reside in Redding (pop. 85,ooo), the hub of commerce in the northernmost part of the state. The only other towns in this country-Dunsmuir, Lakehead, and Shasta Lake City-are situated along the I 5 freeway. State Route 299 is the major eastwest highway connecting Redding with the coastal towns of Arcata and Eureka. The country's rounded ridges and mountaintops are deeply forested. Steep slopes, half of them exceeding 15 percent, support well-lit woodlands and chaparral. Mining activities devastated much of the original forest cover. Pierson B. Reading discovered gold in 1848 on the banks of Readings Bar on the Trinity River, and prospectors discovered gold the next year in Sacramento's Clear Creek near the community of French Gulch. The Deadwood-French Gulch mining district became one of the richest in the

Map 3. Feat~~rrs of the mirltllc Sacramento Kivcr country. The Klarnath Kcgion hulgcs cast, and M o u n t Shasta t o tllc 11orttllooks (low11011 Reddi~ig a t the crossl-oatlsof Iiiterstatc r, and State K o ~ ~299. tr

state, but gold wxs not the only metal fi)und in the Klatnath Mountains. Copper mining became important in the late 1800s. They extracted cadmium, lead, limestone, sulfur, and zinc as well gold. Mine sy~nbolsdot maps of the Redding area, and rvith mines came smelters. Decades of emitting poisonous fumes from the region's smelters denuded the local mountain slopes. By the early icpos, erosion was extreme. Today the waters behind Shasta Dam cover many of' these bare slopcs. Chaparral blankets the slopes above lake level due to active restoration activities af'ter Mbrld M7ar 11. A substantial scar of the Iron Mountain Mine comes into view west of' Lake Shasta. This mine is a notoriot~stoxic waste site. Its water (which has a pH o f - I , the lowest reported in the world) flows into Lake Shasta. L,ower-elevation streams surge through rugged, rocky canyons above L,ake Shasta. Mountain slopcs far away fi-om the mining districts remain much as they ~vel-cin the earl). 1800s. In the northerly parts of the Trinity Mountains, called the Eddies, we find mountain meadows and go subalpine lakes. Mount Eddy, the highest peak in northwest California, and

THE KLAMATH

4)

Castle Crags (4,440 ft.), a granitic batholith of the Mesozoic Age, loom above the forested slopes. Shasta Bolly (6,209 ft.) and Bully Choop (6,970 ft.), near Whiskeytown Lake (named for the 1849 mining town of Whiskey Creek Diggings), stand well above the crest line in the southernmost extension of the Trinity Mountains. To the north, Grizzly Peak (6,250 ft.) stands well above the other, much lower peaks in the McCloud River, Pit River, and Squaw Creek watersheds. Lower mountain summits in the east are restricted to forested elevations, where logging has left its scars on many of the lower slopes. The middle Sacramento country experiences hot summers and rainy winters (Fig. 2). These lands do not lie in the rain shadow of the mountains to the west, since many winter storms move up the Sacramento Valley. Areas at higher elevations receive ample precipitation (60-100 in. annually), but the canyon lands receive only half that of the mountain slopes. Winter temperatures at lower elevations are mostly above freezing, and summer temperatures are very high. Only the highest peaks hold snow into the summer. Biological diversity comes in many forms. Lower-elevation conditions are sufficiently hot that it is best for visitors in the summer to spend their time at "The Lake." Trips to see the low-elevation limestone areas are preferable in the spring or fall; summer is best focused on higher elevations. The lands are mainly those of the Shasta-Trinity National Forest, and roads are mostly unpaved. Many privately owned sections exist in the watershed. Watch for signs along the roadsides that indicate ownership. Limestone areas offer something for everyone: high plant diversity, rare animals, interesting fossils, and caves (Pl. 2). Limestone exists in two different belts, each with its own character. McCloud limestone of the Permian Age is replete with corals, brachiopods, and other marine fossils. Hosselkus limestone of the Triassic Age has rich fossil assemblages of ammonites, brachiopods, corals, and ichthyosaurs. These animals lived in warm, shallow seas west of the continent. Outcrops of McCloud limestone are extensive along the McCloud arm of Lake Shasta. Here, Shasta Caverns offers a tour of lighted caves after a boat ride across the lake from I 5. Visitors arrive at the more natural Sawmel Cave after another boat ride. Signs along the trail interpret a Wintu legend concerning a woman slipping and falling into the cave. Arrange to pick up the key from Forest Service personnel before your trip. Impressive Dekkas Rock, an important religious site to the Wintu, is across the lake from the campground that shares its name. By traveling to the town of McCloud and then south past Lake Britton to Ah-di-na Campground, you can visit The Nature Conservancy's McCloud River Preserve, the original source of rainbow trout eggs used to introduce rainbow trout to the rest of the world. The preserve allows catch-andrelease fishing. The McCloud River was a seasonal home for the Wintu to

Fort Jones

Jan l Mar l Mav l Jul l Sep l Nov l Oec 3 1 Feb 1 Apr 1 . ~ u nl Aug l Oct 1 Oec 1 Day of Year

Day of Year

Hoopa

Dunsmuir 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 S 0.25 4 0.20 .g 0.15 2 0.10 a 0.05 0.00 Jan l Mar l May l Jul l Sep l Nov l Dec 3 1 Feb l Apr l Jun l Aug l Oct l Oec l Day of Year

110 0.55 100 0.50 90 0.45 g 80 0.40 P 70 0.35 L 2 60 0.30 S $ 50 0.25 P 40 0.20 -g 30 0.15 e 20 0.10 10 0.05 0 0.00 Jan l Mar l Mav l Jul l Sep l Nov l Oec31 Feb 1 Apr l - ~ u nl Aug l Oct l Oec l Day of Year

