New Technologies, Development and Application VI: Volume 2 (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 707) 303134720X, 9783031347207

Citation preview

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 707

Isak Karabegovic Ahmed Kovačević Sadko Mandzuka   Editors

New Technologies, Development and Application VI Volume 2

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems

707

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas—UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Türkiye Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

Isak Karabegovic · Ahmed Kovaˇcevi´c · Sadko Mandzuka Editors

New Technologies, Development and Application VI Volume 2

Editors Isak Karabegovic Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ahmed Kovaˇcevi´c City University of London London, UK

Sadko Mandzuka Faculty of Traffic and Transport Sciences University of Zagreb Zagreb, Croatia

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-031-34720-7 ISBN 978-3-031-34721-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Interdisciplinary Research of New Technologies, Their Development and Application

This book features papers focusing on the implementation of new and future technologies, which were presented at the International Conference on New Technologies, Development and Application, held at the Academy of Science and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo on 22nd–24th June 2023. It covers a wide range of future technologies and technical disciplines, including complex systems such as Industry 4.0; patents in industry 4.0; robotics; mechatronics systems; automation; manufacturing; cyber-physical and autonomous systems; sensors; networks; control, energy, renewable energy sources; automotive and biological systems; vehicular networking and connected vehicles; intelligent transport, effectiveness and logistics systems, smart grids, nonlinear systems, power, social and economic systems, education, IoT. Majority of organized conferences are usually focusing on a narrow part of the issues within a certain discipline while conferences such these are rare. There is a need to hold such conferences. The value of this conference is that a various researchers, programmers, engineers and practitioners come to the same place where ideas and latest technology achievements are exchanged. Such events lead to the creation of new ideas, solutions and applications in the manufacturing processes of various technologies. New coexistence is emerging, horizons are expanding, unexpected changes and analogies arise. Best solutions and applications in technologies are critically evaluated. The first chapter covers mechanical design, industry 4.0, robotics, cyber-physical systems, mechatronic systems, automation of production processes, 3D printing, advanced production and metallurgy. The first article is about robotic technology as the basis of implementation of industry 4.0 in production processes in China. The second article presents kinesthetic trajectory learning of a collaborative robot UR 10e with APLC S7-1500. This article shows that with the help of kinesthetic learning the trajectory can be easily modified where programming knowledge for robots is not required. In one of the articles is analysed and developed a robotic arm for space applications. This article illustrates and analyses the design phases, the choice of the kinematics, the static verification, and the modal analysis in different setups of a robotic arm attached to a minisatellite. For this purpose, the propulsion system was carefully chosen, whereas control systems for the arm movement were developed and a feedback controller was chosen. The arm under study was designed to fit a minisatellite, be resistant during orbit, and be able to stabilize the attitude of the robot in orbit. One article aim is to analyse improvement of the technique of optimal technological routes planning for machining of the machine parts surfaces. The developed technique of technological routes planning for the treatment of the parts surfaces by machining allows to analyse of the degree of their material degradation using the LM-hardness method and is realized during the manufacturing of the drum’s shaft of the belt conveyor. The last articles are about mathematics in engineering.

vi

Interdisciplinary Research of New Technologies

The second chapter covers computer science, information and communication technologies, internet of things, cyber security. The first work is about FPGA based logistics service robot control in e-commerce warehouse system. This article proposes an ecommerce warehousing management concept based on the service mobile robot with a controller implemented on the Altera FPGA Cyclone IV board and Android application for remote control. Second article gives an overview of maintenance strategies using petri net models. The third article is about machine learning model for student drop-out prediction based on student engagement. Article demonstrates how a student drop-out could be predicted through a student’s performance using different Machine Learning techniques, i.e., supervised learning and unsupervised learning. The results show that various types of student engagement are essential factors in predicting drop-out and the final ECTS points achievements. The one article provides edge detection algorithm for biological slice images based on empirical wavelet transform and morphology. The last articles are about application of load cell sensor data collection for strength training and musculoskeletal rehabilitation and mobile applications. The third chapter is devoted to traffic and transport systems, logistics and intelligent systems. Chapter starts with simulation platform for the analysis of motorway traffic safety management systems. Simulation platform is realised in the microsimulation traffic model. The behaviour of drivers in the simulation model is based on Widemann’s car following model. The second work explains that an urban consolidation center is a solution in city logistics that promises traffic-related, environmental, and operational benefits. The third article is about implementation of smart road technologies in the function of road traffic safety management. Another article explains selection of environmentally sustainable means of urban mobility during daily population migration in order to satisfy the need for transportation using methods of multicriteria analysis. Last article examines possibilities of queuing system at postal operators. The fourth chapter is devoted to New Technologies in the Energy, Fluids, Power Quality, and Advanced Electrical Power Systems. The first article analyses important characteristics of hybrid heating systems, such as interoperability, scalability, and availability of energy sources. The purpose is to determine how the availability of different energy sources within a hybrid heating system affects sustainability and environmental impact, as well as how interoperability and scalability can affect the overall performance of the hybrid heating system. The second article is about energy efficiency of industrial drying machine and effects to natural gas consumption and carbon footprint. The third article is about renewable energy sources photovoltaic power plants and constructive solutions related to locality and climate. Another article explains qualitative analysis of the structure of NOx emissions during combustion of pulverized coal and biomass and staged air supply conditions in furnace. Last work is about flue gas emissions on the oxygen-enriched combustion of brown coal and woody biomass. Chapter Five is devoted to new methods in the agriculture, ecology and chemical processes of a wide range of topics. The first article analyses biomedical application of nanocomposites based on fullerenes-C60. Fullerene-C60 nanocomposites are widely used in biomedicine as antioxidants, antiviral agents, HIV-1 protease inhibitors, drug carriers, but also in carcinoma diagnostics and photodynamic therapy. They are also

Interdisciplinary Research of New Technologies

vii

used as electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Some other topics are chemical analysis of pomegranate fruits taken from different locations in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina), the relationship between folic acid and healthy reproduction, effect of baking conditions and recipes on the quality of cookies, review of parasitic nematodes of fish from the Una river (Bosnia and Herzegovina), an investigation of the anthropogenic impact on chemistry, quality indicators and concentrations of selected chemical elements of the river Bregava, the quantum-chemical prediction for some NMR spectral parameters in systems based on aromatic polyamides, contribution to the knowledge of grapevine production in Southeastern Europe – case study of Montenegro. The sixth chapter focuses on the field of geodesy, construction, new materials and sustainable innovation and others. The first article is about structural dynamics of steel frames with the application of friction isolators. In this study, it is proposed to study the dynamic behaviour of ideal regular and irregular structures subjected to seismic actions using a flexible multibody model developed in Simscape within the Simulink environment. The second article presents fire resistance of steel girders. One of article is about design and technology of construction of reinforced soil structures. One other article explains sustainability of the structural construction materials of family houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina and possible alternatives up to sustainable construction principles. The last article is the role of heat pumps in the energy efficiency of buildings: Review. The seventh chapter covers Economics, E-Business, and Entrepreneurships. The chapter starts with the influence of the quality of electronic learning platforms on improving the competences and performance of employees. Second article gives analysis of perception differences of electronic learning quality and content in service businesses. One article is about new technologies and updating of higher education. The paper presents the starting points and guidelines for the reform of higher education for a green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0. The outcomes of the reform should be suitable for those educated in regular programmes, as well as for those who want to acquire additional necessary knowledge and competences. The last articles are about assessment of the readiness of companies for the application of industry 4.0 with the help of an expert system and the impact of digitalization and digital consumption on social development. The whole content of this book is intended to a wide range of technical systems; different technical disciplines in order to apply the latest solutions and achievements in technologies and to improve manufacturing processes in all disciplines where systemic thinking have a very important role in the successful understanding and building of human, natural and social systems. We hope this content will be the first in a series of publications that are intended to the development and implementation of new technologies in all industries. Isak Karabegovi´c

Contents

New Technologies in the Energy, Fluids, Power Quality, Advanced Electrical Power Systems Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types in Hybrid Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vira Shendryk, Reza Malekian, and Paul Davidsson

3

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine and Effects to Natural Gas Consumption and Carbon Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mesud Rami´c, Maximilian Pleitz, Ejub Džaferovi´c, and Amra Haseˇci´c

14

Renewable Energy Sources Photovoltaic Power Plants and Constructive Solutions Related to Locality and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miron Torlo, Tarik Bali´c, and Špago Damir

22

Analysis and Choice of Gas Turbine Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muharem Šabi´c, Edvin Šimi´c, and Said Šabi´c Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time in the Heating Control System of a Smart House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valeriy Sydorenko, Andriy Perekrest, Vira Shendryk, and Sergii Shendryk Qualitative Analysis of the Structure of NOx Emissions During Combustion of Pulverized Coal and Biomass and Staged Air Supply Conditions in Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nihad Hodzic, Anes Kazagic, and Kenan Kadic

29

36

45

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina Covering Electricity Demand of a Typical Household . . . . . . . . Azrudin Husika, Damir Špago, Halima Hadžiahmetovi´c, and Safet Isi´c

54

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients in Hydropower System with a Surge Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hata Miliši´c and Emina Hadži´c

62

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines from Destruction in Technological Corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oleg M. Mandryk, Lubomur S. Shlapak, Oleh M. Tuts, and Iryna L. Bodnaruk

75

x

Contents

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application in High Power Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nihad Hodzic and Kenan Kadic

86

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion of Brown Coal and Woody Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kenan Kadi´c and Nihad Hodži´c

95

New Technologies in Agriculture, Ecology, Chemical Processes Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60 . . . . . . . . . 107 Amra Bratovcic Chemical Analysis of Pomegranate Fruits Taken from Different Locations in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Alma Miˇcijevi´c, Aida Šukali´c, Alma Leto, and Sanela Nazdraji´c The Relationship Between Folic Acid and Healthy Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Jia Lijun, Andrea Formato, Giampiero Celenta, and Raffaele Romano Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Zhou Shuai, Raffaele Romano, Giampiero Celenta, and Andrea Formato Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization – Case Study “Sarajevo Šume” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Halilovi´c Velid, Musi´c Jusuf, Kneževi´c Jelena, and Hodži´c Elmin Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation Separatory Processes Consideringthe Distribution of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Sergii Tymchuk, Ivan Abramenko, Vira Shendryk, Yuliia Nechitailo, and Viktor Zhyla Review of Parasitic Nematodes of Fish from the Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Isat Skenderovi´c, Edina Hajdarevi´c, Alen Bajri´c, and Subha Avdi´c An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact on Chemistry, Quality Indicators and Concentrations of Selected Chemical Elements of the River Bregava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Dalila Ivankovi´c and Almir Šestan Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Admir Avdagi´c, Besim Bali´c, Dino Hadžidervišagi´c, and Nejla Kalaˇca

Contents

xi

Models to Estimate a Quality and Structure of Wood Assortment of Standing Trees of Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . 189 Admir Avdagi´c, Besim Bali´c, Ahmet Lojo, and Jusuf Musi´c Evaluation of Properties of Materials for Functional Football Sportswear . . . . . . 197 ˇ ˇ Ivana Salopek Cubri´ c, Goran Cubri´ c, Antonija Petrov, and Tomislav Rolich Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments: Between Classic Processes and the Challenges of New Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Miroslav Vrvi´c Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water with a Human Health Risk Assessment in the City of Mostar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Aida Šukali´c, Alma Leto, Alma Miˇcijevi´c, and Lamija Torlo Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced by Ecological and Technological Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Fatima Muhamedagi´c, Edina Šertovi´c, and Mehmed Cero The Quantum-Chemical Prediction for Some NMR Spectral Parameters in Systems Based on Aromatic Polyamides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Andrey Tokar, Olga Chihvintseva, and Milan Milosavljevi´c Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production in Southeastern Europe – Case Study of Montenegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Dejan Zejak, Branislav Dudic, Gabriela Pajtinková Bartáková, and Katarína Gubíniová New Technologies in Civil Engineering, Architecture, Construction Structural Dynamics of Steel Frames with the Application of Friction Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Angelo Lorusso and Giampieto Celenta Fire Resistance of Steel Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Sanin Dzidic, Amir Ademovic, and Ahmed El Sayed Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation for Structural Design of High-Rise Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Sanin Dzidic, Faruk Avdic, Ahmed El Sayed, and Amir Causevic

xii

Contents

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac in Bosna and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 ´ cez, Kenan Mostarli´c, Merima Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c, Marko Ce´ ´ and Fuad Catovi´ c 3D Digital Reconstruction of Heritage Buildings by Using Old 2d Plans . . . . . . . 292 Nedim Tuno, Admir Mulahusi´c, Gojko Jugovi´c, and Dušan Kogoj Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Nerma Smajlovi´c Orman, Adnan Novali´c, Maja Popovac, and Ahmed El Sayed In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards and Norms of Preschool Education Facilities in Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . 312 Nerma Smajlovi´c Orman, Adnan Novali´c, Maja Popovac, and Ahmed El Sayed Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem Based on Mixed-Integer Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Mateja Držeˇcnik and Uroš Klanšek Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced Soil Structures . . . . . . . . . 336 Danija Ðonko and Azra Špago Airport Pavement Maintenance and Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Muharem Šabi´c, Edvin Šimi´c, and Džubur Damir Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Azra Mahini´c Vrce, Žana Džubur, Merima Salˇcin, and Mirsad Tari´c Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing Through the International Sustainability Rating Systems of Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Kosara Kujundži´c and Slavica Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Yousef Zaarir Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Possible Alternatives Up to Sustainable Construction Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Yousef Zaarir

Contents

xiii

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure with and Without Vertical Edge Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Jovana Jovanovic Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation of Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Emina Japi´c and Aida Huseti´c The Role of Heat Pumps in the Energy Efficiency of Buildings: Review . . . . . . . 414 Aida Huseti´c and Redžo Salki´c Economics, E-Business, Entrepreneurships The Influence of the Quality of Electronic Learning Platforms on Improving the Competences and Performance of Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 ˇ Haris Palalija, Elvir Cizmi´ c, Zijada Rahimi´c, and Munira Šesti´c Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content in Service Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 ˇ Elvir Cizmi´ c, Haris Palalija, Senad Softi´c, and Munira Šesti´c Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee Within Digitalization Context Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 ˇ Elvir Cizmi´ c, Ðevad Šaši´c, Venan Hadžiselimovi´c, and Adil Trgo Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month Interdisciplinary Innovation and Commercialization Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Alyssa Bagoyo, Grace Kilbourn-Barber, Spencer Egbert, Isaac Murri, Meghan Sarles, Ethan Ritchie, and Bryan Howell New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Darko Lovrec Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 Darko Lovrec and Vito Tiˇc Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans . . . . . . 473 Irena Petruši´c and Borislav Ðukanovi´c Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment in Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Ðevad Šaši´c, Merima Tanovi´c, Amel Deli´c, and Amar Kozadra

xiv

Contents

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 - Jakši´c-Stojanovi´c Milorad Katni´c, Ivana Katnic, and Andela Conceptual Foundations for the Formation of the Paradigm of Neo-industrialization in Modern Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Yuri Doroshenko, Irina Malykhina, and Olga Leonova Development of the Raw Material Sector of the Russian Industry in the Post-covid and Sanctions Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Riapukhina Viktoriia The Potential of Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement the Position of Marginalized Categories of the Population . . . 519 Aleksandar Djordjevic and Aleksandra Djordjevic The Concept of Value in Knowledge-Based Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Aurel Mihail T, ît, u, Madalina Maria Pan˘a, and Constantin Oprean How Do We Use Our Social Networks? A Study from Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Amra Kožo and Suada Peštek Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review . . . . . . . . 545 ˇ Denis Berberovi´c, Adi Ali´c, Merima Cinjarevi´ c, and Benjamin Mešanovi´c Assessment of the Readiness of Companies for the Application of Industry 4.0 with the Help of an Expert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 ´ Savo Stupar, Munira Šesti´c, and Isak Karabegovi´c Mirha Biˇco Car, The Impact of Digitalization and Digital Consumption on Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Ilda Kashami and Arjan Çuri Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

List of Contributors

Ivan Abramenko State Biotechnological University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Amir Ademovic Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Adi Ali´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Admir Avdagi´c Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Faruk Avdic Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Subha Avdi´c Biotechnical Faculty, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Alyssa Bagoyo Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Alen Bajri´c Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Besim Bali´c Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Tarik Bali´c Promt Reply BH, Konjic, Bosnia and Herzegovina Gabriela Pajtinková Bartáková Faculty of Management, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia Denis Berberovi´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ´ Mirha Biˇco Car School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Iryna L. Bodnaruk Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine Amra Bratovcic Faculty of Technology, Department of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina ´ Fuad Catovi´ c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Dzemal Bijedic” of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Amir Causevic Faculty of Architecture, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

xvi

List of Contributors

´ cez Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Dzemal Bijedic” of Mostar, Marko Ce´ Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Giampiero Celenta University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy Giampieto Celenta University of Salerno, MEID4 Academic Spin-Off, Fisciano, Italy Mehmed Cero Federal Ministry of the Environment and Tourism, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Olga Chihvintseva Dnipro State Agrarian and Economic University, Dnipro, Ukraine ˇ Merima Cinjarevi´ c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ˇ Elvir Cizmi´ c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ˇ Goran Cubri´ c Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Clothing Technology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Arjan Çuri Department of Psychology and Social Sciences, Mediterranean University, Tirana, Albania Džubur Damir Faculty of Traffic and Communications, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Špago Damir Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University Campus, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” in Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Paul Davidsson Department of Computer Science and Media Technology, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden; Internet of Things and People Research Centre, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden Amel Deli´c Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Vogosca, Bosnia and Herzegovina Aleksandar Djordjevic Technological University, V.G. Shukhov, Belgorod, Russian Federation Aleksandra Djordjevic Faculty of Economics, University of Nis, Nis, Serbia Danija Ðonko Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Yuri Doroshenko Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, Belgorod, Russian Federation Mateja Držeˇcnik Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and Architecture, Chair of Building Structures, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia Branislav Dudic Faculty of Management, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia

List of Contributors

xvii

Borislav Ðukanovi´c Faculty of Applied Psychology, University of DonjaGorica, Podgorica, Montenegro Sanin Dzidic Technical Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bihac, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Ejub Džaferovi´c Mechanical Faculty of Sarajewo, Sarajewo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Žana Džubur Faculty of Civil Engineering, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Spencer Egbert Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Ahmed El Sayed Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Hodži´c Elmin Cantonal Forestry “Sarajevo šume” d.O.O. Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Andrea Formato Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples “Federico II”, Portici, Naples, Italy Katarína Gubíniová Faculty of Management, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia Halima Hadžiahmetovi´c Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dino Hadžidervišagi´c Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Venan Hadžiselimovi´c CEO HIFA-OIL doo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Emina Hadži´c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Edina Hajdarevi´c Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Amra Haseˇci´c Mechanical Faculty of Sarajewo, Sarajewo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Nihad Hodži´c Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Bryan Howell Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Aida Huseti´c Faculty of Technical Engineering, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Azrudin Husika Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Safet Isi´c “Džemal Bijedi´c” University of Mostar – Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

xviii

List of Contributors

Dalila Ivankovi´c Faculty of Education, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina - Jakši´c-Stojanovi´c Faculty of International Economics, Finance and Business, Andela University of DonjaGorica, Podgorica, Montenegro Emina Japi´c Faculty of Technical Engineering, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Kneževi´c Jelena Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Jovana Jovanovic Faculty of Civil Engineering and Management, University Union Nikola Tesla, Belgrade, Serbia Gojko Jugovi´c GEO STUDIO doo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Musi´c Jusuf Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Kenan Kadi´c JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d. - Sarajevo Power utility, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Nejla Kalaˇca Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Isak Karabegovi´c Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Ilda Kashami Department of Education, Communication and Competence Skills, Mediterranean University, Tirana, Albania Ivana Katnic Faculty of International Economics, Finance and Business, University of DonjaGorica, Podgorica, Montenegro Milorad Katni´c Faculty of International Economics, Finance and Business, University of DonjaGorica, Podgorica, Montenegro Anes Kazagic JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d. – Sarajevo Power Utilit, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Grace Kilbourn-Barber Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Uroš Klanšek Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and Architecture, Chair of Construction Management, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia Dušan Kogoj Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Amar Kozadra Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Vogosca, Bosnia and Herzegovina Amra Kožo School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

List of Contributors

xix

Kosara Kujundži´c A TEAM Ltd., Kotor, Montenegro Olga Leonova Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, Belgorod, Russian Federation Alma Leto Faculty of Agromediteranean, USRC “MithatHujdurHujka”, University “DžemalBijedi´c”, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Jia Lijun College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China Ahmet Lojo Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Angelo Lorusso Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy Darko Lovrec Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia Reza Malekian Department of Computer Science and Media Technology, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden; Internet of Things and People Research Centre, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden Irina Malykhina Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, Belgorod, Russian Federation Oleg M. Mandryk Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine Benjamin Mešanovi´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Hata Miliši´c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Milan Milosavljevi´c Department in Belgrade, Naperville, IL, USA Alma Miˇcijevi´c Faculty of Agromediteranean, USRC “MithatHujdurHujka”, University “DžemalBijedi´c”, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Kenan Mostarli´c AIK Engineering, doo Banovi´ci, Banovi´ci, Bosnia and Herzegovina Fatima Muhamedagi´c Biotechnical Faculty, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Admir Mulahusi´c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Isaac Murri Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Jusuf Musi´c Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

xx

List of Contributors

Sanela Nazdraji´c Faculty of Agromediteranean, USRC “MithatHujdurHujka”, University “DžemalBijedi´c”, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Yuliia Nechitailo State Biotechnological University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Adnan Novali´c Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Constantin Oprean Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania Haris Palalija Symphony Digital SA, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Madalina Maria Pan˘a Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Robotics, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Andriy Perekrest Kremenchuk Kremenchuk, Ukraine

Mykhailo

Ostrohradskyi

National

University,

Antonija Petrov Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Clothing Technology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Irena Petruši´c Faculty of Management Herceg Novi, University Adriatic, Meljine, Herceg Novi, Montenegro Suada Peštek School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Maximilian Pleitz Pleitz GmbH, Laucha, Germany Maja Popovac Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Zijada Rahimi´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Mesud Rami´c Pleitz GmbH, Laucha, Germany Ethan Ritchie Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Tomislav Rolich Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Fundamental Natural and Engineering Sciences, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Raffaele Romano Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples “Federico II”, Portici, Naples, Italy Muharem Šabi´c Faculty of Traffic and Communications, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Said Šabi´c Red River College Polytech, Winnipeg, Canada Merima Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Dzemal Bijedic” of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Merima Salˇcin Faculty of Civil Engineering, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

List of Contributors

xxi

Redžo Salki´c Faculty of Technical Engineering, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina ˇ Ivana Salopek Cubri´ c Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Textile Design and Management, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Meghan Sarles Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA Ðevad Šaši´c Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Edina Šertovi´c Biotechnical Faculty, University of Biha´c, Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina Almir Šestan Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Munira Šesti´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sergii Shendryk Sumy National Agrarian University, Sumy, Ukraine Vira Shendryk Department of Computer Science and Media Technology, Internet of Things and People Research Centre, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden; Department of Information Technologies, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine Lubomur S. Shlapak Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine Zhou Shuai College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China Edvin Šimi´c Faculty of Traffic and Communications, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Isat Skenderovi´c Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Nerma Smajlovi´c Orman Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Senad Softi´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Azra Špago Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Damir Špago “Džemal Bijedi´c” University of Mostar – Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Slavica Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c Faculty of Architecture, University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro Savo Stupar School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

xxii

List of Contributors

Aida Šukali´c Faculty of Agromediteranean, USRC “MithatHujdurHujka”, University “DžemalBijedi´c”, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Valeriy Sydorenko Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University, Kremenchuk, Ukraine Merima Tanovi´c Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Vogosca, Bosnia and Herzegovina Mirsad Tari´c Faculty of Tehnical Sciences, University of Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo Vito Tiˇc Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia Aurel Mihail T, ît, u Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania; The Academy of Romanian Scientists, Bucharest, Romania Andrey Tokar Dnipro State Agrarian and Economic University, Dnipro, Ukraine Lamija Torlo University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, USRC “Mithat HujdurHujka”, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Miron Torlo Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University Campus, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” in Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Adil Trgo Faculty of Economics, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Nedim Tuno Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Oleh M. Tuts Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine Sergii Tymchuk State Biotechnological University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Halilovi´c Velid Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Riapukhina Viktoriia Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, Belgorod, Russian Federation Azra Mahini´c Vrce Faculty of Civil Engineering, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Miroslav Vrvi´c Educons University, Sremska Kamenica, Serbia Yousef Zaarir Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University, Ilidža, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dejan Zejak Biotechnical Center, Bijelo Polje, Montenegro Viktor Zhyla State Biotechnological University, Kharkiv, Ukraine

New Technologies in the Energy, Fluids, Power Quality, Advanced Electrical Power Systems

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types in Hybrid Heating Systems Vira Shendryk1,2,3(B) , Reza Malekian1,2 , and Paul Davidsson1,2 1 Department of Computer Science and Media Technology, Malmö University, 20506, Malmö,

Sweden [email protected] 2 Internet of Things and People Research Centre, Malmö University, 20506, Malmö, Sweden 3 Department of Information Technologies, Sumy State University, 40007 Sumy, Ukraine

Abstract. A promising approach to improve sustainability within the energy sector is to incorporate renewable energy sources into existing energy systems. However, such hybrid energy systems have several characteristics that make developing and coordinating the challenging, e.g. due to the need to manage large amounts of heterogeneous data in a distributed and dynamic manner. This paper analyses important characteristics of hybrid heating systems, such as interoperability, scalability, and availability of energy sources. The purpose is to determine how the availability of different energy sources within a hybrid heating system affects sustainability and environmental impact, as well as how interoperability and scalability can affect the overall performance of the hybrid heating system. All these quality characteristic parameters were considered in the aspect of heterogeneous data management. Keywords: Hybrid heating system · Interoperability · Scalability · Availability of energy sources

1 Introduction As reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the UN [1], the way we consume energy urgently needed to change. Clean energy consumption must be accessible to all, meet demands, and not have an adverse environmental impact in order to assure its long-term development [2, 3]. Heating throughout the winter is crucial for many countries. Since the development of heating technology took place much earlier than the development of the use of electrical energy. This field is quite conservative and sometimes has an outdated but fully developed technical base. Thermal energy is most often produced in the process of burning carbon-containing fuels. Additionally, thermal energy is frequently not utilized to its full potential, leading to considerable CO2 emissions and the “greenhouse effect.“ [4]. That these undesired effects can be reduced or even eliminated by implementing two approaches. The first is switching from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. The second involves planning the efficient use of thermal energy that is already on hand. According to recent research [5–8], the development of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 3–13, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_1

4

V. Shendryk et al.

hybrid heating systems, which incorporate central heating with heat pumps and solar panels, is the most promising solution. This approach may reduce carbon-rich fuel usage, addresses the issue of integrating distributed generation into existing energy grids, and lower capital expenditures for conversion. Economic efficiency requires accurate measurement of consumption and generation of thermal energy on the end consumer’s side, as well as distribution of control, and effective management of generation and consumption modes. The creation of hybrid heating systems and their management requires taking into account a number of quality characteristics in order to optimize the coordination of heterogeneous energy sources. This is due to the need for distributed and dynamic management of often very large amounts of heterogeneous data. As a result, it is vital to analyze the interoperability, scalability, and energy source availability of hybrid heating systems from the perspective of heterogeneous data management. In the next section, we will describe the problem addressed in more detail. Further, in the third section, an analysis of energy flows and information flows that accompany them is carried out. The fourth section is devoted to the management hierarchy of hybrid heating systems. Finally, the last section considers the prospects of using intelligent methods to improve the management efficiency of hybrid heating systems.

2 Problem Statement As shown in the report [6], district heating networks can serve as the foundation for building hybrid heating systems, i.e., they can become a valuable resource for larger heating systems. The addition of heterogeneous renewable energy sources and the optimization of their usage requires the integration of numerous access points, and, accordingly, the use of new methods and technologies that can provide data control, coordination of energy sources, and management of energy distribution and consumption. Besides, the development of new planning, operational management, and assessment techniques is necessary due to the complexity of the technical systems used to implement energy infrastructure. These complex energy infrastructure systems must be evaluated in conjunction with renewable energy sources in order to maximize their potential given resource availability, functionality, and configuration. Utilizing a new technological platform enables the improvement of the overall energy efficiency of heat supply systems to a higher level, increases their reliability, and ensures the quality, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness in providing heat to consumers. As the analysis [5] shows, in practice, the accuracy of the information supporting the management process directly affects how effectively hybrid systems operate. The main means for the effective management of energy systems is information. The key factor in the development of new-generation thermal energy networks is ensuring the controllability of both individual elements and the thermal energy system as a whole [9]. Thus, the development of new methods for intelligent information processing and analytical technologies, including models and methods for intellectual analysis, presentation, and evaluation of data, as well as methods for systematization, formalization, and improvement of recent approaches in decision-makings would impact the design, operational management, and assessment of the complex energy infrastructure systems, development of their potential in accordance with the configuration, functional capabilities, and availability of resources is an urgent scientific and practical problem.

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types

5

Therefore, the object of this study is a hybrid heat system based on a centralized heat network with additional renewable energy sources such as heat pumps and/or solar panels. The purpose of this study is to analyze the sustainability, interoperability, and scalability of possible solutions in thermal energy management systems as well as the information flows that go along with the energy flows in the defined levels and techniques of energy management.

3 Analysis of the Life Cycle of Energy The life cycle of energy goes through three main stages, which are managed by different components of energy systems. The first stage of the energy life cycle is the process of energy generation. In a hybrid heating system, thermal energy can be obtained from, for instance: • The burning of fossil fuel, biogas, or other types of burning fuel, in central heating boiler plants, • Heat exchange processes provided by heat pumps, • The sun’s radiation, which is collected by solar collectors. Also, for the operation of heat pumps, electricity is used, which can be obtained from electrical networks or produced by solar panels. Each of the energy sources can work independently [10]. It is technologically feasible to employ several different energy sources in a hybrid heating system. The energy generation process depends on many external factors, such as fuel or electricity availability and weather conditions. Some of these factors are not easy to predict, and their impact on cogeneration is not well studied. The overall efficiency of the hybrid heating system depends on determining the effective mode of combining possible energy sources.That is, management of thermal energy generation is possible due to the connection/disconnection of energy sources in different combinations. Thus, the quality of this process is characterized by such quality indicators as interoperability and availability. The second stage of the energy life cycle is energy delivery and distribution. At this stage, delivery and distribution are provided by heat pipe systems and ventilation systems. Pumps and fans in these systems are powered by electricity. Modes of operation of delivery and distribution systems are almost constant, fluctuating within determined ranges. The mode changes considerably only when the delivery and distribution system is structurally rearranged or when demand or generation points are added or removed. As a rule, this stage does not affect the control of the hybrid heating system. The parameters of this stage are tried to be fixed at the maximum possible level to ensure the most efficient delivery of heat [11]. This stage can be characterized only by the criterion of scalability, since the scale of the heating system changes due to the addition or removal of new sources and consumers. The third stage of the thermal energy life cycle is consumption. This stage is technically supported by heat exchange devices. The effectiveness of this stage is determined by the existing norms and rules of consumption, the cost of heat services, and the level of comfort provision. This process is also influenced by weather conditions, current conditions in the premises, thermal properties of the premises and heat exchange devices,

6

V. Shendryk et al.

and the schedule when the premises are in use e.g. office hours for commercial buildings or occupancy in residential buildings [12]. It is the comfort of the consumer of thermal energy, their satisfaction with the conditions, and their compliance with existing regulations that are the primary general characteristics of the heating system’s efficiency. The management of a hybrid heating system is done by altering thermal energy consumption, or by connecting or disconnecting auxiliary sources in response to user requirements [13]. Therefore, it is at this stage that the user’s need for thermal energy is determined. This stage can be characterized by such a criterion as sustainability. The life cycle of energy is accompanied by relevant information flows. Data on the current state of the heating system and its components are collected by appropriate metering devices. Figure 1 shows the correspondence between the life cycle of energy and information flows.

Thermal Production

Physical Layer Components that Ensure the Life Cycle of Thermal Energy

Energy

Delivery Distribution Thermal Energy

and of

Central Heating Boiler Plants - Heat Pipe Heat Pumps

Systems Buildings, Exchange Devices, Meters

Solar Collectors

The Level of Information Support that Ensures the Life Cycle of Thermal Energy

Thermal Energy Consumption

• Planning for Renewable Energy Integration • Load Management • Optimization of Thermal Energy Flows • Forecasting the Production of Thermal Energy

• Network Monitoring and Analysis • Fault Detection

Heat and

• Building Energy Management • Consumption Forecasting

Fig. 1. Correspondence between the life cycle of energy and information flows.

4 Hierarchy of Organizational Management Layers Increasing the productivity and reliability of heating systems and the quality of heat supply services are based on monitoring, control, and management of modes. Each of

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types

7

Fig. 2. Hierarchy management levels of hybrid heating systems.

these types of activities is at a different level of management and is supported by various tools of information management. Figure 2 depicts the hierarchy of management levels. Data from the physical level pass through all stages and reach the business level. At this level, management’s goal is determined, and the act of management itself, in the form of controlling influences, takes place at the border between the component, communication, and information levels with the help of Edge Computing. At the current stage, various approaches are widely used for the management of heating systems, which are implemented automatically with the help of Edge Computing. In fact, it is used to adjust the parameters of the heating system in accordance with the previously specified rules, such as: • Maintaining the predetermined air temperature in the consumer’s premises at a constant level;

8

V. Shendryk et al.

• Setting of air temperature regulation in the consumer’s premises according to a predetermined schedule; • Setting the air temperature regulation in the consumer’s premises according to the indoor air temperature sensor and according to the specified schedule at the same time; • Setting of air temperature regulation in the consumer’s premises depending on the change in the outside air temperature; • Setting of air temperature regulation in the consumer’s premises according to the schedule; • Setting of air temperature regulation in the consumer’s premises by software with separate control of the control system circuits. This implementation of management approaches is not unequivocally sustainable for hybrid heating systems, since most processes in them are not strictly deterministic. Most processes, such as generation from heat sources whose productivity is related to changes in weather conditions, or consumption that takes into account the needs of the user and changes in environmental conditions, or fluctuations in the cost of energy carriers, are sufficiently stochastic. Changes in heat supply and demands affect data input/output conditions, data collection procedures, and the formation of large data sets [14]. Thus, it can be argued that we have multidirectional flows of information. They accompany the life cycle of energy i.e., they are bidirectional at the lower physical level, and they are also bidirectional and run vertically, connecting the levels of control. The management of means in two-way communication between the elements of hybrid networks, generating sources, and final consumers take place at the expense of hardware, software, and information support. It should also be noted that there is a rather significant gap between the functional, informational, communication, component, physical, and business levels. It is at the business level that qualitative indicators of the functioning of the heating system are determined, such as the need for heat, consumer comfort, and economic and environmental aspects. This is the level of defining the goals of strategic development and strategic management. The return flow of information from this level to the levels that are lower in the hierarchy occurs rather weakly and has a weak impact on the management process. The management process becomes complex and requires the involvement of intelligent solutions. The issues of interoperability, scalability, and availability of hybrid heating system components are dependent onthe effective management of data flows and the use of intelligent energy life cycle management solutions.

5 Features of Decision-Making and Data Management Management of hybrid heating systemsmainly consists of choosing a control solution. At the same time, the management process takes different lengths of time. The development of the management process takes place both tactically - current tasks are solved online and strategically - tasks of sustainable development are solved. Tactical

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types

9

management takes place automatically in online mode. To implement this management, data on the current state of the heating system is collected. This management is performed using Edge Computing. Strategic management requires the collection and accumulation of data, their analysis, and obtaining appropriate decisions based on them. The issues of interoperability, scalability, and accessibility also relate to issues of strategic management. However, it is not possible to use classic methods for optimization or decisionmaking, since the choice of solutions is simultaneously a multi-criteria and multi-task problem that requires multi-objective optimization techniques. Thus, the data used in the decision-making process should be divided into two streams: operational data characterizing the current state of the heating system, for making tactical decisions regarding operational management, and historical data, which contains information about the state of the heating system over the long term, for the formulation of strategic management decisions. Problems arise when processing these data streams to identify information and generate knowledge in the decision-making process. The flow of data in the decision-making process is shown in Fig. 3. In the decision-making process, there are challenges related to the availability of big data [15]. They can be divided into three main groups. These include data issues, data management issues, and data analytics issues. 1. Decisions that were previously based on certain information and calculations should be made on the basis of real-time data flows. The resulting data streams have different properties and lead to some problems related to volume, diversity, and speed [16]. The amount of data is constantly increasing, and managing the streaming data is a challenge. Speed refers to the speed of data generation and the time it takes to process and analyze it. Most analytical approaches are unable to cope with this huge and rapid flow of data. The variety of data generated is also expanding, and the ability to process this data is becoming more complex. The methods used to plan and manage the process must change to realize the potential of big data. 2. The rapid growth of data in hybrid heatingsystems faces the challenge of managing it while ensuring the security and reliability of the heatingnetwork. Management should ensure that data is accessible and usable while complying with all relevant data security laws and regulations. If data is used to support complex analysis and decision-making, it must be accurate and complete. Distributed intelligence must be based on practical and theoretical analysis to select useful data for decision-making on large volumes of data. 3. Often collected big data are not ready to be analyzed by some methods unless some issues such as heterogeneity and incompleteness are addressed. Even though the data is filtered, some errors in the data remain. These errors must be eliminated during data analysis.

10

V. Shendryk et al.

Fig. 3. The flow of data in the decision-making process.

6 An Intelligent Approach to the Decision-Making Process When Managing Hybrid Heating Systems The management of heating systems must change in order to ensure the clean energy industry’s long-term growth and accessibility without endangering the environment. The development of intelligent technologies enables the adaptation of suitable methodologies to shifts according to the management requirements of hybrid heating systems. When managing hybrid heating systems, it is necessary to control the distributed production of thermal energy from heterogeneous sources of thermal energy, to incorporate renewable energy sources into the central heating network. Moreover, in order to guarantee the efficient and economical consumption of thermal energy, it is crucial to use intelligent measurements, data analytics, and intelligent methods of forecasting the possible level of generation, particularly from weather-dependent energy sources, as well as intelligent forecasting of rational consumption, in addition to traditional technologies. Figure 4 shows how the stages of the energy life cycle are related to the use of intelligent technologies [17–19]. Intelligent technologies allow for solving the issues of strategic management of interoperability, scalability, and accessibility. The resolution of these issues takes place at the business level of the proposed hierarchy of the management levels in Fig. 2 since it is through this level that the main stakeholders influence the management process. For the implementation of intelligent technologies, it is practical to create decision support systems over the automated control system of the heating system, and intelligent computing technology as a supplement to Edge Computing technology. The behavior of the heating system and its components in the past, in the present, and forecasts of the heating system’s potential modes of operation, taking into consideration stakeholder needs and weather conditions, are all necessary for making strategic decisions. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the possibility to store data onthe cloudand ensure their intelligent processing [20]. Combining cloud computing, which has good possibilities in terms of storage and data processing capacity, with the IoT, which offers

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types

11

pervasive and comprehensive computing scenarios, is promising at this time. Cloud computing and the IoT are complementary because of their inherent characteristics [21]. This allows for the organization of information flow from the business level of the hierarchy management levels to the component level, enhancing the management process’s overall quality.

Fig.4. The relation between the stages of the energy life cycle and the use of intelligent technologies.

7 Conclusion Energy transformation is required to meet sustainable development goals. Eco-friendly processes, the availability of thermal energy, and the degree of consumer comfort with the least usage of carbon-containing energy resources are the key factors promoting these transformation processes. Currently, there is a transition underway from conventional heating systems to new hybrid systems, which incorporate several distributed renewable sources. This research study demonstrated that the optimal functioning of such systems depends on functional compatibility, scalability, and availability of energy sources. The increasing complexity

12

V. Shendryk et al.

of the technical system makes its management more challenging. Furthermore, it was shown that the life cycle of energy is accompanied by bidirectional flows of information. In addition, managing hybrid heating systems is challenging due to the hierarchical multi-level management system. Management of heating systems should also be divided into tactical and strategic. The strategic management of a hybrid heating system aids in choosing the appropriate solution that is financially and environmentally affordable and green, which refers to the most optimal, under the current conditions and mode of operation. Intelligent technologies aids to resolve interoperability, scalability, and availability management issues. Edge computing technologies should be used when making decisions about the optimal online mode of operation. Edge Computing, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing technologies can be coupled to assure strategic decision-making. The Internet of Things technology allows the bidirectional flow of information between the levels of the management hierarchy. In further research, more focus should be placed on the development and combination of these technologies, as well as the relevant standards. Acknowledgement. This work is supported by the Knowledge Foundation (Stiftelsen för kunskaps- ochkompetensutveckling) for the project titled Intelligent Management of Hybrid Energy Systems under Grant No. 20220111-H-01, and partially for the project titled Intelligent and Trustworthy IoT Systems under Grant No. 20220087-H-01.

References 1. #Envision2030: 17 goals to transform the world for persons with disabilities. https://www. un.org/development/desa/disabilities/envision2030.html 2. #Envision2030 Goal 7: affordable and clean energy. https://www.un.org/development/desa/ disabilities/envision2030-goal7.html 3. What is renewable energy? https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-renewable-energy 4. Climate change: atmospheric carbon dioxide. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/unders tanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide 5. Volt, J., et al.: Status report on technology development. Trends, Value Chains and Markets, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 2022 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 2760/168004,JRC130726 6. The report ‘Large Heat Pumps in District Heating and Cooling systems’ by Euroheat & Power, December (2022). Author: Market Intelligence Unit, Euroheat & Power. Eloi Piel; Crélida Mata 7. Jesper, M., Schlosser, F., Pag, F., Schmitt, B., Walmsley, T.G., Vajen, K.: Large-scale heat pumps: market potential and barriers, classification and estimation of efficiency. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 137, 110646 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110646 (2019) 8. Marina A., Spoelstra S., Zondag H.A., Wemmers A.K. An estimation of the European industrial heat pump market potential, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 139, 110545 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110545 9. Pedersen, S.: Annex 47: heat pumps in district heating and cooling systems. https://etkhpc orderapi.extweb.sp.se/api/file/2053 10. Toffanin, R., Caputo, P., Belliardi, M., Curti, V.: Low and ultra-low temperature district heating equipped by heat pumps—an analysis of the best operative conditions for a swiss case study. Energies 15, 3344 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093344

Interoperability, Scalability, and Availability of Energy Types

13

11. Baranova, I.V., Parfenenko, Y.V., Nenja, V.G.Complex mathematical model for computer calculation of delivery and heat distribution in pipeline system. In: Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems: Technology and Applications, IDAACS2011, pp. 556–559, 6072828 (2011) 12. Zagirnyak, M., Perekrest, A., Ogar, V., Chebotarova, Ye., Mur, O.: Segmentation of heat energy consumers based on data on daily power consumption. Naukovyi Visnyk Natsionalnoho Hirnychoho Universytetu, pp. 89–96 (2) (2021) 13. Perekrest, A., Chornyi, O., Mur, O., Kuznetsov, V., Kuznetsova, Y.: Preparation and preliminary analysis of data on energy consumption by municipal buildings. Eastern-Europ. J. Enterprise Technol. 6(8–96), 32–42 (2018) 14. Perekrest, A., Konokh, I., Kushch-Zhyrko, M.: Administrative buildings heating automatic control based on maximum efficiency criterion. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Modern Electrical and Energy Systems, pp. 202–205, 8896517. MEES 2019 (2019) 15. Mohamed, A., Refaat, S. S., Abu-Rub, H.: . A review on big data management and decisionmaking in smart grid. Power Electron. Drives 4, 1–13 (2019) 16. Gungor, V., Lu, B., Hancke, G.: Opportunities and challenges of wireless sensor networks in smart grid. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 57(10), 3557–3564 (2010) 17. El Adl, F.A.: Debunking The Myths And Reality Of Artificial Intelligence. 22 April 2019 18. Newgenapps, S.: Artificial Intelligence vs Machine Learning vs Data Science. 7 November 2017 19. Medium, I.B.: Artificial Intelligence vs. Machine Learning vs. Deep Learning. What is the difference? 16 August 2019 20. Malekian, R., Bogatinoska, D.C., Karadimce, A., Ye, N., Trengoska, J.: William Asiama Nyako. A Novel Smart ECO Model for EnergyConsumption Optimization, Elektronika Ir Elektrotechnika 21(6), 75–80 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.eee.21.6.13771 21. Cloud IoT concepts, paradigms, and applications. Verma, J.K., Saxena, D.K., GonzálezPrida Díaz, V., Shendryk, V. (eds.) Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/978100 3155577 (2022)

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine and Effects to Natural Gas Consumption and Carbon Footprint Mesud Rami´c1(B) , Maximilian Pleitz1 , Ejub Džaferovi´c2 , and Amra Haseˇci´c2 1 Pleitz GmbH, Laucha, Germany

[email protected] 2 Mechanical Faculty of Sarajewo, Sarajewo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. In this study, the drying process of the industrial drying machine for textiles was examined in terms of natural gas consumption, savings and reduction of carbon footprint. The study has been based on experimental part, CFD analysis as well the economic and thermodynamic calculation. Cases without heat recovery and with heat recovery were compared. The calculation was undertaken assuming energy savings and carbon footprint reduction after installation of a heat exchanger. It shows the fuel consumption and carbon footprint of a stenter that can be decreased significantly using heat recovery exchangers. Using close to 20% of recovered energy in total consumption leads to significant reduction of carbon footprint. To illustrate the results, these are compared with the CO2 absorption capacity of a mixed forest and set in relation to a specific number of trees. Keywords: Energy Efficiency · Heat Recovery · Waste Heat · Decarbonisation · GHG

1 Introduction In the most energy-intensive industrial sectors, such as the cement, glass, textile, metallurgical industries, widespread use of energy recovery systems can be found, by which a strong reduction of energy consumption and, consequently, of greenhouse gas emissions may be achieved [1]. This study has been written in times of intensive energy price increases as well as increasing supply shortages of fossil energy sources. This development represents a great risk for industrialized countries without raw material deposits. One way to reduce primary energy demand and thus dependence on imported raw materials is to use waste heat. In the context of global warming, the assessment of greenhouse gases (GHGs), their management mechanisms and means of emission, is becoming one of the biggest concerns in research into eco-environmental management [2]. It deals with the environmental issues from conventional production, finishing processes, and the sustainable options in the textile sector in terms of technologies, machines, and chemicals to make finishing a sustainable process [3]. This study represents the investigation of the energy consumption on textile drying machine (M1) of the type ARTOS © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 14–21, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_2

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine

15

BABCOCK without waste heat utilization, its theoretical analysis, calculation as well as a CFD calculation as the basis to generate data inputs for the further calculation of energy consumption with waste heat utilization. This drying machine consists of nine drying chambers for textile processing and each chamber is heated by a gas burner with an output of 350 kW. The fact that the system has a total of 3,150 kW of installed thermal power on this machine represents an enormous challenge and motivation to analyze the energy consumption and to analyze potentials for optimizing consumption and energy efficiency. Cases without heat recovery and with heat recovery were compared. The calculation was undertaken for assumption of energy savings and carbon footprint reduction after installing an additional component to the system [4].

2 Method The methodology for this study has been showed in Fig. 1. The method based on seven steps include actual status and appropriate analysis as well as the simulation of new status with heat recovery calculation. Steps are next: 1– actual machine connection to public gas line overview, 2– analysis of the drying machine and its function, 3– calculation of actual gas consumption of the machine, 4– considered data of appropriate CFD analysis, 5– calculation of heat waste potential, 6– new concept with heat exchanger and 7– new energy consumption calculation with heat recovery. Machine M1 is one of four different machines connected to a measuring point MRS1 in parallel to a unique gas pipeline. Machine was built in 1986 and modified in 2012 and used without heat recover system

Fig. 1. Methodology of the study

16

M. Rami´c et al.

[5]. Based on the experimental part from study [6] inputs for this research are showed in Table 1 Table. 1 Measured/Read Values March

April

May

June

July

Total gas cons. Tm3

41,72

42,65

38,70

39,76

36,15

Hd in kJ/Sm3

34.075,60

34.075,60

34.075,60

34.075,60

34.075,60

Gas Consumption M1 in %

51

51

51

51

51

Calc. Gas price EUR/1000m3

507,20

507,20

507,20

507,20

507,20

CO2 emissions TCO2 /TJ

56,1

56,1

56,1

56,1

56,1

Furthermore, the data from the CFD study for the numerical simulation were used as additional data source for the calculation of the energy consumption. The investigation model in CFD study was based on the finite volume methodology and the numerical solution of equations is based on methods of discretization [7].In the numerical simulation, a mixture model of the fluid was used that simulates the phases of water and evaporation, a model of the solid used for material properties. Textile within the section was approximated as a porous medium, calculating its porosity properties. The mixing flow was simulated using the RANS approach for the three-phase flow [8]. The results of the temperature calculation in the machine are shown in Fig. 2. The temperature field distribution correlates significantly with the shape of the arrangement of nozzles. It shows that the temperature in the middle of the textile is the lowest and increases vertically and

Fig. 2 Temperature distribution in textile center (links) and distribution of air density 50mm above the textile for time steps t1 = 0.25s, t2 = 0.5s, t3 = 0.75s, t4 = 1s.

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine

17

towards the nozzle openings. In the central part of the nozzle, the temperatures on each viewing plane are lower than at the edges of the circles [9]. Based of the CFD analysis of the machine and taken values from Fig. 2 for the further calculation, the values showed in Table 2 are used. Table. 2 Read values for calculation Outlet temperature air °C

148,00

Mixture density kg/m3

0,84

Outside air temperature °C

3 to 20

Sp. Heat Cap. Min in J/kgK

1.017,00

Sp. Heat Cap. Max in J/kgK

2.014,00

Air velocity in m/s

27,47

Pressure in Pas

287

3 Results As new heat recower concept has been defined process flow with appropriated air-air heat exchanger showed in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. Heat recovery concept

Heat recovery potential estimation: QABmin

July    = cMin ∗ ρkoef ∗ V ∗ T March

QABmin =

July  March

1.017, 00 ∗ 0, 84 ∗ (10.000 ∗ 307) ∗ (148 − T )

(1)

18

M. Rami´c et al.

QABmin = 1.781.933MJ QABmax =

July    cMin ∗ ρkoef ∗ V ∗ T

(2)

March

QABmax =

July 

2.014, 00 ∗ 0, 84 ∗ (10.000 ∗ 307) ∗ (148 − T )

March

QABmax = 3.528.822MJ where the symbols and dimensions refer to: QABmax – Maximum waste heat potential in kJ; QABmin – Minimum waste heat potential in kJ; cM –Specific heat capacityof the exhaust air J/kgK; ρkoef –Air density in kg/m3 ; V – Air volume in m3 /h; T – Outside air temperature in °C. Heat exchanger assumption: QairIN =

July  

cMin ∗ ρkoef ∗ V ∗ T



(3)

Marc

QairIN =

July 

1.017, 00 ∗ 1, 01 ∗ (10.000 ∗ 307) ∗ (55 − T )

Marc

QairIN = 668.584MJ QABM 1 =

July    cM ∗ ρkoef ∗ m ∗ T

(4)

March

QABM 1 =

July  2.014, 00 + 1.017, 00 ∗ 0, 84 ∗ (10.000 ∗ 307) ∗ (T − 75) 2

March

QABM 1 = 1.427.411MJ αVor =

QairIN 668.584 = 46.84% = QABM 1 1.427.411

(5)

αREK =

QairtIN 668.584 = 19.33% = QM 1 3.457.985

(6)

where the symbols and dimensions refer to: QairIN – Heat requirement for increasing the outside air temperature to 55 °C in kJ;

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine

19

QABM 1 – Exhaust air heat that exists in the reduction from 148 °C to 75 °C of the exhaust air in kJ; αREK – Proportion of recuperative energy in the total energy of the machine in %; αVor – Proportion of preheat in waste heat %. New energy consumption and CO2 reduction [10]: QM 1NEW = QM 1 − QairIN = 3.457.985 − 668.584 = 2.789.401MJ QM 1 3.457.985, 2 = 101, 48Tm3 = Hd 34.075, 60

(8)

QM 1 − QairIN 3.457.985 − 668.584 = 81.86Tm3 = Hd 34.075, 60

(9)

mngasOLD = mngasNEW =

(7)

mgas = mgasOLD − mgasNEW = 101.48 − 81.86 = 19.62Tm3

(10)

G M 1 = GM 1ALT − GM 1NEW = 51.470, 56 − 41.518, 89 = 9.951, 67Eur

(11)

Co2AusM 1NEW = QM 1NEW ∗ Co2koef = 2.789.401 ∗ 56, 1 = 156.485kg

(12)

Co2 = Co2OLD − Co2NEW = 193.993 − 156.485 = 37.508kg

(13)

where the symbols and dimensions refer to: mngas – Total gas quantity in Tm3 ; kJ Hd –Heating capacity of the gas supplied in Sm 3; GM 1 – Gas costs of the machine M1 inEur; CO2 – Emission Co2 of the machine M1 for the test time in kg; Old –Without heat exchanger; New– With heat exchanger. Results summarized in Table 3. Table 3. Calculated values by months of test time

Air temperature outside °C

March

April

May

June

July

3

8

13

17

20

Exhaust heat Max in MJ

753.578

727.592

701.607

680.818

665.227

Exhaust air heat Min in MJ

380.530

367.409

354.287

343.790

335.917

Air heat AT °C- > 55 °C in MJ

162.460

146.839

131.217

118.721

109.348

Waste heat 148 °C > 75 °C in MJ

285.482

285.482

285.482

285.482

285.482 (continued)

20

M. Rami´c et al. Table 3. (continued) March

April

May

June

July

Prop. Preheat in waste heat %

57%

51%

46%

42%

38%

Share of direct energy in total %

22%

20%

19%

17%

17%

New energy cons. of M1 in MJ

566.643

598.517

545.107

576.129

522.413

Gas consumption OLD. in Tm3

21,4

21,87

19,85

20,39

18,54

Gas consumption NEW. in Tm3

16,63

17,56

16,00

16,91

15,33

Gas consumption diff. in Tm3

4,77

4,31

3,85

3,48

3,21

Gas savings in EUR

2.418,15

2.185,63

1.953,12

1.767,11

1.627,60

Total CO2 emissions in kg NEW

31.789

33.577

30.581

32.321

29.307

CO2 reduction in kg

9.113,99

8.237,64

7.361,30

6.660,22

6.134,41

CO2 forest for 20 years in Ha

1800- > equiv. to 165-hectare mixed forest or 247.500 individual tree absorption performance

4 Conclusion Improving efficiency in the use of energy and reducing its consumptionmay be useful tools in the management and control of energy to reduce textile industrial CFPs. The presented study showes a solution for waste heat utilization in the textile industry. The waste heat potential of a drying machine was analyzed and calculated energy consumption and footprint for a case with air-air heat exchanger. The savings that can be achieved in this way can be of great advantage, especially for the international competition. The resulting competitive advantage can only have a positive effect on the local economy and ecology. If this system were air-air heat exchanger was simulated for process air preheating, savings of around 115 TEUR would be made in five years of machine expoitation. The reduction in CO2 emissions would benefit with 1.800 tons in 20 years of system exploitation. With a referent CO2 revenue factor per hectare of forest, this CO2 reduction corresponds to an performance of approx. 165 hectare of mixed forest. Taking in to account the estimated number of tree in one hectare of forest, this corresponds to performance of around 247.500 individual trees.

References 1. Ciappi, L., et al.: Heat recovery for a textile stenter: cfd analysis of air curtain benefits In: Published: Energies 12, 482 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/en12030482. https://www.mdpi. com/journal/energies 2. Yan, Y., et al.: Industrial carbon footprint of several typical Chinese textile fabrics. Acta Ecol. Sin. 36, 119–125 (2016) 3. Muthu, S.: Sustainable textiles: production, processing, manufacturing & chemistry. In: ISBN 978–3–030–38545–3 (eBook)

Energy Efficiency of Industrial Drying Machine

21

4. Pleitz, M.: Optimierung des Primärenergieeinsatzes sowie die Reduktion der CO2Emissionen einer industriellen Trocknungsanlage. In: Bachelorthesis at University of Applied Science Erfurt 10 (2022) 5. Ramic, M., et al.: Energy flow analysis of stenter Artos Babckock by textile producer Prevent Fabrics. In: Proceedings. 16th World Textile Conference AUTEX 2016. Ljubljana (Slovenia), pp. 8–10 (2016) 6. Ramic, M., et al.: Dependence analysis of parameters from thermo-fixing process based on IBM SPSS Statistical tool. In: Proceedings IEEP Conference, Zlatibor, SRB, pp. 21–24 (2017) 7. Ramic, M., et al.: Numerical analysis of drying process in stenter frame section. In: 19th ICNAAM conference of numerical analysis and applied mathematics. AIP Conference Proceedings 2293 by AIP Publishing, Rhodes, Greece, pp. 20–26 (2021) 8. Dzaferovic, E., et al.: Temperature and density distribution in an industrial stenter frame based on three-dimensional numerical simulation. Textile Res. J. 92, 2317–2326 (2022) 9. Hasecic, M., et al.: CFD investigation of textile drying temperature and density in a industrial stenter frame section. In: Proceedings of the 32nd DAAAM International Symposium. Katalinic, B. (ed.) Published by DAAAM International, Vienna, Austria (2021) 10. Juhrich, K.: Climate Change,CO2 -Emissionsfaktoren für fossile Brennstoffe. Fachgebiet Emmisionssituation. In: Umweltbundesamt, 06 (2016)

Renewable Energy Sources Photovoltaic Power Plants and Constructive Solutions Related to Locality and Climate Miron Torlo1(B) , Tarik Bali´c2 , and Špago Damir1 1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University Campus, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” in

Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Promt Reply BH, Marsala TitaKonjic, 88400 Konjic, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Energy consumption is increasing every day, which is why renewable energy is increasingly being offered as one of the most important solutions in the fight against climate change and the energy crisis. Exactly one of these forms is solar energy. Solar radiation is directly converted to heat or electricity. The conversion is done by different devices, some of which are photovoltaic cells for generating electricity. This paper shows how to increase the energy efficiency of photovoltaic power plants with a somewhat different approach to constructive solutions of loadbearing structure. Constructive solutions in this paper are causally related to the geographical position and the local climate. A particularly constructive solution was made in the paper with technical and economic analysis. Keywords: Energy efficency · Sunlight · Photovoltaic cells · Construction

1 Introduction In Herzegovina, more precisely, the construction of a solar park began some ten years ago at the Hodovo site, approximately twenty kilometers south of Mostar. In this period, more than fifty photovoltaic power plants with an installed capacity of 150 kW were built, the construction of five power plants of 5 MW and one of 100 MW is underway. As for the built power plants most of them are fixed one smaller number are partially mobile manually mobile by slope by quarters, and one is biaxially mobile. The experience gained in the previous period has shown that the initial investment in two-axis power plants is 30% higher than the investment in fixed power plants, while the production of mobile power plants is higher by 40% [1, 2]. Climatic conditions in the Hodovo site have the following characteristics: There are between 260 and 270 sunny days. There are also almost no snowflakes in this area. Analyzing the positioning data by elevation of biaxial mobile power plants, it was concluded that the value of average angles does not correspond to the computational value for this geographical position, which is 32.6°. Because of the above, we have made a constructive solution that suits such climatic conditions and averagely measured angles. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 22–28, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_3

Renewable Energy Sources Photovoltaic Power Plants

23

2 New Solution of Load-Bearing Structure of Photovoltaic Panels Today, at the time of the global energy crisis caused by the war in Ukraine, when the price of MWh of electricity in Europe reaches 500 euros production of electricity from photovoltaic cells is becoming more lucrative [3]. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a deserted island, but is part of the global world, all energy events are reflected in its energy market. For these reasons, there are more and more investors investing in solar power plants, especially in the area of Herzegovina [4, 5]. In the period of 10 years that the intensive maintenance of solar power plants in Herzegovina, especially at the Hodova site, unspecified experiences have been gained. The specific locality has between 260 and 270 sunny days with minimal snowfall that occurs in the period of 5 or more years. Two-axis mobile power plants on the x axis have the possibility of rotation of 60°, and per y axis 90o [6]. A y-axis rotation of 90° is required to shake off the snow from the panel when it is registered by a snow sensor. Which means enough rotation on the y axis is conditioned by the sun’s shift in a northsouth direction that depends on the season. The rotation on the x axis depends on the movement of the sun in the east-west direction and it is always about 60o .

Fig. 1. Single and dual– axis solar tracking system [6, 7]

Characteristic of this constructive solution shown in Fig. 1 is that the machinery for starting two axes is very complex and attached to the load-bearing structure at one point by hinged connection. Also, the construction is very robust to transfer loads from one point to the entire assembly. A uniaxial mobile power plant is suitable for the equator zone a construction much lighter and simpler mechanism for rotation. Our solution is a combination of two-axis displacement of the panels with a simple rotation mechanism and a lightweight construction (Fig. 2). The specifics of this solution are that the elevation change is done manually, twice a year on the summer and winter equinox. And east-west displacement is done by

24

M. Torlo et al.

Fig. 2. Our constructive solution

an electric motor controlled by sensors. It is still important to note that the angle of inclination for the site Hodova is 32.6°, however, experientially, by analyzing the data obtained from the mobile power plant “GP TOMING” it was concluded that the angles of inclination for the summer period should be 14°, and winter period 24°. The reason for such deviations is that the sunrise during the year ranges from the southeast all the way to the northeast, the sunset ranges from the southwest all the way to the northwest. These angles increase the efficiency of the power plant. Table 1. Dependence of the sun’s intrusion angle and losses [8] The angle of the sun’s intrusion

loss

The angle of the sun’s intrusion

loss

0°

0%

15°

3,4%

1°

0,015%

30°

13,4%

3°

0,14%

45°

30%

8°

1%

60°

> 50%

23,4°

8,3%

75°

> 75%

Table 1 shows that for greater deviations of the angle of sun intrusion of 0o and losses grow exponentially. And these biggest deviations occur primarily in fixed power plants when the sun rises and when it sets with this correction of angles from 32.6° to 14o for the period of summer and 26o period of winter losses are significantly reduced. The classic two-axis mobile power plant has a higher efficiency than a fixed one by 40% and the price is 30% more expensive, the profit in the investment return period is higher by 10%. With our solution, due to the simplicity of the construction, the price is

Renewable Energy Sources Photovoltaic Power Plants

25

higher by 10% compared to fixed power plants, and the efficiency is higher by 30%, and the profit in the investment return period is higher by 20%.

Fig. 3. Parts of the structure [9]

Figure 3 displays elements of construction, it is made with standard elements and assemblies that can be purchased for sale without special orders.

Fig. 4. Connections with the foundations

Figure 4 represents the structural solution of the foundation with connections, while Fig. 5 shows the standard aluminum frame in the form of a grid for panel mounting.

26

M. Torlo et al.

Fig. 5. Standard aluminium frame

Fig. 6. Drawing of the entire assembly

Figure 6 shows the entire assembly designed in this work for panel mounting.

3 Comparison of a Classic Two-Axis Mobile Power Plant with Our Constructive Solution (Technical and Economic) In the following table we will give a comparison of a two-axis mobile power plant with our solution (Fig. 7).

Renewable Energy Sources Photovoltaic Power Plants

27

Fig. 7. Classic and our solution [10]

3.1 Technical Analysis and Comparison

Table 2. Comparison of classic and our solution Classic

Our

Movement mechanism is technically complex

The movement mechanism is simple

Structure of the construction is massive

Structure construction is lightweight

Foundations are massive

Foundations are lightweight

Maintenance of the structure is more expensive due to complexity

Maintenance of structure is cheaper due simplicity, and all are standard elements

3.2 Economical Analysis and Comparison The cost of making a two-axis mobile power plant is 30% more expensive than the price of making a fixed power plant, the efficiency is 40% higher. The cost of making our two-axis movable constructive solution is 10% higher than a fixed power plant, and the efficiency is 30% higher. From the above it can be concluded that in the period of return on investment our solution is more profitable, while for the entire duration of the power plant the classical power plant will earn more, noting that the initial investment of our solution is smaller and the time of return on investment is shorter.

4 Conclusion There are two reasons why it is necessary to invest in environmentally justified energy sources, namely global confinement (climate change) and the global energy crisis caused by the war in Ukraine. Solar energy has recently become increasingly popular among investors in Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in Herzegovina. The famous Nobel Laureate Ivo Andri´c said that Mostar is the city of light, when in fact the whole Herzegovina

28

M. Torlo et al.

is characterized by light. At the annual level, the average is 270 sunny days, so this is the main reason why investors are interested in investing in photovoltaic power plants in this area. Another reason is the configuration of terrain and the type of soil (rocky areas) that are easier to adapt to the purpose of solar power plants than for agriculture or something else. In ten years of intensive construction of solar power plants on Hodovo, 20 km south of Mostar, it has shown that if fixed power plants are placed at the angle of inclination in the summer period at 14°, and in winter at 26° increase energy performance. The reason is that the sun rises only twice in the east during the year, just as it sets in the west. That is, sunrise moves from south-east to north-east, and sunset from south-west to north-west so that with these corners a greater acceptance of light is achieved. By applying these angles of inclination to the movable structure as shown in this paper we get an energy-efficient power plant, and a constructive simple solution that cheapens the investment. From the above it can be seen that such a constructive solution shortens the period of return on investment, which frees up funds for further investments. Noting that for every point on the planet where such a power plant is placed, it is necessary to define the angles through research.

References 1. Nitz, P., et al.: On the way to the first CSP pilot plant in Jordan: The WECSP project. Energy Procedia 69, 1652–1659 (2015) 2. Majdanˇci´c, L.J.: Photovoltaic systems [manual]. Rudera Boškovi´ca Technical School in Zagreb (2010) 3. Špago, D., Lavi´c, A., Neziri´c, E., Šabanovi´c, A.: Powering the smart parking system with photovoltaic solar panels at campus of “Džemal Bijedi´c” University of Mostar. In: Proceedings: 8th International Conference „New Technologies, Development and Application“ NT-2022, pp. 733–740. B&H, Sarajevo (2021) 4. Luli´c, H., Ðugum, A.: Natural and technical solar energy potential in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Društvena i tehniˇcka istraživanja 2, 271–287 (2019) 5. Manosroi, W., Prompattra, P., Kerngburee, P.: Performance improvement of two-axis solar tracking system by using flat-mirror reflectors. Energy Rep. 6(9), 9–14 (2020) 6. Elibrahimi, M., Elmouatamid, A., Bakhouya, M., Feddi, K., Ouladsine, R.: Performance evaluation of fixed and sun tracking photovoltaic systems. In. Proceedings: 6th International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC). Marocco, Rabat (2018) 7. Single-axis solar tracking system. https://www.google.com/search?q=single+axis+solar+ tracker&rlz=1C1GCEA_enRO972RO972&sxsrf=ALiCzsbgeUlBY_SvQEu3IjKyWbIGh3 t1qA:1669204764253&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8jZ-ooMT7A hWYH-wKHaI7A6wQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1920&bih=880&dpr=1#imgrc=tUf DZZlPl3R5GM 8. Sharma, M.K., Bhattacharya, J.: Dependence of spectral factor on angle of incidence for monocrystalline silicon based photovoltaic solar panel. Renew. Energy 184, 820–829 (2022) 9. Mini Motor XCF Geared. https://hr.rsdelivers.com/bh/product/mini-motor/xcf5t2-50-b5/ mini-motor-xcf-geared-ac-geared-motor-290-w-3-2-v/1817032 10. Amadi, H.N., Gutiérrez, S.: Design and performance evaluation of a dual axis solar tracking system for rural applications. Europ. J. Elect. Eng. Comput. Sci. 3(1), 1–6 (2019)

Analysis and Choice of Gas Turbine Blade Muharem Šabi´c1(B) , Edvin Šimi´c1 , and Said Šabi´c2 1 Faculty of Traffic and Communications, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Red River College Polytech, Winnipeg, Canada

Abstract. The turbine blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high temperature gas produced by the combustor. These turbine blades are required to withstand large centrifugal forces, very high temperatures and are operated in aggressive environments.Blades materialsproperties to be weighted are corrosion resistance, wear resistance, yield strength, elastic properties, coefficient of thermal expansion and manufacturing price. This paper presents Analytic Hierarchy Process for material selection for the PT6 engine. Keywords: Gas turbine engine · blade · alloy · oxidation · corrosion · Analytic Hierarchy Process

1 Introduction Increasing the efficiency of today’s aircraft rely on very small changes. One way to increase aircraft efficiency is engine development technology. Airplane engines operate in extreme conditions, especially the compressor and turbine section,thereforethe selection of adequate material is very important. Also, the loads are sudden, for example when the plane takes off where changes in engine power happen in seconds, so we have high thermal loading and corresponding stress levels in the materials of the gas turbine, promoting fatigue damage (Fig. 1). PT6 (Pratt and Whitney) is a turboprop engine, which was one of the most powerful and versatile engines in the market of small aircrafts and helicopters. The focus of the engineers was to create a turboprop engine that was lightweight, could produce 500shp or more and to be serviced “on the wing” as much as possible. PT6 engines are being used by many airplane manufacturers such as Embraer and Cessna.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 29–35, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_4

30

M. Šabi´c et al.

Fig. 1. PT6 engine (exploded view) [4]

In the first part of the paper, the related research is described. Second part describes the types of materials that experts took into account. In the third part, we introduce the basic criteria that experts have chosen for the selection of materials and alternatives for selection through the implementation of the AHP method. The last part refers to the discussion and conclusion.

2 Literature Review The focus of previous researcheswas mainly on the design of blades and their cooling methods. Materials selection is a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) problem due to the large number of possible affecting factors [1]. The comparison is based on three criteria: system operation, environment, and maintenance. In the paper materials applicable for industrial gas turbine blades [2] are reviewed with a focus on the material properties required and comparative analysis is done to select the suitable material.Authors in paper [3] focus on implementing MCDM for the material selection process for a suitablematerial for developing a horizontal wind turbine blade [3]. Authors in [4] used AHP method to select a material for a simple product utilizing Expert Choice software. Some of the main factors were appearance, strength, availability, hardness, environmental reaction, and cost.

3 Gas Turbine Blade Material The turbine section is responsible for generating power to rotate other parts like the fan, compressor, and gearbox. The turbine blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high-temperature and high-pressure gas produced by the combustion.Pressure on these blades is enormous and over time they tend to stretch, that’s why they should be stretch-checked every so many thousand hours. Temperatures in this part of the engine can get up to 1500 °C, hence the materials used for creating the blades need to fulfill the requirements such as high creep strength, high-temperature fatigue strength and hightemperature corrosion strength. Other factors making an impact on the turbine blades

Analysis and Choice of Gas Turbine Blade

31

are soot, air pollution, agricultural chemicals, and many other particles. The chemical reaction provoked by these factors is called sulfidation. Sulfidation (Fig. 2) is a type of corrosion that can lead to an eventual turbine blade failure which can cause serious engine damage. The life expectancy on PT6 turbine blades is up to three thousand hours.

Fig. 2. Turbine blade sulfidation [5]

Aerodynamic design technology for a turbine and a compressor, cooling technology for turbine blades, and advances in material technology have significantly improved jet engine performance in the past few years [6]. There is increasing pressure on engine manufacturers regarding reduced fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Further weight reduction and higher efficiency of the engine lead to improvement of SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption) [7]. The development of structural materialsin particular heat-resistant alloys in hot sections is an essential task in addition to advances in design and manufacturing technology. These materials will be chosen based on material properties such as low density, high strength, workability, and heat-resistant property [6]. Material properties are of primary importance when choosing materials that have the ability to withstand different loads exposed in flight. The materials used in the turbine section are mainly Ni-based superalloys with high creep strength, while the materials in low pressure and temperature section could be stainless steels, Co- and Ni-based superalloys [6]. Superalloys are metallic materials with a number of high-performance properties, especially at elevated temperatures such as excellent mechanical strength, low creep rates, good fatigue properties, good oxidation and corrosion resistance. Inconel is a nickel-chromium alloy used to combat oxidizing corrosion in temperatures up to 1000 °C [8] and is commonly used in the aerospace industry for high-temperature applications. Hastelloy is a nickel-based alloy that contains traces of molybdenum, allowing good corrosion resistance. Hastelloy X is a Nickel-Chromium-Iron-Molybdenum alloy developed in the 1950s. The nextconsidered material is Ti-6Al-4V (UNS designation R56400), also sometimes called TC4, Ti64 [1], an alpha-beta titanium alloy with high specific strength and excellent corrosion resistance. Among selected superalloys, we also consideredceramic mullite,a material with high creep resistance, low thermal expansion coefficient, excellent corrosion resistance and thermal shock resistance. However, the poor mechanical properties of mullite at room temperature limit its application. The strength of mullite composites reinforced by discontinuous ZrO2 or SiC particles or whiskers

32

M. Šabi´c et al.

has been significantly improved, but the overall toughness has not been significantly improved [9].

4 Turbine Blade Material Selection – Ahp Method After comparing and analyzing several different methods, the AHP method (Analytical Hierarchy Process) was chosen as appropriate for the purposes of the research.In this paper, authors used Expert Choice software, which is fully applicable for the AHP method,combiningcomparing criteria and alternatives. Compared to other methods, AHP has several advantages from the point of view of multi-criteria and group decisionmaking. In solving decision-making problems, expert knowledge and subjective preferences can be taken into consideration collectively and simultaneously using the AHP method. For the blade material criteria weighted by AHP method, we havechosen the following (Fig. 3):

Fig. 3. Hierarchy problem decomposition

To evaluate the alternatives, six criteria were taken into account: wear resistance, corrosion resistance, deformation, elastic properties, heating expansion and cost. AHP mathematical model calculates the weights of the elements. The importance of this method is based on comparing different alternatives in pairs using the Saaty scalewhere 1 is equal importance, 3 is moderate importance of one over another, 5 is strong or essential importance of one over another, 7 is very strong or demonstrated importance of one over another, 9 is extreme importance of one over another, 2,4,6,8 are intermediate values, reciprocals are for inverse comparison [10]. In our case, we weighted our criteria from 0 to 10 according to the expert choice. In Table 1, experts have made an assessment of what will be significant when comparing individual criteria and alternatives later in the process of AHP.

Analysis and Choice of Gas Turbine Blade

33

Table 1. Expert assessment of selected criteria Requirements

Properties

Wear Resistant

Hardness (HV) > 300

Resist Corrosion

Air pollution, soot, other chemicals

Stress without deformation

Yield Strength (MPa) > 800

Elastic properties

Young’s Modulus (GPa) > 100

Not Expand when heated

Coefficient of thermal expansion < 9.5

Cost < 8.00 per lb

Cost

Detailed explanation of taken criteria follows: Wear resistance of a turbine blade to work properlywith a longer life, hardness should be high enough and expert choice was a 5 since it is an important property of the blades. Corrosion resistanceis selected becauseturbine blades usually get affected by corrosion called “sulfidation” which tends to damage the blades over time. 6 is givenbecause corrosion in turbine blades will happen eventually and it is one of those things that is inevitable to happen. Stress without deformation was chosen property due to turbine blades exposition to high pressure and it is crucial for them to keep their main shape. The consequences could be catastrophicif the material fails, so experts find this property to be one of the most crucial and its given a 7. Thermal expansion is an essential propertyknowingturbine blades are exposed to temperatures going up to 1500 °C, and. Experts gave a 7 because.Elastic Properties is fundamental property of every material prone tobend or stretch. Since these turbine blades work under high pressure and high temperatures, 5 is given. Experts also took into account the cost of individual materials with a score of 5. This is an important criterion because a large percentage of the initial aircraft pricedepends on the price of the engine and its components. Experts have chosen the criteria and ranked them according to priorities (Table 2). It is important to note the relationship between the importance of individual criteria. After the added weight values, their priority vector are calculated. Priority vector is calculated from pairwise comparisons using the AHP with the eigenvector method [10]. Table 2. Priority vectors based on expert criteria Criterion

Priority vector

Thermal expansion

0.240

Deformation stress

0,193

Cost

0,163

Wear resistance

0,150

Elastic propreties

0,140 (continued)

34

M. Šabi´c et al. Table 2. (continued)

Criterion

Priority vector

Corrosion resistance

0,115

Inconsistency

0.01

Fig. 4. Graphic presentation of selected materials according to each criteria

The AHP method can identify and analyze the inconsistency of decision makers in the process of comparing elements of the hierarchy, so the consistency ratio (CR) indicates an acceptable level of inconsistency. In this case, consistency ratio is below 0.1 (Table 2), which is satisfactory.When the consistency ratio exceeds 0.10, the judgments often need reexamination [10]. Table 3. Global priority weights after the AHP process Selected material

Final priority vector

Inconel 718

0,264

Hastelloy X

0,252

Mullite Ceramic

0,244

TC4-Titanium Alloy

0,240

Figure 4, a graph generated in ExpertChoice, shows the alternatives in relation to each previously selected criterion.After choosing the priorities, we made comparisons for each listed alternative, i.e. the selected material (Table 3). According to all the given criteria, the most optimal material to be used for the turbine section is Inconel 718.

Analysis and Choice of Gas Turbine Blade

35

5 Disscusion and Conclusion Nowadays, different types of materials are used to make the turbine section as metals, ceramics, and composites. Metals have good corrosion resistance, high strength, and a good coefficient of thermal expansion. Ceramics have excellent corrosion resistance, high wear resistance (hardness) and they do not cost too much. Technological development has made it possible to create a large number of alloys, but the selection is complex due to a large number of influencing factors. The AHP method is a very efficient method when it comes to multi-criteria decision-making.In this work, we used the expert choice software package.Reserch has shown that Inconel 718 is the best material for turbine blade manufacturing. Inconel 718 is a nickel-chromium superalloy that has high hardness, great modulus of elasticity, pretty good coefficient of thermal expansion and it is not too expensive.Inconel 718 like most materials can be machined successfully with the right equipment and tooling. If the engine operates in conditions that are not in the nominal values (high temperature, high RPM etc.), the properties of the materials decrease significantly, and maintenance practices have to be adapted in order to maximize their life span.

