New World Symphonies 9780300148572

Citation preview

NEW WORLD SYMPHONIES

This page intentionally left blank

New World

Symphonies HOW A M E R I C A N CULTURE C H A N G E D EUROPEAN MUSIC

JACK SULLIVAN

Yale University Press

New Haven & London

Copyright © 1999 by Yale University. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sullivan, Jack, 1946New World symphonies : how American culture changed European music / Jack Sullivan. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. Designed by James J. Johnson and set in Electra types by Rainsford Type, Danbury, Connecticut. Printed in the United States of America. The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources.

ISBN 0-300-07231-7 ISBN-13: 978-0-300-07231-0

i. Music—Europe—American influences. 2. Music—United States—History and critiicism. I. Title. ML240.S89 1999 98-3641 780'.94—dc2i A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For my sons, Geoffrey and David, two New Worlds

This page intentionally left blank

Contents

Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction

xi

CHAPTER ONE. The Legacy of the Sorrow Songs

i

CHAPTER TWO. Hiawatha Fever: The Legacy of Longfellow

47

CHAPTER THREE. New Worlds of Terror: The Legacy of Poe

61

CHAPTER FOUR. New World Songs: The Legacy of Whitman

95

CHAPTER FIVE. Beyond the Frontier: New World Landscape

131

CHAPTER Six. Broadway, Hollywood, and the Accidental Beauties of Silly Songs

161

CHAPTER SEVEN. New World Rhythm: The Spread of Jazz

191

Notes

239

Index

251

This page intentionally left blank

Acknowledgments

For the third time in a decade, I owe thanks to Jacques Barzun for his help in completing a book. His encouragement and seasoned insights into Poe, Varfese, French verse, and numerous other subjects have proved invaluable. I also wish to thank friends and colleagues who contributed leads and ideas, including Tom Barran, Michael Beckerman, Jack Belsom, Michael Blaine, Sedgewick Clark, Shirley Fleming, Thomas Gunn, Charles Hobson, Joseph Horowitz, Allen Hughes, Art Paxton, Helen Paxton, Seymour Solomon, and Alan D. Williams. Special thanks go to. Charles Simmons and Gladys Topkis, who helped launch the book's publication. I am greatly touched by the generosity of Richard Lieberman, who has helped with the entire publishing process. I am grateful to Rider University for a generous grant and to my colleagues there for their support and encouragement, especially Katherine Maynard, Deborah Rosenthal, Pearlie Peters, Carol Brown, Dominick Finello, and Phyllis Frakt. A special thanks goes to Jim Guimond, who critiqued the manuscript in its early stages and has continued to offer sound advice. Portions of Chapter 3 originally appeared in Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory (5 [1994]: 83-93). I gratefully acknowledge their permission to reprint. IX

X

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am fortunate to have Harry Haskell for an editor at Yale University Press. Encouraging and astonishingly knowledgeable, he has given helpful suggestions about everything from overall conception to intricate details. My main thanks go to my wife, Robin, a great editor and mom who read the manuscript and enabled this book to survive the joyous but anarchic din of two new babies.

Introduction The youth of America is their oldest tradition. -Oscar Wilde

Michael Wood once pointed out that it is possible to practice idolatry for a country other than one's own. Indeed, that is what other countries are for; it is why people travel—to celebrate freshness, otherness, foreignness, as ideal states of being.1 Calling this need a "necessary exotic," the narrator of Julian Barnes's short story "Tunnel" goes so far as to say, "It is unhealthy to be idealistic about your own country, since the least clarity of vision quickly led to disenchantment. Other countries, therefore, existed to supply the idealism: they were a version of pastoral."2 Since the mid-nineteenth century, when an identifiably American literature and music began traveling across the Atlantic, when Berlioz heard Gottschalk and DvoMk read Longfellow, European composers have increasingly found this idealism in America, a new world where a lack of tradition and convention makes it possible to continually find a new version of pastoral. Because music itself is an ideal state, less representational than the other arts, this idea of America has been embodied in its purest form by composers. And it is pure idea. Although every country has a self-concept, it is usually backward-looking, based on history. Only in America, as the English expatriate Wood notes, is the selfperception "a picture of possibility. To be un-American is to be unfaithful to what the place might be."3 This ideology of Americanness has little to do with reality; when Europeans take the latter into account, xi

xil

INTRODUCTION

as Tocqueville did, their musings become decidedly more measured and melancholy. As C. Vann Woodward puts it, Europeans have always regarded America as a "metaphor adapted to their uses.... Any resemblance to geographic or social realities was purely coincidental/'4 Going a step further, Wood says that "America is no different from other countries except in its exaggerated notion of its own idea of difference—and that makes a difference." It has certainly made a difference in music, where a New World tradition based on America's picture of possibility has been sounding out from both sides of the Atlantic since the mid-nineteenth century. The Polish composer Joanna Bruzdowicz, a late twentieth-century avatar of this tradition, called this fundamental sense of renewal Spring in America, the title of a 1994 chamber work she dedicated to the "United States of America and what I feel for this country." What she felt was adulation, made clear by a quotation from Sinclair Lewis she used in explaining her dedication of the piece: "Intellectually, I know that America is no better than any other country; emotionally, I know she is better than any other country."5 With this chauvinistic gesture, one an American could never get away with, Bruzdowicz joined company with Frederick Delius, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Edgard Varese, Kurt Weill, and numerous other America-worshipers from across the Atlantic. Her statement is a bit more blunt than those of her predecessors, but many voiced similar sentiments. Like the Americana of many of its European antecedents, Spring in America is a vision of the New World from the vantage point of the Old, with swingy syncopations and open harmonies, plus a European sense of logic and structure. Whether it is really European music speaking "in jazz American," as Jack Kerouac put it, or American music speaking with a foreign accent is difficult to pinpoint, especially in a postmodern corporate world where culture is increasingly blurred and internationalized. To some extent that is the point of Spring in America: it is intended to break down nationalist distinctions and boundaries, to celebrate America and Europe simultaneously. This goal resembles that of Bruzdowicz's earlier piece in the tradition, the 1980 Trio of Two Worlds, "inspired by the friendship and musical heritage that unite the old continent of Europe and the Americas."6 Even so, as Bruzdowicz's reference to Sinclair Lewis makes clear, this Old World artist regards the New World as the superior one, at least emotionally.

