New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age: Turning Point for Entrepreneurs, HR Professionals, Coaches and Employees 3658385243, 9783658385248

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Benjamin Berend · Michaela Brohm-Badry

New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age Turning Point for Entrepreneurs, HR Professionals, Coaches and Employees

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Benjamin Berend · Michaela Brohm-Badry

New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age Turning Point for Entrepreneurs, HR Professionals, Coaches and Employees

Benjamin Berend Universität Trier Trier, Germany

Michaela Brohm-Badry Universität Trier Trier, Germany

ISSN 2731-3107 ISSN 2731-3115  (electronic) ISSN 2197-6708 ISSN 2197-6716  (electronic) essentials ISBN 978-3-658-38524-8 ISBN 978-3-658-38525-5  (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Responsible Editor: Marion Kraemer This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

What You Can Find in this essential

• An updated blueprint of New Work that intends to promote the flourishing of individuals, organisations and society. • Examples of the design and development of organizations inspired by New Work • An overview of the societal dimension of New Work

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Contents

1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 Digitalization and Post-digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1 Digitalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2 Post-digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 “Digital Athens”—Where is Digitalization Leading? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 What is New Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5 New Work I—The Individual Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 5.1 Do What you “really, really want”—Developing Motivational Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 5.2 Coherence and Character Strengths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5.3 Summary: Education for New Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6 New Work II: The Organizational Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 6.1 Organizations in a Dilemma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 6.2 Changing Organizational Cultures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 6.3 Job Crafting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 6.4 Positive Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 6.5 Holocracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.6 Sovereign in Space and Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7 New Work in the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 7.1 Living Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7.2 Breathing Life Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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Contents

7.3 Universal Basic Income. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 7.4 Post-digitalization and Post-growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1

Introduction

New Work begins with an idea of freedom. Freedom not so much in the sense of freedom from compulsion or in the sense of civil rights, but above all in the sense of sovereignly doing what one, in the words of New Work pioneer Fritjof Bergmann “really, really wants”. Bergmann laid the foundation for New Work in field experiments in the 1980s with the intention of creating a new work culture that empowers people. The end of exhaustion, the end of alienation, the end of burn-out. Is this possible? Even if it sounds unattainable to many, there are scientific findings, approaches, role models and ideas that point in this direction and inspire us. In addition, New Work is now—albeit in many different variations— more popular than ever and has developed into a broad field of experimentation. This encourages us to give more space to confidence than to doubt. Following the same spirit of possibility, we also speak of “post-digitalization”. Because, first of all, we ask how the digitalized world of work is supposed to look like, to which everything is moving? And is the digitalization not already exhausted in some places in the face of “techlash” and “solutionism”, so that the analogue will necessarily (again) play a central role in a future work culture? Our further considerations then revolve around the following questions: • What kind of post-digital world of work do we want? • How do we deal with the predicted widespread automation of jobs? • What kind of education could promote our sovereignty in the sense of New Work? • How can and why should organizations design work in such a way that the well-being of their employees is strengthened? • Which socio-political ideas are promising in terms of New Work?

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_1

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The book offers a brief insight into the three dimensions of New Work: individual/personality development, organization, and society. Readers who would like to work their way deeper into the subject matter will find an extensive bibliography at the end of the book. We wish you a lot of fun reading, thinking, and experimenting with new forms of work. Benjamin Berend Michaela Brohm-Badry Trier in March 2020

2

Digitalization and Post-digitalization

For some, digitalization is a promise of salvation: In a reality permeated by artificial intelligence (AI), we will be able to get a grip on our urban traffic flows, our houses will be able to self-manage smartly, our refrigerators will arrange for a restocking of their contents autonomously, drones will deliver the orders to our balconies, and care-robots will solve the care crisis in a quiet, technical way. The completion of more and more work by machines finally gives us more sovereignty over our time, and the demented may not even notice that the hand with heated artificial skin on their arm does not belong to a human. For others, digitalization is fraught with anxiety: Robots and algorithms lead to mass unemployment and the resulting loss of meaning is hard to compensate for most people. And at some point, according to the worst fears, machines will become autonomous and conclude that the unpredictable human is not only a disturbance in factories and companies, but also in urban traffic flows. Humans set off alarms because they let their refrigerator contents rot in front of them and, due to a lack of space,  caretaker robots hinder each other in their work because there are too many old people. In short: AI will conclude that humans disturb the systems, which is why artificial intelligence will reflect on their right to exist. Our aim is neither to nourish exuberant techno-optimism nor paralyzing fear, but to understand digitalization as a shaping process. We believe that the term post-digitalization is also useful because by taking different development scenarios into account, we sharpen our sense of visualizing possible realities.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_2

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2.1 Digitalization Digitalization means the transformation of analog world conditions into digital information, which the sociologist Armin Nassehi calls the “doubling of the world in data form” (Nassehi, 2019, p. 33 ff.). The crucial point here is the indifference of the digital, because it “… controls toasters as well as the entire energy supply of a country, intelligent electric toothbrushes as well as self-observation of stock exchanges, children’s toys or the model railway of the former Bavarian Prime Minister as well as space stations, programmable weapons or breathing apparatus of anesthetists, it evaluates an electrocardiogram as well as it controls computer games” (ibid., p. 35)1.

2.2 Post-digitalization In and of itself, the digital may be indifferent, but in its effects on our lives and work it is anything but. There are clear indications that, in terms of its social acceptance, the digital transformation may have reached its peak here and there. For example, limits seem to be set when digitalization cannot or does not fully satisfy the human need for connection and proximity. Following Johann Hari, Horx (2019) describes how digital noncommitment favors atomization, i.e. the loss of stable bonds. This applies not only to Tinder and Co., but also to the world of work: Staab and Geschke (2019) have recently shown on the example of the company Zalando how the digital rating and scoring instrument Zonar damages the working atmosphere, weakens solidarity among employees, and is misused for surveillance issues and legitimizing the inequal treatment of workers. Horx therefore speaks of the “revenge of the analog”, because: “In order to be able to live, we need a certain indeterminacy, a trust in the unmeasured, i.e. the living” (Horx, 2019, p. 18). In this context, he also quotes the Belarusian Internet critic Evgeny Morozov, who coined the term solutionism to mock the multitude of digital solutions for nonexistent problems—for example in the form of digital bread knives, networked washing machines, etc. (ibid., p. 17). In this context, the central question also applies to the world of work: When is digitalization useful and when not? Because even a partial digitalization of human work can be very disappointing to employees, as Fred Benenson, former vice president of the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter explains: He reports 1 Own

translation.

2.2 Post-digitalization

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that the crowdfunding provider Kickstarter and the video platform Youtube digitalized decision-making processes (Which project ideas do we take on the platform? Which videos meet our ethical-standards and are shown?), the execution of which used to bring great joy to the employees. Only the most difficult and less enjoyable case decisions were left for human workers (Benenson, 2019). The term post-digitalization therefore stands on the one hand for the criticism of an indifferent digitalization without regard for human needs. On the other hand, it stands for the big question discussed in the following chapter: where is digitalization heading or, respectively, where should it lead.