References 1. Mutlag, S., Hasan, H.: Decision making in materials selection : an integrated approach with AHP. J. Eng. Sci. (2019) 2. Salwan, G.K., Subbarao, R., Mondal, S.: Comparison and selection of suitable materials applicable for gas turbine blades. Mater. Today: Proc. 46, 8864–8870 (2021) 3. Okokpujie, I.P., Okonkwo, U.C., Bolu, C.A., Ohunakin, O.S., Agboola, M.G., Atayero, A.A.: Implementation of multi-criteria decision method for selection of suitable material for development of horizontal wind turbine blade for sustainable energy generation. Heliyon 6(1), e03142 (2020) 4. Dweiri, F., Al-Oqla, P.M.: Material selection using analytical hierarchy process. Int. J. Comput. Appl. Technol. 26(4), 182–189 (2006) 5. EUR AVIA a magellan aerospace company UK. https://www.euravia.aero/news/what-is-sul phidation?locale=en (2017) 6. Okura, T.: Materials for Aircraft Engines. In: Aircraft Propulsion Final Report (2015) 7. Pratt and Whitney Canada: PT6 maintanace manual. no. Aircraft Technical Publishers (2006) 8. Hastelloy vs Inconel: Designing the Perfect Wire Mesh. https://blog.wstyler.com/woven-wirefilters/hastelloy-vs-inconel (2022) 9. Cui, K., Zhang, Y., Fu, T., Wang, J., Zhang, X.: Toughening mechanism of mullite matrix composites: a review. Coatings 10(7), 672 (2020) 10. Saaty, R.W.: The analytic hierarchy process-what it is and how it is used. Math. Model. 9(3–5), 161–176 (1987)

Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time in the Heating Control System of a Smart House Valeriy Sydorenko1 , Andriy Perekrest1 , Vira Shendryk2,3(B) , and Sergii Shendryk4 1 Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University, Kremenchuk 39600, Ukraine 2 Sumy State University Sumy, Sumy 40007, Ukraine

[email protected]

3 Malmö University, 21119 Malmö, Sweden 4 Sumy National Agrarian University, Sumy 40000, Ukraine

Abstract. To optimize the heating control system in a smart home, it is necessary to have a tool that allows you to determine the optimal air heating time. This study is dedicated to the synthesis of the model of the regression dependence of air heating time on the parameters of the heating system and the internal and external parameters of the room. The research justified and derived mathematical expressions for structural and parametric identification of models based on the linear method of least squares based on machine learning. The expediency of using ensembles of models based on decision trees and on the basis of bagging and boosting is substantiated. It is noted that these models have high predictive power and have proven themselves well in the case of small samples. Three types of prognostic models were built and analyzed. For the three investigated heating devices, a trio of the above models was built and trained. The results show that the nature of the heating process is similar in all cases, but the degree of influence of external weather conditions is different. Conditions and restrictions for using models are defined. Keywords: heating control system · smart home · heating time · machine learning

1 Introduction Energy and resourcessavingis a complex problem. With regard to the heating of residential premises, the known directions of its solution lie both in the area of development of new energy-efficient structural building materials and the search for alternative energy sources and in the area of development and implementation of systems for automatic control of the heat supply process [1]. Heating is precisely the field in which the principles of “intelligent building” were first implemented since the heating system is the main item of building maintenance costs in temperate and cold climates [2]. In this connection, the concept of “smart heating” appeared [3], which should provide the so-called “thermal comfort” [4]. Thermal comfort © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 36–44, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_5

Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time

37

characterizes the degree of human satisfaction with the conditions of the temperature and thermal environment. According to various studies [5], thermal comfort has a high priority among the most important conditions that increase the level of comfort and satisfaction of residents with the conditions of the indoor environment. Regardless of which heating system is used in the building, when analyzing and synthesizing the automatic heating control system, the first priority is the optimal setting of its parameters. Observations show that the time constant T is a function of many parameters that characterize both the physical and technical properties of the building and the state of the air inside the room, as well as the external atmospheric and weather conditions [6]. In this regard, the task of developing approaches that allow solving the task of optimizing the management system taking into account all the above-mentioned factors is relevant. The solution to this problem largely depends on which heating system is used and what acts as a heat carrier. In this work, an attempt is made to consider the issue regarding the use of electroceramic panels [7], which have proven themselves well in comparison with other traditional heating systems. The paper proposes an approach for the synthesis of a model of the dependence of the optimal time of indoor air heating to the required standard using electroceramic panels on a number of internal and external factors based on the collected empirical data, followed by the construction of a regression model based on machine learning.

2 Theoretical Research 2.1 Formulation of the Problem The ultimate task of optimal heat management is the analysis and synthesis of the home heat management system and the optimization of its parameters. When solving the problem of regulating climatic conditions in a heated room, as a rule, several levels of regulation are implemented in practice [8]: setting a regulator with a constant temperature; setting the regulator with the temperature according to the schedule; setting the regulator according to the room air sensor and according to the schedule at the same time; setting the regulator according to the outside air temperature, according to the schedule, according to the software with separate control of the control system circuits. In the problem of temperature regulation according to the schedule, it is important to be able to solve the inverse problem: to be able to answer the question, what time τ is needed for the room to reach the set temperature value . If we take as a basis, for example, the model of the “heater-environment” system proposed by the authors [9], then for τ we can write   n + KP −  , (1) τ = T ln n + KP − 0 where _0 is the current air temperature in the room; P – heater power; _n – outdoor l air temperature; K = Sκ is the conversion factor, where S is the area of the walls; κ is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the walls.

38

V. Sydorenko et al.

At the same time, the parameters of the building, despite all the apparent simplicity, may not be so easy to determine in certain situations, which can complicate the correct adjustment of the regulation system according to expression (1), taking into account the fact that the parameters for each individual room may differ significantly from each other. On the other hand, as observations have shown, taking into account the parameters that characterize the structural features of the building and only the internal and external temperature is not sufficient for optimal temperature regulation – the process is significantly influenced by a number of parameters that characterize  weather conditions. Let’s denote the parameters, which about, as x1 , x2 , . . . , xp . It is clear that taking into account their influence requires a significant complication of the “heaterenvironment” model and, as a consequence, a complication of expression (1) if it can be obtained in an explicit form at all. It is clear that, in general, expression (1) taking into account the newly introduced factors can be rewritten as follows:       ∞ x1 , x2 , . . . , xp − req   , (2) τ = T x1 , x2 , . . . , xp ln ∞ x1 , x2 , . . . , xp − 0 wherereq is the temperature to be reached. That is, additional parameters should affect both the value of the constant temperature and the time constant. The details of this approach will be discussed below. The above considerations allow us to formulate the problem of estimating the optimal heating time in general. Let  = req − 0 be the temperature increase that must be ensured within the framework of temperature regulation in the room according to the schedule, taking into account all possible significant factors that affect the desired heating time. Then the required  the air in the room by  at the given values of the parameter  time for heating vector x1 , x2 , . . . , xp can be represented as a function   τ = f , x1 , x2 , . . . , xp . (3)   Then it is necessary to find the estimate t = f ∗ , x1 , x2 , . . . , xp +, which would minimize the deviation  = t − τ and satisfy, for example, the following condition:     2  U , x1 , x2 , . . . , xp = (t − τ )2 = f ∗ , x1 , x2 , . . . , xp − τ → min.

(4)

Thus, the task of finding the optimal heating time is reduced to the analysis and synthesis of the multiple regression model (3), which minimizes the functional (4). 2.2 Structural Synthesis of Models The statistical approach to building a multiple regression model is based on the statistical evaluation of model parameters, provided that the model specification is fulfilled, that is, its structure is specified [10–12]. Unlike machine learning models, the coefficients of such a model can be objectively interpreted. This is a direct advantage compared to

Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time

39

machine learning models. However, in order to obtain an adequate model, it is necessary to study a fairly large number of different specifications, and in order for the model to have sufficient prognostic properties, a number of important conditions must be met, in particular the normality, or at least the asymptotic normality of the distribution laws of the input variables. It is also necessary to take into account the need to select methods for estimating model parameters for conditions when the prerequisites for building the model are violated, in particular, there are outliers in sample data, which often happens in practice. The authors, trying to take advantage of both approaches, chose and investigated the following models: a multiple linear regression model without a constant (M1) and a model based on random forests (M2). The M1 model is statistical, linear in parameters and belongs to the class of explainable models (explainable models) [13], which, regardless of the situation, at the initial stage of modeling makes it possible to establish the significance of input data, detect multicollinearity and make decisions regarding further stages of modeling, in particular, reducing the dimensionality of input data and, most importantly, quantifying the influence of predictors on the response value. Regardless of the predictive power of such a model, the vector of their estimates makes it possible to compile a “thermal portrait of the room” and classify them, which, in turn, should simplify the initial settings of the heating control system. Model M2 based on random forests (random forest) is proposed as an alternative to the first model and, despite the fact that it does not belong to the class of explainable models, as research shows, it has a high predictive property [14, 15] and its learning process does not cause difficulties. The second important aspect in determining the specification of the  model (3) is  the justification and selection of independent variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xp that affect the heating time. In the Table 1 shows the variables that were selected as predictors and their notations. Thus, the specification of the M1 model can be written as follows:         t − t = β1  −  + β2 0 − 0 + β3 0h − 0h + β4 out − out       (5) +β5 Hout − Hout + β6 Vout − Vout + β7 Wout − Wout   +β8 Cout − Cout + ε, where (β1 , . . . , β8 ) is a vector of regression coefficients, which we will call the “thermal image of the room” (room pattern) and which requires finding its estimate (b1 , . . . , b8 ). As mentioned above, the ensemble model of machine learning M2 based on random forests (Random Forest, RF) is proposed as an alternative to the statistical model M1 and is based on the so-called bagging procedure [14, 15], thanks to which it has high forecast accuracy and is undemanding to the quality of input data The essence of the method of obtaining an ensemble consists in averaging N outputs of weak models based on classification trees (in the case of solving the regression problem), which are part of the ensemble. This makes it possible to increase the accuracy of the forecast. Practice shows [10] that bagging is effective on small samples, which in our case gives the prospect of reducing the volume of measurements at the stage of collecting empirical data and, thus, reducing the time required to build a regression model.

40

V. Sydorenko et al. Table 1. Parameters included in model (3) as independent variables

Name

Comment



Indoor temperature increase, °C

0

The initial temperature in the room at the time of turning on the device, °C

0h

The initial temperature of the heater, °C

out

Wout

Average (by session) outside temperature, °C  Average (per session) external humidity, g m3 Average (by session) wind speed, m/s Average (by session) wind direction, ° (azimuth in degrees)

Cout

total number of clouds Average (by session) cloudiness, thethe number of low -level clouds

Hout Vout

3 Experimental Research Experimental research was carried out on the example of three electroceramic heaters TM “Elektrokeramik” [7], installed in three different rooms of the same building in KremenchukCity. The experiment consisted of the following [16]. For several weeks during the heating season of 2017, automatic fixation of heater parameters, internal and external factors of the building was carried out for each of the three heaters I, II, III with an interval of 60 s during each heating cycle. The heating control mode was carried out in accordance with the existing settings. In Fig. 1 shows a series of heating curves obtained as a result of experiments. During the studied period, data were obtained for 273 heating sessions in the amount of 5788, 3668 and 759 points for each device with numbers I, II, III, respectively (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Series of air heating curves in three rooms of the same building for three different heating devices: I, II, III

To build regression models, the data were cleaned and aggregated according to Table 1. Table 2 shows the estimates of the parameters of regression models M1 according to specification (5). Statistically insignificant coefficient estimates are equal to “0”. To check the stability of the model estimates, which directly affects the accuracy of the forecast, a ten-fold cross-validation procedure was performed for each of the

Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time

41

Table 2. Estimates of regression models (5) for each of the heating devices I, II, III I

II

III

b1 , 

3408.4998

1732.7295

783.13275

b2 , 0

−183.1795

−172.9101

0

b3 , 0h

58.9896

108.0270

−8.73429

b4 , out

−27.6361

39.5149

−13.68332

b5 , Hout

2290.1955

− 869.1190

0

b6 , Vout

47.9699

0

−25.83305

b7 , Wout

−1.5926

2.5242

0

b8 , Cout

−556.9690

191.9947

264.35753

Multiple R-squared

R2

0.8495

0.8635

0.8337

Residual standard error

s

1491

1147

502.4

Coefficients of model (5)

models. In parallel, a stepwise regression procedure was carried out, the results of which did not show a decrease in the dimensionality of the model and an improvement in the estimates of the model parameters. As can be seen from the graphs (Fig. 1), the nature of the heating curves for different rooms is significantly different, despite the fact that the rooms are located in the same building. This difference has a quantitative estimate, which is  in the values of the estimates of the vectors of the regression coefficients  expressed b1,..., b8 . That is, we have significant differences in assessments of “thermal images of the room”, which, in turn, determine the “thermal portrait” of the room. In Table 3, the parameters of M2 models based on Random Forest are estimated, which have slightly better results regarding the quality of the models, but are quite correlated with the results for models based on M1. At the same time, it should be noted that the number of trees in the ensemble was 500. Table 3. Estimates of regression models based on Random Forest for each of the heating devices I, II, III Number of trees–500, volume of training sample–80%, volume of testing sample–20% Estimates Parameters of RF-model

Heating device number I

II

III

Volume of input data

5788

3668

759

Residual standard error

915.89

1393

483.30

Multiple R-squared

0.8076

0.869

0.9359

Table 4 shows the comparative quality results of models M1 and M2 for each of the three devices, based on the prediction error calculated on the control sample. It can be

42

V. Sydorenko et al.

seen that although models M1 and M2 have the same order of quality, the model based on random forests gives a significantly higher prediction accuracy. Table 4. Comparative results of model quality Heating device number

Model ID

Forecast error, sec

I

M1

41.972064

I

M2

28.8009677

II

M1

39.1891147

II

M2

17.8885764.

III

M1

29.5291276

III

M2

17.9035577

Table 5 shows an example of estimating the air heating time in each of the three rooms according to the constructed models, which make it clear how much the “thermal portrait” of each of the three rooms differs from each other, despite the fact that they are located in the same building and are heated in the same way electric panels: if it takes about 1609 s (26 min) to heat the air by 2 °C under equal starting conditions in the room where device III is installed, then for the room with device II, this time is 4729 s (1 h. 19 min), that is, almost three times more. Table 5. Forecast example for all heating devices on base of RF-models   = 2 °C, 0 = 20 °C, 0h = 21 °C, out = −5.83 °C Hout = 0.91g m3 , Vout = 2.1m/s, total number of clouds Wout = 200 (azimuth in degrees), Cout = 0.99 thethe number of low−level clouds

Hating device number

Forecast, sec.

I

3972

II

4729

III

1609

4 Conclusion Thus, as the results of the study showed, the proposed approach to optimizing the heating control system as part of a smart house can be improved through the parallel synthesis of a parametric statistical model based on paired linear regression and a machine learning model based on random forests to estimate the optimal air heating time in in a specific room of the building, when it is heated by ceramic electric panels. The experiment

Machine Learning Optimization of Air Heating Time

43

showed that with the help of the proposed approach, which, unlike the known ones, allows not only to get an estimate of the heating time taking into account the internal and external factors of the building with an error of 300 MW when using solid fuels (coal, biomass,…) is 200 mg/mn 3 , (Directive 2010/75/EU). It is also known that coal combustion produces the most nitro-gen monoxide (NO, about 90%), slightly less than 10% nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and less than 1% nitrous oxide (N2 O) and unstable compounds N2 O3 , N2 O4 and N2 O5 . Therefore, NO and NO2 are predominantly generated in pulverized coal furnaces and as such they leave the furnace and go into the atmosphere. The NO that leaves the furnace in the atmosphere oxidizes very quickly and turns into NO2 , [1, 2]. There are three basic mechanisms of NO formation in the process of coal combustion that lead to the following basic “types” of NO: thermal NO, prompt (fast) NO and combustible NO. Thermal NO is formed by the oxidation of nitrogen from combustion air at relatively high temperatures under conditions of low fuel concentration (“fuel-lean environments”). The mechanism of thermal NO formation was described by Zeldovich in 1948. Thermal NO represents 5–25% of the total NOx formed during coal combustion, and has the largest share in combustion systems with gaseous phase. During the combustion of coal, the contribution of thermal NO, whose dependence on temperature is largely expressed, becomes significant for flame temperatures > 1650 K (and often only for temperatures > 1800 K). Prompt NO is formed by reactions of combustion nitrogen with hydrocarbon radicals (released by devolatilization) in flame zones with high fuel concentration (“fuel-rich regions”) and represents only a small proportion of total NO fo-rmed in most combustion systems. In practical combustion systems, which usually ope-rate in conditions of relatively low fuel concentration, the contribution of prompt NO to total NO is generally irrelevant. The share of spot NO in total NOx emissions is less than 5% in coal combustion. Combustible NO is formed by the oxidation of nitrogen bound in the fuel. In coal-fired stoves, NO is the most common fuel and represents 75– 95% of the total amount of NOx produced during coal combustion. Unlike thermal fuels, NO fuels are much less dependent on temperature (for the temperature range in coalfired furnaces), and more on the fuel-air ratio – however, they primarily depend on the nitro-gen content of the fuel. The process of formation of combustible NO during coal combu-stion is complex, because nitrogen in coal is bound in both volatiles and coke residue – see also [3]. An illustrative example of the influence of process temperature and some of the primary measures in the furnace on NOx emission is given in the following Fig. 1.

Qualitative Analysis of the Structure NOx Emissions

47

Conventional Air-staging eNOx, mg/mn3

Fuel-staging

d(NO)/dτ =f(t)

Rate of occurrence NO, t>1300 °C Air preheating

Excess Oxygen, %; Temperature, °C

Fig. 1. Quantitative presentation of influencing factors on NOx emission

Currently, the production of electricity in Bosnia and Herzegovina is predominantly based on thermal power plants (close to 2/3 of the total production capacity) in which brown and lignite coals from several mines are burned. Even the transition process in the energy sector, which is practically just beginning, will not significantly change this relationship in the near future, [4]. Therefore, both current and future laboratory research on a wide range of combustion characteristics of these coals will be of measurable importance, especially research aimed at the simultaneous use of several fuels (coal, wood waste biomass and fuels from municipal waste, RDF/SRF), [5].

2 Fuel Mixture and Lab-Scale Furnace For the purpose of laboratory research, the following mixtures of brown coals, ie those coals and waste wood biomass were formed, [6, 7] – Table 1: – Mixture of component coals from the mines Kakanj, Breza and Zenica in the mass ratio of components in the mixture 70:20:10, respectively – fuel designation: K70B20Z10. This mixture was formed after thermal and mechanical preparation of component coals in a laboratory mill. – A mixture of brown coal from several mines in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Kakanj, Breza, Zenica, Graˇcanica, Livno, Nova Bila, Banovi´ci,…) with mass fractions of components that approximately correspond to the delivered quantities of coal from these mines to TPP Kakanj, fuel code: U100. – Mixture of brown coals marked U100 and waste wood biomass (fine sawdust of beech and spruce, code B100) with a share of biomass in the mixture of 7%, which is excluded behind the mills during operation of Unit 5 in TPP Kakanj – fuel code: U93B7.

48

N. Hodzic et al. Table 1. Properties of tested fuels, [6]

Code

K70B20Z10

U100

U93B7

Moisture, %

10.71

13.90

18.09

Ash, %

40.84

37.88

33.05

Volatiles, %

27.71

28.97

31.16

Fixed C, %

20.73

19.25

18.59

Combustible, %

48.44

48.22

48.86

Carbon, %

34.48

36.62

33.36

Hydrogen, %

2.33

2.60

2.52

Sulphur, %

2.41

2.06

1.59

Nitrogen, %

0.75

0.72

0.75

Oxygen, %

8.48

10.22

10.63

Gross, HHV, kJ/kg

13898

13351

13446

Net, LHV, kJ/kg

13171

12496

12510

These mixtures of solid fuels were subjected to combustion research in the conditions of classical and graduated air supply for combustion in the furnace and in conditions of different process temperatures in the range from 950 to 1350 °C and from 1350 to 1450 °C – temperature intervals correspond to the conditions of combustion of powdered fuel in flight with dry and liquid slag drainage

In all test regimes, the analysis of flue gas composition at the outlet of the reaction pipe/furnace was performed and NO, NO2 and NOx emissions, was determined. The following figure below shows the upper part of the schematic diagram of a labora-tory plant for the combustion of solid fuels. The scheme precisely indicates the system of supply of powdered fuel and the zone supply of total combustion air via 4 separate cu-rrents/portions: primary, secondary, tertiary and subsequent, ie OFA – Over Fire Air). The desired temperature along the reaction tube is achieved through electric heaters and automatic process control, i.e. maintaining the set or selected temperature. It is possible to burn fuels of different granulations in the plant, practically from fractions of micron size to granulations with an equivalent diameter of about 5 mm. In the reaction tube it is po-ssible to establish process combustion temperatures up to 1560 °C in steps of 1 °C (Fig. 2). In addition to the possible gradual supply of air to the combustion zone (air staging), the plant is designed to enable the gradual supply of basic solid fuel to the reaction zone (fuel staging) and the possible use of natural gas or other gas simultaneously with solid fuel combustion (reburning technology). The output results of the research are combustion efficiency, emission of key components of flue gases into the environment, inte-nsity of slag and ash deposition with assessment of the tendency of ash from fuel to create appropriate deposits in the process, [6] – see also [5] and [7, 8].

Qualitative Analysis of the Structure NOx Emissions

49

Primary air

Base fuel

Secondary air

R1 Total air

Burner Tertiary air 0.0 m

R2 OFA air

ZONE 4

R3 RT t4, 0.51 m

EH, SiC

ZONE 3

1.0 m OFA 1

t3, 1.14 m

Air supply

ZONE 2

1.3 m OFA 2

t2, 1.76 m

Fig. 2. University of Sarajevo – Faculty of Mechanical Engineering: Principal scheme of part of the lab-scale furnace, [6]

3 Results and Discussion Fuel K70B20Z10, Temperature 950 ÷ 1350 °C: The dependence of NOx emissions on the combustion process temperature (950, 1150, 1250 and 1350 °C), the coefficient of excess combustion air and the distribution of that air in the reaction zone or combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 3. As expected, the lowest NOx emission was measured at the lowest test temperature 950 °C – in general, temperature is a very important factor that affects the rate of generation and thus the value of NOx emissions – NOx emissions increase with increasing temperature, with the rate of formation of nitrogen oxides especially at temperatures above 1300 °C. At the same time, NOx emissions are lower at lower values of the coefficient of excess combustion air, e.g. in this case: eλ=1.15 < eλ=1.20 – in these test regimes, the total amount of air is supplied to the burner through

50

N. Hodzic et al.

three porti-ons: primary, secondary and tertiary: λ1 /λ = 1.15/1.15 or λ1 /λ = 1.20/1.20, often referred to as conventional combustion. Air staging is also performed with the same total coefficient of excess air λ = 1.15 but with substoichiometric amount of air in the burner zone – subsequent or stepped supply of OFA air portion to the reaction zone/furnace is at a certain distance behind the burner outlet plane, more precisely, at a distance from OFA1 = 1 m. In these test regimes, lower NOx emissions were measured by about eNOx = 15% on average compared to conventional regimes with classic burner air supply – see Fig. 3.

Fuel: K70B20Z10 1000 λ1/λ=1.20/1.20 λ1/λ=1.15/1.15 800

Classic

λ1/λ=0.95/1.15

eNOx, mg/mn3

OFA 1

600

400 900

1000

1100 1200 Temperature, °C

1300

1400

Fig. 3. NOx emission depending on the process temperature, the coefficient of excess air and the place of introduction of that air into the furnace

The structure of NOx emission during combustion of the coal mixture in flight and in the classical supply of total air to the reaction zone is presented in the following Fig. 4,

1000

91,4

91,3

850 eNOx, mg/m n3

NOx

700

NO2

91,6

91,3

75 NO, NO2, % 50

Classic

NO

100

Fuel: K70B20Z10 λ1/λ=1.20/1.20 550

25

8,7

8,6

8,7

8,4

400 900

1000

1100 1200 Temperature, °C

1300

0 1400

Fig. 4. Structure and NOx emission depending on the process temperature in the classical air supply to the reaction zone/furnace

Qualitative Analysis of the Structure NOx Emissions

51

while for the same fuel and the same combustion temperature conditions but in graded combustion air supply in Fig. 5. From the results given in Fig. 4. it can be seen that this emission over 91% is NO (max-NO = 91.6%, min-NO = 91.3%, average-NO = 91.4%), while at the same time, in these conditions combustion, the share of NO2 in total NOx emissions averaged 8.6%. By comparing the results presented in Figs. 4 and 5, it is concluded that the structure of NOx emissions during combustion with a graduated air supply is still slightly different compared to conventional combustion. Namely, with graded air supply, the share of NO in total NOx emissions is slightly lower, on average 90.8% (max-NO = 91.2%, min-NO = 90.4%) – thus, the average share of NO2 in total NOx emissions at the level of 90.2%. The absolute difference in the NOx emission structure for these two subject com-bustion settings is NO = NO2 = 0.6%. In addition, in both cases, no more pronounced change or trend of change in the structure of NO relative to NO2 depending on the pro-cess temperature of combustion is observed.

1000

91,2

90,8

850 eNOx, mg/mn3 700

NO NOx

90,7

90,4

100

75 NO, NO2, % 50

Fuel: K70B20Z10 λ1/λ=0.95/1.15

NO2 OFA 1

25

550 8,8

9,6

9,3

9,2

400

900

1000

1100 1200 Temperature, °C

1300

0 1400

Fig. 5. Structure and NOx emission depending on the process temperature at the gradual supply of air to the reaction zone/furnace (OFA 1)

Fuel U100 and U93B7, Temperatures 1350 ÷ 1450 °C: Analogous to previous research results, for a mixture of several brown coals (U100), as well as for a mixture of these coals with waste wood biomass (U93B7), NOx emissions are presented depending on the same influencing factors (combustion process temperature, excess combustion air coeffi-cient and mode distribution of that air in the reaction zone/furnace), Fig. 6-left. Due to higher combustion process temperatures compared to previous research results, higher NOx emissions were expected and measured, and this time the previous scientific findi-ngs regarding the neutral impact of biomass on that emission during coal co-firing were confirmed. At a combustion process temperature of 1450 °C and at air staging, this NOx emission is on average about 860 mg/ mn 3 , as opposed to about 1155 mg/mn 3 in conven-tional combustion – NOx emission in OFA air mode is lower is for eNOx = 25%. The results of the research, regarding the structure of NOx emissions during the combustion of these two fuel mixtures, are presented in Fig. 6-right, where practically

52

N. Hodzic et al.

the same conclusions as for the previous case apply: for conventional combustion the average-NO = 91.0%, while with graduated air supply the average is NO = 90.3%. Temperature: 1350÷1450 °C

Fuel: U100 and U93B7 100

1200

1000 eNOx, mg/mn3 800

90,8

90,4

90,2

80

Classic

OFA 1

U100: λ1/λ=1.20/1.20 U93B7: λ1/λ=1.20/1.20 U100: λ1/λ=0.95/1.20 U93B7: λ1/λ=0.95/1.20

600 400 1350

91,2

1375

1400 1425 Temperature, °C

1450

60 %

NO

40

NO2

20

9,6

8,8

9,8

9,2

0 Clasic

OFA 1

U100

Clasic

OFA 1

U93B7

Fig. 6. NOx emission depending on the process temperature, the coefficient of excess air and mode of distribution of that air into the reaction zone/furnace – left; Mean NOx emission structure for the considered combustion temperature interval depe-nding on the type of fuel and the place of introduction of air into the reaction zone (classic: λ1 /λ = 1.20/1.20, OFA 1: λ1 /λ = 0.90/1.20) – right.

4 Conclusion From the given results for the solid fuels, the basic conclusions regarding the dependence of NOx emissions and the structure of those emissions in relation to the considered influencing factors (t, λ, λ1 /λ, classic-OFA) were drawn: – NOx emissions increase with increasing combustion temperature and excess air coefficient. Lower NOx emissions are in the case of a graduated air supply (combustion with OFA, air staging) compared to the classic air supply in which the total amount of air is supplied to the burner (conventional combustion). – In relation to the fuel composition, the combustion temperature proves to be a much more influential parameter on NOx emissions. In the disturbed process temperature interval of t = 400 °C, an average increase in eNOx emission of almost 300 mg/mn 3 was recorded. – When co-firing a mixture of coal and waste wood biomass, NOx emissions are at the level of emissions when firing a mixture of coals. In essence, the share of wood biomass does not change these emissions. The average difference in NOx emissions depending on the method of supply of combustion air is 250 mg/mn 3 . – The structure of NOx emissions during combustion with conventional and graduated air supply is slightly different. – The average share of NO in the structure of total NOx emissions in conventional combustion is classic-NO = 91.2%, while this value in graded air supply OFA-NO = = 90.5%.

Qualitative Analysis of the Structure NOx Emissions

53

Acknowledgements. Part of the results presented in this paper resulted during the implementation of the project: Experimental research of the possibility of using alternative fuels in the direction of the necessary energy transition of Bosnia and Herzegovina, financed by the Ministry for Science, Higher education and Youth of Canton Sarajevo and the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Sarajevo through the program “Co-financing of research projects in 2021”, and we would like to thank them on this occasion as well.

References 1. Hill, S.C., Smoot, L.D.: Modeling of nitrogen oxides formation and destruction in combustion systems. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 26, 417–458 (2000) 2. Makoviˇcka, J.: Mathematical model of pulverized coal combustion, Dissertation thesis, Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering, Prague, Czech Republic (2008) 3. Anetor, L., Odetunde, C., Osakue, E.E.: Computational analysis of the extended Zeldovich mechanism. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 39(11), 8287–8305 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369014-1398-7 4. Uticaj kvaliteta uglja na troškove proizvodnje elektriˇcne energije i cijenu uglja; Studija; Naruˇcilac: JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d. Sarajevo, Izvršilac: Mašinski fakultet Sarajevo (Lider) i Rudarski institut d.d. Tuzla (ˇclan), Sarajevo (2014) 5. Hodži´c, N., Kazagi´c, A., Smajevi´c, I.: Influence of multiple air staging and reburning on NOx emissions during co-firing of low rank brown coal with woody biomass and natural gas. Appl. Energy 168, 38–47 (2016) 6. Hodžic, N.: Research on co-combustion of coal and biomass aimed at reducing emissions by primary measures in the furnace, Doctoral thesis, In Bosnian, University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sarajevo (2016). COBISS.BH-ID - 27867654. https://plus.bh.cob iss.net/opac7/bib/27867654 7. Kazagic, A., Hodzic, N., Metovic, S.: Co-Combustion of low-rank coal with woody biomass and Miscanthus: an experimental study. Energies 11(3), 601 (2018) 8. Mereb, J., Wendt, J.: Air staging and reburning mechanisms for NOx abatement in a laboratory coal combustor. Fuel 73(7), 1020–1026 (1994)

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina Covering Electricity Demand of a Typical Household Azrudin Husika1 , Damir Špago2(B) , Halima Hadžiahmetovi´c1 , and Safet Isi´c2 1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 “Džemal Bijedi´c” University of Mostar – Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 88104 Mostar,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The paper presents the optimization of photovoltaic systems to cover the electricity needs of a typical household for two climatic regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose representatives are the cities of Sarajevo and Mostar. The solar potential was measured and downloaded from the PV GIS database in order to compare the measured and downloaded values. The optimization showed that the cost-optimized systems for both regions should have 13 kW of installed PV panels with connection to the grid without the use of batteries. The optimization also showed a lower consumption of electricity from the grid for the Mostar area as well as a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions in the amount of 10 kg annually. Keywords: solar potential · photovoltaic cells · optimization · household

1 Introduction According to Odyssee-Mure’s research, the average household in the EU consumes about 3,700 kWh of electricity per year, but this data varies from country to country, since in some countries electricity is also used for heating in households, such as France [1]. According to the data of the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the average household in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) consumes about 4,500 kWh of electricity annually, or an average of 12.4 kWh per day [2]. By using solar energy for the purpose of electricity production, it is possible to reduce this grid consumtionnd have a positive effect on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide, and contribute to the energy transition of B&H and the achievement of the goal adopted by B&H, which is climate neutrality by 2050. Bearing in mind that the building sector in B&H accounts for 43% of electricity consumption and 60.7% of the total electricity produced in B&H is produced in thermal power plants, it can be concluded that this sector has enormous potential for the application of RES-based technologies in order to improve the energy transition of B&H and reduce carbon dioxide emissions [3]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 54–61, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_7

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions

55

When evaluating the profitability of investing in solar systems, several factors should be taken into account: source intermittency, availability in a certain geographic location, equipment prices, profile of electricity demand and the possibility of various subsidies.

2 Solar Potential of Bosnia and Herzegovina When evaluating the production of electricity from photovoltaic systems, the solar potential of the geographical location of interest should be known. For these purposes, there are several online databases as well as software that provide sufficiently accurate data on this information, such as: PV GIS, Global Solar atlas, Homer Pro that uses NASA’s databases, Meteonorm, Retscreen and others. The solar potential of Bosnia and Herzegovina is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Solar potential of Bosnia and Herzegovina [4]

One research conducted by researchers from B&H concluded that the global horizontal irradiation for the area of B&H compared to Central and Northern Europe is higher by 15 to 30 percent respectively. If only the area of Herzegovina is compared, the annual averages are up to 50% higher [5]. In this case, the researchers used the data available with the software Meteonorm. When conducting the research in this paper, measurements were used applying pyranometer which was installed as part of the meteorological station at the Faculty of

56

A. Husika et al.

Mechanical Engineering of the University of Sarajevo and data available from the PV GIS online database. The goal was to determine the real potential of solar energy for the area of the city of Sarajevo, and to compare it with the data available from the aforementioned database, as well as to compare it with the representative of another region in B&H, namely the city of Mostar.

Fig. 2. Comparison of measured and downloaded solar energy for Sarajevo

The measurements were made for the year 2021. The comparison between the measured and retrieved values was made for a return period of 15 years. Since no data for 2021 is available on the PV GIS database, it was not possible to directly compare measured and downloaded data. From Fig. 2. it can be seen that in most months the measured data are lower by approx. 17% compared to the 15-year return period taken from the PV GIS. The reason for this may lie in the fact that the year for which the measurements were made simply does not fit into the long-term series, the class of equipment used during the measurements, etc. Various researches in this field have been done, where the researchers mostly conclude that coherance between downloaded and measured solar

Fig. 3. Comparison of solar potential of Sarajevo and Mostar

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions

57

radiation data are sufficiently satisfactory [6, 7]. At the average annual level, the downloaded absorbed radiation is 109 kWh/m2 , while the measured radiation is 89.9 kWh/m2 . This makes a difference of approx. 17%. The comparison between the solar potential for the cities of Sarajevo and Mostar was made in relation to the downloaded data, since the measurements for the city of Mostar were not performed. Figure 3 shows the performed comparison. From the conducted research, it can be concluded that the solar potential is significantly more favorable for the city of Mostar compared to Sarajevo, that is, it is higher by about 16%. In order to further optimize the solar systems in this article, based on the measurements, the solar potentials for both cities will be reduced by 10% in relation to the downloaded values, in order to give an insight into the possibility of exploiting this type of renewable energy for the given purposes under the stated circumstances.

3 Optimization Modeling in Homer Pro Software Homer offers a wide range of technologies for optimization for the stated purposes, including wind turbines, hydro turbines, hydrogen fuel cells and others. In this study, in the optimization procedure, a hybrid system was considered, which consisted of a photovoltaic power plant, batteries and grid, and a DC/AC inverter [8]. The optimization system is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Scheme of optimization model

It is important to emphasize that Homer optimizes the system according to the minimum net present costs of the system [9]. NPCsys =

n t=0

Rt (1 + i)t

(1)

where Rt the difference between income (savings) and expenditure of the system for each period t, which can be a year, i is the discount rate which is taken as 5%, and t is the lifetime of the system. A typical daily household electricity consumption profile is taken from the Homer Pro program (Fig. 5).

58

A. Husika et al.

Fig. 5. Daily electrical load profile of household

In order to carry out optimization, the price of electricity for households was set at 0.15 KM/kWh and the purchase price of electricity from the photovoltaic system, which corresponds to the reference price of 0.12 KM/kWh [10]. The prices of the equipment are given in Table 1. Table 1. Equipment prices Item

Price

PV module

1200.00 KM/kWp

Inverter

380.00 KM/kW

Battery

450.00 KM/kWh

4 Optimization Results The results of the optimization in the Homer Pro program show that the optimal system for covering household needs for Sarajevo area should have a 13 kW installed capacity of a photovoltaic power plant with a connection to the grid. As for the area of Mostar, the optimal system should also have 13 kW of installed PV power plant capacity with a slightly stronger converter. It is interesting to point out that in both cases the optimal system configuration does not include batteries. Basic economic indicators for both systems are given in Table 2. Table 2. Economic indicators for both systems System location

NPC [KM]

LCoE [KM/kWh]

SPB [year]

IRR [%]

Sarajevo

5,967

0.02175

13

5.6

Mostar

4,555

0.01588

12

6.2

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions

59

The behavior of the optimized system for the Sarajevo area is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Optimized system for Sarajevo region

When analyzing the optimization results for the Sarajevo area system, it can be concluded that in most cases the photovoltaic system is sufficient to meet household needs. A certain amount of energy is purchased from the grid during the night hours. Although in these cases the batteries could step in to cover the given needs, the results of the optimization show that they are still unprofitable from a financial aspect, that is, it is better to buy electricity from the grid. Analyzing the system for the Mostar area, a similar behavior of the system was also observed. Figure 7 shows the behavior of the system for the city of Mostar.

Fig. 7. Optimized system for Mostar region

A detailed analysis of both systems shows that the production of electricity for the Mostar area is slightly higher, which is also shown by the economic parameters. A detailed presentation of the amounts of energy purchased from the grid, energy produced

60

A. Husika et al.

from the photovoltaic power plant and data on indirect carbon dioxide emissions is given in Table 3. Table 3. Energy and environmental indicators for both optimized systems System location

Grid purchased [kWh/a]

PV production [kWh/a]

AC load [kWh/a]

CO2 emissions [kg/a]

Sarajevo

2,284

14,459

4,526

1,658

Mostar

2,270

15,194

4,526

1,648

Table 3 shows that energy production for the area of Mostar is higher by about 735 kWh on an annual level, while the reduction of energy purchased from the grid is about 14 kWh on an annual level compared to the system optimized for Sarajevo. For the system installed in the area of Mostar, also a reduction of carbon dioxide emission by 10 kg per year is recorded compared to the system in Sarajevo.

5 Conclusion The paper presents the solar potential for two cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which represent typical representatives of the two regions of the country. Experimental measurements of solar radiation for Sarajevo showed that for a given year of measurement (2021), the solar potential was lower compared to the return period of 15 years. This fact was used when modeling the solar potential for two regions, which was reduced by 10% during the optimization of hybrid systems for supplying a typical household with electrical energy partly from the PV system. The optimization results show that with the current prices of solar equipment, 13 kW of installed capacity of the PV system without the use of batteries and with a classic connection to the grid represents the cost optimum system for both areas analyzed in this paper. A slightly more favorable potential for the use of the mentioned technologies was shown for the city of Mostar, which also shows a smaller return period of the investment, i.e. lower total net present costs of the system, and slightly higher annual savings in indirect carbon dioxide emissions. It is interesting to point out that in addition to taking electricity from the grid at night, batteries are not a valid solution due to the low price of electricity from the grid and the high prices of the equipment itself.

References 1. Research done by Odyssee-Mure: Energy consumption by dwelling. https://www.odysseemure.eu/publications/efficiency-bysector/households/electricity-consumption-dwelling. html. Available online: 10 Dec 2022 2. Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Survey on household energy consumption in B&H. https://bhas.gov.ba/data/Publikacije/Bilteni/2016/ENE_00_2015_TB_1_HR. pdf. Available online: 10 Dec 2022

Optimization of Photovoltaic Systems for Two Different Regions

61

3. Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Energy statistics. https://bhas.gov.ba/data/ Publikacije/Saopstenja/2020/ENE_03_2019_Y1_0_BS.pdf. Available online: 10 Dec 2022 4. Global solar atlas: https://globalsolaratlas.info/map?r=BIH&c=43.93216,17.67915,7. Available online: 11 Dec 2022 5. Luli´c, H., Ðugum, A.: Natural and technical solar energy potential in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Društvena i tehniˇcka istraživanja 2, 271–287 (2019) 6. Mkasi, H.W., Basappa Ayanna, M., Pratt, L.E., Roro, K.T.: Global irradiance on photovoltaic array. In: Proceedings: 5th Southern African Solar Energy Conference SASEC 2018, Durban, South Africa (2018) 7. Psiloglou, B.E., Kambezidis, H.D., Kaskaoutis, D.G., Karagiannis, D., Polo, J.M.: Comparison between MRM simulations, CAMS and PVGIS databases with measured solar radiation components at the Methoni station, Greece. Renew. Energy 146, 1372–1391 (2020) 8. Okedu, K.E., Roland, U.: Optimization of renewable energy efficiency using HOMER. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 4(2), 421–427 (2014) 9. Liu, J., Jian, L., Wang, W., Qiu, Z., Zhang, J., Dastbaz, P.: The role of energy storage systems in resilience enhancement of health care centers with critical loads. The J. Energy Storage 33(6), 102086 (2020) 10. Regulatory Commission for Energy in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Decision on reference prices. https://www.ferk.ba/_ba/images/stories/2021/odluka_referentna_cijena_ bs.pdf. Available online: 11 Dec 2022

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients in Hydropower System with a Surge Tank Hata Miliši´c(B) and Emina Hadži´c Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. A surge tank aims reduce the effect of water hammer to protect a pipeline. For a surge tank to be effective, the maximum height of a surge must be found, then the surge tank can be properly sized for the system. The choice of the shape and dimensions of the surge tank is one of the more complex problems in hydropower and is solved jointly by the designer and the supplier of the turbine, because the proper operation of the hydroelectric power plant depends on it. Considering that the surge tanks are underground facilities, and the construction is expensive, the aim this stady was to find the optimal shape of the surge tank, which would satisfy the stability criteria with less investment. In this paper, a numerical calculation of the water hammer and mass oscilations was performed using the WHAMO software through the example of the HPP Vranduk, which is to be built on the Bosna River (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Keywords: hydraulic transients · mass oscillation · surge tank · water hammer · WHAMO

1 Introduction Sudden changes in the operating regime of hydraulic machines due to their outage (careless handling, breakdown or loss of electricity), regular switching on and off of pumps, commissioning and regulation of water turbines, sudden closing and opening of control valves, sudden changes occur fluid flow rates in supply and discharge pipelines of hydropower plants. As a consequence of these changes, a wave of overpressure or underpressure is formed, which is transmitted through the flow tract of the hydraulic system at a velocity close to the speed of sound. The intensity of the overpressure can be such that it leads to serious disturbances in the operation of hydropower plants, and can cause significant damage and even failure of system elements [1]. On the other hand, negative pressure can cause the appearance of steam cavitation, most often at the system boundaries and the highest points of the pipeline, the formation of steam bubbles and the possibility of separation of the fluid flow in the pipeline. When an overpressure wave encounters a vapor bubble, the balance of forces on its surface is disrupted, leading to its collapse. The collapse of steam bubbles can cause high pressures that are superimposed on the overpressure wave and, together with it, can cause serious disturbances related to the reliable operation of the hydraulic system [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 62–74, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_8

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

63

Also, due to the changing speed of the flow, the coefficient of friction does not have a constant value but changes during the non-stationary process and requires the introduction of a special model for its calculation [1]. From the foregoing, where a brief overview of the phenomena and phenomena accompanying water hammer is given, it can be seen that knowledge and description of these phenomena is of exceptional importance for reliable and safe operation of the plant. Because of the problems that water hammer causes when it occurs, every designer has two choices: to dimension pipes that will be able to withstand pressures, as a consequence of hydraulic shock, or to not allow such pressures to occur. In order to choose the right solution for protection against water hammer, the designer should have a good knowledge of the operating regimes of the pipeline, as well as the principles and reliability of the functioning of all facilities on the pipeline. As elements of protection against the unwanted effects of water hammer in hydraulic systems, the following are used [2]: surge tank, air chamber, change (increase) of pipeline diameter, choice of closure type and closure law, increase in pump inertia, relief valves, non-return valves and bypass lines. Hydraulic analyzes related to the determination of appropriate protection against water hammer can be [2]: • Before the problems in the operation of pipelines appeared: in the system design phase, or in the framework of the reconstruction and expansion of the existing system, • After the observed problems in the functioning and, possibly, breakdown of the pipeline. Water hammer equations applied to complex practical problems cannot be solved analytically. Numerical (approximate) methods must be used to solve them. The basis of numerical modeling is the approximate solution of a mathematical model. The equations are transformed to a form to which one of the numerical methods can be directly applied. In the case of solving water hammer equations, it is the method of characteristics [3]. In engineering practice, graphic methods and methods based on certain simplifications have been used for a long time. With the advent of computers, it became common to use numerical methods to approximate the differential equations of the mathematical model of water hammer [3]. Recently, many software such as Bentley HAMMER, HUdar, WHAMO, Anime, SurgePRO, etc. are used for water hammer analysis purposes[4]. The listed software are used for the purpose of simulation, i.e. predictions of water hammer, thus enabling optimal design of the system in order to reduce the consequences of water hammer. The software facilitates the work on solving the problem of unsteady flow, and the graphical representation of the results gives an insight into possible phenomena after the occurrence of disturbances. In this paper, a numerical calculation of the water hammer was performed using the WHAMO software through the example of the HPP Vranduk, which is to be built on the Bosna River (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The hydraulic analysis related to water hammer protection for the HPP Vranduk system was carried out with the aim of preventing unexpected pressure values and their oscillations when the turbine is put into operation.

64

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

The program was used for the calculation of the maximum and the minimum oscilation of the water level during the opening and closing time of the turbine. This was made to check the size of the surge tank, which was foreseen by the designerin Conceptual Project.

2 Mitigation of Water Hammer in Hydroelectric Power Plants Hydroelectric power plants are energy plants in which the potential energy of water is first converted into the kinetic energy of its flow, then into the mechanical energy of the rotation of the turbine shaft, and finally into electrical energy in the electric generator [3]. The parts of the hydroelectric power plant are: upper reservoir, dam, derivation tunnel, surge tank, pressure pipeline (penstock), hidraulic turbines, generator, machine room, switchgear, drainage channel (tailrace) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of a typical hydroelectric power plant with a surge tank [5]

Water hammer protection techniques are divided into two groups [3]: • The first on which the velocity of propagation of the disorder is influenced • Others in which the reduction of the velocity change is affected. The velocity of propagation of disturbances is influenced by the choice of material (less often, the shape of the cross-section) of the pipeline, as well as by the intentional injection of limited amounts of air. Changing the increase in velocity is achieved by constructive solutions on the pipeline itself and by choosing the type and dimensions of regulatory elements, closures, or by installing special facilities that should ensure this. The number of different protection methods is extremely large, but most of them can be classified into one of the following groups [6]: a) change (increase) of pipeline diameter; b) source of closure type and closure law; c) increasing pump inertia; d) surge tank; e) air chambers; f) relief valves; g) non-return valves; h) bypass lines. 2.1 Surge Tank Surge tank is the most efficient and reliable means of protection against water hammer of the supply tunnels of hydropower plants. It is also used in other situations, although

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

65

much less often. Due to the high construction cost of the water table, cheaper, usually less reliable solutions are preferred. Because of the role they play in hydroelectric power plants, water levels are placed as close as possible to the turbines. The water level provides relief by elastic waves caused by turbine maneuvers, but the change in water speed in the tunnel leads to oscillatory movement, which must be dampened over time (a condition for the stability of the water level operation). Another condition that must be met is that the water level does not empty and air is drawn into the tunnel [2]. When designing the water chamber, it is necessary to solve two basic problems, namely the problem of stabilization of oscillations and the problem of maximum amplitudes [2]. The choice of the shape and dimensions of the water chamber is one of the more complex problems in hydropower and is solved jointly by the designer and the supplier of the turbine, because the proper operation of the hydroelectric power plant depends on it [7]. Calculated values are checked for more complex cases athydraulic model. If the derivation tunnel is under pressure, the combined operation of the derivation and penstock should be considered in the calculation. As mentioned earlier, the problem of stabilization of oscillations implies the determination of the minimum cross-sectional area of the surge tank at which oscillations in the surge tank will be damped. The cross-sectional area of the surge tankF must not be less than some critical value Fkr , that is, it must be fulfilled that [7]: F > Fkr =

L · Q02 2 · g · f · ht · (H0 − ht − 3 · hc )

(1)

where is: Q0 – maximum discharge, H 0 – height of pressure in static conditions, f – cross section area of derivation pipe, L – length of derivation pipe, Δht and Δhc – energy losses in the tunnel and pipeline. This is the so-called Tom’s criterion, which gives the minimum cross-sectional area of the surge tank to avoid undamped oscillations [7]. The criterion refers to ordinary, cylindrical surge tank. Surge tank is one of the most expensive protection solutions against water hammer. On the other hand, in terms of functioning, the surge tank is probably the most reliable protection. During of sudden closing and opening of pre-turbine shutters, the range of oscillations of the water level in the surge tank is considerable, and large dimensions of the surge tanks are required [8]. One of the ways to reduce the oscillation amplitudes, and therefore to reduce the building height of the surge tank, is to reduce the opening at the junction of the surge tank and the tunnel. Determining the dimensions and shape of the muffler, which should have the required energy loss, is also not an easy task, and the most reliable way is to use the results of model tests [8].

66

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

3 Mathematical Model The Governing equations which provide the basis for the analysis of water hammer phenomena are the momentum equation and the continuity equation [2]. ∂V ∂ λ ∂V +V +g + V |V | = 0 ∂t ∂x ∂x 2D

(2)

∂ ∂ a2 ∂V +V − V sin α + =0 ∂t ∂x g ∂x

(3)

Neglecting the convective terms in Eqs. (2) and (3), and written in matrix form, the following equation is obtained:     ∂ V ∂ V + [B] + {C} = 0 (4) ∂t  ∂x  ⎧ ⎫   ⎨ λ V |V | ⎬ V g C = 2D where: B = 2 ⎩ ⎭ a /g V −V sin α It can be easily shown that the eigenvalues of matrix B are mutually different, so it follows that it is a hyperbolic type of equation. Complete equations of water hammer applied to complex problems do not have an analytical solution, so the use of numerical models is increasingly common when solving these equations compared to the approximate graphical methods used so far [2]. Next, the method of characteristics will be described, as one of the most commonly used.

4 Numerical Model WHAMO 4.1 Method of Characteristics The numerical model of water hammer is based on the application of the characteristic method. The basis of this method is to reduce hyperbolic equations, which are partial, to ordinary differential equations, which in that case will be satisfied along certain lines in the (x,t) plane, which we call characteristics. Since there are two real eigenvalues of the matrix B, there are also two families of curves that we call characteristics. Basic Eqs. (1) and (2) can be linearly combined, so we write [2]: (1) + χ (2) = L =

 

  a2 ∂V ∂V g ∂ ∂ + + V +χ + + χ V+ χ ∂x ∂t g ∂x ∂t λV |V | + − χ V sin α = 0 2D

(5)

A system of two equations is obtained for any values of the parameter χ, and only those values of the parameter χ when the values in square brackets become total derivatives are significant.

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

67

g In that case it is dx dt = V ± a; χ = ± a ; Due to the negligible value of V in relation to a, we can write:

dx = ±a dt Finally, two or a pair of ordinary differential equations are obtained, C + and C − (Eqs. 6 and 7). WHAMO software [9] is based on Methods of characteristics (MOC). In MOC there are two characteristics given as: C + and C − :  d  a dV λaV |V | (6) + + − V sin α = 0 C + dt g dt 2gD  λaV |V | d  a dV + + + V sin α = 0 C − − (7) dt g dt 2gD The computer program WHAMO uses the implicit finite-difference technique to calculate pipe flow and pressure for different time periods. The computer program WHAMO (Water Hammer and Mass Oscillation) is a product of the US Army Corps of Engineers [9] and is freely available online. It is intended for the simulation of transient phenomena in hydroelectric power plants, pumping stations, in the distribution of water and other liquids. The program is capable of analysing complex systems that may contain various hydrotechnical elements (pipelines, water levels, valves, turbines, pumps).

5 Case Study – HPP Vranduk The future HPP Vranduk will be located on the territory of the municipality of Zenica, at a location between the city of Zenica and the village of Nemile, in the immediate vicinity of the village of the same name, Vranduk. HPP Vranduk will be a derivationtype hydroelectric power plant with a flow-through plant. It will operate continuously and without water storage capacity for peak production. HPP Vranduk consists of the following key components[10]: • Dams located about 150 m downstream from the "Bosna V" bridge, including a small power plant, a fish passage and a sluice dump. The approximate location of the dam is shown in Fig. 2. • Hydroaccumulation is formed upstream of the dam with a normal (and maximum) elevation of 293.50 m.a.s.l. The total volume of the reservoir is 1.62 x 106 m3 , length 5.8 km and area 42.56 ha. • The entrance building is located on the left bank, approx. 35 m upstream from the “Bosna V” bridge and is designed for an installed flow of 100 m3 /s. It is equipped with a fine grid, auxiliary and main shutters. • The supply tunnel is 1476 m long and 6.60 m in diameter. The route of the supply tunnel passes between the tunnels on the main road Doboj - Zenica and the railway tunnels. The shortest distance from the existing tunnels is about 100 m.

68

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

• The machine shop facility is located on the left bank between the “Bosna IV” bridge and the exit from the railway tunnels. It is carried out in a cut directly next to the local road. Pre-turbine butterfly valves for each power unit will be installed within the engine room facility (Table 1).

Fig. 2. Location of the planned VrandukHPP [10]

Table 1. Energy parameters of the planned HPP Vranduk [10]

5.1 Analysis and Verification of the Technical Solution from the Conceptual Project for Electromechanical Part 5.1.1 Critical Review of Technical Solutions from the “Conceptual Project of HPP Vranduk” For the purposes of the conceptual project for the construction of the derivation hydroelectric power plant, the designer assumed three different maneuvers for closing (and opening) the turbines [11]: − linear closing/opening in 5 s − linear closing/opening in 25 s − linear closing/opening in 60 s

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

69

The analysis of “IBE” VrandukHPP without surge tankresulted in the following data for the flow tract [10]: Closing Maneuver: Tz = 5 s Hmax = 289,2 m, Tz = 25 s Hmax = 54,2 m, Tz = 60 s Hmax = 39,2 m. Opening Maneuver: To = 5 s  H = −17,7 m, To = 25 s  H = −2,1 m, To = 60 s  H = 6,5 m. The review and verification of the project documentation “Preliminary project of HPP Vranduk” led to the following conclusions [10]: • For the installed turbine flow of 50 m3 /s and the net drop of the plant, Hn = 20,497 m, the designer, based on the working diagram of turbine types, chose the Kaplan “S” type turbine, with horizontal installation. • In the final conclusion it is written that HE Vranduk can be built without a surge tank with a sufficiently long time of closing and opening of the turbine, that is, it is stated that the time of quick closing and quick opening of the pipelines is appropriate turbine blades for 60 s and that the equipment of the unit is dimensioned for such a mode of operation. 5.2 Analysis of Alternative Solution of Electromechanical Equipment The aim of these analyzes is to carry out a critical check of the solution in the Concept Project for the stable operation of the Vranduk hydroelectric power plant in all modes of operation and maneuvers of the hydroelectric unit from the point of view of safe management of mechanical and electrical equipment, without risk to the entire flow tract of the power plant and with the satisfaction of economic criteria [10]. c = I(10–3 × K)/1 + (K × D/Eb × t)I0,5 c = I(10−3 × 2,1x109 )/1 + (2,1 × 109 × 6,6/2,1 × 1010 × 0,5) I0,5 = 905 m/s. K = 2,1 × 10 9 N/m2 , D = 6,6 m, Eb = 2,1 × 1010 N/m2 , t = 0,5 m, Tc = 2 × L/c = 2 × 1489,5/905 = 3,29 s. L = 1489,5 m,  Hmax = (c × v)/g = (905 × 2,93)/9,81 = 270 m. Based on the analysis of the technical solutions of the horizontal “S” turbine and its basic parameters processed by the Conceptual Project of HPP Vranduk, and a comparison with the alternative vertical Kaplan turbine, it can be concluded [10]: • The conceptual design, based on the installed flow and net drop from the diagram of the working area, correctly selected the horizontal “S” turbine,

70

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

• There is no relief chamber provided on the supply derivation, so due to the limitation of the pressure increase in the supply tunnel, the closing time of the turbine impeller balls of Tz = 60 s is recommended in the Conceptual Project, • The verified water inertia constant in the derivation is Tw = 21.59 s. According to the recommendations from the used literature, if this constant for derivations under pressure is greater than 12 s, the installation of a water level relief chamber is required. • For the installed flow, net drop and barrier profile conditions, an alternative to the horizontal “S” turbine would be a vertical Kaplan turbine with the same number of revolutions and calculated basic technical solutions of the parameters. The total closing time of the idler circuit during rapid unloading would be 11 s, and that rapid closing from maximum load 5.5 s to idle and damping 5.5 s to complete closing of the turbine blades (broken closing law). The opening of the vanes of the control circuit would be 8s until reaching the nominal number of revolutions, and after the synchronization process until the maximum load 72 s. • The cost evaluation for the variants favors the vertical Kaplan turbine. • The cost evaluation for the variants favors the vertical Kaplan turbine. • On the basis of the analyzes carried out related to the solutions of the Conceptual Project and processed alternative solutions, it is recommended to the investor, from the point of view of the safe operation of the installed equipment and the derivation system of the power plant, to foresee the construction of a surge tank on the derivation and that as close as possible to the power plant. This will create the conditions and enable the installation of aggregate equipment with significantly smaller dimensions and significantly lower costs. 5.3 Analysis and Verification of the Technical Solution from the Conceptual Project for Hydrotechnical Part 5.3.1 Critical Review of Technical Solutions from the “CONCEPTUAl Project of HPP Vranduk” For the hydraulic calculations of unsteady phenomena in the Vranduk HPP supply tunnel, it was necessary to analyze and check the following parameters [10]: • Dimensions of the diameter of the supply tunnel • Flow resistance coefficients • Maximumheight of pressures After reviewing and checking the solutions from the “Conceptual Project of HPP Vranduk”, the following conclusions were reached [10]: • The adopted diameter of the supply tunnel D = 6.6 m fully corresponds to the optimal solution; • The hydraulic calculation of unsteady phenomena was carried out, i.e. the results from the Conceptual Project were checked using the WHAMO software, and the same overpressure values were obtained for the same input data.

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

71

5.4 Numerical Model of HPP Vranduk The hydraulic analysis related to water hammer protection for the HPP Vranduk system was carried out with the aim of preventing unexpected pressure values and their oscillations when the turbine is put into operation. When calculating hydraulic transients, it is necessary to define a computational model of the flow system. It consists of individual hydraulic elements that are programmed according to the rules of the WHAMO program. The computational model of the flow system is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The computational model of the flow system without and with surge tank [12]

The computational model includes the upper basin, the derivation pipeline, (surge tank) and the valve that can be used to change the water flow. For the upper tank, we assume a constant water level (293.50 m above sea level). The pipeline is modeled as an elastic pipeline, defined by geometric characteristics, pressure loss coefficient and pressure wave propagation velocity. The right boundary condition is given on the valve, i.e. a linear or gradual Q-h curve, which simulates the closing or opening of the turbine. The calculation takes place in time intervals t, which are dictated by the conditions of numerical stability.

6 Numerical Results In the present study, water hammer and mass oscilations will be studied and analysed. The effect of varying the surge tank area on the water surface oscillations in the surge tank and total discharge has to be investigated. This study focuses on changes in transient behaviours of the system as a result of modifying diameter of surge tank (DS), valve operation mechanism and closing and opening time. The results of the numerical calculation of unsteady phenomena in the headrace tunnel will be presented, for the following cases: • headrace tunnel without surge tank and linear closing (and opening) the turbines; • with surge tank with silencer for different diameters, 10, 20, 30 and 40 m and gradual closing (and opening) according to the proposal of a technical solution (electricalmechanical). The results numerical simulations wereshown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

72

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

6.1 Simulation Results for the Case Without Surge Tank (Linear Closing and Opening)

Fig. 4. Calculation results for the case of linear closing the turbine t = 60 s

Fig. 5. Calculation results for the case of linear opening the turbine t = 60 s

Fig. 6. Calculation results for the case of gradual closing the turbine

Fig. 7. Calculation results for the case of gradual opening the turbine

Numerical Simulations of Hydraulic Transients

73

6.2 Simulation Results for the Case Withsurge Tank of Diameter 20 m (Gradual Closing and Opening)

Fig. 8. Transient pressures in surge tank, penstok and derivation tunnel for surge tank of diameter 20 m (gradual closing)

Fig. 9. Transient pressures in surge tank, penstok and derivation tunnel for surge tank of diameter 20 m (gradual opening)

7 Conclusions In this paper, water hammer and water mass oscillations in hydropower systems are described. The topic was analysed through the theory and application of the WHAMO numerical model of the Vranduk HPP (B&H). After the preliminary adoption of the water hammer protection concept, numerical simulations can be used to analyze and check the effectiveness of this solution for different operating conditions of the plant, which was the goal of this study. The final conclusions of the study are as follow: Various variations in the time of the closing maneuvers on the turbine showed that the time required for the turbine to close was about 60 s, if the option without a surge tank was chosen, and it was desired to remain within the pressure limit of no more than 4 bar in the headrace tunnel. The turbine start-up maneuver for this type of system (without surge tank) does not pose a problem if the turbine opening time is extended to approx. 80 s. or more, and as it is given in the calculation according to the law 8 + 72 s. The ideal diameter of the surge tank according to analytical solutions would be approx. 40 m, however, as the oscillations in surge tank with smaller diameters are not too large for restarting electromechanical equipment, a water table with a diameter of approx. 20 m would be suitable as an object for reducing the amplitude of oscillation, and when

74

H. Miliši´c and E. Hadži´c

restarting electromechanical equipment until the "activation" of friction and complete relaxation of oscillations. This surge tank is significantly cheaper than a large surge tank 40 m in diameter. A surge tank with a diameter of approx. 20 m is also suitable for restarting the system, because air is not drawn into the system during this maneuver on the turbines. On the basis of the analysis of the conceptual design and the alternative solutions discussed in this study, the investor is recommended, from the point of view of the safe operation of the installed equipment and the derivation system of the power plant, to foresee the installation of a surge tank on the derivation as close as possible to the power plant. This will create the conditions and enable the installation of aggregate equipment with significantly smaller dimensions and significantly lower costs.

References 1. Kalajdžisalihovi´c, H., Milašinovi´c, Z., Miliši´c, H.: Uticaj trenja na pojavu hidrauliˇckog udara. Voda i mi. Broj 72, 4–10 (2010) 2. Iveti´c, M.: Raˇcunska hidraulika – Teˇcenje u cijevima. Gradevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd (1996) - c, B.: Koriš´cenje vodnih snaga, Beograd (1984) 3. Ðordevi´ 4. Turbo, A.: Modeliranje hidrauliˇckog udara u tlaˇcnim cjevovodima. Završni rad,Gradevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu (2020) 5. Ramadan, A., Mustafa, H.: Surge tank design considerations for controlling water hammer effects at hydro-electric power plants. Univ. Bull. 3, 147–160 (2013) - c, B.: Hidroenergetika kroz rješavanje konkretnih problema, Beograd 6. Daši´c, T., Ðordevi´ (2008) 7. Vereide, K.: Hydraulics and Thermodynamics of Closed Surge Tanks for Hydropower Plants, Ph.D. thesis, NTNU, Trondheim. http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2385993 (2016) 8. Guo, W., Liu, Y., Qu, F., Xu, X.: A review of critical stable sectional areas for the surge tanks of hydropower stations. Energies 13, 6466 (2020) 9. Fitzgerald, R., Van Blaricum, V.L.: Water Hammer and Mass Oscillation (WHAMO 3.0 User’s Manual). US Army Corps of Engineers. Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, p. 259 (1998) 10. Elaborat o tehniˇckom rješenju objekata i opreme za stabilan rad hidroelektrane Vranduk (2014), Gradevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu 11. Rozman, D.: Testiranje programov za raˇcun vodnega udara in uporaba hidroelektrarne. Dipl. nal. – UNI. Ljubljana, UL, FGG, Oddelek za gradbeništvo, Hidrotehniˇcna smer (2011) 12. Guo, W., Wang, B., Yang, J., Xue, Y.: Optimal control of water level oscillations in surge tank of hydropower station with long headrace tunnel under combined operating conditions. Appl. Math. Model. 47, 260–275 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2017.03.027

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines from Destruction in Technological Corridors Oleg M. Mandryk(B) , Lubomur S. Shlapak, Oleh M. Tuts, and Iryna L. Bodnaruk Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, 15, Karpatska St., Ivano-Frankivsk 76019, Ukraine [email protected]

Abstract. The fuel and energy complex is an important part of the real sector of the economy. It plays a key role not only in the energy supply of the country, but also generates state budget revenues. An important role in the fuel and energy security of the country is played by the pipeline transport of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, without which it is difficult to imagine the life support of the population and the normal functioning of the national economic complex. In this paper is analyzed annual.The obtained solution of the problem of thermal conductivity in combination with the approach to determining the radiation effect of the heat flow q(x, y) and the thermophysical characteristics of the pipe material and heat-resistant bandage allow us to develop the optimal design of protection against thermal radiation from a fire according to the “fire in the pit” scenario, and on this basis, technological measures to minimize the consequences on the environment. Keywords: avalanche destruction · modeling · long-distance transportation · temperature field · inclined cylinder

1 Introduction Modern energy security is in fact the most powerful component of the world energy strategy and requires a respectful attitude, which means careful study [1]. This approach requires joint efforts of environmental [2], scientific and educational [3] and scientific and industrial professional space [4]. As a matter of fact, the oil and gas industry still occupies a decisive place in the world energy balance. Therefore, in view of the growing requirements for environmental safety, there is a need for a detailed study of the state of production and transportation of oil and gas [5]. A particularly important issue of the oil and gas industry is the installation of pipe equipment. In the process of production by drill pipes and transportation by gas and oil pipes, partial wear occurs, which can lead to destruction and accidents. The characteristics of these damages and operations and their prevention is an important scientific and engineering matter.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 75–85, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_9

76

O. M. Mandryk et al.

2 Literature Review Analysis of the problems associated with defects and damages in the oil and gas pipeline industry first of all requires consideration of existing and proposed means of protection and prevention. In the gas production industry, the most problematic are pipe connections, one of the functions of which is tightness. The improvement of tightness is proposed in the study [6], however, it refers to the preservation of the stability of the inter-pipe connection by increasing the accuracy of the thread. The study of the influence of the geometric parameters of the thread profile on the quality of the pipe connection is presented in [7], but it does not mention defects associated with physical (for example, thermal or corrosion) effects. For work in severe thermal conditions or in an aggressive environment, work [8] suggested using stainless steel pipes. However, we are talking only about the connection of drill strings and not main pipelines. The study [9] shows the functional dependence of the mechanical stability of the pipeline on the accuracy of the thread parameters, however, in main gas pipelines, a welded connection is used instead of a threaded one. Increasing the operational stability of oil and gas pipes was studied in [10], but the methods of preventing defects due to corrosion or thermal effects were not taken into account. A number of studies are dedicated to the prevention of accidents and breakdowns due to the elimination of various possible defects at the production stage [11], its optimization [12] and consideration of technological parameters [13] that affect resistance to possible hereditary defects. However, in these works, the means of protection of gas pipelines are not detailed. Research results [14] showed that the stressstrain state of pipelines with coatings depends significantly on the areas of their laying and on the presence of cracks [15]. However, these works do not talk about possible defects caused by external or internal physical effects (thermal, corrosion, etc.). For the safe operation of pipelines, it is also important to study corrosion processes on metal structures with coatings [16]. In works [17, 18] heat transfer processes in multi-layered structures of basic geometric shapes made of different materials were investigated. However, the thermal effect was not considered directly during gas transportation.The fuel and energy complex is an important part of the real sector of the economy. It plays a key role not only in the energy supply of the country, but also generates state budget revenues. An important role in the fuel and energy security of the country is played by the pipeline transport of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, without which it is difficult to imagine the life support of the population and the normal functioning of the national economic complex. Sustainable functioning, dynamic development of a well-balanced national pipeline transport system is a necessary condition for stability and economic recovery, ensuring the integrity of the state, and raising the standard of living of the population. The role of national pipeline transport is growing even more in the context of the globalization of the world economy, which leads to the expansion of interstate ties. Pipeline transport of hydrocarbons in Ukraine is a complex technological system (CTS) with a powerful energy potential. It includes installations for the preparation of gas and oil for long-distance transportation, industrial, main and distribution pipelines, compressor and pumping stations, tank farms, underground storage facilities, marine terminals. The total length of main, industrial and distribution pipelines is about 100 thousand km.

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines

77

However, the gas transmission system (GTS) includes 60% of gas pipelines with a service life of 15 to 50 years. 7.3 thousand km of gas pipelines have worked out their depreciation period of 33 years, and more than a third of gas pipelines have an anti-corrosion coating of cold-applied polymer films. More than 25% of the fleet of gaspumping units have worked out the installed motor capacity, which makes it difficult to ensure reliable and efficient operation. And this forces us to solve problems in the development and implementation of highly economical and environmentally friendly gas compressor units. The line section of gas pipelines is operated in complex and diverse natural conditions, and therefore the range of loads and impacts on them is very wide. In addition, the pipeline system has different service life and different design solutions along its entire length. All this leads to their failures, and this, in turn, to a negative impact on the environment [1, 4]. As statistics show, the largest number of accidents is observed on gas pipelines that have been in operation for more than 20 years and reach almost 80% of the total accident rate. The above data state the need for safe operating conditions for gas transmission systems, which are characterized by an assessment of the environmental risk of their operation. The assessment of technical and environmental risk is considered in scientific papers, regulations, documents [5, 19]. In terms of freight traffic, pipelines take the 2nd place after railways. Natural gas, oil and oil products are supplied through pipelines both to domestic consumers and to European countries. This testifies to the great importance and responsibility of pipeline transport in the uninterrupted supply of natural gas, oil and petroleum products to domestic and foreign consumers. At the same time, pipeline transport of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, classified as category “A” of the third group in case of accidents and failures poses a great danger to the population, engineering structures and natural areas, as it includes fire and explosion hazardous facilities and CTS, which store, transport products, that acquire under certain conditions the ability to ignite or explode leading to environmental pollution. Therefore, high requirements are imposed on pipelines to ensure the reliability and safety of their operation. This is especially true for the intersection of the pipeline system in the so-called technological corridors, where several pipelines of different diameters intersect. The destruction of one of the pipelines in this section can provoke an avalanche destruction of other pipelines, leave not only large areas without energy carriers, but also cause significant environmental and economic damage [20, 21].

3 Research Methodology One of the ways to ensure the reliability and increase the safety of operation of gas pipelines at their intersection in technological corridors can be to protect the pipe body from the thermal effects of a fire according to the “fire in the pit” scenario that occurs when the pipeline is destroyed. The task is to develop a mathematical model for calculating the heat-resistant protection of the outer surface of the pipeline from the action of the heat flow that occurs when one of the gas pipelines is destroyed in the technological corridor.

78

O. M. Mandryk et al.

An axisymmetric nonstationary problem of heat conduction is considered to find the temperature field T (r, t) for a hollow cylinder (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Temperature field of a hollow cylinder

Here r is a cylinder thickness coordinate; t– time. The initial temperature T (a, 0) = t1c is set inside the cylinder and thermal flux with power q+ acts outside. Such a temperature field is described by the heat equation [22]: 1 ∂T ∂T 1 ∂T = , + ∂r 2 r ∂r c ∂t The solution of which must satisfy the following conditions  c T (a, 0) =  t1 ∂T (r,t)  λ ∂r r = b, t0 = g +

(1)

Here, λ is a thermal conductivity coefficient; c is a thermal diffusivity coefficient. The stationary solution of the problem looks as follows: b · q+ r ln . (2) λ a The solution of the non-stationary problem is found by the finite-difference method by r [4] using all three approximation formulas (forward, central and backward): T (a, 0) = tc1 +

∂T (ri , t) T (ri+1 , t) − T (ri , t) T (ri+1 , t) − T (ri−1 , t) T (ri , t) − T (ri−1 , t) = = = , ∂r hr 2hr hr (3) where hr is a step along r,

hr =

b−a 2 .

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines

79

4 Results Having carried out the approximation at the points r = a, r = a+b 2 ; r = b and introducing   a+b the notation T0 (t) = T (a, t), T0 (t) = T 2 , t , T2 (t) = T (b, t), we obtain a system of three equations for determining Ti (i = 0.1, 2) : ⎧ 2 dT0 q+ · c ⎪ ⎪ = m · c(T0 − T1 ) + · , ⎨ dt λ b−a ⎪ dT0 2b q+ · c ⎪ ⎩ (4) = m · c(T0 − T1 ) + · , dt λ (b − a)2 q+ b − a T2 (t) = T1 (t) + · , λ 2 ,n = 2 2. where m = 2(3a−b) a(b−a)2 (b−a) The solution of system (4) is found under the following initial conditions:

 a+b q+ · b / / T0 (0) = tc , T1 (0) = tc + ln . λ 2a Here, a stationary solution is used. The solution of system (4) under condition (5) has the form:  

q+ 2 m · a2 A · m (m−n)c·t / T0 (t) = tc + e ·c·t + , −1 + m−n λ b − a 2a − b T1 (t) = T0 (t) − A · e(m−n)·ct − T2 (t) = T1 (t) +

a2 q+ · , λ 2a − b

q+ (b − a) · , λ 2

(5)

(6) (7) (8)

2   + a . where A = − qλ 2a−b + b · ln a+b 2a An analysis of the solution of the formulated mathematical problem showed that the effectiveness of the protection of pipelines at the intersection in technological corridors during destruction to the “fire in the pit” scenario depends mainly on the value of the specific heat flux q+ and the mass of gas in the section of the main gas pipeline (MG) involved in the combustion process. It is recommended to calculate the radiation (thermal) impact of fire heat fluxes q+ = q(x, y) on the MG on nearby objects using the formula: q(x, y) = E1 · ϕ(x, y) · ν,

(9)

where E1 is the intensity of radiation from a unit surface (“outer shell”) of the flame, kW/m2 ; ν is the coefficient of absorption of thermal radiation by the atmosphere, E1 =

Qrad , Sϕ

(10)

80

O. M. Mandryk et al.

where Sϕ is the radiation surface area, m2 ; Qrad is the thermal radiation flux defined as a part of the total heat release of the flame (Qϕ ), kV/m2 Qrad = Qϕ · η,

(11)

where η is the emissivity to the environment, depending on the dynamics of mixing gas with air, that is, on the rate of gas leakage υ0 , m/s. −

For the case of combustion with a free tabletop jet η is calculated by the ratio η = 0, 11 + 0, 21e−0,00323v0 .