INTRODUCTION

Xlll

She is by no means alone. Conceived just over a hundred years after Dvofcik's New World Symphony, this New World sonata is a 1990$ sample of an American musical hegemony that has steadily solidified, even as Americans worried about being unduly influenced by Europe. In a peculiarly defensive key, American critics often downplay or fret about the New World elements in DvoMk, Weill, Milhaud, Hindemith, and other European composers, while hyping homegrown American music. They might as well relax; the influence came from America in the first place, demonstrating its potency rather than vulnerability. As David Drew pointed out at the DvofSk New World Centennial at Alice Tully Hall, American music seems to require a foreign accent to carry authority in American culture, but this is more projection than reality. As far as the actual composers are concerned, from Coleridge-Taylor to Bruzdowicz, it is America that carries the authority, occupying an importance in musical culture similar to what the Austro-German empire once enjoyed, The anxiety about Americanness goes back to Emerson, who in "Self-Reliance" and "The American Scholar" deplored his compatriots' worship of the "courtly muses of Europe." Emerson called for an art that would be new and native, allowing Americans to "speak our own minds," and for a "philosophy of the street" that would cause Europe to imitate America for a change. In short, the American artist should be strong enough to make the world "come round to him."7 Emerson could not have known that his fantasy of reverse imitation would be fulfilled in an unlikely place, music. Indeed, the early New World composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk would soon carry New Orleans music to the capitals of Europe. By the end of the nineteenth century, DvoMk and Delius would be singing of the prairies, rivers, and cotton fields, leaving the philosophy of the street to later 6migr£s such as Edgard Varfese and Kurt Weill. By the end of the twentieth century, even rock and roll, already dominating the European pop scene, had grown into art music such as the rock landscapes of Steve Martland and the Frank Zappaesque collages of Klaus Konig. With short histories and scant traditions, American idioms offer a seductive openness and malleability. The French composer Olivier Messiaen, an uncompromising elitist who deplored the influence of jazz on his compatriots, nonetheless understood the freedom conferred by America's lack of tradition. "With the exception of the American Indian," he

xiv

INTRODUCTION

said in 1986, "[Americans] have no past of their own; they've no reason to be troubled."8 An exaggeration? Perhaps to an American, but it expresses the point of view of those for whom tradition is trouble. "History is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake," says James Joyce's Stephen Dedalus. Composers often experience a similar claustrophobia. Inspired by everything from African-American hymns to the poetry of Walt Whitman, from the remoteness of the frontier to the brutal energy of the American city, these European composers forged a New World art characterized by bold intensity and experimentation, resulting in permanent changes in musical art. Seizing upon American stereotypes, they turned them to their own expressive purposes, eagerly exploiting Americanisms such as frankness, funkiness, innocence, wide open spaces, and a certain mindlessness—but always with an Old World sophistication that threw these cliches into a new, often startling context. Some, such as Debussy and Delius, went in the opposite direction, toward mystery and ambiguity. The darker, swampier aspects of American culture told a story about the New World that differed from what the cliches suggested, and these two were among the first to divine it. These composers —herewith called New World Symphonists, after Dvorak's famous example -create a personal configuration of influences, often with a writer at the center, to construct their version of the American myth. Lukas Foss told me that when he came to New York at age fifteen, he fell under the sway of Aaron Copland, then Carl Sandburg. It was Sandburg who "took me by the hand and introduced me to America." The result of this tutelage was The Prairie, Foss's first masterpiece, written when he was nineteen, based on Sandburg's Corn Huskers. "Those were the days," said Foss: "America influenced everybody."9 The mythmaking frequently comes close to a religion, sometimes accompanied by a diatribe against the Old World, as illustrated by a fantasy obituary written by Percy Grainger, an emigr£ from a continent that is also a New World: "Grainger's religion —if any—is Walt Whitmanism, for since about 1897 . . . he has revered the personality and teachings of the great American seer much as Christians revere Christ or Buddhists revere Buddha. This predilection for an American Messiah in place of a European or Asiatic religion is typical of his Australian championship of the New World at the expense of the Old World, so strong in his teens and never since abandoned. Since his mid-teens he

INTRODUCTION

XV

has always regarded the European continent as hopelessly sunk in conventionality, sham intellectuality, and parochialness."10 Aside from its characteristic Grainger tartness, this statement is not unusual for musical sojourners seeking a New World to liberate them from the conventionality and parochialism of the Old, although some express an equally powerful nostalgia for the Europe left behind. The writers they cite, often with the same messianic reverence, are varied and personal: for DvoMk, the inspiration was Longfellow; for Debussy and Ravel, Poe; for Delius, Parry, Vaughan Williams, Hindemith, and many others, Whitman; for Kurt Weill, Twain, Whitman, and a large cluster of contemporary writers. The configuration usually includes a favored idiom of American folk or popular music, often jazz or spirituals, and sometimes the work of vernacular composers such as Ives or Gershwin. It also includes a favorite landscape, the expected open space of the prairie or an exotic version of the American jungle such as the Everglades or the Amazon rain forests. Although the United States receives the most attention, South America is very much in play, in a merging of the Americas that began with Gottschalk and continued with Lambert, Milhaud, and Varfcse. As the latter two demonstrate, the European version of pastoral can even be the funkiness and grandeur of the American city. The British composer Michael Tippett is typical. Speaking of America as "my dream country," he writes that he is swept away by the "exhilaration of New York" and "deeply moved" by Gershwin's Porgy and Bess, a work "staking out its own territory, independent of the musical traditions of Europe."11 Like his predecessors, he places a special value on a transcendence of Old World tradition. Tippett is also riveted by jazz and the blues, by Miles Davis and Bessie Smith. His literary list is a long one, from Hawthorne and Melville through Fitzgerald and Faulkner to John Updike and Gore Vidal, but it typically begins with Whitman, Tippett's first and most lasting entree into the New World. As with many composers, this unwieldy grab bag of New World influences produced some of his most original and important music. Most of the artists covered in this book had one or two pet American obsessions as well as a broad interest in the culture. Tremendously curious and highly cultivated, they were well read in American literature at a time when what is now canonical was still on the fringe. Debussy and Ravel, like their literary counterparts in France, regarded Poe with