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“Digital Athens”—Where is Digitalization Leading?

A few years ago, US economist Erik Brynjolfsson gave a theoretical answer to this question with the idea of the “digital Athens”. In the tradition of technology optimism, he imagined a society in which machines would do most of the work. What slaves did for Athenian citizens in ancient Greece, future computers and robots could enable for a large part of society: a life of leisure and self-determined work (Regalado, 2012). So to speak, a “post-digitalization happy ending”. But how sound is Brynjolfsson’s scenario? Is digitalization inevitably leading to the widespread automation of jobs? Here it is worth taking a look at current forecasts and studies.1 The authors of the Delphi study of the international think tank MillenniumProject come to the assessment that robotics and artificial intelligence could increase global unemployment to 24% or more by 2050 (Daheim & Wintermann, 2016, p. 12). The McKinsey Global Institute designed two automation scenarios each for the states China, India, Japan, Germany, Mexico and USA that differ in the factor speed (Scenario I: low automation speed, Scenario II: high automation speed). In Scenario I, it is considered possible that 24% of the work hours currently worked in Germany will be automated by 2030, which would correspond to a loss of nine million jobs (Manyika et al., 2017, pp. 94 ff.). Scenario II predicts that by 2030, 47% of the work hours in Germany (seventeen million jobs) will be automated (ibid.). In “The Future of Employment”, one of the most popular studies on the subject, Frey and Osborne (2013, 2017) come to the assessment that 47% of jobs in the United States have a high probability of automation.

1 The

following section is based on the presentations in Berend and Brohm-Badry (2020).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_3

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3  “Digital Athens”—Where is Digitalization Leading?

Based on the data of Frey and Osborne, surveys by the International Labour Organization and the Eurostat labour force survey, the Brussels-based think tank Bruegel predicts that, on average, 54% of the jobs in European Union countries (Germany: 51.12%) will be automated in the coming decades (Bruegel, 2014). In comparison, the figures of the OECD appear relatively sober. The organisation considers 14% of the jobs in its member states to be highly automatable, but predicts that 32% will undergo a significant change in their occupational profile (OECD, 2018, p. 1). In addition, the OECD—like most predictions—assumes that the probability of automation decreases proportionally to the increasement of requirement regarding a certain job profile.2 Accordingly, engineering bottlenecks are more often found in complex, creative and social work contexts. These are activities that experts consider difficult to automate. How many jobs and activities will actually be automated in ten, twenty or thirty years is of course not reliably predictable.3 It also raises the question to which extent jobs that are lost can possibly be compensated for by new areas of activity. However, it is to be expected that the demographic change will have a compensatory effect on the labor market. In this context, it seems to be essential that, as the economic historian Martina Heßler shows, it is a “[…] process of negotiating what is socially desired and feasible4.” One central question that arises here is how to decouple productivity and employment (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2014, pp. 164 ff.; Schettkat, 2011, pp. 33 ff.). In this negotiation process, it is therefore essential to figure out how we as a society want to live and work in the future. Because in the ideal case, digitalization leads to where it should lead socially. Currently, not only the question of the degree of automation of work is relevant, but also the question of how the work (still) done by human beings is designed and lived in organizations. It is a question of the inner quality of work—the question of New Work.

2 If

you would like to find out about the probability of automation of your own occupation, we recommend the so-called Job Futuromat of the Federal Employment Agency (https:// job-futuromat.iab.de/). 3 In particular, the popular study by Frey and Osborne (2013, 2017) is criticized in this respect with regard to its methodology, see Rauner (2017); Bonin et al. (2015). 4 Own translation.

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What is New Work?

Originally, New Work is a radical idea by Austrian-American philosopher Frithjof Bergmann (1930–2021). Bergmann came up with it at the beginning of the 1980s, responding  to two social challenges of the time: on the one hand, the elimination of unsatisfactory, exhausting and ultimately health-damaging work, and on the other hand, dealing with the automation of existing work places. As a professor of philosophy and anthropology at the University of Michigan, Bergmann had been working near the “Motor City” Flint since 1978. Flint used to be the largest production site of the US car manufacturer General Motors. Faced with a severe recession at the beginning of the 1980s, the group outlined a thorough transformation process of their production site: by means of automation, around 50% of the employees were to be replaced by computers and robots in the foreseeable future (Bergmann, 2004, p. 129). Against this backdrop Bergmann spread his ideas of a new work culture with the aid of a group of  actors from civil society. As a key element of New Work, they intended a reduction of dependent wage labor, enabling people to do self-concordant work, that is, work that they “really really want to do” (ibid., p. 121) instead. The group around Bergmann saw the expected wave of automation at General Motors as an opportune moment to completely reorganize the company’s working hours. First, they submitted the so-called 6:6 plan to the company management: “Everyone should work in the factory for half a year and spend the rest of the year doing something more interesting and exciting” (ibid., p. 129). The reason for this proposal was that, following their model, the expected automations would not lead to mass layoffs and social upheaval: all employees would retain their jobs, but work only half the time. At the same time, Bergmann and his followers founded the first “Center for New Work” in Flint. From today’s perspective, it can best be described as a training © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_4

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4  What is New Work?

center for personal development, intent on helping employees to fill their free time sovereignly with meaningful activities—“New Work”. “On the one hand, we would make great efforts to figure out with the workers which talents and abilities they had, what their values and world views were and, above all, what work they really and truly wanted to do1.” In his book New Work, New Culture (2004), Bergmann reflects about the success but also the limits of the project, adressing resistance and problems that came up during the process. In the original sense, New Work is therefore a social innovation that aims at sovereignty—the sovereignty to do what corresponds most to one’s own abilities, strengths and wishes. Within the framework of his theory, Bergmann has extended this already demanding idea into a post-digital social utopia in which people only spend one third of their working time on regular employment securing their livelihood, another third on high-tech self-sufficiency (autonomous production using 3D printers) and the last third on what they actually see as their calling. In addition to the fact that companies have started to commercialise the term New Work for their own benefits2, it currently refers to a heterogeneous ensemble of mostly moderate approaches. For Hofmann et al. (2019) from the Fraunhofer Institute for Work Economics and Organization, New Work “[…] is no longer a topic in the distinction from actual (employment) work today, but stands for the attempts to implement a number of future-oriented changes within employment work, the realization of which is closely linked to the possibilities and opportunities of digital transformation” (ibid., p. 4). They observe four central areas of focus: 1. Spatial and temporal flexibility of work 2. Agile and project-based organizational forms 3. Value-based and meaning-making work 4. De-hierarchization, participatory decision-making and forms of self-organization (ibid., pp. 4–5). These perceived areas of focus tend to correspond to the original New Work idea. Nevertheless, in our following definition we want to give more attention to the

1 Own 2 See

translation.

https://www.haufe.de/personal/personalszene/kommentar-xing-nimmt-der-new-workbewegung-ihren-namen_74_483806.html.