(12)

For the case of “fire in the pit”, the emissivity η is approximately accepted as η = 0, 25. The value of the specific intensity of flame radiation E1 cannot exceed 200 kV/m2 for gas jet combustion, 170 kV/m2 in case of fire in the pit. The coefficient of absorption of radiation by the atmosphere is defined as v = a − 0, 12 lg(r),

(13)

where r is the distance from the source to the irradiated object, m; a is the coefficient that depends on the relative humidity of the air w%, which is determined by meteorological data. In general case, the slope of irradiation ϕ(x, y) is a geometric characteristic and depends on the relative position and shape of the surface of the radiation source of the object and can be determined by the formula.  cos β1 · cos β2 ϕ= · dF1 , (14) π · r2 F1

where F1 is radiated surface of the flame, visible from the side of the irradiated area; β1 is the angle between the normal to the flame surface F1 and direction to the irradiated surface F2 ; β2 is the angle between the normal to the irradiated surface F2 and direction to the radiated surface of the flame F1 ; r is the distance between flame surface F1 and irradiated site F2 . To determine the numerical integral (14), it is necessary to divide the entire surface of the flame into elementary areas Fij , then its approximate value can be calculated using the formula ϕMij =

w M   · fij · Fij , i=1

(15)

j=1

where fij is a subintegral function calculated for each elementary area Fij , located on the surface of the flame. To calculate the value ϕ(x, y) at a specific point with a coordinate (x, y) numerical integration of the elementary emissivity coefficients from the bulk surface is required using relation (15). According to [5], in order to obtain engineering estimates when

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines

81

Fig. 2. Model of the radiator in the form of an inclined cylinder

calculating the slope coefficients for the case of the “fire in the pit” scenario, it is recommended to use the approximation of the flame surface rough in the form of an inclined cylinder standing on the end (Fig. 2). The slope coefficients of irradiation from a flame in the form of an inclined cylinder for vertical ϕV and horizontal ϕ1 areas on the ground surface at a distance x in the direction downwind from the center of the lower surface of the cylinder (point A, Fig. 2) are calculated by the formulas                 1  ϕV =  π               

        X − 2 · H · (1 + L · sin θ )   · √  X − 2 · L · (H + 1) · sin θ · Z − 2 · L · (X − 1) · sin θ  ⎞ ⎛     X − 2 · L · − 1) · sin θ H − 1 (H ⎠+  arctg · ⎝ ·  Z − 2 · L · (H − 1) · sin θ H +1   ⎞ ⎛ ⎧ ⎫  ⎪ ⎪   ⎪ ⎪  ⎪ ⎪ ⎜ L · H − H 2 − 1 · sin θ ⎟ ⎪ ⎪  ⎪ ⎪ ⎟ ⎜ ⎪ ⎪  + arctg  ⎪ ⎪  ⎠ ⎝ ⎪ ⎪   ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪  2 2 2 ⎪ ⎪ H − 1 · H − 1 · cos θ ⎨ ⎬ cos θ  · + ⎛ ⎞    ⎪  ⎪ ⎪   1 + H 2 + 1 · cos2 θ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪  ⎪ ⎜ ⎟⎪ ⎪ ⎪ H 2 − 1 · sin θ ⎪ ⎪ ⎜ ⎟⎪ ⎪  +arctg ⎪ ⎪  ⎝ ⎠⎪ ⎪  ⎪ ⎪   ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ H 2 − 1 · 1 + H 2 − 1 · cos2 θ ⎭

−

1 L · cos θ ·  · H − L · sin θ tg H −1 H 9+1

(16)

82

O. M. Mandryk et al.

  ! "   H −1 sin θ     + ·  arctg    H +1 1 + (H − 1) · cos2 θ ⎧  ⎫ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛       ⎪  ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ 2 − 1 · sin θ 2 − 1 · sin θ ⎨  ⎬ H L · H − H ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜  ⎟ + arctg ⎜  ⎟ −  arctg ⎜    ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎪ ⎪    ⎪  1 ⎪ ⎩ H 2 − 1 · H 2 − 1 · cos2 θ H 2 − 1 · 1 + H 2 − 1 · cos2 θ ⎭  ϕ1 = ·   π     X − 2 · (H + 1 + L · H · sin θ) −  · √   X − 2 · L · (H + 1) · sin θ · Z − 2 · L · (H − 1) · sin θ     ⎛ ⎞      X − 2 · L · + 1) · sin θ H − 1 (H  ·arctg ⎝  ⎠ ·   Z − 2 · L · (H − 1) · sin θ H +1   =

2·x 2(L1 − L2 ) ·L= , = (H + 1)2 + L2 , Z = (H − 1)2 + L2 . Deff Deff

(17) where θ is the angle of deviation of the flame axis (cylinder) from the vertical under the influence of wind, calculated by the formula  1 if U∗ ≤ 1, (18) cos θ = −0,5 U∗ if U∗ > 1, where U∗ = W a



m·q·Deff ρ

−1/3

; W a – average within flame height wind speed, m/s;

m– mass flow rate of fuel into the reaction zone per unit flame surface, kg·m2 /s; ρ– flame vapor density at interface temperature (taken equal to gas density under normal conditions) kg/m3 ; q– acceleration of gravity, m/s2 ; Deff – effective (visible) flame diameter, m. The criterion for thermal damage on the pipeline is the value of the absorbed dose of thermal radiation, determined by the formula. Dth.rad . = qth.rad . · t,

(19)

where qth.rad . is the value of heat flux per unit area, kW/m2 ; duration of heat exposure, s. The dependence of the degree of equipment damage Keq.dam. on the dose of absorbed thermal radiation Dth.rad . has the for ⎧ ⎪ if qth.rad . < 12 kW/m2 ⎪0 ⎪ ⎨ 0, 1 if Dth.rad . ≤ Dthresh Keq.dam. = (20) Dth.rad . −Dthresh ⎪ 0, 1 + Ddestr −Dthresh if Dthresh < Dth.rad . < Ddestr ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ 1 if Dth.rad . ≥ Dthresh , where Dthresh – threshold value of absorbed thermal radiation dose (kJ/m2 ), below which the equipment receives only minor damage (Keq.dam. = 0, 1); Ddestr – value of the dose of absorbed thermal radiation (kJ/m2 ), above which the equipment is considered completely destroyed.

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines

83

Thus, knowing the degree of damage to the equipment K eq.dam. From the dose of absorbed thermal radiation Dth.rad . , it is possible to determine the threshold value of the duration of the heat flow tthresh , upon reaching which the equipment (pipeline) remains operational, receiving minor damage, which will make it possible to develop a design of a thermal shield to protect against the destruction of parallel pipelines in the technological corridor, prevent an environmental disaster, and increase the reliability and safety of their operation.

5 Conclusion 1. A mathematical model has been developed for solving the non-stationary axisymmetric problem of heat conduction of finding the temperature field T (v, t) for a hollow cylinder simulating a pipeline. The solution makes it possible to determine the temperature field of the pipeline when it is exposed to thermal radiation from a fire according to the “fire in the pit” scenario when another pipeline in the technological corridor is destroyed. 2. It is shown that one of the ways to protect against the destruction of pipelines in the technological corridor in the event of the destruction of one of them can be to protect the outer surface from the action of thermal radiation with a heat-resistant bandage, which makes it possible to dissipate the heat flow from gas combustion for a certain time t. 3. The obtained solution of the problem of thermal conductivity in combination with the approach to determining the radiation effect of the heat flow q(x, y) and the thermophysical characteristics of the pipe material and heat-resistant bandage allow us to develop the optimal design of protection against thermal radiation from a fire according to the “fire in the pit” scenario, and on this basis, technological measures to minimize the consequences on the environment.

References 1. Hovdiak, R.M., Semchuk, Y.M., Chabanovych, L.B., Shelkovskyi, B.I., Kryvenko, H.M.: Energy and Environmental Safety of Oil and Gas Facilities. Lileya-NV, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine (2007) 2. Korchemlyuk, M., Khilchevskyi, V., Arkhypova, L., Mykhailyuk, I., Mykhailyuk, J.: Spatialfactorial analysis of background status of the Danube River basin state on the north eastern slops of the Ukrainian Carpathians. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1781(1), 012011 (2021) 3. Shkitsa, L., Kornuta, V., Kornuta, O., Bekish, I., Bui, V.: Information support of design innovation activity of the technical university. Manag. Syst. Prod. Eng. 28(2), 127–132 (2020) 4. Mandryk, O.M.: Development of the scientific foundations of increasing environmental safety during natural gas transportation. Thesis. DEng. Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine (2013) 5. Hovdiak, R.M., Kovnyriev, Y.M.: Quantitative Analysis of the Emergency Risk of Gas Transmission Facilities of Increased Danger. Kalvariya, Lviv, Ukraine (2007) 6. Onysko, O., Kopei, V., Medvid, I., Pituley, L., Lukan, T.: Influence of the thread profile accuracy on contact pressure in oil and gas pipes connectors. In: Ivanov, V., Trojanowska, J., Pavlenko, I., Zajac, J., Perakovi´c, D. (eds.) DSMIE 2020. LNME, pp. 432–441. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50794-7_42

84

O. M. Mandryk et al.

7. Kopei, V., Onysko, O., Panchuk, V., Pituley, L., Schuliar, I.: Influence of working height of a thread profile on quality indicators of the drill-string tool-joint. In: Tonkonogyi, V., Ivanov, V., Trojanowska, J., Oborskyi, G., Pavlenko, I. (eds.) InterPartner 2021. LNME, pp. 395–404. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91327-4_39 8. Onysko, O., Medvid, I., Panchuk, V., Rodic, V., Barz, C.: Geometric modeling of lathe cutters for turning high-precision stainless steel tapered threads. In: Ivanov, V., Trojanowska, J., Pavlenko, I., Zajac, J., Perakovi´c, D. (eds.) DSMIE 2021. LNME, pp. 472–480. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77719-7_47 9. Kopei, V., Onysko, O., Odosii, Z., Pituley, L., Goroshko, A.: Investigation of the influence of tapered thread profile accuracy on the mechanical stress, fatigue safety factor and contact pressure. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 177–185. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_21 10. Kopei, V.,Onysko, O.,Kusyi, Y.,Vriukalo, V., and Lukan, T.: Investigation of the Influence of tapered Thread Pitch Deviation on the Drill-String Tool-Joint Fatigue Life In: Karabegovi´c, I. (eds.) New Technologies, Development and Application V. NT 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 472, pp. 144–154. Springer, Cham, Switzerland (2022) 11. Kusyi, Y., Stupnytskyy, V.: Optimization of the technological process based on analysis of technological damageability of castings. In: Ivanov, V., Trojanowska, J., Pavlenko, I., Zajac, J., Perakovi´c, D. (eds.) DSMIE 2020. LNME, pp. 276–284. Springer, Cham (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50794-7_27 12. Kusyi, Y., Stupnytskyy, V., Onysko, O., Dragašius, E., Baskutis, S., Chatys, R.: Optimization synthesis of technological parameters during manufacturing of the parts. Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc 28(3), 655–667 (2020) 13. Kusyi, Y.: Technological inheritability of product material using the criterion of technological damageability. In: Ivanov, V., Trojanowska, J., Pavlenko, I., Zajac, J., Perakovi´c, D. (eds.) DSMIE 2021. LNME, pp. 52–61. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03077719-7_6 14. Velychkovych, A.S., Andrusyak, A.V., Pryhorovska, T.O., Ropyak, L.Y.: Analytical model of oil pipeline overground transitions, laid in mountain areas. Oil and Gas Sci. Technol. 74, 2019039 (2019) 15. Shats’kyi, I.P., Makoviichuk, M.V., Shcherbii, A.B.: Influence of a flexible coating on the strength of a shallow cylindrical shell with longitudinal crack. J. Math. Sci. 238, 165–173 (2019) 16. Bembenek, M., et al.: Multiclass level-set segmentation of rust and coating damages in images of metal structures. Sensors 22(19), 7600 (2022) 17. Tatsii, R.M., Stasyuk, M.F., Pazen, O.Y.: Direct method of calculating nonstationary temperature fields in bodies of basic geometric shapes. J. Eng. Phys. Thermophys. 94(2), 298–310 (2021) 18. Tatsiy, R.M., Pazen, O.Y., Vovk, S.Y., Ropyak, L.Y., Pryhorovska, T.O.: Numerical study on heat transfer in multilayered structures of main geometric forms made of different materials. J. Serb. Soc. Comput. Mech. 13(2), 36–55 (2019) 19. Poberezhny, L., Hrytsanchyk, A., Mandryk, O., Mishchuk, B., Rudyak, Y.: Gas hydrates impact on corrosion of the well flow lines material. Arch. Mater. Sci. Eng. 110(1), 5–17 (2021) 20. Mandryk, O., Vytyaz, O., Poberezhny, L., Mykhailiuk, Y.: Increase of the technogenic and ecological safety of the natural gas transportation due to displacement of explosive mixtures with nitrogen. Arch. Mater. Sci. Eng. 106(1), 17–27 (2020)

Modeling of Thermal Protection of Pipelines

85

21. Mandryk, O., Artym, V., Shtohryn, M., Zaytsev, V.: Scientific rationale for the movable pipeline technology for transporting CNG by sea. Manag. Syst. Prod. Eng. 28(3), 168–177 (2020) 22. Podstrigach, Y.S., Lomakin, V.A., Koliano, Y.M.: Thermoelasticity of Bodies of Inhomogeneous Structure. Nauka, Moscow, Russia (1984)

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application in High Power Boilers Nihad Hodzic1(B) and Kenan Kadic2 1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Vilsonovo Setaliste 9, 71000

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d. - Sarajevo, Power Utility, Power Plant Kakanj - Kakanj, 72240 Kakanj, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Improving energy efficiency, operating and time availability of high power boilers is a continuous energy imperative, in parallel with the promotion of sustainable development. Such a need and focus, at the same time, is a strong motivation to explore new technologies for the conversion of primary energy from fuel. So far, significant research has been conducted at the University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Pulsed Combustion, on the accompanying properties of pulse combustion of propane-butane in a simple and robust modular burner, with fixed aerodynamic valves and cooled by water. The obtained results and findings clearly indicate that this burner can be usefully used as a basic and/or especially as an additional burner in the furnace with the aim of further turbulence of the combustion atmosphere and thus increase the efficiency of energy conversion from fuel. At the same time, the obtained results indicate that this burner can be used as a device for generating high-frequency oscillations of pressure and sound directly in the furnace and/or in the convective channels of high power boilers in order to prevent the formation or removal of already formed ash deposits from boiler heating surface. Keywords: burner · pulse combustion · pressure · frequency · ash

1 Introduction The first paper on the appearance of pulsations during combustion was published by Byron Higgins around 1800. So, the professional community paid attention to this phenomenon more than two centuries ago. But, concrete steps to apply this phenomenon were made only at the beginning of the twentieth century, as part of the initial interest in the development of gas turbines (Esnault - Pelterie, 1906: burner for pulse combustion with mechanical valves on the entry side); Marconnet, 1909: burner with aerodynamic valves; research conducted in France). Research was intensified again in the period before World War II, in Germany: in 1931, Schmidt patented a burner for the pulse combustion of liquid fuel with mechanical valves on the entry side. During that period, research on this type of burner aimed to serve as a cheap thrust generator, primarily for disposable © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 86–94, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_10

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application

87

aircraft, that is “buzz bomb”. However, the pulse combustion burner (PC burner) in this application is out of competition, with better turbojet and turboprop engines. After the first energy shock, in the mid-1970s, and to this day, research into the phenomenon of pulse combustion is intensifying. These researches are conducted all over the world, for example [1–3], and even in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Sarajevo, [4, 5]. In this period, research is mainly focused on the application of this phenomenon in the energy and process industries. Namely, due to the growing need to increase the efficiency of primary energy conversion from fuel with stricter requirements regarding the impact of energy plants on the environment, it is necessary to improve current combustion technologies but also to develop and invent new ones. Significant opportunities in this regard are contained in the research and development of burners for pulse combustion, which by its characteristics is classified in the group of low-waste and highly efficient energy conversion processes. The advantages of this combustion technique, compared to conventional techniques, are significant and known from before, see [5] and [10]. Despite the above, several unknowns and shortcomings of this combustion technique have so far prevented its wider application, primarily the accompanying appearance of intense sound, and to a lesser extent insufficient knowledge of the interdependence of process parameters - especially in relation to a wide range of possible geometric shapes and burner designs, [5]. This paper presents a burner for pulse combustion of gaseous fuel (LPG - liquefied petroleum gas, propane-butane) with fixed aerodynamic air inlets, cooled by water in the area of the combustion chamber and the basic resonant tubes. The burner presentation, in addition to the basic burner performance, also includes results related to the use of burners as a cleaning tool or to prevent contamination of boiler heating surfaces obtained in laboratory conditions on the boiler model.

2 Principle of Work, Experimental Line and Measuring Equipment In this case, this burner consists of basic parts (combustion chamber, fixed aerodynamic valves for combustion air supply and a resonant pipe for flue gas removal from the chamber) that form a whole via a detachable connection. During burner operation, the supply of fuel and air is on opposite sides of the chamber (asymmetric, facing flow), primarily due to aerodynamic valves placed on the air intake side - on the opposite side of the chamber there is a continuous supply of fuel to the combustion chamber. To start the burner, the supply of combustion air is forced, where this first-formed mixture of reactants is also ignited by forced use using sparks generated on the spark plug. After the ignition of the reactant mixture, automatic or self-pumping operation of the burner without external support is established - the operation of the spark plug and forced supply of combustion air is interrupted. The ignition of the new mixture of reactants is enabled by the achieved high temperature of the walls of the combustion chamber and especially by the return of part of the previously formed flue gases into the chamber. During the total cycle of intermittent combustion, ie in the process of expansion, the flue gases dominantly expand and flow through the resonant burner tube, Fig. 1 - left. Theoretical operating cycle of burners with individual phases of the cycle: ignition and combustion (1–2), expansion (2–3), discharge and charge (3–4) and charge and compression (4–1),

88

N. Hodzic and K. Kadic

Flue gases

Fuel/LPG Cooling water

~

Start air RA

Pressure - p, Pa

Fig. 1 - right. Deviations pressure in the overpressure zone is greater than the deflection in the underpressure zone.

2 p

+

1 p

–

4

Atmospheric pressure 3

Specific volume - v, m3/kg Fig. 1. Basic scheme of burners for pulse combustion cooled by water - left, p-v diagram of theoretical operating cycle of burners for pulse combustion - right, [5]

Subject research on the performance of burners for pulse combustion, including research on the possibility of using this burner on high power boilers, was performed in the laboratory of the University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. It is, as already mentioned, a compact and solid burner of variable geometry, because it enables fast establishment of burners of different geometric shapes, which are basically characterized by the volume of the combustion chamber, the length of the combustion air inlet and the length of the resonant tube. The burner is with fixed aerodynamic valves, ie without moving parts, and which after the establishment of automatic (selfpumping) mode, it is works without any external support, Fig. 2, [5]. One of the set goals of the research was to obtain results on the basis of which the possibility of applying burners for pulse combustion on high power boilers can be assessed. In this regard, this paper also presents the results of research related to two possibilities of application of this burner on high power boilers in terms of: a) Applications of burners as auxiliary, the commissioning of which would, occasionally and if necessary, intensify the mixing of reactants by contributing to additional turbulence of the total atmosphere in the zone of intensive combustion of base fuel in the furnace - especially in the combustion of low heating value and poor reactive fuels, and b) Applications of burners as devices for preventing the formation, destruction and removal of already formed deposits on the outside of boiler heating surfaces, especially in the convective part, in which coal is burned whose mineral part is prone to slagging/fouling of boilers surface. In terms of researching previous possibilities of burner application on high power boilers, the subject burner is mounted on a laboratory model of the boiler that allows research from both desired aspects of burner application (connection I, side), Fig. 2: a) application of burners in the furnace zone - the pipe bundle is then in the upper position,

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application

89

b) application of burners in the convective part of the boiler - the pipe bundle is then in the lower position.

CS-g

K2 K3

K5

K5a K4 I

K3a

10 CS-d

K6

Fig. 2. Laboratory of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Sarajevo: pulse combustion burner cooled by water connected to the flue pipe (top left) and to the boiler model (bottom left); Scheme of application of burners for pulse combustion on the boiler model with indication of measuring points (right), [5]

For different geometric shapes of burners and different thermal loads or burner power, appropriate process parameters such as propagation, deformation attenuation and sublimation of pressure pulsations inside the boiler and pipe register model due to multiple reflection of pressure waves and sound inside the enclosure, and the influence of pulsating flue gas flow were monitored and measured of sound energy on the wall of a refractory brick, Fig. 2 - right. Kistler pressure sensors were used to measure flue gas pressure pulsations: type 601 A and SEN-8700, Crystal CERALINE-S, type SEN-8700. Thermocouples of type K (NiCr-Ni) and type J (Cu-CuNi) were used to measure the flue gas temperature, while a flow meter type: ams, (Qn1.5 AH-B) was used to measure the water flow, and gas rotameter Novodirekt, type: C72979, Aalborg, VMRP - 010083, S/N 115218-1, 0-250 /min of reference fluid. During the measurement, the acquisition of DEWE-BOOK data, ie DEWESoft1) software. The Testo 350XL device was used to analyze the composition of flue gases, [5].

3 Results of the Research and Discussion Performance of Free-Standing Burner in the Laboratory: The following diagrams are given as an example of research results, ie performance of free-standing and coled by water burner for pulse combustion. These research results, in relation to all investigated 1 ) The software is licensed.

90

N. Hodzic and K. Kadic

geometric shapes, always refer to the burner with the middle combustion chamber (SK, VSK = 3.18 dm3 ) on which are mounted short (KUV, KUV = 150 mm) or long (DUV, DUV = 300 mm) air inlets, ie basic (T, TRC = 850 mm), short (K, KRC = 1085 mm), medium (S, SRC = 1300 mm) or long (D, DRC = 1600 mm) resonant tube. In all test regimes, regardless of the burner geometry, the end of the resonant pipe was always in the same position in relation to the flue gas supply pipe in the environment or in relation to the side wall of the boiler model. In this regard, the degree of tightness of the joint is defined, which is calculated from the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the flue gas duct (Akdp ) and the flow cross-sectional area between the resonant pipe and the channel (Sp ): degree of joint tightness, SZS = Akdp /Sp . For the selected and fixed position of the outlet cross section of the resonant tube and the pipe for flue gas discharge into the environment during the research, this value was SZS = 45.25. When applying the burner to the boiler model, the outlet cross section of the resonant pipe was in the plane of the side wall of the model. The pressure pulsations in the combustion chamber of geometric shapes of burners with mounted long air inlets are, in the general case and for the same combustion chamber, generally higher in relation to burners with short air inlets. An example of the structure of pulsating pressure in the combustion chamber (p4 ) and the change in oscillation intensity with changing the thermal load of the burner, one of such burners with long air inlets and at a burner cooling water flow rate of 0.40 kg/s is given in Fig. 3 - left. The geometry of this burner is denoted by code 43: SK-DUV-SRC, and whose extinguishing limits or possible operating range are: 50 ÷ 246 kW. In addition, the same figure shows the total pressure deviation during slightly more intensive cooling of the burner with water (0.56 kg/s). At the same time, the average temperature of the medium in the chamber, ie. process temperature, constantly lower than 1200 °C, which is one of the important prerequisites for low emissions of nitrogen oxides NOx . Of course this temperature is lower in the parts of the thermal load of the burner that are closer to the lower and upper of shutdown limit. The total pressure deviation and process frequency significantly depend on the length of the combustion air inlet, Fig. 3 - right, where both shown dependences are obtained at the thermal power of the burner of about 150 kW (more precisely 148 kW) and the cooling conditions of the burner at a cooling water flow of 0,40 kg/s. The maximum flue gas pressure deviation is 80 kPa for a burner with DUV and D resonant pipe. The process frequency range is quite wide, in this case from about 90 to just over 140 Hz - otherwise, the process frequency for some of the geometric forms of the burner can go over 180 Hz. From these results it is concluded that with increasing resonant tube length the total pressure deviation (p4uk ) increases while at the same time the process frequency (f) decreases - the pressure deviation is higher for geometry with long air inlets (p4uk-DUV ), while the process frequency is higher for geometry with short introductions (f-KUV ). Both of these dependencies are logical and are a consequence of the mass of the medium, ie the inertia of the medium that oscillates in the burner of the observed geometry. The generated sound energy is up to about 130 dB. PC Burner Application on the Boiler Model: Propagation and attenuation of flue gas pressure pulsations inside the boiler model on this overall designed experimental line is presented in Figs. 4 and 5. The obtained research results relate to the geometric shape of the burner marked 43, at power of 150 and 245 kW, respectively, and the upper and

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application

Pressure, kPa

80

Total pressure difference in the chamber - p4uk, kPa

p4uk

0,56 kg/s

p4+ 0,40 kg/s

p4-

60 40 20 0 50

100 150 200 Burner power, kW

250

120

160

f-KUV

120

f-DUV

80

80 p4uk-DUV 40

40

Frequency - f, Hz

160

100

91

p4uk-KUV 0

0 T

K S Resonant tube

D

Fig. 3. Structure of pulsating pressure in the combustion chamber and change of oscillation intensity with change of burner load; geometry: code 43, cooling water flow: 0,4 kg/s - left; The total deflection of the pressure and frequency in the combustion chamber - right

lower position of the tube beam (CS-g, CS-d). There is a noticeable significant decrease in the intensity of pressure pulsations inside the boiler model in relation to the values recorded at the appropriate burner measuring points: p4 - combustion chamber, p10 - end of the resonant tube.

Total pressure deviation - puk, kPa

100 150 kW

80

CS-d: convective part CS-g: firebox

60 40 20 0 MM 4

MM 10

MM K5 MM K5a MM K3a MM K2

Measuring point in the boiler model

Fig. 4. Intensity of pressure pulsations in the boiler model, burner power 150 kW

The reduction of pressure pulsations when propagating these pulsations through the pipe bundle is also noticeable - see the values for measuring points K3(a) and K2 in Figs. 4 and 5. In the variant of the lowered pipe beam to the lower position (in the furnace space), it is then possible to investigate the change of process parameters, primarily the change of pressure both in intensity and shape, in the case of longitudinal flow of pulsating flue gases from the burner and cleaning of previously formed solid ash deposits on these heating surfaces of boiler - [5–10]. Figure 5 shows, for different burner thermal loads, the measurement results and for such a pipe bundle setting within the model. In the present diagram, two features of the obtained measurement results are noticeable: a smaller difference between the values of the total pressure deviation at measuring

92

N. Hodzic and K. Kadic

Total pressure deviation - puk, kPa

100

245 kW

CS-d: convective part CS-g: firebox

80 60 40 20 0 MM 4

MM 10

MM K5 MM K5a MM K3a MM K2

Measuring point in the boiler model

Fig. 5. Intensity of pressure pulsations in the boiler model, burner power 245 kW

points K5(a) and K2 in relation to the values at the same measuring points when the pipe bundle is in the upper part of the model - this can be explained by a significant weakening of pulsation intensity inside the pipe bundle; at the measuring point K3a (in the middle of the pipe bundle), the highest values of the total pressure deviation were measured the pressure transmitter at this measuring point is in the axis of the resonant burner tube and at a distance of 1.2 m from its end. Therefore, practically significant values of the total pressure deviation were measured in all measuring points of the model, which is a desirable result considering the intention to use burners for pulsating combustion as devices for cleaning boilers - [5–10]. During this set of research, no negative influence of pressure pulsations or noise on the condition of the wall in the boiler model was observed. Application of Burners on the Boiler in Real Operation: Inspired by successful experience in the previous two-decade application of Detonation-impulse cleaning technique (DIC) of dirty heating surfaces on boilers 5 and 6 in TPP Kakanj, in this period, we are in the phase of agreement on application of burners for pulse combustion in real operation. In particular, activities are underway to select the most favorable geometric shapes of burners at a specific location on the boiler 6, Fig. 6, as well as the nomination of these burners as auxiliary in other industrial boilers or solid fuel furnaces, primarily low heating value and poor reactive coal or co-firing coal with waste wood biomass. In addition to the presented results of propagation and attenuation of pressure pulsations, research was performed with the aim of insight into the degree of attenuation of flue gas pulsations after discharge into a larger “empty” space - the change of flue gas pressure pulsations along the axis after leaving the resonant tube in free workspace - see more in [1, 5, 6] and [10].

Research of Pulse Combustion with Intention of Application

93

FG BPC3 BPCn

Firebox BPC1 Coal+Air Mill EM

BPC2

Coal burner

Fig. 6. Concept of possible application of one or more burner for pulse combustion (BPC) in the furnace and convective tract of the boiler - as required in the plant

4 Conclusion In laboratory conditions, it has been shown that the generated high - frequency flue gas pressure pulsations in a water - cooled PC burner with a total deviation of over 90 kPa, as well as the accompanying generated sound intensity of over 120 dB, can be usefully used in large boilers. The burner is recommended for use as: as an additional burner to stabilize and increase combustion efficiency while reducing NOx emissions, and/or as a tool to prevent ash contamination and clean already contaminated heating surfaces in boilers, which has additional positive effects. The use of PC burners, for one or both of the recommended purposes, would result in increased energy efficiency, operation and time availability, while promoting sustainable development. Acknowledgements. Part of the results presented in this paper resulted during the implementation of the project “Development of burners for pulse combustion cooled by water with a proposal for application” which was financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Youth of Sarajevo Canton and the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Sarajevo through the program “Co-financing of research projects of special interest for Sarajevo Canton in 2018”, and we would like to thank them on this occasion as well.

94

N. Hodzic and K. Kadic

References 1. Mullen, J.J.: The pulse combustion furnace-how it is changing an industry. ASHRAE 26(7), 28–33 (1984) 2. Putnam, A.A., Belles, F.E., Kentfield, J.A.C.: Pulse combustion. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 12(1), 43–79 (1986) 3. Severyanin, V.S.: Phase relationships in pulsed combustion. Fluid Mech. Sov. Res. 12, 122– 125 (1983) 4. Smajevi´c, I.: Istraživanje pulziraju´ceg sagorijevanja gasovitog goriva sa analizom mogu´cnosti primjene, doktorska disertacija, Mašinski fakultet Sarajevo, Sarajevo (1991) 5. Hodži´c, N.: Laboratory investigation of the possible application of pulsating combustion in large-scale boilers (in Bosnian), M.Sc. thesis, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Sarajevo, Sarajevo (2007) 6. Hanjali´c, K., Smajevi´c, I.: Razvoj metoda za sprjeˇcavanje formiranja i otklanjanje naslaga sa kotlovskih ogrjevnih površina detonaciono-impulsnom tehnikom, (proje-kat: P-162–12, sufinansijer EP BiH i SIZ za nauku BiH), Završni izvještaj, Mašinski fakultet Sarajevo IPES, Sarajevo (1985) 7. Smajevi´c, I., Hanjali´c, K.: Zwanzig Jahre erfolgreiche Anwendung der StosswelenReinigungstechnik in einem mit Kohle befeurtem Kraftwerk, VGB PowerTech, pp. 71–75. Int. J. Electr. Heat Gener. Essen, Germany (2004) 8. Hodži´c, N., Metovi´c, S., Smajevi´c, I.: Pulse combustion burner as cleaning device of boiler heating surfaces - experimental Investigation. In: 13th International Research/ Expert Conference “Trends in the Development of Machinery and Associated Technology” TMT 2009, Hammamet, Tunisia, 16–21 October 2009 9. Hanjali´c, K., Smajevi´c, I.: Detonation-wave technique for on-load deposit removal in coalfired boilers. In: VIII All-Russian Conference with International Participation: Combustion of Solid Fuel/VIII Bcepoccicka konfepenci c medynapodnym yqactiem: Gopenie tvepdogo topliva, The Ministry of Education and Science of RF, Russian Federation, Novosibirsk IT SB RUS, 13–16 November 2012 10. Hodži´c, N.: Pulse combustion of gaseous fuel - history, phenomena, development and research performance burner cooled by water with proposed application (Bosnian language edition), University of Sarajevo - Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Sarajevo (2021)

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion of Brown Coal and Woody Biomass Kenan Kadi´c1 and Nihad Hodži´c2(B) 1 JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d. - Sarajevo Power utility, Vilsonovo setaliste 15, 71000 Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Vilsonovo setaliste 9,

71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The use of waste woody biomass as a renewable fuel is increasingly pronounced due to the necessary decarbonization of the energy sector in accordance with the acquired scientific knowledge about the characteristics of co-firing of this biomass with other primary fuels in specific temperature and other technicaltechnological settings. With the aim of expanding the existing knowledge and especially obtaining new knowledge, research was carried out in laboratory conditions on the co-firing of a mixture of brown coal and waste woody biomass in a pulverized state, in the conditions of an oxygen-enriched atmosphere - research into the possibility of applying new combustion technologies from the field of oxy fuel combustion for different solid fuels. The main purpose of the subject research was, through the performance of a set of laboratory test regimes, to determine the influence of changes in the content of oxygen in the oxidant on the composition and emission of flue gases. In this regard, during different test regimes, the composition of flue gases was analyzed, and the emission level of CO2 , CO, NOx and SO2 was determined. In addition to changing the composition of the oxidant in the combustion furnace (O2 ≥ 21%), the test regimes were also performed at different process temperatures (950 ÷ 1250) °C and for different mixtures of the subject fuels with (0 ÷ 20)% biomass proportion in the mixture. The obtained results are presented in this paper. It is evident from this that the increase in the proportion of oxygen in the oxidant has a significant impact on the change in the composition of flue gases compared to the composition during combustion with air. As a key result of the research, it was established that the fuels in question can be used without hindrance in the treated conditions of the oxy fuel combustion technology: the efficiency of the conversion of primary energy from the fuel is very high, and at the same time, the extraction of CO2 from the resulting flue gases in their possible further treatment is significantly facilitated (CCS - Carbon capture and storage). Keywords: emissions · oxygen-enriched combustion · coal · biomass

1 Introduction Worldwide efforts to address climate change is leading to the rapid electrification of numerous end-users from transport to industry, driving a massive increase in power © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 95–103, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_11

96

K. Kadi´c and N. Hodži´c

demand as well as the need to generate as much of it as possible from renewable sources. The result of the transformation of energy systems at the global level does not currently follow the desired reduction of CO2 emissions, i.e. the reduced use of fossil fuels, primarily coal, but we are witnessing a record demand for the same due to the global energy crisis. However, this situation is also caused by the current events in the world, Covid-19 and the war in the east of Europe, so it is still considered that this is the time of peak demand for coal and that the demand will decrease in the future. And so, depending on which of the developed scenarios of the future is observed, a drop in coal consumption from 10% to even 45% is predicted in the most optimistic and ambitious scenario until 2030, [1]. Nevertheless, it is clear that fossil fuels will play an important energy role in the coming period as well, and this is the most important scientific and economic incentive for the development of technologies that reduce CO2 emissions. Co-firing of bio-mass with coal and carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies are very popular solutions for reducing this emission [2, 3]. Biomass co-firing, as a CO2 neutral and renewable fuel, partially replaces the use of coal and is widely used worldwide, [4]. Co-firing technology is additionally economical and efficient because it can be used in existing power plants without the need for significant reconstructions and investments. Other main advantages of biomass and coal co-firing compared to coal firing are related to lower emissions of other flue gas components, primarily SO2 [5, 6]. CCS is also sought to reduce CO2 emissions. According to IEA scenario CCS will contribute to 14% of the CO2 emission reductions required in 2050 [7]. Oxy-combustion technology is considered as an appropriate energy and cost efficient CCS technology among others [8]. Further development of this technology awaits economically feasible applications. And while flue gas recycling technology is still developing, oxygen-enriched combustion (OEC) technology can also be applied to existing plants [9]. By adding pure oxygen to the combustion air stream, the concentration of oxygen increases in the oxidant, and this is the essence of OEC technology, which is applied for the first time in the high-temperature metallurgical industry, [10]. The advantages of OEC combustion technology are increased productivity and energy efficiency along with reduced exhaust gas volume and is considered one of the most promising technologies for improving CO2 capture, especially for existing units, [11, 12]. Extensive research has been conducted and presented in the field of combustion in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere [13–16]. However, there is a limited number of experimental researches in this area, which again include a very wide and diverse circle of possible technological research conditions, which largely and for this reason draw different conclusions and final evaluations. In this regard, the research results presented in this paper refer to the co-firing of a mixture of Bosnian brown coal and waste woody biomass as a function of changing the proportion of oxygen in the oxidant at different process temperatures.

2 Laboratory Research Settings Test Fuels: A mixture of brown coals (label K100 in Table 1) represents a common coal mixture that is burned in the Kakanj thermal power plant. A sample of this mixture was extracted directly behind the hammer mills in the actual operation of the 110 MW block as coal powder. The other fuels (K95B5, K90B10 and K80B20) represent a mixture of

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion

97

coal K100 and waste woody biomass (label B100 in Table 1) with a mass fraction of biomass in the mixture of 5, 10 and 20%. Waste woody biomass is a mixture of beech and spruce created during the primary processing of wood in an approximate ratio of 2:1 by mass. Mixtures of coal and biomass were formed after drying and grinding biomass in laboratory conditions. Table 1. Fuel analysis Sample

Ultimate analysis, %

HV, kJ/kg

C

H

N

S

O

K100

28.17

2.60

1.08

1.17

11.76

B100

32.75

3.99

0.29

0.00

27.82

Proximate analysis, % FC

V

A

M

11,119

17.34

27.49

46.15

9.08

11,111

8.26

56.61

0.21

31.42

FC: Fixed Carbon; V: Volatile matter, A: Ash, M: Moisture.

Experimental Plant: Electrically heated pulverised-fuel entrained flow furnace (Fig. 1) is designed to enable the examination of a wide range of combustion characteristics of different pulverized solid fuels under different temperature, ambient and technicaltechnological conditions. These conditions primarily include the possible application of various solid fuels, including renewable fuels (woody biomass, biomass from agriculture, fast-growing energy crops - e.g. Miscanthus), alternative fuels (fuels originating from municipal waste, RDF - Refuse Derived Fuel, SRF - Solid Recovered Fuel), changing the coefficient of excess air/oxygen and the method of air supply to the combustion zone, application of primary measures in the furnace (staged supply of fuel and/or air/oxygen for combustion, possible application of a third or additional fuel (e.g. natural gas - reburning technology), application of additional pure oxygen (O2 = 21 ÷ 100%) or some other inert gas as part of the oxidant (reactant) - it is possible to investigate combustion characteristics at temperatures from a wide range, practically from the ambient temperature up to 1560 °C, [17]. Basically, with a concretely established research program, it is possible to obtain output results related to the efficiency of primary energy conversion from fuel in the established combustion process at a selected constant or time-varying temperature, deposition intensity and characteristics of ash deposits as well the characteristics of slag and ash at the exit from the reactor, and the emission of the corresponding components as part of the resulting flue gases into the environment. Basic Settings of the Test Regimes: The test fuels were subjected to an experimental investigation of the static characteristics of combustion in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. At the same time, the installation of a separate supply of pure oxygen, purity O2 >> 99.95%, enables the performance of test regimes with different oxygen content in the oxidant. According to the total content of oxygen in the oxidant, test regimes with air, that is, with an approximate oxygen content of 21% in the oxidant, and regimes with enriched oxygen content, specifically with 27 and 35% O2 in the oxidant, are defined. In addition to the composition of the oxidant, the test regimes are also defined by different

98

K. Kadi´c and N. Hodži´c

Fig. 1. University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Principal scheme of the labscale furnace: Electrically heated pulverised-fuel entrained flow furnace

process temperatures, in the range of 950 ÷ 1250 °C, which in a wider interval correspond to the pulverized-fuel combustion technology with dry bottom furnace. The set of subject research aimed to obtain as much knowledge as possible about the co-firing characteristics of mixtures of brown coal and biomass under the conditions of combustion technology in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, with a special emphasis on the emission of undesirable components from flue gases into the environment, including the emission of CO2 as a major problem today.

3 Results and Discussion As previously emphasized, below are presented the research results related to the emission of key flue gas components (NOx , SO2 , CO2 i CO) depending on the content of O2 in the oxidant and the process temperature at appropriate other technological settings. Thus, it can be seen from Fig. 2 that the composition of the fuel, that is, the proportion

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion

99

of woody biomass in the mixture, has no influence on the NOx emission. But there is an evident increase in NOx emissions with an increase in the proportion of O2 in the combustion atmosphere. So, for example, NOx emission for K80B20 mixture during combustion with air and temperature 950 °C, 410 mg/mn 3 , while at the same process temperature and O2 = 27% content in the oxidant, the NOx emission is 450 mg/mn 3 . With the share of O2 = 35% in the oxidant, the NOx emission is even higher, specifically 656 mg/mn 3 , Fig. 3-left. For the same fuel and at a process temperature of 1250 °C, the increase in NOx emission during combustion with air is by 298 mg/mn 3 - compared to the emission value at a temperature of 950 °C. That difference, for the observed two process temperatures, becomes even more pronounced with an increase in the proportion of O2 in the oxidant, Fig. 2-right. Thus, for the observed fuel K80B20 at 27% O2 in the oxidant and at a temperature of 1250 °C, NOx emission of 950 mg/mn 3 was recorded, while at O2 = 35% in the oxidant, that NOx emission was as much as 1133 mg/mn 3 and is higher by 477 mg/mn 3 in relation to the emission at a temperature of 950 °C.

Fig. 2. NOx emission during co-firing of brown coal and waste woody biomass in an oxygenenriched atmosphere at different process temperatures

For the same fuel mixtures and technological settings, the SO2 emission results are presented in Fig. 3. For the combustio of the K100 brown coal mixture at a process temperature of 950 °C and with an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, there is an evident increase in SO2 emissions from 4533 mg/mn 3 during combustion with air (O2 = 21% in the oxidant) to 6120 mg/mn 3 at 27% O2 in the oxidant, ie 8975 mg/mn 3 at 35% O2 in the oxidant, Fig. 3-left. Also, a reduction in SO2 emission is visible in co-firing regimes, i.e. with an increase in the proportion of biomass in the mixture with coal. For the mixture with 20% biomass share, the SO2 emission of 4918 mg/mn 3 at 35% O2 in the oxidant was recorded, which is 670 mg/mn 3 more compared to the regime at 27% O2 , that is, it is an increase of 1318 mg/mn 3 in relation to combustion with air. Therefore, with an increase in the proportion of oxygen in the oxidant, the emission of SO2 increases, and this applies in general regardless of the composition of the fuel. From the given results in Fig. 3-right, it can also be seen that the previously stated dependencies and conclusions are also valid at a combustion process temperature of 1250 °C.

100

K. Kadi´c and N. Hodži´c

Fig. 3. SO2 emission during co-firing of brown coal and waste woody biomass in an oxygenenriched atmosphere at different process temperatures

The results from Fig. 4 show an apparent increase in CO2 emissions with an increase in the proportion of oxygen in the combustion atmosphere, which is in fact a consequence of a significantly different composition of flue gases, i.e. an increased proportion of flue gas components that are produced under these conditions, all at the expense of a decrease in the proportion of N2 in the oxidant. This is the main reason for the application of combustion technology in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere [15, 16]. In addition, if you compare the results presented in Fig. 4-left and 4-right, for different process temperatures, it is clear that the process temperature has no significant effect on the CO2 emission, regardless of the composition of the oxidant, so e.g. for both given temperature regimes and for fuel K100 an identical value of 0.250 kg/mn 3 was recorded in the case of combustion with air, and for the fuel mixture K80B20 at 35% oxygen in the atmosphere 0.580 kg/mn 3 .

Fig. 4. CO2 emission during co-firing of brown coal and waste woody biomass in an oxygenenriched atmosphere at different process temperatures

Analogous to the previous one, Fig. 5 presents the results of CO emissions for the relevant fuel mixtures at the same temperature and combustion process conditions. The obtained results confirmed the earlier results for the same type of fuel during combustion with air: the CO emission decreases with the increase in the process temperature, and increases with the increase in the proportion of biomass in the mixture, [5, 17]. Thus, for K100 fuel at a temperature of 950 °C, CO emissions of 241 mg/mn 3 were measured, while for the same fuel at a temperature of 1250 °C it was reduced to 137 mg/mn 3 .

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion

101

Fig. 5. CO emission during co-firing of brown coal and waste woody biomass in an oxygenenriched atmosphere at different process temperatures

If the co-firing regime of the K80B20 fuel mixture with air is observed, the CO emission at a temperature of 950 °C is 320 mg/mn 3 , while this emission at 1250 °C is 200 mg/mn 3 . When fuel is burned in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, a significant drop in CO emissions is visible with an increase in the oxygen content. This effect is already clearly expressed for combustion regimes with a 27% oxygen content in the atmosphere, and especially for regimes with an oxygen content of 35%, where recorded CO emission values are below 20 mg/mn 3 and are practically negligible, regardless of type of fuel and process temperature. Only one result, at the lowest temperature for K80B20 fuel, deviates from the above, and there the CO emission value measured is 65 mg/mn 3 .

4 Conclusion Based on the obtained results of laboratory research, the following conclusions are drawn: – There is no influence of woody biomass on NOx emission during co-firing with brown coal in the air stream and at the observed temperature. In relation to that, the NOx emission increases with the increase in the proportion of oxygen in the oxidant, and thus the presence of biomass in the fuel is more influential on NOx emission. With an increase in temperature, the growth of NOx emissions for combustion regimes in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere is more pronounced compared to combustion with air. Thus, at a process temperature of 1250 °C for all 4 test fuels and during combustion in an atmosphere with 35% oxygen in the oxidizer, the average increase in NOx emissions is 460 mg/mn 3 compared to combustion with air. – The emission of SO2 for the brown coal in question is high during combustion with air, even at a combustion temperature of 950 °C (eSO2 = 4533 mg/mn 3 ). The presence of biomass in the mixture with coal has a positive effect on the reduction of SO2 emissions, proportionally to the share of biomass in the mixture - however, these values are still high compared to the permitted values of SO2 emissions when burning with air. The emission of SO2 , in addition to the increase in temperature, also increases significantly with the increase in the proportion of oxygen in the oxidn, regardless of the fuel composition. At the same time, these values at a temperature of 1250 °C are even 13659 mg/mn 3 . The inevitability of the use of flue gas desulphurization plants

102

K. Kadi´c and N. Hodži´c

is recognized from the above, especially in the case of combustion technology in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. – CO2 emission, as the primary reason for applying combustion technology in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, generally increases with increasing oxygen content in the oxidant, regardless of fuel composition and combustion process temperature. For combustion regimes with 27% oxygen content in the oxidant, CO2 emissions increased on average by 0.085 kg/mn 3 compared to combustion with air, while for regimes with 35% oxygen content in the oxidant, the apparent CO2 emission is greater by more than two times compared to combustion with air. – The emission of CO decreases significantly with the increase of oxygen in the oxidant. In regimes with a 35% share of oxygen in the oxidant, the CO emission is on average below 20 mg/mn 3 , without significant influence of the type or composition of the fuel. Consequently, viewed through the CO emission, with the increase in the oxygen content in the oxidant, the efficiency of the combustion process or the efficiency of the conversion of primary energy from the fuel simultaneously increases.

Acknowledgements. Part of the results presented in this paper resulted during the implementation of the project: Waste to energy in Adria region for sustainability improvement, co-financed by the Ministry for Science, Higher education and Youth of Canton Sarajevo, through the program “Cofinancing of capacity strengthening for applications to EU research funds in 2022”, and we would like to thank them on this occasion as well.

References 1. International Energy Agency. World energy outlook (2022) 2. Kazagi´c, A., Hodzi´c, N., Metovi´c, S.: Co-combustion of Low-rank coal with woody biomass and miscanthus: an experimental study. Energies 11(3), 601 (2018). ISSN 1996-1073, https:// doi.org/10.3390/en11030601 3. Moazzem, S., Rasul, M.G., Khan, M.M.K.: A review on technologies for reducing CO2 emission from coal fired power plants, pp. 227–254 (2012). ISBN 978-953307-952-3, http://www.intechopen.com/books/thermal-power-plants/a-review-on-technolog iesforr-educing-co2-emission-from-coal-fired-power-plants. Accessed 16 Mar 2019 4. Zhukov, E. B., Puzirev, E. M., Menyaev, K. V.: Co-combustion technology of coal and wood waste. In: Yue, G., Li, S. (eds.) Clean Coal Technology and Sustainable Development, pp. 165– 172. Springer, Singapore (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2023-0_22 5. Hodzic, N., Kazagic, A., Kadic, K.: Emissions of flue gas during pulverized combustion of coal and waste woody biomass. In: E3S Web of Conferences, vol. 336, p. 00014 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202233600014 6. Hodzic, N., Kazagic, A., Kadic, K.: Air staging and reburning to achieve low emissions during co-firing coal and biomass. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2020. LNNS, vol. 128, pp. 657–666. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46817-0_76 7. International Energy Agency. Technology roadmap CCS, Paris (2013) 8. Chen, L., Yong, S.Z., Ghoniem, A.F.: Oxy-fuel combustion of pulverized coal: characterization, fundamentals, stabilization and CFD modeling. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 38(2), 156–214 (2012)

Flue Gas Emissions on the Oxygen-Enriched Combustion

103

9. Horbaniuc, B., Marin, O., Dumitra¸scu, G, Charon, O.: Oxygen-enriched combustion in supercritical steam boilers. Energy 29, 427–448 (2004) 10. Krzywanski, J., Czakiert, T., MuskałaW, N.W.: Modelling of CO2 , CO, SO2 , O2 and NOx emissions from the oxy-fuel combustion in a circulating fluidized bed. Fuel Process. Technol. 92(x), 590–596 (2011) 11. Baukal, C.E.: Oxygen Enhanced Combustion, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Allentown (2013). ISBN 978-1-4398-6230-8 12. Nimmo, W., Daood, S.S., Gibbs, B.M.: The effect of O2 enrichment on NOx formation in biomass co-fired pulverised coal combustion. Fuel 89(10), 2945–2952 (2010) 13. Toftegaard, M.B., Jensen, A.D., Glarborg, P., Jensen, P.A., Sander, B.: OxyFuel combustion of Coal and Biomass. Technical University of Denmark (2011) 14. Kowalik, M., Zajemska, M.: Coal combustion in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere vs pollutants. Polotyka Energetyczna (2013). ISSN 1429-6675 15. Gładysz, P., Ziebik, A.: Environmental analysis of bio-CCS in an integrated oxyfuel combustion power plant with CO2 transport and storage. Biomass Bioenergy 85, 109–118 (2016) 16. Kayahan, U., Ozdogan, S.: Oxygen enriched combustion and co-combustion of lignites and biomass in a 30 kWth circulating fluidized bed. Energy 116(Part 1), 317–328 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.09.117 17. Hodži´c, N.: Research on co-combustion of coal and biomass aimed at reducing emissions by primary measures in the furnace. Doctoral thesis, In Bosnian, University of Sarajevo Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sarajevo, COBISS.BH-ID – 27867654. https://plus.bh. cobiss.net/opac7/bib/27867654

New Technologies in Agriculture, Ecology, Chemical Processes

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60 Amra Bratovcic(B) Faculty of Technology, Department of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of Tuzla, UrfetaVejzagica 8, 75000 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. This paper discusses the chemical and physical properties of fullerene C60 and the methods of fullerene functionalization. Due to the extremely hydrophobic character of fullerenes, it is necessary to modify them in the sense that they become primarily soluble in water so that they can be used in biological systems and biomedicine. Here, the chemical composition of the latest sensors, their characteristics and application are studied in detail. Fullerene-C60 nanocomposites are widely used in biomedicine as antioxidants, antiviral agents, HIV-1 protease inhibitors, drug carriers, but also in carcinoma diagnostics and photodynamic therapy. They are also used as electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Keywords: fullerenes · antioxidants · inhibitors · drug delivery vehicles · photodynamic therapy · electrochemical sensors · biosensors

1 Introduction Carbon nanomaterials(CNMs) are materials with sizes ranging from 1–100 nm. Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and grapheneand its nanocomposite can exhibit a considerable antimicrobial activity suitable for biomedical and food applications. According to the number of dimensions, CNMs can be divided into four groups: 0D- which includes fullerenes, carbon dots and diamonds, 1D- including diamond nanorods, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes, 2D- including diamond nanoplatelets, graphene, graphite sheets, and 3D-CNMs. Thanks to their small dimensions and large surface area, CNMs can interact with the cell membranes of microbial cells and influence biochemical processes and change structural components [1]. The fullerene C60 was discovered in 1985 and isolated in 1990 [2, 3]. Since then, was started the era of carbon-based nanotechnology. Fullerenes are a group of CNMs whichis named after a compound known as buckminsterfullerene (C60), named after Buckminster Fuller. Buckminsterfullerene (C60is a spherical closed fullerene and also calledbuckyballs as they have a lot of similarities with the soccer ball (Fig. 1).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 107–117, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_12

108

A. Bratovcic

Fig. 1. Fullerene structure.

Among all the fullerenes, fullerene C60 has attracted the attention of scientists the most, due to its unique physicochemical, optical, electronic and magnetic properties. Through testing the physical-chemical and biological properties of these materials and their composites, scientists have demonstrated their application in various industrial branches, from mechanical engineering, electrical engineering (production of various nanosensors) to medicine (molecular drug containers and drug-delivery carriers) [4]. Sixty carbon atoms are covalently bonded andmake up fullerene molecules (tubes, hollow spheres, ellipsoids). The electronic configuration of fullerenesis composed of 20 hexagonal rings with C5 = C6 double bonds and 12 pentagonal rings (C5-C5 single bonds). Due to their chemical structure, fullerene derivatives have a hydrophobic character and can only be dissolved in extremely non-polar solvents such as toluene (C7 H8 ) and benzene (C6 H6 ). Thanks to this hydrophobic character, they can be used in hydrophobic lipid layers as a drug carrier, intercalator or modification material. Fullerenes are used in photochemistry because they are good electron acceptors and efficient photosensitizers. The presence of conjugated double bonds in the aromatic ring is the main reason for the extension of the spectrum of absorption of radiation from the UV to the visible region [5]. Fullerene derivatives exposed to white light in the presence of microorganismsunder aerobic conditions lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [6]. Metallofullerenes are used as phototherapeutic compounds in photosensitized processes, i.e. for the cure of neoplastic diseases through photodynamic therapy (PDT) [7]. The mechanism of photodynamic inactivation (PDI) of microorganisms is also based on the creation of ROS that cause their destruction. The photo-inactivation of Grampositive bacteria were successfully achieved, while Gram-negative bacteria showed a resistance [8]. The little photo-inactivation of Gram-negative bacteria by the action of neutral or anionic PSs was explained by the existence of an outer membrane with a complex structure that prevents the interaction of ROS originating from metallofullerenes with the cytoplasmic membrane [9].

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60

109

2 Properties of Fullerene Nisoh et al. [10] found that fullerenes are aggregated and formed clusters in saturated and monounsaturated bilayers. Some of them may contain icosahedral structures. At high concentrations of fullerenes, connected percolation-like networks of fullerenes are formed in the center of polyunsaturated lipid bilayers. When fullerenes aggregate, the interactions between fullerene and lipid bilayers change. To achieve an idea about the effect of soot nanoparticles functionalized with dextran polymer (Dex-FS) on the neuronal tissue they were exposed to C6 glial cells [11]. The central nervous system contains the glial cells and provides support and insulation to neurons. Fullerene fine powder consists of 22% C60 and 76% C70 fullerene. Dex-FSare able to produce ROS in a dose and time- dependent mannershowing dose-dependent toxicity. 2.1 Functionalization of Fullerenes Like CNTs, the weak point of fullerenes is their low solubility and intensive aggregation in aqueous solutions. The solubility of highly insoluble fullerenes (C28, C36, and C50) can be increased in the presence of the organic solvents such as toluene and carbon disulfide. However, they are moderate soluble at room temperature [12]. All-carbon fullerene cages are highly hydrophobic and are practically insoluble in water due to the lack of any type of hydrogen bond. To overcome this disadvantage, the fullerene carbon cage may be modified by surfactants [13, 14], amphiphilic polymers [15–17], cyclodextrins [18, 19], polysaccharides [20, 21], proteins [22, 23], and peptides [24], but also with exohedral functionalization methods involving non-polymeric groups [25]. Besides these modification methods, stirring or sonication may increase the solubility and dispersion of C60 in water, in a way that the solvent can be changed so that the C 60 particles pass from the organic solvent to water [26, 27]. In Fig. 2 the modification of carbon cage is presented.

Fig. 2. Modification of carbon cage.

The method of functionalization of fullerenes depends greatly on the desired application. Therefore, the first task of the scientists was to make the fullerene molecules soluble in the water so that they could be used in biomedicine.

110

A. Bratovcic

2.2 Biomedical Applications of Fullerene Derivatives The first synthesized nano-drug approved by the Food and drug administration occurred in 1995. Since then, researchers have continuously worked on engineering and creating new nanoparticles and formulations with the aim of increasing the beneficial and reducing the harmful effects on human health. Every new discovery implies a change in medical diagnostics and therapy. The background of this success in pharmaceutical engineering relates to the study of atoms and molecules at the nanoscale [28, 29]. Many scientific studies have shown a precious results obtained in the applications of fullerenes as antioxidants and skin UV protectors where have been used PVP/F, hydroxyfullerene, γ-CD/F, [30], LpsmF [31], and fullerenol [32] for reduction of ROS. In other studies, were shown that CF [33], Radical Sponge®, [34] PVP/F, LpsmF [31] andfullerenol [32] were able to reduce apoptosis as well as cellular and morphological changes. Moore and coworkers [35] have shown that C60 fullerene nanoparticles (C60) exert an antagonistic cytoprotective effect on the toxicity of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and lysosomal membrane stability, mTORC1 inhibition, lysosomal lipofuscin and lysosomal lipid (Mix 5 and 50 μg/L BaP). Recently, Lee et al. [36] prepared composite ND-C60 from C60 powder with nanodiamond (ND) forming a stable aqueous colloidal suspension and efficiently adsorbed and oxidized organic contaminants by photogenerated ROS. The same composite has shown

Fig. 3. Biomedical applications of fullerene derivatives.

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60

111

good application in photodynamic cancer therapy. In particular, under light irradiation tumor-bearing mice with the ND-C60 resulted in cell apoptosis (programmed cell death) without noticeable toxicity, tumor shrinkage and prolonged survival time, respectively. The C60 offers diverse biomedical applications of fullerene derivatives (Fig. 3). The hydrophobic interactions between the fullerene and the active site of proteins can be successfully used for the production of effective enzyme inhibitors for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The fullerene derivatives such as glycofullereneswhich are highly hydrophilic and act as targeting moieties for certain lectins(carbohydrate-binding proteins)exhibit minimal to no cytotoxicity. One such fullerene derivative is the polyhydroxylatedGd-EMF, Gd@C82 (OH)22 with application in chemotherapy [37]. The Gd-EMFs molecules as MRI CAs showed higher antineoplastic activity than cisplatin and cyclophosphamide (CTX) [38]. Therefore, the antineoplastic activity arises indirectly and the lack of cytotoxicity is explained by the fact that only 0.05% of the applied dose reached tumor tissue. It was hypothesized that, the size of the Gd@C82 (OH)22 aggregates blocking pores into the tumor, and consequently its nutrient and O2 supply. Fullerenes due to their unique structure have ability to interact with the cellular environment and act as a targeted delivery. Due to their unique structure, fullerenes have the ability to interact with the cellular environment and are used as a vehicle for targeted delivery [39]. Recently, Misra et al. [40] prepared glycinated fullerenes conjugated to docetaxel and studied them as nano-carrier delivery of anti-cancer drugs. The cytotoxicity in MDA MB-231 cells was substantially enhanced as well as the system was well tolerated by erythrocytes. 2.2.1 Antioxidant Activity The water-soluble fullerene derivatives due to theelectrophilic nature and presence of the high number of double bonds act as “radical sponge” that can absorb free radical species from the surrounding environment [41]. It has been shown that non-modified C60 was able to protect rat livers against oxidative stress without any toxicity [42]. Kop and co-workers [43] showed that Tween 80 (T80) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) colloidal systems containing C60-CUR hybrid can be used as antioxidant in the food and pharameceuticalnanoformulations. The fullerene C60 and curcumin (CUR) aqueous nano-formulations in the absence and presence of three solubility enhancers, β-cyclodextrin (CD), T80 and PVP have been studied. A very good antioxidant activityin DPPH radical scavenging test showed nanoformulations containing CUR in PVP and T80, much stronger than ascorbic acid. PVP and T80 nano-formulations containing C60, CUR, and their non-covalent hybrid, showed a moderate to high antioxidant activity in β-carotene bleaching test. 2.2.2 Antimicrobial Properties of Fullerenes Fullerenes exhibit antimicrobial properties against E. coli, Salmonella and Streptococcus spp. [44]. Generally, Gram-negativebacteria are more resistant to fullerenes than Grampositivebacteria [45]. Fullerenes in contact with Pseudomonas putidacause reduction of

112

A. Bratovcic

unsaturated fatty acids and increasing of cyclopropane fatty acids in the bacterial cell wall, while in contact with Gram-positive bacteria, increased permeability of the cell membrane, destroy the cell wall as well as changethe phospholipid structure [46]. The antimicrobial properties of hydrophobic fullerene are explained by impaired oxygen uptake in a concentration-dependent manner and cell membrane (lipopolysaccharide layer) destruction [47]. Chae et al. [48] observed that C60 aggregates decrease in size with aging, whilethe production of (ROS) increasing the hydroxylation and photosensitized reactivity. 2.2.3 Photodynamic Therapy Fullerenes are devastating producers of singlet oxygen, 1 O2 , but they also have the ability to potent radical scavenging. Singlet oxygenis highly cytotoxic species which can be generated by photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Briefly, irradiation of a photosensitizing agent lead to transformation of first excited single state (short-lived) to triplet state (long-lived) by non-radiative decay via intersystem crossing (ISC) (S1 → T1 ) and then T1 is quenched. This quenching is done by energy transfer to molecular oxygen, thus yielding 1 O2 . The production of singlet oxygen around cancerous tissue may destroy it. The pristine C60 in benzene under visible light irradiation (λ = 532 nm) show high efficiency(F) of 0.96 generation of singlet oxygen, 1 O2 [49]. This high efficiency of C60 is due to ISC andit is considered as a highly effective photosensitizer in PDT [50, 51]. Of course, the fullerene has to be fit to enter the body safely [52, 53]. Cationic substitution of fullerene C60 generates amphiphilic structures which absorb mainly UV light. Photo-excited fullerenes in reaction with O2 and other substrates generateROS and in the next step is formation of 1 O2 by energy transfer or generation of superoxide anion radical (O2 −● ) by electron transfer. Highly effective photosensitizers are cationic fullerenes. The hydrophobic properties of C60 improves membrane penetration, whilethe presence of positive charges increases its binding with microbial cells. In this way, they are applied as broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents [54]. 2.2.4 Fullerenes Incancer Diagnostics and Therapy Sensor and biosensor technology is divided into catalytic based and affinity-based sensors, and biosensors. This classification is made on the basis of interaction of the sensor and analyte molecule [55]. One very important factor in the treatment of cancer is its early detection. A new strategy of signal amplification for biosensors in early diagnosis is based on DNA nanotechnology and nucleic acids [56]. The autonomous synthesis of the double helix by DNA nanotechnology is based on sequence of base pairing that allows portions of the strand to be predictably connected. By a dual-amplified strategy has been developed an ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor for the detection of ultra-tracemicroRNA-141 (miRNA-141) [57]. The expression of miRNAs can be used as potential biomarkers to predict disease occurrence and progression [58, 59]. This dual-amplified sensing system DNA-RNA containing G-quadruplex was able to detect miRNA-141 in concentrations ranging from 0.1 pM to 100 nM and the detection limit of 7.78 fM.

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60

113

Biswas et al., [60] designed an effective anti-cancerous drug delivery for human breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-231) cell linesand antimicrobial agent based on the use of AgNPs decorated C60 endo fullerene molecules. 2.2.5 Fullerenes as Electrochemical Sensors An electrochemical sensor constructed from fullerene C60 and copper-nickel bimetallic nanoparticles composite films modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) were constructed for the detection of vitamin D3 in blood samples. The detection limit of vitamin D3 by CuNPs-NiNPs@reduced-fullerene-C60 on GCE was 0.0025 μM [61]. Wong et al., [62] developed the voltammetric sensor using GCE based on hierarchical porous carbon with silver sulfide nanoparticles, Nafion and fullerene C60 for selective detection of nitrite in food samples with a LOD of 0.09 μmol L−1 and a sensitivity of 0.05 μAμmol L−1 cm−2 . In another study, Zhu et al., [63] developed a new electrochemical sensor Pt/C60 /PGE for selective determination of catechol (CC) and hydroquinone (HQ). The LODs for CC was2.97 μM and for HQ 2.19 μM.

3 Conclusion This paper summarizes the latest achievements in the development of nanocomposites based on fullerene C60 for biomedical purposes, as well as sensors and biosensors for diagnostic and treatment of cancerous diseases, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Regardless of the unique physical-chemical properties of fullerenes, their application in biomedicine is not possible without their previous modification to make them soluble in water. We have seen that thanks to its structure, its application in photochemistry and photodynamic therapy for the treatment of carcinoma is possible. The world is constantly faced with new viruses, bacteria and diseases caused by various carcinogenic substances, so the task of scientists to enable accurate diagnosis and therapy is of crucial importance. From an electrochemical point of view, a large number of sensors and biosensors based on fullerene nanocomposites have been made so far with certain detection limits. Therefore, the big challenge for scientists is to make sensors based on fullerene nanocomposites with even greater sensitivity and selectivity, with smaller dimensions and less cost, and that are health and ecologically acceptable.

References 1. Azizi-Lalabadi, M., Hashemi, H., Feng, J., Mahdi Jafari, S.: Carbon nanomaterials against pathogens; the antimicrobial activity of carbon nanotubes, graphene/graphene oxide, fullerenes, and their nanocomposites. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 284, 102250 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102250 2. Kroto, H.W., Heath, J.R., O’Brien, S.C., Curl, R.F., Smalley, R.E.C.: C60: Buckminsterfullerene. Nature 318, 162–163 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1038/318162a0 3. Bratovcic, A.: Nanocomposite hydrogels reinforced by carbon nanotubes. Int. J. Eng. Res. Appl. (IJERA) 10(Series-IV), 30–41 (2020). https://doi.org/10.9790/9622-1005043041

114

A. Bratovcic

4. Ramazani, A., Moghaddasi, M.A., Malekzadeh, A.M., Rezayati, S., Hanifehpour, Y., Joo, S.W.: Industrial oriented approach on fullerene preparation methods. Inorg. Chem. Commun. 125, 108442 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2021.108442 5. Prato, M., Magginni, M.: Fulleropyrrolidines: a family of full-fledged fullerene derivatives. Acc. Chem. Res. 31, 519–526 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1021/ar970210p 6. Thomas, K.G., Biju, V., George, M.V., Guldi, D.M., Kamat, P.V.: Excited-state interactions in pyrrolidinofullerenes. J. Phys. Chem. A 102, 5341–5348 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1021/ jp972756z 7. Hamblin, M.R.: Fullerenes as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy: pros and cons. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 17(11), 1515–1533 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp00195b 8. Durantini, A.M., Heredia, D.A., Durantini, J.E., Durantini, E.N.: BODIPYs to the rescue: potential applications in photodynamic inactivation. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 144, 651–661 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.12.068 9. Gsponer, N.S., Spesia, M.B., Durantini, E.N.: Effects of divalent cations, EDTA and chitosan on the uptake and photoinactivation of Escherichia coli mediated by cationic and anionic porphyrins. Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther. 12, 67–75 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt. 2014.12.004 10. Nisoh, N., Jarerattanachat, V., Karttunen, M., Wong-ekkabut, J.: Formation of aggregates, icosahedral structures and percolation clusters of fullerenes in lipids bilayers: the key role of lipid saturation. Biochimica et BiophysicaActa (BBA) - Biomembranes 1862, 183328 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183328 11. Athira, S.S., Biby, T.E., Mohanan, P.V.: Effect of polymer functionalized fullerene soot on C6 glial cells. Eur. Polymer J. 127, 109572 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020. 109572 12. Cysewski, P.: Application of the consonance solvent concept for accurate prediction of Buckminster solubility in 180 net solvents using COSMO-RS approach. Symmetry 11, 828 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11060828 13. Milic Torres, V., Posa, M., Srdjenovic, B., Simplício, A.L.: Solubilization of fullerene C60 in micellar solutions of different solubilizers. Colloids Surf., B 8, 46–53 (2011). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.08.012 14. Ikeda, A., et al.: Preparation of highly photosensitizing liposomes with fullerene-doped lipid bilayer using dispersion-controllable molecular exchange reactions. Org. Lett. 10, 4077–4080 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1021/ol8015918 15. Chaurasia, A., Sahoo, N.G., McLeskey, J.T., Hu, X.: Development and characterization of biocompatible fullerene [C60]/Amphiphilic block copolymer nanocomposite. J. Spectrosc. 2015, 578160 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/578160 16. Kurmaz, S.V., Obraztsova, N.A., Perepelitsina, E.O., Shilov, G.V., Anokhin, D.V., Pechnikova, E.V.: New hybrid macromolecular structures of C60 fullerene–amphiphilic copolymers of Nvinylpyrrolidone and triethyleneglycoldimethacrylate. Mater. Today Commun. 4, 130–140 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2015.05.004 17. Aich, N., Boateng, L.K., Flora, J.R.V., Saleh, N.B.: Preparation of non-aggregating aqueous fullerenes in highly saline solutions with a biocompatible non-ionic polymer. Nanotechnology 24, 395602 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/24/39/395602 18. Eskandari, M., Najdian, A., Soleyman, R.: Investigation on the interactions between fullerene and β-CD-g-hyperbranched polyglycerol to produce water-soluble fullerene. Chem. Phys. 472, 9–17 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphys.2016.03.001 19. Sugikawa, K., Kozawa, K., Ueda, M., Ikeda, A.: Stepwise growth of fullerene nanoparticles through guest exchange of γ-Cyclodextrin complexes in water. Chem. A Eur. J. 23, 13704– 13710 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201701717

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60

115

20. Ikeda, A., et al.: Water solubilization of fullerene derivatives by β-(1,3–1,6)-D-glucan and their photodynamic activities toward macrophages. Chem. Asian J. 12, 1069–1074 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/asia.201700182 21. Kop, T.J., et al.: Polysaccharide-fullerene supramolecular hybrids: synthesis, characterization and antioxidant activity. Eur. Polymer J. 123, 109461 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpol ymj.2019.109461 22. Vance, S.J., Desai, V., Smith, B.O., Kennedy, M.W., Cooper, A.: Aqueous solubilization of C60 fullerene by natural protein surfactants, latherin and ranaspumin-2. Biophys. Chem. 214–215, 27–32 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpc.2016.05.003 23. DiGiosia, M., et al.: Proteins as supramolecular hosts for C60: a true solution of C60 in water. Nanoscale 10, 9908–9916 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8nr02220h 24. Hasunuma, N., Kawakami, M., Hiramatsu, H., Nakabayashi, T.: Preparation and photoinduced activities of water soluble amyloid β-C60 complexes. RSC Adv. 8, 17847–17853 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra02789g 25. Rašovi´c, I., Porfyrakis, K.: Functionalisation of fullerenes for biomedical applications. In: Comprehensive Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 2nd edn, pp: 1–14. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2018) 26. Prylutskyy, Y., et al.: C60 fullerene aggregation in aqueous solution. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15, 9351–9360 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cp50187f 27. Ritter, U., et al.: Structural features of highly stable reproducible C60 fullerene aqueous colloid solution probed by various techniques. Fullerenes Nanotubes Carbon Nanostruct. 23, 530–534 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/1536383X.2013.870900 28. Mousavi, S.Z., Nafisi, S., Maibach, H.I.: Fullerene nanoparticle in dermatological and cosmetic applications. Nanomed.: Nanotechnol. Biol. Med. 13, 1071–1087 (2017). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.nano.2016.10.002 29. Bratovcic, A.: Application of natural biopolymers and its derivatives as nano - drug delivery systems in cancer treatment. World J. Pharm. Sci. 10, 232–242 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 54037/WJPS.2022.100209 30. Xiao, L., Takada, H., Maeda, K., Haramoto, M., Miwa, N.: Antioxidant effects of watersoluble fullerene derivatives against ultraviolet ray or peroxylipid through their action of scavenging the reactive oxygen species in human skin keratinocytes. Biomed. Pharmacother. 59, 351–358 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2005.02.004 31. Kato, S., Kikuchi, R., Aoshima, H., Saitoh, Y., Miwa, N.: Defensive effects of fullereneC60/liposome complex against UVA-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species generation and cell death in human skin keratinocytes HaCaT, associated with intracellular uptake and extracellular excretion of fullerene-C60. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 98, 144–151 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.11.015 32. Saitoh, Y., et al.: Super-highly hydroxylated fullerene derivative protects human keratinocytes from UV-induced cell injuries together with the decreases in intracellular ROS generation and DNA damages. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 102, 69–76 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jph otobiol.2010.09.006 33. Fumelli, C., et al.: Carboxyfullerenes protect human keratinocytes from ultraviolet B-induced apoptosis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 115, 835–841 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747. 2000.00140.x 34. Xiao, L., Takada, H., Gan, X., Miwa, N.: The water-soluble fullerene derivative “Radical Sponge” exerts cytoprotective action against UVA irradiation but not visible-light-catalyzed cytotoxicity in human skin keratinocytes. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 16, 1590–1595 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.12.011 35. Moore, M.N., et al.: Antagonistic cytoprotective effects of C60 fullerene nanoparticles in simultaneous exposure to benzo[a]pyrene in a molluscan animal model. Sci. Total Environ. 755(Part 1), 142355 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142355

116

A. Bratovcic

36. Lee, H., et al.: Hand-ground fullerene-nanodiamond composite for photosensitized water treatment and photodynamic cancer therapy. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 587, 101–109 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.12.020 37. Chen, Z., Ma, L., liu, Y., Chen, C.: Applications of functionalized fullerenes in tumortheranostics. Theranostics 2, 238–250 (2012). https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.3509 38. Chen, C., et al.: Multihydroxylated [Gd@C82 (OH)22 ]n nanoparticles: antineoplastic activity of high efficiency and low toxicity. Nano Lett. 5, 2050–2057 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1021/ nl051624b 39. Kazemzadeh, H., Mozafari, M.: Fullerene – based delivery systems. Drug Discov. Today 24, 898–905 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2019.01.013 40. Misra, C., et al.: Improved cellular uptake, enhanced efficacy and promising pharmacokinetic profile of docetaxel employing glycine-tethered C60-fullerenes. Mater. Sci. Eng., C 76, 501– 508 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2017.03.073 41. Tzirakis, M., Orfanopoulos, M.: Radical reactions of fullerenes: from synthetic organic chemistry to materials science and biology. Chem. Rev. 113, 5262–5321 (2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1021/cr300475r 42. Gharbi, N., Pressac, M., Hadchouel, M., Szwarc, H., Wilson, S.R., Moussa, F.: [60] fullerene is a powerful antioxidant in vivo with no acute or subacute toxicity. Nano Lett. 5, 2578–2585 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl051866b 43. Kop, T.J., Bjelakovi´c, M.S., Živkovi´c, Lj., Žeki´c, A., Mili´c, D.R.: Stable colloidal dispersions of fullerene C60, curcumin and C60-curcumin in water as potential antioxidants. Colloids Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 648, 129379 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa. 2022.129379 44. Tegos, G.P., et al.: Cationic fullerenes are effective and selective antimicrobial photosensitizers. Chem. Biol. 12, 1127–1135 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chembiol.2005. 08.014 45. Zhang, X., Cong, H., Yu, B., Chen, Q.: Recent advances of water-soluble fullerene derivatives in biomedical applications. Mini-Rev. Org. Chem. 16, 92–99 (2019). https://doi.org/10.2174/ 1570193x15666180712114405 46. Fang, J., Lyon, D.Y., Wiesner, M.R., Dong, J., Alvarez, P.J.: Effect of a fullerene water suspension on bacterial phospholipids and membrane phase behavior. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 2636–2642 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1021/es062181w 47. Cataldo, F., Ros, T.: Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacological Potential of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes. Springer, Dordrecht (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6845-4 48. Chae, S.-R., et al.: Aging of fullerene C60 nanoparticle suspensions in the presence of microbes. Water Res. 65, 282–289 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.07.038 49. Arbogast, J.W., et al.: Photophysical properties of C60. J. Phys. Chem. A 95, 11–12 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1021/j100154a006 50. Sharma, S.K., Chiang, L.Y., Hamblin, M.R.: Photodynamic therapy with fullerenes in vivo: reality or a dream? Nanomedicine 6, 1813–1825 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2217/nnm.11.144 51. Youn, Y.S., Kwag, D.S., Lee, E.S.: Multifunctional nano-sized fullerenes for advanced tumor therapy. J. Pharm. Investig. 47(1), 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40005-016-0282-8 52. Guldi, D.M., Asmus, K.-D.: Photophysical properties of mono- and multiply-functionalized fullerene derivatives. J. Phys. Chem. A 101(8), 1472–1481 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1021/ jp9633557 53. Hamano, T., et al.: Singlet oxygen production from fullerene derivatives: effect of sequential functionalization of the fullerene core. Chem. Commun. 1, 21–22 (1997). https://doi.org/10. 1039/A606335G 54. Heredia, D.A., Durantini, A.M., Durantini, J.E., Durantini, E.N.: Fullerene C60 derivatives as antimicrobial photodynamic agents. J. Photochem. Photobiol., C 51, 100471 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2021.100471

Biomedical Application of Nanocomposites Based on Fullerenes-C60

117

55. Turner, A.P.F.: Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1987) 56. Yan, H.: Nucleic acid nanotechnology. Science 306, 2048–2049 (2004). https://doi.org/10. 1126/science.110675 57. Zhou, L., et al.: Dual-amplified strategy for ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor based on click chemistry-mediated enzyme-assisted target recycling and functionalized fullerene nanoparticles in the detection of microRNA-141. Biosens. Bioelectron. 150, 111964 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2019.111964 58. George, S., et al.: Sensitive detection of protein and miRNA cancer biomarkers using siliconbased photonic crystals and a resonance coupling laser scanning platform. Lab Chip 13, 4053–4064 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/C3LC50579K 59. Whatley, S.D., et al.: Pseudoexon activation in the HMBS gene as a cause of the nonerythroid form of acute intermittent porphyria. Clin. Chem. 59, 1123–1125 (2013). https://doi.org/10. 1373/clinchem.2012.199117 60. Biswas, K., et al.: Exploring the bioactive potentials of C60 -AgNPs nano-composites against malignancies and microbial infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23, 714 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 3390/ijms23020714 61. Anusha, T., Bhavani, K.S., Kumar, J.V.S., Brahman P.K.: Designing and fabrication of electrochemical nanosensor employing fullerene-C60 and bimetallic nanoparticles composite film for the detection of vitamin D3 in blood samples. Diamond Relat. Mater. 104, 107761 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2020.107761 62. Wong, A., Santos, A.M., Cardenas-Riojas, A.A., Baena-Moncada, A.M., Sotomayor, M.D.P.T.: Voltammetric sensor based on glassy carbon electrode modified with hierarchical porous carbon, silver sulfide nanoparticles and fullerene for electrochemical monitoring of nitrite in food samples. Food Chem. 383, 132384 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foo dchem.2022.132384 63. Zhu, Y., Huai, S., Jiao, J., Xu, Q., Wu, H., Zhang, H.: Fullerene and platinum compositebased electrochemical sensor for the selective determination of catechol and hydroquinone. J. Electroanal. Chem. 878, 114726 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114726

Chemical Analysis of Pomegranate Fruits Taken from Different Locations in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Alma Miˇcijevi´c(B) , Aida Šukali´c, Alma Leto, and Sanela Nazdraji´c Faculty of Agromediteranean, USRC “MithatHujdurHujka”, University “DžemalBijedi´c”, 88 104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. Pomegranate is one of the first cultivated fruits with remarkably refreshing sour-sweet taste. Because of pomegranate’s dietary and therapeutic value, there has been an increased interest in the production of the fruit in recent years. Fruits are consumed fresh or processed into juice. The aim of this research was to determine the chemical parameters in different samples of pomegranate fruit collected on six different locations in Herzegovina, in the close proximity of City of Mostar. In this research pH-value, the dry matter content, the acidity degree and total sugars content, were determined. The total of twelve samples was examined, two from each location, both with pure seeds and seeds with mesocarp. The results of the research show that this is a sour fruit type, because the pH-value determined ranged from 3,04 to 4,14. Somewhat higher pH-value was determined on four locations, in samples with seeds with mesocarp. The results of the acidity degree determination show somewhat higher values in the seeds with mesocarp samples, while the dry matter content and total sugars content were higher in pure seeds samples, taken from all locations. Keywords: chemical analysis · different locations · pomegranate fruits · seeds with mesocarp

1 Introduction Pomegranate (Punica granatum), commonly known as mogranj or nar, originates from Persia and its name translated from Latin means-apple packed with seeds. It is one of the first cultivated fruits with remarkably refreshing taste. Pomegranate fruits are characteristic for Herzegovina region because they require long, sunny summer for their optimal crop but they are also draught and cold-tolerant [3]. The pomegranate fruit consists of groups of red seeds, sweet and sour in taste and with pleasantly refreshing aroma [2]. Because of pomegranate’s dietary and therapeutic value and its benefits for the human health, there has been an increased interest in the production of the fruit in recent years. All the parts of the tree: leaves, flowers and root - have been used in medicine for centuries [4]. Fruits are consumed fresh or processed into juice. The edible parts of the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 118–124, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_13

Chemical Analysis of Pomegranate Fruits

119

fruit are seeds rich in sugars, vitamins, polyphenols and minerals. Different researches have been conducted and showed anti-inflammatory [7], anticancer [1], antimicrobial [12] and antiviral [6] effects of pomegranate juice. Mechanical structure of the fruit determines the yield of the fruit juice. The average yield forpomegranate seeds is 30–40% of the total fruit amount, whereas the content of the juice in the seeds is 40–60%. Pomegranate is, in the first place, grown for its high quality fruits and their wide usage value (processed, nutritional etc.). High biological value of the pomegranate fruit is the result of content of dry matters, acids, biologically valuable fibers, inverts, tannins, pectin, mineral substances, vitamins, coloring and other substances. Energy value of the pomegranate fruits is somewhat lower than the energy value of dry fruit. It can be compared with the energy value of figs and mangoes. The trace presence of certain components of pomegranate has laxative effect on the digestive tract, or else strengthens the human immune system. The fruits have distinct nutritional, dietary and health value [8]. The quantitative relation among constituents of the pomegranate fruit is determined by the different cultivar, the ripeness of the fruit, external environment conditions and health condition of the fruit tree [14]. Pomegranate fruit extract mostly contains sterile and healthy water [11]. The percentage of water in pomegranate fruit is approximately equal to the percentage of water in human body. The iron content in pomegranate fruit extract is important because of the significance of iron as blood constituent. It enables the transport of oxygen to all parts of human body.