XVI

INTRODUCTION

an awe bordering on reverence when Americans saw him as something of a crackpot; the many European Whitman-worshipers, especially those at the beginning of the twentieth century, rode the crest of a wave breaking in Europe, one they helped create; the musical championing of Harlem Renaissance writers by Zemlinsky, Weill, and other emigres in flight from the Nazis came when Langston Hughes and Jean Toomer were at best minor exotica to all but the most discerning Americans. Samuel Coleridge-Taylor was among the first artists, black or white, to fully embrace W. E. B. DuBois as an aesthetic as well as political visionary. Europeans were also prescient about American art music: Gershwin is now routinely touted as the great American composer, but he was taken seriously much earlier by Ravel, Weill, Krenek, Schoenberg, and other Europeans than by many of the tastemakers in his own country, including Virgil Thomson and Paul Rosenfeld. This story is fiill of twists and crossovers rather than neat historical patterns. Some sources of inspiration are deep and lasting, others brilliant but sporadic. Although the power of American landscape has declined as the prairie has become the mall, American literature, jazz, and spirituals continue to exert a strong influence. Dramatic moments stand out, including the Paris jazz bar scene of the 19205, the creation of Hollywood music in the 19305, the Broadway musical boom of the 1930$ and 19405, and the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt, which inspired New World Symphonies large and small, including Stravinsky's elegant orchestration of the "Star-Spangled Banner." Sent by the composer to the president as a July Fourth treat in a gold-embossed binding, this gem, like larger examples of European Americana, defies hierarchies and barriers; although the material is robustly American, the chords and coloring are thoroughly Stravinskian. The transnational historical ironies of the piece are also typical: as a foreigner, Stravinsky watched helplessly as major scores were lifted by Disney and other commercial interests; as a patriotic citizen, he saw his "Star Spangled Banner" confiscated by police in 1944 following a Boston Symphony performance, in accordance with a Massachusetts law forbidding tampering with national property. In this book I do attempt not to be comprehensive but to cover a representative and illuminating sample of New World Symphonists and what most moved them. Looking for patterns in New World Symphonies—a metaphor used here to include all forms of music —is tricky,

INTRODUCTION

xvii

because not all the influences are easily classifiable as American and some had only temporary impact. The most striking examples are Henry James and T. S. Eliot. Ambiguously American to begin with, they were influential in dramatic but highly idiosyncratic instances. Benjamin Britten's settings of James's ghost stories, The Turn of the Screw and Owen Wingrave, have an extraordinary sensitivity to the texts and an overpowering sense of the sinister, with spooky parallels to Poe's deeper influence on Debussy and Ravel, but they do not point toward any consistent Anglo-American Gothicism. Nor is there a strong musical legacy in Eliot, though his verse is supremely musical. In addition to its severe beauty, Stravinsky's "The Dove Descending" is of considerable interest as his only Eliot setting and his first serial work. The realization of Stravinsky's long intention to set Eliot, whom he intensely admired, did not, unfortunately, lead to other Eliot pieces. Sophia Gubaidulina, another Russian devotee of Eliot, composed a single, mystically charged chamber setting of Four Quartets, called Hommage 39> 59 Dukas, Paul, 67, 76 Dunbar, Paul Laurence, 29-31, 33, 38 Durand, Jacques, 82, 198 Durey, Louis, 203

254

INDEX

Dvorak, Antonin, xm, 46, 65, 85, 164, literary influences on, xi, xv, 7, 49, 50-52, 184, in Iowa, xvn-xviii, 7, 15, black American music viewe by, i, 6-7, 32-33, 144-45, 183, 207, 229, in New York, 2-18, Delius likened to, 18-19, Americanism championed by, 26, 137, 173, 185, 187, 126, Coleridge-Taylor likened to, 38, Korngold likened to, 41, 171-72, Tippett likened to, 46, optimism of, 57, 84, text settings of, 58, prairie as inspiration for, 142, accessibility of, 146, Schulhoff championed by, 213 Dyer, Geoff, 202 Ebony Concerto (Stravinsky), 209, 211-12 Ecuatonal (Varese), 150-51, 154 Elegaic Ode (Stanford), 98 Elgar, Edward, 28, 29, 55 Eliot, T S ambiguous nationality of, XVH, Tippett and, 44, 229, Poe viewed by, 63, 79, "dissociation of sensibility" viewed by, 66, Whitman contrasted with, 99, Whitman derided by, 100, 128, Lambert's views of, 222,

226 Ellington, Duke, 13, 191, 195, 223, 224, 226 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, xm, xvm, 2, 13, 19, 65,

230 Esquisses de Jazz (Schulhoff), 215 Ef expecto resurrectionem mortuorum (Messiaen), 156 Etudes Tableaux (Rachmaninoff), 87 Everybody's Welcome (review), 178 Faqade (Walton), 199, 227 "Facts in the Case of M Valdemar, The" (Poe), 64, 79 Fall of a Nation, The (film), 167 "Fall of the House of Usher, The" (Debussy, Poe), 62, 64, 69, 74, 76-79, 80, 82-84 Fall of the House of Usher, The (Glass), 91 Fame (film), 95, 97 Fantasia (film), 177 Faulkner, William, xv, 225 Feldman, Morton, 230 Fenby, Eric, 19, 50, 102, 105, 106, 108 Fernandez, Eduardo, 227-28 Fete Polonaise (Chabner), 224 Fetes (Debussy), 79 "Feuilles Mortes" (Debussy), 62 Fiedler, Leslie, 72 Fihppi, Filippo, 196 Firebird, The (Stravinsky), 177 Fischer-Williams, Barbara, 198

Fisk Jubilee Singers, 31, 32, 35, 192 Fitzgerald, F Scott, xv, 222 Five Choral Ballads (Coleridge-Taylor), 57 Florida (Delius), 2, 20-21, 136-37, 138, 139 Flynn, Errol, 167, 172 Ford, John, 173 Foss, Lukas, xiv, 122, 125, 142, 175.2, 233, Foster, Stephen, 4, 11, 16 Four Quartets (Eliot), XVH Frasier, Jane, 95 Frenchman in New York, A (Milhaud), 142 Fnednch, Otto, 174, 176 "From Montauk Point" (Delius), 108 From the Canyons to the Stars (Messiaen), 155-