-.g

-5

W h i s k e y t o w n Reservoir

Big Bar 110 100 90 E 80 2 70

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2

0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 C 0.30 .S 0.25 .3 40 0.20 a 30 0.15 20 0.10 10 0.05 0 0.00 Jan l Mar l Mav l Jul l Seo l Nov l Oec 3 1 ~e1 b Apr 1 ' ~ u nl Aug 1' Oct 1 Oec 1 Day ofyear

110 0.55 100 0.50 90 0.45 80 0.40 g g 70 0.35 L 60 0.30 .S 50 0.25 1 40 0.20 .a 30 0.15 20 0.10 10 0.05 0 0.00 Jan l Mar l Mav l Jul l SeD l Nov l Dec 3 1 Feb l Apr 1 ' Jun l Aug 1' Oct 1 Dec 1 Day of Year

,

E

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H a r r i s o n G u l c h R a n g e r Station

Forest G l e n 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 g 0.35 L 0.30 B 0.25 Z 0.20 g 0.15 P 0.10 0.05 0.00 Jan l Mar l May l Jul l Sep l Nov l Oec 3 1 Feb l Apr l Jun l Aug l Oct l Oec l Day of Year

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" Jan l Mar l May l Jul l Sep l Nov l Dec 3 1 Feb l Apr l Jun l Aug l Oct l Dec l Day ofyear

Maximum Temperature Average Temperature ......... MinimumTemperature - Precipitation

Figure 2. Diagrams of annual temperature and precipitation patterns in the Klamath Mountains. Data from the Western Climate Region of the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service.

THE KLAMATH

I I

fish and gather acorns and pine nuts. A hike west from the campground will offer a taste of the Girard Ridge roadless area. A road trip on Forest Service (FS) Road 38N23 to Girard Outlook offers great views of Castle Crags and Mount Shasta; it is possible to spend the night in the outlook. The outrageous shrub diversity described along Low Pass Creek in the vegetation chapter exists in Devil's Rock-Hosselkus Limestone Research Natural Area between the Squaw and Pit arms of Lake Shasta. Hosselkus limestone is famous for many things beyond its Triassic fossils. The most notable living plant is the Shasta snow-wreath, discovered in 1992. It is a member of a genus Neuiusia that botanists previously considered restricted to the hills of Alabama. The limestone is also home to the Shasta salamander and Pleistocene Age fossils in cave deposits. Use Fenders Ferry Road (FS 27) to access the area, and stop at Potem Falls on the way. ~ h Castle k Crags point out the state park and several nearby areas of biological interest. Visitors know of its excellent rock for climbing and its aweinspiring views of Mount Shasta. Plant species growing in rock crevices exist nowhere else. The park abuts Castle Crag Wilderness with popular Castle Lake, an area that offers serpentine substrates with their own biological oddities. The serpentine substrates of the nearby Trinity Mountains also offer many high-elevation gems. South Fork Sacrament0 Road (FS 26) and Castle Creek Road (FS 27) supply quick access. In 1979, Todd Keeler-Wolf discovered an area around Cliff Lake with 11 conifer species, now designated as Cedar Basin Research Natural Area. Toad Lake, known for its rich serpentine flora, is accessible by the Pacific Crest Trail.

LANDS OF T H E MIDDLE KLAMATH RIVER

Interstate 5 north of Mount Shasta first skirts the Greenhorn Mountains, the eastern boundary of the Klamath Mountains, as it cuts though the Shasta Valley, follows the Shasta River to the Klamath River, and then crosses the Siskiyou Mountains into Oregon (Map 4). The Klamath River west of I 5 picks up the waters from three of its major tributaries. The Scott River meets it at Hamburg downstream from the freeway. The Salmon River enters at the mining town of Somes Bar after the big bend south at Happy Camp, originally called Murderers Bar. The Trinity River, the largest of the three, and the Klamath River converge at Weitchpec. The lands of these three watersheds are described separately, but first let's consider the immediate lands in the 1.3-million-acre area of the middle Klamath country (Pl. 3). While traveling west, the river moves through some 260 million years of geology. Cherts, conglomerates, limestones, sandstones, shales, schists, and serpentine substrates seen along the river represent parts of many different

h1;1p 4. Fcaturcs o f midtllc lilan~atliRi\cr countl-y. Statc. Route 03 follo\vs the Klamatli Kiver from Interstate r, 10b'eitchpec and its convcrgencc. with the Trinity Ri\.cr.

terranes added to the western edge of North America over millions of years. Mesozoic Age intrusions of' granitic rock add further to the lack of geologic order. The I-ocks get younger t o the west, with Galice metasediments of' Jurassic Age forming the western boundary of the Klamath Mountains. Not only did the terranes dock with the continent, but also in the process, they created the massivc ancestral Klarnath Mountains during Jurassic and Cretaceous times. V'olcanoes, associated lava flows, and deep sediments covered plutonic intrusions o f granites. Erosion removed hundreds of feet of material f'rom these mountains over the next too million years, only fill- thc area t o experience another period of mountain building. Today's Klarnath Mountains are the result of an even more recent uplif't.