2 Methodology The choice of sites for sampling was on the private properties in Herzegovina region, in the close proximity of City of Mostar, at mutual distance of 50 km. Location 1 is 40 km south of Mostar, location 2 is 20 km south of Mostar, location 3 is in the town itself, location 4 is 5 km to the north, location 5 is 10 km also to the north, and location 6 is 20 km to the north as well (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Sampling sites

120

A. Miˇcijevi´c et al.

The fruits were taken for analysis in October, during the period of their full maturity and the peak of their consumption. 30 fruits were picked from several trees on each location and the average sample is prepared accordingly. From every location and every picking two samples are prepared, both pure- seed and seed with mesocarp- samples. In total, 12 samples were prepared. This type of research was chosen because the significant amount of pomegranate fruits is processed into juice, which is mostly extracted from the seeds and during that process both seeds and mesocarp are under great pressure (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Sampling and preparation of samples for analysis

All chemical analyses were made in the laboratory of Federal Institute for Agriculture in Sarajevo, using the methodology prescribed by law. The samples were delivered to the laboratory, where the following chemical analyses were made: pH-value, total amount of dry matter, acidity degree and total amount of sugars. The pH-value was determined by the method based on measuring the potential difference between two electrodes immersed in the tested liquid [13]. The laboratory sample was homogenized by careful stirring. The amount of sample sufficient for the electrodes to be immersed was taken for testing. The pH-meter was calibrated before the reading of the pH-value. Buffer solutions with pH-value 4,00 and 6,88 were used for calibration of the pH-meter. The amount of dry matter was determined by the gravimetric method, based on the determination of the residue after drying on 105 °C until constant mass is obtained [5]. Under defined conditions the aluminium dish with an open lid and a strip of pleated filter paper is dried in the oven. After drying the lid was put back on the dish, the dish taken out of the oven and colled in the dessicator. After the cooling, the mass of the dish

Chemical Analysis of Pomegranate Fruits

121

was measured with the 0,0002 g accuracy. From preveiously homogenized sample, it has been separated, with the pipette, 10 ml of the sample, then quickly applied on the filter-paper in the measuring dish and covered with the lid. The aluminium dish with the filter-paper and the tested quantity of sample was then put into the laboratory oven, preheated to 1050 °C, heated with an open lid under atmospheric pressure, for 1 h. After the measuring, the dryng proccess was continued until the difference between two consecutive dryings, in the interval of 0,5 h and after the cooling and measument, was less than 0,0001 g. The method of determination of the amount of total sugars is based on the principle that under certain conditions reducing sugars (natural invert) convert cuprous sulfate (CuSO4 ) from Luff’s solution to copper oxide (Cu2 O). The unspent amount of cupric ion retreats with thiosulfate solution. The difference between the blind test and the test consumption shows the amount of sugars. The determination of the amount of total invert was carried out in a way that 10 ml of the filtrate was pipetted into a 100 mlmeasuring flask, then diluted with aproximately 30 ml of water and added 0,5 ml HCl. The measuing flask with the content was put onto the boling water bath for 30 min to invert, and then neutralized with 1 mol/L NaOH solution and filled up to the label with water. The method of total acidity determination is based on neutralization of all the present acids by certain concentration of alkali and based on the consumption of the alkali, total acidity, in terms of predominant acid, is calculated. Laboratory sample is well stirred and fltered through the filter-paper. 25 ml of the filtrate is pipetted, transfered into the 250 ml measuring flask, filled up to the label and shaked well. To the tested quantity of the sample to be tested, 0,25 ml of phenolphthalein solution is added and by shaking titrated with sodium hydroxide solution for at least 30 s, until light pink colour appeared. Two determinations were made on the same test sample.

3 Results and Discussion The results of the chemical analyses, made on the pure seeds of the pomegranate fruits, are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 3. Table 1. Chemical analysis of the pure seeds of pomegranate samples Location pH-of the fruit (±0,01) % dry matter Acidity degree g/100 ml % tottal sugers 1

4,01

24,00

1,00

12,00

2

3,04

27,47

2,02

9,60

3

4,14

23,52

1,10

12,40

4

3,18

26,29

2,42

10,60

5

3,33

22,51

1,44

12,00

6

3,48

19,83

1,20

7,40

122

A. Miˇcijevi´c et al.

Fig. 3. Chemical analysis of the pure seeds of pomegranate samples

It is visible from the presented results that this is a sour fruit type, because pH-values ranged from 3,04 on Location 2 to 4,14 on Location 3. The percentage of dry matter was within the expected range, from 19,83 on Location 6 to 24,47 on Location 2. The acidity degree is quite law and it ranges from 1,00 on Location 1 to 2,42 on Location 4. Rather law values were shown by the results of content of total sugars tests. The percentage of sugars ranged from 7,40 on Location 6 to 12,40 on Location 3. The results of the chemical analyses, made on seeds with mesocarp samples, are presented in Table 2 and Fig. 4. Table 2. Chemical analysis of the seeds with mesocarp samples Location pH-of the fruit (±0,01) % dry matter Acidity degree g/100 ml % tottal sugers 1

3,88

23,68

1,50

11,60

2

3,13

25,96

2,11

9,20

3

4,04

22,11

1,55

7,20

4

3,06

26,33

2,64

8,20

5

3,37

21,45

1,68

10,00

6

3,44

17,85

1,66

5,20

Chemical Analysis of Pomegranate Fruits

123

Fig. 4. The results of chemical analysis of the seeds with mesocarp samples

According to the results of the analysis of the seeds with mesocarp, the pHvalue is somewhat lower on four locations, comparing to the results for pure seeds analysis. In samples with mesocarp pH-value ranged from 3,06 on Location 4 to 4,04 on Location 3. On five locations, the content of dry matter in samples with mesocarp showed lower values than the samples with pure seeds. The highest percentage of dry matter was in samples with mesocarp on Location 4 and it was 26,33, while the lowest percentage was measured on Location 6 and it was 17,85. On five locations, the acidity degree was higher in samples of seeds with mesocarp and ranged from 1,50 on Location 1 to 2,64 on Location 4. The percentage of total sugars in samples with mesocarp varied greatly and its values ranged from 5,20 on Location 6 to 11,60 on Location 1. Comparing the obtained results, it can be concluded that the content of total sugars in all samples with pure seeds showed higher values than those with mesocarp.

4 Conclusion Comparing the obtained results for samples from the same location, it can be stated that this is a sour fruit type, because the pH-value in both analyses had approximate values and ranged from 3,04 to 4,14. On four locations the values were lower in samples with seeds with mesocarp than with pure seeds. The dry matter percentage showed somewhat higher values in five samples with pure seeds than the samples with seeds with mesocarp from the same location. The acidity degree in all samples with seeds with mesocarp had higher values than the samples with pure seeds, whereas the total amount of sugars was higher in samples with pure seeds than the samples with seeds with mesocarp, taken from the same location.

124

A. Miˇcijevi´c et al.

References 1. Adhami, V.M., Mukhtar, H.: Polyphenols from green tea and pomegranate for prevention of prostate cancer. Free Radical Res. 40, 1095–1104 (2006) 2. Bulatovi´c, S.: Savremeno vo´carstvo, Nolit, Beograd (1979) 3. Džubur, A., Kurtovi´c, M., Jarebica, Dž., Tanovi´c, N., Kurtovi´c, S.: Šipak-Nar (Punica granatum), Svjetlost, Fojnica (1999) 4. Gowda, A.M., Osman, I.M., Mikhail, E.G.: Comparative studies on six pomegranate cultivars under Beni-Suef governorate conditions. J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ. 34(11), 10527–10541 (2009) 5. Haris, D.C.: Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 5th edn. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1998) 6. Kotwall, G.J.: Genetic diversity-independent neutralization of pandemic viruses (e.g. HIV), potentially pandemic (e.g. H5N1 strain of influenza) and carcinogenic (e.g. HBV AND HCV) viruses and possible agents of bioterrorism (variola) by enveloped virus neutralizing compounds (EVNCs). Vaccine 26, 3055–3058 (2007) 7. Lansky, E.P., Newman, R.A.: Punica granatum (pomegranate) and its potential for prevention and treatment of inflammation and cancer. J. Ethnopharmacol. 109, 177–206 (2007) 8. Luˇci´c, P., Ðuri´c, G., Mi´ci´c, N.: Vo´carstvo I, Nolit i Partenon, Beograd (1996) 9. “Pravilnik o maksimalnodozvoljenim koliˇcinama za odredene kontaminante u hrani”, “Službeni list BiH”, broj 37/09 10. «Pravilnik o fiziˇcko-hemijskimanalizama vo´ca i povr´ca», “Službeni list BiH”, broj 2/92 11. «Pravilnik o kvalitetiproizvoda od vo´ca i povr´ca», “Službeni list BiH”, broj 2/92 12. Reddy, M.K., Gupta, S.K., Jacob, M.R., Khan, S.I., Ferreira, D.: Antioxidant, antimalarial and antimicrobial activities of tannin-rich fractions, ellagitannins and phenolic acids from Punica granatum L. Planta Med. 73, 461–467 (2007) 13. , M.: “Instrumentalne kemijske metode I dio”, Hijatus, Zenica (2000) ˇ 14. Ugarkovi´c, J., Raduni´c, M., Kozina, A., Cmelik, Z.: Osobine sorata šipka (Punica granatum L.) Glavaš i Paštrun. Pomologia Croatica 15(3–4), 87–94 (2009)

The Relationship Between Folic Acid and Healthy Reproduction Jia Lijun1 , Andrea Formato2(B) , Giampiero Celenta3 , and Raffaele Romano2 1 College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing,

China 2 Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Università 100,

80055 Portici, Naples, Italy [email protected] 3 University of Salerno, MEID4 srl, Academic Spin-Off, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy

Abstract. Since 1991, when the UK Medical Research Council first confirmed that folic acid supplementation before and after pregnancy can prevent the occurrence of NTDs (neural tube malformations) and reduce the incidence by 50–70%, the preventive effect of folic acid on NTDs has been recognized as one of the most exciting medical discoveries of the late 20th century. Since then, the effects of folic acid on fetal growth and development have been the focus of scholars’ research. More and more studies have shown that folic acid is associated with other fertility problems as well as fetal birth defects. In particular, many studies in recent years have explained the relationship between folic acid and healthy fertility from the epigenetic aspects such as genetic and histone modification. Therefore, combined with relevant literature, the author reviews some current research results, in order to clarify the specific pathogenesis and other unsolved problems through further research. Keywords: Folic Acid · Pregnancy Results · Folic Acid Supplement

1 Introduction Folic acid, as one of the B vitamin complex, is involved in many important physiological processes in human body, such as DNA synthesis and methylation, assisting in repairing oxidative damage, and participating in protein metabolism. In addition, folic acid can also cooperate with vitamin B12 to promote the generation and maturation of red blood cells and effectively promote the maturation of young cells in human bone marrow.Can be said to be one of the most important nutrients in the human body.Therefore, the deficiency of folic acid in the human body, such as insufficient intake or abnormal metabolic process, may result in abnormal regulation of a variety of developmental genes and pathways, and then lead to poor fertility of pregnant women, resulting in missed abortion, recurrent spontaneous abortion, intrauterine stillbirth and various fetal abnormalities and other serious consequences [1–3]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 125–131, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_14

126

J. Lijun et al.

In China, the pregnant women with adverse birth history account for 10–15%, and the annual birth defects are up to 800,000 to 1.2 million, which is a country with a high incidence of birth defects.The occurrence of these neonatal defects has brought heavy pressure and burden to every family and the whole society, especially in the context of the aging society in China, the marriage rate and birth rate are declining year after year and other social and demographic problems need to be solved, it is particularly important to steadily improve the healthy fertility rate.Therefore, how to supplement folic acid scientifically, timely and effectively for pregnant women in different periods has become the most realistic problem that people pay attention to [4–6].

2 Transport and Absorption of Folic Acid Folic acid (vitamin B9) is a water-soluble vitamin and an extremely important nutrient in the human body (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Chemical Structure of Folic Acid

According to the standards specified in the General Principles for the Nutrition Labelling of Prepackaged Food (GB 28050-2011), folic acid is mainly found in foods including quinoa, dried soybeans or beans, beancurd, spinach, fennel, amaranth, animal liver, lean meat, duck eggs, etc. This nutrient cannot be synthesized in the human body and can only be obtained through food. Folic acid has active absorption and diffusion passive absorption in vivo, and the absorption site is mainly in the upper part of the small intestine [7–9]. Folic acid obtained from food mainly exists in the form of polyglutamates, which must be hydrolyzed on the intestinal mucosa (the first step of folic acid metabolism) to be easily transported. Folic acid is mainly transported and absorbed by human body through proton coupled folate carrier, reduced folate transporter and folate receptor, among which folate receptor α Contribution is the most important. It has been shown that folate receptors in mice α Abnormal expression is closely related to craniofacial malformations, neural tube defects, cardiac dysplasia and other diseases [10–12].

3 Metabolism of Folic Acid 3.1 The Phenomenon of Abnormal Metabolism of Folic Acid There are many enzymes involved in the process of folic acid metabolism. The gene polymorphism of these enzymes causes their activity to decline, thus affecting the normal

The Relationship Between Folic Acid and Healthy Reproduction

127

metabolic process of folic acid, which can induce many diseases. According to the existing research results, the adverse effects of abnormal folic acid metabolism on healthy reproduction can be summarized as follows: early spontaneous abortion; Male fertility; Neonatal birth defects, such as fetal neural tube defects (NTDs), are defects caused by incomplete neural tube closure during fetal development, including encephalocele, anencephaly, spina bifida, etc., which are considered as one of the more common neonatal birth defects. The worldwide incidence rate of the disease is about 0.5/1000–2/1000. In China, about 100000 children with NTDs are born every year, with a incidence rate as high as 2.74/1000, which is regarded as a country with a high incidence rate of NTDs Fetal nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate, neonatal congenital heart disease, neonatal Down syndrome; Hypertensive disorder during pregnancy [13–15]. 3.2 The Cause of Abnormal Metabolism of Folic Acid Abnormal folate metabolism will lead to the increase of Hcy level in the body, and affect DNA methylation, DNA synthesis and repair. The main reasons for these adverse effects on pregnant women are as follows: HyperHcy; DNA hypomethylation; Lysine demethylase; Histone modification.

4 Relationship Between Folic Acid Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcome Many studies have shown that the serum folate level is not only one of the important indicators to evaluate the birth defects of newborns, but also commonly used to understand the nutritional status of pregnant women during pregnancy, thus determining the scientific intake of dietary nutrients during pregnancy [16–18]. Reasonable, scientific and effective nutrition regulation during pregnancy is directly related to the health of pregnant women and fetuses, because the metabolism of pregnant women in pregnancy is faster, and the demand for folic acid is significantly increased, Insufficient folic acid intake or abnormal absorption and metabolism are likely to cause megaloblastic anemia (as an important coenzyme in the process of DNA synthesis, the lack of folic acid will seriously affect the DNA synthesis in the young red blood cell nucleus, delaying or even stopping the division and maturation of the nucleus, and at the same time, the cell body becomes larger, leading to the occurrence of megaloblastic anemia), hyperhomocysteinemia and other diseases, It will also cause adverse effects on the fetus mentioned above [4, 19, 20]. Therefore, in a study, investigators investigated 542 pregnant women who had regular pregnancy check-up at a hospital from January 2014 to December 2016. They were divided into the following three groups according to their folic acid consumption: Group A (103 cases) did not take folic acid before or after pregnancy;Group B (210 cases) did not take folic acid before pregnancy and took folic acid after pregnancy;Group C (229 cases) took folic acid before and after pregnancy.Through regular collection of basic clinical data and serum folic acid level data of the three groups, as well as the final pregnancy results, the following results were obtained: the serum folic acid level of group C was higher than that of group A and group B, and the serum folic acid level of

128

J. Lijun et al.

group A was the lowest, accounting for only 19.0%;Threatened abortion, intrauterine dysplasia and postpartum blood loss were less in group C than in groups A and B.The conclusion can then be drawn: Regular administration of folic acid before and after pregnancy can increase the serum folic acid level of pregnant women, effectively improve the nutritional status of folic acid in pregnant women, thus increasing the probability of healthy childbirth, reducing the risk of postpartum bleeding (serum folic acid is the main component of themoglobin, and folic acid supplementation during pregnancy is the main method to prevent pregnancy anemia), and obtain better pregnancy results [21–23].

5 Folic Acid Application for Women in Preparation for Pregnancy and Pregnant Women 5.1 Women in Preparation for Pregnancy and General Healthy Women in Early Pregnancy (1) Adopt a healthy lifestyle by eating folate-rich foods such as leafy greens and fresh fruits. (2) Folic acid supplementation of 0.4 or 0.8 mg.d−1 is recommended from at least 3 months before or at least 3 months before pregnancy until 3 months of gestation. (3) For women living in the north, especially in the rural areas of the north;Women with low intake of fresh fruits and vegetables;Women who have less time to become pregnant may follow their doctor’s advice to personalize folic acid supplementation. 5.2 Women in the Second and Third Trimesters of Pregnancy During the middle and late stages of pregnancy, as the fetus grows, the nutritional requirements of the pregnant woman increase.Previous studies have shown that the risk of hypertension and other diseases during pregnancy decreases with the extension of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy.Therefore, it is recommended that women in the second and third trimesters stick to folate-rich foods and continue to supplement with folic acid, the recommended supplemental dose is 0.4 mg.d−1 [24–26]. 5.3 Women in the Second and Third Trimesters of Pregnancy Lactating women generally have an increased need for nutrients due to the need to secrete milk, so lactating mothers are more likely to be deficient in folate than adult women.Several studies have shown that lactating women who do not receive folic acid supplementation are more likely to develop megakblastic anemia than women who receive folic acid supplementation, because folic acid supplementation during lactation can increase red blood cell folate and hemoglobin levels and prevent the elevation of Hcy levels [27–29].The WHO also recommends folic acid supplementation until three months postpartum.Therefore, it is recommended that lactating women continue to consume folate-rich foods and supplement with folic acid at a recommended supplemental dose of 0.4 mg.d−1 .

The Relationship Between Folic Acid and Healthy Reproduction

129

6 Conclusion According to the investigation and research in different regions, due to the lack of awareness of the importance of folic acid among Chinese women who are preparing for pregnancy and their families, many pregnant women are unable to scientifically and effectively supplement folic acid [30–32]. Moreover, the current examinations for ectopic pregnancy mainly rely on ultrasound and serological indicators, but their accuracy is low.These factors have led to a relatively high incidence of birth defects and other problems, which have brought heavy burden and pressure to some families and the whole society.Therefore, monitoring and evaluation of folic acid nutrition during pregnancy is particularly important. It can not only help grasp the nutritional status of pregnant women as soon as possible, carry out timely intervention of maternal nutrition support treatment, but also reduce the occurrence of abnormal pregnancy, which is of great significance for improving pregnancy outcome.In 2017, China issued a guideline on folic acid supplementation during pregnancy to prevent NTDs in fetuses, which clearly points out that folic acid supplementation should be personalized according to different regional adverse birth history and family history [33–35]. However, although the research on folic acid and healthy fertility has been more and more extensive in recent years, the causes of abnormal pregnancy are more complex, and the specific mechanism of its influence has not been deciphers. It is hoped that with the continuous development of molecular biology technology, the relationship between folic acid and healthy fertility can be clarified as soon as possible, and relevant molecular markers in serum or amniotic fluid can be found.To provide strong evidence to prevent abnormal pregnancy [36].

References 1. Chinese Medical Frontiers Multidisciplinary expert consensus on rational supplementation of folic acid in clinical practice in China 12(11), 19–37 (2020) 2. De Simone, M.C., Veneziano, S., Guida, D.: Design of a non-back-drivable screw jack mechanism for the hitch lifting arms of electric-powered tractors. Actuators 11(12), 358 (2022) 3. Pappalardo, C.M., La Regina, R., Guida, D.: Multibody modeling and nonlinear control of a pantograph scissor lift mechanism. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 9(1), 129–167 (2023) 4. Formato, A., Romano, R., Villecco, F.: A novel device for the soil sterilizing in sustainable agriculture. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 858–865. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_94 5. Chen, G., et al.: Perinatal folic acid supplementation and its effect on pregnancy outcomes. Chin. J. Disease Control. 25(02), 160–164 (2021) 6. Duan, M.: Folic acid is not only necessary for the conception of life. Encyclopedia Knowl. 08, 44–48 (2021) 7. Manrique-Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: On the analytical and computational methodologies for modelling two-wheeled vehicles within the multibody dynamics framework: a systematic literature review. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 8(1), 153–181 (2022) 8. De Simone, M.C., Laiola, V., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Dynamic analysis of a hybrid heavyvehicle. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Mandžuka, S. (eds.) NT 2022. LNNS, vol. 472, pp. 236–243. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_27

130

J. Lijun et al.

9. De Simone, M.C., Celenta, G., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Mechanism design for a low-cost automatic breathing applications for developing countries. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Mandžuka, S. (eds.) NT 2022. LNNS, vol. 472, pp. 345–352. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_40 10. Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part I: methods of constrained dynamics. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 655–670 (2021) 11. Gao, Q., Tang, Z.: Research progress on the relationship between folic acid and perinatal depression in pregnant women. Chin. Matern. Child Health Care 36(01), 240–242 (2021) 12. Sun, X., Liu, H., Song, W., Villecco, F.: Modeling of Eddy current welding of rail: threedimensional simulation. Entropy 22, 947 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/e22090947 13. Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part II: Application to the Whipple-Carvallo bicycle model. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 671–700 (2021) 14. De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Experimental investigation on structural vibrations by a new shaking table. In: Carcaterra, A., Paolone, A., Graziani, G. (eds.) AIMETA 2019. LNME, pp. 819–831. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41057-5_66 15. Haomei, H., Yang, H.: Correlative research on folic acid and unhealthy fertility. Int. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 48(01), 89–94 (2021) 16. Colucci, F., De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: TLD design and development for vibration mitigation in structures. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2019. LNNS, vol. 76, pp. 59–72. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18072-0_7 17. Salvati, L., d’Amore, M., Fiorentino, A., Pellegrino, A., Sena, P., Villecco, F.: Development and testing of a methodology for the assessment of acceptability systems. Machines 8(47) (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/machines9020044 18. Manrique-Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: A multibody system approach for the systematic development of a closed-chain kinematic model for two-wheeled vehicles. Machines 9(11), 245 (2021) 19. Mei, S., Liu, M., Kudreyko, A., Cattani, P., Baikov, D., Villecco, F.: Bendlet transform based adaptive denoising method for microsection images. Entropy 24, 869 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/e24070869 20. Tian, W.: A cross-sectional study on the relationship between assessment of folic acid nutritional status during pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes. Contemp. Med. 24(15), 69–70 (2018) 21. Guida, R., De Simone, M.C., Daši´c, P., Guida, D.: Modeling techniques for kinematic analysis of a six-axis robotic arm. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mat. Sci. Eng. 568(1), 012115 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1088/1757-899X/568/1/012115 22. Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: Identification of a dynamical model of the latching mechanism of an aircraft hatch door using the numerical algorithms for subspace state-space system identification. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math. 51(2), 346–359 (2021) 23. Wang, H., et al.: Study on the correlation between fetal birth defects and women’s serum folic acid level and Hcy level. Chin. J. Eugenics Genet. 28(05), 631–633+645 (2020) 24. De Simone, M.C., Ventura, G., Lorusso, A., Guida, D.: Attitude controller design for microsatellites. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 21–31. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_2 25. Wang, H., et al.: Investigation on the relationship between nutritional status and dietary intake nutrient levels and pregnancy outcomes during pregnancy. Chin. J. Perinatol. 04, 245–249 (2009) 26. Yin, Z., et al.: Compliance with folic acid supplementation before pregnancy and its influencing factors. J. Shandong Univ. (Med. Ed.) 58(05), 115–120 (2020)

The Relationship Between Folic Acid and Healthy Reproduction

131

27. Villecco, F., Aquino, R.P., Calabrò, V., Corrente, M.I., Grasso, A., Naddeo, V.: Fuzzy-assisted ultrafiltration of wastewater from milk industries. In: Naddeo, V., Balakrishnan, M., Choo, K.-H. (eds.) Frontiers in Water-Energy-Nexus—Nature-Based Solutions, Advanced Technologies and Best Practices for Environmental Sustainability. ASTI, pp. 239–242. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13068-8_59 28. Pappalardo, C.M., Vece, A., Galdi, D., Guida, D.: Developing a reciprocating mechanism for the emergency implementation of a mechanical pulmonary ventilator using an integrated CAD-MBD procedure. FME Trans. 50(2), 238–247 (2022) 29. Rivera, Z.B., De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Unmanned ground vehicle modelling in Gazebo/ROS-based environments. Machines 7(2), 42 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/machin es7020042 30. Li, T., Kou, Z., Wu, J., Yahya, W., Villecco, F.: Multipoint optimal minimum entropy deconvolution adjusted for automatic fault diagnosis of hoist bearing. Shock Vibr. 2021, 6614633 (2021) 31. Pappalardo, C.M., Manca, A., Guida, D.: A combined use of the multibody system approach and the finite element analysis for the structural redesign and the topology optimization of the latching component of an aircraft hatch door. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math. 51(1), 175–191 (2021) 32. De Simone, M.C., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Obstacle avoidance system for unmanned ground vehicles by using ultrasonic sensors. Machines 6(2), 18 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/mac hines6020018 33. Manrique Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: A parametric study of a deep reinforcement learning control system applied to the swing-up problem of the cart-pole. Appl. Sci. 10(24), 9013 (2020) 34. Yan, J., Liu, Y., Cao, L., Zheng, Y., Li, W., Huang, G.: Association between duration of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy and risk of postpartum depression. Nutrients 9, 1206 (2017) 35. De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Modal coupling in presence of dry friction. Machines 6(1), 8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/machines6010008 36. Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: Dynamic analysis and control design of kinematically-driven multibody mechanical systems. Eng. Lett. 28(4), 1125–1144 (2020)

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies Zhou Shuai1 , Raffaele Romano2(B) , Giampiero Celenta3 , and Andrea Formato2(B) 1 College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Food

Quality and Safety, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China 2 Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Università 100,

80055 Portici, Naples, Italy {raffaele.romano,formato}@unina.it 3 MEID4, Academic Spin-Off, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy

Abstract. In order to develop popular butter cookie products with good shape and taste, and lay a foundation for the research and development of various flavor cookies, in this paper, we studied the processing technology of butter cookies. The single factor test and orthogonal test were carried out to obtain the best processing recipes according to the sensory score. Finally, it was determined that the best butter cookie production process was 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 60 g of powdered sugar, 40 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, 3 drops of vanilla extract, and the baking temperature is 180 °C, baking time is 17.5 min. The butter cookies made under the best recipe and process conditions have good sensory quality, attractive color, moderate sweetness and crisp taste. Keywords: Cookies · Baking conditions · Recipes · Single factor test · Orthogonal test · Sensory evaluation

1 Introduction Cookies are made of low gluten flour, butter, sugar and eggs, and are baked under appropriate production conditions. As a traditional and representative dessert, cookies bring people the enjoyment of taste with crisp and rich taste levels [1–3]. Vanilla essence is a kind of food additive extracted from vanilla in the form of liquid and powder. It is mainly used to enhance flavor and improve appetite. It is often used to make vanilla flavored snacks [4–6]. Cookies have a huge consumer market in China. According to the data of China National Food Industry Association, by December 20, 2021, the sales of biscuits in China had reached 50.4 billion yuan, an annual increase of 95% year on year. By analogy, it is estimated that the national sales of the biscuit industry in 2022 will be about 55 billion yuan, the share of cookies in biscuits will be about 11%, and the annual sales will be about 6.05 billion yuan [7–10]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 132–144, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_15

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

133

In this paper, the processing technology of butter cookies was studied. The single factor test and orthogonal test were carried out to obtain the best processing recipes according to the sensory score. In this paper, we developed a popular butter cookie with good shape and taste. At the same time, the results of this study can lay a solid foundation for the research and development of various flavor cookies.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials and Instruments 2.1.1 Materials Low gluten flour, Suzhou Queen Bakery Food Trading Co., Ltd; Butter, Lantris (Shanghai) Trading Co., Ltd; Powdered Sugar, Taikoo Sugar Co., Ltd; Eggs, bought in the farmer’s market; Fine granulated sugar, Taigu Sugar Industry Co., Ltd; Vanilla Essence, Shanghai Fengwei Industrial Co., Ltd. 2.1.2 Instruments SD-38 electric egg beater, Yongkang Kang’er Niu Industry and Trade Co., Ltd; ZY0201 Kitchen Electronic Scale, Shanghai Fengwei Industrial Co., Ltd; KWS-1319J-F8 (XP) oven, Guangdong Galanz Group Co., Ltd; Scraper, spoon, knife; Pastry Bag. 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Technological Process Break up butter → Add powdered sugar and fine granulated sugar → Mix ingredients → Whip butter → Add egg liquid → Add vanilla essence → Add low gluten flour → Put it into a decorative bag → Extrude cookies → Bake → Cool. 2.2.2 Experimental Steps 2.2.2.1 Preparation of Materials Sift and weigh the low gluten flour, cut the butter and soften it at room temperature, and preheat the oven. 2.2.2.2 Preparation of Batter Add the mixture of powdered sugar and fine granulated sugar into the softened butter in two times, mix and evenly inject air into the butter through the high-speed beater to make the butter tissue full of air pores. The purpose of this step is that when the cookie batter is heated and expanded, the finished product will become more crisp. However, it should be noted that excessive whipping of butter will make cookie patterns disappear faster. Add egg liquid and vanilla essence in 2–3 times, and beat evenly with an egg beater. Add the weighed low gluten flour, and gently stir with a scraper until there is no dry powder. At this time, it is not allowed to use the beater to mix well. This is because excessive stirring will make the batter produce gluten, increase the extensibility of the

134

Z. Shuai et al.

dough, cause the cookie pattern to disappear during baking, and reduce the quality of cookies. 2.2.2.3 Cookie Shaping Put the batter into the decorative bag and squeeze it onto the baking tray. The decorative bag should be at least 2 cm away from the baking tray. If it is too close, the pattern will not be clear and the cookie thickness will be thin. The shape, size and thickness of each cookie should be consistent. 2.2.2.4 Baking Bake the cookie tray in the preheated oven. After baking, take it out and cool it at room temperature until the cookies are not hot. 2.3 Experimental Design 2.3.1 Single Factor Experiment This experiment takes 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 65 g of powdered sugar, 35 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract as the basic recipes, the baking temperature is 190 °C, the baking time is 15 min. The base number is 200 g of low gluten flour. A single factor test was conducted to investigate the effects of baking time (15 min, 17.5 min, 20 min), baking temperature (180 °C, 190 °C, 200 °C), butter addition (110 g, 120 g, 130 g, 140 g, 150 g) and the proportion of powdered sugar/fine granulated sugar (70 g/30 g, 65 g/35 g, 60 g/40 g) on the quality of butter cookies. The sensory evaluation was used as the standard to determine the product quality, and the best conditions for each factor were determined through analysis. 2.3.2 Orthogonal Experiment On the basis of single factor test, determine three levels of baking time, baking temperature, butter addition, and the proportion of powdered sugar/fine granulated sugar, conduct L9 (34 ) orthogonal test, judge the product quality according to sensory evaluation standards, and determine the best process conditions and recipes for making vanilla butter cookies through analysis. The orthogonal test factors and level design are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Orthogonal Test Factor Level Table Level

1

Factor A

B

C

D

Baking time /min

Baking temperature /°C

Butter addition /g

The proportion of powdered sugar/ fine granulated sugar /(g/g)

15

180

120

70 g/30 g (continued)

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

135

Table 1. (continued) Level

Factor A

B

C

D

Baking time /min

Baking temperature /°C

Butter addition /g

The proportion of powdered sugar/ fine granulated sugar /(g/g)

2

17.5

190

130

65 g/35 g

3

20

200

140

60 g/40 g

2.4 Sensory Experiment In this experiment, 15 food sensory evaluators formed an evaluation team. The shape, color, flavor, taste and texture of cookies were scored one by one using the percentage system. The total score was taken as the sensory evaluation score of cookies (full score was 100 points). According to relevant standards and literature [1, 5, 6, 10, 11], the sensory evaluation standard of cookies was formulated, as shown in Table 2. It should be noted that this study believes that the above five evaluation items have the same importance, so the maximum score of each item is set as 20 points [12–15]. At the same time, in order to exclude the influence of subjective factors, this study will take the average score of the group members as the final score of biscuit sensory evaluation. In order to avoid the interaction between different products, after the identification of each product, the team members must gargle with purified water [16–18]. Table 2. Butter Cookies Sensory Rating Scale Item Shape (20 point)

Color (20 point)

Standards

Score

Complete appearance, clear pattern, uniform thickness, no crack, no dent, no bubble

14–20

Complete appearance, unclear pattern, cracks, no large concave bottom, and even bubbles

7–13

Incomplete appearance, no obvious patterns, obvious cracks, concave bottoms and bubble spots

0–6

Uniform color without over focus or over white

14–20

Basically uniform color without over focus or over white

7–13

Uneven color, over focus or over white

0–6 (continued)

136

Z. Shuai et al. Table 2. (continued)

Item Flavor (20 point)

Standards

Score

Cookie flavor, balanced flavor, moderate sweetness, no odor

14–20

Cookie flavor, single and unbalanced flavor, light or heavy taste

7–13

No cookie flavor, with burnt and other odor, covering other flavors

0–6

Crisp, delicate, refreshing and not sticky

14–20

Relatively soft and not sticky

7–13

Taste (20 point)

Texture (20 point)

Not crisp and sticky

0–6

Clear section structure, fine and uniform, without large holes

14–20

Clear section, clear structure, slightly large holes

7–13

Unclear section structure

0–6

3 Results 3.1 Analysis of Single Factor Experiment Results 3.1.1 Baking Time This experiment takes 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 65 g of powdered sugar, 35 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract as the basic recipes, the baking temperature is 190 °C. The base number is 200 g of low gluten flour. A single factor test was conducted to investigate the effects of baking time (15 min, 17.5 min, 20 min) on the quality of butter cookies. The influence of baking time on the quality of vanilla butter cookies is shown in Fig. 1. With the extension of baking time, the sensory score of butter cookies increased first and then decreased. When the baking time was 17.5 min, the total score of sensory evaluation was 80.00, which was the highest [19–21]. At this time, the cookies were golden yellow, with complete appearance, uniform patterns, attractive color, and gave out the aroma of vanilla and milk. The taste was crisp, with aftertaste, and the hole size and density of the section were uniform. When the baking time is less than 17.5 min, the cookie looks white, the internal organizational structure is soft, the smell is insufficient, and the taste is not crisp enough; When the baking time is higher than 17.5 min, the appearance of the cookie is burnt brown, and there are also charred edges. The smell is scorched, and the taste is too crisp. Therefore, the best baking time is 17.5 min.

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

137

Fig. 1. The Effect of Baking Time on Cookie Quality

The variance analysis of baking time on the sensory score of butter cookies is shown in Table 3. It can be seen from the table that there is no significant difference between different participants and different samples. Table 3. ANOVA of Baking Time Single Factor Experiment Difference source Row Column

SS 254.3111 24.31111

df

MS

F

P-value

F crit

14

18.16508

0.713333

0.743527

2.063541

2

12.15556

0.477342

0.625387

3.340386

25.46508

Error

713.0222

28

Total

991.6444

44

3.1.2 Baking Temperature This experiment takes 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 65 g of powdered sugar, 35 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract as the basic recipes, the baking time is 15 min. The base number is 200 g of low gluten flour. A single factor test was conducted to investigate the effects of baking temperature (180 °C, 190 °C, 200 °C) on the quality of butter cookies [22–26]. The influence of baking temperature on the quality of butter cookies is shown in Fig. 2. With the increase of baking temperature, the sensory score of butter cookies increased first and then decreased. When the baking temperature was 190°C, the total score of sensory evaluation was 81.67, which was the highest [27–30]. At this time, the appearance of cookies was complete, the pattern was uniform, there was no burnt edge, the taste was crisp, and the size and density of holes in the section were uniform. When the baking temperature is lower than 190 °C, the surface color of cookies is poor, the internal organizational structure is soft, the smell is insufficient, and the taste is not crisp enough; When the baking temperature is higher than 190 °C, the cookies appear

138

Z. Shuai et al.

burnt brown in appearance, with burnt taste, and the taste is too crisp. Therefore, the best baking temperature is 190 °C.

Fig. 2. The Effect of Baking Temperature on Cookie Quality

The variance analysis of baking temperature on the sensory score of butter cookies is shown in Table 4. It can be seen from the table that there is no significant difference between different participants and different samples. Table 4. ANOVA of Baking Temperature Single Factor Experiment Difference source

SS

df

MS

F

P-value

F crit

Row

259.3333

14

18.52381

1.07637

0.417057

2.063541

Column

94.8

2

47.4

2.754289

0.080915

3.340386

Error

481.8667

28

17.20952

Total

836

44

3.1.3 Butter Addition Butter is a hydrophobic oil, which makes an oil film appear in the dough, inhibits the starch and gluten, and reduces the swelling of the dough. At the same time, it can inhibit the water absorption of dough, so that flour will not produce gluten network due to water absorption. This makes the cookie dough looser than the bread dough, has good plasticity, and can promote the formation of cookies and the maintenance of patterns. Butter itself has a strong milk flavor, and fat can dissolve fat soluble flavor substances, with the role of maintaining the flavor. Therefore, the amount of butter added determines most of the flavor of cookies. The more butter is added, the stronger the aroma is [16, 31–33].This experiment takes 200 g of low gluten flour, 65 g of powdered sugar, 35 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract as the basic recipes, the baking temperature is 190 °C, the baking time is 15 min. The base number is 200 g

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

139

of low gluten flour. A single factor test was conducted to investigate the effects of butter addition (110 g, 120 g, 130 g, 140 g, 150 g) on the quality of butter cookies.The influence of butter addition on the quality of butter cookies is shown in Fig. 3.The total score of sensory evaluation increased first and then decreased with the increase of the amount of butter addition. When the amount of butter added was 130 g, the total score of sensory evaluation was 81.33, which was the highest. At this time, the cookie pattern was clear, the surface was shiny, the milk flavor was rich, and the taste was crisp. When the amount of butter addition is less than 120 g, the cookie is hard and tastes rough; When the amount of butter addition is higher than 140 g, the texture of cookies is soft, the pattern is not clear, the structure is collapsed, and the early batter is easy to stick to the bowl, resulting in a large amount of waste and a continuous decline in quality. Therefore, the optimum amount of butter is 130 g.

Fig. 3. The Effect of Butter Addition on Cookie Quality

The variance analysis of butter addition on the sensory score of butter cookies is shown in Table 5. It can be seen from the table that there is no significant difference between different participants and different samples. Table 5. ANOVA of Baking Temperature Single Factor Experiment Difference source Row Column

SS

df

MS

F

P-value

F crit

190.08

14

13.57714

0.413805

0.96428

1.872588

109.8133

4

27.45333

0.836725

0.507673

2.536579

32.81048

Error

1837.387

56

Total

2137.28

74

140

Z. Shuai et al.

3.1.4 The Proportion of Powdered Sugar/Fine Granulated Sugar During the baking process, the sugar will undergo caramelization and Maillard reaction, which will make the cookies brown and give out fragrance. Sugar is hygroscopic, which can inhibit the expansion of gluten, increase the plasticity of dough, improve the organizational state of finished products, and make biscuits crispy and with clear patterns. Sugar not only absorbs the free water molecules in the dough, but also easily penetrates into the protein molecules after water absorption, reducing the water content in gluten protein, reducing the degree of gluten formation, and weakening the elasticity of the dough. The coarser the sugar particles, the more malleable the dough. The addition of granulated sugar and powdered sugar is to balance the extensibility of the dough. Cookies using powdered sugar only have low extensibility and are not crisp enough. Cookies without powdered sugar have high extensibility and patterns are not easy to shape.This experiment takes 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract as the basic recipes, the baking temperature is 190 °C, the baking time is 15 min. The base number is 200 g of low gluten flour. A single factor test was conducted to investigate the effects of the proportion of powdered sugar/fine granulated sugar (70 g/30 g, 65 g/35 g, 60 g/40 g) on the quality of butter cookies.The influence of the proportion of powdered sugar/fine granulated sugar on the quality of butter cookies is shown in Fig. 4. The total score of sensory evaluation decreased with the increase of the proportion of sugar powder/fine granulated sugar. When the proportion of sugar powder/fine granulated sugar was 60 g/40 g, the total score of sensory evaluation was 81.73, which was the highest. At this time, the cookies had complete patterns, sent out fragrance, and were crisp. When the proportion of sugar powder/granulated sugar is higher than 65 g/35 g, the extensibility of cookie paste is poor, the color is poor, and it is not crisp enough.

Fig. 4. The Effect of The Proportion of Powdered Sugar/Fine Granulated Sugar on Cookie Quality

The variance analysis of the proportion of sugar powder/granulated sugar on the sensory score of butter cookies is shown in Table 6. It can be seen from the table that the differences between the participants are not significant, but the differences between different samples are significant.

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

141

Table 6. ANOVA of The Proportion of Powdered Sugar/Fine Granulated Sugar Single Factor Experiment Difference source

MS

F

P-value

F crit

Row

SS 222.6667

df 14

15.90476

1.311347

0.261728

2.063541

Column

93.73333

2

46.86667

3.864154

0.032964

3.340386

Error

339.6

28

12.12857

Total

656

44

3.2 Analysis of Orthogonal Experiment Results L9 (34 ) orthogonal experiment was conducted on the basis of orthogonal experimental factor level table (Table 1). The orthogonal experiment results are shown in Table 7. The experimental results showed that RA > RB > RD > RC , which represented that the four factors affected the quality of cookies in the order of baking time > baking temperature > the proportion of powdered sugar/fine granulated sugar > butter addition. Through the average value analysis, it can be concluded that the theoretical optimal combination is A2 B1 C2 D3 , which is consistent with the optimal combination obtained from the orthogonal experiment. The experimental results showed that the best baking conditions and recipes were: baking time 17.5 min, baking temperature 180 °C, butter addition 130 g, and the proportion of sugar powder/fine granulated sugar 60 g/40 g. Under this condition, the cookies produced have uniform color, crisp taste, rich aroma and the best comprehensive sensory quality. Table 7. Analysis of orthogonal experiment results Item

Factor

Sensory score /point

A

B

C

D

Baking time /min

Baking temperature /°C

Butter addition /g

the proportion of sugar powder/granulated sugar /(g/g)

1

1

1

1

1

80.47

2

1

2

2

2

78.87

3

1

3

3

3

78.67

4

2

1

2

3

83.47

5

2

2

3

1

78.40

6

2

3

1

2

79.33 (continued)

142

Z. Shuai et al. Table 7. (continued)

Item

Factor

Sensory score /point

A

B

C

D

Baking time /min

Baking temperature /°C

Butter addition /g

the proportion of sugar powder/granulated sugar /(g/g)

7

3

1

3

2

78.20

8

3

2

1

3

78.80 76.73

9

3

3

2

1

K1

238.00

242.13

238.60

235.60

K2

241.20

236.07

239.07

236.40

K3

233.73

234.73

235.27

240.93

k1

79.33

80.71

79.53

78.53

k2

80.40

78.69

79.69

78.80

k3

77.91

78.24

78.42

80.31

R

2.49

2.47

1.27

1.78

4 Conclusion This study first conducted a single factor experiment. According to the sensory score results, the best baking time was 17.5 min, the best baking temperature was 190 °C, the best amount of butter was 130 g, and the best proportion of sugar powder/granulated sugar was 60 g/40 g. Then the orthogonal experiment was carried out to determine the optimal recipe based on the sensory score. The best baking conditions and recipes for cookies were 200 g of low gluten flour, 130 g of butter, 60 g of sugar powder, 40 g of fine granulated sugar, 50 g of eggs, and 3 drops of vanilla extract. The baking temperature was 180 °C, and the baking time was 17.5 min. The butter cookies made under this condition have attractive color, moderate sweetness and crisp taste. This research has developed a butter cookie with good shape and taste, which is popular with the public, and has laid a solid foundation for the research and development of various flavor cookies.

References 1. Qiuxia, Z.: Research on the production process of lavender cookies. Agric. Prod. Process. 09, 67–69 (2022). https://doi.org/10.16693/j.cnki.1671-9646(X).2022.05.016 2. Manrique-Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: On the analytical and computational methodologies for modelling two-wheeled vehicles within the multibody dynamics framework: a systematic literature review. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 8(1), 153–181 (2022) 3. De Simone, M.C., Celenta, G., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Mechanism design for a low-cost automatic breathing applications for developing countries. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c,

Effect of Baking Conditions and Recipes on the Quality of Cookies

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

143

A., Mandžuka, S. (eds.) NT 2022. LNNS, vol. 472, pp. 345–352. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_40 Sun, X., Liu, H., Song, W., Villecco, F.: Modeling of Eddy current welding of rail: threedimensional simulation. Entropy 22, 947 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/e22090947 Jiang, J., Chen, Y., Dai, J., Deng, Z.: Development and process optimization of matsutake crisp biscuit. Food and Fat 35(02), 102–105+120 (2022) Wu, H.: Research on the processing technology of spirulina cookies. Food Saf. Guide (04), 128–131+135 (2022). https://doi.org/10.16043/j.cnki.cfs.2022.04.027 De Simone, M.C., Ventura, G., Lorusso, A., Guida, D.: Attitude controller design for microsatellites. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 21–31. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_2 Salvati, L., d’Amore, M., Fiorentino, A., Pellegrino, A., Sena, P., Villecco, F.: Development and testing of a methodology for the assessment of acceptability systems. Machines 8(47) (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/machines9020044 Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part II: application to the Whipple-Carvallo bicycle model. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 671–700 (2021) Yi, X., Qiao, Y., Lao, C., Mi, S., Gao, D.: Study on the formula of spirulina konjac powder crisp biscuit. Light Ind. Sci. Technol. 34(01), 20–22+73 (2018) Rongji, L., Feng, Z., Kewei, Z., Haiyan, C.: Extraction process of dietary fiber from soybean residue by alkali extraction and formula optimization of soybean based high fiber biscuit. Soybean Sci. 41(03), 314–322 (2022) De Simone, M.C., Veneziano, S., Guida, D.: Design of a non-back-drivable screw jack mechanism for the hitch lifting arms of electric-powered tractors. Actuators 11(12), 358 (2022) Pappalardo, C.M., La Regina, R., Guida, D.: Multibody modeling and nonlinear control of a pantograph scissor lift mechanism. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 9(1), 129–167 (2023) Yuanxing, Z., Zhuoxi, Z.: Study on the processing of Chinese yam and red date biscuit. Mod. Food 28(07), 95–98 (2022). https://doi.org/10.16736/j.cnki.cn41-1434/ts.2022.07.022 Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: Identification of a dynamical model of the latching mechanism of an aircraft hatch door using the numerical algorithms for subspace state-space system identification. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math. 51(2), 346–359 (2021) Formato, A., Romano, R., Villecco, F.: A novel device for the soil sterilizing in sustainable agriculture. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 858–865. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_94 Rivera, Z.B., De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Unmanned ground vehicle modelling in Gazebo/ROS-based environments. Machines 7(2), 42 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/machin es7020042 Xiaozhuan, Q., Xin, C.: Orthogonal optimization of the processing formula of quinoa biscuit. J. Zhongzhou Univ. 39(02), 125–128 (2022). https://doi.org/10.13783/j.cnki.cn41-1275/g4. 2022.02.023 De Simone, M.C., Laiola, V., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Dynamic analysis of a hybrid heavyvehicle. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Mandžuka, S. (eds.) NT 2022. LNNS, vol. 472, pp. 236–243. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_27 Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part I: Methods of constrained dynamics. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 655–670 (2021) De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Experimental investigation on structural vibrations by a new shaking table. In: Carcaterra, A., Paolone, A., Graziani, G. (eds.) AIMETA 2019. LNME, pp. 819–831. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41057-5_66

144

Z. Shuai et al.

22. Pappalardo, C.M., Vece, A., Galdi, D., Guida, D.: Developing a reciprocating mechanism for the emergency implementation of a mechanical pulmonary ventilator using an integrated CAD-MBD procedure. FME Trans. 50(2), 238–247 (2022) 23. Villecco, F., Aquino, R.P., Calabrò, V., Corrente, M.I., Grasso, A., Naddeo, V.: Fuzzy-assisted ultrafiltration of wastewater from milk industries. In: Naddeo, V., Balakrishnan, M., Choo, KH. (eds.) Frontiers in Water-Energy-Nexus—Nature-Based Solutions. ASTI, pp. 239–242. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13068-8_59 24. Colucci, F., De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: TLD Design and development for vibration mitigation in structures. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2019. LNNS, vol. 76, pp. 59–72. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18072-0_7 25. Manrique-Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: A multibody system approach for the systematic development of a closed-chain kinematic model for two-wheeled vehicles. Machines 9(11), 245 (2021) 26. Guida, R., De Simone, M.C., Daši´c, P., Guida, D.: Modeling techniques for kinematic analysis of a six-axis robotic arm. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 568(1), 012115 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1088/1757-899X/568/1/012115 27. Li, T., Kou, Z., Wu, J., Yahya, W., Villecco, F.: Multipoint optimal minimum entropy deconvolution adjusted for automatic fault diagnosis of hoist bearing. Shock Vibr. 6614633 (2021) 28. Mei, S., Liu, M., Kudreyko, A., Cattani, P., Baikov, D., Villecco, F.: Bendlet transform based adaptive denoising method for microsection images. Entropy 24, 869 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/e24070869 29. Pappalardo, C.M., Manca, A., Guida, D.: A combined use of the multibody system approach and the finite element analysis for the structural redesign and the topology optimization of the latching component of an aircraft hatch door. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math. 51(1), 175–191 (2021) 30. De Simone, M.C., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Obstacle avoidance system for unmanned ground vehicles by using ultrasonic sensors. Machines 6(2), 18 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/mac hines6020018 31. Manrique Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: A parametric study of a deep reinforcement learning control system applied to the swing-up problem of the cart-pole. Appl. Sci. 10(24), 9013 (2020) 32. De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Modal coupling in presence of dry friction. Machines 6(1), 8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/machines6010008 33. Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: Dynamic analysis and control design of kinematically-driven multibody mechanical systems. Eng. Lett. 28(4), 1125–1144 (2020)

Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization – Case Study “Sarajevo Šume” Halilovi´c Velid1(B) , Musi´c Jusuf1 , Kneževi´c Jelena1 , and Hodži´c Elmin2 1 Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Zagrebaˇcka 20, 71000 Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Cantonal Forestry “Sarajevo šume” d.O.O. Sarajevo, Maršala Tita 7/II, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. The scientific discoveries in all areas of development of human society resulted in dynamic changes of work technologies in forestry as well, which is primary reflected in introducing of new technologies and work machines. The article shows analysis of technologies and technological process of forest utilization in the area of the Sarajevo Canton. The analysis is based on data collected from Public Forest Enterprise “Sarajevo-šume” Ltd Sarajevo (PFE) which manage state-owned forest in the area of the Sarajevo Canton. The share of works in certain phases of forest utilization realized by PFE or private contractors was determined. Analysis showed that PFE realized 72% of felling and processing works, and private contractors 28%. Results of survey showed that PFE owned 69 chainsaws, and private contractors 40. PFE realized 74% of wood extracting works, and private contractors 26%. PFE owns 19 tractors, and private contractors 14. Customers realized loading and remote transport of wood in 100% cases. Used working machines are questionable from the aspect of technical obsolescence and do not fulfill the most of requirements from the domains of economy, ecology, ergonomics, etc., and it is necessary to invest in the sector of forest utilization. All of the above mentioned require a whole series of measures to improve the situation in the forest enterprise. Keywords: forestry · using of machines · technology · technological process · chainsaws · tractors

1 Introduction Forest and forestlands are the most significant natural resource in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They are the basis for planning of further development of overall social economy as forestry and wood industry as well as other industries, energetics, hunting, water management and other. All works in forest production in Bosnia and Herzegovina until past century have been done manually, with use of simple tools or with the help of animals. During 20th century development of technologies and work methods in forestry saw gradual, and later sudden changes in forestry of Bosnia and Herzegovina by use of new devices or © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 145–153, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_16

146

H. Velid et al.

machines [15]. Modern manner of forest management imposed the need for forest work mechanisation and the tendency to increase work productivity and reduce work costs through humanisation of human work [8]. In the process of forest mechanisation development there are three development phases: phase of partial mechanisation, phase of complete mechanisation and phase of complete mechanisation with partial automatization [17]. Under mechanisation we understand [15] the application/use of machines in technological work process with the objective to ease the human labour, increase quality and productivity of works and reduce production costs. Significance of forest utilisation can be best evaluated on the need for wood in present society [19, 22]. Chainsaws are mostly used for felling and processing of forest wood assortments and tractors for wood extraction in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The selection of machine and suitable conditions for its use is done through long-term planning [9]. Use of new or adapted machines in forestry requires the knowledge of their characteristics. Optimal utilisation of wood in forest harvesting is one of the most important elements for successful work of forest enterprises, and also very significant for wood industry [4, 9, 10]. Technology of work involves the manner of production of forest wood assortments which is defined by technological work process, work technique, organisation and resources for work. The basic principles of forest harvesting: realizing of ecological requests, humanisation of work and the least cost of selected work method can be fulfill through applying of top-quality technologies [9, 15]. Ergonomic characteristics of machines used in forestry are also very important due difficult work conditions and workload of operators. The workers are exposed to noise and vibration which can be harmful in some cases [2, 3, 16]. Technological process of production is defined by number and type of work operations, i.e. work phases, and by their spatial and time distribution. Number and type of work operations and phases come from the object of work, on one side, and product that we want to get, on the other. Halilovi´c and other [7] researched the status of mechanisation in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the issues of forest work mechanisation development and status of mechanisation in surrounding countries were dealt by other researchers [1, 20, 21]. Kneževi´c and others [14]research effects of machine work in forestry, and more particularly of machines for forest exploitation. Similar researches on the topic of analysis of technologies and technology processes of forest utilisation were done by other authors as well [5, 6, 18]. Main objective of this research is to perform overall analysis of technologies and technological process of forest utilisation in the area of Sarajevo Canton. Realisation of set objective requires certain documents and reports from the company “Sarajevošume” Ltd Sarajevo that manages state forests in the area of Sarajevo Canton, and their contractors that perform forest utilisation works.

Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization

147

2 Methodology and Methods Analysis of technologies and technological process of forest utilisation in the area of Sarajevo Canton was based on data received from Cantonal public enterprise “Sarajevošume” Ltd Sarajevo (CPE) whom have been entrusted with state forest management and data from private contractors who are performing services of harvesting, processing and skidding of forest wood assortments. Gathered data were processed, and were graphically and in tabular form presented and analysed. In order to fulfil planned analysis, we used methods and analysis and synthesis.

3 Results and Discussion Analysis of mechanisation used in felling and processing phases, and phase of wood assortment skidding was based on: number and type of resources, ownership and average age. 3.1 Felling and Processing Regarding phases of felling and processing of forest wood assortments, this portion of document mentions in what measure the company conducts felling and processing of forest wood assortment by themselves, and how much is done by private contractors. We are showing the mechanisation owned by the company and by their contractors. We present the data from the business report for year 2020 for CPE “Sarajevošume” Ltd Sarajevo. Volume of planned and achieved production in phases of felling and processing of forest wood assortments is presented as per forest management units. Table 1. Overview of conducted felling as per Forest managements in m3 (net wood mass) (CPE “Sarajevo-šume” Ltd Sarajevo, Business report for year 2020). Forest management

1

Felling and processing of forest wood assortments (net wood mass)

Indexes (%)

Achieved 2019. (m3 )

Planned 2020. (m3 )

Achieved 2020. (m3 )

4/2

4/3

2

3

4

5

6

“Hadži´ci”

53,286

45,840

41,411

78

91

“Srednje”

54,857

45,612

41,236

75

90

“Trnovo”

18,984

33,012

31,937

168

97

TOTAL

127,127

124,464

114,584

107

92

Phases of felling and processing on the company level was done in amount of 114,584 m3 of net mass of conifers and broadleaved trees or 92% related to the plan for year 2020, and 107% in relation to execution in year 2019. They achieved a shortfall of

148

H. Velid et al.

9,880 m3 of net mass of conifers and broadleaved trees related to the plan for year 2020. Reasons of the smaller volume of production were caused by COVID-19 pandemic, as well as by longer sick-leaves of large number of workers (Table 1). On the following graphs we show the execution of works for felling and processing of forest wood assortments as per used work capacities for year 2020. Figure 1 presents percentage share of achievements in executed works in phases of felling and processing of forest wood assortments as per used work capacities in total for year 2020.

28% Own capacities Servises 72%

Fig. 1. Percentage share of achievements in executed works in phases of felling and processing of forest wood assortments for year 2020

From Fig. 1 we can see that out of total felling done in year 2020, company with its own resources executed felling of 82,069 m3 (72%), and used services from private contractors has done felling of 32,515 m3 (28%).

(m³) 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 2018

2019

Own capacities

2020 Servises

Fig. 2. Overview of execution of works in felling and processing of wood assortments in last three years as per used work capacities

Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization

149

Figure 2 presents execution of works in felling and processing of forest wood assortments per used work capacities for last three years. From the Fig. 2 we can observe that execution of works in felling and processing of forest wood assortments in the last three years is on approximately same level related to the services provided by private contractors, while there is noticeably larger reduction of execution of works with own capacities of the company. After gathered data on number and age of chainsaws, we reached following results (Fig. 3). 5, 5% 2, 2%

1-2 years 2-3 years

31, 28%

3-4 years 71, 65%

Over 4 years

Fig. 3. Age of chainsaws in total (company + private contractors)

It is determined that company owns 69, and private contractors 40 chainsaws. In total we analysed 109 chainsaws (company + private contractors). Average age of chainsaws on company level was 2.07 years, and in private contractors it was 1.75 years. The following Graph (Fig. 4) shows age of chainsaws for company and private contractors. 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 1-2 years 2-3 years 3-4 years Company Private contractors

Over 4 years

Fig. 4. Age of chainsaws in forestry company and for private contractors

150

H. Velid et al.

Private contractors do not own chainsaws older than 3–4 years and over 4 years. All chainsaws analysed as on company level, as well as on private contractors’ level, in total 109 chainsaws, were from the same manufacturer and of the same type “Husqvarna 372 XP”. 3.2 Wood Skidding This section of document shows data from the business report for Year 2020 for forestry company, i.e. planned and achieved production data in the phase of skidding of forest wood assortments as per forest managements, and then summarised for the company. Company performed skidding of forest wood assortments in the quantity of 115.491 m3 of wood assortments of conifers and broadleaved trees, or 95% related to the business plan for year 2020. In phase of skidding they have had shortfalls of 6.141 m3 related to the business plan for year 2020 (Table 2). Table 2. Overview of execution of wood skidding as per forest managements and total in m3 for year 2020. Forest management

1

Skidding of forest wood assortment

Indexes (%)

Achieved 2019. (m3 )

Planned 2020. (m3 )

Achieved 2020. (m3 )

4/2

4/3

2

3

4

5

6

“Hadži´ci”

53,434

45,863

43,291

81

94

“Srednje”

54,798

46,188

43,042

78

93

“Trnovo”

18,524

29,581

29,158

157

98

TOTAL

126,756

121,632

115,491

91

95

26% Own capacities

Services

74%

Fig. 5. Percentage share of achievements in execution of works in the phase of forest wood assortment skidding for year 2020

Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization

151

The following graph (Fig. 5) shows data on execution of the production plan as per used work capacities for year 2020 related to the forest wood assortment skidding. From Fig. 5 we can see that in the phase of forest wood assortment skidding for the year 2020, the company, with own capacities, exported 85,594 m3 (74%), and with services from private contractors exported 29,894 m3 (26%). Plan of this forest utilisation phase in year 2020 was 121,632 m3 , out of which achieved quantity was 115,491 m3 which is 95% of the planned quantity (Table 2). Figure 6 presents execution of works in forest wood assortment skidding phase in the last three years.

(m³) 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 2018

2019 Own capacities

2020 Services

Fig. 6. Overview of execution of works in phases of hauling and skidding of wood assortments from the stump to mid-storage site in the last three years as ‘per used work capacities

Execution of works in skidding phase of forest wood assortments in the last three years is on approximately same level, on the level of services from private contractors, while there is noticeably larger reduction in execution of works with own capacities of the company. In total we analysed 33 tractors that are used in forest wood assortment skidding phase. The company owns 19 tractors, and their contractors own 14 tractors. Special forest tractors are the most represented in the wood assortment skidding phase. Forestry company owns 18 special forest tractors. Average age of tractors in the company is 14.84 years. We have analysed 4 private contractors that perform services in forest wood assortment skidding phase. Total number of analysed tractors owned by private contractors was 14, out of which 85% of tractors belong to a group of special forest tractors, and 15% of tractors in a group of adapted forest tractors. Average age of tractors owned by private contractors is 13.57 years.

4 Conclusion After detailed analysis of data mentioned in the document, we have reached the following conclusions: Due to obsolescence and age of the machines in the forest utilisation phase on mentioned area, it is necessary to procure machines and therefore improve technological

152

H. Velid et al.

work process. The same applies for the private contractors that are performing services in forest utilisation works. Policy of the company, when the issue is forest utilisation, should be clearer and prepared for the larger time span with clear standings related to the utilisation of own capacities and work resources compared to the services of other companies. Main objective of the improvement of forest utilisation technologies in the area of Sarajevo Canton is humanisation of work and introduction and implementation of measures of complex protection at work, establishment of close cooperation between public enterprise and private companies in the fields of protection at work and training of workers on the jobs of forest utilisation. The company should invest in education and training of their workers in accordance with new technologies and technological work processes in the sector of forest utilisation.

References ´ 1. Baji´c, V., Danilovi´c, M., Cupri´ c, N.: Mehanizacija za iskoriš´cavanje šuma Srbije stanje i potrebe, Traktori i pogonske mašine 10(5), 23–30 (2005) 2. Bergman, A.: Okolišno ,otrištepri radu šumarskim strojevima, Mehanizacija šumarstva 2001 – 2004, posebno izdanje cˇ asopisa Nova mehanizacija šumarstva, godište 26 (2005), broj 1, 31–35.ž (2005) ˇ 3. Comi´ c, R.: Povrede na radu i profesionalna oboljenja šumarskih radnika. Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci (1997) 4. Glazar, K., Maciejewska, M.: Ecological aspect of wood harvesting amd skidding in pine stands with use different technologies. Acta Sci. Pol. Silv. Colendar. Rat. Ind. Lignar. 8(3), pp. 5-14 (2009) 5. Greulich, F.: Transportation networks in forest harvesting: early development of the theory. In: Proceedings of the International Seminar on New Roles of Plantation Forestry Requiring Appropriate Tending and Harvesting Opreations, 29 September–5 October 2002. The Japan Forest Engineering Society & IUFRO 3.04/3.06/3.07, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 1–9 (2002) 6. Gužvinec, H., Zorni´c, M., Šušnjar, M., Horvat, D., Pandur, Z., (2012): Utjecaj naˇcina sidrenja na vrijednost horizontalne sastavnice vuˇcne sile i faktor primicanja prilikom privitlavanja drva skiderom i adaptiranim poljoprivrednim traktorom, Zagreb. 23–33 7. Halilovi´c V., Musi´c J., Gurda S., Topalovi´c J., (2015): „Analisys of the means of forest harvesting in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina“, Glasnik Šumarskog fakulteta, Beograd, Srbija 8. Halilovi´c, V., Musi´c, J., Kneževi´c, J., Marˇceta, D., Drek, M.: Analiza povreda pri radu u šumarstvu Federacij Bosne i Hercegovine – Studij sluˇcaja Javno preduze´ce “Unsko – sanske šume”. Glasnik Šumarkog fakulteta Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci 30, 21–34 (2020) 9. Halilovi´c, V., Musi´c, J., Kneževi´c, J., Jusufovi´c, E.: Analysis of technologies and technological process of forest harvesting – case study Tuzla canton. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT-2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 930–945. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03075275-0_103 10. Horvat, D., Šušnjar, M.: Tehniˇckeznaˇcajke skidera “Ecotrac 120V”. Istraživanje i studija u okviru projekta “Razvoj, izrada i ispitivanje specijalnog šumskog vozila–skidera mase 7t” u okviru programa RAZUM Ministarstva znanosti, obrazovanja i športa RH. Studija. Zagreb: Sveuˇcilište u Zagrebu, Šumarski fakultet (2005) 11. KJP “Sarajevo-šume” (2020): Izvještaj o poslovanju za 2020. godinu. Sarajevo

Technologies and Technological Process of Forest Utilization

153

12. KJP “Sarajevo-šume” d.o.o Sarajevo, Organizaciona struktura. https://sarajevo-sume.ba/org anizaciona-struktura (Pristupljeno 10.03.2021. godine) 13. KJP „Sarajevo-šume“ d.o.o. Sarajevo, Šumsko privredna osnova od 2015. do 2025. godine 14. Kneževi´c, J., Gurda, S., Musi´c, J., Halilovi´c, V., Vranovi´c, A.: Produktivnost skidera Ecotrac 120V pri privlaˇcenju drveta na podruˇcju PJ “Igman”. Works Faculty Forestry Univ. Sarajevo 48(2), 17–32 (2018) 15. Kuluši´c, B.: Iskorištavanje šuma, Šumarski fakultet Sarajevo, Sarajevo. 1–291 (1977) 16. Lipoglavšek, M., Staudt, F.J.: Najnovija dostignu´ca ergonomije u šumarstvu, Mehanizacija šumarstva 2001 – 2004, posebno izdanje cˇ asopisa Nova mehanizacija šumarstva. godište 26, broj 1, 147–150 (2005) 17. Loycke: Zur Prognose der Entwicklungstendenzen forstlicher Mechanisierung, Der Forst – und Holzwirt, 37–44 (1968) 18. Malnar, M.: Tehniˇcko-tehnološki cˇ imbenici prijevoza drva u brdsko gorskim uvjetima na primjeru šumarije Prezid. Magistarski rad, Šumarski fakultet Sveuˇcilišta u Zagrebu. 1–124 (2000) 19. Sever, S., (1980): Istraživanje nekih eksploatacijskih parametara traktora kod privlaˇcenja drva. Disertacija, Šumarski fakultet Sveu´cilišta u Zagrebu, 1–301 20. Tarnaj, I., Dundovi´c, J.: Hrvatske šume, p.o. Zagreb, danas (1991 – 1999) i sutra, u 21 stolje´cu, Mehanizacija šumarstva 2001 – 2004, posebno izdanje cˇ asopisa Nova mehanizacija šumarstva, godište 26 (2005), broj 1, 177–182 (2005) 21. Tomaši´c, Ž.: “Razvoj tehnologije i tehniˇckih sredstava u pridobivanju drva s obzirom na posebnost šuma i šumarstva u Republici Hrvatskoj”, Pregledni cˇ lanak, Zagreb (2012) 22. Tomiˇci´c, B.: Iskorištavanje šuma na Bilogorsko-Podravskom podruˇcju. Edicija “Sto godina šumarstva Bilogorsko-Podravske regije”, Bjelovar (1974)

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation Separatory Processes Consideringthe Distribution of Parameters Sergii Tymchuk1 , Ivan Abramenko1 , Vira Shendryk2(B) , Yuliia Nechitailo1 , and Viktor Zhyla1 1 State Biotechnological University, Kharkiv 61002, Ukraine 2 Sumy State University, Sumy 40007, Ukraine

[email protected]

Abstract. A probabilistic-statistical mathematical model of the technological process of flotation has been developed, which belongs to the class of mass diffusion processes with drift. The use of Markov chains in compiling the apparatus model made it possible to make maximum use of a priori information about the physics of the process and ensure in dynamics the connection of qualitative and quantitative indicators of final products with the main control and disturbing influences. The implementation of the model was carried out using the MathLab software package and can be used to synthesize the corresponding automatic control systems. Keywords: separation processes · flotation · Markov chains · distribution of parameters · modeling

1 Introduction The flotation technological process is used to implement a widely used industrial process for the enrichment of minerals, based on the difference in water wettability of various components of these minerals. This difference can be natural or created artificially by adding special substances - flotation reagents. There is foam flotation (the most common), oil, and film flotation. In the process of froth flotation, the particles of the crushed fossil treated with reagents are carried to the surface of the water by air bubbles into the foam, creating a concentrate. Oil flotation is based on the ability of liquid oils to wet particles of certain ores, as a result of which mineral particles float and waste rock settle. During film flotation, those mineral particles that are poorly wetted by water remain on the surface of the water flow [1–3]. For flotation, flotation machines are used, consisting of a bath or several successively arranged chambers with receiving and unloading devices for the pulp, equipped with electric drives that mix the pulp and air, regulate its level, etc. Flotation enriches coal, iron ores, and ores of non-ferrous, rare, and precious metals.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 154–163, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_17

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation

155

The common features characteristic of all the listed types of flotation is the homogeneity of the physical processes occurring in the enrichment apparatus, their significant complexity as control objects, the randomness and distribution of many functioning parameters, many external stochastic influences, and the distribution of parameters. In this work, the flotation process at a coal preparation plant was chosen as an object [4–6]. For other types of flotation, the main conclusions of this study are also applicable, however, in each individual case, it is necessary to consider the specifics of the conditions of a particular production. Electromechanical systems for the integrated control of coal preparation equipment belong to the category of multidimensional nonlinear systems, for which the calculation of the stability and quality of control processes by analytical methods is still an unsolvable problem [3]. Practically the only method for studying such systems is the mathematical simulation of objects and control systems. In this regard, the problem arises of developing a mathematical model that fully reflects the physical essence of this technological process and is suitable for solving control issues, considering the statics and dynamics of a real object [6, 7].

2 Literature Review The literature review shows that a common disadvantage of known models is that technological objects are presented in them as systems of an unknown structure with a certain number of inputs and outputs, i.e. from the standpoint of the “black box” [8– 10]. Such models are created using experimental methods for building models and are based on computational processing of the results of active or passive experiments on a real object using the mathematical apparatus of probability theory (most often by regression, correlation, and spectral analysis [10–12]). As a result of calculations, probabilistic dependencies are determined that describe the static and dynamic properties of a particular modeled object for a certain number of input and output variables. The main disadvantage of such models is the impossibility of extrapolating dependencies beyond the region of the regimes of determining the initial experiment since the nature of the influence of some variables on others there can be completely different. In addition, the introduction of a new variable into consideration requires a new experiment on the object and the determination of new values of the coefficients of the model that takes into account a larger number of factors, i.e. essentially a new model is being created. Identification of a flotation machine using experimental methods is the simplest and therefore has been widely used in many studies. At the same time, certain success has been achieved in the use of such models to synthesize automatic control systems and determine their properties at the development and design stage. However, such a simplification does not allow considering all the important properties of control objects of the class under consideration, and therefore the solutions found with the help of “black box” models cannot be considered optimal. The most acceptable identification solution in our case is experimental-analytical methods, which are a combination of analytical and experimental methods and allow, based on the available a priori information about the physical laws of processes, to develop models of the “gray box” type that are adequate to the object in a wider range

156

S. Tymchuk et al.

of operating modes. Such models allow, as a rule, an expansion of the number of factors considered with the accumulation of experimental data and, therefore, more fully reflect the conditions under which the processes occur (i.e., they have the property of universality). The possibility of implementing the idea of a “grey box” when modeling the flotation process is determined by the general laws inherent in it as a subclass of mass separation processes described by the Fokker-Planck-Kolmogorov equation [13–16].   ∂  ∂2  ∂y(x, t) = −A(x, t)y(x, t) + 2 D(x, t)y(x, t) , ∂t ∂x ∂x

(1)

where y is the concentration of the substance; A - drift coefficient, which determines the deterministic part of the process; D - diffusion coefficient, which determines the stochastic part of the process. The direct use of Eq. (1) for modeling the flotation process, however, turned out to be practically impossible due to the difficulty in determining the coefficients A and D [15, 17]. At the same time, the processes described by Eq. (1) can be interpreted as a combination of a purely random process with a process of deterministic movement with a speed that, in the general case, depends on some coordinate x. Both of these processes are typically Markov processes, which makes it possible to classify the flotation process as Markov and use the mathematical apparatus of Markov chains for modeling [18–21]. The working space of the flotation machine is conditionally divided into two zones: upper and lower, each of which, in turn, is divided into N cells in the direction of pulp movement. Within each cell, the model parameters are assumed to be constant. Since the end products of flotation are low ash concentrate and high ash waste, it is assumed that the feedstock consists of certain amounts of ash G A and G A non-ash components. The process taking place in the enrichment apparatus is represented as a superposition of two Markov chains that describe: – the process of transport with the unloading of sunken components in the lower zone; – the process of separating components between zones with diffusion from the upper zone to the lower zone and unloading the floating components from the upper zone. To determine Markov chains, the transition probabilities for the i-th cell Pl,i (l = i − 1, i, i + 1) and the initial states of these cells Gi at the j-th point in time are given. Then the amount of a certain component in the i-th cell at the j + 1-th point in time is determined from the equation Gi,j+1 = Pi−1,i Gi−1,j + Pi,i Gi,j + Pi+1,i Gi+1,j ,

(2)

with the initial t = tj distribution of this component over all cells specified by the row matrix   (3) Gl,j = G1,j ; G2,j ; . . . ; Gi,j ; . . . ; GN ,j , where Gl,j is the mathematical expectation of the amount of the component in the i-th cell at the initial time.

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation

157

The conditions of the stochastic Markov process for the i cells of each of the chains are:

and

where bAi and bAi are the separation factors for the respective components; - coefficient of transportation in the lower zone; - coefficient taking into account the proportion of the material of the i-th cell that is not involved in the transport process; - the same, but for the separation process for the corresponding zone and component; dpiA and dpiA - diffusion coefficients - coefficient taking into account the proportion of the material of the i-th cell removed from the apparatus. The listed coefficients are the transition probabilities of Markov chains and are determined by the results of industrial experiments. The mass transfer ratios for the component G A are similar with the appropriate replacement of the superscript. A significant drawback of the considered model is that it does not take into account diffusion components both in the transport chain and in the separation chain. All this ultimately leads to a distortion of the results of simulation modeling of automatic control systems studied using this model (in particular, to a distortion of the dynamics of changes in the coordinates of the system). To study the issues of control efficiency at all levels of the hierarchy, a mathematical model of the flotation process is needed, which makes it possible to analyze the dynamics of the influence of the main technological parameters, control and disturbing influences on the qualitative and quantitative indicators of the final products. The most reasonable is the use of models that maximally take into account a priori information about the regularities of real processes. Such a model, which uses the mathematical apparatus of Markov chains to describe the separation process, was developed.