58

Frost, Robert, 184 Gautier, Theophile, 196-97 "General Lavine, Eccentric" (Debussy), 199 Gershwin, George, 13, 21, no, 173, 178, Tippett influenced by, xv, 183, European acceptance of, xvi, 203, black music championed by, n, 211, fall from favor of, 164, 170, Weill likened to, 180, 187, elitist denunciations of, 194, 195, 224, 225, Ravelnd, 201, Milhaud contrasted with, 205, 206-07 Gershwin, Ira, 180 Getz, Stan, 232 Ghost Dances (Maw), 159 Giant (film), 174 "Gigues" (Debussy), 80-81 Gilbert, W S , 55-56 Gilroy, Paul, 35 Ginsberg, Allen, 98, 121 Girl of the Golden West (Puccini), 133-34 Glass, Philip, 91, 173 Cluck, Alma, 39 Godet, Robert, 76, 81 "Go Down, Moses" (spiritual), 44, 45 Goebbels, Joseph, 123 Golden Legend, The (Sullivan), 55 Goldmark, Rubin, 13, 17 Goldwyn, Samuel, 177 "Golliwog's Cakewalk" (Debussy), 199 Gone with the Wind (film), 177 Good Earth, The (Buck), 174 Goodman, Benny, 158, 159, 220, 228 Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, 21, 195-99, 219> Berlioz as champion of, xi, xvn, European career of, xm, 7-8, South American influence on, xv, Coleridge-Taylor contrasted with, 39, Poe and, 65, 85 Gould, Glenn, 126

255

INDEX Gounod, Charles, 81 Grainger, Percy, xiv-xv, 33, 38, 53, 223 Grandissimes, The (Gable), 24, 25 Gray, Cecil, 20 Greenberg, Karen, 164 Grieg, Edvard, 21, 49, 137 Grofe*, Ferde, 133, 142 Grosz, Wilhelm, 43 Gubaidulina, Sophia, xvii Guiraud, Ernest, 198 "Hail to the School" (Weill), 186 "Halcyon Days" (Whitman), 107 Happy End (Weill), 180, 218 Harawi (Messiaen), 155-56 Harbison, John, 236 Harle, John, 232-33 Harlem Symphony (Hughes), 235 Harris, Roy, 95 Hart, Moss, 181, 184 Hartmann, Karl Amadeus, 127 Harty, Hamilton, 95, 117 Hassan (Delius), 138 Haunted Palace, The (Schmitt), 85 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, xv, 65, 197 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 174, 233 Hayes, Helen, 184 Heifetz, Jascha, 170 Heinsheimer, Hans W., 188 Hemingway, Ernest, 72 Henderson, Fletcher, 203 Henze, Hans Werner, 126, 231 Herbert, Victor, 5, 8, 16-17, 131» *^4» J67> ^8,

182

Herman, Woody, 209, 211 Hiawatha (Coleridge-Taylor). See Scenes from the Song of Hiawatha "Hiawatha" (Delius), 2, 23, 49-50 Hiawatha (Longfellow). See Song of Hiawatha, The High and the Mighty, The (film), 174 High Noon (film), 174 Hindemith, Paul, xiii, 122-26, 159; Whitman's influence on, xv, 58, 97, 98, 119, 129, 130; prairie as inspiration for, 158; Weill compared with, 183, 221; Weill on, 194; jazz influence on, 191, 199, 200, 202, 208; political persecution of, 212-13; Schulhoff compared with, 214; Weill influenced by,

218 Hitchcock, Alfred, 173-74 Hoffmann, E. T. A., 68 Hoiby, Lee, 98

Holbrooke, Joseph, 85 Hoist, Gustav, 24, 95, 97, 98, 99, 112, 116-19,

129 Hoist, Imogen, 117 Home, Frank, 41 Hommage a T. S. Eliot (Gubaidulina), xvii Honegger, Arthur, 171, 203 Horkheimer, Max, 176 "Hot Music" (Schulhoff), 214 Howells, William Dean, 29-30, 40 "How Sweet the Silent Backward Tracings" (Delius), 108 Huckleberry Finn (Twain), 121, 140 Huckleberry Finn (Weill), 187 Hughes, Langston, xvi, 41-43, 121, 184, 185, 186-

87

Hughes, Spike, 235 Hugo, Victor, 197 Huneker, James, 2, 8-9, 11, 13, 52, 131 Hupfeld, Herman, 178 Husa, Karel, 97 "Ice Cream Sextet" (Weill), 186 Ice Storm, The (film), 178 Idyll (Coleridge-Taylor), 38 Idyll (Delius), 97, 106-07, H3 Idylle de printemps (Delius), 21 "I Loved Her Too" (Weill), 186 Images (Debussy), 80, 81 "I'm a Stranger Here Myself (Weill), 182 "Imp of the Perverse, The" (Poe), 64 "I'm Troubled in Mind" (arr. ColeridgeTaylor), 34 "In Dark Fens of the Dismal Swamp" (Longfellow), 57 "I Never Could Believe" (Weill), 182 Inghelbrecht, D. E., 85 lonisation (Varese), 143, 148, 149, 215 Ireland, John, 85 Isle of the Dead, The (Rachmaninoff), 87, 89 "It Never Was You" (Weill), 182 Ives, Charles, xv, 10, 20, 65, 98, 148 "I Was Way Down A-Yonder" (arr. ColeridgeTaylor), 34 Jackson, Shirley, 64 James, Henry, xvii, 63, 70, 100 Jazz Calendar (Bennett), 232 Jazz Etudes (Schulhoff), 214, 215 Jazz Suites (Shostakovich), 207, 209 Jeux (Debussy), 80 Joachim, Joseph, 28 Jolson, Al, 224

256

INDEX

/onny spielt auf (Krenek), 43, 192-93, 215-17 Joplin, Scott, 21, 37, 195 Joyce, James, xiv, 20 "Joy, Shipmate, Joy!" (Delius), 108, 113 Juarez (film), 169 Kalevala (Finnish epic), 48 Kandinsky, Wassily, 230 Karayev, Kara, 231 Keaiy, Charles, 25 Kempe, Rudolf, 171 Kern, Jerome, 203 Kerouac, Jack, xii, 194 King, Martin Luther, 45, 229, 231 King, Stephen, 64 King's Row (film), 167 Kitchen Review (Martinu), 199 Klemperer, Otto, 165 Knickerbocker Holiday (Weill), 180, 182, 183-84 Koanga (Delius), 22-26, 27, 137, 139-40, 141,