4  What is New Work?

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actual core of New Work with the concepts of self-concordance, (time-)sovereignty and well-being: New Work refers to a work culture characterized by self-concordant action, time sovereignty and high subjective well-being of certain reference groups, which is usually pursued through interventions at the educational-psychological, organizational, technological and political level (cf. Berend & Brohm-Badry, 2020). This definition reveals the importance that human freedom has in New Work thinking. Freedom is not realised here in political, economic or organizational  scopes, but is understood as the ability and opportunity for sovereign selfdevelopment in the context of really desired work. On a personal level, freedom is something that is learned like a handicraft and nothing that could be completely grasped in legal terms, according to Peter Bieri (2006). This makes it clear what New Work is to a large extent—an educational task. One of the most pressing questions of this project is then how and where the learning of this handicraft for freedom is to take place. In the following chapter we explore practical impulses from Positive Psychology and Motivational Psychology, which can make substantial contributions to such education.

5

New Work I—The Individual Level

Since learning the craft of freedom is an educational task, it has both individual and political references. After all, freedom forms the core of Western liberaldemocratic societies. Individual, political and economic freedoms are guaranteed by constitution and enjoy highest priority. Freedom, understood as the ability to articulate a wish, fix it in the mind and then set in motion a sequence of actions to fulfill this wish (Bergmann, 2004, p. 137), is however too little promoted in our societies. Here it is worth taking a look at sub-areas of Positive Psychology, where appropriate educational offers are researched and developed. With the concepts of motivational competence, self-concordance and character strengths according to Peterson and Seligman, we present some of the central elements below.

5.1 Do What you “really, really want”—Developing Motivational Competence That people do not know what they truly and gladly want to do seems to be more the rule than the exception. And this not only since sociologists diagnosed modern societies in the course of social differentiation and increased social mobility with options stress. Frithjof Bergmann observed a “poverty of desire” (ibid., p. 134), which can be caused by a joyless, solely survival-oriented work. Psychologically, one could speak of a strong lack of intrinsic motivation. Acting intrinsically motivated means pursuing activities that are fun and deeply satisfying in themselves. Intrinsic motivation is therefore something that promises a lot of pleasure. The higher its extent, the more extrinsic incentives such as money, leisure or social status recede into the background. The thing itself becomes important—because it is interesting, fun, challenging. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_5

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Tendentially, such activities go hand in hand with the experience of a state for which the psychologist Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi has coined the term Flow. In this state, we forget everything around us, are completely absorbed in our task, work concentrated and with pleasure in the respective thing. A work that offers as much space as possible for such intrinsically motivated activity would come very close to the New-Work ideal. The motivational psychologist Falko Rheinberg makes clear that it can be quite tricky to identify such activities for oneself. He speaks of a motivational competence that needs to be learned in this context. He defines this as the “ability to bring current and future situations into line with one’s own activity preferences (basic motives) in such a way that efficient action is possible without constant self-control” (Rheinberg, 2017, p. 212). As the first element of this competence, he describes a certain type of selfknowledge. In this regard, he encourages us to find out how strongly the unconscious basic motives of power, achievement and social affiliation are each expressed in us and which activity preferences arise from this for us (ibid., p. 215 f.). The challenge here is that these unconscious basic motives often contradict the motivational self-image that we construct on the conscious level. First of all, it is about establishing a congruence of conscious self-image and unconscious motives. He then describes the second step as the ability to assess and select situations in terms of their fit to our person. As practical steps towards learning motivational competence, he suggests the following questions for self-reflection: 1. What things do I do over and over again without reward and prioritize them over time? 2. When/where did I work particularly well and happily and couldn’t find an end? 3. When was I particularly pleased with a result, when could I not be pleased with a result despite a successful work? (ibid., p. 219). The “motive-readable translation” (ibid., p. 220) that he presents in this context may also be helpful: Before we decide on a new goal (e.g. a new job), Rheinberg suggests that we imagine and feel the activities associated with this goal in detail and which reactions they trigger on the physical level. In recognition of the fact that it is difficult to pursue only activities that spring from the invigorating source of intrinsic motivation, Rheinberg proves himself to be a pragmatist and advises us to experiment: We should invent our own very individual techniques (e.g. artificial creation of time pressure or increase of the

5.2  Coherence and Character Strengths

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level of demands) for ourselves, which make the transformation of extrinsically motivated, but nevertheless necessary, activities into Flow experiences possible (ibid., p. 221).

5.2 Coherence and Character Strengths In salutogenesis, psychological and psychosocial resources are often discussed that are considered protective factors of the psyche. These are social support, selfconfidence, free time and coherence. In addition to free time for oneself and one’s social ties, mental health is substantially dependent on the feeling of being at home in the world: the feeling of coherence, the feeling of congruence. Coherence means the feeling that the relationship between details is experienced as belonging together. Congruent people experience a meaning in what happens to them and what they experience. It is the feeling that there is a connection and meaning in life and that one is not at the mercy of arbitrary fate. The concept comes from the sociologist and physician Aaron Antonovsky, who describes a life orientation in which people have a constant feeling of the confident attitude that they can find their way in the world and master their own lives. It is the attitude towards life, according to Heiner Keupp: 1. “My world is understandable, congruent, ordered; I can also see problems and burdens that I experience in a larger context (understanding level). 2. Life presents me with tasks that I can solve. I have resources that I can mobilize to master my life, my current problems (mastery level). 3. Every effort is worthwhile for my life. There are goals and projects that are worth engaging in (meaning level).” In the end, congruence thus leads to the appeal from Greek mythology: “Become who you are!” The Irish author Oscar Wilde formulated it similarly: Asked about the goal of life, he is said to have replied: “The goal of life is self-development. Bringing one’s own nature to full development is our destiny.” From a research perspective of Positive psychology, this congruence lies primarily in the recognition of one’s own character strengths and in living them out professionally as well as in private life. Six groups with a total of twenty-four character strengths (cf. Peterson & Seligman, 2004) are distinguished in research (see Table 5.1). They include

16 Table 5.1  Six groups with a total of twenty-four character strengths

5  New Work I—The Individual Level

Group

Character strengths

Wisdom and knowledge

Curiosity Love of learning Judgment Creativity Perspective

Courage

Bravery Perseverance Authenticity Zest

Humanity

Kindness Love; Capacity for love Social intelligence

Justice

Teamwork; Community spirit Fairness Leadership

Temperance

Forgiveness JHumility Prudence Self-regulation

Transcendence

Appreciation of beauty and excellence Gratitude Hope Spirituality Humor

a­ bilities, skills, values, attitudes and feelings. On the website of the University of Zurich you can test yourself free of charge for scientific purposes and receive the result immediately (www.charakterstaerken.org)1. For the first orientation, perhaps the free self-assessment will already help. Our well-being depends decisively on whether we succeed in finding a profession that corresponds to our own character strengths, that allows us to pursue a passion that goes hand in hand with our own strengths, and to find a partner who accepts, loves or even supports the partner’s character strengths.