3 Research Methodology We will consider the separation of the feedstock, without affecting its physical causes, as a mass probabilistic process with a variable in magnitude but not in direction, the separation factor b, depending on the technological mode and properties of the feedstock, i.e., on the quality of the mixture in a specific volume of the working space of the apparatus. Taking into account the selectivity of the flotation process, it is expedient to introduce the coefficient b that determines the fraction of particles passing from the cell of the lower zone to the cell of the upper zone only for the non-ash component, i.e. b = bA . The process of diffusion of the separation chain, which determines the transition of part of the particles from the upper zone to the lower zone, is mainly due to the fact that

158

S. Tymchuk et al.

part of the air-mineral conglomerates, having reached the foam layer, is destroyed and the corresponding concentrate and waste particles fall back into the pulp. At the same time, air-coal conglomerates are more stable compared to conglomerates that include waste. This leads to an inequality of diffusion coefficients dp∗A < dp∗A directed from top to bottom. The floating component is unloaded from the upper zone from all cells simultaneously, so the diffusion component between the cells of this zone can be neglected. In addition, there is no transport of components in this zone. Waste is unloaded from the last cell of the lower zone. Based on the above, we present the process of coal flotation in the form shown in Fig. 1. The main variables of the model were adopted: volumetric productivity for the initial pulp Qn , m3 /s; the content in the original pulp of the solid component Cn , kg/m3 ; specific consumption of the blowing agent , g/m3 and the collecting agent qc , kg/m, ash content of the feedstock Adu , %, pulp level in the chambers Hn , m. When developing an algorithm for the mathematical model of the flotation process, relations (2) and (3) were used, which follow from the consideration of the processes described by Eq. (1) as Markov processes. All other ratios were determined taking into account the need to eliminate the shortcomings of the known model. It was also assumed that the feedstock consists of certain amounts of ash A and A non-ash components. In accordance with the physics of the process, we believe that the initial pulp enters the flotation machine into the lower zone from the outlet of the additional zero loading cell and is transported along the machine only in this zone. At the same time, taking into account the significant turbulence of the movement of the aquatic environment inside the enrichment apparatus, it is advisable to impose a diffusion component d on the transportation process, which reflects the process of contamination of separating products with foreign components. Then the process occurring in the enrichment apparatus, for the purpose of a more adequate description, can be represented as a superposition of two Markov chains describing: – the process of transport and interdiffusion with the unloading of non-surfaced components in the lower zone; – the process of separating components between zones with mutual diffusion and unloading the floating components from the upper zone.

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation

159

Fig. 1. Functional diagram of the process of coal flotation

Interpreting the transition of a mass system from one state to another as a signal transmission from one node to another with a certain branch transfer coefficient, Markov chains for our case can be represented as graphs (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Signal graphs of the transition chains of the control object model: 1 - chain of transport and interdiffusion with unloading in the lower zone; 2 - chain of separation of components between zones with interdiffusion and unloading in the upper zone for the respective component

Then the conditions of the stochastic Markov process for i cells will look like: for transport chain (4)

160

S. Tymchuk et al.

for separation circuit A component (5) for separation circuit A component (6) For the boundary cells of the transport chain (i = 1, N ), condition (4) will be different (7) Using relations (4) and (7), we write the mass transfer equations for the transport chain in the form: For i cells (8) for the first cell (9) for N-th cell (10) The quantities A and A components removed from the i-th cell of the lower zone in one time cycle of the model, in accordance with (2, 4), are determined by the expressions (11) Taking into account relations (5) and (6), the mass transfer equations for the separation chain have the form: for A component (12) for A component (13)

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation

161

The quantities A and A components removed from the th cell of the upper zone in one time cycle of the model, in accordance with (5) and (6), are determined by the expressions (14) The ratio for the transportation coefficient , which determines the rate of material transfer in the model, can be found from the condition of observability of the transient process. The influence on the parameters of the enrichment process of the specific consumption of reagents was taken into account by introducing empirical relationships into the algorithm of the model (15) where bo , b1 , b2 and b3 are the coefficients determined from the data of an industrial - the values of the consumption of the blowing agent and the experiment; reagent-collector, taken as the base ones. From the physical concepts of the process, it follows that with a change in the load on the feedstock on the machine, the turbulence of the flow of the moving pulp changes, which affects the efficiency of the separation process. To take this phenomenon into A - on the input account, the dependence of the diffusion coefficient A - component dp,i actions that determine this load was introduced into the model algorithm. The adequacy of the model to the dynamic regimes was checked by the acceleration curves obtained experimentally for the channel: the specific consumption of the blowing agent - the ash content of the final flotation products Adκ and Ado . The experimental conditions were as follows: Qn = 0, 097, m3 /s; Cn = 100, kg/m3 , Adu = 32%, g/m3 .The magnitude of the step change was . Experimental acceleration curves (points) are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Acceleration curves by channels: a)

; b)

In this figure, the solid lines show the acceleration curves obtained by numerical experimentation on the model. The root-mean-square deviation of the calculated and experimental data was for the concentrate σAdκ = 0, 23% and for the waste σAdo = 1, 31%, which indicates the satisfactory adequacy of the model and the stability of the values of its parameters.

162

S. Tymchuk et al.

4 Conclusion As an effective mathematical model of the flotation process, it is necessary to use a mass-statistical model based on the Focker-Planck-Kolmogorov equation. The maximum possible use of a priori information about the nature of the flotation process requires the introduction of diffusion components into the Markov chains that describe the process of separation and transport of separated components. This made it possible to visualize the physical process of separation of components in the flotation cell bath and quite simply connect the qualitative and quantitative indicators of the final enrichment products with the main control and disturbing influences. Taking into account the statistical expression for the separation factor only the values of the costs of the blowing agent and the collecting agent allowed the rest of the input effects to be introduced by deterministic physical ratios. The adequacy of such a model to a real physical process is confirmed both in statics and dynamics.

References 1. Kawatra, S.K., Eisele, T.C.: Coal Desulfurization: High-Efficiency Preparation Methods, 360 p. Taylor and Francis, New York (2001) 2. Metso: Basics in Minerals Processing, 5th edn, Section 4 – Separations, Metso Minerals (2006). http://www.metso.com 3. Neethling, S.J., Cilliers, J.J.: Grade-recovery curves: a new approach for analysis of and predicting from plant data. Miner. Eng. 36–38, 105–10 (2012) 4. Arnold, B.J.: The “grab and run” revisited-improving selectivity between organic and inorganic components in conventional coal flotation. Int. J. Miner. Process. 58, 119–128 (2000) 5. Harvey, A., Nguyen, A.V., Evans, G.M.: Influence of electrical double layer interaction on coal flotation. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 250, 337–343 (2002) 6. Shu, X., Wang, Z., Xu, J.: Separation and preparation of macerals in shenfu coals by flotation. Fuel 81, 495–501 (2002) 7. Vamvuka, D., Agridiotis, V.: The effect of chemical reagents on lignite flotation. Int. J. Miner. Process. 61(3), 209–224 (2001) 8. Zanin, M., Lambert, H., du Plessis, C.A.: Lime use and functionality in sulphide mineral flotation: a review. Miner. Eng. 143, 105922 (2019). ISSN 0892-6875, https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.mineng.2019.105922 9. Sebenik, R.F., et al.: Molybdenum and molybdenum compounds. In: Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim (2005). https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007. a16_655 10. Elizabeth, R.B.: Potassium and potassium alloys. In: Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH (2006). https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a22_031.pub2 11. Lakshmikantham, (Ed. by, D. Kannan,...V.) Handbook of Stochastic Analysis and Applications. Dekker, New York (2002). ISBN 08247-06609 12. Freedman, D.A.: Statistical Models: Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press (2005). ISBN 978-0-521-67105-7 13. Upton, G., Cook, I.: Oxford Dictionary of Statistics. OUP (2008). ISBN 978-0-19-954145-4 14. Fengler, M.R.: Semiparametric Modeling of Implied Volatility. Springer, Heidelberg (2008). ISBN 978-3-540-26234-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-30591-2

Simulation Modeling of Multidimensional Mass Flotation

163

15. Gardiner, C.: Stochastic Methods, 4th edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2009). ISBN 978-3-54070712-7 16. Risken, H.: The Fokker–Planck Equation: Methods of Solutions and Applications. Synergetics, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2012). ISBN 3-540-61530-X, https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-642-61544-3 17. Grigorios, A.P.: Stochastic Processes and Applications: Diffusion Processes, the FokkerPlanck and Langevin Equations. Applied Mathematics. Springer, New York (2016). ISBN 978-1-4939-1322-0, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1323-7 18. Orfino, G.: Simulazionedell’equazione di Fokker–Planck in OtticaQuantistica. UniversitàdegliStudi di Pavia, A.a. 94/95. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100605/, http:// www.qubit.it/educational/thesis/orfino.pdf 19. Breiman, L.: [1968] Probability. Original edition published by Addison-Wesley; reprinted by Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (1992). ISBN 0-89871-296-3 20. Bolch, G., Greiner, S., de Meer, H., Trivedi, K.S.: Queueing Networks and Markov Chains, 2nd edn. Wiley, Hoboken (2006). ISBN 978-0-7923-9650-5 21. Abramenko, I.G., Fyong, L.M.: Development of a mathematical model of a separating enrichment apparatus. Integr. Technol. Energy Saving Q. Sci. Pract. J. (2), 44–49 (2000). KhNASE, Kharkiv

Review of Parasitic Nematodes of Fish from the Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Isat Skenderovi´c1(B) , Edina Hajdarevi´c1 , Alen Bajri´c1 , and Subha Avdi´c2 1 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, 75000 Tuzla,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Biotechnical Faculty, University of Biha´c, 37000 Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Based on the available literature data, the presence of 24 species of fish parasites belonging to the following groups: Monogenea (1), Nematoda (9), Cestodes (8) and Acanthocephala (6) was found in the river Una. Ichthioparasitological research of fish from the Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina) showed the presence of different species of nematodes. The presence of 9 species of nematodes was found in the investigated fish species: Raphidascaris acus, Rhabdochona denudata, Sterliadochona tenuissima, Capillaria salvelini, Capillaria rrevispicula, Cucullanus dogieli, Camallanus truncatus, Camallanus lacustris and Eustrongylides tubifex. The presence of nematodes was determined in 17 species of fish from 7 families: Cottidae, Thymallidae, Esocidae, Siluridae, Percidae, Salmonidae iCyprinidae. Keywords: river Una · ichthyofauna · parasitofauna · nematodes

1 Introduction Thanks to its natural resources, Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by great biological diversity. The hydrological network of B&H consists of seven major rivers that belong to the basins of the Black and Adriatic seas. The basin of the rivers Una, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina and Sava belongs to the Black Sea basin, while the rivers Neretva and Cetina belong to the Adriatic basin. Since the biodiversity of the ecosystem determines the richness and diversity of the zoocenoses, to which the parasites are ecologically linked, it is quite clear that the richness of the ichthyofauna conditioned the development of fish parasites. The first research on ichthyoparasites in B&H was conducted at the beginning of the 20th century, while research on this issue intensified in the middle of the 20th century [1, 2]. The first written works on the parasitofauna of fresh water fish were given by Wisnievski (1932, 1933), who was the first to establish the presence of parasites in salmonids [3, 4]. Despite numerous researches, it can be concluded that the biodiversity of ichthyofauna, but also of fish parasites, is insufficiently researched. Parasitic diseases lead to a decrease in the fish stock in both fresh water and marine fish. Parasites of fish in open waters do not occur on a largerscale, but they must be taken care of [5–7]. Fish parasites can be sensitive to intensive fishing and pollution, so their © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 164–169, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_18

Review of Parasitic Nematodes of Fish from the Una River

165

numbers can decrease over time, and for the reasons mentioned, fish parasites can be a useful indicator of fish health, as well as an indicator of water quality [8]. Previous research shows that increasing the diversity of parasite species improves ecosystem functioning. Of particular interest is the study of parasites, among which there are many species that are parasites of fish and that are transmitted to humans [9]. ˇ Una springs in the village of Donja Suvaja below the mountain Cemernica and the hill Lisina in the Republic of Croatia. The total length of the stream is 210 km [10], while the average flow drop is 1.67% [11]. This river has the characteristics of a mountain, hill and plain river. In the research conducted by Škrijelj et al. (2006) registered 12 species of fish from 5 families (Salmonidae, Thymallidae, Cyprinidae, Cottidae and Percidae) in four localities [12].

2 Material and Methods This paper is based on a review of data found in the literature on parasites detected in the Una River (Fig. 1). Taxonomic affiliation and nomenclature is aligned with data from the WoRMS database - World Register of Marine Species (http://marinespecies.org/). The nomenclature of fish is aligned according to Kottelat and Freyhof (2007) [13] and according to https://www.fishbase.in/Nomenclature/ScientificNam.

Fig. 1. Research location – Una river

3 Results and Discussion Nematodes are the most numerous group of pseudocoelomates, which inhabit different habitats. Most are free-living forms, but a significant number are parasites of plants and animals. Free-living forms are small, while parasitic species are much larger. The body of most nematodes is elongated, on which the head, trunk and rear part are not clearly distinguished. Nematodes are common fish parasites that parasitize in the abdominal cavity, muscles, swim bladder or vital organs. The first transitional hosts of these species are crayfish, which the fish, as the final hosts, feed on [14].

166

I. Skenderovi´c et al.

Based on the available literature data on the ichthyoparasitofauna in the last hundred years, 24 fish parasites belonging to the groups: Monogenea (1), Nematoda (9), Cestodes (8), Acanthocephala (6) were found in the river Una. The presence of 9 species, out of a total of 15 species of nematodesdetected in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was determined in the river Una (Table 1) [15]. Table 1. Determined species of fish nematodes from the river Una Species Nematoda

Raphidascaris acus (Bloch, 1779) Rhabdochona denudata (Dujardin, 1845) Sterliadochona tenuissima (Zeder, 1800) Capillaria salvelini (Polyansky, 1952) Capillaria rrevispicula (Linstow, 1873) Cucullanus dogieli (Krotas, 1959) Camallanus truncatus (Rudolphi, 1814) Camallanus lacustris (Zoega, 1776) Eustrongylides tubifex (Nitzsch in Rudolphi, 1819)

ˇ As stated by Cankovi´ c et al. (1968), the species Raphidascaris acus (Bloch, 1779) was found in the following fish from the Una River: Salmo trutta m. fario, Esox lucius, Thymallus thymallus, Sander luciopercaandCottus gobio. Raphidascaris acus is spindleshaped with a narrowed front and back part of the body [16]. This nematode is wide spread in the world, its development takes place through oligochaetes and fish as a second transitional host. Rhabdochona denudata (Dujardin, 1845) is a small nematode with a thread like appearance with a strong anterior and posterior end of the body.The development of this parasite takes place through insects. Rhabdochona denudata was found in the following fish in the river Una: Salmo trutta m. fario, Esox lucius, Thymallus thymallus, Rutilus rutilus, Scardinius erythrophtalmus, Chondrostoma nasus, Barbus barbus, Barbus balcanicus, Abramis brama, Squalius cephalus, Sander lucioperca [16]. Although species of the genus Rhabdochona represent the most common and wide spread parasites of fresh water fish, very little is known about their development and lifecycle [17]. Rhabdochona denudata is a common parasite of many species of cyprinids and some other fish, and is widely distributed in Europe [18]. Sterliadochona tenuissima (Zeder, 1800) is characterized by a filamentous body that narrows towards the front and slightly wider rear end of the body. According to literature data, this parasite is widespread, primarily in salmonids, and somewhat less in other types ˇ of fish. Cankovi´ c et al. (1968) established the presence of this parasite in the stomach and intestine of the following fish species: Salmo trutta m. fario,Esox lucius, Scardinius erythrophtalmus, Chondrostoma nasus, Barbus barbus, Barbus balcanicus, Squalius cephalus and Cottus gobio [16]. It is reported that the species Sterliadochonatenuissima

Review of Parasitic Nematodes of Fish from the Una River

167

shows a seasonal infection, and that the degree of maturation of the larvae depends on the temperature and the diet of the host [19]. The presence of the nematode Capillaria salvelini on salmonid species such as Salmo trutta m. fario, Salmo obtusirostris, Salmo marmoratus was determined in Bosnia and ˇ Herzegovina. According to Cankovi´ c et al. (1968), the presence of this endoparasite was determined in two species of salomonids (Salmo trutta m. fario, Salmo obtusirostris) from the river Una [16]. The species Capillaria salvelini is an endoparasite, as it is stated by Moravac (2001), males are 6.17–9.11 mm long, and females are slightlylarger, 7.15–13.46 mm long [18]. The body of this parasite is thinnest towards the front and rearends, which gradually expands towards the middle. Capillaria rrevispicula (Linstow, 1873) was found on the species: Rutilus rutilus, ˇ Scardinius erythrophtalmus, Barbus barbus. As reported by Cankovi´ c et al. (1968), the ´ presence of this parasite was also found in fish from the Cehotina River [16]. The presence of the species Cucullanus dogieli (Krotas, 1959) was determined in the species Chondrostoma nasus, Alburnus albidus, Alburnus chalcoides, Silurus glanis in Una and Sava River. Cucullanus dogieli is a grayish-white, spindle-shaped parasite, whose front end is wider than the back [16]. Camallanus truncatus (Rudolphi, 1814) is a spindly yellowish-gray parasite. Ginecinskaja (1958) states that the first intermediate hosts are crayfish, while the common bream, common dace and ide are the second intermediate hosts, while the definitive carriers are zander, northern pike, European perch, burbot and others [20]. The nematode species Camallanus truncatus (Rudolphi, 1814) was detected in the following fish species from the Una River: Esox lucius, Silurus glanis, Sander lucioperca, Cottus gobio [16]. Species of the genus Camallanus cause perforation of the intestinal wall, because they cling to the intestinal wall and cause local inflammation. In intensive infections, especially in small fish, species of this genus can reduce the growth rate and also cause intestinal obstruction [21]. Skenderovi´c et al. (2020) established the presence of Camallanus lacustris (Zoega, 1776) in northern pike, European perch and zander from the Una River [15]. Males of this parasite were not found in freshwater fish of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Females are spindle-shaped, yellow-brown in color. There was no evident seasonal trend in distribution and abundance detected during a study of the species Camallanus lacustris and its ultimate eel host in Lake Davon, and a new generation can develop at any time of year [22]. Eustrongylides tubifex (Nitzsch in Rudolphi, 1819) was found only in the species Esox lucius in the river Una [15]. The life cycle of Eustrongylides spp. include an aquatic oligochaete, a fish, and a fish-eating bird. The larvae migrate from the fish’s digestive tract into the body wall cavity or musculature, and are mostly found encysted in thin, white or yellowish-pink fibrous collagen cysts located in the mesentery, adipose tissue, coelomic cavity, liver, spleen, stomach wall, gonads, around the intestinal tract, and musculature. Previous studies on the histopathology of infection by Eustrongylides species in different fish species were conducted mainly on larvae localized in the abdominal cavity [23–25]. Since the Una River is characterized by very heterogeneous environmental factors, it is quite clear that it has a specific composition of flora and fauna. Ichthioparasitological studies of the Una River showed the presence of parasites, nematodes, in 17 species

168

I. Skenderovi´c et al.

of fish classified into 7 families. The families Cottidae, Thymallidae, Esocidae, Siluridae are represented by one species each, while the families Percidae and Salmonidae are represented by two species of fish each. Ichthioparasitological studies of the river Una showed that the most represented family is Cyprinidae with 9 species of fish. The nematode Rhabdochona denudata (Dujardin, 1845) is found in 11 fish species, whereas other nematode species are identified in fewer fish species, while Eustrongylides tubifex (Nitzsch in Rudolphi, 1819) is found only in northernpike.

4 Conclusion The conducted ichthioparasitological studies of the Una river showed that the appearance of parasites is closely related to microclimatic factors of the environment, the density of ichthyopopulations in the river, the level of water quality and the ecological conditions of the given ecosystem, as well as the presence of transitional hosts. Investigations of fish parasitofauna of the Una River were mainly based on a search of literature data, while current investigations of ichthyopopulations showed changes in the composition of ichthyopopulations in relation to the period of research on fish parasites. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct detailed field ichtoparasitological research in the coming period, in order to gain insight into the changes in the presence of parasites on fish from the Una River.

References 1. Skenderovi´c, I.: Biodiverzitet parazita riba iz hidroakumulacije Modrac. OFF – Set, Tuzla [Biodiversity of fish parasites from the Modrac hydroaccumulation] [In Bosnian] (2015) 2. Skenderovi´c, I., Žujo, D., Adrovi´c, A., Markovi´c, G.: Trematode fauna of some fish species in the river Spreˇca. V medunarodna konferencija “Akvakultura i ribarstvo”. Zbornik predavanja, 294, Beograd (2011) 3. Wisniewski, L.W.: Cyatocephalus truncatus Pallas II. Allgemeine Morphologie. Bullet. internat. de l’Academie polonaise. (1932) 4. Wisniewski, L.W.: Acrolichanussimilis n. sp. Trematode nouvau des Salmonides. Ann. Parasit. Hum. et Comp. (1–3), 188 (1933) 5. Iyaji, F.O., Eyo, J.E.: Parasites and their fresh water fish host. Bio-Research 6(1), 328–338 (2008) 6. Bichi, A.H., Dawaki, S.S.: A survey of the ectoparasites on the gills, skin and fins of Oreochromis niloticus at Bagaudafishfarm, Kano, Nigeria. Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci. 3(1), 83–86 (2010) 7. Ekanem, A.P., Eyo, V.O., Sampson, A.F.: Parasites of landed fish from great Kwa River, Calabar, cross river state, Nigeria. Int. J. Fish. Aquaculture 3(12), 225–230 (2011) 8. Lafferty, K.D.: Ecosystem consequences of fish parasites. J. Fish Biol. 73, 2083–2093 (2008) 9. Hudson, P.J., Dobson, A.P., Lafferty, K.D.: Parasites and ecological systems: is a healthy system one with many parasites? Trends Ecol. Evol. 21, 381–385 (2006) 10. IBG: Programski ured Biha´c (2003). Program razvoja rijeˇcnog sliva Une, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Biha´c. (2006) 11. Spahi´c, M.: Rijeka Una – potamološka razmatranja. Zborniku radova: Valorizacija prirodnih i društvenih vrijednosti sliva rijeke Une. 6, 161–167 (1991)

Review of Parasitic Nematodes of Fish from the Una River

169

12. Škrijelj, R., et al.: Ihtiofauna rijeke Une – aktuelno stanje i održivo upravljanje. Gospodarenje ribljim resursima u ribolovnim podruˇcjima Drava-Dunav i Sava. Zbornik priop´cenja. Osijek (2006) 13. Kottelat, M., Freyhof, J.: Handbook of European Fresh Water Fishes. Publications Kottelat, Cornol and Freyhof, Berlin (2007) 14. Fijan, N.: Zaštita zdravlja riba. Poljoprivredni fakultet u Osijeku, Osijek, 1250 (2006) 15. Skenderovi´c, I., Adrovi´c, A., Jazi´c, A., Zuko, A., Hadžimustafi´c, E.: Review of fresh water fish parasitofauna of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Biologia. 76(2), 1–33 (2020) ˇ 16. Cankovi´ c, M., Deli´c, S., Kiškarolj, M., Rukavina, J.: Parazitofauna slatkovodnih riba Bosne i Hercegovine. (trematoda, cestoidea, nematoda, acanthocephala). Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, p. 159 (1968) 17. Moravec, F., Huffman, D.G.: Observations on the biology of Rhabdochona kidder texensis, a parasite of North American cichlids. J. Helminthol. 75, 197–203 (2001) 18. Moravec, F.: Trichinelloid Nematodes Parasitic in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates, p. 429. Academia, Praha (2001) 19. Aho, J., Kennedy, C.R.: Seasonal population dynamics of the nematod. Cystidicoloides tenuissima (Zeder) from the River Swincombe, England. J. Fish Biol. 25(4), 473–489 (2006) 20. Ginecinskaja, T.A.: Žiznennyecikly i biologija liˇcinoˇcnyh stadij parazitiˇceskihˇcervejryb. Dogelj, Petruševskij, Poljanskij: Osnovny eproblemyparazitologii ryb, 144–183, Leningrad (1958) 21. Kálmán, M., Buchmann, K., Székely, C.: PhylumNematoda. In: Woo (ed.) Fish Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. CABI (2006) 22. Nie, P., Kennedy, R.: The population biology of Camallanuslacustris (Zoega) in eels, Anguillaanguilla (Linnaeus), and their status as its host. Fish Biol. 38(5), 653–661 (1991) 23. Paperna, I.: Host distribution and pathology of infections with larvae of Eustrongilides (Dioctophymidae, Nematoda) in fishes from East African lakes. J. Fish Biol. 6, 67–76 (1974) 24. Measures, L.: Epizootiology, pathology, and description of Eustrongylides tubifex (Nematoda: dioctophymatoidea) in fish. Can. J. Zool. 66, 2212–2222 (1988) 25. Mir, T., Kaur, P., Manohar, S.: Pathogenic effects of nematode parasite Eustrongylides sp. larvae on serum LH level and histology of gonads of freshwater fish, Clariasgariepinus. Recent Res. Sci. Technol. (4), 24–26 (2012)

An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact on Chemistry, Quality Indicators and Concentrations of Selected Chemical Elements of the River Bregava Dalila Ivankovi´c1(B) and Almir Šestan2 1 Faculty of Education, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Tuzla, 75000 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Water is vital for survival and development of all living organisms on Earth. The Bregava River originates from the permanent springs of Bitunja and Hrgud and the periodic springs of Mali and Veliki Suhovi´c. The Bregava River flows through Stolac for the most of its part. In this paper, the concentrations of heavy metals, biogenic elements and physico-chemical parameters of the water quality of the Bregava River were analyzed at eight localities in four seasons. The quality parameters should indicate the degree of contamination of watercourses with polluting substances and their potential impact on the use of water for various purposes, and their dependence on climatic conditions. Also, the results provide an assessment of the impact of physico-chemical quality parameters on the chemistry of heavy metals in the Bregava River and their ecotoxicity from an ecological point of view. Keywords: Chemistry · physical-chemical · heavy metals · bioelements · pollution

1 Introduction Any use of water from numerous water supply systems for different usages leads to a change in its physical, checmical and biological properties [1]. The water of the river Bregava is exposed to the influence: • • • • •

Fecal wastewater Atmospheric wastewater Agricultural wastewater City (municipal) wastewater Slaughterhouse wastewater

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 170–178, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_19

An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact

171

The used water burdened with organic and inorganic waste substances, i.e. pollution, is discharged into the Bregava river. The aim of this paper is to determine the environmental influences on the physical and chemical indicators of water quality; on the behavior of toxic and biogenic elements in the Bregava River; seasonal changes in the water quality of the Bregava Riverand a better understanding chemistry of the mentioned elements. Eight localities were selected for sampling. The sampling has been done with valid regulations and good professional practice. Three samples were taken at each locality: one for analysis of basic physical - chemical parameters; onefor analysis of Biological oxygen demandand Chemical oxygen demand; and one for heavy metal analysis (Table 1). Table 1. Coordinates of localities where samples were taken Location

Latitude

Longitude

1

43°07 21.28”

18°04 27.43”

2

43°07 93.39”

18°01 51.86”

3

43°08 75.61”

17°96 05.34”

4

43°07 92.79”

18°01 52.31”

5

43°09 17.09”

17°96 44.61”

6

43°08 31.55”

17°95 64.31”

7

43°08 00.05”

17°94 48.44”

8

43°08 40.28”

17°94 05.47”

The localities are marked with numbers from 1 to 8 (Fig. 1), with short description as follows: Locality 1 – sample of surface water at the source of a river; Locality 2 – sample of surface water below the “Do” hydropower plant; Locality 3 – sample of surface water in front of the restaurant “Nota”. Locality 4 – sample of surface water behind the catering facility “Old Mill”. Locality 5 – sample of surface water after inflow of precipitation and part of sewage water; Locality 6 – sample of surface water below the inflow of the complete swage water; Locality 7 – sample of surface water in front of the “Obradovi´c” slaughterhouse; Locality 8 – sample of surface water behind the “Obradovi´c” slaughterhouse.

172

D. Ivankovi´c and A. Šestan

Fig. 1. Sampling sites

2 Analysis Results Hanna Instruments HI 9828 Multiparameter Water Quality Meter was used for, in sito, measurements of selected parameters of surface water quality: • • • • • • • • • •

Water temperature (°C) pH value Redox potential (ORP) Oxygen saturation (DO %) Dissolved oxygen (DO mg/L) Conductivity (µS/cm) Resistivity (M •cm) Total dissolved substances (TDS ppm) Conductivity (µS/cm) Salinity (PSU)

Laboratory analysis included the following parameters: chloride, ammonia, nitrite, sulfates, phosphates, total hardness, permanganate consumption, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD5) and heavy metals: (Barium (Ba), Chrome (Cr), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Lead (Pb), Selenium (Se), Tin (Sn), Strontium (Sr), Thallium (Tl), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K). • Water temperature is a physical property expressing how hot or cold water is. Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water quality [2]. • pH is calculated by the number of hydrogen ions in solution [3]. • Chlorides are salts resulting from the combination of the gas chlorine with a metal. • Dissolved oxygen means how match dissolved oxygen water contain. If water is too warm, it will not hold enough oxygen for aquatic organisms to survive [4]. • Ammonia is one of several forms of nitrogen that exist in aquatic environments [5]. • Nitrites indicate partially decomposed organic matter in water.

An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact

173

• Consumption of potassium permanganate is a measure of the degree of water pollution by organic matter [6]. • From the ratio of BOD and COD can be determined that the water of the river Bregava is exposed to microbiological pollution. COD is higher than BOD. This shows that biodegradable substances are present in the water. • Heavy metals belong to the group of pollutants that once introduced into the environment do not decompose and have a negative impact on aquatic flora and fauna [7]. The analysis of physical-chemical parameters was done according to standard Volumetric and Spectrophotometric methods. The content of heavy metals in tested samples was determined using Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES).

3 Results In this part of a research paper we are presented the results of physical-chemical analysis and results of heavy metal analysis of surface water samples at selected localities. The results of analysis are divided by different seasons (Winter - 11.01.-15.01.2021., Spring 18.04. – 22.04.2021., Summer 29.08.-02.09.2021., Autumn - 14.11.-18.11.2021.) when the water level of the Bregava River is also different. We are unable to present the tables of results due to limited space. We have presented the most important data in graphics and described in the text. The oxygen balance of a watercourse is expressed through thecontent of dissolved oxygen in the water, biochemical oxygen demand during five days (BOD5) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). By analysing values of these indicators, a final assessment is obtained on the degree of pollution by organic matter and the influence of climatic conditions (rainfall, wind, temperature - different seasons).

Dissolved oxygen [ppm] 20 15 10 5 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Class I

Class II

Class III

Class IV

Fig. 2. Dissolved oxygen of the river Bregava

8

174

D. Ivankovi´c and A. Šestan

Figure 2 shows the value of dissolved oxygen in selected localities depending of theweather conditions. Higher values are observed in the winter period, since the temperature of the air and water is lower, and therefore the oxygen saturation of the water is higher. Organic matter that gets in water consumes the oxygen in the processes of its decomposition [9]. In this way we determined the level of contamination with organic substances. For this purpose, two parameters are used: biological oxygen demand after five days (Fig. 3) and chemical oxygen demand (Fig. 4.).

BOD5

150 100 50 0

2

1

3

4

5

6

7

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Class I

Class II

Class III

Class IV

8

Fig. 3. Biochemical oxygen demand of the river Bregava

In the Summer we have a huge jump in BOD values in all localities, except for the springs. The measured values range from 33.4 mgO2/l to 104.00 mgO2/l, which corresponds to water class IV. 400 COD

300 200 100 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Class I

Class II

Class III

Class IV

8

Fig. 4. Chemical oxygen demand of the river Bregava

In the winter the water in all localities, according to the COD values, belongs to the first class of water.

An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact

175

pH 10 8 6 4 2 0

1

2

3

Winter

4 Spring

5 Summer

6

7

8

Autumn

Fig. 5. pH of the river Bregava

Many chemical reactions in water depend on the pH value: chemical composition of water and conditions for the development of aquatic life [8]. Changes in pH value lead to changes in the physiological processes of flora and fauna. The pH value of the river Bregava is within the MDK limits for Class I waters. The results show low concentrations for ammonia and nitrites in all localities in the winter period (Fig. 5). The highest values were measured in the summer period, due to climatic conditions, but also increased anthropogenic influence: a lot more people in the city (more waste water, more waste from restaurants and slaughterhouses). The highest measured value for ammonia is in the summer period at site number 8. And was 21.55 mg/l, while for nitrites it was 2.31 mg/l. The experimental values for ammonia and nitrites are followed, i.e. where we have increased values for ammonia, we also have increased values for nitrites (Fig. 6).

176

D. Ivankovi´c and A. Šestan

Concentraon of Ammonia and Nitrite [mg/l]

25 20 15 10 5 0

NH3 Nitrite NH3 Nitrite NH3 Nitrite NH3 nitrite Winter Spring Summer Autumn 1 0.3 0.0129 1.37 0.019 1.37 0.024 0.4560.0033 2 0.3 0.0156 1.76 0.033 4.52 0.514 0.4560.0055 3 0.36 0.0184 1.77 0.033 7.47 0.18890.0750.0046 4 0.45 0.0184 1.77 0.047 9.1560.2989 1.51 0.0055 5 0.52 0.026 2.15 0.049 10.62 0.409 1.82 0.013 6 0.57 0.035 2.37 0.05 14.75 0.697 2.27 0.022 7 0.53 0.026 2.69 0.05 18.34

2

2.57 0.026

8 0.6 0.047 3.2 0.055 21.55 2.31

3

0.047

Fig. 6. Concentration of Ammonia and Nitrite of the river Bregava

Chlorides are faecal indicators because they are excreted in feces and urine [10]. Higher chloride concentrations were detected in the dry period, during the summer (Fig. 7).

Chlorides [mg/l] 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

1

2

3

Winter

4 Spring

5 Summer

6

7

8

Autumn

Fig. 7. Chlorides of the river Bregava

The investigated physical-chemical parameters are the key parameters of controlling the behavior and concentration of heavy metals in water (Fig. 8).

An Investigation of the Anthropogenic Impact

177

Cencentraon of Fe and Mn [mg/l]

0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

Fe

Mn

Winter 1 0.015 0.002

Fe

Mn

Spring 0 0

Fe

Mn

Fe

Mn

Summer Autumn 0.009 0.001 0.031 0.002

2 0.016 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.007 0.001 0.033 0.002 3 0.016 0.002

0

0.001 0.022 0.001 0.025 0.002

4 0.016 0.002

0

0.003 0.026 0.001 0.027 0.002

5 0.014 0.002

0

0.001 0.031 0.001 0.03 0.002

6 0.014 0.002

0

0.001 0.026 0.002 0.04 0.003

7 0.022 0.002

0

0.001 0.219 0.018 0.038 0.003

8 0.019 0.004

0

0.001 0.034 0.003 0.048 0.004

Fig. 8. Concentration of Fe and Mn of the river Bregava

Iron and manganese are two metals that occur together in water [11]. Their appearance depends on the physical-chemical characteristics of the water. Concentrations for iron are higher than concentrations for manganese in the river Bregava (Fig. 9).

Cencentraon of Pb and Sn [mg/l]

0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0

Pb

Sn

Winter 1 0.008 0.145

Pb

Sn

Pb

Sn

Pb

Sn

Spring Summer Autumn 0 0.046 0.001 0.059 0.004 0.062

2 0.006 0.099 0.001 0.035 0.001 0.049 0.011 0.064 3 0.009 0.084 0.001 0.034 4 0.007 0.087

0

0

0.046 0.004 0.059

0.036 0.002 0.047 0.002 0.055

5 0.005 0.073 0.001 0.046 0.001 0.051 0.004 0.058 6 0.004 0.07 0.001 0.04 0.001 0.039 0.006 0.065 7 0.007 0.069 0.001 0.044 0.005 0.022 0.005 0.065 8 0.01 0.163 0.001 0.039

0

0.035 0.004 0.061

Fig. 9. Concentration of Pb and Sn of the river Bregava

178

D. Ivankovi´c and A. Šestan

The concentration of lead (Pb) and tin (Sn) in water can be increased by the disposal of industrial waste. Surface water can contain a certain amount of lead and tin when it is exposed to some special pollution. Lead and tin are toxic to all organisms [12]. Even small doses of these metals cause neurotoxicity.

4 Conclusion According with a results, it can be seen that polluting substances from catering facilities, households, agricultural land, rainwater, slaughterhouses contribute to changing the physical and chemical characteristics of water in the river Bregava. The increased concentrations of the analysed parameters and presented results prove the indicated climatic and anthropogenic influence on the water quality of the Bregava River. The effects of water pollution can be seen in the concentration of: chloride, dissolved oxygen, ammonia and consumption of KMnO4 in the low water season (in the Summer). According to the values of COD, in the summer time, the water of the river Bregavabelongs to the IV class of waters. According to the values of BOD, in the summer time, the water of the river Bregava belongs to the IV class of waters.

References 1. Antoni´c, B., Marjanovi´c, N., Gruji´c, R.: Metodi fiziˇcko-hemijskih analiza namirnica i vode. Panevropski univerzitet Apeiron, Banja Luka (2011) 2. Popovi´c, Z.: Hemija i tehnologija vode. Tehnološki fakultet, Zagreb (2001) 3. Mayer, D.: Voda – Od nastanka do upotrebe, Zagreb (2004) 4. Vidi´c, R.: Hemija vode, Gradevinski fakultet u Beogradu, Beograd (2005) 5. Obayashi: Managenent of industrial pollutants by anaerobic processes, Second printing, Michigan (1985) 6. Veselinovi´c, D., Gržeti´c, I., i sur.: Stanja i procesi u životnoj sredini, I knjiga, Fakultet za fiziˇcku hemiju, Beograd (1995) 7. Sankhla, M.S., Kumari, M., et al.: Heavy metals contamination in water and their hazardous effect on human health-a review, Division of Forensic Science, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 5(10), 759–766 (2016) 8. Vatrenjak-Velagi´c, V.: Analitiˇcka kontrola kvaliteta. Univerzitetska knjiga, Sarajevo (1997) 9. Philip, B.: Biografija vode, Izvori, Zagreb (2004) 10. Fewtrell, L., Bartram, J.: Water Quality; Guidelines, Standards and Health: Assessment of Risk and Risk Management for Water-Related Infectious Disease. IWA Publishing, London (2001) 11. Ešegovi´c, R.: Željezo i mangan u podzemnim vodama istoˇcne Slavonije. diplomski rad, Sveuˇcilište u Zagrebu, Rudarsko-geološko-naftni fakultet, Zagreb (2016) 12. Glavaševi´c Arbutina, D.: Teški metali u organizmu, Završni rad, Sveuˇcilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku, Odjel za hemiju, Osijek (2020)

Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications Admir Avdagi´c(B) , Besim Bali´c, Dino Hadžidervišagi´c, and Nejla Kalaˇca Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Zagrebaˇcka 20, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. In this paper we show application of GIS methods and application to inventory urban greenery. Using one case study we develop interactive GIS map of all trees, bushes and other urban inventory (garbage cans, benches etc.). Total research area is 68487,45 m2 , in municipality Novi Grad Sarajevo - Otoka. In this paper we used a QField application for collecting data and QGIS for mapping and creating interactive map with database. In total we recorded 308 trees, 222 bushes and 155 of different other urban inventories. For every tree we estimated a health condition using VTA method (visual tree assessment). Keywords: urban inventory · GIS · QGIS · QField

1 Introduction Urban green spaces are very important contributor for sustainable development. Developments of urban green spaces need to consider interdisciplinary and integrative approaches and need to include many different aspects such as economic, political, social, cultural, management and planning to improve existing urban green spaces, and to optimize existing urban green space [9]. Urban green space and urban greenery it’s very important for every city. Specially in Sarajevo, during the winter the problems with pollution are in expansion. Green areas such as trees, shrubs and forests contribute to solving the problem of pollution, especially air pollution [6]. Trees can reduce air pollutants in two ways: one is by direct reduction from the air, and second by indirect reduction by avoiding the emission of air pollutants. In direct reduction, trees absorb gaseous pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3) through leaf stomata and also can dissolve water-soluble pollutants onto moist leaf surfaces [7]. It’s very important to conduct inventory of urban greenery and to create database in order to have an insight into the current state of urban greenery. It can be the basis for scientifically verified planning and management of urban greenery, and especially the correct basis for monitoring of urban green areas. Geographic information systems can be defined as an intelligent tool, to which it relates techniques for the implementation of processes such as the introduction, recording, storage, handling, processing and generation of spatial data. Use of GIS in urban © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 179–188, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_20

180

A. Avdagi´c et al.

planning helps and guides planners for an orderly development of settlements and infrastructure facilities within and outside urban areas [2, 4, 10]. The similar mapping on some parts of Sarajevo were done earlier [5, 8]. The main goal of this paper is to show one example on one part of Sarajevo town how to create data base to know exact condition of existing urban greenery and develop right basis for future monitoring.

2 Material and Methods In this paper as background maps we used cadastral plans and satellite maps. The study area was one part of municipality Novi Grad Sarajevo – Otoka. Total surface of study area is 68487.45 m2 . The following data were collected: an ID number (corresponding to its location on the ground), species (Latin name) and common name, height, shape of the crown, state of health of the tree, description of the position of the crown, whether it interferes with the surrounding objects, and a special note if necessary to be emphasized for the corresponding tree. For fallowing parameters: height, shape of the crown, state of health of the tree, description of the position of the crown, whether it interferes with the surrounding objects) we used VTA methods (Visual Tree Assessment) [3]. The instrument which are used is: diameter tape (D-tape) for measuring diameter and also a Field Map instrument for positioning [1]. The following software were used: On the filed for data collecting we used QField application and for analysis and processing QGIS (software version 3.22).

Fig. 1. Study area with all mapped trees

Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications

181

2.1 Results We mapped all trees which are located in study area (Fig. 1). All trees are listed in Table 1 and Table 2. We identify and record 308 taxon’s in total within 32 a different genoms. Most common taxon is Fraxinus excelsior (14%) and Betula pendula (13%). The 79% (244 taxon) are deciduous and 21% (64 taxon) are coniferous. Table 1. List of all deciduous taxon’s located in study area – trees No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

1

Acer campestre

1

24

Platanus occidentalis

16

2

Acer negundo

1

25

Populus deltoides

1

3

Acer negundo “Flamingo”

1

26

Prunus cerasifera

2

4

Acer platanoides

2

27

Prunus domestica

4

5

Acer platanoides “Drummondi”

2

28

Prunus mexicana

1

6

Acer pseudoplatanus

11

29

Prunus padus

2

7

Acer saccharinum

1

30

Prunus pensylvanica

1

8

Aesculus hippocastanum

9

31

Prunus persica

1

9

Betula pendula

41

32

Prunus serrulata

12

10

Calocedrus decurrens

1

33

Prunus virginiana

1

11

Carpinus betulus

2

34

Quercus robur

1

12

Cercis siliquastrum

2

35

Robinia pseudoacacia

2

13

Cornus sanguinea

3

36

Salix babylonica

5

14

Cotinus coggygria

1

37

Sambucus nigra

1

15

Cydonia oblonga

1

38

Sorbus intermedia

2

16

Fagus sylvatica “Purpurea”

1

39

Tilia americana

5

17

Fraxinus excelsior

43

40

Tilia cordata

10

18

Fraxinus latifolia

1

41

Tilia platyphyllos

4

19

Fraxinus pennsylvanica

13

42

Tilia tomentosa

16

20

Hammamelis virginiana

1

43

Ulmus minor

1

21

Juglans regia

6

44

Ulmus pumila

3 (continued)

182

A. Avdagi´c et al. Table 1. (continued)

No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

22

Malus pumila

4

23

Morus alba

4

No.

Taxon

45

No. of taxon

Uništeno stablo

1

Total 244

Table 2. List of all coniferous taxon’s located in study area - trees No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

No.

1

Calocedrus decurrens

1

8

Taxon Pinus sylvestris

No. of taxon 7

2

Picea abies

15

9

Pinus thunbergii

5

3

Picea glauca

3

10

Pseudotsuga menziesii

1

4

Picea pungens

8

11

Tamarix chinensis

3

5

Pinus nigra

2

12

Taxus baccata

1

6

Pinus ponderosa

2

13

Thuja occidentalis

8

7

Pinus resinosa

8

Total 64

For trees besides diameter we recorded four different parameters a) Helath condition, b) interferes with the surrounding objects c) height d) crown shape (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). For every tree the database were done with all recorded elements and photograph. Health condition is better with deciduous (79% of taxon is in good condition) then with coniferous (56%). Only 4% (deciduous taxa) of existing taxa interferes with the surrounding objects. Most of deciduous taxa is from 5 to 15m high (50%) and while the coniferous taxa are mostly up 5 m high (52%). The 51% of deciduous taxa have oval shape of crown while coniferous have mostly the pyramidal crown shape.

Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications

183

Fig. 2. Deciduius trees: a) Helath condition, b) interferes with the surrounding objects c) height d) crown shape

Also, all bushes were recorded in the study area and database were created with all recorded elements. We recorded 222 bushes in total in 24 genomes. Most of them are deciduous 187 in total while 35 are evergreen bushes (Table 3 and Table 4). On the following Figure is showed position of all recorded bushes. The most represented taxon is Rosa sp. (59) (Table 3).

184

A. Avdagi´c et al.

Fig. 3. Coniferus trees: a) Helath condition, b) interferes with the surrounding objects c) height d) crown shape

Fig. 4. Study area with all mapped bushes

All urban elements such as trash can, bench, lightning, planters, info panels and fountains are mapped with fallowing characteristics: material and condition (Fig. 5 and Table 5). Also database was created in QGiS.

Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications

185

Table 3. List of all deciduous taxon’s located in study area - bushes No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

1

Berberis aquifolium

3

14

Kerria japonica

2

2

Berberis thunbergii

8

15

Paeonia officinalis

3

3

Berberis vulgaris

1

16

Philadelphus coronarius

6

4

Chaenomeles japonica

4

17

Rosa sp.

59

5

Cornus mas

1

18

Sambucus nigra

3

6

Cornus sanquineum

8

19

Spiraea japonica

10

7

Cotoneaster coriaceus (C. lacteus)

1

20

Spiraea vanhouttei

4

8

Cotoneaster horizontalis

6

21

Symphoricarpos albus

13

9

Deutzia scabra

8

22

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus

8

10

Forsythia suspensa

3

23

Syringa vulgaris

9

11

Forsythia viridissima

15

24

Weigela florida

6

12

Hibiscus syriacus

4

13

Hydrangea macrophylla

2

Total 187

Table 4. List of all evergreen taxon’s located in study area - bushes No.

Taxon

No. of taxon

No.

1

Taxon

Buxus sempervirens

5

7

Ligustrum sinense

6

2

Euonymus fortunei

1

8

Ligustrum vulgare

8

3

Euonymus japonicus

2

9

Lonicera fragrantissima

3

4

Hedera helix

1

10

Lonicera tatarica

1

5

Juniperus communis

1

11

Prunus laurocerasus

4

6

Juniperus virginiana

3

Total 35

No. of taxon

186

A. Avdagi´c et al.

Fig. 5. Research area with all mapped trees

Table 5. List of all urban elements Type

Material

Condition

Number

Trash can

Iron

Good Bad

7

Concrete

Bad

1

Metal

Good

1

Wood, metal

Good

5

Metal

Good

1

Wood

Good

2

Bad

1

6

Total 24 Bench

Wood

Good

4

Wood, Concrete

Good

27

Medium

24

Wood, metal

Bad

1

Good

7

Medium

4 Total 67

Lighting

Metal

Good

58 (continued)

Inventory of Urban Greenery Using GIS Applications

187

Table 5. (continued) Type

Material

Condition

Planters

Concrete

Good

Number Total 58 9 Total 9

Info panel

Wood

Bad

1

Metal

Good

2

Bad

1

Metal, staklo

Good

1 Total 5

Fountain

Concrete

Good

1 Total 1

3 Conclusion Mapping urban greenery is very important in the cities to know the condition of existing urban greenery and also for monitoring all urban green elements. Knowing the exact surface of the green area and the number of trees etc. we can calculate how this area can reduce pollution and which action we need to take to reduce pollution. Using a presented methods and application can be good way to map all urban greenery and create a good basis for monitoring of urban greenery. These methods should be used in future to map all parts of Sarajevo city urban area to create unique database in GIS.

References 1. Avdagi´c, A., Mattioli, W., Bali´c, B., Ivojevi´c, S., Pastorella, F.: Field map, an innovative tool for data collection in forestry and landscape architecture-description, functionality and use. Naše šume (2014) 2. Burrough, P.A., Mcdonnell, R.A.: Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Spatial Information Systems Series. Oxford University Press, New York/Oxford (1998) 3. Mattheck, C., Breloer, H.: Field guide for visual tree assessment (VTA). Arboricultural J. 18(1), 1–23 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.1994.9746995 4. ESRI:GIS for Urban and Regional Planning, January 2011 5. Hadžidervišagi´c, D., Avdi´c, J.: Naˇcin i uˇcestalost korištenja parkovske baštine na primjeru Banjskog parka Ilidža. Radovi Šumarskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu. 50(2 Dec. 2020), 39–48 (2020). DOI:https://doi.org/10.54652/rsf.2020.v50.i2.347 6. Hassan, M.M., Elsayed, E.A., Gawad, A.F.A.: Role of urban trees and forests in solving the problem of air pollution 2021. In: Proceedings of ICFD14: Fourteenth International Conference of Fluid Dynamics 2–3 April 2021, Fairmont Nile City Hotel, Cairo, Egypt (2021) 7. Nowak, D.J.: Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest. In: McPherson, E.G., Nowak, D.J., Rowntree, R.A. (eds.) Chicago’s Urban Forest Ecosystem: Results of

188

A. Avdagi´c et al.

the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. General Technical Report NE-186. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp. 83–94 (1994) 8. Pintari´c-Avdagi´c, B.A., Hadžidervišagi´c, D., Šuta, D.A.: Analiza arhitektonskih elemenata perioda Moderne i inventarizacija dendroflore Historijskog muzeja u Sarajevu Radovi Šumarskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu (2011) 9. Atiqul Haq, S.Md.: Urban green spaces and an integrative approach to sustainable environment. J. Environ. Protect. 2, 601–608 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2011.25069, Published Online July (2011) (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep) 10. Xhafa, S., Kosovrasti, A.: Geographic information systems (GIS) in urban planning. Eur. J. Interdisc. Stud. 1(1) (2015)

Models to Estimate a Quality and Structure of Wood Assortment of Standing Trees of Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Bosnia and Herzegovina Admir Avdagi´c(B) , Besim Bali´c(B) , Ahmet Lojo(B) , and Jusuf Musi´c(B) Faculty of Forestry, University of Sarajevo, Zagrebaˇcka 20, 71 000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina {a.avdagic,b.balic,a.lojo,j.music}@sfsa.unsa.ba

Abstract. Information about forest quality and quantity is essential for forest management planning, including the information about structure and quality of wood assortments that can be produced from standing trees. In this paper, we develop models for estimating the quality wood assortment structure according to JUS, the standard still used in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A logarithmic function was used to calculate the average assortment percentage and share of beech trees. Its result allows us to develop assortment tables of beech or develop models for each assortment that can be easily applied in forestry practice. Keywords: model · Beech · wood assortments · JUS

1 Introduction The acknowledgement and evaluation of forest quality is essential for creating policies and various plans in forestry and wood industry [4]. Besides knowing the quantity of wood, we need to know the tree quality characteristics – in the sense of their technical usability. Only with that information is it possible to carry out a more realistic planning and management analysis [1]. The percentage share of individual assortments in the tree volume depends on two factors: dimensions and technical quality of the trees. Previous research demonstrated that the influence of dimension on the percentage share of assortments in the total tree volume for trees with same DBH and quality but of different heights changes only in the absolute amount, while in percentage the amount remains the same [2, 8]. This fact facilitates the creation of assortment tables by allowing us to take into account only the DBH of the tree but not the height. [15]. The second factor – technical quality of trees and its influence on the percentage share of assortments in the total tree volume – is significant due to the high variability of tree quality in our forests. According to the current standards, in Bosnia and Herzegovina we have four quality classes for standing trees [5]. Assortment tables must be created separately for each technical quality class of trees; the tables are unreliable otherwise [1]. We researched the wood assortments share in the tree volume for three different tree types: noble oak, common oak and field ash. [13]. Similar research was done in 1998 but for a different © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 189–196, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_21

190

A. Avdagi´c et al.

tree type – beech in uneven-aged forests. [14]. Another similar research was done in 2007 [9]. The quality of beech trees and the share of forest assortments in the clearcutting of beech stands in the Bjelovarska Bilogora Forestry was also researched [3]. Some researchers tested seven mathematical models for selecting the best function for estimating the volume of individual assortments [7]. In 2008, a research was done about the appearance probability for wood assortments of technical roundwood in beech trees with regard to the type of cut, as well as the distribution of percentage shares of wood assortments of technical roundwood by thickness degrees and type of cut [10]. Research into the structure of wood assortments of the main tree species with the application of international (“European” HRN-EN) norms is much less common [10, 11]. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, extensive research and construction of assortment tables for beech was conducted. The following tables present the percentage share of individual assortments by thickness and technical classes for beech, which contain the existing assortment tables that are currently used in B&H [15]. Also in 2005, a research to determine the realistic assortment of forest wood products in the wood mass that is obtained by performing thin-cutting on white pine cultures was conducted. The come to results by adding up the volume of each individual assortment and the volume of the merchantable wood of the tree with the bark for each diameter class [6]. The main goal of this research is to develop models for each assortment that can easily be applied in the forestry practice or to develop assortments tables for beech trees.

2 Materials and Methods This research was conducted in the south-western part of B&H (Canton 10), in the forest area of 284,277.2 ha. In this paper we used 671 beech trees as samples. Every tree was cut and classified by JUS standards. Also, the volume of every assortment was calculated using Huber’s equation.

3 Results Before levelling the percentage shares of every assortment and creating models for every quality class, we used the arcsine-square root transformation of data.  Porg. ptran. = arcsin 100 Ptran. – transformed mean percentage share of the assortment. Porg. – mean percentage share of the assortment. All transformed data are levelled with logarithmic function Ptran = a + b · ln(d1,30 ) e = 2.718281828459 – the base of the natural logarithm a,b – function parameters d 1,30 – DBH (cm)

Models to Estimate a Quality and Structure of Wood Assortment

191

– veneer logs and peeler (F + L) Figure 1 shows the percentage share of veneer logs and peeler for the first and second quality class [1].

Fig. 1. Percentage share of veneer logs and peeler

We calculated the following models for the first and second technical quality class of veneer logs and peeler.    2  · 100 (First Quality class TKK1) pF+L (%) = sin 0.022027 + 0.065529 ∗ ln d1,30    2  pF+L (%) = sin −0.853509 + 0.259395 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)

Veneer and peeler logs are possible only in the first and second quality classes. – saw logs (I class) Figure 2 shows the percentage share of saw logs (class I of JUS) for the first, second and third technical quality classes.

Fig. 2. Percentage share of saw logs (class I)

192

A. Avdagi´c et al.

We calculated the following models for the first, second and third technical quality of saw logs (class I of JUS)   2   · 100 (First Quality class TKK1) pPTI (%) = sin −0.339224 + 0.207866 ∗ ln d1,30   2 pPTI (%) = (sin 0.235770 + 0.042396 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)   2 pPTI (%) = (sin −0, 238523 + 0, 129896 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (Third Quality class TKK3)

– saw logs (II class) Figure 3 shows the percentage share of saw logs (class II of JUS) for all four technical quality classes.

Fig. 3. Percentage share of saw logs (class II)

We calculated the following models for all four technical quality classes of saw logs (class II of JUS.   2 pPT 2 (%) = (sin 0.544471 − 0.039539 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (First Quality class TKK1)   2 pPT 2 (%) = (sin 0.293424 + 0.037024 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)   2 pPT 2 (%) = (sin −0.565928 + 0.231645 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (Third Quality class TKK3)

  2 pPT 2 (%) = (sin 0,0969 − 0.174 ∗ ln d1,30 ) · 100 (Fourth Quality class TKK4) – saw logs (III class) Figure 4 shows the percentage share of saw logs (class III of JUS) for all four technical quality classes. We calculated the following models for all four technical quality classes of saw logs (class III of JUS.

Models to Estimate a Quality and Structure of Wood Assortment

193

Fig. 4. Percentage share of saw logs (class III)

  2   · 100 (First Quality class TKK1) pPT 3 (%) = sin −0.446524 + 0.212662 ∗ ln d1,30     2 pPT 3 (%) = sin 0.048570 + 0.090449 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)     2 pPT 3 (%) = sin −0.144989 + 0.137528 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Third Quality class TKK3)

  2   · 100 (Fourth Quality class TKK4) pPT 3 (%) = sin 0,1558 − 0,2972 ∗ ln d1,30 – firewood Figure 5 shows the percentage share of firewood for all four technical quality classes.

Fig. 5. Percentage share of firewood

194

A. Avdagi´c et al.

We calculated the following models for all four technical quality classes of firewood    2  · 100 (First Quality class TKK1) pogr. (%) = sin 2.663838 − 0.514240 ∗ ln d1,30   2   pogr. (%) = sin 2.533169 − 0.467218 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)   2   pogr. (%) = sin 2.251312 − 0.362987 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Third Quality class TKK3)    2  pogr. (%) = sin 1.624256 − 0.140384 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Fourth Quality class TKK4)

– waste Figure 6 shows the percentage share of waste for all four technical quality classes.

Fig. 6. Percentage share of waste

We calculated the following models for all four technical quality classes of waste   2   · 100 (First Quality class TKK1) potp. (%) = sin 0.161817 + 0.044131 ∗ ln d1,30    2  potp. (%) = sin 0.351265 − 0.007146 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Second Quality class TKK2)    2  · 100 (Third Quality class TKK3) potp. (%) = sin 0.258009 + 0.258009 ∗ ln d1,30   2   potp. (%) = sin 0.349024 − 0.009882 ∗ ln d1,30 · 100 (Fourth Quality class TKK4)

Since the sum of the percentage shares of assortments for every diameter class is greater or less than 100, it is necessary to make corrections. The corrections were made by the following formula and presented in Table 1 [12, 16]. 100 Kf =  sort Kf - correction factor,  srot – sum of assortments for diameter class.

Models to Estimate a Quality and Structure of Wood Assortment

195

Table 1. Sum of assortments and calculated correction factor Diameter class TKK1 Sum of ass. Kf

TKK2

TKK3

TKK4

Sum of ass. Kf

Sum of ass. Kf

Sum of ass. Kf

12.5

103.13

0.97

104.65

0.96 101.38

0.99

17.5

94.44

1.06

98.36

1.02

98.34

1.02

22.5

85.08

1.18

88.19

1.13

92.18

27.5

98.89

1.01 107.84

0.93

99.86

1.08

95.84

1.04

1.00

99.01

0.99

32.5

106.49

0.94 115.81

0.86

99.07

0.98 100.59

1.00

37.5

109.62

0.91 111.62

42.5

107.21

0.93 107.90

0.90

99.12

0.99 102.55

1.00

0.93

99.85

0.99 104.69

1.00

47.5

105.31

0.95 104.80

0.95 101.03

1.00 106.91

1.00

52.5 57.5

103.86

0.96 102.20

0.98 102.52

1.00 109.15

1.00

102.79

0.97 100.04

1.00 104.22

1.00 111.37

0.99

62.5

102.04

0.98

98.26

1.02 106.07

1.01 113.55

0.99

67.5

101.58

0.98

96.79

1.03 108.01

1.01 115.69

0.99

72.5

101.36

0.99

95.59

1.05 110.02

1.00 117.76

0.99

4 Conclusion The developed models can be used in practice to calculate the share percentage of every assortment, for every technical quality class. According to these models, planning and managing are more realistic although they produce slightly different results compared to the tables and models used in forestry practice in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We recommend these new models to be used in the future forestry practice.

References 1. Avdagi´c, A.: Modeli procjene zapremine stabla i strukture drvnih proizvoda bukve kao nauˇcno uporište za gazdovanje šumama u Kantonu 10, Doktorska disertacija, Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, str. 1–245 (2019) 2. Flury, Ph.: Untersuchungen über die Sortimentsverhältnisse der Fichte, Weisstanne und Buche. Mitteil. d. Schweiz. Centralanstalt f.d. forst Versuchswesen, Bd. XI., Zürich (1916) 3. Krpan, A.P.B., Prka, M.: Kakvo´ca bukovih stabala iz oplodnih sjeˇca Bilogorskog podruˇcja, Drvna industrija, 4/01, Zagreb, 173–180 (2002) 4. Lojo, A., Musi´c, J., Bali´c, B., Avdagi´c, A.: Sortimentne tablice smrˇce (Picea abies Karst) u Kantonu 10 Federacije BiH. Radovi Šumarskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu 50(2), 3–19 (2020). https://doi.org/10.54652/rsf.2020.v50.i2.344 5. Mati´c, V.: Metodinventure šuma na velikim površinama, 1 i 2. dio. Institut za šumarstvo Šumarskog fakulteta, Sarajevo (1964) 6. Musi´c, J.: ASORTIMAN PROIZVODA U PROREDNOJ DRVNOJ MASI ŠUMSKIH KULTURA BIJELOG BORA (Pinus sylvestris L.), Radovi Šumarskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu 35(1), 67–75 (2005). https://doi.org/10.54652/rsf.2005.v35.i1.198

196

A. Avdagi´c et al.

7. Paladini´c, E., Vuleti´c, D.: Modeliranje sortimentne strukture dube´cih stabala bukve, “Radovi” Izvanredno izdanje 9, Šumarski institut Jastrebarsko, Jastrebarsko, 279–296 (2006) 8. Plavši´c, M., Golubovi´c, U.: Istraživanje postotnog odnosa sortimenata kod jele (Abies Alba Mill). Šumrski list 9–10, 367–387 (1963) 9. Prka, M., Krpan, P.B.A.: Problem odredivanja sortimentne strukture jednodobnih bukovih sastojina. Šum list 5–6, 219–237 (2007) 10. Prka, M.: Odredivanje sortimentne strukture jednodobnih bukovih sastojina primjenom norme HRN EN 1316–1:1999. Šum list 5–6, 223–238 (2008) 11. Prka, M., Poršinsky, T.: Usporedba strukture tehniˇcke oblovine jednodobnih bukovih sjeˇcina u sortimentnim tablicama izradenim primjenom normi HRN (1995) and HRN EN 1316:1999. Šum list 1–2, 15–25 (2009) 12. Rebula, E.: Sortimentne i vrijednosne tablice za deblovinu jele. Mehanizacija šumarstva broj 4, Zagreb (1996) 13. Štefanˇci´c, A.: Udio drvnih sortimenata u volumenu krupnog drva do 7 cm promjera za hrast lužnjak, hrast kitnjak i poljski jasen – suši tip. Šum list 9–10, 479–497 (1997) 14. Štefanˇci´c, A.: Udio sortimenata u volumenu krupnog drva do 7 cm promjera za obiˇcnu bukvu u jednodobnim sastojinama. Šum list 7–8, 329–339 (1998) 15. Vukmirovi´c, V.: Istraživanje uˇceš´ca sortimenata bukve u cˇ istim i mješovitim bukovim sastojinama u Bosni - sortimentne tablice, Radovi Šumarskog fakulteta i instituta za šumarstvo u Sarajevu, Knjiga 14, Sveska 4–6, Sarajevo (1969) 16. Zeli´c, J.: Preliminarne sortimentne tablice za hrast sladun (Quercus frainetto Ten), Šumarski list br. 7(8, CXXVIII), 431–443 (2004)

Evaluation of Properties of Materials for Functional Football Sportswear ˇ ˇ Ivana Salopek Cubri´ c1 , Goran Cubri´ c2 , Antonija Petrov2(B) , and Tomislav Rolich3 1 Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Textile Design and Management,

University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia 2 Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Clothing Technology, University of Zagreb, 10

000 Zagreb, Croatia [email protected] 3 Faculty of Textile Technology, Department of Fundamental Natural and Engineering Sciences, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract. Sport is an important part of many people’s lives. Sports materials should provide maximum comfort to the person who wears them during sports performance. The above proves a view of the global market where sportswear occupies an important place within the entire textile industry. Advances in technology and the development of high-performance materials have also improved the performance of sportswear. The functionality of materials intended for the production of sportswear and new design solutions are tested primarily on professional athletes.The research presented in this paper focuses on the investigation of materials that are intended for the production of functional sportswear. The research compares the standard and recycled materials with different percentages of elastane yarn. In the focus of the research are the following material properties: mass per unit area, thickness, bending rigidity, porosity, water vapour permeability, and drying speed. The results of measurements are discussed within the context of material use and more appropriate materials within an evaluated set of materials are outlined. Keywords: yarn · material · measurement · football · sportswear

1 Introduction Sport is a very important segment in the lives of many people around the world. In recent years, materials intended for sports are increasingly in demand on the world market [1, 2]. Particularly great progress is being made in the field of fibres for the production of high-quality sportswear. With the progress of materials and technology, sports clothing with improved properties is being developed [3]. Sports clothing is designed in such a way that it does not limit the activities of athletes and provides them with support in physical activities [4]. Sportswear intended for active athletes must be light, must protect the body from various weather conditions, and should not hinder or limit any type of movement. Clothes for team sports, such as football, in addition to protecting © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 197–204, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_22

198

ˇ I. Salopek Cubri´ c et al.

the body, must also protect the players from the opposing team and their equipment [5]. Several types of fibres are used to make sportswear. The most commonly used fibre in the production of sportswear is polyester, but other artificial fibres are also suitable for the production of sportswear, such as polyamide, polypropylene, acrylic, and elastane. Polyester is preferred in sportswear because it is lightweight, cheap to produce, easy to dye, durable, easy to care for, quick drying, hydrophobic, and has good absorbency [6, 7]. The material from which sports clothing is made must have good porosity so that water vapour can diffuse through the pores toward the environment when the body moves. Clothing must provide thermal insulation in cold conditions, a high degree of moisture permeability, and good ventilation to ensure optimal thermoregulation of the human body because the body must be maintained in thermal balance, i.e. the thermal energy created by metabolism and the energy obtained from the outside must be equal to the loss of thermal energy of the body [8, 9]. A whole series of research has been done in the field of sports textiles. The research was conducted in order to improve the properties of materials intended for the production of football clothing. Great attention is focused on the comfort and durability of sports materials [10–15]. The research in this work is also focused on the examination of materials intended for the production of functional sports clothing. Research is focused on the following material properties: mass per unit area, thickness, bending rigidity, porosity, water vapor permeability, and drying speed.

2 Experimental The overview of materials selected for this investigation, as well as the methods used, is given within this chapter. 2.1 Materials For the experiment presented, five knitted fabrics intended for football garments are selected. All fabrics are produced of 100% polyesteryarn (either standard or recycled), and different percentage of elastane yarn (0–16%). The overview of materials with the main fabric description and assigned ID is given in Table 1. Table 1. Materials Nr.

Fabric ID

Fabric description

1

F1

92% PES, standard yarn + 8% EL

2

F2

84% PES, standard yarn + 16% EL

3

F3

87% PES, standard yarn + 13% EL

4

F4

100% PES, recycledyarn

5

F5

100% PES, recycledyarn

Evaluation of Properties of Materials for Functional Football Sportswear

199

2.2 Measuring Equipment The mass per unit area of the fabric was measured according to the ISO 3801 standard (method 5). The specimen size was 100 × 100 cm, and the accuracy of the analytic scale used ±0.001 g. Fabric thickness was determined according to EN ISO 5084: 1996 using the thickness meter DM 2000 - Wolf. For the measurement of fabric bending rigidity, the cantilever test is used. For the measurement are prepared specimens cut in the direction of fabric loop courses and loop wales. The dimensions of each specimen are 25 × 200 mm. The specimen is placed horizontally on a testing platform that ends with a surface inclined to an angle of 41.5°. The specimen is pushed until its end reaches the level of the inclined plane and the overhanging portion of the fabric is measured. The measured value is used for the calculation of flexural rigidity according to the following equation:  3 L (1) G=W · 2 where: G – bending rigidity, mg × cm. W – fabric surface mass, mg/cm2 . L – the mean length over-hanging portion of the measured specimen, cm. In this study, three methods have been developed to calculate the porosity factor: the simple threshold method and two methods with multiple thresholds (ML and MT). Programs for all three methods were created in MATLAB R2022a.In all 3 methods a photograph taken with a microscope is converted from an RGB colour space to a grayscale using the expression: 0.2989 * R + 0.5870 * G + 0.1140 * B, where R, G and B are the values of the red, green and blue components in the photograph whose values range from 0 to 255 or from 0 to 1. To obtain better contrast in the converted photograph, the grey levels were adjusted to occupy the entire interval from 0 to 255 or from 0 to 1, depending on the format of the record. The details of the methods are as follows: a. Simple threshold method (ST) The photo was converted from grayscale to black and white using threshold T. When the grayscale value is less than the threshold T, it becomes black, and when the grayscale value is equal to or greater than the threshold T, it becomes white. In this study, the threshold value for this conversion was empirically determined, and was equal to T = 200. This means that all gray-level values from 0 to 199 were converted to black, and all gray-level values from 200 to 255 were converted to white. In all 3 methods the numbers of black pixels (B) and white pixels (W) are added from the black and white photographs thus the porosity factor is expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the expression CF = 100 − W/(W + B) * 100. b. Multiple threshold method (ML-1) The grayscale photo is converted into a pseudo-grayscale photo using a multiple threshold (ML). In this study, the value of 8 was empirically chosen for the number of thresholds. The grayscale range from 0 to 255 is linearly divided into 8 equal parts. Thus, the threshold values are T1 = 0, T2 = 36, T3 = 73, T4 = 109, T5 = 146, T6 = 182, T7 = 219 and T8 = 255 for every photo. Then, for the grayscale

200

ˇ I. Salopek Cubri´ c et al.

values less than or equal to T1, the pseudo grayscale value 1 is set, for the grayscale value greater than T1 and less than or equal to T2, the grayscale value 2 is set, and so on. By applying this rule, a pseudo-grayscale photo with values from 1 to 8 is obtained. Afterwards, the photo is converted into a black and white photo so that all the pseudo-grayscale values with a value from 1 to 7 become black and all the pseudo-grayscale values with a value of 8 become white. c. Multiple threshold method (MT-1) The grayscale photo is then converted to a pseudo-grayscale photo using a multiple threshold (MT). In this study, the value of 8 was empirically chosen for the number of thresholds. The grayscale range from 0 to 255 was divided into 8 parts using the Otsu method and implemented in MATLAB. Otsu method was used to calculate new threshold values from T1 to T8 for each photo. Then, a pseudo value of 1 is set for grayscale values less than or equal to T1, a value of 2 is set for a grayscale value greater than T1 and less than or equal to T2, and so on. By applying this process, a photograph is obtained in a pseudo-grayscale containing the values from 1 to 8. The photograph is then converted to a black and white photograph so that all pseudo grayscale values with a value of 1 to 7 become black and all pseudo grayscale values with a value of 8 become white. A second version for both methods (ML-2 and MT-2) was also created, in which the photo is converted to black and white, so that all pseudo-grayscale values with a value of 1 to 6 become black, and all pseudo-grayscale values with a value of 7 to 8 become white. The pixels in the photograph that have a value of both 7 and 8 are used here to represent porosity in the knit. The pixels in the photograph that have a value of 8 are white. The pixels that have a value of 7 are not quite white but can still be considered porosity. The measurement of water vapour permeability (W) was conducted using the PCE - MA 100 instrument. During the measurement, the temperature was set to 41 °C and duration of drying was 15 min. The simulation of water vapour transfer is established by the installation of semi-permeable membrane between the water cup and the material. The measurement of wetting and drying time, as well as the wetting diameter is conducted using the infrared thermal camera TESTO 872. Images take with the camera after the application of liquid to the surface of the material are processed with TESTO IRSoft v4.8 software to determine the indices.

3 Results The results of measurements are presented in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The mass per unit area of the tested material is in range from 130 to 197 g/m2 , while thickness is in range 0.351 to 0.629 mm, Table 2.

Evaluation of Properties of Materials for Functional Football Sportswear

201

Table 2. Mass per unit area and thickness Nr.

Fabric ID

Mass per unit area

Thickness

Mean, g/m2

CV, %

Mean, mm

CV

1

F1

197,09

0,13195

0,573

1,2333

2

F2

180,62

0,82245

0,451

0,7012

3

F3

141,78

1,14763

0,351

0,9009

4

F4

130,58

0,88643

0,451

0,7012

5

F5

185,11

1,07657

0,629

1,3273

Table 3. Bending rigidity Nr.

Fabric ID

Bending rigidity Mean, mg × cm

CV, %

1

F1

19,67

6,15

2

F2

18,05

6,21

3

F3

14,18

3,30

4

F4

13,04

2,56

5

F5

18,42

3,11

Material F4 has the lowest bending rigidity, Table 3. Low bending rigidity tells us how easily the fabric bends. The lower bending rigidity the material has, the better they fit the wearer’s body. Material that have a high bending stiffness make the wearer difficult to move, i.e. comfort is reduced. This especially applies to the parts of the body that moves (hands and legs) and the underside of the shoulder joint. For this reason, material F4 is the most suitable of all tested materials. It is followed by material F3. Table 4. Porosity Fabric ID

ML-1 [%]

ML-2 [%]

MT-1 [%]

MT-2 [%]

ST-200 [%]

F1

98,37

97,20

98,38

96,10

97,84

F2

98,23

96,91

98,10

95,45

97,64

F3

98,03

96,99

98,21

96,91

97,50

F4

98,23

97,28

98,08

95,87

97,76

F5

97,66

94,18

97,20

91,20

96,24

All three methods, i.e. all 5 algorithm versions obtain relatively consistent results for most samples and the difference between all these versions range from 1.30% to

202

ˇ I. Salopek Cubri´ c et al.

6.46% depending on the sample.The lowest values of porosity factor are obtained for the methods ML-2 and MT-2, and the highest values of porosity factors are obtained for the methods ML-1 and MT-1. Table 5. Water vapour permeability Fabric ID

Water vapour permeability, g/cm2 h

F1

452,6878

F2

455,2028

F3

488,5256

F4

327,5699

F5

521,8485

The results of the water vapour permeability test show that materials F1 to F3 have quite similar permeability. It goes from 452.6878 g/cm2 h to 488.5256 g/cm2 h. This similarity can be related to the fact that all three materials have elastane. The other two materials F4 and F5 do not have elastane but are made of recycled 100% PES. Material F4 has the lowest water vapour permeability, while F5 has the highest. In terms of water vapour permeability, the material assigned as F5, has the highest value, what makes it more suitable for the observed purpose, as this material will aloud the transfer of vapour from the skin to the environment. This material is followed by F3, and further F2 and F1. Table 6. The drying and wetting time of tested materials ID

Wetting time, s

Wetting diameter, mm

Drying time, h:min:s

x-os, mm

y-os, mm

Wetting surface, mm2

F1

02,03

80

70

5600

01:29:51

F2

06,90

75

75

5625

01:22:57

F3

04,48

90

90

8100

00:57:01

F4

01,78

80

90

7200

01:02:49

F5

01,52

55

60

3300

01:36:33

The data shown in Table 6 demonstrate that for the materials that were observed, the wetting time was rather short, what is inline with the theoretical background for the materials made of polyester. Materials that have elastane added to the structure, have a slightly longer wetting time than materials made from recycled 100% PES. However, that time is not that drastically longer. Observing the drying time, it ranges from 57 min to 96 min. Material F5 has the longest drying time, what is to be explained by its thickness, as this is the material with the highest average thickness. Material F3 has the shortest

Evaluation of Properties of Materials for Functional Football Sportswear

203

drying time and is also the thinnest material. Based on these tests, it can be concluded that the thickness of the material affects the drying time. As far as the drying time, as an important characteristic of sportswear material, is concerned, the material F3 is preferred.

4 Conclusion This work focused on examining the properties of materials intended for the production of sportswear. The evidence from this study imply the importance of properties such as thickness, bending rigidity, porosity, water vapor permeability and drying speed.Research has shown that the F4 material is the most suitable for sports clothing because it shows the least stiffness and does not hinder the athlete’s movement, and does not reduce comfort. On the other hand, the material F5 is considered a good choice from the point of view of water vapor permeability, because this material will transmit vapor well from the skin to the environment. Likewise, material F3 has the shortest drying time and is also the thinnest material. Based on these tests, it can be concluded that the thickness of the material affects the drying time. The results point to the fact that the properties of the material are very important to the end user, in this case an active athlete. Materials should be light, should protect the body from various external influences and should not hinder or limit any type of movement.

Acknowledgment.

This work has been fully supported by Croatian Science Foundation under the project IP2020-02-5041 Textile Materials for Enhanced Comfort in Sports - TEMPO.

References 1. Shishoo, R.: Textiles in Sport, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing (2005) 2. Tarafder, N.: Textiles in sportswear, sports goods and sports equipment-a discussion. J. Mech. Robot. 4(3), 1–10 (2019) 3. Hayes, S.G., Venkatraman, P.: Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel, 1st edn. CRC Press (2015) 4. Ziemele, I., Šroma, I., Kakar¯ane, A.: Comfort in sportswear. Key Eng. Mater. 762, 402–407 (2018) 5. Uttam, D.: Active sportswear fabrics. Int. J. IT Eng. Appl. Sci. Res. (IJIEASR) 2(1), 34–40 (2013) 6. Guru, R., Kumar, A., Kumar, R.: Functional textile for active wear clothing. In: Kumar, B. (ed.) Textiles for Functional Applications. (IntechOpen.), pp. 1–17 (2021)

204

ˇ I. Salopek Cubri´ c et al.