150 Konig, Klaus, xiii Korngold, Erich, 41, 161, 163, 165-73, l^2i political leanings of, 8; African-American influence on, 32; accessibility of, 146; American reception of, 177; stylistic evolution of, 178 Koussevitzky, Serge, 213 Kowalke, Kim, 163 Kralik, Heinrich, 165 Krehbiel, Henry, 2, 8, 52, 132 Kreisler, Fritz, 39 Krenek, Ernst, xvi, 43, 192-93, 194, 202, 207, 215-17, 220-21 "Kubla Khan" (Coleridge), 83 Kupferman, Meyer, 195 Kurtz, Siegfried, 235 Labyrinth (Henze), 231 "La Calinda" (Delius), 137 La Creation du monde (Milhaud), 155, 156, 199, 205, 206, 213, 225, 237 Lady in the Dark (Weill), 180-81, 183, 184 Lambert, Constant, 32, 192, 221-26; South American influence on, xv, 153-54; Delius viewed by, 27; jazz viewed by, 207, 210, 232, 2

33» 2M Lang, Fritz, 179 Langham-Smith, Richard, 199 Lanier, Sidney, 100 L'Apres-midi d'un faune (Mallarme*), 66 La Quadrodne (Rapsodie floridienne) (Delius), 21

"La Savane" (Gottschalk), 196 "Last nvocation, The" (Bridge), 119 "La Vallee des cloches" (Ravel), 62 La Valse (Ravel), 62, 71, 202 Lawrence, D. H., 63, 64, 90^100, 101 Leaves of Grass (Whitman), 97, 102, 109 "Le Bananier" (Gottschalk), 196 Lee, Ang, 178 "Le Gibet" (Ravel), 62, 70, 71 L'Enfant et les sortileges (Ravel), 67, 69, 72, 2OO, 201

Le sacre du printemps (Stravinsky), 177, 210 Les Biches (Poulenc), 203 Les chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga (song set), 34 Lesure, Francois, 67 Lewis, Matthew, 68 Lewis, Sinclair, xii L'Heure espagnole (Ravel), 72 UHistoire du soldat (Stravinsky), 209, 210, 211 L'homme et son desir (Milhaud), 153 Lichtenstein, Roy, 163 Liddle, Elizabeth, xvii, xviii "Lied aus Dixieland" (Zemlinsky), 43 Lincoln, Abraham, 115, 121, 122, 123 Liszt, Franz, 92, 233 Lloyd, Andrew, 145 Lockspeiser, Edward, 80 Lolita (Nabokov), 177-78 London Symphony (Vaughan Williams), 109 "Lonely House" (Weill), 186 Long, Marguerite, 72 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 47-60; Dvokrak influenced by, xi, xv, 2, 7; Delius influenced by, 18, 24; Coleridge-Taylor influenced by, 28, 38 "Look Down Fair Moon" (Naginski), 120 Loomis, Harvey Worthington, 17 "Lord He Sang the Psalm of David" (Longfellow), 57 Lowry, Vance, 203 "Luftklavier" (Berio), 231 Lulu (Berg), 232 Lyrics of Lowly Life (Dunbar), 29-30 Macal, Zdenek, 17-18 MacDowell, Edward, 5, 13, 24, 85 Machen, Arthur, 63 MacKaye, Steele, 5 Mackey, Steve, 236 MacLeish, Archibald, 184 Madame Butterfly (Puccini), 133 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 75

INDEX Magic Fountain, The (Delius), 21-22, 26, 27, *37-39> *54 Mahagonny (Weill), 43, 120, 161-62, 180, 181, 182, 184, 218, 220 Mahler, Gustav, 39, 50, 165 Mallarme", Ste*phane, 66, 67, 73, 86 Manet, Edouard, 67, 75, 77 Manhattan Abstraction (Ruders), 142 "MS. Found in a Bottle, A" (Poe), 64, 68, 70,

71

Maritona (Henze), 231 Martino, Donald, xviii, 202 Martinu, Bohuslav, 146, 199, 207, 213 Martland, Steve, xiii, 195, 235-36 Martyrdom of Saint Sebastien, The (Debussy),

80 Mason, John Philip, 225 Masque of the Red Death, The (Caplet), 85 "Masque of the Red Death, The" (Poe), 71 Massine, Leonide, 204 Masur, Kurt, 17 Mathis der Maler (Hindemith), 158, 213 Matisse, Henri, 67, 86 Mauceri, Joseph, 221 Maw, Nicholas, 159 Maxwell Davies, Peter, 232 Meisel, Perry, 20 Mellers, Wilfred, 205 Melville, Herman: Tippett influenced by, xv; European settings of, xvii, xviii; European reception of, i, 99; nonwhite influences on, 18; Poe likened to, 64, 72; Whitman contrasted with, 112; duality of, 197 Mencken, H. L., 3, 9, 14-15, 51, 64, 194-95, 2*3

Messager, Andre, 80 Messiaen, Olivier, xiii-xiv, 85, 91-92, 155-58, 194, 203-04 Midsummer Night's Dream, A (film), 167 Milhaud, Darius, xiii, xviii, 153-56; South American influence on, xv; jazz influence on, 20, 192, 194, 199, 200, 202, 203, 205-08, 209, 210, 211, 221; Poe's influence on, 89; New York as inspiration for, 142 Miller, Henry, 147, 148, 151, 152, 194 Milton, John, 72 "Misery" (Zemlinsky), 43 Mississippi Suite (Crofe*), 142 Mrs. Dalloway (Woolf), 20 Mitchell, Donald, 188-89, ^7 Moby Dick (Melville), xvii, 154 Monet, Claude, 67 "Moonstruck" (Schulhoff), 215

257

Morton, Jelly Roll, 191 Motown Metal (Daugherty), 236 Moyses, Louis, 203 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 169, 174, 183, 195, 2