1 https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/.

5.3  Summary: Education for New Work

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The findings presented here show clearly that the way to commitment, flow and ultimately professional success is largely based on knowing one’s own strengths and developing in the direction of these strengths. Knowing what you can do is the prerequisite for doing what you really, really want.

5.3 Summary: Education for New Work Digitalization and globalization have led to the de-bordering of traditional order systems such as nation-states, single markets, social security and combined systems. The resulting increased competitive pressure is making planning periods shorter and shorter in order to remain flexible in action. Our current conscious thinking about the future is confronted with a multitude of unconscious and unpredictable processes that take away the reliability of development. We have no reliable future predictions and do not know the challenges of the future. Against this background, the individual seems to be largely thrown back on itself. The degree of uncertainty, according to data on mental health (depression, burnout, anxiety disorders, aggression disorders), is continuously increasing. Education as preparation for uncertain futures should therefore primarily aim to strengthen people. It should: • promote the ability to know oneself with one’s motives and character strengths, • encourage them to give these strengths and motives a professional space in their lives (do what you really, really want), and finally • strengthen people in their self-location as a social being in the basic values of peaceful coexistence, namely in the commitment to the humanistic virtues of humanity, justice and courage (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).

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New Work II: The Organizational Level

“We are born in organizations, educated in organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working in organizations. We spend much of our leisure time paying, playing and praying in organizations. Most of us will die in an organization, and when the time comes for burial, the largest organization of all – the state – must grant official permission.”  (Etzioni, 1964).

With these words, “Modern Organizations” begins, a classic by the US organizational researcher Amitai Etzioni. The high degree of organization of our societies requires that the majority of our work be done in organizations. Accordingly, a whole range of organization-related concepts are currently circulating under the label “New Work”, which aim to bring “more joy into the working world”. Before we look at some of these concepts, we first look at the composition of organizations and the conditions of their principle changeability.

6.1 Organizations in a Dilemma At first glance, the idea of organization contradicts the New Work paradigm of sovereignty, self-concordance and well-being. Even more so when we think not of organizations with an educational mandate, but of authorities, medium-sized companies or corporations. As functional structures, organizations regulate actions and behavior through role expectations towards their specific purposes. In addition to membership and hierarchies, purposes are the central characteristics of organizations (Kühl, 2011). Purposes, for example, include the provision of certain services, the production and distribution of commodities, or—in the case

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_6

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of free market actors—maximizing profits. The crucial factor is that, in the case of the classical logic of purposes, neither a hospital nor a technology corporation cares much about whether the employees carry out their work with a certain passion or a high degree of self-concordance, but rather whether they fulfill the purposes of the organization. The focus is not on the well-being of the employees of an organization, but at most on that of the customers or clients, namely in the form of fulfilling their needs. This is what Etzioni described as the typical dilemma situation of organizations: On the one hand, an organizational rationality oriented towards efficiency and performance acts in them, on the other hand, the humanistic demand for job satisfaction is directed at them (Etzioni, 1973, p. 9; Rosenow, 2015, p. 261). To a certain extent, according to Etzioni’s assumption, “organizational rationality and human satisfaction are quite compatible” (ibid., p. 11), and a large part of current New Work approaches deals with the “how?” of the changeability of organizational cultures.

6.2 Changing Organizational Cultures In organizational research, there is a strong influence of organizational cultures on work ethic, commitment, productivity, physical health and mental and emotional well-being of employees (Cameron & Quinn, 2011, p. 7). The success of other changes in organizations (such as the achievement of quality management goals or internal organizational change) is also conditioned by changes in organizational culture (ibid., p. 13). Cameron and Quinn therefore consider organizational culture to be the biggest competitive advantage of economically successful organizations: “The major distinguishing feature in these companies – their most important competitive advantage, the most powerful factor they all highlight as a key ingredient in their success – is their organizational culture” (ibid., p. 5).

But what does organizational culture mean? Kühl (2018) understands this to be the “undecided decision premises1”, or also behavior expectations in organizations, “[…] that have sneaked in slowly” (ibid., p. 9). Cameron and Quinn (2011) list values, leadership styles, success definitions, language, symbols, artifacts, procedures and routines as central elements (ibid., p. 22, as well as Brohm, 2017). 1 Own

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6.3  Job Crafting

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If we consider organizational culture as an independent variable, its crucial influence on the well-being of employees and at the same time on the productivity of the organization becomes clear. If, in view of the dilemma structure described above, attempts are made to design organizations in such a way that both employees and the organization’s performance benefit from it, the question of organizational culture is therefore central. While Kühl (2018) emphasizes that organizations can only influence their culture regulatively on the formal level (for example, personnel policy, internal programs or guidelines), Cameron and Quinn (2011) assume that the change in organizational culture is mainly dependent on the willingness to change of the management and employees (ibid., p. 135 f.). In general, an organization can pursue changes on the content or on the structural level: 1. At the content level, organizations can design their recruitment and development in such a way that there is as much fitting as possible between job content and personality. In ability and motivation-oriented assessment centres this is a common practice. A congruence of abilities or personality and job profile creates a certain probability of competence experiences and flow experiences during work, which, according to the above definition of new work, favours well-being. In this area of matching personality and organizations, further innovations—especially of a digital nature—are to be expected in the future. The career orientation platform “whatchado” is a good example of this. A team around the EU Youth Ambassador and entrepreneur Ali Mahlodji has created a medium with this platform in which around 6500 employees report in video format on their CVs and jobs. On the basis of self-assessments, registered users are shown videos of people with similar inclinations, strengths and skills who are to serve as role models. This principle could be extended, for example, to occupational profiles in specific organisations. 2. At the structural level, an organization can try to adapt working conditions to the needs for sovereignty, self-concordant action and well-being by changing variables such as leadership, interaction, processes, architectures or routines. Such variables are to be discussed in the following chapters.