ˇ ˇ ˇ 7. SalopekCubri´ c, I., Cubri´ c, G., Potoˇci´cMatkovi´c, V.M., PavkoCuden, A.: The comfort of knitted fabric: interaction of sportswear and athlete’s body. Commun. Dev. Assembling Text. Prod. 2(1), 70–79 (2021) 8. Kanakaraj, P., Rajagopalan, R.: Active knit fabrics - functional needs of sportswear application. J. Text. Apparel Technol. Manag. 9(2), 1–11 (215) 9. Stojanovi´c, S., Geršak, J.: Textile materials intended for sportswear. Tekstil 68(4–6), 72–88 (2019) ˇ ˇ 10. Cubri´ c, I.S., Cubri´ c, G., Perry, P.: Assessment of knitted fabric smoothness and softness based on paired comparison. Fibers Polym. 20(3), 656–667 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221019-1112-1 ˇ ˇ 11. Cubri´ c, G., SalopekCubri´ c, I., Rogale, D., FirštRogale, S.: Mechanical and thermal properties of polyurethane materials and inflated insulation chambers. Materials 14(6), 1541 (2021) ˇ ˇ 12. Salopek Cubri´ c, I., Cubri´ c, G., Potoˇci´c Matkovi´c, V.M.: Behavior of polymer materials exposed to aging in the swimming pool: focus on properties that assure comfort and durability. Polymers 13(15), 2414 (2021) ˇ ˇ 13. SalopekCubri´ c, I., Potoˇci´cMatkovi´c, V.M., Pavlovi´c, Ž, PavkoCuden, A.: Material and structural functionalization of knitted fabrics for sportswear. Materials 15, 3306 (2022) ˇ ˇ 14. SalopekCubri´ c, I., Cubri´ c, G., Kati´cKrižmanˇci´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, M.: Evaluation of changes in polymer material properties due to aging in different environments. Polymers 14(9), 1682 (2022) 15. Hayes, S.G., Venkatraman P.: Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel. 1st edn. e-Book PDF. Taylor & Francis Group, New York (2016)

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments: Between Classic Processes and the Challenges of New Approaches Miroslav Vrvi´c(B) Educons University, Sremska Kamenica, Serbia [email protected]

Abstract. The Holocene epoch in which we live is also the Anthropocene, which is an informal chronological term that extends into the Pleistocene epoch. Various scientific evidences shows human impact on environmental pollution dates back to the age of Homo neanderthalensis, which in Europe was about 70,000– 40,000 years ago (or even 400,000 years before the current epoch-BCE). The negative effects on the environment of the life activities of our distant ancestors are reflected in their active use of fire in everyday life. Later, the pollution of air, water, soil and food, accelerated and became more complicated, which led to the alarming situation in the present time and especially in the future. In the last few years, researchers have focused on poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and micro- and nano plastics (M- and NPs, respectively), as global pollutants. Environmental pollution requires technologies and processes for its protection and remediation (REM). Classical REM processes are: physical, chemical, physical-chemical and biological, and these are most often combined. The challenges of new approaches are primarily related to the application of new materials (e.g., 2D substances, such as graphene, nano materials, new catalysts) and advanced biotechnologies (e.g., enzyme engineering), nanobio/technologies, as ideal multidisciplinary approaches. Modern REM concepts are based on the principles of green chemistry and green engineering, with the aim of "closing the loop" of the circular economy and fulfilling the unsustainable 2030 sustainable development (SD) agenda, which in real time coordinates can only be: smart development. Keywords: Global pollution · PFASs · plastics · remediation · advanced technologies · circular economy · smart development

1 Introduction The field covered by this paper is extensive, complex and comprehensive. For these reasons, the focus is on technologies and processes the REM of polluted parts of environmental ecospheres, as constitutive parts of ecosystems [1]. The considerations herein do not refer to the treatment of waste [2], either at the place of origin (in situ) or outside it © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 205–219, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_23

206

M. Vrvi´c

(ex situ), [3] but exclusively, from the very beginning of its production cycle, which in a general sense means waste treatment procedures in situ [4]. The listed REM procedures are applicable for polluted air and waste gases from different spheres of human activity, and for underground aquifer water, surface water, soil and sediments of water bodies. Food, as one of the important entities of civilization and part of the ecosystem, is also exposed to pollutants in all segments “from farm to fork”, however it is not the subject of this work. Finally, this work does not even mention a large part of the practically countless pollutants and corresponding procedures and alternatives for their purification. Instead, the emphasis herein is on the urgent problems: PFASs and plastic. This latter product, is the absolute leader, in terms of volume of production, application and polluting potential as well as in efforts to find effective, efficient and cheap mass procedures to decontamination virtually everything that surrounds us, everything that we look at or touch [5].

2 Long History of Pollution of Our Planet The environment, especially the biosphere, in all its diversity during the Quaternary period was constantly naturally polluted with chemical pollutants (rarely even in the present age), as a result of volcanic activity (e.g. micron-sized silicate particles, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride), or from fires caused by electric discharges in the atmosphere (lightning, lightning strikes) during which nitrogen oxides accumulate, which react with water and rain and reach the soil as nitrous and nitric acid [6–9]. The action of some microorganisms (MOs), such as bacteria that oxidize sulfide-sulfide minerals and thereby generate sulfuric acid, leads to the formation of acidic waters, which also contain toxic elements, such as copper and arsenic. These natural processes are still taking place, are they used to obtain useful metals from sulphide ores and are the cause of acid mine water-drainage (AMD) [10]. Evidence of the beginning of pollution of the environment by ancient man is related to the controlled use of fire, which led to the pollution of the immediate environment with carbon monoxide, soot particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [9]. Some data suggest that this was caused by Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) as early as 400,000 BCE and later, Homo sapiens at the beginning of the Middle to Late Pleistocene but abundant evidence occure around 70,000–40,000 years ago [11, 12]. Research of thick ice layers in the Arctic and Andes and other material evidence (buildings, objects), including written documentation from the Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, Sumerian, Greek, Roman civilizations, prove lead contamination started from about 10,000 BCE. Lead was used for a wide variety of purposes, from construction to contraception throughout the civilizations [9, 11, 13]. Chemical contamination of the environment caused by human activity and life is anthropogenic, as opposed to native. The period of intense negative anthropogenic impacts on the environment is tentatively called the Anthropocene as an informal geological age. When does the Anthropocene begin? Various interpretations-proofs and opinions have been mooted, from when humans began to poison the environment with lead, to the Middle Ages (13th century) when the coal as a “fossil fuel” began to be used

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

207

more massively. Many indicators support regarding the Anthtopocene as beginning with the first industrial revolution (1750) and lasted almost 275 years. For monitoring and modelling purposes, the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century (the year 2000) is now taken as a turning point for the considered time span of 500 years back and half a millenium ahead, i.e. from 1500–2500. In this timeframe, the development of modern civilization is able to be observed and modelled globally for some important determinants, especially changes in temperatures, concentration of carbon dioxide in the air and concentration (partial pressure) of oxygen at sea level. This timeframe, the Anthropocene in the past and in the future, and is window to the climate changes that our epoch has led to and will continue to irresistibly produce, i.e. even greater and irreversible perturbations caused directly by Homo sapiens (ironically in literal translation from Latin, meaning wise man) [6, 14, 15].

3 Pollutants and Global Pollution Pollutants, contaminants and polluting substances in the environment are those substances that can occur at concentration in one of the ecospheres (and food for humans and farmed animals) that exceeds the concentrations prescribe by positive legal regulations, for which the primary benchmarks are a negative impact on the health of humans and animals and plants, i.e. damage to the environment [1]. It is practically impossible to count the type and number of pollutants, just as not all the components of crude oil are known. For the sake of easier management and assessment, especially of risks, chemical contaminants are enumerated and classified, and their number and concentrations are constantly being updated, and recorded in-data base, which is done by regulatory and control bodies at the state, regional or global levels [16]. Chemical contaminants can be in all three aggregate states, just as the same pollutant can be in several physical forms depending on external conditions, primarily temperature and atmospheric pressure (or pressure, if a substances is in the ocean depths). Chemically, these are inorganic or organic substances or their mixture. Most often, they are not pure chemical substances, either due to different formulations for various application, or due to their intinsic natures: oil derivatives are an example, the basis for human production of gasoline, diesel fuel and jet fuel. Micro-particles are particulate matter (PM) less than 10, 2.5 or 1 µm (PM10, PM2.5 or PM1) and are dangerous to health due to their size per se. They include soot (predominantly amorphous carbon), silicate and alumino-silicate and plastic materials, but impotantly, they are all dust, which floats in the air and is a locally almost homogeneously (relative to the arrangement of individual particles) dispersed system: this can be thought of as a solid solution in the air, a gas-smog mixture [1, 17]. However, PM is much more dangerous than just its microns size indicates, since the micro-particles are very often a matrix for other pollutants, including PAHs, POPs (persistent organic pollutants), oxides and other compounds of toxic elements. According to their form, PMs are physical pollutants, but primarily, due to their properties as carriers of different substances and based on their various interactions, they should be considered as chemical contaminants [18, 19]. All chemical contaminants are products that are obtained with the intention being a useful, except for two groups of chemical hazards: polychlorinated

208

M. Vrvi´c

dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), i.e. together PCDD/Fs. These extremely toxic compounds, are also highly potent genotoxins (carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic), and are primarily created during uncontrolled burning of municipal waste. The largest quantities are generated in waste incineration plants by accident, not by intention or need [20]. In order to better understand REM technologies, the pollutants are classified into several groups. PM has been mentioned as a separate category, primarily of polluting substances in the atmosphere, predominantly in the lowest layer of the troposphere (around 10 km, and up to 20 km above sea level) [17]. The next two large groups have also already been mentioned: inorganic and organic pollutants. Inorganic pollutants are less numerous than organic pollutants and include: toxic metals (often in the literature so-called “heavy metals”), but not including precious metals, rare earth elements (REE) and natural radioactive metals, among which they most often considered are (ordered by groups in Periodic system of elements): (beryllium, strontium, barium, titanium, zirconium, vanadium), chromium(III) and chromium(VI), (molybdenum), manganese, (cobalt), nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, mercury, (aluminum, tin), lead, (antimony and bismuth) [21–23]. The next group are the non-metals (metalloids): boron (dusts of alloys with boron, borates, tetraborates, perborates), carbon (coal dust, soot, graphite, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide), silicon (silicate minerals, for example asbestos microfibers, natural and synthetic zeolites, “water glass”, glass dust), nitrogen (nitrogen oxides, ammonia-ammonium ion, nitrites, nitrates, hydrazine), phosphorus (phosphates, sodium tripolyphosphate, phosphides), arsenic (oxides, arsenites, arsenates, arsenides), oxygen (ozone, hydrogen peroxide), sulfur (elemental sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, sulfides, sulfur oxides, sulfites), selenium (elemental selenium, selenides, selenium dioxide, selenites, selenates), fluorine (hydrogen fluoride, fluorides) and chlorine (elemental chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates, perchlorates) [17, 21, 22, 24]. The category of organic pollutants, of which the largest number are xenobiotics [1], is practically uncountable, which is overcome by group classifications. A compilation of the petrochemical industry and petroleum derivatives, most often expressed through the concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is namely hydrocarbons from C6 to C40 : volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which includes petroleum derivatives, as the special group of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (o-, m- and p-) (BTEX); other gaseous and volatile petroleum compounds [like liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), mainly a mixture of propane and butane] and; compounds from the petrochemical industry (e.g. chloro methanes, vinyl chloride monomer, ethylene, propylene, 1,3-butadiene); then fuel additives such as methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE). This group also includes methane, as a natural gas-fossil fuel, but which is also of biogenic origin (from ruminants digestions and from bacterial methanogenesis). Halogenated hydrocarbons, i.e. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons (BFCs), some of wich contain chlorine, are a special group of pollutants and petrochemical products. Than there are the chlorinated ethylenes, the precursors and side products from the production of PVC (polyvinylchloride) and alkenes and chlorinated alkanes most often pyrolysis products of crude gasoline. Finally, PAHs are also pollutants of petroleum origin. Strictly speaking, TPH is the sum of the mentioned oil fractions [21, 25, 26].

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

209

POPs are a particularly useful classification, because they contain a large number of classes of organic compounds, such as the already-mentioned PCDD/Fs, many organochlorine pesticides, the polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), used as fire retardants and PFASs [16, 27–29]. Special categories remain: all groups of pesticides by chemical structure and effect (except POPs), organic compounds with hetero atoms [nitrogen (N), sulfur (S) and oxygen (O)], that form the so-called NSO-compounds (from oil and derivatives), than coal and its products, artificial fertilizers, like urea, explosives, synthetic paints for all purposes, solvents and their halogen derivatives, disinfectants, such as salts of quaternary ammonium bases) [21, 25, 30, 31]. Other special groups are antibiotics for human and animal use, steroids and other hormones and other pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), including detergents [21, 32–34]. Plastics are more precisely synthetic materials, regardless of size (macro, micro or nano) and shape (items, most often bottles, fibrous and globular forms) and type. This group is normally considered exclusively (by)products, but also must include the natural and modified natural biopolymer cellulose materials (paper, regenerated cellulose, viscose fibers), and natural polymers based on Hevea brasiliensis (rubber tree) latex, which is the only source of natural latex. This natural product is used in commercial rubber fotmulations (the most common rubber-based industrial product is vehicle). Plastics and rubber are the biggest global pollutants of all ecospheres [5, 21, 30, 35, 36]. Global pollution of all parts of the Earth is caused by the transfer of pollutants from polluted places or sources of pollution through biogeochemical cycles of elements and water, for which the energy of the Sun and gravity are the drivers, especially in the hydrological cycle, which drives other cycles. The water cycle is important in its own right, and patterns of water circulation and precipitation have major effects on Earth’s ecosystems. Precipitation and surface runoff also play an important role in the cycling of all elements. The most massively cycled, important elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur and about 20 other elements. In particular, surface runoff helps the transfer of elements and consequently pollutants from the pedosphere/lithosphere to all aquatic ecosystems, with significant mediation by the atmosphere. This latter matrix contains only 0.001% of Earth’s total water, i.e., 0.04% of total freshwater, the retention time is only around 10 days, with a flux of over 8000 km3 /y, which indicates a significant rate of transfer and exchange of materials, including pollutants [37]. Due to the transfer of pollutants, at speeds that can be measured in real time, the concept of transboundary pollution was established, the holistic concept of transboundary pollution was established [38, 39]. Unfortunately, this often effectively legalizes global pollution and global polluters. 3.1 PFASs and Plastics PFASs are thermally stable up to 120 °C, chemically resistant (both properties are conditioned by a strong C-F bond) and behave equally in hydrophobic and hydrophilic environments, which is why they are useful substances for numerous applications in everyday life and as and industry. Because of their chemical inertness, they are called “for ever chemicals” and have been in use since the 1940s [40]. As persistent pollutants, they are present in all ecospheres, drinking water and food [41, 42]. The concentration of

210

M. Vrvi´c

PFASs in the Arctic and Tibet is more than 4 ng/L [43]. Exposure to these pollutants is a multiple health hazard for animals and humans, including a wide range of genotoxicity effects [44, 45]. Plastics-Ps are the biggest environmental challenge and danger to the entire living world on the planet. This refers to macro, and especially MPs and NPs (a few µm and less than 1 µm, respectively), which is estimated in the oceans to amount to 51 trillion microscopic pieces with a mass of 269,000 tons, which is over 90% of the total mass of these pollutants on the our planet. The mass of the annual volume of plastic pollution increases proportionally with production, which is estimated will be around 650 million tons in 2034. Much of the plastic gets pushed along ocean the currents and is eventually concentrated in what we call gyres. Today there are five major gyres, the largest of which being the great pacific garbage patch (GPGP), whose mass of about 100 million tons [35, 46]. Plastics are persistent pollutants (plastic generally takes between 500–1000 years to degrade, and even then, it becomes MPs, without fully degrading). Apart from physically killing the living organisms in the oceans, pieces of large microplastics, i.e., sized approximately 1–5 mm, are not recognizable as nonfood by animals are swallowed, and so cause deaths [47]. Ecotoxic and toxic effects are numerous and are a danger to health for animals and to humans, who are in daily contact with plastic objects. As examples MPs are frequent component of cosmetic products, and every time water is consumed from plastic bottles (which instrisically generate MPs and NPs in the water), these small particles enter the body and likely have health consequences. These consequences have not yet been sufficiently examined even though some relatively simple mechanical mechanisms, in tissues and cells [48]. Plastic, as expected, is an ecological abiotic chemical factor for bacteria, and which, like most apparently non-biodegradable substances, can sometimes be included in their metabolic adaptive pathways, so the consortia of MOs that were discovered around and on plastic particles that were being degraded together form the plastisphere [49]. The COVID-19 pandemic, which is still ongoing, brought, in addition to millions of morbidity and mortality, new problems arising from the use of protective equipment, mostly masks, which are estimated to have reached the environment in billions of pieces, and especially from the emission of nanoparticles. Both in the external environment and in the organism. Apart from plastic, masks also contain PFASs as an impregnant, which implies multiple negative effects on the human health, and environment too [50, 51].

4 Classic Remediation Processes Classic REM processes are also applied in advanced REM technologies. Classic REM is based on three principles: separation, containment and destruction. Figure 1 shows the technology classification [52]. For most organic pollutants, the final goal is either destruction or valorization through recycling, which is realized by physical, chemical, physical-chemical and biological, or combined, procedures. Decomposition is not possible for inorganic contaminants-like toxic and ecotoxic elements, so containment (stabilisation and solidification-S/S-with immobilization) is used as the only acceptable technology [53]. The fixation of the elements is not simple, nor are any of the procedures, including burning. All of them are

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

211

Fig. 1. Technology classification

conditioned by the chemical forms of the organic pollutant and environmental factors [3, 4, 54, 55]. For containment, it is often necessary to first extract the contaminants, which are in the form of cations, anions or complex molecules, in order for them to bind to a solid substrate settle on a solid phase or be further treated. The use of direct current electric field-electrochemical-electrokinetic REM processes is a very useful procedure for these purposes. It is based on the effects of electro-migration and electrophoretic mobility of contaminants [56]. Decomposition of contaminants is physical burning (incineration), actually a complex oxidation processes using oxygen from the air, which is preceded by some of the processes using separation technologies during waste collection/sorting [57]. Chemical decomposition has the greatest effects on organic pollutants, and most often it involves the use of effective chemical oxidants, primarily hydrogen peroxide, magnesium and calcium peroxide, peroxyacetic acid or ozone etc. but to form complex compounds or chemical reactions, e.g., reduction, hydrolysis, precipitation and especially effective oxidation by free-radical mechanisms of the Fenton reaction [3, 4, 58, 59]. Biological treatment, in the broadest sense of bioremediation (BREM), is applied to all types of waste and in all techniques. The essence is the interaction of “biological agents”, most often bacteria in aerobic or anaerobic conditions (microbial BREM) [60], or plants (phytoremediation) [61] and to a lesser extent animals (zooremediation) [62],In these processes pollutants serve as utilizable substrate for the organisms. MOs have an affinity for all pollutants, and the potential (from evolutionary responses) for their decomposition and transformation, thereby generating of gaseous reactive products (e.g., hydrogen sulfide). MOs can also perform, physiological-metabolic transformations, thanks to their genetic adaptive mechanisms, which no other living entity has [63–65]. One of the mechanisms of BREM is biosorption and bioaccumulation (both plants and animals can have these abilitiues) [66]. For efficient and effective REM in some of the stages, another process is applied, such as, for example, the interaction of

212

M. Vrvi´c

bacteria and plants in phytoremediation, natural or bioaugmented [61] or a combination of Fenton’s reaction and BREM [67]. The above brief overview is only a part of known REM processes, procedures, techniques. In the paper [68] “25 Types of Environmental Remediation” are listed.

5 Challenges of Advanced Procedures for Bioremediation In research laboratories, new procedures for REM, and especially for BREM [63], are giving promising and environmentally friendly results every day [69]. Under the pressure of increasing pollution and consequent climate change [14, 37], BREM is quickly coming to realisation. An excellent example is the mitigation of dangerous cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins by electrochemical oxidation, which has gone from laboratory and pilot plant to field application [70]. In relation to pollutants, the persistent and difficult to (bio)degradable substances (refractory, recalcitrant) now have out attention [71, 72]. The main focus is on the two mentioned groups of persistent organic pollutants: PFASs and plastics. PFASs were considered not only non-biodegradable but also chemically stable “for ever chemicals”. However, as expected, defluorination and decarboxylation of perfluorocarboxylic acids occurs at low temperature (120 °C) under the action of sodium hydroxide [73]. Efficient degradation is also achieved by catalyzed propagation reactions of reactive species from hydrogen peroxide [74]. The application of alkaline-hydrothermal treatment for groundwater and soil REM is realistic [75]. Microbial degradation pathways, by defluorination mechanisms, also are potential BREM processes [76]. Purification of potable water from PFASs contamined water is feasible, but expensive, by combined application of nanofiltration, activated carbon and anion ion exchanger [77]. Ps are ubiquitous pollutants, and are the biggest problem and challenge on our planet. Macro- and coarse large MPs up to about 5 mm [35], are easily collected and can be recycled, transformed into other chemical products and burned with significant energy generation [78]. MPs and NPs, especially particles smaller than 10 µm, cannot be separated or degraded in bulk. Unfortunately, we have already created an unsolvable problem by producing plastic contamination of all Earth’s water bodies and the pedosphere. Advanced oxidation processes involve rigorous physical and chemical conditions, such as the thermal Fenton reaction in a laboratory reactor [79], processes and conditions that are too demanding for out global problem. It was only a matter of time before plastic-degrading MOs were isolated, since it was evident that consortia of MOs in polluted environments degrade some Ps [80]. The bacterium Idenoella sakaiensis was isolated in 2016 from waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packaging (particularly bottles). I. sakaiensis decomposes (actualy depolymerizes) PET, thanks to the enzyme PET depolymerase. The activity of this enzyme has been increased several times compared to the base strain thanks to the genetic engineering of this bacterium and consequently engineering of the enzyme itself [81]. In 2020, the French company „Carbios“ from the environmental services sector, announced that in 2021 it would demonstrate a test of enzymatic depolymerization of PET bottles, and that in 2024–2025 an industrial plant would start operating, in which the efficiency would be

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

213

over 90% in 10 h [82]. The biological degradation of synthetic polymers is promising and should produce new encouraging results both for novel MOs and/or enzymes and for higher organisms in complex biocoenosis in the polluted environments and waste dumps. Example are the “super worm” that feeds on polystyrene and the species of water fly that is easily adapted to feed on polyamides [83, 84]. The future in the management of plastic pollution, especially MPs, relies on BREM processes and (bio)chemical valorization of plastic waste into useful chemical raw materials [85], such as a material produced fromf plastic waste and that has nanometer pores to capture carbon dioxide. However, there is evidence that almost all Ps that have ever been produced in the 20th and 21st centuries are still in the environment on Earth. Morever, plastic production is forecast to increase dramatically with increasing fossil fuel production The urgent needs for progress and prospects in the conversion of plastic waste into useful, non-demaging chemicals are unquestionable [86].

6 Instead of a Conclusion The necessary development and application of advanced technologies, forced by uncontrolled pollution and devastation of the environment (anthropogenic effects in the Anthropocene!), are in three directions: (a) using the advantages of known technologies in modern approaches, (b) new efficient reagents, and catalysts and (c) nano-materials and technologies. (a) Modern approaches using known technologies. Separation filtration techniques for the separation of pollutants are very common in environmental protection, and primarily in their new iteration refers to micro- and nanofiltration and modern materials for the production of filter materials [85, 86]. This group also includes membrane technologies, especially reverse osmosis [87]. (b) New reagents/catalysts. Numerous old and new reagents are being considered as having potential for REM. These are primarily strong oxidants, such as ferrates [salts of the complex anion-tetraoxo ferrate(VI)] [88], different variants of Fenton’s reagent, for example with the replacement of hydrogen peroxide with peroxodisulfate, but also with the use of different chemical forms of iron, such as zero-valent iron, which is an effective reductant in dehalogenation [89, 90]. This reaction is also used as part of BREM [67]. A large number of substances are used to catalyze REM processes (titanium dioxide, zinc and zinc oxide etc.) and they might be subjects of modification to improve REM [91]. Finally, the direct application of enzymes in the degradation of pollutants [92] and the increasing challenges and possibilities of using these biocatalysts for BREM are in the group of new catalysts [91, 92]. (c) Nanotechnology. The beginning of the 21st century is the beginning of intensive and revolutionary application of nano-materials in almost all areas that make up the framework of our civilization with a large number of beneficial implications, but also many negative impacts on the health and condition of living systems. A good part of the new reagents and catalysts (b. above) is their physical nano-material status (titanium dioxide, zero-valent iron, zinc, zinc oxide etc.). 2D materials, sonamed because of their planar structure and nano-dimensions, include graphene (an

214

M. Vrvi´c

allotrope of carbon-form of graphite) and derivatives, which are the most promising for REM/BREM. This nanomaretials, primarily act for MOs stimulation of growth and activity, and as carriers of other substances, for the immobilization of MOs, enzymes and inorganic catalysts, but also as concentrators of nanopollutants, in first place NPs. Nano-REM in all its forms is the future that is already underway. Nanotechnology in BREM is undeniably a revolutionary technology of choice for the biodegradation of agricultural soils contaminated with MPs and NPs [93, 94], or with other contaminants, such as products from the explosive decomposition of ammunition charges and from rocket fuel combustion. The ideal of “zero waste” flows from current civilization into the future [95] and is an operational part of the SD matrix and the Unated Nations 2030 agenda [96]. There are many different integrated BREM-REM technologies, including processes with biochar (another new material with improved known properties), bacteria (also and fungi) or plants, including: REM of contaminated soil [97], or a many other, not only for soil, advanced systems, processes and technologies as a step towards SD. SD is a sociologicaleconomic-political category that relies on the basic principles (12 + 12) of green chemistry and green engineering [21]. Green chemistry for REM is achievable, insofar as it is possible to realize the set principles. BREM and sustainability are connected by modern strategies for the realization of promising bio/remedies in conjunction with green sustainability [98], which, for the example of the environment and BREM of MPs and NPs, comes down to the connection: science-society-politics [99]. Creating the principles of sustainability and a green/circular economy as an achievable goal of environmental protection and REM seems to be achievable by closed-loops for: renewable resourcesproduction-reduction-consumption-waste and environmental pollution-recycling-reuse [100]. Unfortunately, unforeseen events, for which there can be no risk assessment and control in SD, deny our use of the word sustainable, and mean we should start thinking of unsustainable development. This was recently illustrated through (at least) two global frightening events: the CoViD-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine, during which, as already stated environmental pollution at the planetary level drastically worsened and the circular economy in most spheres, in its infancy to a great extent returned to linear economy, which the visible real huge mass of matter at the end does not “fasten” with the beginning. For that irreversibly-non-renewable turn, incalculable energy was consumed along with millions of dead, killed and unfortunate people. It has been shown that SD is an insufficiently grounded and idealistic concept, so that suitable development [101] is a more realistic transitional framework. More appropriate, though, not only for the current situation regarding the waste and production streams for consumerand modern civilizations, but as an approach to which H. sapiens should adjust is: smart development. Acknowledgment. This research was supported by the European Union’s Horizon Europe Project GREENLand - Twinning Microplastic-free Environment under grant agreement number 101079267.

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

215

References 1. Allaby, M. (ed.): 4th edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2010) 2. Auditing Waste Management–MOOC. https://sisu.ut.ee/waste/documents. Accessed 22 Dec 2022 3. Lehr, J., Hyman, M., Gass, T.E., et al.: Handbook of Complex Environmental Remediation Problems. McGraw-Hill, New York (2002) 4. Suthersan, S.S., Payne, F.C.: In situ Remediation Engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2005) 5. Groh, K.J., Arp, H.P.H., MacLeod, M., et al.: Assessing and managing environmental hazards of polymers: historical development, science advances and policy options. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts Adv. 25, 10–25 (2023) 6. Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., et al. (eds.): Elsevier, Amsterdam (2012) 7. International Chronostratigraphic Chart - International Commission on Stratigraphy – v 2022/02. https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart~2022-02.pdf. Accessed 18 Dec 2022 8. What is the Timeline of Human Evolution?.https://www.twinkl.com/teaching-wiki/timelineof-human-evolution. Accessed 23 Dec 2022 9. Wijbenga, A., Hutzinger, O.: Chemicals, man and the environment-a historic perspective of pollution and related topics. Naturwissenschaften 71, 239–246 (1984) 10. Lund, P.A., De Biase, D., Liran, O., et al.: Understanding how microorganisms respond to acid pH is central to their control and successful exploitation. Front. Microbiol. 11, 556140 (2020) 11. Environmental History - Timeline and Historical Insights. https://environmentalhistory.org/. Accessed 16 Dec 2022 12. Higham, T., Douka, K., Wood, R.W., et al.: The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature 512, 306–309 (2014) 13. When Did Humans Start Polluting the Earth? https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/02/ when-did-humans-start-polluting-the-earth/. Accessed 28 Dec 2022 14. Keeling, R.F., Powell, F.L., Shaffer, G., et al.: Impacts of changes in atmospheric O2 on human physiology. Is there a basis for concern?. Front. Physiol. 12, 571137 (2021) 15. Solomona, S., Plattnerb, G.-K., Knuttic, R., et al.: Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions. PNAS 106, 1704–1709 (2009) 16. The 16 New POPs-An Introduction to the Chemicals Added to the Stockholm Convention as Persistent Organic Pollutants by the Conference of the Parties. http://chm.pops.int/Implem entation/IndustrialPOPs/PFAS/Overview/tabid/5221/Default.aspx. Accessed 14 Dec 2022 17. Holloway, A.M., Wayne, R.P.: Atmospheric Chemistry. RSC, Cambridge (2010) 18. Sterner, O.: Chemistry, Health, and Environment, 2nd edn. Wiley, Hoboken (2010) 19. Merian, E., Anke, M., Ihnat, M., et al. (eds.): Elements and their Compounds in the Environment-Occurence, Analysis and Biological Relevance, 2nd edn, vol. 1. Wiley, Weinheim (2004) 20. Skene, S.A., Dewhurst, I.C., Greenberg, M.: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans: the risks to human health. A review. Hum. Toxicol. 8, 173–203 (1989) 21. Lichtfouse, E., Schwarzbauer, J., Robert, D. (eds.): Environmental Chemistry-Green Chemistry and Pollutants in Ecosystems. Springer, Heidelberg (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/ b137751 22. Bodek, I., Lyman, W.J., Reehl, W.F., et al.: Environmental Inorganic Chemistry. Pergamon Press, New York (1988)

216

M. Vrvi´c

23. Merian, E., Anke, M., Ihnat, M., et al. (eds.): Elements and Their Compounds in the Environment-Occurence, Analysis and Biological Relevance, 2nd edn, vol. 2. Wiley, Weinheim (2004) 24. Merian, E., Anke, M., Ihnat, M., et al. (eds.): Elements and Their Compounds in the Environment-Occurence, Analysis and Biological Relevance, 2nd edn, vol. 3. Wiley, Weinheim (2004) 25. Wittcoff, H.A., Reuben, B.G.: Industrial Organic Chemicals. Wiley, New York (1996) 26. Li, X., Chevez, T., De Silva, A.O., et al.: Which of the (mixed) halogenated n-alkanes are likely to be persistent organic pollutants? Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 15912–15920 (2021) 27. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. http://chm.pops.int/TheCon vention/Overview/tabid/3351/Default.aspx. Accessed 14 Dec 2022 28. Yanga, L., Liuabc, G., Shena, J., et al.: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the environment: occupational and exposure events, effects on human health and fertility. Environ. Int. 152, 106450 (2021) 29. Akmal, M., Laessig, R.H., Reed, K.D.: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (pbdes): new pollutants-old diseases. Clin. Med. Res. 1, 281–290 (2003) 30. Faure, G.: Principles and Applications of Geochemistry, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Suddle River (1998) 31. Dragun, J.: The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials. ASP, Amherst (1998) 32. Yazdan, M.M.S., Kumar, R., Leung, S.W.: The environmental and health impacts of steroids and hormones in wastewater effluent, as well as existing removal technologies: a review. Ecologies 3, 206–224 (2022) 33. Kraemer, S.A., Ramachandran, A., Perron, G.G.: Antibiotic pollution in the environment: from microbial ecology to public policy. Microorganisms 7, 180 (2019) 34. Liu, J.-L., Wong, M.-H.: Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs): a review on environmental contamination in China. Environ. Int. 59, 208–224 (2013) 35. There are 5 Trillion Pieces of Plastic Floating in Our Oceans. https://www.vox.com/2016/ 5/23/11735856/plastic-ocean. Accessed 30 Dec 2022 36. Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., et al. (eds.): Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2013) 37. The Water Cycle-U.S. Geological Survey. https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-sci ence-school/science/water-cycle. Accessed 1 Dec 2022 38. Jayakumar, S., Koh, T., Beckman, R., et al. (eds.): Transboundary Pollution. EE Pub., Cheltenham (2021) 39. Özkara, A., Akyıl, D.: Environmental pollution and pollutants on the ecosystem: a review. Turkish J. Sci. Rev. 11, 11–17 (2018) 40. Glüge, J., Scheringer, M., Cousins, I.T., et al.: An overview of the uses of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 22, 2345–2373 (2020) 41. Ian, T., Cousins, I.T., Johansson, J.H., Salter, M.E.: Outside the safe operating space of a new planetary boundary for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 11172–11179 (2022) 42. Beskoski, V.P., Takemine, S., Nakano, T., et al.: Perfluorinated compounds in sediment samples from the wastewater canal of Pancevo (Serbia) industrial area. Chemosphere 91, 1408–1415 (2013) 43. Hogue, C.: PFOA in rain worldwide exceeds EPA advisory level. Chem. Eng. News 100(27), 6 (2022) 44. Giesy, J., Kannan, K.: Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 1339–1342 (2001)

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

217

45. Ng, C., Cousins, I.T., DeWitt, J.C., et al.: Addressing urgent questions for PFAS in the 21st century. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 12755–12765 (2021) 46. Surprising Plastic Pollution Statistics and Facts of 2022. https://www.santacruzworks.org/ news/plastic-pollution-statistics-facts. Accessed 23 June 2022 47. Plastic in Our Oceans is Killing Marine Mammals. https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/pla stic-in-our-oceans-is-killing-marine-mammals. Accessed 07 July 2021 48. Ramsperger, A.F.R.M., Bergamaschi, E., Panizzolo., et al.: Nano- and microplastics: a comprehensive review on their exposure routes, translocation, and fate in humans. NanoImpact 9, 100441 (2023) 49. Miao, L., Li, W., Adyel, T.M., et al.: Spatio-temporal succession of microbial communities in plastisphere and their potentials for plastic degradation in freshwater ecosystems. Water Res. 229, 119406 (2023) 50. Morgana, S., Casentini, B., Amalfitano, S.: Uncovering the release of micro/nanoplastics from disposable face masks at times of COVID-19. J. Hazard. Mater. 419, 126507 (2021) 51. Muensterman, D.J., Cahuas, L., Titaley, I.A., et al.: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in facemasks: potential source of human exposure to PFAS with implications for disposal to landfill. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 9, 320–326 (2022) 52. Evans, G.M., Furlong, J.C.: Environmental Biotechnology, 2nd edn. Wiley, Chichester (2011) 53. Conner, J.R.: Chemical Fixation and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes. VNR, New York (1990) 54. Wise, D.L., Trantolo, D.J., Cichon, E.J., et al. (eds.): Marcel Dekker, New York (2000) 55. Testa, S.M., Winegardner, D.I.: Restoration of Contamiined Aquifers, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2000) 56. Reddy, K.R., Cameselle, C.: Electrochemical Remediation Technologies. Wiley, Hoboken (2001) 57. Hester, R.E., Harrison, R.M. (eds.): Waste Incineration and the Environment. RSC, Chemistry, Cambridge (1994) 58. Shokri, A., Farad, M.S.: A critical review in Fenton-like approach for the removal of pollutants in the aqueous environment. Environ. Challenges 7, 100534 (2022) 59. Rivas, F.J.: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sorbed on soils: a short review of chemical oxidation based treatments. J. Hazard. Mater. 138, 234–251 (2006) 60. Saval, S., Terzi´c, J.S., Vrvi´c, M.M.: Bioremediation of contaminated soils and aquifers. Mikrobiologija (Serbia) 43, 65–76 (2006) 61. McCutcheon, S.C., Schnoor, J.L. (eds.): Phytoremediation. Wiley, Hoboken (2003) 62. George, L.B., Nandotriya, M.M., Highland, H.N., et al.: Zooremediation: the new approach of bioremediation study-a review. J. Multidisc. Subjects 11, 266–286 (2017) 63. Srivastava, J., Naraian, R., Kalra, S.J.S., Chandra, H.: Advances in microbial bioremediation and the factors influencing the process. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 11(6), 1787–1800 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-013-0412-z 64. Bulatovi´c, S., Mari´c, N., Knudsen, T., et al.: Bioremediation of groundwater contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons applied at a site in Belgrade (Serbia). J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 85, 1067–1081 (2020) 65. Young, L.Y., Cerniglia, C.E. (eds.): Wiley, New York (1995) 66. Kotrba, P., Mackova, M., Macek, T. (eds.): Springer, Dordrecht (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-94-007-0443-5 67. Huang, D., Hu, C., Zeng, G., et al.: Combination of Fenton processes and biotreatment for wastewater treatment and soil remediation. Sci. Total Environ. 574, 1599–1610 (2017) 68. Types of Environmental Remediation. https://a-otc.com/25-types-of-environmental-remedi ation/. Accessed 27 Dec 2022

218

M. Vrvi´c

69. Shakya, P., Nayak, A., Jogi, J., et al.: Futuristic approach to environment cleansing: bioremediation. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 9, 418–425 (2020) 70. Yang, S., Twiss, M.R., Fernando, S., et al.: Mitigation of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cHABs) and cyanotoxins by electrochemical oxidation: from a bench-scale study to field application. Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2, 1160–1168 (2022) 71. Curiel-Alegre, S., Velasco-Arroyo, B., Rumbo, C., et al.: Evaluation of biostimulation, bioaugmentation, and organic amendments application on the bioremediation of recalcitrant hydrocarbons of soil. Chemosphere 307, 135638 (2022) 72. Cai, F., Lei, L., Li, Y., et al.: A review of aerobic granular sludge (AGS) treating recalcitrant wastewater: refractory organics removal mechanism, application and prospect. Sci. Total Environ. 785, 146852 (2021) 73. Trang, B., Li, Y., Xue, X.-S., et al.: Low-temperature mineralization of perfluorocarboxylic acids. Science 377, 839–845 (2022) 74. Mitchell, S.M., Ahmad, M., Teel, A.L., et al.: Degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid by reactive species generated through catalyzed H2 O2 propagation reactions. Environ. Chem. Technol. Lett. 1, 117–121 (2014) 75. Hao, S., Choi, Y.J., Deeb, R.A., et al.: Application of hydrothermal alkaline treatment for destruction of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in contaminated groundwater and soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 6647–6657 (2022) 76. Zhanga, Z., Sarkar, D., Biswas, J.K., et al.: Biodegradation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): a review. Biores. Technol. 344, 126223 (2022) 77. Franke, V., Ullberg, M., McCleaf, P., et al.: The price of really clean water: combining nanofiltration with granular activated carbon and anion exchange resins for the removal of per- and polyfluoralkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water production. Environ. Sci. Technol. Water 1, 782–795 (2021) 78. Yanga, Z., Lüa, F., Zhanga, H., et al.: Is incineration the terminator of plastics and microplastics? J. Hazard. Mater. 401, 123429 (2021) 79. Hu, K., Zhou, P., Yang, J., et al.: Degradation of microplastics by a thermal fenton reaction. Environ. Sci. Technol. Eng. 2, 110–120 (2022) 80. Tanasupawat, S., Takehana, T., Yoshida, S., et al.: Ideonella sakaiensis sp. nov., isolated from a microbial consortium that degrades poly (ethyleneterephthalate). Int. J. System. Evol. Microbiol. 66, 2813–2818 (2016) 81. Tournier, V., Topham, C.M., Gilles, A., et al.: An engineered PET depolymerase to break down and recycle plastic bottles. Nature 580, 216–219 (2020) 82. Carbios Clearing the Bottleneck – Enzymatic Recycling Tech Hits 90% Depolymerization in 10 Hours. https://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2020/04/12/carbios-clearing-the-bot tleneck-enzymatic-recycling-tech-hits-90-depolymerization-in-10-hours/. Accessed 14 Apr 2020 83. Sun, J., Prabhu, A., Aroney, S.T.N., et al.: Insights into plastic biodegradation: community composition and functional capabilities of the superworm (Zophobasmorio) microbiome in styrofoam feeding trials. Microbial Genom. 8, 000842 (2022) 84. Khosrovyan, A., Doria, H.B., Kahru, A., et al.: Polyamide microplastic exposure elicits rapid, strong and genome-wide evolutionary response in the freshwater non-biting midge. Chironomus riparius Chemosphere 299, 134452 (2022) 85. Ru, J., Huo, Y., Yang, Y.: Microbial degradation and valorization of plastic wastes. Front. Microbiol. 11, 442 (2020) 86. Zheng, K., Wu, Y., Hu, Z., et al.: Progress and perspective for conversion of plastic wastes into valuable chemicals. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52, 8–29 (2023) 87. Al-Obaidi, M., Kara/Zaitri, C., Mujtaba, I.M.: Wastewater Treatment by Reverse Osmosis Process. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2020)

Technologies for Remediation of Polluted Environments

219

88. Sharma, V.K. (ed.): Ferrates. ACS, Wasington DC (2008) 89. Ahmed, N., Vione, D., Rivoira, L., et al.: A review on the degradation of pollutants by fenton-like systems based on zero-valent iron and persulfate: effects of reduction potentials, ph, and anions occurring in waste waters. Molecules 26, 4584 (2021) 90. Gong, Y., Wang, Y., Lin, N., et al.: Iron-based materials for simultaneous removal of heavy metal(loid)s and emerging organic contaminants from the aquatic environment: recent advances and perspectives. Environ. Pollut. 299, 118871 (2022) 91. Yentekakis, I.Y., Dong, F.: Grand challenges for catalytic remediation in environmental and energy applications toward a cleaner and sustainable future. Front. Environ. Chem. 1, 005 (2020) 92. Burns, R.G., Dick, R.P.: Enzymes in the Environment. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2002) 93. Priyadharshini, S.D., Manikandan, S., Kiruthig, R., et al.: Graphene oxide-based nanomaterials for the treatment of pollutants in the aquatic environment: recent trends and perspectives – a review. Environ. Pollut. 306, 119377 (2022) 94. Hussain, A., Rehman, F., Rafeeq, H., et al.: In-situ, ex-situ, and nano-remediation strategies to treat polluted soil, water, and air – a review. Chemosphere 289, 133252 (2022) 95. Khan, M.M., Islam, M.R.: Zero Waste Engineering. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) 96. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un. org/2030agenda. Accessed 31 July 2022 97. Xiang, L., Harindintwali, J.D., Wang, F., et al.: Integrating biochar, bacteria, and plants for sustainable remediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 16546–16566 (2022) 98. Bala, S., Garg, D., Thirumalesh, B.V., et al.: Recent strategies for bioremediation of emerging pollutants: a review for a green and sustainable environment. Toxics 10, 484 (2022) 99. Das, R.K., Sanyala, D., Kumar, P., et al.: Science-society-policy interface for microplastic and nanoplastic: environmental and biomedical aspects. Environ. Pollut. 290, 117985 (2021) 100. Sgroi, F.: Circular economy and environmental protection. AIMS Environ. Sci. 9, 122–127 (2022) 101. Horváth, I.T.: Introduction: sustainable chemistry. Chem. Rev. 118, 369–371 (2018)

Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water with a Human Health Risk Assessment in the City of Mostar Aida Šukali´c(B) , Alma Leto, Alma Miˇcijevi´c, and Lamija Torlo University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, USRC “Mithat HujdurHujka”, 88 104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The paper presents the results of monitoring drinking water at four locations in the City of Mostar with the aim of monitoring the concentration of nitrates and nitrites. The wellsprings where the samples were collected are Radobolja, Studenac, Bosnjaci, and Salakovac. Eight samples were taken at each location over the course of one year in different time intervals. The samples were delivered to the Institute for Public Health in Mostar, where the analyses were performed. The research was conducted using the descriptive-research method and spectrophotometric method. The human health risk assessment was also performed by calculating the Hazard Quotient Index (HQI). It was determined that the samples from all locations are in accordance with the Rulebook on health safety of drinking water (Official Gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 40/10) and that they do not exceed the MDK values for nitrates and nitrites. It was also determined that there is no health risk for adults and children from the intake of nitrates and nitrites from drinking water from these wellsprings. Keywords: nitrates · nitrites · drinking water · risk assessment

1 Introduction Safe drinking water is the basis of healthy living and one of the priorities in primary health care. Safety implies that microbiological, physicochemical, and radiological parameters are satisfied; there are sufficient quantities of water as well as continuous delivery. In recent years, in agricultural areas and urban settlements, there has been an accelerated contamination of groundwater with substances containing nitrogen (ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates) and microorganisms. These contaminations can seriously endanger human health. Contamination of groundwater occurs due to the excessive use of mineral and natural fertilizers (quantities that plants cannot utilize), construction of mound septic systems, conversion of old wells into septic tanks, unsanitary disposal of garbage, unsanitary discharge of wastewater, excessive use of pesticides, and air pollution.The effect of water is immediate. Various infectious diseases and harmful and dangerous chemical substances can be absorbed through the water. Due to the enormous © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 220–227, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_24

Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water

221

epidemiological importance of water, it is necessary to control the quality of drinking water to protect human health. Nitrates are the final product of oxidation, that is, the mineralization of organic substances containing nitrogen. Their presence in water, is a sign of “old” water pollution with organic substances. According to the World Health Organization guidelines [1], as well as our regulations, the limit value for nitrates (as NO3 – ) in drinking water is 50 mg/l. Nitrites are produced by the oxidation of ammonia, just as well as by the reduction of nitrates. They are always a sign of “fresh” fecal water pollution. Nitrate reduction to nitrites occurs at a high pH water value and under the influence of bacteria. They participate in the oxidation of hemoglobin into methemoglobin, which is incapable of transporting oxygen away from the tissues. The resulting methemoglobinemia is manifested as cyanosis, asphyxia, and sometimes death, and occurs in infants if water “rich” in nitrites is used to prepare food, beverages, and drinking water. The maximum contaminant level for nitrites in drinking water is 0.50 mg/l, according to the Rulebook on health safety of drinking water [2]. On the other hand, according to the recommendations of the World Health Organization [1], the maximum contaminant level is 3 mg/l. The most significant pathway of exposure to nitrates/nitrites through the diet is the consumption of drinking water. Within the European Union, the maximum permissible limit for nitrates is 50 mg/l, while for nitrites, the limit is 0.5 mg/l [3]. A health risk is the probability that describes the level of threat to the health of an individual exposed to the influence of a certain pollutant or group of pollutants. The risk depends on several factors: the number of contaminants present in the food, the extent of the contact (level of exposure), and their toxicity. 1.1 The Impact of Nitrates and Nitrites on Human Health Food is the main source of nitrates and nitrites, especially vegetables that store nitrates in their green parts. Through drinking water, people ingest between 10–15% of nitrates. Nitrates and nitrites are soluble in water. Nitrates themselves are not toxic, unlike nitrites. [4]. The harmful effect of nitrates is linked to its reduction to nitrites, i.e., a reaction that occurs during the metabolic process. One of the most prominent diseases caused by excessive intake of nitrates is methemoglobinemia, also known as blue-baby syndrome. Cases of this disease would most often appear in rural areas where the population is supplied with water from wells. Exposure to nitrates and nitrites during pregnancy can increase the risk of anemia, preeclampsia, and even premature birth [5]. Although many studies and experiments have been conducted to link nitrate intake with gastrointestinal and gastritis cancer, there is no evidence to confirm this [6]. For now, it is impossible to connect the consumption of substances polluted with nitrates to various birth defects, hypertension, and high blood pressure. These inconsistencies might suggest that nitrates alone cannot cause the regional increase in gastritis cancer death rates. However, it can be the result of many other factors, such as high levels of pesticides, the presence of coliform bacteria, and/or groundwater contamination [6].

222

A. Šukali´c et al.

2 Research Material and Methods The locations where water samples were collected are 1. Radobolja, 2. Studenac, 3. Bosnjaci, 4. Salakovac. The water analysis included testing of nitrite and nitrate content in drinking water. Sampling and analysis of water quality were carried out in the laboratory of the Institute for Public Health of HNK. Nitrates and nitrites are determined by the UV spectrophotometric method. Nitrate Determination Procedure Pour 50 ml of the sample into a 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask, add 1 ml of 1M HCl and mix it. Measure the absorbance at 220 nm (UV region) against the blank sample. The spectrophotometer screen shows the nitrate concentration in mg/L NO3 −. Nitrite Determination Procedure Measure 50 ml of the sample in an Erlenmeyer flask, add 1 ml of EDTA, 1 ml of sulfanilic acid, and 1 ml of α-naphthylamine. Allow the sample to sit for 10 min to develop a pink color. The color caused by the presence of nitrite, i.e., the concentration in mg/L NO2 − that appears on the spectrophotometer screen, should be measured at 520 nm against the blank sample. If the sample does not color, the nitrite concentration in the sample is zero. Calculation of Risk Assessment The risk assessment includes: the assessment of daily intake of nitrates and nitrites by water consumption, HQI (Hazard Quotient Index) calculation. In order to estimate an individual’s daily exposure, USEPA [7, 8] suggests an average lifetime dose as an indicator of exposure. The following equation is used to calculate USEPA [7] daily oral exposure: CDI = CxUd/TM CDI - Chronic daily intake C - the average concentration of nitrates and nitrites Ud - daily water intake according to WHO (1l for children and 2l for adults) TM - body mass for adults and children according to WHO (70 kg for adults and 30 kg for children) To estimate non-carcinogenic risk, the hazard quotient is calculated using the following USEPA (1999) equation: HQI = CDI/RfD The RfD (reference dose) for nitrates is 1.6 mg/kg per day The RfD for nitrites 0.1 mg/kg per day Values of HQ > 1 indicate the possibility of adverse effects and the need for further study.

Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water

223

The total hazard index HI is the sum of all hazard coefficients.  HI = HQ

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Results of NO3 − and NO2 − Content at the Sources The samples were collected in sterile bottles and transported in cold boxes to the laboratory within 6 h of sampling, following the Rulebook on health safety of drinking water [2]. The average concentration of NO3 − (mg/L) at the locations ranged from 0.083 at Radobolja to 1.923 at Bosnjaci. All measurements at the locations followed the Rulebook and did not exceed the MDK. The average concentration of NO2 − (mg/L) at the locations ranged from 0.00400 at Bosnjaci to 0.00500 at Salakovac. All measurements at the locations followed the Rulebook and did not exceed the MDK. In 2014 [9], conducted a research on the content of ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites in drinking water at 20 locations on the territory of the city of Požarevac (Serbia). They documented elevated nitrate concentrations of 1138.9 mg/dm3 in a water sample from the village Kliˇcevac, which is 20 times higher than the permitted value (50 μg/dm3 or 0.05 mg/dm3 ), and the nitrite concentration of 0.40 mg/dm3 in a water sample from the village Prugovo, which is 10 times higher than the permitted value (30 μg/dm3 or 0.03 mg/dm3 ). Research in Biha´c [10] included physicochemical analyzes at three sources of drinking water. In that research, the content of NO3− ranged from 1.064–24.959 mg/L, and the content of NO2− from 0.01–0.023 mg/L, which is in accordance with this research. In the Republic of Croatia, in the study of drinking water in the Bjelovar - Bilogora County [11], out of a total of 31 samples, 17 contained nitrate concentrations above the permitted values, and 2 contained nitrite concentrations above the permitted values. In this research, the concentrations of nitrates and nitrites did not exceed the maximum allowed values prescribed by the Rulebook on health safety of drinking water. 3.2 Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate and Nitrite Intake in Drinking Water The hazard ratio HQ for NO3 - for adults and children is shown in Table 1, as well as the Hazard Index HI. For adults, the hazard ratio of nitrates ranged from 0.0015 at Radobolja to 0.0549 at Bosnjaci. The HI is 0.076, which means that there is no risk to the health of adults from the intake of nitrates from drinking water from these locations. Chronic daily nitrate intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for adults ranged from the lowest to the highest Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac < Bosnjaci (0.0024; 0.0221; 0.0423; 0.0549). For children, the hazard ratio for nitrates ranged from 0.0018 at Radobolja to 0.0040 at Bosnjaci. The HI is 0.089, which means that there is no risk to children’s health from the intake of nitrates in drinking water from these locations.

224

A. Šukali´c et al. Table 1. CDI, HQ and HI nitrates values for adults and children

Location

Average concentration of nitrates NO3 −mg/l

CDI (mg/kg TM per day)

HQ

HI

Radobolja

0.083

0.0024

0.0015

0.076

Studenac

0.773

0.0221

0.014

Bosnjaci

1.923

0.0549

0.034

Salakovac

1.480

0.0423

0.026

Radobolja

0.083

0.0028

0.0018

Studenac

0.773

0.026

0.016

Bosnjaci

1.923

0.064

0.040

Salakovac

1.480

0.049

0.031

Adults

Children 0.089

Chronic daily nitrate intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for children ranged from the lowest to the highest Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac < Bosnjaci (0.0018; 0.0016; 0.031; 0.040). The hazard ratio HQ for NO2 - for adults and children is shown in Table 2, as well as HI. The hazard ratio for nitrates ranged from 1.14E−03 at Bosnjaci to 1.43E−03 at Salakovac for adults. HI is 5.18E−03, which means that there is no health risk for adults from the intake of nitrites in drinking water from these locations. Chronic daily nitrite intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for adults ranged from the lowest to the highest Bosnjaci < Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac (1.14E−04; 1.21E−04; 1.39E−04; 1.43E−04).The hazard ratio for nitrites ranged from 1.33E−03 at Bosnjaci to 1.67E−03 at Salakovac for children. HI is 6.04E−03, which means that there is no risk to children’s health from the intake of nitrites in drinking water from these locations. Chronic daily intake for nitrites (CDI mg/kg/MT) for children ranging from the lowest to the highest Bosnjaci < Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac (1.3E−04; 1.4E−04; 1.6E−04; 1.7E−04). Table 2. CDI, HQ and HI nitrites values for adults and children Location

Average concentration of nitrates NO2 -mg/l

CDI (mg/kg TM per day)

HQ

HI

Radobolja

0.00424

1.21E−04

1.21E−03

5.18E−03

Studenac

0.00488

1.39E−04

1.39E−03

Bosnjaci

0.00400

1.14E−04

1.14E−03

Adults

(continued)

Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water

225

Table 2. (continued) Location

Average concentration of nitrates NO2 -mg/l

CDI (mg/kg TM per day)

HQ

Salakovac

0.00500

1.43E−04

1.43E−03

Radobolja

0.00424

1.4E−04

1.41E−03

Studenac

0.00488

1.6E−04

1.63E−03

Bosnjaci

0.00400

1.3E−04

1.33E−03

Salakovac

0.00500

1.7E−04

1.67E−03

HI

Children 6.04E−03

Research of nitrate levels in drinking water in South India [12], shows HQ values for women and children ranged from 4.83E−01 to 3.42E+00 and 5.53E-01 to 3.90E+00 which is higher compared to this research. In the same research, it was determined that the non-cancerous hazard index of HI for children is 1.38. That is 1.15 times higher compared to men and women. In this research, the HI for adults and children is lower than 1, and there is no health risk from the intake of nitrates and nitrites in drinking water. The research conducted [13] in Iran in Kurdistan District showed that urban and rural drinking water nitrate concentrations ranged between 0.28–27.77 mg/l and 1.28– 80 mg/l. The concentration of nitrates in samples from rural areas was higher than the concentration in urban samples. The maximum nitrate concentration in this study was 80 mg/l. The average CDI for nitrate in men, women, and children was 0.4258, 0.5110, and 1.1454, respectively. The results of this study showed that all three investigated groups were exposed to the dangers of nitrates in drinking water (HQ > 1). Research [14] in 2018 in northeastern Iran showed that hazard quotient (HQ) values for 41% of children and infants were above safety levels (i.e., HQ > 1), suggesting that groundwater nitrate would have had significant health effects on these age groups.

4 Conclusion Considering the conducted research and the set goals and tasks, several conclusions can be drawn. • Concentrations of nitrates and nitrites at 4 sources of drinking water in the City of Mostar are in accordance with the Rulebook on health safety of drinking water • The average concentration of NO3 − (mg/L) at the locations ranged from 0.083 at Radobolja to 1.923 at Bosnjaci. The average concentration of NO2 − (mg/L) at the locations ranged from 0.00400 at Bosnjaci to 0.00500 at Salakovac. • The hazard ratio for nitrates ranged from 0.0015 at Radobolja to 0.0549 at Bosnjaci for adults. The HI is 0.076, which means that there is no health risk for adults from the intake of nitrates in drinking water from these locations.

226

A. Šukali´c et al.

• Chronic daily nitrate intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for adults ranged from the lowest to the highest Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac < Bosnjaci (0.0024; 0.0221; 0.0423; 0.0549) • The hazard ratio for nitrates ranged from 0.0018 at Radobolja to 0.0040 at Bosnjaci for children. The HI is 0.089, which means that there is no risk to children’s health from the intake of nitrates in drinking water from these locations. • Chronic daily intake for nitrates (CDI mg/kg/MT) for children ranging from the lowest to the highest Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac < Bosnjaci (0.0018; 0.0016; 0.031; 0.040) • The hazard ratio for nitrates ranged from 1.14E−03 at Bosnjaci to 1.43E−03 at Salakovac for adults. HI is 5.18E−03, which means that there is no risk to the health of adults from the intake of nitrites in drinking water from these locations. • Chronic daily nitrite intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for adults ranged from the lowest to the highest Bosnjaci < Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac (1.14E−04; 1.21E−04; 1.39E−04; 1, 43E−04) • The hazard ratio for nitrites ranged from 1.33E−03 at Bosnjaci to 1.67E−03 at Salakovac for children. HI is 6.04E−03, which means that there is no risk to children’s health from the intake of nitrites in drinking water from these locations. • Chronic daily nitrite intake (CDI mg/kg/MT) for children ranging from the lowest to the highest Bosnjaci < Radobolja < Studenac < Salakovac (1.3E−04; 1.4E−04; 1.6E−04; 1, 7E−04). After the research, it is necessary to educate both adults and youth about the negative health effects of chemicals that can be found in both food and water. Education is a very important segment, especially in this sense, because we use water daily for both drinking and maintaining hygiene. It is also necessary to conduct a total dietary study on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which will provide better information about dietary habits.

References 1. World Health Organization: Nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water, Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality, pp. 10–13 (2011) 2. Pravilnik o zdravstvenoj ispravnosti vode za pi´ce (Sl.glasnik BiH 40/10) 3. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption 4. Galaviz-Villa, I., et al.: Agricultural contamination of subterranean water with nitrates and nitrites: an environmental and public health problem. J. Agric. Sci. 2(2) (2010). ISSN 19169752, E-ISSN 1916-9760 5. Tabacova, S., Balabaeva, L., Little, R.E.: Maternal exposure to exogenous nitrogen compounds and complications of pregnancy. Arch. Environ. Health 52(5), 341–347 (1997) 6. Haller, L., McCarthy, P., O’Brien, T., Riehle, J., iStuhldreher, T.: Oneˇciš´cenje podzemnih voda nitratima. Alpha Water Systems, Kalifornija, SAD (2013) 7. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency): Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC, EPA/600/Z-92/001 (1992) 8. USEPA: Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC, NCEA-F-0644, Review Draft (1999)

Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water

227

9. Miloš, R., Mališa, A., Sladana, M., Teodora, M.: Ispitivanje sadržaja nitrita, nitrata i amonijaka u vodi za pi´ce. “XIX SAVETOVANJE O BIOTEHNOLOGIJI” 19(21) (2014) 10. Džaferovi´c, A., Ibrahimpaši´c, J., Maki´c, H., Be´ciraj, A., Dedi´c, S.: KOMPARACIJA ˇ KVALITETA VODA U ZAVISNOSTI OD NACINA ZAŠTITE IZVORIŠTA. In: 9th International Scientific Conference on Production Engineering DEVELOPMENT AND MODERNIZATION OF PRODUCTION, Rim 2013 (2013) 11. Bermanec, M.: Mikrobiološko oneˇciš´cenje pitke vode Bjelovarsko¬bilogorske županije u razdoblju od 2011. do 2013. godine. Završni specijalistiˇcki diplomski struˇcni rad. Križevci: Visoko gospodarsko uˇcilište u Križevcima (2015) 12. Adimalla, N.: Kvaliteta podzemnevode za pi´ce i navodnjavanje i procjena potencijalnih zdravstvenih rizika: studija sluˇcaja iz polusušne regije južne Indije. Izloženost i zdravlje 11(2), 109–123 (2019) 13. Rezaei, H., et al.: Health-risk assessment related to the fluoride, nitrate, and nitrite in the drinking water in the Sanandaj, Kurdistan County, Iran. J. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 25(2019 - Issue 5) (2018) 14. Qasemi, M., et al.: Health risk assessments due to nitrate levels in drinking water in villages of Azadshahr, Northeastern Iran. Environ. Earth Sci. 77(23), 1 (2018)

Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced by Ecological and Technological Process Fatima Muhamedagi´c1(B) , Edina Šertovi´c1 , and Mehmed Cero2 1 Biotechnical Faculty, University of Biha´c, Luke Marjanovica, 37000 Biha´c,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Federal Ministry of the Environment and Tourism, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Today, there is a growing trend of demand and consumption of domestic products produced in an organic way, and this primarily refers to the production of juices, jams and other products. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the apple is the most important and most widespread fruit species. It has a good yield and a relatively low cost. Due to its mentioned characteristics, apples are a very suitable raw material, among other things, in the production of juices. The aim of this study was to compare the quality and acceptability of apple juice produced in two process– ecologically (organic) and technologically (conventional). In these researches, analyzes were performed: physical-chemical, microbiological and organoleptic, i.e. sensory evaluation. The results of the research of apple juice samples showed certain deviations in physicochemical parameters while the microbiological parameters were the same. The sensory properties of the tested samples showed that organically produced apple juice has lower scores compared to technologically produced apple juice. The acceptability test showed satisfactory and good acceptability of organically produced juices compared to conventional ones, which were rated very well by potential consumers. The general conclusion of this paper is that the standardization of technological production processes with continuous analysis of quality parameters would significantly improve the quality of apple juice produced by ecological process. Keywords: apple · apple juice · ecological produced · technological produced

1 Introduction Nowadays, beside successful high eco-juices production, there is a strong need for production of other eco-products also. According to [6] the largest increased of ecological products was reported in Oceania 57,5%. In the other hand, a smaller increased has been reported in Asia 6,6%, Europe 4,2%, while less than 1% has been reported in Latin America 0,9% and Africa 0,2%. According to the market share criterion in ecological agriculture, the most successful countries in Europe are Denmark, Austria and Sweden. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 228–235, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_25

Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced

229

Currently, the EU is leading The Common Agricultural Policy - CAP, through which farmers could make a greater contribution to the environment, climate and rural communities by using proper initiatives and adequate budget. CAP aims to achieve around 25% of organic production in all member state by 2030 [2]. According to the perspectives and development of organic products in the CAP national strategic plans for EU member states, for exsample Austria ranks first with 25.1% share of current organic areas, Slovenia 10,3%, Croatia 7,2% and Malta ranks last with 0.5% [7]. Interesting fact about significant importance of organic (ecological) products is fact that IFOAM marked 2022 year as the year of organic products (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The IFOAM logo: Celebrating the Year of Organic 20221

In order to have label juices with ECO and/or BIO and/or organic marks, products must meet the very strict regulations regarding the materials (fruits), methods, and similar features. Fruit juice is defined as a product that is not fermented, but it can ferment soft drinks. It is obtained from edible fruit parts that are healthy, ripe, fresh or preserved by cooling or freezing of one or more mixed fruit types together [12]. Depends on the basic material used in production, there are several juice types: apple juice, pear juice, strawberry juice and other juices from various fruits. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the apple is one of the most widespread fruit species [5, 11]. Apples are a suitable material for the juice production because of the high number of its advantages, such as: good yield, high content of dry material, low price and possibility to use it as secondary products for high-values products [1]. The most often apple-based products are apple juice and apple cider, jams, pies, cakes and many other thermal or non-thermal processed products [15]. The global production of apples is estimated around 70 million tons. The largest apple producer in the world is Chine, with 44 million tons, followed by EU countries with around 10.7 million tons, USA with 4.7, Turkey with 2.8 and India with 2.3 million tons. There is a lot literature data that indicate the richness and high-quality composition of apple [9, 17]. Furthermore, apples have bioactive components called phenols [4, 10]. According to [16], phenols reduce the risk of heart and circulatory disease, and different forms of cancer. It is known that the presence of pectin controls the insulin level. From mentioned, it means that pectin slows down the release of sugar in the blood, reduces the secretion of insulin and decreased level of cholesterol in the blood [3]. Because of its nutritional composition, apple is considered as a very high-quality material for fruit juices production, primary as apple juices. 1 Source: https://www.ifoam.bio/year-of-organics-2022. (Accessed 18 July 2022).

230

F. Muhamedagi´c et al.

Depends on the juice type, different methods are used for juice production, and most common are: technological procedure (conventional) and ecological (organic). Although to the similarity of these two production processes, the ecological production is more used in EU. Quality control of food products is managed by regulations and requirements in every country. In this contest, Bosnia and Herzegovina has Rulebook on fruit juices and similar products designated for human consumption, contained in [12]. Adopting this rulebook, the regulations of EU Council Directive 2001/112/EC on fruit juices and similar products intended for human consumption are taken over. However, the regulations for ecological agriculture and production in BH, has not yet been adopted.

2 Material and Methods In this paper, 9 samples have been analyzed (Table 1) in order to compare the quality and acceptability of apple juices produced in two ways, ecological (organic, with mark “E”) and technological (conventional, with mark “T”). In both types of produced juices, 4 sample were analyzed for physicochemical analyses, and 5 samples for microbiological and sensory analysis. Table 1. Samples of apple juice with labels, trade names and manufacturers Label of sample

Trade name

Manufacturer

T1

Swity d.o.o

Gradaˇcac, BH

T2

Juicy

Zagreb, Hrvatska

T3

Family nectar

Baˇcka Palanka, Srbija

T4

Takovo

Beograd, Srbija

E5

Domestic juice

Velika Kladuša

E6

Domestic juice

Bosanski Petrovac

E7

Domestic juice

Biha´c

E8

Domestic juice

Bužim

E9*

Domestic juice

Sanski Most

The label * sensory evaluation and microbiological tests were performed for sample E9 .

The juice samples were analyzed in the laboratory at Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Bihac. All physicochemical methods (raw substance, ash, sugars and acidity) on the analyzed apple juice samples were preformed according to the Rulebook. The content of vitamin C was determined by the oxidation-reduction method with 2,6 dichlorophenolindophenol. The content of total phenols was determined using spectrophotometric, after 2 h at the wavelength of 765 nm with Folin-Cioocalteu reagens. The Gallic acid was used as a standard, and results were expressed in g GAE/L [14]. Microbiological correctness was aligned according to regulations [13]. During the sensor analysis, the expert evaluators used two worksheets (first: Evaluation list for quantitative descriptive sensory estimation for quality of apple juice; second:

Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced

231

Criteria for quantitative descriptive evaluation of the sensory properties of different qualities of apple juices) [8]. Review of methods for physicochemical, microbiological and sensory analysis, is presented in Table 2. Table 2. Overview of methods for testing parameters on apple juice samples Parameter

Method

pH values

Electrometric method

Raw substance (RS) [%]

Gravimetric method – Drying at 105 °C

Ash [%]

Gravimetric method – incineration

Vitamin C determination [mg/100g]

Titration

Sugar determination [%]

Luff – Shorl

The content of total acidity [%]

Titration

Phenols [mg GAE/100g]

Spectrophotometric

Descriptive sensory analyses (taste, smell, color)

Senzory analysis

E.coli

Microbiology

3 Results and Discussion Results of comparative evaluated quality of apple juices, produced in two production processes, are presented in table and graphic form. Physicochemical analysis of samples in technological production (“T” samples) and ecological production (“E” samples) showed the following (Table 3). Dry substance in samples “T” ranged between 11.07%-12.04% (max. sample T2 ), and in samples “E” between 11.88%-18.51% (max. sample E6 ). The measured pH values Table 3. Physicochemical propertis of apple juice samples Lable pH of sample

Dry Ashe [%] Vitamin C substance [%] [mg/100g]

Sugar [%] Content of Phenols total [mg acidity [%] GAE /100g]

T1

5,31 11,34

1,13

5,17

9,80

0,78

17,20

T2

5,32 12,04

1,20

7,50

10,00

0,48

13,30

T3

5,20 11,43

1,14

6,25

10,05

0,50

10,00

T4

5,41 11,07

1,11

8,72

10,21

0,62

9,57

E5

6,30 11,88

1,19

8,80

9,70

0,62

30,10

E6

6,23 18,51

1,85

6,62

15,00

0,96

37,50

E7

6,51 13,84

1,38

8,75

11,25

0,90

33,30

E8

6,42 12,55

1,25

6,25

9,00

0,64

28,70

232

F. Muhamedagi´c et al. Table 4. Sensory and microbiology analysis for apple juices samples

Senzory property

Values of sensory properties

Samples

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

Color

7,5

8,8

8,0

6,8

6,4

6,4

6,4

6,8

8,4

Clarity

5,0

9,6

10,8

9,6

3,6

4,0

9,6

3,6

5,6

Mistake

18,4

20,0

19,2

19,2

13,6

14,4

15,2

16,0

15,2

Smell/Aroma 26,4

22,8

20,4

22,8

19,2

20,4

24,0

22,8

26,4

Taste

24,0

21,6

24,0

21,6

18,0

18,0

25,2

21,6

20,6

Total weighted score

4,40

4,14

4,04

4,00

3,04

3,16

3,76

3,54

3,82

The 88,0 percentage of max. Quality

82,8

82,0

80,0

60,8

63,2

75,2

70,8

76,0

Description grade

Very Very Very Very Satisfactory Satisfactory Good Good Good good good good good

E.coli

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yasts and molds

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

ranged between 5.20–6.51 and did not deviate from the default values provided by the manufacturer’s specification. In samples “T”, the pH values ranged between 5.20–5.41 (max. sample T4 ), and in sample “E” was between 6.23–6.51 (max. sample E7 ). The ash content ranged from 1.11% to 1.85%. For samples “T” was estimated from 1.11% to 1.20% (max. sample T2 ), and for samples “E” from 1.19% to 1.85% (max. sample E6 ). These ash values did not deviate much from the literary data by [9] and therefore, these values reported in this paper do not deviate much from the provided literary data [9]. In sample “T”, the vitamin C was estimated between 5.17–8.72 [mg/100g] (max. sample T4 ), and in samples “E” between 6.25–8.80 [mg/100g] (max. sample E5 ). The sugar content in sample “T” ranged from ranged from 9.80% to 10.21% (max. sample T4 ), and in samples “E” from 9.00% to 15.00% (max. sample E6 ). The obtained sugar values were within the limits reported in literature data [9], which indicate the amount of 10.39g/100g and 16.00g/154g (portion). The content of total acidity in “T” sample ranged from 0.48% to 0.78% (max. in sample T1 ), and in “E” samples from 0.62% to 0.96% (max. in E6 ). The phenolic content of “T” samples was lower (9.57[mg GAE/100g] to 17.20[mg GAE/100g]; max. sample T1 ) compared to “E” samples (28.70[mg GAE /100g] to 37.50 [mg GAE /100g]; max. sample E6 ). Sensory analysis of the comparation of “T” and “E” samples (Table 4) showed that the assigned quality level by evaluators was rated as very good (all “T” samples with a total weighted score of 4.00 to 4.40), while the quality level for “E” samples was rated

Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced

233

as good sample (samples E7 , E8 and E9 with total weighted score of 3.54 to 3.82) and satisfactory graded sample (samples E5 and E6 with a total weighted score of 3.04 and 3.16), which are detailed presented in graphic 1.

Fig. 1. Total weighted score on analyzed apple juice samples

The percentage of maximum possible quality (color, clarity, defect, smell/aroma and taste) in the prepared “T” samples ranged between 80.0–88.0%, while in the “E” samples was estimated between 60.8–76.0% (Graph 2). In general, ranking the samples by acceptability rate of overall quality, the expert evaluators rated samples T1 as the most acceptable samples among all “T” samples (percentage of maximum possible quality 76.0%). The color in almost all “E” samples was described as darker than expected, beside the E9 sample, which matched the description of the “T” production samples (light color, golden yellow but not too pronounced). The clarity of all samples was almost perfect without turbidity. The smell/aroma as a sensory property was described as the smell/aroma of fresh green apple with acid taste. According to the expert evaluators, the taste was defined as a taste between sweetness and sour (little sour and not too sweet) with a deviation in E6 sample (obviously more than expected). All samples were refresh with good consistent and no lumps. All “T” and “E” samples did not show the presence of E.coli or the presence of yeast and mold growth. This indicate that all these products samples were properly pasteurized and filled into packaging.

234

F. Muhamedagi´c et al.

Fig. 2. The percentage (%) from maximum possible quality on analyzed apple juice

4 Conclusion Based on the comparative analysis of apple juices which are produced in two production methods – technological and ecological, the conclusions are following: – All juices from ecological cultivation and ecological production (“E” – production) are nutritionally better compared to juices from technological cultivation and technological production (“T” – production). This happens because of the higher content of vitamin C (6.62 – 8.80 [mg/100g]; max E5); sugar content (9.00 – 15.00%; max. E6); phenol content (28.70 – 37.50[mg GAE /100g]; max. E6) and total acidity content (0.62 – 0.96%; max. E6). – The high content of bioactive components (phenol) due to their antioxidative functions – The higher demand on market prefers better nutritionally composition juices, such as the products from “E” production – Sensory analysis showed that all juices from “T” production were better rated than juices from “E” production. In order to improve the sensory evaluation of ecological production it is necessary to work on conditions improvement in production process and on regulations in the field of ecological farming and production. – Microbiological analysis of both methods of apple juices showed that the juices were properly pasteurized and properly packed.

References 1. Brotlija, M., Karalija, L., Rovˇcanin, A., Drkenda, P.: Effect of physical and chemical properties of raw material on depectinization and sensory features of apple juice. In: Proceedings: 21st Scientific Conference of Agriculture and Food Industr, pp. xx–xx. BH, Sarajevo (2010) 2. CAP (2022). Feeding Europe: 60 jears of common agricultural policy. On-line: https://agricu lture.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-04/60-years-cap_en_0.pdf 3. Chang, Y.L.: Common nutrients and nutraceutical quality of apples (2017). https://nyshs. org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/1.Common-Nutrients-and-Nutraceutical-Quality-of-App les.pdf

Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Apple Juice Produced

235

4. Eberhardt, M.V., Lee, C.Y., Liu, R.H.: Antioxidant activity of fresh apples. Nature 405, 903– 904 (2000) 5. FAO (2022). FAOSTAT, On-line: www.fao.org/corp/statistics/en 6. FiBL/IFOAM (2015). The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistic & Emerging Trends 2015, On-line: https://www.fibl.org/fileadmin/documents/shop/1663-organic-world-2015.pdf 7. FiBL/IFOAM (2021). The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistic & Emerging Trends 2021, On-line: https://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/2022-01/1150-organic-world-2021.pdf 8. Gruji´c, S.: Sensory assessment of the quality and acceptability of food products. University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Technology, Banja Luka (2015) 9. Hui, Y.H.: Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Prossesing. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, USA (2006) 10. Kähkönen, M.P., et al.: Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. Journal Agric. Food Chem. 47, 3954–3962 (1999) 11. OECD: Biology of Apple (Malus domestica), in Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms in the Environment, vol. 9: OECD Consensus Documents on the Biology of Crops: Apple, Safflower, Rice, OECD Publishing, Paris (2022). https://doi.org/10.1787/90b8ac7c-en 12. Official Gazette of BH No. 84/19. Rulebook on fruit juices and certain similar products intended for human consumption 13. Official Gazette of BH, No.: 11/13; 79/16). Rulebook on microbiological criteria for food 14. Ough, C.S., Amerine, M.A. Phenolic compounds, U: Methods for analysis of musts and wines John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, USA, (1988) 15. Rieger, M.: Introduction to Fruit Crops. Food products Press, Binghamton, US (2006) 16. Singh, M., Ramassamy, C.: Beneficial effects of phenolic compounds from fruit and vegetables in neurodegenerativne diseases, U: Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable products eds. Barberan, F.A., Gil, M.I, CRC Woodhead Publishing Limited, New York, p. 145–168, (2008) 17. USDA (2017). National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture.Online: https://www.nal.usda.gov/

The Quantum-Chemical Prediction for Some NMR Spectral Parameters in Systems Based on Aromatic Polyamides Andrey Tokar1 , Olga Chihvintseva1(B)

, and Milan Milosavljevi´c2

1 Dnipro State Agrarian and Economic University, Sergiya Yefremova st.,

25, Dnipro 49009, Ukraine [email protected] 2 Department in Belgrade, Nalco Water, An Ecolab Company, Naperville, IL, USA

Abstract. Using the ab initio methods of quantum chemistry a detailed theoretical study of the basic parameters for nuclear magnetic resonance spectra has been carried out using the example of N-phenylbenzamide, which plays the role of a prototype for a monomeric chain of aromatic polyamides, in particular phenylons. The calculation results are quite consistent with the data of this type, as obtained earlier, and indicate a valid reproduction of the spectral characteristics for the model system within the selected theoretical approximation, both in vacuo as well as in the medium of dipolar aprotic solvents, namely dimethylacetamide and dimethyl sulfoxide. Keywords: ab initio calculations · 1 H NMR-spectrum · solvation energy · polarizable continuum method · Onsager solvation model

1 Introduction Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy opens up wide opportunities for qualitative identification and study of the polymer material structure based on characteristic signals in NMR spectra, namely their position, intensity and multiplicity, as well as features of spin-spin coupling that allow determining the composition of individual macromolecules [1]. The broad-band NMR is used to study the polymer structure, in particular the degree of crystallinity, as well as various types of molecular motions corresponding to the processes of phase transitions, vitrifications, etc. The obvious advantages of NMR spectroscopy include the simplicity of the spectra, with some possibility of performing absolute quantitative determinations without calibration using theoretical models [2]. However, a significant limitation to the method remains the condition of sufficient solubility of polymers with a solution concentration of at least 3–5 wt%. The particular interest lies in numerous attempts to theoretical justification of the parameters of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra with regard to the view of reliable quantum-chemical methods designed to calculate the shielding tensors and magnetic susceptibility of molecular systems in vacuo and various solvents. In this case, the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 236–241, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_26

The Quantum-Chemical Prediction for Some NMR Spectral Parameters in Systems

237

gauge dependence is usually eliminated by introducing field-dependent sets of basis functions. The method for calculating NMR spectra using this approach is also called as Gauge-Independent Atomic Orbital (GIAO) [3]. Therefore, the main purpose of this paper is a detailed theoretical study of the nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of Nphenylbenzamide (benzanilide) as a prototype for the monomeric chain of aramides, in particular phenylons (Fig. 1), with the aim of predicting their basic spectral characteristics in the gaseous phase and the bulk of dipolar aprotic solvents using ab initio methods of quantum chemistry.