33

Muller, Margaretha, 66 Murnau, F. W., 175 Musical Elaborations (Said), 62 Music for Strings, Percussion and Celeste (Bartok), 158 Music Ho! (Lambert), 27, 221-26 Mussorgsky, Modest, 82 Myaskovsky, Nikolay, 85 Myers, Stanley, 232 "My Legacy" (Whitman), 98 "Mystic Trumpeter, The" (Hoist), 117 Mysfic Trumpeter, The (Starer), 127 Mystic Trumpeter, The (Wildgans), 126 Myth of the Modem, The (Meisel), 20 Nabokov, Vladimir, 177-78 Naginski, Charles, 120 Nash, Ogden, 184 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 28 National Conservatory of Music, 2 Neumeyer, David, 122 Neville, Art, 197 New World Symphony (Dvofalc), xiii, 2, 5-15, 21, 48, 50-53, 60, 131-32 Niagra Movement, 28 Nichols, Robert, 106 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 19, 105 "Night and Day" (Britten), 227 Night in the Tropics, A (Gottschalk), 198 Nijinsky, Vaslav, 153 Nin, Anais, 150, 151 "Nobody Knows the Trouble I See, Lord" (spiritual), 44 Nocturnal (Varese), 143 "Nocturne" (Vaughan Williams), 113-14 Nocturnes (Debussy), 77 Nosferatu (film), 175 "Now Finale to the Shore" (Delius), 108 Nyman, Michael, 173 "O, By and By" (spiritual), 44 Oates, Joyce Carol, 64 O Captain! My.aptain! (Weill), 120, 121 Ode to Death (Hoist), 97, 118 Offenbach, Jacques, 196 Offrandes (Varese), 150 Of Human Bondage (film), 167

258

INDEX

"Of the Sorrow Songs" (DuBois), 31-32 "Of the Terrible Doubt of Appearances" (Whitman), 104, 112 Oja, Carol, 191, 206 Oklahoma! (Rodgers, Hammerstein), 134, 189 "Old Folks at Home" (Foster), 16 Old World's New World (Woodward), 65 Olson, Charles, 230 "Onaway! Awake, Beloved" (Cowen), 53 "Ondine" (Ravel), 69 One Step Beyond (television series), 174 One Touch of Venus (Weill), 180, 182, 184 "On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring" (Delius), 136 On the Road (Kerouac), 194 Orenstein, Arbie, 62, 72 Oresteia (Milhaud), 156 Orwell, George, 129 "O Tell Me the Truth about Love" (Britten), 22? "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking" (Whitman), 102-05 "Oval Portrait, The" (Poe), 74 Over the Hills and Far Away (Delius), 140 Owen, Wilfred, 45, 114-15 Owen Wingrave (Britten), xvii Paganini, Niccolo, 195, 233 Page, Andrew, 25 Paglia, Camille, 84 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 67 Palmer, Christopher, 23, 27 Parade (Satie), 203, 204 Paradise Lost (Milton), 72 Pan's (Delius), 50, 102, 106 Parker, Alan, 95 Parker, Charlie, 230 Parker, Horatio, 39 Parry, Hubert, xv, 56, 95, 96, 97, 99, 112, 12 7 "Pasquinade" (Gottschalk), 196 Passage to India (Forster), no "Passage to You!" (Delius), 108 Pater, Walter, 66, 69, 107 Paul Bunyan (Britten), 134-35, 161, 187-90, 227 Pears, Peter, 46 Peck, Gregory, 174 Pelecis, George, 170 Pelleas et Melisande (Debussy), 76-77, 81-82 Perelman, S. J., 184 Perfect Pitch (Slonimsky), 149 Persichetti, Vincent, 98

"Philosophy of Composition, The" (Poe), 69, t 1°> 74> 78 "Piano-Rag" (Stravinsky), 210, 211 Picasso, Pablo, 67, 204 Pierrot Lunaire (Schoenberg), 175 Pijper, Willem, 212 "Pit and the Pendulum, The" (Poe), 91 Planets, The (Hoist), 117, 118 Poe, Edgar Allan: Debussy influenced by, xvxvi, xvii, 62-64, 65, 67, 68-69, 74-85, 86, 88, 105-06, 151; Ravel influenced by, xv-xvi, xvii, xviii, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 70-74; Old World fascination with, xix, i, 60, 62-65, 93, 99; New World disdain for, 48, 62; on music, 61, 69; sonority emphasized by, 6768, 107, 114; complexity favored by, 70, 78; didacticism rejected by, 71-72; conciseness of, 72-73; Rachmaninoff influenced by, 63, 64, 65, 84, 87-91; Messiaen influenced by, 91-92; Ruders influenced by, 93-94; bleakness of, 112 Poeme tlectronique (Varese), 143 Poems of Slavery (Longfellow), 57 "Poetic Principle, The" (Poe), 69, 71 Poniatowski, Andre", 67 Porgy and Bess (Gershwin), xv, 180 Portals (Ruggles), 95, 113 Porter, Andrew, 151 Porter, Cole, 178, 183, 226

Portsmouth Point Overture (Walton), 226-27 Poulenc, Francis, 191, 194, 203, 237 Pound, Ezra, 63, 99, 100, 128 Prairie, The (Foss), xiv Prelude & I'apres-midi d'un faune (Debussy), 66,,?7 Preludes (Debussy), 77 Previn, Andre, xviii

Prince and the Pauper, The (film), 167, 170 "Principia" (Martland), 235 Prokofiev, Sergei, 171 Providence (film), 173 Puccini, Giacomo, xviii, 132-34 Pulcinella (Stravinsky), 211 Purcell, Henry, 169, 174, 232 Puumala, Veli-Matti, 231 "Quadroon Girl, The" (Longfellow), 57 Quartet for Trumpet, Tenor Saxophone, Percussion, and Piano (Wolpe), 230-31 Rabin, Jonathan, 160 Rachmaninoff, Sergei, 58, 63, 64, 65, 84, 8791, 171, 191

259

INDEX Radcliffe, Ann, 68 Rag-Caprices (Milhaud), 205 "Rag Music" (Schulhoff), 215 "Ragtime" (Stravinsky), 209, 211 Railroads on Parade (Weill), 181 Rapsodie espagnole (Ravel), 71 Rasmussen, Karl Aage, 93 Ravel, Maurice: Poe's influence on, xv-xvi, xviii, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 70-74, 78, 82, 8485, 88, 202; Gershwin admired by, xvi; jazz influence on, 20, 194, 191, 194, 195, 199-203, 221, 229, 234, 235; literary influences on, 67; emotional troubles of, 76; as teacher, in, 133; Caribbean influence on, 198; Messiaen on, 203-04; on Milhaud, 205; Weill likened to, 218 "Raven, The" (Poe), 70, 74 Rebecca (film), 173 "Reconciliation" (Whitman), 115, 121 Reinhardt, Django, 227 Reinhardt, Max, 167 Renard (Stravinsky), 177 Resnais, Alain, 164, 173 Rhapsody in Blue (Gershwin), 205, 206 Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (Rachmaninoff), 89 Rice, Anne, 64 Rice, Elmer, 184, 185, 186-87 Ricks, Christopher, 129 Ricordi, Tito, 132 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, 53 Rio Grande, The (Lambert), 152-53, 226 "River Chanty" (Weill), 187 River Run (Albert), 142 Rodeo (Copland), 134 Rodin, Auguste, 67 Rolland, Romain, 74 Roosevelt, Franklin, xvi, 122, 123, 124, 171, 172 Rorem, Ned, xviii, 62, 98, 129 Rosen, Charles, 68, 220 Rosen, Jelka, 25, 102, 107 Rosenfeld, Paul, xvi, 148, 194, 206, 223, 225 Ross, Alex, 42, 230 Rossetti, William, 98 Rosza, Miklos, 165, 173, 175 Rothstein, Edward, 172 Roxbury, Ronald, 95 Royal Palace (Weill), 218 Rubinstein, Anton, 35 Ruders, Poul, 93-94, 142, 232 Ruggles, Carl, 95, 148 "Run, Mary, Run" (arr. Coleridge-Taylor), 33 Russell, Bertrand, 101, 108