6.3 Job Crafting In international comparison, job satisfaction in Germany is very low (Grossenbacher, 2019). A frequently encountered problem in organizations, as numerous empirical findings show, is that employees can only use their strengths to a

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l­imited extent. Empirical data on this phenomenon are provided by the Engagement Index of the US-based research institute Gallup. When asked whether their work gives them the opportunity to do what they do best every day, only one third of German employees agree completely (Gallup, 2017, p. 27). Perhaps this is also one of the reasons why they mostly have a low (71%) or no (14%) commitment to their company. Only 15% have a high emotional attachment (Gallup, 2018, p. 5). Job crafting represents an approach to give more weight to the autonomous decisions and individual strengths of employees in organizations. This makes job crafting an important innovation in terms of self-concordant work, because actually it seems to be about getting closer to this new work demand. Job crafting is based on central findings of motivational research. Particularly crucial are the findings of self-determination theory of motivation (Deci et al., 2017), according to which autonomy and competence experience, as well as social connectedness are universal basic needs. We have already seen that the pursuit of self-concordant goals satisfies these psychological basic needs and therefore has a positive effect on subjective well-being. Sheldon and Elliot (1999) identify the degree of identification with a goal as the central criterion for selfconcordance (ibid., p. 484): The more a person identifies with a goal, perceives it as important and meaningful, the higher the self-concordance. For such goals, which are considered to be meaningful, people are also more willing to take on experiences of displeasure, because the achievement of long-term goals is much more important than short-term affective states. The degree of self-concordance hence determines the level of effort that is expended to achieve the goal. Thus, the probability of achieving the goal increases, the more self-concordant the respective goals are (ibid., p. 482). With the application of job crafting, employees in organizations are given greater scope for self-concordant goals. They thus have the opportunity to shape their work in terms of their individual strengths and preferences. The management scholars Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton first introduced job crafting under the following definition into the scientific discourse: “We define job crafting as physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work. Thus, job crafting is an action, and those who undertake it are job crafters.” (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001, p. 179)

6.4  Positive Leadership

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The envisaged design options relate to the following three areas: 1. the scope of tasks or the type of task: employees can (co-)determine for themselves which projects they want to be involved in and what workload they can achieve in a certain period of time, 2. the type of social interaction and the free choice of interaction partners, 3. taking on a different perspective on the meaning of work: this is about recognizing the meaning in one’s own work—for oneself, for customers/clients of the organization, for the survival of the organization, for society (ibid., p. 182). Rose (2019) points out that job crafting is anyway often practiced informally by employees (ibid., p. 266), by modifying their areas of activity without prior agreement with their superiors. From the perspective of leadership, job crafting is therefore also about understanding and valuing these practices as innovations, especially since they obviously have positive effects: Rudolph et al. (2017) were able to confirm the effectiveness of job crafting in terms of increased job satisfaction and increased work engagement in a meta-analysis (N = 35,670).

6.4 Positive Leadership The Positive Leadership approach (Cameron, 2013) emerged within the field of Positive Organizational Scholarship. With regard to New Work, it is particularly interesting that both organizations and the people working there are evaluated with regard to specific strengths such as appreciation, meaningfulness, wisdom, friendliness, respect or honesty (Cameron et al., 2003, p. 3). In his work Practicing Positive Leadership, Cameron (2013) lists four orientation points for leaders which promote the development of a positive organizational culture. These appear particularly attractive because they avoid an individualization of the leadership discourse through “prescriptive competence models” (Schröer, 2018) and instead focus on relationships and goals: 1. A Culture of Abundance: A culture of abundance means that there is a strong vision of what the organization stands for, what its goals are and why these goals are important. The most challenging leadership task is to ensure a high level of commitment on the part of a large number of employees to these goals. Cameron suggests, among other things, to make commitment manageable through small, easily achievable steps of change and to ensure the sustainability of change through the tracking of sub-goals.

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2. Positive Energy Networks: Positive relationship networks are, for Cameron, the heart of Positive Leadership (ibid., p. 49). They are, on the one hand, crucial for the quality of the work done in an organization. Furthermore, supportive and appreciative relationships in terms of subjective well-being are hardly to be overestimated. The aspect of positive relationship networks primarily affects personnel recruitment. Cameron simply differentiates between energizing and de-energizing employees. While the latter are often perceived as self-aggrandizing, socially uninterested or inauthentic, the opposite is true for the former: Such colleagues, for example, are valued as friendly, grateful, helpful or particularly trustworthy individuals (ibid., p. 57). For productivity and well-being in an organization, it is important, according to Cameron, that as many employees as possible come from the pool of energizers. In addition to the corresponding sensitivity in personnel recruitment, it is therefore necessary to create offers of personnel development which aim to promote and maintain appreciative relationships at the workplace. Especially in the field of Positive Psychology, corresponding interventions are researched and designed. 3. Deliver negative Feedback positively: To have positive relationships at work, honesty is key. It’s not about brushing off bad behavior or subpar work with a smile. Putting on a facade and avoiding potential conflict does not make for a positive workplace culture; it’s inauthentic leadership and fear of conflict. However, how negative feedback is delivered is of utmost importance, because there is always the risk that the person receiving the feedback will feel attacked and, as a result, will shut down completely or build up resistance. To avoid this, Cameron suggests formulating negative feedback descriptively, i.e. in terms of the situation. The person giving the feedback describes the specific problematic behavior or the situation that caused the problem, without attacking the person. At the same time, they show alternatives to the bad behavior. So the feedback is problem-oriented, not person-oriented. A first step to internalizing this communication style would be to avoid using the word “you” or “you” in feedback conversations and instead only describe the relevant behavior and unwanted consequences (ibid., p. 89). At the same time, it is important to meet people to whom feedback is given about unwanted behavior in a appreciative way. It is about valuing and signaling the strengths of the relevant person (s), especially in terms of their skills in relation to the issue under discussion. 4. Establish and Achieve Everest Goals: This point is supported by the wellestablished insight that goals motivate and enable higher performance. For a culture of abundance in organizations, Cameron recommends the following points to be considered when setting goals:

6.5 Holocracy

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a. The goals are positively deviant: They are formulated in such a way that a particularly high, extraordinary level of performance is sought in the characteristic field of the organization. b. The goals stand for intrinsic goods. Such goods have a value in themselves and are therefore sought for their own sake. They are not a means to higher ends (e.g. efficiency, growth). c. The goals have an affirmative orientation. They focus less on problems and obstacles, but rather on opportunities and potentials. d. The goals are defined as so-called contribution goals. Contribution goals show how others (e.g. customers, clients, patients, students, etc.) benefit from the achievement of the goals. e. The goals are energizing.