Fig. 1. The structural formula of typical phenylon

2 Computational Details The quantum-chemical calculations were performed using the software package of Gaussian 03, Revision E.01 [4] with subsequent visualization of the results in GaussView 3.0. The molecular structures were optimized at the level of the three-parametric hybrid functional B3LYP and the non-empirically generalized gradient approximation PBE1PBE with an identical set of basis functions 6-311++G(d,p). Therewith, all stationary points on the potential energy surface were characterized as the first type and corresponded to energy minima in the absence of imaginary vibrational frequencies. The solvation effects of the medium were estimated using the C-PCM polarizable continuum method and the Onsager model. The key formula for the continuum solvation methods is the Schrödinger Eq. (1), rewritten from the point of view of the molecular Hamiltonian H 0 for the solute M, supplemented by the operator V int of the effective potential of the interaction with the solvent S: (H 0 + Vint )|  >= E  |  >,

(1)

where |’ > is responsible to electronic wave function of the solute. For the Gibbs free energy solvation effects in this approximation we have the following one:  Gsolv = W (M |S) + RTin

(qrot qvib qtrans )g . (qrot qvib qtrans )s

(2)

Indeed, the first term W(M|S) is also called as a total operation of the dissolved substance and the solvent, which in turn has been interpreted as: W (M |S) = Gel +  Gdis +  Grep +  Gcav .

(3)

The electrostatic component as well as some dispersion and repulsion effects can be expressed using the Eq. (1) in appropriate form, while the assessment of cavitation term requires the separate calculations [5].

238

A. Tokar et al.

2.1 Results and Discussion At the initial stages of the study considerable attention was drawn to the preliminary determination of basic signals in the NMR spectrum 1 H of the model compound Nphenylbenzamide using the possibilities of the ChemNMR Pro software modulus with the assessment of chemical shifts and attribution of signals for specific structural fragments containing shielded hydrogen atoms of various types, in particular protons of benzene rings and the bridging amide group. The results are shown in Fig. 2.

7.24

O

7.64

7.00

7.95 7.44

7.24

N

H 8.0 7.51

7.64

7.95 7.44

Estimation Quality: blue = good, magenta = medium, red = rough

8

7

6

5

PPM

4

3

2

1

0

Fig. 2. The characteristic signals in Proton NMR spectrum of N-phenylbenzamide

The arrangement of signals in the spectrum is quite consistent with the conventional idea about the localization of aromatic fragment’s in the range of 7–8 ppm with the relative intensity of the four signals that correspond to ortho- and meta-position of hydrogens, which is twice as great as the intensity of other spectral lines that correspond to nonequivalent ones para-positions of the benzene rings and the proton of the amide group with the arrangement of the latter in the weakest field. It should be noted that such interpretation is rather simplified as far as it does not take into account the particulars of fine splitting of aromatic fragment signals, which conventionally in experimental NMR spectra are represented as inseparable multiplets in the range of 7.2–7.9 ppm [6, 7]. As it was noted before, the study of the spectral properties of any molecular system with regard to the nuclear magnetic resonance method is invariably associated with the problem of solvent selection and determination of its characteristic effect, in particular due to the effects of specific or non-specific solvation. In the first case, it is usually necessary to deal with the formation of stable complexes with a hydrogen bonding that occur between solvent and polymer molecules, and can promote significant redistribution of electron density with its significant deviation from the state of the very same system in the solid phase. On the other hand, the use of dipolar aprotic solvents with relatively high values of dielectric constant can sometimes be the decisive point already at the macromolecule formation stage in solutions, for example, under conditions of periodic polycondensation for aromatic diamines and carboxylic acid dichloroanhydrides in amide solvents with the formation of corresponding phenylons as final reaction products. Within the scope of this paper we investigated the particular of the medium solvation effects that occur under the conditions of averaged effect to dimethylacetamide (ε = 37.8)

The Quantum-Chemical Prediction for Some NMR Spectral Parameters in Systems

239

and dimethyl sulfoxide (ε = 46.7) molecules without detailing the structural features of the first solvation shell in the context of a dimerized form of N-phenylbenzamide (Fig. 3) [8]. The preliminary calculation of the molecular volume for this system at B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) level of theory ensures the further estimation of the solvation energy, for example, within the theoretical Onsager model. The obtained results indicate a low affinity of the selected structural fragment of macromolecules for the solvation effects of the medium, since their general contribution does not exceed ~4.5 kJ/mol. When proceeding to the description of the solvent as a polarizable continuum model in the approximation of CPCM-B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p)//B3LYP/6–311++G(d,p), on the contrary, there is a marked increase in the Gibbs free energy solvation, which equals to ~52.5 kJ/mol and is indicative of a more adequate reproduction of the particulars of intermolecular interactions in this case. It should be noted, that for the purpose of increasing the ionic strength of the medium, the solvents are sometimes supplemented with lithium salts, in particular LiBF4 , LiClO4 , LiNO3 , LiSO3 CF3 or LiN(SO2 CF3 )2 [9], which is widely used under conditions of the formation for some heat-resistant films, fibers and lacquers based on aromatic polyamides.

(+0.395) H C6H5

N

(-0.589)

(+0.683) C

C6H5

O (-0.662) 2.086Å (+0.429) H C6H5 (+0.668)

N

(-0.619)

C

C6H5

O (-0.628) Fig. 3. The structure of molecular complex with typical hydrogen bond

Our study was continued with a detailed examination of the basic spectral characteristics of the selected model system using the non-empirically generalized gradient approximation PBE1PBE/6-311++G(d,p). Moreover, the traditional compounds, namely tetramethylsilane and hexamethyldisiloxane, containing protons that are quite equivalent in terms of magnetic shielding, were chosen as the in-house standard. The analysis of 1 H nucleus magnetic shielding tensors obtained by the GIAO method [3] for these compounds revealed their almost absolute matching, which was taken as a basis for further determination of the position for certain signals in the spectra of N-phenylbenzamide (Table 1). Calculations were performed both in vacuo and under conditions of the medium effect, in particular dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which along with amide-type solvents, such as dimethylformamide, N-methylpyrrolidone and tetramethylurea, turned out to be the best in its solubility and solvation. The resulted sets of chemical shifts obtained

240

A. Tokar et al.

for the gaseous phase and DMSO medium in the approximation of CPCM-PBE1PBE/6311++G(d,p)//PBE1PBE/6-311++G(d,p), satisfactorily correlate with each other, which is suggestive of an adequate reproduction of the spectral characteristics for the model compound N-phenylbenzamide within the selected design approximation: (4) (5)

δ(DMSO) = (2.92 ± 0.54) + (0.68 ± 0.07) · δ(in vacuo); r = 0.956; S0 = 0.16; n = 11, δ(in vacuo) = (1.35 ± 0.14) · δ(DMSO) − (3.27 ± 1.13); r = 0.956; S0 = 0.22; n = 11.

Table 1. The chemical shifts δ[ppm] in NMR 1 H spectra of N-phenylbenzamide PBE1PBE/6-311++G(d,p) DMSO

ChemNMR Pro

Inter-pretation

in vacuo 6.89

7.56

7.64

7.49

7.92

7.24

7.27

7.63

7.70

PBE1PBE/6-311++G(d,p) DMSO

ChemNMR Pro

Interpretation

in vacuo 1-NC(=O)

8.66

8.68

7.95

1-C(=O)N

1-NC(=O)

7.87

8.21

7.44

1-C(=O)N

7.00

1-NC(=O)

7.72

8.16

7.51

1-C(=O)N

7.98

7.24

1-NC(=O)

7.62

8.07

7.44

1-C(=O)N

9.55

9.41

7.64

1-NC(=O)

7.81

8.36

7.95

1-C(=O)N

7.42

8.28

8.00

sec. Amide

–

–

–

–

The outstanding interest arouses also the direct comparison of the results of quantumchemical calculations with the experimentally obtained spectral parameters, namely 1 H NMR (400 MHz, d6-DMSO) [10]: δ[ppm] = 10.26 (s, 1H), 8.04–7.88 (m, 2H), 7.79 (m, 2H), 7.65–7.47 (m, 3H), 7.41–7.28 (m, 2H), 7.19–7.02 (m, 1H). The comparative analysis of characteristic signals by their position, intensity, and multiplicity indicates, first of all, an insignificant divergence of the absolute values of chemical shifts, except for the case of an amide group proton, mainly due to the additional influence of binding effects. As indicated by the results of our previously conducted structural analysis for various types of phenylons using IR absorption spectroscopy [8, 11], the strong contribution to stabilization of such systems can be made by numerous intermolecular interactions, including strong hydrogen bonding. According to the literary data [12, 13], the structural identification of some polyamides usually includes consideration of characteristic absorption bands with reliable signal attribution in the regions of 3280, 2900, 1640, 1550 and 1545 cm–1 . Moreover, the NMR spectroscopy significantly complements this spectral method for studying individual polymers and composites.

3 Conclusion Therefore, the results of quantum-chemical studies presented in this paper are illustrative of the possibility in principle for applying quantum chemistry methods and techniques to study the particulars of intra- and intermolecular interactions at the level of individual sections – structural fragments of phenylon macromolecules. The calculation results are quite consistent with the NMR spectral data in relation to the structure of this material and can have a crucial significance from the viewpoint of preliminary assessment of the affinity for certain components of the solvating medium.

The Quantum-Chemical Prediction for Some NMR Spectral Parameters in Systems

241

References 1. Hatada, K., Kitayama, T.: NMR Spectroscopy of Polymers, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Germany (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08982-8 2. Brandolini, A.J., Hills, D.D.: NMR Spectra of Polymers and Polymer Additives, Boca Raton CRC Press. USA (2000). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781482293425 3. Wolff, S.K., Ziegler, T.: Calculation of DFT-GIAO NMR shifts with the inclusion of spin-orbit coupling. J. Chem. Phys. 109(3), 895–905 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.476630 4. Frisch, M.J., et al.: Gaussian 03, Revision E.01, Gaussian, Inc., Wallingford (2004) 5. Tomasi, J.: Selected features of the polarizable continuum model for the representation of solvation. WIREs Computational Molecular Sci. 1(5), 855–867 (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1002/wcms.54 6. Chen, C., Liu, W., Zhou, P.: TBHP-mediated highly efficient dehydrogenative cross-oxidative coupling of methylarenes with acetanilides. Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 12, 2250–2255 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3762/bjoc.12.217 7. Kumar, A., Kumar, B.A.: Nanoparticle mediated organic synthesis (NAMO-synthesis): CuINP catalyzed ligand free amidation of aryl halides. Royal Society of Chemistry Advances 4(78), 41631–41635 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA06804A 8. Tokar, A., Chigvintseva, O.: The quantum-chemical and spectral criteria for hydrogen bonding efficiency in structural analysis of aramides, Chemistry & Chemical Technol. 15(1), 9–15. (2021). https://doi.org/10.23939/chcht15.01.009 9. Volkov, V.I., et al.: Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium-Ion Batteries Studied by NMR Techniques. Membranes 12(4), 416 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12040416 10. Guo, X., Tang, L., Yang, Y., Zha, Z., Wang, Z.: An efficient synthesis of amides from alcohols and azides catalyzed by a bifunctional catalyst Au/DNA under mild conditions. Green Chem. 16(5), 2443–2447 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/C3GC42485E 11. Tokar, A., Kabat, O., Chigvintseva, O., Beloševi´c, S.: Intermolecular Interactions in Complex Systems “Polyamide-Silica Gel”: The Quantum-Chemical Interpretation. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 875–882. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-75275-0_96 12. Vorsina, I.A., Grigoreva, T.F., Vosmerikov, S.V., Lyakhov, N.Z.: Mechanocomposites on the basis of polyamide. Nauka i Studia 5(136), 20–25 (2015) 13. Chigvintseva, O., Daši´c, P.: The research of polymer composites based on polyarylate polyester. SaTCIP Publisher Ltd., Vrnjaˇcka Banja (Serbia) (2019)

Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production in Southeastern Europe – Case Study of Montenegro Dejan Zejak1(B) , Branislav Dudic2(B) , Gabriela Pajtinková Bartáková2(B) , and Katarína Gubíniová2(B) 1 Biotechnical Center, Rakonje XV/13, 84000 Bijelo Polje, Montenegro

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Management, Comenius University Bratislava, 82005 Bratislava, Slovakia

{branislav.dudic,gabriela.pajtinkova.bartakova, katarina.gubiniova}@fm.uniba.sk

Abstract. This study deals with the analysis of statistical data on grapevine production in Montenegro for a decade 2001–2011 including some data available from the census of 1878 and for the period 1930–2021. The official data of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Official Gazette of Montenegro for the years 20012011were used as starting point for the analyses. The average number of the total grapevines we calculated on 17,351,164. The amounts range from 18,464,357 to 16,093,922, with the standard deviation 1,080,273. The average number of productive age of grapevines is 16,107,641. The amounts range from 17,020,057 to 15,304,384, with the standard deviation 837,625. The average total yield expressed in tons we calculated on 38,057. The amounts range from 43,989 to 32,815, with the standard deviation of 3,758. The average yield per vine expressed in kilograms we calculated on 2.37 kg. The amounts range from 2.79 to 1.90, with the standard deviation 0.25. By analysing the obtained data and within the specific agro-ecological conditions of Montenegro, we can plan further production of vines in Montenegro. Keywords: Vitis vinifera L. · grapevine · production · vineyard · statistical data · trends Montenegro

1 Introduction The geography of the wine industry has been the subject of ongoing revolution. Wine consumption in Asian, Northern European, and North American countries (i.e., New World)has been experiencing an ongoing growth since the 1990s, alongside a consistent decrease in wine demand in the Southern European countries (i.e., Old World) [1, 2]. Today, wine market is widespread all around the world. Global wine markets as well as other markets are directed by the market power.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 242–249, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_27

Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production

243

The wine production also belongs into global market that is connected to the area of vineyards and its consumption. Globalization has led to increased competition and changes in wine production and consumption. For market positioning and in the context of emphasized environmental responsibilities, wineries must adapt their strategies and performance to these market challenges [3]. The wine sector is affected by multiple drivers [3], such as the regional and temporal patterns of consumer demand [4], policy and regulations [5], public health and food safety [6], and economic growth [2]. The goal of the research was to present the state of production in this sector in the territory of Montenegro in the periods between two Great Wars and with presentation of current status within the sector; with the aim of providing some starting points that will contribute to the sector development in the future. Data from the Directorate of Statistics of Montenegro (MONSTAT) were used to achieve the research goal. The research presents a comparative analysis of annual statistical data related to areas, number of trees and yield. Relevant quantitative and qualitative methods were applied to determine the state and perspective in the cultivation of this fruit species by analyzing official data at the level of Montenegro (MONSTAT).

2 The Cultivation of Vines in the Territory of Montenegro The cultivation of vines in the territory of Montenegro carries with it a kind of historical, cultural and genetic tradition. This tradition is brought to us by thousands of years of local and cultivation of vines in the Balkans. Every state that existed and lasted in this area (Western Balkans – Ex-Yugoslavia) had in its cultural and civilizational heritage a grapevine as a grail and a genetic marker for inheritance to future generations [7]. 2.1 Montenegrin Viticulture From Phoenicians and Greeks to Middle Ages Viticulture, according to Ulicevic [8–10], is very old in Montenegro; it is assumed that it was brought to the western Mediterranean and southern coastal areas by Phoenicians and Greeks [11, 12]. Among the representatives of the family Vitaceae, only the genus Vitis spreads in the temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere: between North America and East Asia. Fossil remains of seeds were found in sediments from the Tertiary period, i.e. representatives of the Vitaceae family date back to 55 million years ago [13]. As a reflection of the long period of adaptation, other species from the genus Vitis appeared in accordance with the ice front. Only species survived in areas where conditions were ideal for their survival [14]. Evolutionary genomic analysis indicated that Vinifera, a tame vine differs from Vitis vinifera subsp. Sylvestris 22,000 to 30,000 years ago [15]. Among recent archaeological research, samples from the southern Caucasus indicate that wine was made as early as 8,000 years ago [11, 12]. Based on the above, it can be assumed that the domestication process could have happened earlier. Domestication of the noble lineage spread to present-day Palestine, southern Lebanon and Jordan [11, 12]. In Asia Minor, southern Greece, Cyprus and Crete, the noble lineage arrived around 3000 BC. [11, 12].

244

D. Zejak et al.

By 2000 B.C. the vinifera lineage reached areas around the Mediterranean Sea including France, Spain, Portugal [7, 11]. The domestication of the noble vine is closely related to the production of wine, table and raisin grapes, which makes this species the leading cultivated crop worldwide and supports the quote of Royer from 1888 [7]. Under the influence of the Romans, the vine spread to almost all parts of Europe, from the Mediterranean to the source of the Rhine and Danube rivers [7]. The Romans were the first to give names to varieties [16] but it is difficult to connect those names with the names of today’s varieties [7, 16]. 2.2 Viticulture in the Medieval Period of the Ottomans From the Middle Ages, in many wine-growing countries, documents and traditions about the noble vine have been preserved. Thus, in the records of the cities of Kotor and Tivat, it is stated that viticulture was very developed at the beginning of the 14th century [7]. With the arrival of Ottomans, the restoration of vineyards with wine varieties stagnated, while at the same time new ones were planted with table varieties. In the census from 1521 and 1523 in the Turkish [Ottomans] archive, vineyards from Godinje, Beri and Brajici were recorded [17]. The photos of the vineyards nowadays on those locations are presented at the Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Fig. 1. Kuce Rakica, Montenegro, 19 February 2021. (photo Dejan Zejak)

Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production

245

Fig. 2. Gradjani, Montenegro, 18. February 2022 (photo Dejan Zejak)

Fig. 3. Beri, Montenegro, 22 April 2022 (photo Dejan Zejak)

According to the census from 1878, there were 5,400,000 m2 under vineyards in Montenegro. In 1885 there were 13,154,000 m2 .Data on vineyards in ZetskaBanovina (where territory of Montenegro was a part of Banovina) for the years 1930 and 1939 are presented in the Table 1.

246

D. Zejak et al.

Fig. 4. Pricelje, Montenegro, 14 May 2022. (photo Dejan Zejak)

Table 1. Data on vineyards in ZetskaBanovina for the years 1930 and 1939 Year

Vineyards (ha)

American rootstock

On the local vine

Total in hectoliters

Hectoliters per ha

1930

7,484

3,587

3,897

131,143

17,52

1939

2,602

865

1,708

34,852

13,38

Source: Official Gazette of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, book II / 1930 and 1939

2.3

Viticulture in Montenegro in the Recent Time

According to the various authors [3], „…increases of production of wine is quantified in South and North American Countries; the South East European - Western Balkan countries still serve as one of the key wine consumers and producers in the global wine market. Imports have been rising in most countries, signifying the growing demand for foreign wine and a cross-cultural pattern. Current increases of wine consumption seem to be linked to modern, developed, and wealthy countries, and characterized by urban populations and high-income. Therefore, the major forces driving the wine market are economic growth and wider competition”. Today, Montenegro is developing strongly viticultural and winemaking sector. On private and public properties, there are 9,820,800 sedges, covering a total of 2,708 ha (year 2015), of which 2,634 ha are in sedge, in the year 2018 it was 2,838 ha; in 2020 it was recorded 2,888 ha; in 2021 2,834 ha [18, 19]. Five autochthonous varieties have been recognized and registered: Vranac, Kratošija, Krstaˇc, Žižak and Muškaˇcela. The largest area in plantations is occupied by the Vranac variety with the highest territorial representation in the region of the Montenegrin basin of Lake Skadar. Its representation in plantations is around 70%. This is a proof of continuous work on clonal selection and makes maximum use of the rich genetic potential of the Vranac variety. According to Jancic [7], this work is devoted, in addition to the yield and

Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production

247

quality of the grapes, in connection with tolerance to diseases, abiotic stress, richness in anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of polyphenols. 2.4 Viticulture in Montenegro in the Recent Time Data on Viticulture in Montenegro (Number of grapevines, Yield) in the period 2001– 2005, 2007–2011 is presented in the Table 2. Table 2. Data on Viticulture in Montenegro in the period before independency (period 2001– 2005) and after (2007–2011) Year

Number of grapevines

Yield

Total

Productive age

Total (tons)

Per vine (kg)

2001

16,093,922

15,304,384

35,324

2.3

2002

16,185,928

15,304,403

34,954

2.3

2003

16,213,258

15,306,090

35,131

2.3

2004

16,110,948

15,329,260

42,886

2.8

2005

16,599,366

15,427,030

36,960

2.4

2006

17,985,906

15,631,123

41,726

2.67

2007

18,168,670

16,959,900

35,402

2.1

2008

18,166,311

16,880,347

43,989

2.6

2009

18,464,357

17,020,057

38,635

2.3

2010

18,432,779

17,007,427

40,804

2.4

2011

18,441,357

17,014,027

32,815

1.9

Source: Official Gazette of Montenegro for the years 2001–2011

3 Conclusion This study deals with the analysis of statistical data on grapevine production in Montenegro for a decade 2001–2011 including some data available from the census of 1878 and for the period 1930 - 2021. The official data of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Official Gazette of Montenegro for the years 2001-2011were used as starting point for the analyses. The average number of the total grapevines we calculated on 17,351,164. The amounts range from 18,464,357 to 16,093,922, with the standard deviation 1,080,273. The average number of productive age of grapevines is 16,107,641. The amounts range from 17,020,057 to 15,304,384, with the standard deviation 837,625. The average total yield expressed in tons we calculated on 38,057. The amounts range from 43,989 to 32,815, with the standard deviation of 3,758. The average yield per vine expressed in kilograms we calculated on 2.37 kg. The amounts range from 2.79 to 1.90, with

248

D. Zejak et al.

the standard deviation 0.25. By analysing the obtained data and within the specific agro-ecological conditions of Montenegro, we can plan further production of vines in Montenegro. Acknowledgements. This paper is an output of the research project VEGA 1/0737/20 Consumer Literacy and Intergenerational Changes in Consumer Preferences when Purchasing Slovak Products.

References 1. Faria, S., Gouveia, S., Guedes, A., Rebelo, J.: Transient and persistent efficiency and spatial spillovers: evidence from the portuguese wine industry. Economies 9, 116 (2021) 2. Banks, G., Overton, J.: Old world, new world, third world? reconceptualising the worlds of wine. J. Wine Res. 21, 57–75 (2010) 3. Ohana-Levi, N., Netzer, Y.: Long-term trends of global wine market. Agriculture 13, 224 (2023). doi.https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13010224 4. Santeramo, F.G., Lamonaca, E., Nardone, G., Seccia, A.: The benefits of country-specific non-tariff measures in world wine trade. Wine Econ. Policy 8, 28–37 (2019) 5. Meloni, G., Anderson, K., Deconinck, K., Swinnen, J.: Wine regulations. appl. econ. perspect. Policy 41, 620–649 (2019) 6. Mariani, A., Pomarici, E.: Barriers to wine trade. In: Ugaglia, A.A., Cardebat,J.M., Corsi, A. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Wine Industry Economics. Palgrave Macmillan: Cham, Switzerland, pp. 291–315 (2019) 7. Jancic, R.: Morphological and molecular characterization of potential clones of the Vranac grape variety, doctoral dissertation, University of Belgrade Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, Serbia, pp 1–119 (2022) 8. Ulicevic, M.: Contribution to the rezoning of viticulture in Montenegro. Agric. Forestry 2(5), 17–75 (1959) 9. Ulicevic, M.: A contribution to the study of the characteristics of the most important cultivated grape varieties in SR Montenegro. Doctoral thesis. Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, p. 266 (1964) 10. Ulicevic, M.: Contribution to the study of the characteristics of the most important grape varieties grown in SR Montenegro. Archive Agric. Sci. 10(23), 1–100 (1966) 11. McGovern, P.: Ancient wine: the search for the origins of viniculture: Princeton University Press, in Italian (2004) 12. McGovern, P., et al.: Early neolithic wine of Georgia in the south caucasus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. United States 684 America 114, E10309–E10318 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas. 1714728114 13. Tiffney, B.H., Barghoorn, E.S.: Fruits and Seeds of Brandon Lignite. 1. Vitaceae. Rev. Palaeobotany Palynology 22, 169–191 (1976) 14. Adam-Blondon, A.F., Alaux, M., Pommier, C., et al.: Towards an open grapevine information system. Hortic Res. 3, 16056 (2016). doi.https://doi.org/10.1038/hortres.2016.56 15. Zhou, Y.F., Massonnet, M., Sanjak, J.S., Cantu, D., Gaut, B.S.: Evolutionary genomics of grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera) domestication. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. United States America 114, 11715–11720 (2017) 16. Bouquet, A., Piganeau, B., Lamaison, M.: Influence du génotype sur la production de cals, d’embryoïdes et de plantes entières par la culture d’anthères in vitro dans le genre Vitis. In C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, t. 295, série III: 569–574 (1982)

Contribution to the Knowledge of Grapevine Production

249

17. Vuksanovic, P.: Rezonization of viticulture in Montenegro. Veljko Vlahovi´c University, Agricultural Institute. Titograd (1977) 18. Montenegro administration for public statistics Number: 96 Podgorica, July 1, 2021 Plant production in 2020. MONSTAT 2020, p5 (2020) 19. Montenegro administration for public statistics Number: 117 Podgorica, July 1, 2020. Crop production in 2019. MONSTAT, 2021, p5 (2021)

New Technologies in Civil Engineering, Architecture, Construction

Structural Dynamics of Steel Frames with the Application of Friction Isolators Angelo Lorusso1(B) and Giampieto Celenta2 1 Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132,

84084 Fisciano, Italy [email protected] 2 University of Salerno, MEID4 Academic Spin-Off, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy

Abstract. The conservation of architectural and historical heritage against natural disasters, such as earthquakes, is a very topical subject. Structural design with respect to seismic actions has seen various approaches in the literature regarding the response of the structure to a seismic event. In this context, the use of seismic isolators is introduced to limit the accelerations transmitted to the structure, since their introduction in the construction industry they have had an evident evolution and several technological developments. In the present study, it is proposed to study the dynamic behaviour of ideal regular and irregular structures subjected to seismic actions using a flexible multybody model developed in Simscape within the Simulink environment. The proposed workflow consisted of an initial modelling phase and an equivalent mathematical model, then the model was evaluated through the study of modal analysis and its dynamic behaviour, and finally the responses of the building subjected to simulated stresses of five different seismic events that have occurred since 1980 were recorded. This was followed by the modelling, simulation and optimisation phase of seismic isolators sliding on a curved surface. In conclusion, based on the theory of structural dynamics and vibrations, it is possible to model a flexible multybody system capable of representing the dynamic behaviour of steel structures insulated by insulators under study. Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring · Structural Design · Seismic Isolators · Multibody

1 Introduction The introduction of seismic isolators results, in fact, in an increase in the structure’s own period of vibration, bringing it outside the critical range within which resonance/amplification effects of seismic excitations occur, resulting in the maximum accelerations for the structure in question. Italy has a medium-to-high seismic hazard (in terms of frequency and intensity of phenomena), a very high vulnerability (due to fragility of the built, infrastructural, industrial, productive and service heritage) and a very high exposure (due to population density and the presence of a unique historical, artistic and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 253–260, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_28

254

A. Lorusso and G. Celenta

monumental heritage) [1–3]. Our Peninsula is therefore at high seismic risk, in terms of casualties, building damage and expected direct and indirect costs following an earthquake. In the following section, we report the classification of seismic zones on the Italian territory and the Italian earthquake risk prevention regulations [4, 5]. The classical philosophy of structural design with respect to seismic actions, based on forces or displacements, involves building seismic-resistant structures that are capable of resisting earthquakes through the exploitation of their ductility, both local and global [6]. In this paper, it is proposed to study the dynamic behavior of ideal regular and irregular structures subjected to seismic actions using a flexible multybody model developed in Simscape within the Simulink environment [7, 8]. General techniques for coping with seismic phenomena will be presented first and, in particular, the pro-isolation aspects will be emphasized especially with regard to the invasiveness of the installation, which is particularly important for structures of historical and artistic value [9, 10]. Many structural dynamics analyses will be performed to try to capture as much as possible special phenomena not present in models of symmetrical structures such as increases in accelerations at resonance, changes in natural frequencies, and torsional effects. Next, the most optimal characteristics of a curved-surface sliding (pendulum) seismic isolator for safeguarding structures will be evaluated in terms of maximum absolute acceleration and maximum displacement in the isolator. These values will be graphed, with the help of countless Simscape simulations, for both regular and irregular structures as a function of the friction coefficient so as to find the optimal value.

2 Material and Methods Models for studying the structural dynamics of insulated and uninsulated buildings were developed on Simscape Multibody within the Simulink simulation environment. Of key importance was the use of flexible bodies, which made it possible to simulate the structural deformations that cause vibrations. It was initially chosen to model a simple 5story, square plan structure with 4 vertical steel beams placed at the corners of each floor slab acting as the load-bearing columns of the building. The first simplification that was made was to have considered non-deformable floors, which were therefore represented as rigid bodies. As for steel beams, the Simulink library offers the possibility of inserting deformable beams of various cross sections within a model. In a hammer test, the energy delivered to the system is not in the form of a harmonic wave imposed at the base but is a real impulsive force applied on the structure. Again, displacements as a function of time are recorded, then the system’s response to the applied force, and an FFT is performed on the recorded signals. The FFT is an optimized algorithm that allows us to find the natural frequencies of the system and obtain a graph of the amplifications like that obtained by stressing the system with single harmonics [11]. In order to study the natural frequencies of Simscape models, a Matlab algorithm has been developed that performs in an automatic and optimized way a shake test on the structures: the algorithm, once the starting frequency, stop frequency and Simscape model are defined, launches n times in simulation the desired structure for a time TS (T

Structural Dynamics of Steel Frames with the Application of Friction Isolators

255

stop), which depends on the input frequency and chosen so that the steady state is reached without greatly lengthening the processing time (the steady state is reached much faster for higher frequencies) [3, 5, 12]. In addition, this algorithm chooses the delta-frequency to be added to the previous one at each cycle to obtain the next sampling frequency as a function of the derivative with respect to the frequency of the amplification coefficient: in this way, it is possible to have more precision in the graphs of the amplifications where they are greater, thus obtaining a more precise resonant frequency and a cleaner graph. On average with this algorithm, n is around one hundred [13, 14]. Following the hammer test an FFT was performed on the displacement and acceleration signals and reporting the comparison between the graphs of maximum displacements and accelerations obtained by shake test and the hammer test results. The natural frequencies correspond as well as the trends of the curves in the various planes. It is shown that in this test, the intensity of the force causes the response to vary only by a scaling factor, and varying the floor on which the force is applied causes a variation only in the holdings of the various modes of vibration to the motion (thus, the natural frequencies are not affected by these two factors but the amplifications are) [15, 16]. Referring to the analyzed structures we first wondered how the natural frequencies and resonance graphs varied as a function of this asymmetry, which is precisely the insertion of a side module up to a building of height 5 stories and width 2 modules. Unlike the symmetrical case, it should be emphasized that the behavior of the structure subjected to earthquake, or a harmonic wave is different with respect to the direction of the displacements imposed at the base, which can be parallel to the asymmetries or perpendicular (the latter case generates torsional effects). Let us first analyze the simplest case, namely, that of a shake test along the direction of the asymmetries. The same shake tests were run in parallel with a Matlab functions that solve the equations of motion of the mathematical model. As we can observe from the diagrams obtained, the first natural frequency increases with increasing asymmetries. The accelerations follow the same trend as the first natural frequency and increase in the more asymmetrical structures. Displacements at the first resonance, on the other hand, increase with the addition of lateral moduli but less pronouncedly than accelerations. Thus, considering that the decrease in acceleration and natural frequency has higher priority than that of displacements, we can say that in these shake tests asymmetric structures perform worse than symmetric ones. It can also be observed that the mathematical and multibody models follow the same trends as these types of asymmetries change. To simulate a shake test along the other direction involving torsional effects, appropriate sensors were added to measure the rotations and angular accelerations of the various planes. Thus, graphs and frequencies leading to an amplification of the rotational vibration modes are also present. It can be seen that the resonances of the flexural modes also affect the resonances of the torsional modes and vice versa. This can be seen very clearly in the graphs of the resonance of rotations: the first two peaks cannot both be rotational natural frequencies because they have the same rotational vibrational mode, that is, the one in which each plane rotates in phase with the others and in the same direction, and the higher planes have higher vibrations At a first glance it would seem that along the direction with torsional effects the accelerations are lower. It must be considered, however, that in addition to these, the effects of angular accelerations must be added, which when multiplied by

256

A. Lorusso and G. Celenta

a squared length give a certainly much heavier contribution [12, 17]. Once the dynamic behavior of the models under harmonic stresses with constant frequency and amplitude had been studied in detail, we became interested in studying the response of structures stressed by real seismic events. Five Italian earthquakes downloaded from ESM Database (Engineering Strong-Motion Database) of various peak acceleration and maximum displacement were chosen: Irpinia (23/11/1980, Bisaccia), Irpinia (23/11/1980, Calitri), Irpinia (23/11/1980, Sturno), Umbria (26/09/1997, Nocera Umbra) e Abruzzo (06/04/2009, L’Aquila). From the figure we can see that the symmetrical building has slightly higher peak accelerations on average than the asymmetrical building, but still the curve of the asymmetrical building with mass increment is always below the other two, and therefore the latter building has better behavior under each earthquake analyzed. It can also be observed that earthquake number 5 (L’Aquila) with higher peak acceleration brought less severe effects than earthquake number 4 (Nocera Umbra). This is probably due to the fact that earthquake number 5 excited the second mode of vibration, which has lower energy content than the first. It is also interesting to point out that in some sections of the simulations the buildings behaved very differently from each other: for example, during the second part of the earthquake the accelerometers of the symmetrical building are much flatter than the asymmetrical one with mass increment, despite the fact that the overall peak acceleration is smaller in the latter model.The insulator on Simscape was modeled using a prismatic pair between the ground, which is set in motion by the imposed displacement of the earthquake, and the ground plane of the buildings. The bilinear insulator model was then used (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Peak accelerations as a function of earthquakes

The input characteristics to define the behavior of the isolator model are as follows: - the isolated period (a value T = 2.5 s was chosen) - the damping (a value ξ = 15% was chosen) - the coefficient of friction (a range 0.025 ≤ μ ≤ 0.15 was chosen).

Structural Dynamics of Steel Frames with the Application of Friction Isolators

257

Once the total mass M of the building is calculated and these three parameters are defined, it is possible to derive the stiffness and damping to be included in the Prismatic joint and the friction force to be included in the Translational Friction block. The isolated period of 2.5 s was checked by doing a hammer test on the isolated structures and, the first peak is definitely prevalent on the displacement graph, it is at a frequency of 0.4 Hz which corresponds precisely to 2.5 s period. The accelerations are significantly higher in the uninsulated building, while compared to the insulated structures the accelerations are slightly higher with a higher coefficient of friction but still much lower than the uninsulated building. Relative displacements between insulator plates are markedly smaller for the higher coefficient of friction: for example, for the symmetrical structure the peak for μ = 0.025 is 27 cm while that for μ = 0.075 is 11 cm. For small- to medium-sized insulators, a displacement of 27 cm might be excessive, and considering that the accelerations do not increase by too much, adopting a higher friction coefficient could then safeguard the insulator without worsening the behavior of the structure. Furthermore, the force-displacement bond graphs are bilinear as assumed and perfectly reflect the models described in the initial analysis. Summarizing the results, we can say that with this Simscape model the accelerations and relative displacement in the insulator showed a trend similar to that found by R.S. Jangid [18]. It was possible to verify the same criterion that by increasing the coefficient of friction by a small amount, the accelerations do not reach very high values while the displacement of the insulator is greatly reduced. This is precisely why optimization of the friction coefficient is sought. This principle was verified in all three structures taken into analysis [19, 20]. It was found to be more pronounced for the building with mass increment on the upper floors because of the lower accelerations measured in the simulation phase and because of the trend of the curve as a function of the friction coefficient being less steep than for the other buildings. As also verified for the modal analyses and simulations without insulation, this building therefore responded to the stresses more satisfactorily than the others.In the previous paragraphs, the insulator on Simscape was developed considering the bilinear model, thus going to model an insulator that acts as the sum of all the insulators present below the base of the buildings [21]. So, a model was developed that goes to simulate the behavior of each individual insulator present below the structure, taking into account the mass variations that affect the friction force and partly the equivalent stiffness [22]. Because of these characteristics, the simulations are much more computationally heavy, and computation times are increased by a great deal, even reaching days for a single earthquake. However, an example comparison between this much more sophisticated model and the previous one has been proposed. In the Translational Friction block, not the friction force but only the coefficient was entered, which is then multiplied following the flow lines with the instantaneous vertical load. Stiffness, on the other hand, was not given within the prismatic torque but was added to the friction force and entered into the model as an external force [23]. A coefficient was defined that multiplied to the vertical load (which varies during the earthquake) gives the value of the stiffness, which, multiplied in turn by displacement in the insulator, equals the recenter elastic force. As can be seen, the two models behave very similarly [24]. The displacements in the isolator are practically the same because the curves overlap, the response of the structure in terms of top floor acceleration is slightly different but

258

A. Lorusso and G. Celenta

also almost overlapping. On the other hand, it is very interesting to note the differences between the force-displacement relationship in the two models: one is perfectly bilinear while the other exhibits the fluctuations due to the load difference, which, however, do not make the response of the structure vary much under the set conditions [25]. This is definitely a point in favor of the isolation system with curved surface devices, which, through the simple re-centering mechanism of the weight force comparable to a pendulum, make simplified analyses in many cases as effective as more sophisticated nonlinear analyses and thus facilitate their study and design.

3 Conclusion and Future Outcomes Through the study proposed here, it was possible, starting from the theory of structural dynamics and vibration, to model a flexible multybody system capable of being able to represent, effectively, the dynamic behavior of steel frames insulated with sliding insulators on a curved surface to optimize their friction coefficient [26]. This modeling takes advantage of the recent addition within the Simscape environment of flexible bodies, found, specifically, to be an excellent tool for structural dynamics analysis. The procedural process that led to the final results on the isolators originated from the development of a symmetrical building model then tested through sequential harmonic analyses in order to obtain the natural frequencies and behavior at various resonances [27]. Once this first phase was completed, the response of the model was analyzed by modifying it with different asymmetries in structure and mass, validating the simulations with reference to a pure mathematical model.Once in possession of valid models whose dynamic behavior was studied, we moved on to simulation by virtually subjecting them to earthquakes that have occurred in recent decades, so as to examine the correlation between the results of the modal analysis and the actual behavior of the structures to earthquakes [28]. The final step consisted in the proper modeling of the friction isolator considering the contributions of the elastic re-centering force, static and dynamic friction force, steps necessary to reach the optimization of the friction coefficient useful to reduce the values of building acceleration and relative displacement between the isolator plates [29]. It has been verified through countless simulations that by increasing the coefficient of friction within a given range, the accelerations increased slightly while the displacement of the insulator is reduced significantly [30, 31]. Therefore, with the use of a formula that appropriately weighs the contributions of these two values, it was possible to derive the optimal friction coefficient for the analyzed structures [32].

References 1. v. D’Aranno, P.J., di Benedetto, A., Fiani, M., Marsella, M., Moriero, I., Palenzuela Baena, J.A.: An Application of Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) Technique for Infrastructure Monitoring. Remote Sens (Basel), vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1052, Mar. 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/ rs13061052 2. Sun, X., Liu, H., Song, W., Villecco, F.: Modeling of eddy current welding of rail: threedimensional simulation. Entropy, vol 22, art. no.947 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/e22 090947

Structural Dynamics of Steel Frames with the Application of Friction Isolators

259

3. Lorusso, A., Guida, D.: IoT system for structural monitoring. In: International Conference “New Technologies, Development and Applications”, pp. 599–606. Springer, Cham (2022) 4. Clementi, F., Gazzani, V., Poiani, M., Lenci, S.: Assessment of seismic behaviour of heritage masonry buildings using numerical modelling. J. Build. Eng. 8, 29–47 (2016) 5. De Simone, M.C., Lorusso, A., Santaniello, D.: Predictive maintenance and structural health monitoring via IoT system. In: 2022 IEEE Workshop on Complexity in Engineering (COMPENG), pp. 1–4. IEEE, July 2022 6. Jangid, R.S.: Optimum friction pendulum system for near-fault motions. Eng. Struct. 27(3), 349–359 (2005) 7. Barba, S., di Filippo, A., Limongiello, M., Messina, B.: Integration of active sensors for geometric analysis of the chapel of the holy shroud. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XLII-2/W15, pp. 149–156, Aug. 2019. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W15-149-2019 8. Symans, M.D., Constantinou, M.C.: Semi-active control systems for seismic protection of structures: a state-of-the-art review. Eng. Struct. 21(6), 469–487 (1999) 9. Li, T., Kou, Z., Wu, J., Yahya, W., Villecco, F.: Multipoint Optimal minimum entropy deconvolution adjusted for automatic fault diagnosis of hoist bearing. Shock and Vibration, vol. 2021, art.no. 6614633 (2021) 10. Kobori, T., Takahashi, M., Nasu, T., Niwa, N., Ogasawara, K.: Seismic response controlled structure with active variable stiffness system. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dynam. 22(11), 925– 941 (1993) 11. Formato, A., Romano, R., Villecco, F.: A novel device for the soil sterilizing in sustainable agriculture. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2021. LNNS, vol. 233, pp. 858–865. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75275-0_94 12. Mei, S., Liu, M., Kudreyko, A., Cattani, P., Baikov, D., Villecco, F.: Bendlet transform based adaptive denoising method for microsection images. Entropy 24, 869 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/e24070869 13. Magni, M., Ochs, F., Streicher, W.: Comprehensive analysis of the influence of different building modelling approaches on the results and computational time using a cross-compared model as a reference. Energy Build. 259, 111859 (2022) 14. De Simone, M.C., Veneziano, S., Guida, D.: Design of a non-back-drivable screw jack mechanism for the hitch lifting arms of electric-powered tractors. Actuators 11(12), 358 (2022) 15. Tomasiello, S.: A note on three numerical procedures to solve Volterra integro-differential equations in structural analysis. Comput. Math. Appl. 62(8), 3183–3193 (2011). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.camwa.2011.08.031 16. Guida, C.G., Gupta, B.B., Lorusso, A., Marongiu, F., Santaniello, D., Troiano, A.: An Integrated BIM-IoT approach to support energy monitoring. In: International Conference on Smart Systems and Advanced Computing (Syscom-2021), December 2021 17. Montanino, A., De Gregorio, D., Olivieri, C., Iannuzzo, A.: The continuous Airy-based for stress-singularities (CASS) method: an energy-based numerical formulation for unilateral materials. Int. J. Solids Struct. 256, 111954 (2022) 18. Pappalardo, C.M., Vece, A., Galdi, D., Guida, D.: Developing a reciprocating mechanism for the emergency implementation of a mechanical pulmonary ventilator using an integrated CAD-MBD Procedure. FME Transactions 50(2), 238–247 (2022) 19. Metallo, A.: Emissivity prediction for an IR camera during laser welding of aluminum. Int. J. Thermodyn. 25(4), 24–34 (2022). https://doi.org/10.5541/ijot.1129559 20. Olivieri, C., Iannuzzo, A., Fortunato, A., DeJong, M.J.: The effect of concentrated loads on open-well masonry spiral stairs. Eng. Struct. 272, 114952 (2022)

260

A. Lorusso and G. Celenta

21. De Simone, M.C., Guida, D.: Experimental investigation on structural vibrations by a new shaking table. In: Proceedings of XXIV AIMETA Conference 2019 24, pp. 819–831. Springer International Publishing (2020) 22. Bezas, K., Komianos, V., Koufoudakis, G., Tsoumanis, G., Kabassi, K., Oikonomou, K.: Structural health monitoring in historical buildings: a network approach. Heritage 3(3), 796– 818 (2020) 23. Pappalardo, C.M., La Regina, R., Guida, D.: Multibody modeling and nonlinear control of a pantograph scissor lift mechanism. J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 9(1), 129–167 (2023) 24. Dembele, S.P., Bellatreche, L., Ordonez, C.: Towards green query processing-auditing power before deploying. In: 2020 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), pp. 2492– 2501. IEEE, December 2020 25. De Simone, M.C., Celenta, G., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D.: Mechanism design for a low-cost automatic breathing applications for developing countries, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 472 LNNSm pp. 345–352 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-052309_40 26. Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part II: Application to the Whipple-Carvallo bicycle model, J. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 671–700 (2021) 27. De Simone, M.C., Laiola, V., Rivera, Z.B., Guida, D. : Dynamic Analysis of a Hybrid HeavyVehicle, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 472 LNNS, pp. 236–243. (2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_27 28. Manrique-Escobar, C.A., Pappalardo, C.M., Guida, D.: On the analytical and computational methodologies for modelling two-wheeled vehicles within the multibody dynamics framework: a systematic literature review. J. Appl. Comput. Mechanics 8(1), 153–181 (2022) 29. Pappalardo, C.M., Lettieri, A., Guida, D.: A general multibody approach for the linear and nonlinear stability analysis of bicycle systems. Part I: Methods of constrained dynamics. J. Appl. Comput. Mechanics 7(2), 655–670 (2021) 30. A. Liguori, A. Formato, A. Pellegrino, F. Villecco (2021) Study of Tank Containers for Foodstuffs. Machines, vol. 9, art. no. 44. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/machines9020044 31. Pappalardo, C.M., Manca, A., Guida, D.: A combined use of the multibody system approach and the finite element analysis for the structural redesign and the topology optimization of the latching component of an aircraft hatch Door. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math. 51(1), 175–191 (2021) 32. Liguori, A., Armentani, E., Bertocco, A., Formato, A., Pellegrino, A., Villecco, F.: NoiseReduction in spur gear systems. Entropy 22, 1306 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/e22 111306

Fire Resistance of Steel Girders Sanin Dzidic1(B) , Amir Ademovic2 , and Ahmed El Sayed2 1 Technical Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bihac,

Irfana Ljubijankia bb, 7700 Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Steel as structural material has excellent mechanical properties at ambient temperatures, but also one major drawback, which is low fire resistance. However, there are methods for increasing fire resistance of steel structures and members, like gypsumen casing, intumescent coatings, and spray-applied, fire-resistant materials (SFRMs). In addition, mandatory and carefully selected application of the active and passive fire protection measures can significantly contribute to the fire resistance to all buildings. This paper analyzes the fire resistance of main girders of skeleton structural system subjected to the permanent and variable actions, but also contribution of the of the spray-applied, fire-resistant materials to the fire resistance of steel beams based upon the critical temperature method according to Eurocode 3 when subjected to Standard ISO 834-1 fire curve. Qualitative Research method, based on empirical analysis of different beams with different geometrical properties, was used in this paper. This research highlights specific aspects to designers and engineers in selection of structural materials depending on the type of structures to be designed and constructed, as well as building life and its exploitation. Keywords: steel beams · fire resistance · fire protection · Eurocode 3

1 Introduction Steel as a construction material has excellent mechanical properties [1]; however, unprotected, it has relatively low fire resistance [2]. It has a low specific heat of 481 J/kg°K and high thermal conductivity of 58–60 W/m°K. Under the influence of high temperatures that develop in a fire, heating occurs relatively quickly, and sudden deformations occur. The linear expansion coefficient is 0.000012–0.000016 °C−1 [3]. With the advances in knowledge of steel structures and their application, there was the first research aimed at protecting steel structures from fire in USA [4]. The pros of steel in construction were highly favorable, so this issue was considered in detail [5]. As one of the consequences, fire protection solutions for steel structures used to be very complicated [6]. From the beginning, the principle of box protection (encasing) was known, and newer methods such as spraying with mortar and special pastes and various types of coatings appeared later, along with the development of insulation materials © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 261–269, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_29

262

S. Dzidic et al.

and their technologies [6]. This was especially pronounced when the technologies of expanding inorganic materials, appeared such as vermiculite, perlite, etc. [6]. There are two considered research questions in this paper. The first one is related to the fire resistance of main steel girders of the skeleton systems designed for ambient temperatures, and second one deals with how spray-applied, fire-resistant materials can contribute to the fire resistance of these main steel girders.

2 Research Methodology Qualitative research methodology was used in this research in order to answer the research questions set by authors. In the first stage, literature was reviewed and main aspects of properties of steel at elevated temperatures, fire resistance, standardized fire, and fire protection of steel members were discussed. After that, Empirical analysis of Steel Beams, as a main load-bearing girders, with different geometrical characteristics was done. Beams were selected in a way to have different length, different I-type profiles, and different Steel Classes. As loads, permanent and variable loads were added to the system. Three sides of fire exposure were applied, while the fourth one is assumed to be covered by concrete slab. Two analysis types were considered: without any protection and protected with spry mineral fibers. Results were evaluated according to ArcelorMittal Beam calculator (ABC), and the next criteria were selected for the results: fire resistance European classes according to EN 1993-1-2 with considering only the load bearing function (R).

3 Steel Properties at Elevated Temperatures The structural design of fire for steel must address two distinct issues: the first is providing information on heating, and the second is the capacity of steel buildings to support loads [7]. Two material characteristics must be taken into account: mechanical qualities at high temperatures and thermal properties as a function of temperature [8]. The thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of steel are its thermal properties [3]. Steel has a very high thermal conductivity, and steel members are often quite thin [3]. If a steel member is entirely damaged by fire, these elements will cause heating that is extremely close to being uniform [3].

Fig. 1. Thermal properties of steel at elevated temperatures [9]

Fire Resistance of Steel Girders

263

It is evident that steel begins to lose strength and stiffness dramatically at temperatures above 400 °C when considering the strength of steel as a function of temperature and its stress-strain relationships at high temperatures [6]. Steel will lose 50% of its strength and see a 70% reduction in stiffness when heated to 600 °C [8].

Fig. 2. Structural steel Mechanical properties at elevated temperatures [9]

Eurocode 3 (EN 1993-1-2) prescribes the factors for reduction for stress-strain relationship of carbonated steel under elevated temperatures displayed in Table 1, Table 1. Carbon steel reduction factors at high temperatures [10].

while Fig. 3. Provides dependance of thermal expansion in function of temperature [8].

264

S. Dzidic et al.

Fig. 3. Steel expansion in relation to temperature [9]

4 Fire Resistance According to Eurocode 1–2, fire resistance is the ability of a structure or element to fulfill the required function (load-bearing function, separating function, and insulation), for a specific fire exposure to fire, in a specific period of time. In this regard, the standard fire resistance is the ability of a structure or its part to fulfill the required function (loadbearing, separation function, and insulation) for standard exposure to fire (ISO 834) in a specific period of time [10]. Typically, standard requirements for fire resistance are expressed in time periods of 30, 60, 90, 180 and 240 min [11]. Three fundamental criteria, including mechanical resistance or load bearing function (Criterion R), integrity or separating function (Criterion E), and insulation (Criterion I), need to be considered when evaluating the fire performance of steel parts and structures under a notional fire [10]. According to EN 1991-1-2:2004, Criterion “R” is satisfied when the load bearing function is preserved throughout the necessary amount of fire exposure time [10]. When an element is subject to standard fire from one side and prevents the appearance of the flame on the side that is not exposed for the required amount of time, gases and flame must pass from one side of the element to the other [12]. When the separating element is placed under the standard fire from one side for the specified amount of time of fire exposure, criterion “I” is satisfied because the maximum temperature rise at any point of that element does not exceed 180 K and the average temperature rise over the entire non-exposed surface does not exceed 140 K [13]. The required specifications for the specified element depend on his role in the structure [13]. For instance, although columns and beams are anticipated to satisfy the load-bearing function-Criterion R, a slab must satisfy all three criteria R, E, and I.

5 Standard Fire It describes the standard temperature-time curve for fire modeling or exposure of test samples in test furnaces. The International ISO 834-1 Standard, Fire Resistance Tests - Elements of Building Construction, from 1999, is accepted throughout the world, including in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and some other nations [14]. The curve is defined as [10]: T = 345log 10 (8t + 1) + 20

(1)

Fire Resistance of Steel Girders

265

where:’ T -average furnace temperature in degrees °C; t- test time in minutes.

6 Fire Protection for Steel Members With the development of steel structures and their application, the first research was conducted in the United States in order to protect steel structures from fire [4]. The advantages of steel in construction were extremely favorable, so a detailed consideration of this issue was approached [4]. As a consequence, fire protection solutions for steel structures used to be very complicated [6]. From the very beginning, the principle of box protection was known, and newer methods such as spraying with mortar and special pastes, and various types of coatings appeared later, along with the development of insulating materials and their technologies [6]. This is especially pronounced when the technologies of expanding inorganic materials, such as vermiculite, perlite and the like, appeared [6]. The most important consideration when choosing a fire protection system for a steel element is how to maintain steel temperature for a designated period of time while adhering to a particular restriction—critical temperature [15]. When the steel temperature stays below the critical level, the capacity to support weight in a burning environment is obtained, and deformations are kept to a minimum [7]. According to national law, the fire resistance criterion must be met. It depends on the type of elements and is typically broken down into classes of 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, or 240 min [16]. This is denoted in European standards as “R30,” “R60,” etc. [17]. The word “R” guarantees the steel element’s capacity to support loads for the specified amount of time, which is specified in minutes. Steel is a sturdy, noncombustible, and fire-resistant material [18]. When properly planned and built, steel framing may keep its structural integrity while being exposed to high temperatures for an extended period of time [19]. A combination of active and passive fire protection techniques is used to provide fire protection [20]. Numerous steelframed buildings, including low-rise buildings, open-deck parking structures, and sports arenas, only require active fire protection or don’t even require fire protection at all [21]. There are a few reasonably priced coating alternatives available when passive fire protection is required that will not only achieve a satisfactory fire rating but also have a good appearance, attractive if the steel is left exposed [21]. The methods like intumescent coatings, exterior intumescent coatings, gypsum encasing and ordinary coatings – sprayapplied fire-resistive material (SFRM) are available [22].

266

S. Dzidic et al.

Fig. 4. Gypsum encasing box and spray-applied material [23]

Mineral fibers and other cementitious compounds, which are placed as a spray directly on the beams, girders, columns, and roof/floor decks, are the materials most frequently employed to protect structural steel from fire [21]. In order to prevent structural steel failure brought on by rapidly rising temperatures, spray-applied, fire-resistant materials (SFRMs) swell and isolate it [24]. If steel is hidden, such as above a ceiling or behind drywall, SFRMs are employed [24]. For this purpose, many of these materials are acceptable [24]. According to research, structural steel that is well protected, such as by spray-applied fire protective chemicals, or that is completely contained between walls of a building does not require painting [24].

7 Design of Steel Structures at Elevated Temperature According to EC3 The mechanical behavior of steel elements in a fire condition can be checked using one of three design methodologies, per EN-1993-1-2 [8]: • Method of Critical temperature - is the most popular straightforward design for assessing steel structural elements’ fire resistance [10]; • Models of Simple calculation–this design approach includes all the straightforward mechanical models utilized for the study of steel structural members [10]; • Models of Advanced calculation - these design techniques, which are based on the finite element or finite difference methods, are applicable to all sorts of structures [10]. The various implementation options for the three fire resistance techniques under nominal (standard) fire conditions are shown in Fig. 6 [10]. As can be seen, all three methods can be used for member analysis [10]. Occasionally, simply a portion of a steel structure exposed to fire, such as simple steel frames, can be analyzed for mechanical resistance using the approach of simple computation [8]. That means that there are limitations to the use of straightforward computations [8].

Fire Resistance of Steel Girders

267

Fig. 5. How to use different design methods for natural fire situation [8]

The design values of the mechanical material properties X fi,d are defined as follows by EN 1993–1-2. [10]: Xfi,d = kθ ∗ Xk /γM ,fi

(2)

where: • X k - a mechanical material’s characteristic value for design of normal temperature; • k θ - the temperature of the material is a determining element in a mechanical material property’s reduction (Xfi, d/Xk). • γ M,fi - in a fire emergency, the partial factor for material property.

8

Empirical Analysis: Determination of Fire Resistance of Steel Main Girders According to EN 1993-1-2

For the purpose of this research, fire resistance of main steel girders (I sections) were analyzed with spans of 4, 5 and 6 m. Main girders have a simple beam statical system. The assumption is that the system is with neighboring beams on distance 4, 5 and 6 m respectively. The permanent actions on the main girders are designed assuming 5.75 kN/m2 applied to the floor structure (floor layers, RC slab) increased by self-weight of the girders. Variable action is 2.0 kN/m2 applied to the floor structure. For each beam, steel classes were varied (S235, S355 and S460). The beams are exposed to Standard Fire ISO 834-1 from three sides. Where needed to achieve specific fire resistance, fire protection Spray – Mineral Fibers was applied. The beams were designed for ambient temperature using Tower software. Fire Resistances according to Eurocode 3 were determined using ABC (ArcelorMittal Beam Calculator) software. The following table displays the results of this research:

268

S. Dzidic et al. Table 2. Research results on fire resistance of main girders

SECTIONS

CLASS

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

FIRE RESISTANCE

THICKNESS OF PROTECTION FOR R15

IPE 360

S235

555 °C

13 min

10 mm

IPE 330

S355

542 °C

12 min

10 mm

IPE 300

S460

502 °C

11 min

10 mm

IPE 500

S235

552 °C

15 min

-

IPE 450

S355

536 °C

14 min

10 mm

IPE 400

S460

495 °C

12 min

10 mm

IPE 600

S235

520 °C

15 min

-

IPE 600

S355

553 °C

16 min

-

IPE 600

S460

565 °C

16 min

-

IPE 550

S355

502 °C

13 min

10 mm

IPE 500

S460

388 °C

10 min

10 mm

4 m span

5 m span

6 m span

9 Conclusion Analyzing research results from the Table 2, the following conclusions have been drawn from this research: • The fire resistance of optimally designed main girders on ambient temperatures is low; • The highest fire-resistance achieved by this research, without the fire protection of steel section profiles is R 15; • Steel grade does not significantly affect the resistance of the steel beam to fire; • The most significant factor in the fire resistance of steel beams is their size which can lead to non-rational design in ambient temperature; • By applying 10 mm of spray - mineral fibers, the life of the structures can be extended by 5 min in maximum; • Fire prevention and the implementation of active and passive fire protection measures must get special consideration from the perspectives of human life safety and building integrity.

References 1. Ban, H.Y., Shi, G., Shi, Y.J., Wang, Y.Q.: Research progress on the mechanical property of high strength structural steels. Adv. Mater. Res. 250, 640–648 (2011)

Fire Resistance of Steel Girders

269

2. Lamont, S., Usmani, A.S., Gillie, M.: Behavior of a small composite steel frame structure in a “long-cool” and a “short-hot” fire. Fire Saf. J. 39(5), 327–357 (2004) 3. Kodur, V., Dwaikat, M., Fike, R.: High-temperature properties of steel for fire resistance modeling of structures. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22(5), 423–434 (2010) 4. Lucherini, A., Maluk, C., Lucherini, A., Maluk, C.: Intumescent coatings used for the fire-safe design of steel structures. J. Constructional Steel Res. 162, 105712 (2019) 5. Mróz, K., Hager, I., Korniejenko, K.: Material solutions for passive fire protection of buildings and structures and their performances testing. Procedia Eng. 151, 284–291 (2016) 6. A. Krivtcov, “Fire protection of steel structures”, 2014 7. Rubert, A., Schaumann, P.: Structural steel and plane frame assemblies under fire action. Fire Saf. J. 10(3), 173–184 (1986) 8. Zhao, B., Vassart, O., Cajot, L.G., Robert, F., Meyer, U., Frangi, A.: Fire resistance assessment of steel structures according to Eurocode 1993-1-2. In: Eurocodes: Background & Applications, JRC Science and Policy report, pp. 61–133 (2014) 9. EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1–1: General rules (2009) 10. EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1–2: General rules - Structural fire design 11. Dzidic, S.: Otpornost betonskih konstrukcija na požar. Internacionalni BURCH Univerzitet Sarajevo, BIH, ISBN 978-9958-834-47-9; COBISS.BH-ID22444550 (2015) 12. S˛edłak, B., Roszkowski, P., Sulik, P.: Fire insulation of aluminum glazed partitions depending on the infill solution of framework profiles. Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports (2017) 13. Casano, G., Piva, S.: Transient heat conduction in a wall exposed to a fire: an analytic approach. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 796(1), 012–036 (2017) 14. ISO834-1: Fire resistance tests - Elements of building construction, Geneva: International Organization for Standardization (1999) 15. Kruppa, J.: Collapse temperature of steel structures. J. Struct. Div. 105(9), 1769–1788 (1979) 16. Buchanan, A.H., Abu, A.K.: Structural design for fire safety. Wiley (2017) 17. Albero, V.A., Espinos, A., Romero, M.L., Hospitaler, A., Bihina, G., Renaud, C.: Proposal of a new method in EN1994-1-2 for the fire design of concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Eng. Struct. 128, 237–255 (2016) 18. Steau, E., Poologanathan, K., Mahendran, M.: Experimental study of fire resistant board configurations under standard fire conditions. Fire Saf. J. 116, 103–153 (2020) 19. Sun, R., Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W.: The collapse behavior of braced steel frames exposed to fire. J. Constr. Steel Res. 72, 130–142 (2012) 20. Gerg˝o, É., László, B., Sándor, R.: The effects of the actively used reactive and passive fire protection systems established by innovative fire protection methods for whole life-cycle of buildings. M˝uszaki Katonai Közlöny 28(4), 47–58 (2018) 21. Iwankiw, N.R., Alfawakhiri, F.: Fire (2003) 22. AGustini, N.K.A., Triwiyono, A., Dan Suyitno, D.S.: A review on fire insulation technologies of steel structure. In: Konferensi Nasional Teknik Sipil 12 A REVIEW ON FIRE INSULATION TECHNOLOGIES OF STEEL, Batam (2018) 23. Wakili, K.G., Hugi, E.: Four types of gypsum plaster boards and their thermophysical properties under fire condition. J. Fire Sci. 27(1), 27–43 (2009) 24. Iwankiw, N.J., Beitel, J., Gewain, R.: Structural materials. Handbook of Building Materials for Fire Protection, Baltimore (2004)

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation for Structural Design of High-Rise Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina Sanin Dzidic1(B) , Faruk Avdic2 , Ahmed El Sayed2 , and Amir Causevic3 1 Technical Faculty, University of Bihac, 77000 Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University Sarajevo, 71000

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 Faculty of Architecture, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. National Annex BAS EN 1998-1/NA:2018 consists maps of seismic hazard for reference return period of 475 and 95 years for Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the interactive map of values of the reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground for the same reference return periods. The values of the reference peak ground acceleration are used in design of buildings for earthquake resistance in determination of seismic actions according to BAS EN 1998-1:2017. However, the application of Eurocodes in Bosnia and Herzegovina is still not legally binding. Given that the National Rulebook for Technical Standards for Construction of Buildings in Seismic Areas and seismological maps for Yugoslavia are still legally valid in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is necessary to the compare findings in seismic design according to Eurocode 8 and National Rulebook for territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Qualitative Comparative Research methodology, aimed to determine the seismic forces on different models of buildings using the Rulebook and the Eurocode 8, was used in this research. The findings from this research presented in this paper for City of Banja Luka can contribute and inform in next steps in reevaluation of maps of seismic hazard in Bosnia and Herzegovina - as was the conclusion at the meeting in Institute for Standardization of Bosnia and Herzegovina attended by members of academic community, representatives of relevant ministries and institutes, held on February 15, 2022. Keywords: earthquake resistance design · maps of seismic hazard · Eurocode 8 · Bosnia and Herzegovina

1 Introduction The territory of BiH belongs to a seismically relatively active zone. In general, this area is tectonically connected to a large fault in the Earth’s crust that runs from northern India through the Eeastern Mediterranean and crosses the southern part of the territory where it turns to the northwest. In addition to this global fault, there are several significant regional faults (Bugojno, Visegrad, Neretva, Banja Luka). Earthquakes of devastating magnitude can be generated along all these faults [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 270–283, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_30

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

271

Apart from seismic characteristics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are secondary seismogenic sources in the region, such as crustal loading due to rain and show and hydrogeological characteristics [2]. As a result, there had been numerous earthquakes, not only in southern Bosnia, but country wide, of magnitude 5.0 and above. One of the most notable was the one from 1969 that hit Banja Luka with the magnitude of 6.4, as well as the one that hit Treskavica in 1962 with the magnitude of 6.0. [1]. Institute for Standardization of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BAS) published the National Annex BAS EN 1998-1/NA:2018, that consists maps of seismic hazard for reference return period of 475 and 95 years for Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the interactive map of values of the reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground for the same reference return periods. The values of the reference peak ground acceleration are used in design of buildings for earthquake resistance in determination of seismic actions according to BAS EN 1998-1:2017. However, the application of Eurocodes in Bosnia and Herzegovina is still not legally binding. Given that the National Rulebook for Technical Standards for Construction of Buildings in Seismic Areas (in further text NR) and seismological maps for Yugoslavia are still legally valid in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is necessary to the compare findings in seismic design according to Eurocode 8 and NR for territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These are two different concepts in determination of seismic actions to the buildings. However, based on this elaboration, the research question in this research is which concept is more reliable for design of seismic resistant buildings in City of Banja Luka. Another research question is – if maps of seismic hazard for reference return period of 475 and 95 years for Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the interactive map of values of the reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground for the same reference return periods for Bosnia and Herzegovina from National Annex BAS EN 1998-1/NA:2018 need reevaluation based upon missing or new data and/or using different approach including mixed methodologies as needed.

2 Research Methodology Qualitative Comparative Research methodology was used in this paper. It aimed to determine the seismic forces applied on the fixed building plan increasing the height of the building using the NR and the Eurocode 8 in City of Banja Luka. Then, the seismic actions were analyzed in accordance with two different codes: The NR and the Eurocode 8. The dimensions of the structural elements varied depending on the height of the model, and the height varied from 5 to 20 floors. The focus of the research was to examine the existing Interactive Map of Seismic Hazard for BiH for City of Banja Luka. So, the research question was: What are differences between seismic forces determined using two different codes in City of Banja Luka? And how much is that difference if the height of the model is increased? As a hypothesis, it was considered that there is a significant difference in the value of seismic forces, determined by the two mentioned codes, if the building height increases in City of Banja Luka.

272

S. Dzidic et al.

3 Seismic Analysis According to Eurocode 8 For adequate assessment of the seismic effect of an earthquake, it is necessary to know the magnitude of the earthquake, the characteristics of the ground displacements and the conditions of the location where the building is located [3]. Seismic actions are result of the buildings’ dynamic response to the shaking ground [4]. The seismic analysis may be applied to buildings whose response is not significantly affected by contributions from modes of vibration higher than the fundamental mode in each principal direction. Eurocode 8 contributes to stability and safety of buildings, and therefore their risk reduction [5]. According to Eurocode 8, “The input parameters for seismic analysis were derived from the condition that ultimate limit state is connected with the requirement that the structure of the average exploitation lifetime of 50 years does not collapse, which corresponds to seismic action with a probability of exceedance of 10% in 50 years, i.e. to the return period of 475 years; while serviceability limit state is connected with the requirement that limited damages may arise only as consequence of an earthquake action for which there is a probability of exceedance of 10% in 10 years, i.e. earthquake that has average return period of 95 years” [6]. The seismic base shear force F b for each horizontal direction in which the building is analyzed is determined using the following expression: Fb = Sd (T1 ) · m · λ

(1)

where “S d (T 1 ) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T 1 , while T I is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the direction considered, m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a rigid basement and λ is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: λ = 0.85 if T l ≤ 2 T c and the building has more than two stories, or λ = 1.0 in any other case.” [7].

Fig. 1. Interactive Map of Seismic Hazard for BiH [8]

For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the design spectrum, S d (T) is defined using expressions 3.13–3.16 (BAS EN 1998-1:2017) using the design ground

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

273

acceleration on type A ground ag , where ag = γ1 agR γ1 is an importance factor which relates to the consequences of a structural failure, while the value of the reference peak ground acceleration for a return period of 475 years agR is chosen by the National Authorities for each seismic zone. In case of Bosnia and Herzegovina, BAS EN 19981/NA:2018 is the referent document that includes maps of seismic hazard for reference return period of 475 and 95 years for Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the interactive map of values of the reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground for the same reference return periods. In distribution of the horizontal seismic forces through floors and when the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements increasing linearly along the height, the horizontal forces on floors F i are given by: zi · mi  Fi = Fb  zj · mj

(2)

where F b is the seismic base shear force, zi – the height of the i-floor, mi – mass of the i-floor [7].

4 Seismic Analysis According to the NR NR prescribes technical norms for the construction of high-rise buildings in seismic areas of VII, VIII and IX degrees of seismicity according to the MCS-64 scale. All highrise buildings are located in seismic areas according to seismological maps prepared for earthquake return periods of 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 10000 years, which are an integral part of NR. In accordance with the provisions of this NR, high-rise buildings in seismic areas are designed so that earthquakes of the strongest intensity can cause damage to load-bearing structures, but these structures must not collapse [9]. The total horizontal seismic force is determined according to the equation: S =K ·G

(3)

where K – Total seismic factor for the horizontal direction. G – Total weight of the building including equipment. The total seismic factor for the horizontal direction is determined using following equation: K = Ko · Ks · Kd · Kp

(4)

where K o – building category factor, K s – seismic intensity factor, K d – dynamism factor and K p – ductility and damping factor. For determination of building category factor, in this research, the building was categorized in category II (apartment buildings, hotels, public buildings…). For the design of buildings of category II, a seismological map created for an earthquake return period of 500 years is used.

274

S. Dzidic et al.

For buildings up to five floors, the distribution of seismic forces is done according to the equation: Gi · Hi Si = S · n i=1 Gi · Hi

(5)

where S i is the seismic horizontal force at the i-th floor, Gi –weight of the i-th floor and H i the height of the i-th floor from the upper edge of the foundation.

Fig. 2. Seismological map for an earthquake return period of 500 years [9]

For buildings with more than five storeys, the distribution of the total seismic force is determined according to the previous expression for 85% of the total seismic force and the remaining 15% of the total seismic force is a concentrated force at the top storey of the high-rise building [9].

5 Comparison of Seismic Actions According to EC 8 and NR This research is focused on the determination of the seismic actions and comparison of results for reinforced concrete buildings according to the BAS EN 1998-1:2017 and according to the NR. The observed model buildings are located in Banja Luka. For the purposes of calculations and targeted comparisons, they were made four models of the selected reinforced concrete frame with structural regularity. Permanent and variable actions and material properties are the same for all building models.

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

275

For the calculation according to the Eurocode 8, assumptions are that the buildings are based on category “A” soil, with importance factor which relates to the consequences of a structural failure adopted as “B”. PGA is adopted with the value of 0,17 g, for return period of 475 years according to Map of Seismic Zones and Reference Ground Accelerations for City of Banja Luka. Assuming that the observed model buildings are located in a seismic active area and that it is necessary to ensure suitable energy consumption capacity without significant reduction load capacity of the entire system, a medium degree of ductility is adopted - DCM (Ductility Class Medium). In order to avoid non-linear calculation of the structure, the behavior factor q was applied, which reduces the elastic spectrum of the response and obtains the appropriate one calculation spectrum of the response, which is also taken into account and the non-linear response of the structure which is related to the material, construction system and calculation procedure. For the calculation according to the NR, assumptions that the model buildings are based on soil category I, with building category II. According to the Seismic map for 500 years return period, seismic intensity factor according to the MCS scale is adopted as 0,10 for the IX seismic area (City of Banja Luka). In determination of horizontal seismic forces according to both codes, the following parameters are used according to [10, 11]: • Permanent action of top floor layers – 3.50 kN/m2 (excluding self-weight of the structure) • Permanent actions on characteristic floors – 1.50 kN/m2 (excluding self-weight of the structure) • Permanent actions of partition walls on characteristic floors – 1.20 kN/m2 • Weight of the facade skin – 1.50 kN/m2 • Snow load – 1.54 kN/m2 • Variable action on top floor – 3.00 kN/m2 • Variable actions on characteristic floors – 2.00 kN/m2 . 5.1 Model 1: High-Rise, Reinforced Concrete Building P + 4, H = 16.20 m The plan is symmetrical 20 m × 20 m. Floor height is 2.80 m, depth of the slab is 20 cm. The dimensions of the columns are 40 cm/40 cm and beams are 40 cm/60 cm.

276

S. Dzidic et al.

Fig. 3. Section and Plan for Model 1

The next figure shows that total seismic force determined according to EC 8 represents 81% of the force determined according to to the NR.

Fig. 4. Horizontal seismic forces distribution for Model 1

5.2 Model 2: High-Rise, Reinforced Concrete Building P + 9, H = 31.20 m The plan is symmetrical 20 m × 20 m. Floor height is 2.80 m, depth of the slab is 20 cm. The dimensions of the columns are 50 cm/50 cm and beams are 50 cm/70 cm. Figure 6 shows that total seismic force determined according to EC 8 represents 68% of the force determined according to the NR.

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

277

Fig. 5. Section and Plan for Model 2

Fig. 6. Horizontal seismic forces distribution for Model 2

5.3 Model 3: High-Rise, Reinforced Concrete Building P + 14, H = 46.20 m The plan is symmetrical 20 m × 20 m. Floor height is 2.80 m, depth of the slab is 20 cm. The dimensions of the columns are 55 cm/55 cm and beams are 55 cm/75 cm.

278

S. Dzidic et al.

Fig. 7. Section and Plan for Model 3

With the increasing number of stories to fifteen, it is obvious that total seismic horizontal force according to Eurocode 8 drops to 66% in comparison to the NR.

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

279

Fig. 8. Horizontal seismic forces distribution for Model 3

5.4 Model 4: High-Rise, Reinforced Concrete Building P + 19, H = 61.20 m The plan is symmetrical 20 m × 20 m. Floor height is 2.80 m, depth of the slab is 20 cm. The dimensions of the columns are 60 cm/60 cm and beams are 60 cm/80 cm.

Fig. 9. Section and Plan for Model 4

280

S. Dzidic et al.

With increasing number of stories to twenty, the total seismic horizontal force according to Eurocode 8 drops to less then 55% in comparison to the NR.

Fig. 10. Horizontal seismic forces distribution for Model 4

6 Discussion of Results Analysis of the results of the seismic actions on all four models of reinforced concrete high-rise buildings located in City of Banja Luka showed that the total seismic force is

Fig. 11. The relation of the total seismic force according to Eurocode 8 (F i ) and the NR (S i ) for the observed four models

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

281

larger according to the NR and significantly increases with the height of the building which can be observed in the next diagram. After determination of seismic forces for all four models according to BAS EN 19981:2017 and NR, it must be noted that the different philosophy of seismic design is applied according to these two codes [12]. According to BAS EN 1998-1:2017, the load-bearing structures are designed based on the linear elastic behavior of the structure. Seismic actions are determined by modal analysis and design acceleration spectrum. As an alternative, power spectrum analysis, time response and analysis in the frequency domain can be applied. According to NR load-bearing structures are designed as linear-elastic structures according to the theory of ultimate limit state or according to the theory of elasticity. However, during the design, there is also different philosophy in determination of the mass of the building (which significantly contributes to the deigned seismic forces applied), since the snow load and variable actions are differently determined according to Eurocode 8 and NR. As earlier mentioned, and according to the Seismic map for 500 years return period [9], City of Banja Luka is in the IX seismic area (MCS-64 scale). According to the Interactive Map of Seismic Hazard for BiH [8], PGA is 0.17 g. However, [13] provides the following correlation between seismic intensity and PGA (Table 1): Table 1. Correlation between seismic intensity and PGA [13] Seismic Intensity

PGA

VII

0.10 g

VIII

0.20 g

IX

0.35–0.40 g

The recommended correlation highlights that PGA from the Interactive Map [8] is close to the VIII seismic intensity, and not even close to the IX seismic intensity as prescribed by NR [9]. In addition, [14] underlined “…it can be concluded that the seismic forces that led to the collapse of the minaret were of greater intensity than the forces that were calculated for seismic intensity VIII according to the MCS scale” based upon analysis on the seismic forces resulting from earthquake in Banja Luka from 1969 and effects on minaret of Ferhat-Pasha Mosque in Banja Luka.

7 Conclusion Analyzing research results from 4.1 to 4.4, the following conclusions have been drawn from this research: • The total seismic force is significantly larger according to the The NR versus Eurocode 8 for City of Banja Luka.

282

S. Dzidic et al.

• The difference in total seismic force determined by NR and Eurocode 8 increases with the height of the building. • It is recommended that similar or more thorough analysis should be conducted for other areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina. • Reevaluation and revisit of maps of seismic hazard [5] in Bosnia and Herzegovina within BAS EN 1998-1/NA:2018 is mandatory towards the most reliable parameters according to the EC 8 requirements, with taking in consideration populating missing or new data including different probabilistic methods for seismic hazard analysis as well as mixed methods. • Considering the large differences in seismic actions when using BAS EN 1998-1:2017 and the NR, the question arises according to which standard should high-rise buildings be designed currently. These findings fully support, inform and are in line with the conclusions at the meeting held in BAS attended by members of academic community, representatives of relevant ministries and institutes, held on February 15, 2022.