Sacred and Profane Dances (Debussy), 79 Said, Edward, 61, 92 Saint-Saens, Camille, 53 Saintsbury, George, 129 Sf. Thomas Wake (Maxwell Davies), 232 Salzman, Eric, 152 Sancta Civitas (Vaughan Williams), 113 Sandburg, Carl, xiv, 121 Sands at Seventy (Whitman), 107, 112 Satie, Erik, 199, 203, 204, 205, 210 Sauter, Eddie, 230 "Scarbo" (Ravel), 62, 69 Scenes from the Song of Hiawatha (ColeridgeTaylor), 28, 33, 47, 53-59 Schedrin, Rodion, 231, 232 Scherchen, Hermann, 188 Schmitt, Florent, 85-86 Schoenberg, Arnold, xvi, 171, 174-76, 177, 221,

224 Schreker, Franz, 126-27 Schubert, Franz, 233 Schulhoff, Erwin, 43, 194, 213-15, 233, 234, 235 Schuman, William, 98 Scriabin, Alexander, 157 Sea Drift (Delius), 102, 103-05, 106, 109, 130, J

39

Searchers, The (film), 173 Sea Symphony (Vaughan Williams), 95, 103, 108-11, 115 Sea Wolf, The (film), 169 Seidl, Anton, 8, 16, 26 "Self-Reliance" (Emerson), xiii Sessions, Roger, 95, 148 Seven Deadly Sins, The (Weill), 180, 218 Shadow of a Doubt (film), 173, 177 Shapey, Ralph, 230 Shaw, Robert, 97, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126 Shawe-Taylor, Desmond, 60 Shostakovich, Dmitry, 170, 171, 207-08, 221, 231, 234, 235 "Shoulder to Shoulder" (Martland), 235 Siegmeister, Elie, 42 Simrock, Friedrich, 5 Sinfonia (Berio), 231 Sinfonia da Requiem (Britten), 188 "Sing On There, in the Swamp" (Hindemith),

124 "Sirens" (Debussy), 70, 74 Sitwell, Sacheverell, 154, 226 Skilton, Charles Sanford, 85 Slatkin, Leonard, 85 Slavonic Dances (Dvorak), 18 "Sleepers, The" (Whitman), 30, 106

260

INDEX

Slonimsky, Nicolas, 149 "Slow Movement on a Negro Melody, Deep River" (Coleridge-Taylor), 34 Smetana, Bedarich, 10 Smit, Leo, 212 Smith, Bessie, xv, 45, 229 Solomon, Seymour, 145 "Somehow, I Never Could Believe" (Weill), 186 "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" (arr. Coleridge-Taylor), 34, 35 Sondheim, Stephen, 201 Songfest (Bernstein), 91, 98 "Song for a Dark Girl" (Hughes), 42 Song of Bemadette (film), 177 Song of Hiawatha, The (Longfellow), 7, 15, 18, 36, 47-48, 49-50, 58-59, 137 Song of Myself (Whitman), 97-98, 104, 107, 109, 117 "Song of the Free" (Weill), 184 Song of the High Hills (Delius), 141 Songs of Farewell (Delius), 102, 103, 106, 10708, 130 Songs of Parting (Whitman), 107 Souls of Black Folk, The (DuBois), 8, 28, 32, 34> 40, 57 Sourek, Otakar, 52 Sousa, John Philip, 85 Southern Love Songs (Coleridge-Taylor), 57 Spellbound (film), 174 Spielberg, Steven, 171 Spring in America (Bruzdowicz), xii Stanford, Charles Villiers, 28, 55, 95, 98, 112, 127, 130 Starer, Robert, 127, 236-37 "Star Spangled Banner" (orch. Stravinsky),

xvi

"Steal Away" (arr. Coleridge-Taylor), 34 "Steal Away" (spiritual), 44 Steiner, Max, 21, 165, 171, 173, 175, 177, 178 Stoekel, Carl, 38 Stone, Oliver, 164 Stone, William, 97, 118 Strauss, Richard, 165 Stravinsky, Igor, 66, 221; Roosevelt as inspiration for, xvi; Eliot's influence on, xvii; Debussy's association with, 67; objectivity favored by, 73; Varese viewed by, 152; film work of, 171, 177; jazz influence on, 191, 194, 199, 200, 209-12, 228-29, 233 Streetcar Named Desire, A (Williams), xviii Street Scene (Weill), 42, 97, 121, 181, 182, 18487, 189

Studies in Classic American Literature (Lawrence), 99-100 Suares, Andre, 74 Suite in Olden Style for String Orchestra (Schoenberg), 175-76 Sullivan, Arthur, 55—56 Summer Place, A (film), 177 "Sunken Cathedral, The" (Debussy), 69, 79 "Surabaya-Johnny" (Weill), 218 Symphonic Dances (Rachmaninoff), 89 Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes by Carl Maria von Weber (Hindemith), 158, 213 Symphonic Songs (Zemlinsky), 41-43 Symphonic Variations on an African Air (Coleridge-Taylor), 34 Symphonie fantastique (Berlioz), 92 Szigeti, Joseph, 200, 220 "Tahiti Trot" (Shostakovich), 207 Tailleferre, Germaine, 203 Takemitsu, Toru, 65 Taruskin, Richard, 10, 11, 13 Tashi (chamber group), 158 Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich, 16 Tcherepnin, Alexander, 208-09, 235 Tcherepnin, N. N., 85 Te Deum (Dvorak), 3, 55 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 38, 98 Texier, Lilly, 76 Thalberg, Irving, 174 "There Was a Child Went Forth" (Whitman), 104 This Way to the Tomb (Britten), 227 Thomas, Michael Tilson, xviii, 3, 97 Thomson, Virgil, xvi, 95, 142, 172, 224 Thoreau, Henry David, 13, 19 Threepenny Opera, The (Weill), 120, 181, 218, 219, 220