6.5 Holocracy While Positive Leadership primarily addresses leadership behavior, the principle of Holocracy aims at changing organizational structures and ultimately at abolishing formal leadership levels. Holocracy (sometimes also Sociocracy) was developed by software entrepreneur Brian Robertson and intends to replace classical hierarchical organizational structures with more democratic processes. Hierarchies and central bureaucracies are replaced by self-organizing teams, which in turn are interconnected for the purpose of strategic and operational decision-making. In each team (circle), members are organized with specific tasks and roles, which in turn send individual members to higher-level decision-making teams. There are no fixed departments, no job descriptions, no titles or offices, and the organizational chart is replaced by the Holocracy Constitution, consisting of five main articles (Schermuly, 2019). There is a task-oriented role principle: A person assumes certain tasks in their circle, which can be modified, supplemented or abolished as needed. Task areas are therefore flexible and members of holocratic organizations have a high degree of co-determination, as they can decide which tasks and roles they want to assume and which not. In the sense of an understanding of new work oriented towards self-concordance, well-being and sovereignty, this democratic model appears to be extremely attractive and numerous young start-ups and NGOs adapt it as an organizational principle. In Germany, for example, the association Mein Grundeinkommen or the Berlin-based company Dark Horse (organizational consulting) work according to central Holocracy principles. The employees of Dark Horse express themselves

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positively in this regard, but also report a high organizational effort (Hofmann et al., 2019, p. 87). Holocratic organizations therefore always require socially competent, team-oriented employees who have a high intrinsic motivation for self-organization and participation. It remains questionable whether holocracy or similar models can be completely transferred to large organizations with several hundred or thousand employees (see Kühl, 2019).

6.6 Sovereign in Space and Time However, many large organizations and companies have a lot of room for maneuver when it comes to working hours and space. In Germany, the Baden-Württemberg machine engineering company Trumpf operates a very innovative working time policy. In 2011, Trumpf introduced so-called flexible working hours. This model allows employees to flexibly adjust their working hours to their respective life circumstances. Every two years, they have the opportunity to adjust their contractual basic working hours within a range of 15 to 40 hours per week (Hofmann et al., 2019, p. 57). For example, those who are raising children or dealing with other private matters can reduce their working hours to the extent they choose for a period of time they choose; those who want to improve their financial situation and have nothing more urgent to do can increase their working hours. In addition, the company also offers its employees the opportunity to adjust their annual working hours in accordance with their individual preferences in consultation with their managers. Within the framework of a time account of +200 to −100 h, they can thus work more in some months and less in others while maintaining the same salary (ibid., p. 58). The company thus provides an example of “high-end working time management” in organizations. But many other organizations are also currently trying to meet the wishes of their employees for more flexibility, for example through telework and home office models. Home-based work is still relatively little used in Germany, but seems to be possible in 40% of all jobs (Alt, 2019). In addition, the demand for part-time work is increasing. In Germany, the number of people employed part-time has increased from 5.3 million in 2008 to 9.1 million in 2018 (Federal Employment Agency, 2018, p. 10). Although it is still mainly used by women, the demand is also increasing among men.

7

New Work in the 21st Century

If one takes the New-Work ideal of self-concordant, sovereign and well-beinggenerating work seriously, this ultimately requires a way of thinking that goes beyond the individual and organizational level and takes political conditions into account. In the current discourse, the impression often arises that New Work is exclusively about Change-Management-Tools, which aim at agility, positive leadership or holocracy. For many representatives of New Work, however, such an understanding is too short-sighted: “We are currently discussing New Work in a kind of easily digestible management variant” (Furkel, 2018, p. 21), the psychologist and author Markus Väth criticized in the german trade journal “Personalmagazin”. And New Work founder Frithjof Bergmann mocked the shortened focus on the management dimension as “wagework in a mini-skirt” (Hornung, 2018, p. 40). Such criticism probably arises because most representatives of New Work are driven by humanistic ideals and strive for a profound cultural change that takes society as a whole into account. After all, New Work was once conceived as an alternative to dependent wagework and capitalism. In the post-digital utopia of Frithjof Bergmann, people work out of passion and as autonomous high-tech producers who use digital subsistence economy (3D printing) to produce objects of everyday need themselves (cf. Moorstedt, 2010). What the current New Work discourse often lacks is the reference to the political dimension of work, also in the form of such utopias. Utopias seem to be enjoying a renaissance at the moment (see, for example, Bregman, 2017; Precht, 2018; Rosa, 2019; Welzer, 2019). Our current ecological, social and technological challenges inspire us to develop positive future scenarios that give us courage and show us scope for action. In these scenarios, a completely new world of work often plays a key role, which is why we want to sketch © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, New Work: Sovereignty in the Postdigital Age, essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5_7

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some of these ideas at the end. In the context of New Work, we consider breathing life courses, universal basic income and post-growth economy to be particularly worthy of discussion, especially as they have already gained some visibility in scientific and/or political discourse. Before we go into them in more detail, we would like to introduce Living labs as an experimental method of social progress in order to show that utopias only then play a meaningful role in shaping policy when we do not regard them as technocratic instructions, but rather as cooperative experiments.

7.1 Living Labs The 20th century has documented the failure of utopias and their abuse by dictatorships in many ways, which is likely to have contributed to a lasting skepticism about utopias in our societies. Nevertheless, utopias fulfill an important function: As visions of a better world, they remind us—if they are shaped by a humanist spirit—that politics is a means of promoting the flourishing life of a society. By describing desirable aims, utopias enrich the political discourse and potentially motivate political action. In this way, they may also avert a familiar style of politics that Jürgen Habermas once characterized as “demoscopically guided power pragmatics” (Habermas, 2011)1. But how should the practical use of utopias look like if, as indicated above, ideological abuse is likely? There is a need for building bridges between utopia and politics. For example, by the implementation of Living labs: “With these, the concept of the laboratory is extended beyond its classical natural and engineering scientific meaning and applied to a social context in which scientifically initiated and accompanied innovations take place in order to gain knowledge about transformation processes for and with the shaping actors.” (Lange, 2014, p. 17)2

Living labs are social experimentation spaces which aim to “develop practicerelevant knowledge and concrete solutions for the great social challenges of the future” (University of Stuttgart, 2019)3. This can, for example, be cooperations

1 Own

translation. translation. 3 Own translation. 2 Own

7.1  Living Labs

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between cities, municipalities and companies with political and scientific actors. In Germany, the state of Baden-Württemberg has a pioneering role in the use of Living labs. So far, they are mostly used in environmental policy contexts. For example, the Future City Lab Stuttgart investigates, inter alia, a sustainable mobility culture by means of a mobility school, conversion projects for public space or material incentives for the use of bicycles (ibid.). In the New Work context, Living labs are interesting because they are, potentially, a continuation of the early experiments in Detroit. New forms of work could be tested on several levels in this way. For example, Living labs could combine alternative working time models in organizations with educational offerings for personality development and innovations in labor law4 together. They offer the advantage that complex transformation processes can first be tested and scientifically accompanied on the micro level (i.e. in cities, municipalities, companies). Before legislation comes into play, this provides the opportunity to capture unintended consequences and make relevant corrections. Living labs are therefore not only a scientific, but also a democratic innovation. They require participation, which is why they are also associated with the hope that they could counteract the widespread disenchantment with politics.