THE KLAMAI'H

13

Each period of mountain building initiated a cycle of erosion. At first, streams had high gradients creating steep-sided canyons and V-shaped valleys with thin soils. As time passed, stream gradients lessened, slopes became gentler, and soils deepened. Erosion continued until the land had very low relief and was covered with thick, well-weathered soils; geologists call this stage a peneplain. If the area has a new period of mountain building, the cycle would begin again. Reaching peneplain stage depends on place and history. Usually areas do not reach the final stage; instead, long periods of erosion create subdued topography. Today the middle Klamath River gradually passes downward through scenes alternating between gorges, forested slopes (75 percent exceeding 15 percent slope), and small river terraces. Former mining towns such as Gottville, Seiad Valley, Happy Camp, Somes Bar, and Orleans occupy the larger terraces. Ridges and peaks crowd the river, including the even more precipitous walls at China Point and at the mouth of Bluff Creek, made famous by the sighting of Bigfoot in 1958, the local version of the Abominable Snowman, Sasquatch, or Yeti. We now know that Bigfoot was the hoax of Ray Wallace, the then-editor of a Eureka newspaper, the Tim~s-Standard. Several mountain ranges tower above the river. The Siskiyou Mountains to the north include prominent Mount Ashland (7,500 ft.) in the northeast corner, Little Grayback (6,160 ft.) west of Happy Camp, and Berrill Peak (4,350 ft.) near Weitchpec. South of the Klamath River are the Scott Bar Mountains to the east of the Scott River's confluence with the Klamath and the Marble Mountains to the west. The peaks of the Marble Mountains are highest to the east at Boulder Peak (8,300 ft.), gradually lowering to Marble Mountain (6,780 ft.), the namesake of the range. The mountain is conspicuous not for its height but for its white marble that contrasts strongly with the surrounding dark fir forests. Evidence of glaciation is extensive at higher elevations, and some loo subalpine lakes dot the range. The climate is one of sunny summers and rainy winters (Fig. 2 ) . High elevations of the Siskiyou and Marble mountains receive abundant precipitation (45-1 25 in.) annually, and they maintain deep snowpacks well into the summer. Low-elevation canyons receive only about a third the annual precipitation of the mountain slopes. At lower elevations, winter temperatures are mostly above freezing, with fleeting snow. Summers are hot. The landscape shows the effects of mining in the i 800s and of the more recent clear-cutting in the late 1900s supervised by the personnel of Klamath and Six Rivers national forests. Today travelers see a mosaic of young tree plantations mixed with the original forest. Several large, recent fires have occurred throughout this watershed. Biological areas of interest exist near the wilderness areas. Grayback Road (FS 48), from Happy Camp. to O'Brien, cuts through the Siskiyou

Mountains between Siskiyou Wilderness to the west and Red Buttes Wilderness to the east. Marble Mountain Wilderness lies south of the river. Following SR 96 west along the scenic Klamath River from I 5 is the fastest way to arrive. National forest roads are numerous and unpaved. South of the Klamath River and Seiad Valley, FS 46N64 climbs to Lake Mountain Botanical Area, the northern extent of foxtail pine. Also noteworthy are the other peaks of the Marble Mountains to the south near Black Marble Castle (7,445 ft.) and the associated native limestone caves, best left to serious spelunkers. I celebrate the area's awe-inspiring meadowlands in the vegetation chapter. It requires somewhat less work to see the delights of the western part of Marble Mountain Wilderness. The Wooley Creek batholith, with its erosive granitic soils, has dense fir forests with diverse, understory layers highlighted in Haypress Meadows and Bridge Creek research natural areas. Within Siskiyou Wilderness, the Forest Service formally recognizes special areas around Preston Peak (7,310 ft.) for their rich forests, meadows, and glacial features. Nearby are botanical geological and research natural areas with exquisite stands of Port Orford-cedar, rhododendron, and herbrich meadows. I would add Devil's Punch Bowl and Youngs Valley to a list of enticing biological areas. Elk Hole Geological Area has the southernmost stand of Alaska yellow-cedar. Rock Creek Butte Research Natural Area, with its diverse forests with Brewer spruce, is accessed by the infamous GO Road (FS i i 5No l ) . During the ig8os, a dispute arose over the Forest Service building the 55-mile GO Road that would have connected Gasquet on the Smith River and Orleans on the Klamath River. The last miles of road would have crossed lands sacred to the Karuk, Tolowa, and Yurok as the road passed through the Siskiyou Mountains. The Forest Service saw building of the road as significant for the development of timber harvesting, recreation, maintenance, and fire control, but it interfered with the religious practices of native peoples. Years of controversy, including US Supreme Court decisions, international law, passing of the California Wilderness Act in 1984, and the creation of Smith River National Recreation Area in 1990, ended the debate. Today the last six miles are included in Siskiyou Wilderness, and religious practices are preserved. Interesting areas near Red Buttes Wilderness offer another look at the Siskiyou Mountains via Cook and Green Pass (see above), and the road to Seiad Valley-Cook and Green Pass Road (FS 48N20). House Creek Botanical Area presents a lovely riparian setting before hunting down the rare Baker cypress. The nearby Cook and Green Pass and White Mountain botanical areas, on the mountain crest, are famous for their flowery meadows and rock outcrops. A hike from the pass offers even richer high-elevation experiences.