Three Poems by Walt Whitman (Vaughan Williams), 113 Thurber, Mrs. Jeanette, 2, 3, 8, 15, 50 Tiomkin, Dimitri, 165, 171, 173-74, 177, 178 Tippett, Michael, xv, 43-46, 183, 231; Whitman's influence on, 97; jazz influence on, 192, 194, 228-29, 232» 233 Toch, Ernst, 165 Tocqueville, Alexis de, xii Todtentanz (Liszt), 92 Toomer, Jean, xvi, 41, 43 Torke, Michael, 170 Toscanini, Arturo, 133, 220 "To the Soul" (Stanford), 112 To Think of Time (Starer), 127

INDEX Toward the Unknown Region (Vaughan Williams), 98, 111-13, 118 'To What he Said" (Bernstein), 98 Treasure of Sierra Madre, The (film), 173 Trio of Two Worlds (Bruzdowicz), xii Truffaut, Francois, 164 Tully, Alice, 157 "Tunnel" (Barnes), xi Turangaltla Symphony (Messiaen), 91-92 Turn of the Screw, The (Britten), xvii Tutta Via (Puumala), 231-32 Twain, Mark, 13, 72; Weill influenced by, xv; nonwhite influences on, 18; Delius influenced by, 24, 105, 140; Weill influenced by, 121, 180, 184 Twenty-Four Negro Melodies (ColeridgeTaylor), 33-34, 36, 39, 54, 57 Twilight Zone, The (television series), 174 Tzigane (Ravel), 71 "Une barque sur l'oce"an" (Ravel), 71 Un grand sommeil noir (Ravel), 67 Updike, John, xv, 101 Urquhart, Craig, 129 Varese, Edgard, xii, xiii, xviii, 141-52, 157; South American influence on, xv; Debussy's association with, 67; on Ameriques, 131, 209 Varese, Louise, 144 Vaughan Williams, Ralph: Whitman's influence on, xv, 95, 98, 99, 103, 108-16, 11718, 127-28, 129; Delius contrasted with, 130; film work of, 171 Verdi, Giuseppe, 196 Verlaine, Paul, 66, 67 Vertiel, Sadka, 175 Vidal, Gore, xv Vines, Ricardo, 70 Vision of Columbus (Herbert), 16 Vom Ewigen Leben (Schreker), 127 von Biilow, Hans, 3, 16 Wageknecht, Edward, 47 Wagner, Richard, 4, 25, 26, 65, 66, 81, 157, 172 Waller, Fats, 191 Wallis, Hal B., 166, 167 Walton, William, 171, 199, 226-27 Walt Whitman Cycle (Weill), 120, 129 Ward, Thomas, 19 Warhol, Andy, 163 Warlock, Peter, 108, 140 Warner Brothers, 167 Warren, Elinor Remick, 95, 98

26l

War Requiem (Britten), 45-46, 114-15 Washington, Booker T., 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 58 Waste Land, The (Eliot), 222 Waxman, Franz, 165, V73, 174, 175 Weber, Carl Maria von, 77-78 Weill, Kurt, xii, xiii, 42, 178-88; literary influences on, xv; Gershwin admired by, xvi; jazz influence on, xvii, 192, 214, 217-20, 234, 235; political leanings of, 8, 161-62; optimism of, 84; Whitman's influence on, 95, 97, 98, 119-22, 128, 129; New York as inspiration for, 142; accessibility of, 146; elitist denunciations of, 163, 170, 221; on Hindemith, 194; Milhaud likened to, 207; Stravinsky's influence on, 210; Lambert on, 225; irony of, 229; Wolpe likened -to, 230; on jazz musicians, 237 West, Cornel, 235 West, Paul, 192 West Side Story (Bernstein), 187 "We Two Boys Together Clinging" (Thomas), 97 Whale Rant (Liddle), xviii When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd (Hindemith), 97, 122-26, 156, 158, 183 "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" (Whitman), 118, 121 Where Do We Go from Here? (Weill), 180 Whispers from Heavenly Death (Henze), 126 "Whispers of Heavenly Death" (Whitman), 111, 113-14 Whistler, James McNeill, 77 White, Michael, 197 Whiteman, Paul, 191, 214, 224, 234 Whitman, Walt, xiv, xv; European reception of, xvi, i; optimism of, xviii, 63; Delius influenced by, 19, 25, 58, 97, 98, 99, 101-08, 112, 129-30; Coleridge-Taylor influenced by, 28, 38; Dunbar likened to, 30; appeal to composers of, 60, 95-98, 126-28; aesthetics of, 65; Vaughan Williams influenced by, 95, 98, 99, 103, 108-16, 127-28, 129; Hoist influenced by, 116-19, 129; Weill influenced by, 119-22, 129, 180, 184; Hindemith influenced by, 122-26, 129; Tippett influenced by, 229 "Whitman Overture" (Hoist), 116-17 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 100 Wiener, Jean, 203 "Wild Dove, The" (Dvorak), 17 Wilde, Oscar, 180 Wildgans, Friedrich, 126 Williams, John, 167, 171 Williams, Tennessee, xviii

262 Wilson, Dooley, 179 Wilson, Edmund, 224 Wilson, Richard, 56-57 Wolff, Hugh, 201 Wolpe, Stefan, 95, 230, 232 Wood, Charles, 112 Wood, Michael, xi, xii, 147 Woodward, C. Vann, xii, 65 Woolf, Virginia, 20, 66 Wright, Maurice, 41-42

INDEX "Yankee Doodle" (air. Rubinstein), 35 Yeats, William Butler, 20, 63, 64, 73, 99 'Tet, Yet Ye Downcast Hours" (Starer), 127 Youmans, Vincent, 203 Zappa, Frank, 149 Zemlinsky, Alexander, xvi, 41-43, 207 Zillig, Winfried, 176 Zwei Lyrische Gesdnge (Schreker), 127 Zwillich, Ellen, 236