7.2 Breathing Life Courses The term breathing life courses is used to discuss various counter-models to the classical norm biography. The latter was described by New Work founder Bergmann as follows: “Most people still divide their lives into three phases. A long preparatory period in which they learn and don’t work, followed by the main part, in which many only work and stop learning, and a last part that is getting longer and longer due to medical progress, in which they no longer work and usually don’t learn anything new” (Bergmann, 2004, p. 343)5.

4  As

the philosopher Philip Kovce recently pointed out, labor law needs to be updated because it comes from a time “[…] which knew only the appropriate superiors and subordinates, but no autonomous citizens” (Kovce, 2018). If sovereignty and self-concordance are at stake, labor law must be changed to the extent that it establishes employment contracts on an equal footing “[…] and abolishes the anachronistic distinction between employers and employees” (ibid.). Real laboratories could serve as precursors to corresponding reforms in legislation here.

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translation.

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Such classical biographies correspond less and less to contemporary biographies. They also contradict a good deal of a work culture aimed at sovereignty and selfconcordance. Because individual preferences, abilities and not least the available time resources change over the course of a life. The models of breathing life courses represent social policy proposals which are supposed to increase individual sovereignty in the handling of their own time resources. Consequently, there is no universal model, all proposals just have a demand for a stronger societal appreciation of time sovereignty in common. For example, the German Association of Women Lawyers pleads for a law on working time. The realization of this model would, so to speak, transform the progressive working time policy of the company Trumpf into a general legal claim for employees, namely a change of working time adapted to the respective need (Deutscher Juristinnenbund, 2016, p. 16). Jurczyk and Mückenberger (2016) go one step further with their ideas and suggest the introduction of time accounts with drawing rights: “With this instrument, times which are currently bound in gainful employment should be made partially available to other life goals and time uses. Care for others and oneself, child-rearing and nursing, education, civil engagement and breaks for personal development should be given equal or at least similar legitimacy and societal recognition as gainful employment” (ibid., p. 2)6.

The proposal is therefore to grant employees a time account of, for example, five to eight7 years, from which they could take breaks according to their individual life situation—e.g. for the education of their children, an extended trip or the care of relatives. All variants of flexible working lives are associated with hopes for improved quality of life. In addition to more time for relationships and education, gender equality and the recognition of care work as “proper” work are in the focus. While the employment rate of women in Germany has increased from 57 to 71.5% between 1991 and 2017 (WSI, 2019), they still spend more time on unpaid care work (e.g. child care, housework) than men. In addition, women at 47.7%8

6 Own

translation are different ideas concerning the size of the time account. There is talk of a fifth, or a third up to a sixth of the working biography, cf. Mückenberger (2016, p. 28) and Jurczyk (2016, p. 25).

7 There

8 The

value refers to the employment rate, i.e. the proportion of employees subject to social security contributions to the total population.

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make much more use of their right to part-time employment than men at 10.9% (Federal Employment Agency, 2019, p. 10). As a result, they are less well protected against risks in their professional (e.g. job loss) and private lives (e.g. old-age poverty) (Fratzscher, 2019). This gender inequality is to a large extent structurally determined. As time-political interventions, flexible working lives have the overcoming of these inequalities in view.9 As far as financing and further shaping of breathing life courses is concerned, there are also different proposals here: Mau (2016) brings the increase in inheritance tax into play (ibid., p. 22). The labor law expert Ulrich Mückenberger discusses resilient life courses in the context of a decoupling of income and employment. In order for resilient life courses to function in such a context without excluding income-poor population groups, he believes that there must be a basic income as a security system (Mückenberger, 2016, p. 30).

7.3 Universal Basic Income In his Work Report, Ali Mahlodji quotes a representative study by the Bertelsmann Foundation, according to which 80% of Germans wanted a different economic order in 2012, which would take social justice and environmental protection much stronger into account. (Mahlodji, 2018, p. 33). The implementation of a basic income (UBI) would also be conceivable, because after all, a majority of Germans are in favor of such a thing, according to Wirtschaftswoche (Wirtschaftswoche, 2017). A UBI means that a state provides its citizens with a monthly basic amount for subsistence without determining need. As far as the amount is concerned, there are different models under debate: Götz Werner (1944–2022), the founder of the dm drugstores, who has contributed strongly to the popularity of the idea in the German-speaking world, pleaded for 1000 EUR per month, while the philosopher Richard David Precht, for example, demands at least 1500 EUR (Precht, 2018, p. 132). From the perspective of our understanding of New Work, a basic income is attractive if it provides all members of society with sufficient economic resources to align their choice of work, indeed their whole life design, with more 9 In

this context, Bergmann’s reports are interesting in that the first New Work projects met with positive resonance primarily from women, while men found it difficult to break away from their identification with wage work: “For most men this was an immediate hurdle; their self-esteem and their identity were at stake. Not so for the women. For them it was a matter of course, long before anyone had heard of New Work” (Bergmann, 2004, p. 149).

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s­ overeignty and self-concordance. Because even though sovereignty and self-concordance can be learned, they are not purely psychological concepts. Sovereignty and self-concordance are also dependent on concrete economic conditions. Only those who are not driven by fear of existence to accept every “bullshit job” (Graeber, 2018) can sovereignly decide for which activities they really want to use their life time. Therefore, the sociologist Hartmut Rosa notes about the basic income: “It does not gain its attractiveness from a promise of growth and increase, as it materializes, for example, in the endless succession of wage struggles, but from the fact that it could change the basic mode of being-in-the-world from struggle to security and thus take the existential fear […] out of the game […]” (Rosa, 2019, p. 730)10.

This can be seen, for example, in the interviews conducted by Michael Bohmeyer and Claudia Cornelsen (2019) with people who have won one of the 48711 basic incomes given away on the Mein Grundeinkommen platform. A 69-year-old woman who received EUR 1000 per month for a year reports the following about her experience: “This was the first time I felt a sense of security that I was no longer dependent on what was happening out there, but that I was safe. It’s a feeling that you can’t describe. […] The basic income has sharpened my awareness of what it means to be human. Being able to participate in this world, going to the theatre. That wasn’t possible before with what I had” (ibid., p. 192)12.