LANDS OF T H E S C O T T RIVER

A visit to Scott Valley, the largest in the region, seems like a taste of the Great Basin with its foothill ranchlands of juniper and sagebrush (Map 5). Scott Valley is a fast hop from Yreka and I 5 by way of SR 3 or GrazelleCallahan Road (Siskiyou Co. 2Ho1) through the modestly tall Greenhorn Mountains clothed in open stands of Jeffrey pine and oak (Pl. 4). A quick look at a map confirms that we are in the rain shadow of several mountain ranges between here and the Pacific Ocean. Indeed, climatic records tell us that this country has the most continental weather in the Klamath Mountains and the driest (overall 18-85 in. annually). While the eastern slopes of the Scott, Salmon, and Marble mountains receive abundant precipitation, Scott Bar Mountains, Scott Valley, and the surrounding foothills receive noticeably less. Winter temperatures are often below freezing with long-lasting snow; summer temperatures are moderate (Fig. 2). The northerly flowing Scott River in this 52 i ,000-acre watershed begins in the Scott Mountains. Its east fork originates on the slopes of China Mountain (8,540 ft.), just north of Mount Eddy. Its south fork starts at South Fork Lakes near the convergence of the Scott and Salmon mountains and Trinity Alps. This ridge crest is the divide between the Scott and Trinity rivers. State Route 3 enters over Scott Mountain (6,830 ft.) via the route of the old California-Oregon stage. Travelers used this route to reach Oregon before the railroad was completed up the Sacramento River. The northern slopes are dotted with subalpine lakes and open forests. As with the adjacent Trinity Mountains, they contain serpentine substrates of the Trinity ophiolite. Mountainsides are moderately steep, with about half exceeding a 15 percent slope. China Peak, Kangaroo Lake, Scott Mountain, and Rock Creek botanical areas were established to protect the California pitcher plant and other high-elevation serpentine plants. Subalpine woodlands clothe the crest. These north-facing drainages present many glacial features, including a rock glacier on the north side of Cory Peak (7,700 ft.). The Salmon and Marble mountains form the western boundary of Scott Valley country. In contrast to the Scott Mountains, the Salmons are mainly granites of the Russian Peak batholith, and beautiful subalpine lakes are concentrated near Russian Peak (8,190 ft.) in the Russian Wilderness, which contains Duck Lakes Botanical Area and the adjacent Sugar Creek Research Natural Area. Wander the trails and old roads of the Duck Lake Creek and Horse Range Creek drainages to enjoy the rich concentration of 17 conifers described in the vegetation chapter. Only two roads connect the Scott Valley with the Salmon River lands to the west. Sawyers Bar Road (Co. Rd. I Col ) separates the Salmons and Marbles, although the ranges are continuously high. Marble Mountain Wilderness to the north contains montane and subalpine lakes, and meadows set

.,

Map Featurcs of thr Srott Rivet-countr\. The north-tending Scott River leaves the Scott Valley and drops down to the Klamath River. Svate Routc. 3 enters from the south at Scott Mountain and leaves over the ( h ~ e n h o r non s the \onRanch, 134 Mad River, 30, 42-q6,61, 79, 130, 132, 133, 161,166 Mad River Buttes potential wilderness, 4 j Mad River Slough, qg madrone canker, 181, 182 mafic rock, 63 magma, 2 , j Mahony, Thomas, j o mallards, I 79 mammals, 157-1 6 I Mammoth, 104 Man Eaten Lake, I 9 Manila Dunes Recreation Area, 45 Maple Creek, 42 marbled godwit, 176 marbled murrelets, 50, 80, 139, '75, 177 marbled sculpin, 164 Marble Mountains black bears, 159 as boundary for Scott Valley country, 15 Cascade frog, I 62 description, I 3 fires, 107 forest pattern, 61, 68, 144 glaciation, 13 Klamath River as separation from Siskiyou Mountains, 104 limestone caves, 14 meadows, 70 plants, 98 plutons, 5 trees and shrubs, 69 Marble Mountains Primitive Area, 14j Marble Mountain M'ilderness, 14, 145 march shrew, 158 marijuana, I 40 marmots, 160 Marryat, Frank, 1no, 1 2 I Marsh, George Perkins, 141 Marshall, Robert, 145 Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary, 45 marshes, 152, 17j marsupials, 158 martin, 158 Mary Blaine Mountain, 18 massacres, 129

'56, '93 Mattole Sanctuarl Forest and River Reser~e, 79 mature forests, 1 16 Maxxam Corporation, 138-1 39 Mazama pocket gopher, 158 McBain and Trush, 16j IdcCloud Lake, 7, 131 SlcCloud redband trout, 163 McCloud River, 7, g, 147, 162 McCloud River Preserve, 9 McCloud (town), g McKinlej~ille,42 meadows, 58-60,68-69, 70, 72 Medicine Peak, I g Medieval IVarm Period, 109, 1 10, 1 15 megafossils, 88 Megrarn fire, 107, 123 mklange, 3 7 Mendocino National Forest, 38, 141, 192 Mendocino Redwood Compan); 38, 139 Mendocino Triple Junction, 40 merlin, 176 Merriam, C. Hart, xiv metasedimentary rocks, 5 metavolcanic rocks, 5 nice, 158, 161 Michaels, Catherine, 83 microfossils, 88 Migrator) Bird Treaty Act ( 1 918 ) , 146 Mill Creek, 48, 50, 193 mining copper, 8, 26, i 27 environmental impact of, 13 hard rock mining, 127 placer mining, I 26-1 27 strip-mining proposal, n'j See nlso gold and gold mining mink, 158, I 59 minnows, 163 bliocene, 83, 86 Miwok Indians, 188 moles, 158 mole salamanders, 171 monitors, I 26-1 27 montane belt, 57, 61, 62-63, 68-69, 71, 73, 78, 118-119 Monrerex xi Monument Peak, 4 Morris Reservoir, 132

GLNERAL INDEX

mosquitofish, western, 164 moths, 180 mountain beaver, 158, 160 mountain bluebird, 175, 177 mountain garter snake, 174 mountain lion, 158, 160 mountain pine beetle, 180, 182 mountain quail, 175, 176 mountain sheep, 157, 158 Mount Ashland, I 3 Mount Eddy, I , 6,8-9, 23,7o, 87, I 84, 195 Mount Eddj- potential wilderness, I 90 Mount Lassen, 40 Mount Linn, 3 I , 69, 70 Mount hleager, qo Mount Rainier National Park, 73 Mount Saint Helens, qo Mount Shasta, 3 , 6 , 7, 1 1, 127 Mount Shasta Cit\; xvi Moyle, Peter, 161-162 mud flats, 152, 175, 178 mudstone, 3 7, 66 Mulr, John, 146 mule deer, 158, 160 Mule Mountam, 4 Mumbo Lake, 87, 11j Murdet ers Bar, L I Murra~,Mlchael, 68, 70 muskrat, 158, 161 Mvrtle Creek Botanical Area, 26 Naqh, Rodrrick, 141 National Emironmental Policv Act ( I 969), '43 National Forest Service, I 40, 141, 145-146. 189, 192, 193 national parks, creation of, 141 National Park Ser\-ice, 146 Native Americans

Impact on landscape, 187-1 88 SW also spec@ groups N d t u ~ eConserbanc!; The, 38, 140, 156 Nelson, Bvron. 129 neoendemics, 95-t)6,95-100 Neogene, 3 4 , 8 6 , 9 3 New River, 2 3 Newton Drury Scenic Highway, 48 newts, 171

2

39

Niles, Doris, I 36 Nomlaki potential wilderness, I 93 Nongatl Indiand4, 1 1 1 nonnative plants and animals, 149, 1 41-42, 43948 Salmon River country, I 9 Scott River countr): 15 upper Smith River country 2 j prescribed burns, I 24, 135 - -

quail, 175, 176 Quaternary, 86-87, 93 rabbit, 158, i 60 raccoon, 158, 159 racer, 174 rafting on Smith River, 24 o n Trinit? Ri\er, 23 railroad, I 28, 137-138, 139 rainbow trout, 162, 163, 165, 166, 170 rainfall. Sep precipitation ranches and ranching, 38,42, 132-1 33, 13.5, 140, 148 Raphael, Ray, I 29 raptors, 176 rats, 158, 160 Rattlesnake Terrane, 48, 63, 97, 99, 1j l Ravmond, Roland, I 1 2 Reading, Pierson B., xii, 7, 22, 1 2j Readings Bar, i a j red band needle blight, 181 red bat, 158 red-bellied newt, 171 Red Bluff, xi, 3 I , I 28 red-brown butt rot, 181 Red Buttes LVilderness, 14, 14.5 Redding, xvi, 7, " 7 , 128, 137, 142 redear sunfish, 164 red fox, 158, I 61 red-legged frog, 170 Red Mountain, 38, 78, 97, g9 red-shouldered h a ~ k176 , red tree \ale, 158, 160 red turpentine beetle, 180, 182 Redwood chipmunk, 158 Reduood Creek, 3 0 , 4 2 , 4 j , 46-48, 61, 78, 7 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 ~ 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 6166 5~ Redwood Highway, 139 Redwood National Park, 45, 46,48, 50, 80, -

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242

GENER4I. INDEX

Requa, 46 Requa Timber Company, 138 reservations, 129 reservoirs. See dams and reservoirs restoration, of wildlands, 188 rhinoceros auklet, 177 rhyolite, 6 Richardson Grove State Park, 29,38 Richter scale, 41 Ridgeway Summit, 34 riffle sculpin, 164 Rijke, Ellen de, 129 ring-necked pheasant, 175, 176 ringneck snake, 174 ringtail, 158 Rio Dell, 34 river lamprey, 163, 166 river otter, 158, 159-160 roach, California, 163 roadless areas, 190, 191, l93 roadrunner, 177 roads, 141-142, 147, 189-190 See also speczJic road Roantree, Michael, 157 Robertson, Don, 173 rock and forest patterns, 63-66 Franciscan, xvi, 32, 33, 37,38, 40, 41, 44,63,70,78 granitic, 2 , 63, 69, 70, 152 Klamath Mountains, 1 , 2 , 5-6, 11-1 2 , 16-17,24,26,63,64,66,69-~0 North Coast, 32-33, ~ 7 ~ 4 3 - 4 4 , 6 3 , 64,65 San Andreas Fault, 40 Trinity Alps, 69 Trinity Mountains, 1,69 See also serpentine Rock Creek, i j, 193 Rock Creek Butte Research Natural Area, 14, 27,72 Rockefeller Forest, 38 rock pigeon, i 75, 177 Rocky Mountains, 94, 101, 107, 183 rodents, 159, 160 Rogers, Harrison, xii, 1 2 1-1 2 2 ~ o h d e~,e r r y14s , Roosevelt, Theodore, 141 Roosevelt elk, 47, 48, 135, 158, 160 root rot, 181, 182 Ross, Ryan, 69 Rough Ridge, 24

rough-skinned newt, 171 roundheaded fir borer, 180, I 82 Round Valle); 132 rubber boa, 173, 174 ruffled grouse, 176 Rufous hummingbird, 175, 177 Russian Peak, 4, 1j , 19, 105 Russian River, xiv, x\i, 34, 132, 165 Russian Wilderness, 14j Ruth Dam, 44 Ruth Lake, 132 Ruth Research Natural Area, 48 Sacramento pikeminnow, 163 Sacramento River/Sacramento River watershed copper mining, I 27 description of, 7-1 1 forest patterns, 62, 66,67, 68 fossils, 87 Keswick Reservoir, 131 limestone, 96, 105 precipitation. g rock outcrops, 1 salamanders, 170 Shasta Dam, 132 Smith's travels, xii source and route of, 6 water diverted from Trinity Lake, 167 Sacramento sucker, 163 Sacramento Valley, xi Saenz, Loretta, 134 salamanders, 80, 170, 171, 172 salmon Chinook, 24, 139, 149, 163, 165, 166, 167 chum, 163, 165 coho, 24,50, 139, 149,163,165,167 pink, 163, 165 Salmon Creek, 1 1 2 Salmon Mountains as boundary for Scott Valley country, '5 endemic plants, 97 fires, 107 meadows, 70 plutons, 4 trees and shrubs, 69, 70, 72 Salmon Peak, I 8 Salmon River/Salmon River watershed description of, 17-1 g federal protection of, 147