However, the argument in favor of a UBI can also be made in view of the automation scenarios quoted at the beginning. Because why should a post-digital society with increasing unemployment continue to test its members for need with taxfunded agencies and subject them to a rigid work regime? Such a society, which on the one hand automates work ever on and on the other hand adheres to an ethos of work obligation, seems absurd. If digitalization were to lead to a “second machine age,” as Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2014) assume, the question of the distribution of wealth would have to be rethought from scratch. Because in such a case, on the one hand, the profits of companies with a high digitalization rate increase, while at the same time fewer

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translation. of 16.12.2019, source: https://www.mein-grundeinkommen.de/. 12 Own translation. 11 As

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income opportunities are available to an increasing number of people (Tegmark, 2017, pp. 181 ff.). Without political regulation, economic inequality will continue to increase. Not least for this reason, icons of the Silicon Valley such as Marc Zuckerberg or Elon Musk have been arguing for a UBI for some time (Daum & Spelge, 2019). Because: If a large part of their customers lose their incomes due to digitalization, their goods and services, including advertising and data sales, will become obsolete (ibid., pp. 74 ff.; Precht, 2018, p. 127). Since the numerous supporters of UBI come from all political directions and social classes, the models sometimes differ considerably. This is especially true with regard to the amount of the basic income and the type of financing. With regard to the latter, proposals such as increased consumption taxes, robot taxes, resource taxation (CO2 tax) or a financial transaction tax are under discussion. The crucial factor is the principle of the affordability of a UBI. The circulating prejudice that people cannot deal with money that is given to them free of charge also seems to be refuted. The Dutch economist Rutger Bregman cites studies on poverty research to emphasize that there is a “connection between unconditional grants and a reduction in crime, infant mortality, malnutrition, teenage pregnancies and school absenteeism as well as an increase in school performance, economic growth and gender equality” (Bregman, 2017, p. 37 ff.). Based on the large number of such indications of the effectiveness of direct payments, the non-profit organization Give directly started a basic income experiment with 6,000 participants in Kenya in 2016 (Spiegel Online, 2016). In this context, the Canadian Mincome experiment from the 1970s is also interesting, which represents one of the largest field experiments with a UBI. The researcher Evelyn L. Forget found in a 2011 reconstructive study, among other things, that the number of hospital stays, especially due to mental illness, decreased by 8.5% among the 1000 families favored during the experiment period (Forget, 2011, p. 283; Bregman, 2017, p. 44 ff.). In view of New Work, the UBI therefore appears to be an attractive option.13 At present, however, the question of a new work culture is being raised from another perspective—that of ecology.

13 Even

if New Work founder Frithjof Bergmann is of a different opinion than we are.

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7.4 Post-digitalization and Postgrowth “It’s so much better today: the peace, the life expectancy, the peace, the painkillers, the peace, the social security, the peace, the electricity supply, the peace, the hygiene and the palliative care, the peace, the abolished military service and the abolished death penalty, the peace, the nature contract, the peace, the travels, the peace, the easier work, the peace, the shared communications, the peace […]” (Serres, 2019, p. 76)14.

The recently deceased French philosopher Michel Serres is right when he pays tribute to the great progress that numerous countries have made over the past century. Today we live in Europe healthier, longer and more self-determined, have more rights, are less criminal and better educated than ever before, have access to high-quality food and global communication. This more of valuable elements of a good life is not least the result of a growth thinking, which primarily affects our economy, but then almost all social areas. The already quoted Hartmut Rosa speaks of a genuine growth logic, with which modern societies bring all conceivable amenities within reach, but—and this is the crucial point—“[…] structurally undermine the conditions for the realization of a good life […]” (Rosa, 2019, p. 19)15. This undermining affects, for example, the non-priced ecological follow-up costs of overproduction and overconsumption. While we are writing this book, millions of students demonstrate worldwide every week for a more sustainable policy. What they demand for themselves and the following generations is precisely that good life, the future of which has become unlikely in the event of a continuation of the current model. In view of a world population moving towards 10 billion people, our economic system is coming up against the ecological limits of the planet (Emmott, 2013). And this ecological question is deeply intertwined with our culture of work. In his article “Ecology and New Work,” Frithjof Bergmann (1999) noted: “Any effort to reduce consumption or to save a piece of forest or a species of fish is utterly doomed, is radical waste, if we do not address how this will affect the job system.” (ibid., p. 492).16

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7.4  Post-digitalization and Postgrowth

35

Let’s take another look at Bergmann’s post-digital utopia: People only spend a third of their time with paid work. Another third they use to operate high-tech self-production, so they produce their own daily needs with 3D printers. The last third they go to self-concordant occupations that they are passionate about. We can assume that such a fundamentally different organization of the world of work would have significant ecological consequences: The drastic reduction in working time would correspondingly mean less traffic, less resource consumption for buildings, mobility, transport and production. Increased self-production would also mean less resource consumption, because fewer raw materials and goods would have to travel around the globe. This becomes even more clear when Bergmann’s envisaged sovereignty of production is not limited to the high-tech sector, but extended to local or regional agriculture. It is therefore hardly surprising that similar ideas are currently being discussed under the terms post-growth economy and sufficiency (self-limitation). International thought leader of the post-growth movement is Tim Jackson. The British economist is thinking about distributing the existing work more evenly across the population (Jackson, 2011, p. 142). In Germany, research is being carried out on related topics at the Kolleg Postwachstumsgesellschaften of the University of Jena and also at the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy. Uwe Schneidewind, economist and president of the Wuppertal Institute, proposes a turnaround in prosperity and consumption, for which he, following Wolfgang Sachs, lists the following as leading ideas: decluttering (purist life models, lean and ecologically optimized product ranges, strengthening of repair culture), slowing down (longevity and 10-year guarantees for consumer goods, slow and reliable logistics, speed limits, promotion of time prosperity e.g. by breathing life courses, note by the authors), unbundling (regional products, regionalized logistics, higher taxation of fossil energy carriers, share economy) and decommodification (strengthening of public facilities such as parks or swimming pools, open-source communities, self-sufficiency) (Schneidewind, 2018, p. 183; Scheidewind & Zahrnt, 2017, pp. 51–70). Niko Paech, an environmental economist at the University of Siegen, also proposes a reduction in working hours: In his post-growth utopia, there would be a 20-hour work week of paid employment, with the remaining time spent on noncommercial activities such as volunteering, education, self-production, or simply leisure time (ibid., p. 151). With regard to the economic and work model that he believes needs to be replaced, he writes:

36

7  New Work in the 21st Century “Currently, we are caught up in a consumerist culture that is overloaded with stimuli and that consumes our most precious resource, namely time. By shedding excess wealth, we would have the chance to focus on what is essential, rather than increasingly suffering from dizzy spells as we run on the hamster wheel of consumerism. Using a few things more intensively and, for this purpose, simply ignoring certain options with confidence, means less stress and more happiness. And, in any case, the only still responsible design principle for societies and lifestyles in the 21st century is reduction […]” (Paech, 2018, p. 11)17.

If New Work essentially means sovereignty to do what one really, really wants, then one could add here in conclusion: New Work also implies that in the future we will be sovereign in renouncing what we really, really don’t need for a good life.

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What you Learned from this essential

• New Work is an approach to designing work environments devised by Frithjof Bergmann, which currently offers many points of contact in organizations, for example job-crafting, innovative working time models or holocracy. • Coherence—as consistency with one’s own values and character strengths—is the basic condition for working on what you “really, really want”. • The New Work ideal of “really, really wanting” requires both encouraging education and brave social renewal, which should be developed and tested in living labs.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 B. Berend and M. Brohm-Badry, , essentials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38525-5

37

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