GENERAL INDEX

forest patterns, 61, 66, 67, 71 gold mining, 22, 125 as Klamath River tributary, 11 lightning in, 108 Native American settlements, 1 1 2 precipitation, 1g South Fork 67 Salmon-Trinity Alps Primitive Area, l45 salt marshes, 83-84, 152, 17j,178 Salver, xiii, 24 Samoa Dunes Recreation Area, 45, 146 San Andreas Fault, 40 sandpiper, western, 178 sand spits, 155 sandstone, 66 San Francisco, 138, 139, 147 San Francisco Bay, 6 San Francisco earthquake, 41 Sanhedrin Mountain, 38 Sanhedrin proposed wilderness, 193 San Joaquin Roadless Area, 104 Santa Rosa, 86 Save-the-Redwoods League, 50, 147, '92, '93, l 9 4 Sawmel Cave, g Sawyers Bar, 66, 7 1 Sawyers Bar Road, 15 Say's phobe, 177 schist, 37 Schoolhouse Peak, 46, 134 Scotia, 1 1 2 Scott Bar Mountains, 13, 16 Scott Bar salamander, 1 7 1 Scott Mountains climate and precipitation, 1j convergence with Trinity Mountains, 23,104 endemic plants, 97,g8 features. 1 rj plants, 98 plutons, 4 trails over, 128 trees and shrubs, 69 Scott River, 6, 1 l , 15-17> 22,66, 1 2 5, '47 precipitation, I j Scottsburg, 17 Scott Valley, 15, 67,68,87, 128 sculpins, 162, 164 sea stacks, 3 9 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 50, 175 Seiad \'alley, 1 3, 1 7 2 Sequoia National Park, 146

243

serpentine description of, 3-6 endemic plants on, 96, gg-loo and forest patterns, 63, 64-65 Klamath Mountains, 67, 70, 72 North Coast, 73, 78 in Scott Bar Mountains, 16 Smith River watershed, 26 soil, i i j Trinity River watershed, 24 serpentine indicators, 65 serpentine plants, 65, 151-152 settlement, of land, 140 shad, 163 shadow chipmunk, 158 sharptailed snake, 173, 174 Shasta alligator lizard, 174 Shasta Bolly, 4,g Shasta Caverns, 9 Shasta County, xvi, 7 , 31, 128 Shasta Dam, 7 , 8 , 127, 131, 132 Shasta Indians, 1 1 1, 1 1 2 Shasta Lake, 6, 7, 8, g, 87, 13 1, 166, 190 Shasta Lake City, 7 Shasta National Forest, 141 Shasta River, 1 1, 150 Shasta salamander, 170, 1 7 1 Shasta (town), 128, 129, 142 Shasta-Trinity National Forest, g, 141, 189 Shasta Valley, 1 1, 1 27 sheep, '33-134 Shelley Lake, 5 Shelter Cove, 29,39,40, 131 short-billed dowitcher, 176 short-eared owl, 177 short-tailed weasel or ermine, 158 shrew-mole, 158 shrews, 158 Sierra mountain kingsnake, 174 Sierra Nevada, j l , 57,63, g j , 101, 104-105 Sierra Nevada red fox, 158, 16 1 S i h t Spnng (Carson), 143 silver-haired bat, 158 silversides, 164 silverspotted tiger moth, 180 Simon, Ted, 132 Simpson Paper Company, 156 Simpson Timber Company, 42,48, 138 Sinkyone Indians, 1 1 1, 1 12, 1 1 3 Sinkyone Wilderness State Park, 39, 42, 146 Siskiyou chipmunk, 158 Siskiyou County, xvi, 130

244

GENERAL INDEX

Siskiyou Lake, 6 Siskiyou Mountains as boundary for Klarnath Mountains, xvi climate and precipitation, I 3 endemic plants, 96, 97 fires, 107 forest pattern, 61,62 Great Indian Trail, I 27 Humboldt martin, I 60 Klamath River, 1 1, 104 plants, 98, g9 plutons, 5 Redwood Creek, 46 stripmining controversy, 27 trails to, 127-1 28 trees and shrubs, 68,69 Siskiyou Mountain salamander, 171, 172 Siskiyou Wilderness, 14,48, 79, 145 Six Rivers National Forest, 38,42,45-46, 46,107,129,141,189, 192 Skilton's skink, 173, 174 skink, 173, 174 skunk, 158 slavery, i z y Slinkard, 5 Slinkard Ridge, 5 small-footed bat, 158 smallmouth bass, 164,166 smelt, 163 Smith, James P., 94 Smith, Jedediah Strong, xi-xiv, 24, 133 Smithe Redwoods State Reserve, 38 Smith River National Recreation Area, 14, 24, 27, 5 0 , 1463 179 Smith River/Smith River watershed coastal prairies, 83, 136 description of, 24-27,48-50 federal protection of, 147 forest pattern, 6 1, 7 1 lodgepole pine, 96 North Fork chaparral, I 14-1 15 Port Orford-cedar trees, I 84 precipitation, 25 source and route of, 7 steelhead trout, 165 Tolowa massacre, 129 Smokey Creek, 24 snakes, 173, 174 Snow Mountain, xiv, 30-3 1 , 33, 35 Snow Mountain Wilderness, 146, 193 -

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snowshoe hare, 158, 160 snowy plover, 175, 176 soil, 63,66, I 15, 130, 136 See also erosion Soldier Research Natural Area, 38 Soldier Ridge, 78 SomesBar, 11, 13, 128 Sonoma chipmunk, 158 Sonoma County, 132 South Bay, 84, I 78 Southern Pacific Railroad, 7, 137 southern torrent salamander, 171,172 South Fork, 35,38,67 South Fork Eel proposed wilderness, I 93 South Fork ~ a k e s I, 5 , 23 South Fork Mountain, xvi, 24, 30, 36,42, 46, 78,879 99, 104 South Fork Trail, xiii South Yolla Bolly Mountains, 30, 33.63.69 sparrows, 175, 177 speckled dace, 162, 163 spotted bass, 164,166 spotted skunk, 158 Springer, Paul, I 79 spruce aphid, 180,182 spruce budworm, western, 180 Squaw Creek, g, 67 squirrels, 158,160 St. Helena mountain kingsnake, 174 St. John Mountain, 78 stand, definition of, I 16 stand dynamics, 1 16-1 17 stand modifying or partial stand replacement fires, 106, 1 I 6 stand replacing or replacement fires, I 06 starry flounder, 164 State Route 3, 23, 128 State Route 36, 23, 35, 141-14" State Route 96, 23 State Route 162, 33, 35 State Route zgg, xvi, 7, 23, 126, 135. 142 steelhead trout, 139, 165, 167 Steen, Harold, I 29 Stewman, Casey, I g4 sticklebacks, 164 Stillman, Ken, 68, 70 Stony Creek Trail, 26 Stony Creek, xiv, xvi, 31, 73 Stony Creek National Forest, i 41 Stony Creek Reserve, 141 Stonyford, 3 I Stony Gorge Reservoir, 29, 31, 132

GENERAL INDEX

striped skunk, 158 striped whipsnake, 174 strip-mining, 2 j structure, of forests, I 16 Stuart Fork, 23 sturgeon, 163, 166 subalpine belt climate, 107 conservation, 194 description of, 63 fires in, 115, 118 meado\\ plants, 58-59 in wilderness areas, 190 subduction, 2 suckers, 163 sudden oak death, 181, 185 Sugar Creek, 7 s Sugar Creek Research Natural Area, 1 5 Sugar Pine Lake, 4 sulfur, I 2 j Summit Valley, 5 sunfish, 164 Supply Creek, xiii surface fires, I 06 surfperch, 164 swan, tundra, 173, 176, 178 Sweene\ Dam, qq swift, 177 Sw~ftCreek, 23 Table Bluff, gq, qn, 44, 130, 136 tailed frog salamander, 171, 172 Tall Trees Grove, 48 tarspot, 1 8 1 taxation, 139 Tedoc Mountain, 24 Tehama Counh, xvi, 31 temperature I(lamath hlountains, 10 Korth Coast, 29 terrain, and fires, 108-109 terrane, 2 Tertiary fossils, 88 Thomes Creek, 3 1, 73, 193 Thompson Peak, 23 Thompson Ridge, 5 Thoreau, Henry Dalid, 141 Thornburgh, Dale, 72, 94, 105, 139 threadfish shad, 163 threespine stickleback, 164 Thunberg, Carl, 92

thunderstorms, 1 0 j tidewater goby, 164 Toad Lake, I I toads, 172 Tolowa Dunes State Park, qg, 83, 179 Tolowa Indians, xiii, xiv, 14, 111, 112, 129,136 topsmelt, 164 Tour of the Unknown Coast, 39-40 Townsend's big-eared bat, 16 I Townsend's longeared bat, 158 Townsend's mole, 158 Townsend's vole, 158 trails, 128, 129, 141, 142 Trinidad, 42, 43, 175 Trinidad Bay, xi, xii, xiii, 42, 44, 83, 128, 130,160 Trinidad Head, 44 Trinidad State Park, 45 Trinity Alps black bears, I 59 Cascade frog, 162, 170 convergence with Scott and Salmon Mountains, i j features, 23 fires, 10 7 forest pattern, 61 granitic outcrops, 23 insect pests, I 82 meadows. 69, j o plants, 98 plutons, q R ~ ~ f o hummingbird, us I 75 trees and shrubs, 68,69, 70 Trinih Alps Wilderness, 20-2 1, 145 Trinity County xvi, I 28 TrinityDam, 131-132 Trinity Lake, 20, 23, 131-132, 16j Trinity Mountains Cascade frog, 170 convergence with other mountains, 23, 104 endemic plants, g8 fires, 115 forest pattern, 5 1, 61 geological history, 34 meadows. 70 plants, 98, 1 5 1 plutons, q rock outcrops, 1 Sacramento River, 6, 7 serpentine flora, 1 1

245

Trinity Mountains (continz~ed) trails over, 12 8 trees and shrubs, 68,69, 72 view from South Fork country, 24 Trinity National Forest, 141 Trinity ophiolite, 63,64 Trinity River Basin Fish and Wildlife Task Force, 167 Trinity River Diversion, 131-1 32 Trinity River Restoration Project, 168, 170, '73 Trinity River/Trinity River watershed convergence with Klamath River, 1 1 description of, 2-24 federal protection of, 147 fish restoration project, 167-168 foothill yellow-legged frog, 170 forest pattern, 61,66,68, 71 gold discovery and mining, 7, 125, 1 28 location of, 6 naming of, xii North Fork, 23 Smith's travels, xiii steelhead trout, I 65 South Fork, 23 sturgeon, 166 trails along, 129 Trinity Valley, 1 32 trout brook trout, 162, 163, 170 brown trout, 162, 163, 170 bull trout, 162, 163 coastal cutthroat trout, 139, 163, 165 Dolly Varden, 162 McCloud redband trout, 163 rainbow trout, 162, 163, 165, 166, 170 resident rainbow trout, 163 jn Smith River, 24 steelhead trout, 139, 165, 167 Trowbridge's shrew, 158 tsunami, 41 Tsungwe Indians, xiii tufted puffin, 177 tui chub, 163 tule elk, 158, 160 Tulelake Basin, 87 tule perch, 164 pond turtle, 167, 173, 174 Twin Lakes, 72,86-87 Ukiah, 34 ultramafic rock, 63,64

Underwood proposed wilderness, I 90 ungulates, 158 Union, 128, 129, 130 Union Mattole Company, 131 Union Town Company, 128 University of California Natural Reserve System, 38, 140 Upper Cederville, 85 Upper Klamath Lake, 6 US 101,34,35 US 199, x V ~ US. Bureau of Land Management, I 7, 31, 38, 41,45, 140, 146, 155, '923 '93 US. Fish and U7ildlifeService, 45, 146-147, 167, 179 Usal Creek, 40 vagrant shrew, 158 Vale, Thomas, 187-1 88 valley garter snake, 174 Van Duzen River, 36,42,78,80, 130, 147 vascular plants, 150-157 Vaux's swift, 177 Vesa Bluffs, 5 Virginia opossum, 158, I 6 I volcanic rock, j volcanoes, 4+4 1, 104 voles, 158, 160 Wailaki Indians, 1 1 1 Wallace, David Rains, 1 0 1 Wallace, Ray, 13 wandering salamander, 171 Warner Mountains, 6, 85 waterfowl, 45, 175, 176, 178 water management, 13 1 water molds, 181, 185 watersheds of Klamath Mountains, 6-7 of northwest California, xv See also specijic watershed Wawona, 188 weasel, long-tailed, 158 M'eaverville, xvi, 20, 22, 125, 126, 128, 29, 142 Weitchpec, xi, xiii, 6, 1 I , 12,23, 24, 46 Western Azalea Botanical Area, 24 western bluebird, 175, 177 western brook lamprey, 1 6 166 ~ ~ western conifer seed bug, 180 western cordillera, I o l

western fence lizard, 173, 174 western gall rust, 181 western gray squirrel, 158 western mosquitofish, 164 uestern oak hark beetle, 180, 185 western pine beetle, 180, I 82 western pine shoot borer, 180 western pipistrelle, 158 western pond turtle, 167 western rattlesnake, 173 western sagebrush lizard, 173, 174 western sandpiper, 178 western snowy plover, 176 uestern spruce budworm, 180 wetlands, 48, 49, 1jo, 135, 178, 192 wetland shrubs, 56 wetland trees, 53, 75, 136 W"neelock, 17 \$%ilkut Indians, 1 1 1 M'hipple, Jennifer, 70 M'hiskeytown Lake, g, 10, 20 \l%iskeyto~vn-Shasta-TrinivNational Recreation Area, 146 white catfish, 163 white crappie, 164, 166 white-faced ibis, 176 white-footed vole, 158 white pine blister rust, 11j, 181, 183-1 84 white pocket rot, 181 white sturgeon, 163, 166 white-tailed kite, 176 M7hitethorn, 42, 79 Mlittaker, Robert, i o l , I 14, 1 1S. widgeon, American, 179 M'ilaki Indians, I 34 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968), 132,

'43, '47 wild dog, 158, 161 M'ilderness Act (1964), 143, 145, 146 wildland protection, I 87-194 wildlife protection, 143, 146 wild turkec I 75, 176 Wildwood, xii, 4 willet, 176

iiillits, hlarjiaret, i 79 Jiillits (town), 34, 35 M'illow Creek, 23, 35, 13j M'ilson, Karen, 156 winter, qrj, l 17 Wintun Indians, 9, 111,112, 128, 129 M'iregrass Ridge, 46 Wnot Indlans, 111, 1 1 2 , 129, 136 ~ o l fgray, , i 57, 158 ~\ol\erine,137, 158 ~\oodpeckers,176, 177

Yana Indians, 1 1 1 yellowbreasted chat, 177 yellow perch, 164 yellow pine chipmunk, 158 Yellowstone National Park, 141, 146 Yellowstone Park Timberland Reserve, l4l yellow warbler, 177 Yolla Bolly-Middle Eel Wilderness, 38, 193 Yolla Bolt? Mountains, 7, 31, 33, 34, 41, 60, 104, 109, 133 Yolla Bolly Primitive Area, 145 Yosemite National Park, 146, 147, 187-188 Yo5ernite Valley, I 88 young forests, 1 I 6 Youngs Peak, 4 Youngs J'alley, 14 Yreka, xvi, I 5, i jo Yuki Indians, 1 1 1, 1 1 2 Yuki proposed wilderness, 38, 193, 194 Yuma bat, 158 Yurok Research Natural Area, I 2 2 Yurok Indians, xi, xiii, 14,45,46, H 1, 1 1 2 ,

zinc,

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