References 1. Hidrometeoroloski Zavod: Seismicity of the Territory of BiH (2022). http://www.fhmzbih. gov.ba/latinica/SEIZMO/Skarakteristike.php 2. Omerbasic, M., Sijari´c, G.: Seismotectonics of Bosnia – Overview. Acta Geodyn. Geomater. 3(2)(142), 17–29 (2006) 3. Causevic, A., Rustempasic, N.: Visoki objekti u arhitekturi. Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, CIP 726(075.8) 725.222(075.8), ISBN 978-9958-691-98-0, COBISS.BH-ID 42185478 (2021) 4. Kovacevic, I., Dzidic, S.: High-Rise Buildings – Structures and Materials. International BURCH University Sarajevo, CIP 725.222(075.8), COBISS.BH-ID 24904454, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018). ISBN 978-9958-834-58-5 5. El Shanawany, Y., et al.: Contribution to the Further Seismic Risk Evaluation for Bosnia and Herzegovina”, Electronic Proceedings, 13th International Scientific Conference on Manufacturing Engineering “Development and Modernization of the Manufacturing”, Faculty of Technical Engineering/University of Biha´c, pp. 228–233 (2021). ISSN 2566-3283 6. http://eurokodovi.ba/seizmika/images/Map_information_eng.pdf (2022) 7. BAS EN 1998-1:2017 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance-Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, BAS, Istoˇcno Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2017) 8. BAS EN 1998-1/NA:2018 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance-Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, National Annex, BAS, Istoˇcno Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018) 9. Pravilnik o tehniˇckim normativima za izgradnju objekata visokogradnje u seizmiˇckim podruˇcjima, Službeni list SFRJ br. 31/81, 49/82, 29/83, 21/88 i 52/90 10. BAS EN 1991-1-1:2015, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, BAS, Istoˇcno Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2015) 11. BAS EN 1991-1-1/NA:2016, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, National Annex, BAS, Istoˇcno Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2016)

Contribution to Reasons for the Seismic Risk Re-evaluation

283

12. Sigmund, V., et al.: Usporedba primjene hrvatskih propisa i Eurokoda 8. Gradjevinar 52 (2000) 7, pp. 379–388, UDK 69.009.182.001.8, Zagreb, Hrvatska (2000) 13. Hrasnica, M., et al.: “Priruˇcnik za Eurokodove”, Institut za standardizaciju Bosne i Herceˇ govine – BAS i Ceška kancelarija za standarde, mjeriteljstvo i ispitivanje–ÚNMZ, Sarajevo, Bosna i Hercegovina,CIP006.77(497.6)(035), 006.4:624.04(497.6)(035)ISBN: 9789958-530-03-6, COBISS.BH-ID 25694982 (2018) 14. Tahirovic, V.I.: Rekonstrukcija srušenog dijela munare Ferhat-Pašine dzamije u Banja Luci. Prvi kongres Drustva gradjevinskih konstruktera Bosne i Hercegovine, Zbornik radova, Knjiga 2, pp. 311–320 (1989)

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac in Bosna and Herzegovina ´ cez1 , Kenan Mostarli´c2 , and Fuad Catovi´ ´ Merima Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c1(B) , Marko Ce´ c1 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Dzemal Bijedic” of Mostar, Mostar,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 AIK Engineering, doo Banovi´ci, Banovi´ci, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Asphalt is an artificial composite of natural materials, with defined particle size distribution of stone aggregate, stone flour and precisely defined amount of bitumen, where all particles are covered with bitumen. Asphalt mixtures are the most popular material for pavement structures. Asphalts are used for loadbearing layers, bond layers and wearing layers of pavement structures in modern road construction. The subject of this paper is the identification, analysis and understanding of all components of asphalt, as well as asphalt properties, testing methods, method of installation, as well as systematic maintenance of structures for main road M17.3 Neum - Stolac in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: Asphalt · Testing · Maintenance · Road

1 Introduction Asphalt is an artificial composite of natural materials, with defined particle size distribution of stone aggregate, stone flour and precisely defined amount of bitumen, where all particles are covered with bitumen [1]. Today, no product recognized on the market can be imagined without relevant scientific laboratory tests, nor can its production be imagined without constant laboratory monitoring. The laboratory constantly participates in production with the aim of having insight into the flow of the technological process of production and installation at all times so that, in case of need, the production process can quickly return to a normal level, that is, it is constantly maintained at the designed level of quality. In short, quality assurance is the sum of several continuous activities, tests, measurements, observations and corrections [2]. Laboratory tests are regulated by standards and in Bosnia and Herzegovina tests are performed in accordance with Eurocode standards. The need for maintenance of roads arose from increasing construction. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, maintenance is carried out in accordance with the guidelines and regulations on the maintenance of public roads. Maintenance of public roads is planned, organized and carried out by road managers. Monitoring and inspection of roads is carried out by patrol services, which must have a certified patrolman [3]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 284–291, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_31

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac

285

The application of regular and extraordinary road maintenance ensures the permanent preservation of the construction, traffic and economic value of the road. The standards of regular maintenance of public roads in accordance with the Guidelines for design, construction, maintenance and supervision of roads of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ensure smooth and safe traffic on the roads [3]. The main objectives of public road maintenance are: • • • • • •

Preventing road deterioration Enabling safe traffic Reduction of user costs by good road condition Bringing the road to the designed state, taking into account the changed traffic needs Road protection from users and third parties Protection of the environment from the harmful effects of roads and road traffic

2 Asphalt Components Tests In Bosnia and Herzegovina, tests are carried out in accordance with Eurocode standards. During the construction of pavement structure and its layers, the following tests are performed [4]: • Previous tests • Ongoing tests • Control tests All these types of tests include three positions: • Testing of materials for the production of asphalt mixture (components) • Testing of the produced asphalt mixture • Testing of the derived asphalt layer. Road pavement structures are made of two or three layers of asphalt concrete. The specification of the asphalt concrete that is used for this mainly depends on the purpose of the road, that is, on the traffic load. The load-bearing layer takes over and distributes the load from the surface on the base. In addition, it serves for leveling of the substrate on subsequent layers. It is produced from coarse aggregates, such as 16, 22 and 32 mm. During installation, the thickness of this layer is usually between 5 and 13 cm [5]. The bond asphalt layer additionally flattens the base and takes on the shear or tangential stress caused by the traffic load from the surface. The bond layer is produced from aggregate with a grain size of 16 and 22 mm and is usually 5 to 10 cm thick [5]. The wearing asphalt layer is in direct contact with the surface load and must guarantee safe mechanical contact of the wheels with the ground. The thickness of this layer is the smallest, and is between 2 and 7 cm. The wearing asphalt layer is produced from finer-grained aggregates, i.e. 4 mm, 8 mm, 11 mm and 16 mm in size [5]. Based on Table 1, it can be concluded that the pavement structure of the main road M17.3 Neum - Stolac is composed of three asphalt layers. Two load-bearing layers with

286

M. Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c et al.

a maximum grain size of 22 mm and a thickness of 2 x 6 cm and one wearing layer with a maximum grain size of 11 mm and a thickness of 4 cm [6]. Table 1. Pavement structure on the main road M17.3 Neum – Stolac[6] Material type

Layer thickness (cm)

Bituminous concrete SBM 11s

4,0

Bitumenized crushed stone AGNS 22s

6,0

Bitumenized crushed stone AGNS 22s

6,0

Unbound bearing layer-crushed stone D32

40,0

2.1 2.1. Testing of Natural Stone for Production of Stone Aggregate The natural stone used as a material for obtaining stone aggregate, as one of the basic components of the asphalt mixture, must meet the conditions prescribed by standards and guidelines. Basic tests include: • Compressive strength • Density, porosity and absorption • Frost resistance The results of natural stone testing for the production of asphalt mixture on the main road M17.3 Neum - Stolac are shown in Table 2. The stone is limestone from Inka quarry, Crveni Grm (Ljubuški) B&H. The results meet requirements for the production of bonded upper bearing layers of the pavement structure [6]. Table 2. Results of stone testing from Inka quarry, Crveni Grm, Ljubuški, Bosnia and Herzegovina [6] Test

Method

Results

Requirement

Compressive strength in dry state

BAS EN 1926

185,0 MPa

> 180 MPa

Compressive strength in wet state

BAS EN 1926

165,0 MPa

–

Water absorption

BAS EN 13383–2

0,10%

< 0,75%

Bulk density

JUS B.B8.032:1980

2,71 g/cm3

2,0 – 3,0 g/cm3

Frost resistance

JUS B.B8.002:1978

0,30%

< 5%

Porosity coefficient

JUS B.B8.032:1980

0,996

–

Porosity index

JUS B.B8.032:1980

0,40

–

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac

287

2.2 Testing of Stone Aggregate Aggregates are usually composed of different grain sizes, which affects both the properties of the grains themselves and the properties of the materials in which the aggregates are component materials, such as the asphalt mixture. The percentage share of certain categories of grains, or fractions in the total mass of the aggregate represents the granulometric composition of the aggregate. This is determined by dividing the aggregate by size into a certain number of groups, the so-called faction. At the same time, each fraction is determined by the grain size interval, i.e. the lower and upper limits of the grain size. In addition to the granulometric composition, the following essential properties are tested [6]: • • • •

Shape, appearance and surface of the grains Crush resistance Adhesion of bitumen and aggregate Frost resistance by Na2 SO4 Results of aggregates testing are presented in Table 3, with requirements. Table 3. Results of aggregates testing [6]

Test type

Granulometric composition

Unit

%

Method BAS EN

Fraction (mm)

933–1:2012

Passing

0/4

4/8

8/16

16/22

0,063

7,2

1,1

0,9

0,0

0,09

8

1

1

0

0,125

10

1

1

0

0,25

15

1

1

0

0,5

26

1

1

0

0,71

35

1

1

0

1,0

45

1

1

0

2,0

72

1

1

0

4,0

95

7

1

0

5,6

100

51

1

0

8,0

96

8

0

11,2

100

50

1

16,0

95

3

22,4

100

99

31,5

Requirement/ Clasification

100

(continued)

288

M. Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c et al. Table 3. (continued)

Test type

Unit

Method BAS EN

Fraction (mm) 0/4

4/8

8/16

16/22

Requirement/ Clasification

Content of fine particles < 0,063mm

%

933–1:2012

7,2

1,1

0,9

–

–

Water content

%

1097–5:2009

1,1

0,8

0,8

0,8

–

Sand equivalent

%

933–8 + A1:2016

74

–

–

–

SE4 60

Shape modulus –di /Di fraction designation (mm)

%

933–4:2011

–

7

8

7

SI15

Crush resistance– sieving class

%

1097–2:2011

–

–

–

22 30–40% passing through the sieve

LA15 – LA30

Examination of the chemical properties of aggregates - Part 1: Chemical analyzes (organic matter-standard solution)

–

1744–1 + A1, 2014, ch. 15.1

Lighter negative test

–

–

–

Lighter than standard solution

Bulk density

g/cm3

1097–6:2014

2,69

2,72

2,73

2,72

–

Water absorption %

1097–6:2014

1,2

0,3

0,3

0,4

WA24 2

Testing with sodium sulfate Na2 SO4

JUS B.B8 044:1982

1,0

1,3

0,9

0,9

max. 5%

Determination of bitumen and aggregate adhesion (B 100)

12697–11: 2013

–

–

90/70

–

90/70

Based on the results obtained from laboratory tests, the tested fractions meet the requirements of the reference documentation for all groups of traffic loads. 2.3 Testing of Filler Since filler is made of smaller fractions, the sieves used to determine the granulometric composition are different compared to stone aggregate. Sieves used for filler testing are: 0,71 mm; 0,25 mm; 0,09 mm; 0,063 mm.

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac

289

In addition to the granulometric composition, the density of the filler was tested by pycnometer method and the voids in the dry compacted filler were determined. Results of those tests for filler used on the main road M17.3 Neum - Stolac are shown in Table 4 [6]. Based on the results obtained from laboratory tests, filler meets the requirements of the reference documentation for all groups of traffic loads. 2.4 Bitumen Testing Bitumen as a binder in asphalt mixtures should have the following properties: • • • • • • • •

Good rheological properties Good cohesive properties Good adhesive properties for stone aggregate As little temperature sensitivity as possible As little sensitivity to load changes as possible Good behavior at low temperatures Good waterproofing properties Anti-aging

Table 4. Results of filler testing [6] Test type

Unit

Granulometric composition %

Method BAS EN 933–10:2010

Fraction (mm) Filler

Requirement

Passing

First class

0,063

77,5

60–85

0,09

88

80–95

0,25

100

95–100

0,71

100

100

Density (by pycnometer method)

g/cm3

1097–7:2009

2,72

–

Voids in dry compacted filler

%

1097–4:2009

32

28–38

Standard bitumen tests can be classified into the following groups: • • • • •

Determination of consistency Determination of temperature sensitivity Determination of stability Determination of adhesion Determination of purity

290

M. Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c et al.

Determining the consistency of bitumen is in fact determination of rheological properties, i.e. Determining the temperature at which bitumen has a certain viscosity. These tests include: softening point ring and ball, penetration, Fraass breaking point and ductility. Assessment of bitumen quality used for the main road M17.3 Neum – Stolacis done through listed tests, and the results are presented in Table 5. Table 5. Results of bitumen testing [6] Test

Unit

Test result

Requirement

Method

Penetration at 25 °C

mm/10

61

50–70

SIST EN 1426:2015

Softening point ring and ball

°C

52,6

46–54

SIST EN 1427:2015

Fraass breaking point

°C

-14

≤ -8

SIST EN 12593:2015

Return deformation value

%

82

> 50

-

Change in softening pointring and ball

°C

5,6

-

-

3 Maintenance of the Main Road The maintenance plan for the main road M17.3 Neum - Stolac envisages two types of maintenance, regular and extraordinary maintenance [3]. Regular maintenance consists of a set of measures and actions that are performed during most or all of the year on the roads, including all facilities and installations, with the purpose of maintaining the possibility and technical correctness of the road and the safety of traffic on them [3]. Regular maintenance includes several activities, some of which are related to pavement structure. The following activities are: • • • •

Repairs of pavement, retaining walls and facing walls Removal of landslide material and cleaning of roadways and drainage facilities Maintenance of banks, berms, embankments and cuts Small interventions in the restoration, replacement and strengthening of worn-out pavement • Repairs of local pavement damage • Performing other tasks that ensure constant, uninterrupted and safe traffic on the road Extraordinary maintenance of public roads includes more extensive works carried out in the road zone, improvements to road elements, stability and durability of the

Asphalt Mixtures for M17.3 Main Road Neum-Stolac

291

road and road facilities, and increased traffic safety. They are performed based on technical documentation, without obtaining consent and other documentation according to the Law on Spatial Planning and Land Use at the level of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The technical documentation of extraordinary maintenance works is prepared by an entity authorized for road design [3]. An extraordinary inspection of a road or part of a road is carried out: • After extraordinary events (natural disasters, serious accidents and damages, explosions, subsidence and sliding) • Before and after the passage of extraordinary cargo, if it is issued with the appropriate permit • At the end of the warranty period for a new road or building on the road Some of the extraordinary road maintenance related to asphalt are: • Restoration and replacement of the asphalt • Strengthening of roadways for the purpose of renewal and increase of load capacity and driving quality • Partial repairs of the pavement structure of the road, in order to protect and increase the load capacity of the road • Remediation of landslides • Arrangement of intersections at the same level

References 1. Muravljov, M.: Gradevinski materijali [Building materials], Gradevinska knjiga, Beograd (2010) 2. Zlomušica, E., Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c, M., Ademovi´c, N.: Elementi održivosti okolinskih infrastrukturnih Sistema [Elements of environmental infrastructure system sustainability], Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar (2020) 3. Smjernice za projektovanje, gradenje, održavanje i nadzor na putevima [Guidelines for the design, construction, maintenance and supervision of roads], Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2005) 4. Suboti´c, P.: Priruˇcnik za asphalt [Asphalt Handbook], Beograd (2002) ´ cez, M., Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c, M., Catovi´ ´ 5. Ðulovi´c, M., Ce´ c, F.: Ispitivanje asfaltne mješavine korištene na magistralnom putu M18 u BiH, SONT 2017, Šibenik (2017) 6. Mostarli´c, K.: Ispitivanje i kontrola asfaltnih mješavina [Testing and control of asphalt mixtures], Master thesis, Faculty of Civil Engineering Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar (2022)

3D Digital Reconstruction of Heritage Buildings by Using Old 2d Plans Nedim Tuno1(B) , Admir Mulahusi´c1 , Gojko Jugovi´c2 , and Dušan Kogoj3 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Patriotskelige 30, 71000 Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 GEO STUDIO doo, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract. The paper describes a method of finding the optimal solution to use amateur digital cameras with lenses that are not designed for measuring purposes, including those installed on mobile phones, in the process of digitizing existing documents of architectural and other material heritage. By combining the data contained in the old 2D plans as well as the data from other preserved technical drawings with the data measured directly in the field, high-quality geometric data is obtained. In this way, a reliable basis is obtained for the creation of adequate 3D models of the considered cultural heritage buildings. Thanks to this, the versatile application of digital cameras in the preservation of cultural and historical heritage is enabled, through the high-quality and fast creation of permanent records for future generations. This creates predispositions for the effective management of digital spatial data within cultural heritage while ensuring a basis for their safe use. Through the necessary introduction of norms and specifications in the process of geospatial data collection, an important contribution is made to raising awareness of the importance of cultural and historical heritage. Keywords: geospatialtechnologies · 3D models · cultural and historical heritage

1 Introduction In addition to classical geodetic purposes (for the preparation of land plans and maps, mainly for canyons, rocky slopes, open pits and landslides, quarries, etc.), terrestrial photogrammetry is also applied to areas of engineering geodesy, namely for testing deformations (e.g. steel structures of bridges and cranes, embankment dams, pontoon bridges, etc.). Apart from geodetic purposes, terrestrial photogrammetry is mostly used for recording and drafting various construction objects, buildings, bridges, and cultural monuments [1]. Due to its speed and accuracy, terrestrial photogrammetry was the predominant method of collecting data on objects of cultural and historical heritage. Due to the possibility of line mapping, a faithful representation of all irregularly shaped details is obtained (figures, inscriptions, decorative details, lines of cracks and damage, etc.). The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 292–298, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_32

3D Digital Reconstruction of Heritage Buildings

293

purpose of recording architectural objects using terrestrial photogrammetry is to collect documentation for archiving or restoration of objects [2]. Bosnia and Herzegovina is rich in cultural and historical heritage, which represents witnesses of life and existence on its territory [3]. Understanding the existence and importance of cultural-historical heritage is reflected in collecting, processing, and archiving data on cultural-historical heritage. During the 20th century, a lot of highquality geometric data in the form of 2D plans was collected in Bosnia and Herzegovina by photogrammetry and other recordings. Most often, these are facade plans (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). Data on the cultural and historical heritage in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in other less developed countries, today are almost exclusively found in analog form (on paper) and are kept in various specialized institutions, as well in depots of libraries, archives, museums, and other institutions. Unfortunately, very little effort has been made so far in digitizing cultural and historical heritage data. This represents a real danger because if analog documents are destroyed, valuable data is automatically irretrievably lost. Numerous researchers interested in the objects of cultural and historical heritage have many problems with obtaining digital models of such objects [4]. Since largeformat scanners and special cameras are not available at the institutions, users only can take photographs of the original documents with their cameras. Since these are cheap amateur cameras, the photographed documents have poor geometric accuracy [5]. Therefore, under regular circumstances, such images cannot be used for serious purposes, i.e. to obtain high-quality 3D models of objects shown on 2D plan drawings. Nowadays, the use of 3D models is becoming more and more frequent, and the aim is

Fig. 1. Medieval fortress and castle Ostrožac (Cazin) (Institute for Protection of Monuments of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina)

294

N. Tuno et al.

that all objects and phenomena from the real world be digitally represented as close to reality as possible. The goal of this research is to find a way in which every cultural monument, presented in the form of analog 2D plans, can be faithfully digitally reconstructed and thus preserved for future generations.

Fig. 2. Old stone bridge on the Bregava river, the settlement of Klepci (Institute for Protection of Monuments of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina)

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Existing 2D Plans of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Architectural Heritage In this study, the existing technical drawings of many buildings of the architectural heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina, were analyzed. The precise 2D plans were mostly made on plain paper, and are significantly geometrically distorted. Namely, it is known that paper shrinks or stretches unevenly over time, and in addition, these types of drawing carriers are often significantly crumpled, wrinkled, or folded. All these problems are unavoidably transferred to their digital copies. Additionally, there are geometric distortions caused by scanning errors or irregularities that occur due to the geometric distortion of the camera lens. In this paper, the solution to the mentioned problems and the creation of a 3D model for the Old Bridge in Mostar is presented. The Old Bridge in Mostar, built in 1566, is a true gem of Bosnian-Herzegovinian cultural heritage. Due to its specific shape and the arch that adorns it, it is a unique work of Ottoman architecture and represents one of the greatest architectural achievements of its time. It was built by MimarHajrudin, a student of the famous Mimar Sinan, and by order of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Its arch spans 28.70 m and bridges the deep canyon of the Neretva river. It is about 20 m high above the summer water level and 4.05 m wide [6–8].

3D Digital Reconstruction of Heritage Buildings

295

In 1982, the Department of Photogrammetry of the Geodetic Faculty of the University of Zagreb carried out geodetic and photogrammetric work with the purpose of creating plans for the Old Bridge in Mostar. Carl Zeiss UMK 10/1318 and Photheo 19/1318 cameras (photo-theodolites) were used to take photographs of the bridge and surrounding buildings. The following photographs from aterrestrial metric camera were recorded: the upstream and downstream sides of the bridge (facade), as well as the abutments and the arch of the bridge. Photogrammetric instrument Wild Autograph A7 was used for stereo restitution of analog photographs with an aim of model reconstruction of the bridge, which resulted in 2D plans at a scale of 1:50 [9]. This paper deals with blueprint copies of the Old Bridge that are kept at the University of Sarajevo – Faculty of Civil Engineering. The blueprint copies are of low quality due to theirage (some parts of the blueprint are faded), paper folding, etc. The photographs of blueprint copies (Fig. 3) were taken with a Samsung Galaxy S21 mobile phone camera.

Fig. 3. Detail of a digital photograph of the blueprint with emphasized deformations caused by the folding of the paper.

2.2 Acquisition of Field Data by Total Station In order to geometrically process the photos of the bridge, taken with a mobile phone, it was necessary to perform a precise measurement of the bridge in the field. The Trimble total station was used for measurements. That instrument has the ability to measure distance without a reflector, so the instrument enabled the measurement of all the necessary geometric data. First, the geodetic network was measured, the points of which are located on the downstream and upstream sides of the bridge. Thus, the necessary framework for further measurements of the Old Bridge was obtained. A number of characteristic points were measured on the bridge, which is located on its arch, cornice, joints of the stone fence, etc.

296

N. Tuno et al.

2.3 Geometric Correction of the Photographedplan In order to correct the deformations of the photographed blueprint of the bridge, it is necessary to reposition the pixels from their original locations to the default reference grid. In that process, an appropriate mathematical model for removing distortions should be selected and coordinate transformation should be carried out. In this sense, the mapping law is determined on the basis of tie points and all points are transformed based on it [10]. The investigation of the geometric correction of the bridge blueprint involved the use of global functional models of similarity, affine, projective, and polynomial transformation. Locally sensitive transformation functions were also investigated: multiquadratic (MQ), thin-plate spline (TPS), and the method of local weighted mean (LWM). Similarity transformation gave the worst results because it defines the smallest number of transformation parameters. The conducted analyzes also showed the shortcomings of the6-parameter affine and 8-parameter projective transformation in removing the complex systematic distortion of the photographed drawing of the bridge. The best results of geometric rectification were achieved by applying transformation procedures based on radial basis functions (TPS and MQ).

3 3d Digital Model of the Bridge 3.1 Vectorized Model of the Bridge After the completion of the transformation, the vectorization of the bridge blueprint was conducted.

Fig. 4. Result of the bridge vectorization

Vectorization is a way of representing an image using geometric shapes such as points, lines, curves, and polygons. Manual vectorization of the transformed photographs was applied, as the original blueprints were in poor condition (dirty). During vectorization, polylines were used to represent the contour lines of stone blocks and arches.

3D Digital Reconstruction of Heritage Buildings

297

Figure 4 shows the appearance of the downstream facade of the bridge after vectorization. The same procedure was used for the upstream side of the facade as well as for the geodetic situation. 3.1.1 Three-Dimensional Visualization of the Old Bridge By upgrading a two-dimensional 2D plan for (most often) height, a more realistic view is obtained, that is, a 3D view. But it’s not just height that’s crucial for a 3D display. By adding textures, shadows, and views from multiple sides of the desired object, the final 3D model is obtained, which is very realistic in all its features and represents a model of the real object in space. First, a wireframe model was created, which represents a skeletal representation of a real 3D object using lines and curves. A wireframe consists only of points, lines, and curves that describe the edges of objects. In order for the 3D model to be complete, it is necessary to assign materials, adjust the lights and camera, animate the objects in the scene and rasterize the scene, i.e. render the images to see the final result (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. 3D model with texture

4 Conclusion By using local geometric transformations in the process of correcting distortions of 2D plan photographs, results of satisfactory quality were obtained. The original blueprints of the bridge were in very poor condition, as they were on old paper with multiple folds. After the processing, it can be concluded that the performed transformation gave good

298

N. Tuno et al.

results. The blueprints of the facades are georeferenced with centimeter accuracy, which is quite satisfactory for this study. Nowadays, the use of 3D models is becoming more frequent. Science and technology strive for all objects and phenomena from the real world to be presented as close to reality as possible. Creating a 3D model is a very complex and time-consuming process. At the same time, in addition to knowledge and skills, it is necessary to have the latest computers with outstanding characteristics. In this process, in addition to the skill of the operator, the computer, i.e. its hardware components, is also very important. This study shows that every cultural monument should be digitally processed and thus preserved for future generations. Based on terrestrial photogrammetric recordings and other existing analog drawings, even the most complex buildings can be faithfully reconstructed and restored. The combination with the creation of 3D models and rendering with original photos gives particularly good results. Acknowledgements. This research was supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Science, under contract number 05-35-2118-1/22.The authors also acknowledge the help offered by Ante Vujnovi´c, the Head of the Institute for Protection of Monuments of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

References 1. Stojakovi´c, V.: Terrestrial photogrammetry and application to modelling architectural objects. Facta universitatis - series: Architecture and Civil Engineering 6(1), 113–125 (2008). https:// doi.org/10.2298/FUACE0801113S 2. Mari´c, I., Šiljeg, A., Domazetovi´c, F.: Geoprostorne tehnologije u 3D dokumentaciji i promocijikulturne baštine – primjer utvrde Fortica na otoku Pagu. Geodetski glasnik 50, 19–44 (2019) 3. Riedlmayer, A.J.: The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1992–1996: A Post-War Survey of Selected Municipalities. Forum Bosnae 46, 146–173 (2008) 4. Tuno, N., Mulahusi´c, A., Topoljak, J., Ðidelija, M.: Evaluation of hand held scanner for digitization of cartographic heritage. J. Cult. Herit. 54, 31–43 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.culher.2022.01.008 5. Soycan, A.: Digital cameras derived raster image transformation of old mapsheets. Sci. Res. Essays 5(24), 4011–4017 (2010) 6. Popovac, M.: Reconstruction of the Old Bridge of Mostar. Acta Polytechnica 46(2), 50–59 (2006) ˇ c, Dž., Mujezinovic, M.: Stari mostovi u Bosni i Hercegovini, Sarajevo: Sarajevo – Pub7. Celi´ lishing (1998) 8. Gojkovic, M.: Stari kameni mostovi, Beograd: Nauˇcna knjiga (1989) 9. Mulahusi´c, A., et al.: Primjena fotogrametrije i laserskog skeniranja kod zaštite spomenika kulturno historijske baštine. Geodetski glasnik 44, 34–57 (2013) 10. Tuno, N., Mulahusi´c, A., Kogoj, D.: Improving the positional accuracy of digital cadastral maps through optimal geometric transformation. J. Surveying Eng. 143(3), 05017002 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000217

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities Nerma Smajlovi´c Orman1(B) , Adnan Novali´c1 , Maja Popovac2 , and Ahmed El Sayed1 1 Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical Sciences, International Burch University

Sarajevo, Francuske Revolucije bb, 71210 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” Mostar, UniverzitetskiKampus, 88104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. In preschool design, at least three different groups are affected by the built environment: children, teachers, and parents. Despite the observation of children’s behavior and understanding of their needs, a joint effort is significant among architects and educators in preschool facilities; architects are trained to appraise and evaluate space that should be created, while preschool educators understand another dimension of the children’s environment and its effects. This paper aims to provide a sustainable model of a preschool education facility that should be based on design principles on spatial and configurational requirements that are recognized by involved parties in preschool education under the architect’s coordination. Furthermore, this paper explores the existing design principles and recognized models in preschool education. Experiences and statistics from member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development support this study. Qualitative research methodology is used, based on an in-depth analysis of published literature. It is expected to develop a list of involved parties that appear in the sustainable model of preschool. This paper will derive, as a conclusion, the basics of design guidelines within the advantages and disadvantages of existing models in preschool education, and develop a basis for a future sustainable model of preschool facilities. Keywords: preschool education facilities · design principles · sustainable model

1 Introduction One of the best definitions found about the meaning of architecture nowadays said that architecture cannot be defined as an art, or science or only engineering, because the architecture is lying somewhere in the middle between these three concentric circles [1]. According Ugljen-Ademovi´c (2018), architecture is closest to the art, that touches as emotionally and aesthetically. It permeates us, encompasses all our senses, and shapes our everyday life. It evokes feelings of protection, and sometimes evokes opposite emotions; it scares us. These cycles can be on an hourly basis, i.e., in accordance with the outside weather, climatic changes that are reflected on the environment, and therefore, by changing its environment, architecture also changes our idea of the life that surrounds © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 299–311, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_33

300

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

us [2]. Architectural design is a process with a focus on three activity sets: production, use and maintenance of built environment, where each of these sets requires independent planning even in the end, they must work simultaneously without any mistake [3]. According to the Neufert & Neufert (2012), design is never academic because resulting with the intuitive processes that are illustrate creator’s perception. Architects use an architectural vocabulary that is rather set thematically than stylistically [4]. McGuire and Schiffer (1983) consider an architectural design as a social process that effects more than one social unit which are different and have a different goal. When it comes to the preschool design it is at least three different groups that are affected by built environment: children, teachers, and parents. According to the Dudek (2005), it is the most important to observe and listen the children’s needs, because their early education, aspirations and health will be the key to the built environment that is always a part of complex urban environment.The pre-school years are the most crucial for children, as they develop swiftly and have great learning potential. As a result, it is critical to look after youngsters and provide them with opportunities for healthy development throughout this time [5]. This paper aims to provide a sustainable model of a preschool education facility that should be based on design principles on spatial and configurational requirements that are recognized by involved parties in preschool education under the architect’s coordination. Furthermore, this paper explores the existing design principles and recognized models in preschool education. Experiences and statistics from member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development support this study. Ultimately, this paper will conclude by synthesizing the key elements of design guidelines based on the strengths and limitations of existing models in preschool education and establishing a foundation for a future sustainable model of preschool facilities.

2 Methodology This paper is based on a qualitative research methodlogy. Qualitative research involves gathering and analyzing non-quantitative data, like words, images, and sounds, to understand and make sense of social phenomena. It’s frequently utilized to delve into the meanings, experiences, and viewpoints of individuals and groups, as well as to study the intricate nature of social relationships and processes [6]. The first step within this methodology will be a review of literature on the design of preschool facilities, including spatial and configurational requirements, followed by a review of literature on models of preschool institutions that are most common worldwide. After that, there will be a theoretical description of a sustainable model of preschool education in relation to existing models, which will result in an answer to the question of who the involved parties in preschool education are. Finally, the question of the strengths and limitations of existing models in preschool education will be answered, which will be the basis for a future sustainable model.

3 Theoretical Background of Education Facilities: Spatial and Configuration Requirments Preschool is an educational setting that provides early childhood education to children aged three to five years old before they begin obligatory primary school. Children’s

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

301

personal, social, and emotional development, communication skills, which primarily include speaking and listening, creative and aesthetic development skills, and mathematical knowledge are all goals of preschools. Tots and toddler programs play schools, nursery schools, and kindergartens are all examples of preschool education programs. All these programs emphasize formal and informal learning. It is also crucial to note that attendance at a preschool is not required [7]. According to Caples (1996), all spaces in preschool firstly must include principles of safety and the health of children, and of course to create an environment that is scaled to the needs of children. Table 1 is listed basic guidelines for spaces that are recognized by Caples (1996). Table 1. Guidelines for preschool building facility design according to Caples (1996) Space

Basic guidelines

Classrooms

– Create spacious classrooms for children’s activities – Create a space that will encourage children to explore and organize – One of the most desirable architectural configurations is a differentiated shell, with separated spatial zones that teachers can arrange and personalize – This configuration can be achieved with different ceiling or floor heights, as well as different lighting. Even the difference in floor coverings or fixed furniture can create these spatial zones – If the above configuration is followed, it is important that there is one space within the classroom that will be large enough for meetings of the entire group or for naps if a rest during the day for that group is planned by the curriculum – It is necessary to plan smartly and create spaces in such a way that supporting equipment such as players, speakers or even musical instruments have space for storage and use, or more importantly that the cot storage closet is close to the rest area – When it comes to furniture, apart from the fact that it must be scaled for children’s body, the furniture must be easily sterilized, without sharp angles, without many details – Daylight is necessary in all areas, and this especially applies to kindergartens that offer a full-day care program, with the important feature that the light can be controlled, both natural and artificial – Elements such as windows need to be at a lower level than usual, for the sake of free views of children to the outside world – If possible, install a sink in the classroom (continued)

302

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al. Table 1. (continued)

Space

Basic guidelines

Outdoor spaces

-This place is the most memorable place of childhood – Children test here their social skills and imagination but also exercise physical coordination, so these spaces must be designed in order to encourage these activities – Playground equipment must be scaled for children, following the years of groups that are attending preschool – Creation of a space that is sheltered from the sun and possible rain – Installation of outdoor source of water – Planting areas could be extended classroom for children

Shared spaces

– Exercise room, meeting room, hallways, reception, restrooms, etc – Longer corridors could become activity space, for meetings, storytelling area, etc – Exhibitions of children’s works could be installed in hallways or similar places – These spaces could be place where children could decorate space for events to develop their sensitivity for holidays and other events – Reception space must include comfortable furniture that is scaled for children

Offices

– Offices should provide quite place for adults, where they will work, plan, write or record diaries, etc – Offices for educators who works in the classroom should be located close to the classrooms, while other administrative stuff could be allocated but still in contact with reception

Teachers’ room

– Equipped with furniture and additional features where teacher can relax, read, or make a break – Teachers should use this room for meetings, trainings, and other similar activities for grow up groups – Storage and outlets, together with small buffet with fridge, microwave, water, and toilet must be provided for teachers

A place for parents – Three possible types of spaces: o Separated parents’ association office in larger preschool facilities o In preschool facilities with smaller capacity, it will be enough to provide a zone where parents and caregivers could speak quickly. Preferably this can be separate room where they will have a privacy o Designing space for parents’ meetings with small seating area, even this is located in the hall way

Figure 1 is showing the possible diagram of the functional relationships between zones or spaces in preschool building facilities. This diagram is adapted for larger preschool building facilities, and it is a part of the official documents that contains design standards and guidelines in South Australia [8]. They add that each project should consider the ability too add future zones, in coordination to the future site access points and relationships between them while circulating through the future building. Also, they add

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

303

that this diagram could be customized in order to project program of the future building. At the end, they add importance of achieving friendly atmosphere and community involvement thought the future projects.

Fig. 1. Diagram of the functional relationships between the zones in larger preschool facilities [8]

4 Models of Preschool Education: Spatial and Configuration Requirements Preschool education is taught in a variety of models around the world, including the most common models such as Reggio Emilia Alternative Education, High Scope schools, Waldorf schools, Montessori schools, Forest schools, Head Start schools, and Summerhill schools [5]. Even though the program of each model is different, in the end, basic architectural and environmental principles must be respected. Developed EU countries have integrated the dual nature of the term preschool education: education and care. These two factors of preschool education refer to upbringing and education and children care, which are factors related to family and social care [9]. For example, Sweden and Norway as member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) are compared with other high- or middle-income member countries of the same organization and European Union (EU) in thefield of children’s rights and the quality of preschool education, when are ranked as first and second in the world [10]. Also, this is confirmed by the list of the first 15 countries in the world when it comes to the ranking best countries for the living and development of children when Sweden ranked first, and Norway third [11]. The Swedish EduCare Model is a philosophy or approach to early childhood education that is founded

304

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

on a set of values, including the belief in the inherent value and worth of every human life, the importance of individual freedom and dignity, the equality of all people, gender equality, and a commitment to supporting and advocating for those who are vulnerable or disadvantaged. These values form the basis for the model and inform how it is implemented in educational settings [12]. In Norway, individual preschools are free to choose the tools and methods used for ongoing assessment. Child development assessments typically involve the use of various tools or instruments to assess various aspects of a child’s development, such as language skills. These tools and instruments may vary depending on the specific municipality or organization conducting the assessment and are often designed to provide a holistic evaluation of the child’s overall learning and development [13]. To understand this concept, it is important to find roots in classical education systems that are built throughout the history of preschool education upbringing and care for children. The methods of Waldorf’s teachers are the integration of artistic and academic contents, but in such a way as to include spiritual contents and direct the activities of the entire educational group, to teach and guide children through activities. The relationships towards children should be with deep respect, when according to the conviction of this model of education they enrich children’s knowledge and their feelings. This concept of preschool education cares of aspects such as a care for the child’s emotional, social and spiritual development. Knowledge should not be a ready-made thing that the teacher transfers to the child but should be encouraged by the teacher. Finding original and independent assumptions and solutions must be a priority. The child is nurtured through body, spirit, and soul [9]. Maria Montessori believed in children’s natural intelligence that involved rational, empirical, and spiritual aspects, so she saw growth in a kid that is willing to learn same as his eagerness to gain knowledge. The unconscious absorbent mind in children is developing into the conscious absorbent mind from the third year of children. This development is promoted by creating classrooms consistingofmulti-age children. Also, this way of creating classrooms allows the promotion of adult-child continuity and the development of close peer relationships [14]. Opposite to Waldorf’s education schedule for full-time attending daycare, the Montessori curriculum reserved morning for the official curriculum, while the afternoon is a time when children play including fantasy or having a traditional children-care time [15]. The basic of Reggio Emilia’s approach to children’s education is the involvement of parents [16]. Reggio Emilia’s approach also includes a theory that the child is having rights over simple needs, when according to Malaguzzi children develop their intelligence and confidence that invoke the feeling of beautiful, vigorous, amenable, creative, interested, and ambitious child inside them [17]. This leads to the creation of a child that is essential in his education and gaining knowledge. The child becomesthe main protagonist in solution-searching in daily life [16]. In this process child research, observe and set a question, think, discusses the problem, set his hypothesis, and in the end comes to a solution by himself, which makes him a researcher [18]. Education of preschoolers in Reggio Emilia schools has as its final aim the creation of a unique child who is connected and conscious of the environment and culture that surround him [16].

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

305

5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities Sustainable development is necessary on a global scale, which highlights the value of hiring architects to develop good contemporary designs. These designers will offer unique design solutions to ensure exceptional architecture that respects the context in which it is built, respects the principles of sustainable development, and expresses the visual needs of future generations [19]. Sustainable design considersa framework of a balance between environmental, economic, and social principles [19, 20]. This type of design must adhere to various design goals, including a comfortable indoor climate, a healthy environment, life-cycle costs, resource use, environmental loading, functionality, and architectural expression. The design team, which should include an architect as well as other engineers, must work closely together to achieve these goals from the very beginning of the design process [21]. Space sensory perception and imagination have long been associated with the idea of Euclidean space’s three-dimensional geometry, making this the predominant way of thinking. Other mathematical ideas of space that emerged in the nineteenth century also had a significant influence on broader cultural contexts, including architecture [22]. Design that will be acceptable to future generations, but also ours, implies a space that encompasses more than three dimensions. This is confirmed by the fact that we are creating a space that will respect the aforementioned layers within the framework of sustainability. The environmental principle involves resource conservation, which directly implies the efficient use of materials (smart waste management, but also the smart choice of green materials, design for pollution prevention), considering the adaptation of existing buildings to new uses using flexibility principles in design, developing an energyefficient technological process, and passive energy design. It is necessary to respect the environment and take into account orientation. The economic principle advocates for cost efficiency, or the choice of constructing green buildings that initially cost more than traditional construction, but are later proven to be sustainable for future generations. Finally, the significant social principles imply design for human adaptation. Designing for humans entails meeting not only their physical and obvious demands but also their health and emotional needs, which are influenced by a variety of environmental factors that they are typically unaware of. This includes environmental cues that affect a place’s thermal and acoustic comfort, visually pleasing experiences while using the space, and the removal of feelings of anxiety and physical insecurity brought on by predictable or unexpected threats [19, 20]. Discussion Figures 2 and 3 show models in preschool education when architects design space following the philosophy of education model. The examples that are shown give us insight into Waldorf’s classroom (Fig. 2) and Montessori’s classrooms (Fig. 3). As it is previously explained flexibility of space is part of a sustainable framework in design. Waldorf’s classroom clearly defined space by its organic form in layout which leaves responsibility for educators or prime users to face certain difficulties with the arrangement according to a variety of needs on daily basis. Montessori classrooms, on the other

306

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

hand, show flexible space even between the usage of two aged different groups, such as nursery and kindergarten groups. The same logic is used in Reggio Emilia’s preschools, where flexibility is one of the main principles in design preschools that will follow this approach in education [23].

Fig. 2. Layout of Casa de las Estrellas Waldorf Preschool done by Salagnac Arquitectos [24]

Fig. 3. Example of Montessori classrooms for preschool groups of the nursery (0–3 years)and kindergarten (3–6 years) done by GAM - Gonzagarredi Montessori [25]

Both models, Montesorri and Reggio Emillia were role models for creating EduCare model in the specific requirments in education [12]. Space is created on the way in synergy of function or related to the way of using space [26]. Holistic design in architecture is an approach that looks at the building as a complete system and takes into account all its components and how they interact with each other and the environment. This approach aims to create buildings that are not just functionaland attractive, but also sustainable;flexible, energy-efficient, and healthy for the people who use them [27]. In the following part of this paper, the involved parties in preschool education facilities design will be given. Based on everything stated above, that classic philosophies and models of preschool education facilities, such as Montessori and Reggio Emilia, together with the EduCare

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

307

philosophies and model, which is being developed successfully in the area of the most desirable country for children in terms of safety, education and rights, represent the basics for a sustainable model of preschool education facilities. 5.2 Involved Parties in Preschool Education Facilities Design Children are born in their families and the first place where they learn about environment and gain first knowledge is at theirs home. For the first time in their life, parents meet them with the preschool education, where they will develop separately from home. Families and preschool institutions must act together in this early education, to become a great person in the future [28, 29]. Parents’ expectations from the preschool are directly connected with the establishment of a relationship between children and teachers. In this relationship is not only important emotional connection of teacher with children, but also cooperation with parents who will have an opportunity to freely take a word in dialogue about their children’s needs and expectations [30]. There is a positive impact on the preschool education that is brought with parents’ involvement in school activities. It is a word about connected circle: children will get an opportunity to meet other parents and communication between families will be enabled, while these activities are opportunity for teachers to learn more about children’s parents in order to better assist to children during normal days. As the crucial benefit is knowledge gained from these activities with parents for curriculum development of the preschool [31]. Earlier in this paper, it is mentioned non-existence of regulations or guidelines set for global use in preschool buildings design [4]. So, according to Neufert & Neufert (2012), first stop for designer is to look in regulations under preschool law in relevant state and combine the information with other variables: capacity and children’s need that are crucial in creation of children’s space. Years of research on the early learning environment have solidified the notion that properly planned and constructed preschool facilities promote children’s learning [32]. An effective preschool design should give children a sense of comfort, security, and belonging that is comparable to their home setting. Difference between designing for adults and creating spaces for children necessitates knowledge of children’s growth and behaviors, knowledge that goes beyond an architect’s technical abilities. A designer’s ability to be flexible and adapt is thought to be essential to successful design, thus while the designer has a strategic and significant role in achieving the best solution, he or she cannot impose his or her idea or act alone [33]. If the environment can offer a setting that encourages kids’ imagination, gross-motor activity, and brain development, it can function as a third teacher. Children’s environments can be used to teach and transform the inner being of children and their search for a pleasant, well-structured, yet realistic environment if they are appropriately and wisely designed. To learn, young toddlers require environments that are largely organized. The environment described can be created only if the designer has a greater grasp of children’s unique requirements and knowledge on how they interact with the environment [34]. Despite the observation of children’s behavior and understanding their needs, important is a common effort among architects and educators in preschool facilities; architects are trained to appraise and evaluate space that should be created, while preschool educators understand another dimension of the environment, such as concepts of abstract,

308

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

psychological, behavioral or connotative that frequently overlook the condition of the environment and its effects. Both professionals are having a viewpoint that is correct and interrelated, because of fact that the psychological experience of end users is affected by the physical environment. Despite having the same objective of creating a high-quality learning environment, it is obvious that architects and educators may view an excellent preschool facility differently depending on their individual professional experiences. The fact is that teachers realize children as learners while architects see them as clients or end users [35]. The quality of the planned and designed physical environment does have marked and significant impacts on a range of cognitive and social developmental outcomes [36]. Today, scientists try to find a balance between the views of architects and educators on quality preschool. The architect insists on classroom density, center, and building size, indoor and outdoor space, playgrounds, location of the institution, air quality, the function of the colors, and acoustics, while the educator speaks about teacher quality, pedagogical quality, and curriculum design [37]. Teacher is an important role in education. The teacher must develop relationship with children in a way that he will be able to stimulate or challenge them. Also, teacher must follow the goals that are found in curriculum, where development and learning goals could be found. Since children’s development and learning occur constantly, teaching should be based on information that has been planned or arises naturally. Preschool teachers should oversee the educational material they teach as well as specialized activities to support children’s growth and learning. Therefore, preschool teachers have a specific duty to the education that is jointly supplied by the work team [38]. Discussion Analaysing the literature that talks about the creators of the preschool educational process, the participants are connected in concentric circles, which permeate each other. If these participants in one or more rounds at any time change even a millimeter of their coordinated action, it significantly affects all other participants as well. In this case, the architect is the important participant in all circles and coordinator of the educational process. The architect is obliged to recognize the interests of all parties and, through his actions, create a space where the ideas and interests of all parties will be able to be implemented in a coordinated and designed manner. This can be interpreted differently, from the point of view of philosophy, that all participants in the creation of the educational process are architects - designers. Everyone participates in creating a space where young minds will be guided, taught, and honed. According to the literature review, below is summarized relationships in are recognized: – – – –

legislators (those who create regulations in country) - designers (architects), psychologists who are also children’s teachers (educators) – designers (architects), teachers (educators) - parents - designers (architects), teachers (educators) - children - designers (architects).

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

309

According to the above, the stakeholders involved in the preschool education process from the beginning of the idea to its implementation are architect, legislator, psychologist - educator, parent, and child.

6 Conclusion The sustainable design of buildings is an increasingly common topic among architects’ forums and all other parties involved in the preschool education process.Current models, including the most significant models such as Montessoriand Reggio Emillio, provide ideas on how teachers, educators, and other pedagogical workers should approach preschool education, but very little is said about the buildings in which preschool institutions should welcome future generations who will demand much more from space than the three basic dimensions.The concept of these pshihologies requires the flexibility and adaptability of the space, which makes it sustainable, in all three principles of sustainability; environmental, economic and social, which were discussed in this paper. At the end of the day, designing a sustainable preschool education facility requires a holistic approach that brings all key stakeholders to the table from start to finish, from conceptualizing the dream facility to making it a reality. As cities become more densely populated with urban growth, the healthy upbringing of the youngest generation has been completely neglected, depriving them of the basic sustainability principles that architecture must implement in all its future projects. Recommendations for future researchers are to push the boundaries of the basic principles of preschool facilities design, ensuring that sustainability principles are unquestionably included in legal acts and regulations, in order to provide children with a healthy upbringing and an environment in more challenging times that are waiting for us. In addition, there is room to talk about many other features that must be respected in terms of thermal comfort, material selection, construction technology, in order for the preschool education facility to be sustainable, which is a recommendation for future researchers to process.

References 1. Harrouk, C.: ArchDaily Interviews: What is Architecture? According to our Readers, 14 April 2021. [Mrežno]. https://www.archdaily.com/960128/what-is-architecture-according-to-ourreaders. [Pokušaj pristupa 18 September 2022] 2. Ugljen-Ademovi´c, N.: Elementi i funkcije stambenog prostora sa osvrtom na razvitak obiteljske ku´ce. Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo (2018) 3. McGuire, R.H., Schiffer, M.B.: A theory of architectural design. J. Anthropological Archaeology, svez. 2, br. 3, pp. 277–303 (1983) 4. Neufert, E., Neufert, P.: Architects’ data, 4th ur. Willey, Chichester (2012) 5. Khan, H., Ebrahimi, M.H.: Analyzing Preschool Education Models in Architectural Design. A+ Arch Design International Journal of Architecture and Design, svez. 7, br. 1, pp. 53–70 (2021) 6. Creswell, J.W.: Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches, 3rd edn. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA (2013)

310

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

7. Pediaa: Difference Between Preschool and Kindergarten, 7 June 2016. [Mrežno]. https://ped iaa.com/difference-between-preschool-and-kindergarten/. [Pokušaj pristupa 9 May 2022] 8. Department of Education and Children’s Services: Early Childhood Facilities (birth to age 8): Design Standards and Guildines, [Mrežno]. https://www.education.sa.gov.au/sites/default/ files/early-childhood-facilities-birth-to-age-8-design-standards-and-guidelines.pdf?acsf_f iles_redirect. [Pokušaj pristupa 2 September 2022] 9. Mavri´c, M., Feti´c, M.: Preschool Education in Europe. Int. J. Early Childhood Special Educ., svez. 14, br. 3 (2022) 10. Chzhen, Y., Gromada, A., Rees, G.: Are the world’s richest countries family friendly? Unicef (2019) 11. Ireland, S.: Stats Gate: The World’s Best Countries For Raising Kids, 2021, 1 February 2021. [Mrežno]. https://ceoworld.biz/2021/02/01/the-worlds-best-countries-for-raising-kids2021/. [Pokušaj pristupa 4 August 2022] 12. Clöwe, D.: EDUCARE The Swedish Preschool Model, 18 April 2018. [Mrežno]. https:// www.linkedin.com/pulse/educare-swedish-model-detlef-cl%C3%B6we/. [Pokušaj pristupa 15 December 2022] 13. Engel, A., Barnett, W.S., Anders, Y., Taguma, M.: Early Childhood Education and Care Policy Review: Norway. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2015) 14. Montessori, M, Chattin-McNichols, J.: The Absorbent Mind, NewYork: Henry Holt and Company (1995) 15. Edwards, C.P.: Three approaches from Europe: Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia. Early childhood research & practice, svez. 4, br. 1, pp. 1–14 (2002) 16. Hewett, V.M.: Examining the reggio emilia approach to early childhood education. Early Childhood Educ. J. 29(2), 95–100 (2001) 17. Gandini, L.: History, ideas, and basic philosophy, u The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education, pp. 41–89. NJ, Ablex Publishing Corporation, Norwood (1993) 18. Forman, G.: The project approach in Reggio Emilia, u Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice, pp. 172–181. Teachers College Press, New York and London (1996) 19. Smajlovic Orman, N., Mrkonja, I., Dzafo, H.: Construction of Green Buildings–A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability Implementation. In: International Conference on Sustainable Development, Cham (2023) 20. Akadiri, P.O.. Chinyio, E.A., Olomolaiye, P.O.: Design of a sustainable building: a conceptual framework for implementing sustainability in the building sector. Buildings, pp. 126–152 (2012) 21. El Demery, I.M.: Sustainable architectural design: reviving traditional design and adapting modern solutions. ArchNet-IJAR 4(1), 99–110 (2010) 22. Tepavˇcevi´c, B., Stojakovi´c, V.: Representation of non-metric concepts of space in architectural design theories. Nexus Network J. 16, 285–297 (2014) 23. Edwards, C., Gandini, L., Forman, G.: As Cem Linguaguens da Criança. Volume 1: A abordagem de Reggio Emilia na Educação Infantil, Porto Alegre: Penso Editora (2015) 24. Ott, C.: Casa de las Estrellas Waldorf School/Salagnac Arquitectos,« 15 June 2020. [Mrežno]. https://www.archdaily.com/941565/casa-de-las-estrellas-waldorf-schoolsalagnac-arquitectos?ad_source=search&ad_medium=projects_tab. [Pokušaj pristupa 20 September 2022] 25. Absorbent Minds Montessori: Classroom Design Service (NL), [Mrežno]. https://www.abs orbentminds.co.uk/classroom-design-service.html. [Pokušaj pristupa 20 September ¸ 2022] 26. van der Voordt, D.J.M., van Wegen, H.B.: Architecture in use. Routledge, London (2007) 27. Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies, Holistic Design in Architecture, Elsevier (2022)

Sustainable Model of Preschool Education Facilities

311

28. Coutts, M.J., Sheridan, S.M., Kwon, K., Semke, C.A.: The Effect of Teacher’s Invitations to Parental Involvement on Children’s Externalizing Problem Behaviors: An Examination of a CBC Intervention. CYFS Working Paper 2012-3, Lincoln (2012) 29. Bernard, W.: Parent involvement in elementary school and educational attainment. Children and Youth Services Review, br. 26, pp. 39–62 (2004) 30. Berˇcnik, S., Devjak, T.: Cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different concepts of preschool education. Center Educ. Policy Stud. J. 7(4), 207–226 (2017) 31. Yazar, A., Çelik, M., Mehmet, K.Ö.K.: Aile katılımının okul öncesi e˘gitimde ve 2006 okul öncesi e˘gitimprogramındaki yeri (The importance of parent involvement programs and its place in curricula before 2006). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 12(2), 233–243 (2008) 32. Gill, T.: The Benefits of Children’s Engagement with Nature: A Systematic Literature Review. Children Youth Environ. 24(2), 10–34 (2014) 33. Parsaee, M., Motealleh, P., Parva, M.: Interactive Architectural Approach (Interactive Architecture): An Effective and Adaptive Process for Architectural Design. Housing Build. Natl. Res. Center. HBRC J., 12, 327–336 (2016) 34. Edwards, C., Gandini, L., Forman, G.: The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach: Advanced Reflections, Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group (1998) 35. Taylor, A.: Linking Architecture and Education: Sustainable Design of Learning Environment. The University of New Mexico Press, New Mexico (2009) 36. Moore, G.: Designed Environments for Young Children: Empirical Findings and Implications for Planning and Design. Children and young people’s environments, pp. 53–63 (2012) 37. Iwan, A., Poon, K.K.: Architects’ and early childhood educators’ notions of quality preschool environments: case studies of award-winning Green Preschools in Bali, Berkeley, and Hong Kong. Intelligent Buildings Int. 10(3), 162–181 (2018) 38. Skolverket: Curriculum for the Preschool, 2019. [Mrežno]. https://www.skolverket.se/get File?file=4049. [Pokušaj pristupa 15 September 2022]

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards and Norms of Preschool Education Facilities in Bosnia and Herzegovina Nerma Smajlovi´c Orman1(B) , Adnan Novali´c1 , Maja Popovac2 , and Ahmed El Sayed1 1 International Burch University Sarajevo, Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical

Sciences, Francuske Revolucije bb, 71210 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” Mostar, 88104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. According to the administrative organization of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the laws on preschool education that are currently in force in Federation of BiH were passed at the cantonal level, while in Republic of Srpska the law was passed at the entity level. This is also the case in Brˇcko District; the law that is currently in force was passed at the district level. This paper aims to summarize the reflection on the complexity of the legislation regarding the administrative organization in BiH, which enacts various laws and regulations on preschool education. The main goal of the work is to create a framework for the adoption of unique norms in the design of preschool facilities in BiH. Qualitative comparative analysis, based on a review of the relevant regulations in legislative administrative units in BiH, was used in this paper. This paper’s findings suggested adopting architectural norms on the state level, considering the lack of architectural norms in certain administrative units. Given this, conclusions are focused on the analysis of architectural norms and statistics in member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and their experiences compared to existing norms in BiH. Keywords: preschool education facilities · architectural norms · regulations · Bosnia and Herzegovina

1 Introduction Due to their rapid development and high learning capacity, the preschool years are the most important for children. Therefore, during this period, it is crucial to look after children and give them the opportunity for healthy development [1]. Preschools are considered a place for early learning and care programs for children and include different care possibilities for children from 3 months to six years such as full day care, occasional care, integrated services, and childcare centers. Many facilities are also including programs that are integrating children with disabilities [2]. This paper will treat the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 312–326, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_34

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

313

terms nursery (0–3 years) and kindergarten (3–6 years) under preschool building facility because in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) care for children in the nursery if exist, is a part of kindergarten facilities that are also known as preschool building facility. Preschool education is taught in a variety of models around the world [1]. Even though the program of each model is different, in the end, basic architectural and environmental principles must be respected. This paper aims to summarize the reflection on the complexity of the legislation regarding the administrative organization in BiH, which enacts various laws and regulations on preschool education. The main goal of the work is to create a framework for the adoption of unique norms in the design of preschool facilities in BiH. Qualitative comparative analysis, based on a review of the relevant regulations in legislative administrative units in BiH, was used in this paper. This paper’s findings suggested adopting architectural norms on the state level, considering the lack of architectural norms in certain administrative units. Given this, conclusions are focused on the analysis of architectural norms and statistics in member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and their experiences compared to existing norms in BiH.

2 Methodology This paper is based on qualitative comparative analysis where relevant literature about laws and architectural standards and norms in BiH will be analyzed and later, compared with the analysis of architectural norms in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).Qualitative research that will be conducted in this paper implies the collection of a significant amount of data that consists of numerous variables and does not concern only one time but refers to a longer period, and all this for research that was not possible using another method [3]. The first step in this paper will be a literature review of the theoretical background in the architectural design of preschool education. The next step will be a review and analysis of current legislation in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the field of preschool education that includes regulations on architectural standards and norms. These steps will answer the first research question regarding the scope of thearchitectural theory of preschool design considered by the legislation of BiH in a manner of functional content. The second research question asks to which extentthe capacity size of the preschool facility in the legislation of BiH following practices in advanced countries. This question will be answered after a comparison of regulations in Bosnia and Herzegovina with countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that are recognized as countries with high standards in architectural standards of preschool education facilities. The main statement is that the standards and norms for architectural planning and design of preschool education facilities in BiH are completely following the standards and norms in space requirements from countries that are recognized to be at the forefront in the quality of architectural design standards and norms.

314

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

3 Theoretical Background of Preschool Education Facilities Design At the very beginning of this chapter on theoretical knowledge about the design of preschool education facilities, it is very important to mention that each preschool institution represents the goals that children and educators have and their goals, which says that in the end, each institution will be different to identify with the environment to which it belongs [2]. There are furniture standards for children and spaces that are necessary concerning the groups they attend, but ultimately each state sets its regulations for the design of preschool institutions, and the architectural configuration of the space depends on the model of education and the capacity of the institution [4, 5]. For example, Neill (1982) claims that preschool facilities with larger groups will work better in an open space where more activities take place at the same time, while smaller groups will work better in spaces divided according to activities. According to Neufert & Neufert (2012), nurseries should be groups of 10 children and kindergarten up to 20 children. Spaces for working with children within preschools must be filled with equipment that develops children’s sensors and encourages development and learning, stimulates children’s imagination, interest, and cooperation, instills confidence, and triggers creativity in children. At the same time, spaces must be flexible, to encourage children’s independence, as well as the desire to experiment and solve problems [2]. A preschool for children must represent a place that evokes the emotion of home and a place where they explore and discover their ecological awareness [6, 7]. So, for example, the design of a preschool institution should be planned with ramps, terraces, and different heights, to encourage children to explore because they enjoy climbing just as much as in the natural environment [7]. In the book Children’s Spaces by Dudek, Clark (2005) describes the results of the Mosaic study, which was conducted in the period from January 1999 to June 2000 in Great Britain, when children answered questions about their needs in preschool institutions.The most significant conclusions are based on the children’s tendency to emphasize the need for a music and dance room, which is directly related to their need for a space that will be outside of the home or official time within the educational institution. In addition, the children mentioned the need for meeting points, describing them as benches next to the sandbox, which represents important landmarks for them.Similarly to this, Caples (1996) states that she collected data after observing a child in all circumstances, that children like to find their little zones that they consider their comfortable creations for all their needs. They delimit such spaces with blankets, and blocks or simply find them in niches and similar spaces. Children love windows and sitting next to them when they observe the behavior pattern of life and time from their comfort. He goes on to state that children place some simple design parts such as light switches as significant landmarks in space. So, as a conclusion, he imposes that all spaces in preschool institutions must first of all respect the principles of children’s safety, in addition to the fact that they must be adapted to their needs. Caples (1996) states the list of spaces that must be part of preschool education facilities: classrooms, outdoor spaces, shared spaces such as dining, hallways, bathrooms, etc., offices, teachers’ rooms, and place for parents. According to Caples (1996) and Neufert & Neufert (2012), all spaces must be adopted for children, which includes a scale for children when it comes to furniture and other architectural elements in use.

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

315

4 Legislative Administrative Units in BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula in Europe. Historically, the northern and central part of this country is considered Bosnia, while the southern parts are called Herzegovina.However, today’s administrative organization of the country does not correspond to this historical fact [8]. But, the administrative organization of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), after the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995, has remained unchanged until today. BiH consists of two entities and one district, i.e., Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republic of Srpska (RS) and Brˇcko District (BD).The FBiH consists of ten cantons: Una-Sana, Posavina, Tuzla, Zenica-Doboj, Bosnia-Podrinje, Central Bosnia, Herzegovina-Neretva, and Herceg-Bosna. Cantons also enjoy high powers like entities [9]. The preschool education regulations that are currently in use in the Federation of BiH were passed at the cantonal level, however, in the Republic of Srpska, the law was passed at the entity level. This is likewise applicable to the Brˇcko District, where the district passed the law that is now in force. Table 1 shows the existence of laws at these levels as well as the year of their publication in official gazettes of these administrative units in BiH. In addition, the same table shows the existence of pedagogical standards and norms as well as the publication year in official gazettes of these regulations. These data were collected from the official websites of the governments of the mentioned administrative-territorial organization divisions of BiH. Table 1. Existence of laws and regulations related to preschool education in Bosnia and Herzegovina #

Administrative-territorial Organization of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Publication year of law*

Publication year of pedagogical standards and norms**

1

Federation of BiH

1.1

Una-Sana Canton

2011

2018

1.2

Posavina Canton

2008

2011

1.3

Tuzla Canton

2019

2019

1.4

Zenica-Doboj Canton

2010

2011

1.5

Bosnian-Podrinje Canton Goražde

2009

2010

1.6

Central Bosnia Canton

2017

no

1.7

Herzegovina-Neretva Canton 2000

2008

1.8

West Herzegovina Canton

1998

2007

1.9

Sarajevo Canton

2008

2016

1.10

Canton 10

2009

no (continued)

316

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al. Table 1. (continued)

#

Administrative-territorial Organization of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Publication year of law*

Publication year of pedagogical standards and norms**

2

Republic of Srpska

2015

2019

3

Brˇcko District

2007

2012

* Refers to the original Law. It does not apply to any Amendments to the same Law or the official version of the Consolidated Text. ** Rules and regulations related to the design principles include at least minimal space reserved for one kid in a preschool institution.

4.1 Recognized Architectural Standards and Norms in Legislation of Administrative Units in BiH Table 2 show basic information about space requirements in preschool facilities related to the function recognized in pedagogical standards and norms in administrative units in BiH. In Una-Sana Canton it is currently in force the Law on Preschool Education from 2011 [10]. Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in the Una-Sana Canton [11] include basic conditions for the pedagogical work of preschool institutions in Chapter VIII. The institution must have premises for children such as classrooms, sanitary rooms, dining rooms, halls, and other rooms adapted for working with preschool kids. Outdoor spaces are adapted for kids and must be secured by a fence and contain green areas and sunny and shady spaces for playing. Kids’ playgrounds must-have equipment appropriate to the kids, with water source and water for playing. The Law on Preschool Education from 2008 is in force in the Posavina Canton [12]. In 2011, the Government of Posavina Canton adopted Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education [13]. Premises that are recognized by this document are: units for nursery and older children that includes with wardrobe, triage, sanitary room, classroom, a terrace that is partly covered, multipurpose space such as hall, storage, teachers’ room, isolation room, administration offices, archive, kitchen, dining room, laundry room with separate washing and ironing, dirty laundry and clean laundry premises. Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in Tuzla Canton were adopted in 2019 [14]. It is stated that the two educational groups must have at least one wet node with separate male and female cabins. In addition, the institution must have additional facilities for the isolation of children in poor health, wardrobes, and toilets, auxiliary facilities, and space for services and communications.In Tuzla Canton, it is currently in force the Law on Preschool Education - consolidated text from 2020 [15]. Zenica-Doboj Canton currently writing a proposal for a new low in this field. At this particular moment in force is the Law on Preschool Education from 2010 [16]. Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in the Zenica-Doboj Canton [17] include basic conditions for the pedagogical work of preschool institutions that can relate tothe Tuzla Canton that is mentioned before. In addition, furniture and other essential equipment for preschool institutions may be provided in line with the applicable

x

Storages (multipurpose)

x

Laundry room

Other (not defined) premises

x

x

Archive

x

x

x

Administration offices

x

x

x

Tuzla Canton

Space for service and communication

x

x

Isolation room

x

Hall / Common Space

Teachers’ room

x

x

Kitchen

x

x

Dining room

x

x

x

Sanitary room

x

x

x

Posavina Canton

Wardrobe

Classroom

Una-Sana Canton

Federation of BiH

x

x

x

x

x

x

Zenica-Doboj Canton

x

x

x

x

x

Bosnian-Podrinje Canton Goražde No adopted document about standards and norms

Central Bosnia Canton

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Herzegovina-Neretva Canton

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

West Herzegovina Canton

x

x

x

x

x

Sarajevo Canton No adopted document about standards and norms

Canton 10

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Republic of Srpska

No provided information

Brˇcko District

Table 2. Space requirements recognized in pedagogical standards and norms in preschool education in administrative units in BiH

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards 317

318

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

Standards for planning, design, construction, and equipping of institutions for preschool education. The Assembly of the Bosnian-Podrinje Canton of Goražde was adopted the Law on Preschool Education of the Bosnian-Podrinje Canton of Goražde [18]. Following this Law (2009), Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in the Bosnian-Podrinje Canton Goražde were adopted and including basic conditions for the pedagogical work of preschool institutions [19]. These standards include information about hygienic and technical requirements related to lighting, sunlight, ventilation, thermal protection, protection from noise and acoustics, heating and cooling, water supply, wastewater drainage, electrical installations, fire protection, and burglary protection. Further, this document states that the institution must have additional facilities such as sanitary rooms, dining rooms, halls, and other rooms adapted for working with preschool kids. Outdoor spaces are adapted for kids and must be secured by a fence and contain green areas and sunny and shady spaces for playing. Kids’ playgrounds must-have equipment appropriate for the kids, with a water source and water for playing. Herzegovina-Neretva Canton currently writing a proposal for a new law in this field. It is currently in force the Law on Preschool Education from 2000 [20] and officially does not respect the Framework Law on Preschool Education in BiH [21]. Based on the mentioned Framework Law in BiH, the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture, and Sports of Hercegovina-Neretva Canton adopt the Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in the Hercegovina-Neretva Canton [22]. Besides classrooms and sanitary rooms, the institution should have additional common spaces, facilities for the isolation of children in poor health, wardrobes and toilets, auxiliary facilities, and space for services and communications. Furniture and other essential equipment for preschool institutions may be provided in line with the applicable Standards for planning, design, construction, and equipping of institutions for preschool education. In West Herzegovina Canton, it is currently in force the Law on Preschool Education from 1998 [23]. Officially, it is not respecting the Framework Law on Preschool Education in BiH [21]. Based on the mentioned Law in West Herzegovina Canton, the Assembly of the West Herzegovina Canton adopt the Rulebook of Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in the West Herzegovina Canton [24]. The Pedagogical Standards and Norms (2007)define that besides classrooms, the institution must have additional spaces such as sanitary spaces, kitchen, services, common spaces, wardrobes, and auxiliary spaces important for institution work. It is important to mention that this Rulebook also mentions other important design specifications in the preschool institution, such as lightning, temperature, humidity, etc. The interior of the preschool must primarily meet the needs of children and living conditions in the family. Preschool equipment and furniture must be simple, functional, safe, stable in construction, easily movable, and dimensioned according to the height of the children. At this particular moment in Canton Sarajevo in force is the Law on Preschool Education from 2008, with Amendments from 2021 [25]. The Decision on Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education in this canton is adopted in 2016 and has an Amendment from 2021 [26]. Important spaces for this type of building are common rooms, space for isolation of children in poor health, wardrobe and sanitary rooms, auxiliary spaces, services, and communications.Standards for planning, design,

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

319

construction, and furnishing of preschool education in SRBiH (Republic Institute for School Construction, Sarajevo, 1978) are in force until new ones are adopted. Even though Laws on Preschool Education in Central Bosnia Canton [27] and Hercegbosna County [28] exist, there is no document adopted that describes any architectural principle, standards, or norms for designing this type of building. Today, the Republic of Srpska is in force the Law on Preschool Education from 2015 with Amendments to the Law in 2020 [29]. Also, it is in force the Rulebook on Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool [30]. The facilities of the institution should have space for activities that encourage children’s development and learning and relate to nutrition, daily rest, including physiologically necessary sleep, maintenance of personal hygiene and space hygiene, different types and kinds of children’s indoor play, as well as on open space, individual activities, activities in small groups and with the whole group. Construction and installation materials and products used in the construction of the facility should be environmentally and hygienically appropriate, resistant to mechanical damage, and give a feeling of warmth, following the regulations governing the area of spatial planning and construction of facilities. The institution can have a maximum of three above-ground floors: the ground floor, the first and second floors, and one underground floor. Study rooms and other rooms used by children in the building must not be below ground level. The height of the premises of the building cannot be lower than 250 cm. Exceptionally, if the premises of the institution are located in the attic of the building, the height of the lowest part of such premises may not be lower than 150 cm, and the highest part may not be lower than 220 cm. Detailed information about the entrance to the preschool institution is written in Article 13. Further, Articles 14 and 15 define standards and norms in staircase and ramp designs. Articles from 16 to 27 define other standards and norms for designing preschool institutions, such as heating and air conditioning, balconies, lightning and openings, microclimate conditions, ventilation, electric installations, and others. The preschool institution must include a work room, communication space, wardrobe, sanitary rooms for children and adults, kitchen, buffet, and rooms for the administration and technical unit. Detailed information about each room and furniture is described in articles from 29 to 79 while Chapter IV is detailed information about the materialization. At this particular moment in force is the Law on Preschool Education in the Brˇcko District from 2007 with Amendments to the Law in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2016, and 2017 [31]. It is in force the Pedagogical Standards and Norms for Preschool Education defined in 2012 [32]. The Article 1.2. Defines terms of nursery group and kindergarten group. A nursery group is an educational group in which children aged six months stay up to the age of three. A Kindergarten group is an educational group in which children from the age of three stay until they start school. The optimal size of open space: is 1500 m2, for different purposes: trails, playgrounds with ball games, devices such as climbers slides, slides, sandpits, hiding houses, and artificial hills. Capacity size requirements according to the adopted Pedagogical standards and norms in administrative units of BiH are listed in Table 3.

320

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

Table 3. Capacity size requirements in preschool facilities according to the pedagogical standards and norms in BiH #

Administrative-territorial organization of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Space requirements according to the adopted Pedagogical standards and norms 6 months - 3 years old:

older than 3 years

indoor space

outdoor space

indoor space

outdoor space

1

Federation of BiH

1.1

Una-Sana Canton

min 3,6 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

min 2,4 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

1.2

Posavina Canton

not defined

not defined

not defined

not defined

1.3

Tuzla Canton

min 6 m2 /child where min of 3 m2 /child for indoor space

1.4

Zenica-Doboj Canton

min 3,6 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

min 2,4 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

1.5

Bosnian-Podrinje Canton Goražde

min 3,6 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

min 2,4 m2 /child

min 6 m2 /child

1.6

Central Bosnia Canton

No adopted document about standards and norms

1.7

Herzegovina-Neretva Canton

min 3,6 m2 /child

1.8

West Herzegovina Canton min 3 m2 and 8 m3 /child*

1.9

Sarajevo Canton

min 3,6 m2 and 9 m3 /child*

1.10

Canton 10

No adopted document about standards and norms

2

Republic of Srpska

min 2,5 m2 /child

3

Brˇcko District

min 4,5 to 5,5 m2 of indoor space and min 15 to 17 m2 of outdoor space

min 3 m2 /child min 3 m2 /child

min 2,4 m2 /child

min 3 m2 /child

min 2,2 m2 and 6 m3 /child min 2,4 m2 and 6 m3 /child

min 3 m2 /child

* Related to children from 1 year to 3 years old.

5 Architectural Standards and Norms in OECD Member Countries The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) implies a unique platform on which member governments of this organization cooperate with the goal of economic growth [33]. The Convention of OECD is sated by the acceptance and signature of 38 countries across the world.

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

321

Minimum standards in the design of preschool building facilities are structural components that can support sufficient or good enough grades of early childhood education and care (ECEC) provisions. The amount of training for staff, the staff-to-child ratios, the working environment, and many other regulations may all be determined by structural needs for the physical environment for young children (e.g., buildings, space, outdoors, educational materials). The precise definition of standards and the application of laws or regulations can guarantee a specific minimum level of ECEC provision [34]. Countries are not required to create criteria for all aspects of quality; however, this is uncommon even though minimum requirements can help to ensure high-quality ECEC. Depending on settings, such as the present level of quality, governments may require minimum standards in certain areas. Sweden, for instance, is a nation without minimum requirements for features such as space per child or the staff-to-child ratio because the level of quality is higher than the norm; it is recognized as having a high-quality ECEC sector [34]. Sweden has established minimum staff certification requirements and a curriculum that specifies objectives for the standard of ECEC activities [34, 35]. The national curriculum in Sweden for preschool education is set in 1998, and it contains the overall goals and orientation of preschool in the country but does not include guidelines on how these goals are to be accomplished [36]. Norms are described in the curriculum as goals that the preschool should give each child the opportunities to grow in the following areas: openness, respect, solidarity, and responsibility; the capacity to consider and empathize with others’ situations and a willingness to lend a helping hand; the capacity to learn about, reflect on, and formulate an opinion on various moral conundrums and fundamental issues of daily life; the respect and understanding of the equal value of all people and human rights [35]. However, a lot of countries worldwide set a minimum required space per child, as a minimum measure to ensure better ECEC. This space per child is decreased with age (Childhood Resource and Research Unit, 2004). According to the OECD, the average requirement in preschool building facilities for nurseries (0–3 years) in countries members is 3.6 m2 per child, while for kindergarten (3–6 years) is 2.9 m2 per child, for indoor space. When it comes to the outdoor space, this grows to 8.9 m2 per child in nurseries and 7 m2 in kindergarten. Norway is one of the countries that appreciate the outdoor area for children more than indoors. This is visible in the ratio between the minimum space requirements: the minimum outdoor space requirement is six times the minimum requirement for indoor space. This is shown in Fig. 1 [37]. Also, an important statistic that could be a sign of preschool quality is the fact that across 19 OECD member countries is an average number of children per teacher 18 in kindergarten and 8 in the nursery [37].

322

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

Fig. 1. The average requirement of space per child in preschool building facilities for nurseries (0–3 years) and kindergarten (3–6 years) in OECD member countries for indoor and outdoor space [37].

6 Results and Discussion According to the previously presented administrative division of BiH, legislation is analyzed in 12 administrative units; 10 in FBiH, and RS and BD. Two cantons in FBiH do not have adopted documents about standards and norms, while Brˇcko District does not contain this information about functional space requirements of preschool building facilities. Caples (1996) states the list of spaces that must be part of preschool education facilities: classrooms, outdoor spaces, shared spaces such as dining, hallways, bathrooms, etc., offices, teachers’ rooms, and place for parents. Comparing the guidelines given by Caples (1996) and recognized functional space requirements in preschool facilities in pedagogical standards and norms in administrative units in BiH, we came to the following findings:

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

323

o 8/8 cantons of FbiHrequire classrooms and sanitary rooms in preschool education facilities, as well as RS, o 3/8 cantons of FbiHrequire a dining room, as well as RS, o 5/8 cantons of FBiH require a hall or common room for children’s preschool activities o 1/8 cantons of FBiH require administration offices, as well as RS. But the most important fact is that pedagogical standards and norms in all administrative units in BiH do not mention room for parents which excludes them from preschool activities and other involvement in creating space or expressing the needs of their children. Further, findings of a comparison of recognized capacity size in administrative units of BiH and OECD member countries are: o 5/7 other cantons are respecting the average standards of OECD member countries for indoor space requirements in nurseries, while in RS this standard is lower and is set to a minimum of 2.5 m2 per child; in BD, the regulations are much improved, a minimum of 4.5 m2 to 5.5 m2 per child, and this data can be related to more developed countries such as Norway, o when it comes to the indoor space requirements in preschool for children older than 3 years, 1/7 cantons are respecting average space requirements in OECD members in the same category, while the situation with RS and BD is the same as in nurseries; RS lags, while BD is ahead of average in OECD member countries. o outdoor space requirements in all administrative organization, for both groups of children, younger and older than 3 years, lags behind OECD member countries. The main statement from the beginning of this paper that the standards and norms for architectural planning and design of preschool education facilities in BiH are completely following the standards and norms in space requirements from countries that are recognized to be at the forefront in the quality of architectural design standards and norms has not supported.

7 Conclusion Laws and pedagogical regulations in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been the topic of the government and foreign organizations for the past decade, and perhaps more. However, not all legislative administrative units in BiH have yet aligned their laws with the minimum requirements of the Framework Law on Preschool Education from 2007. This is also proven in this paper. This paper has shown the importance of creating and adopting architectural guidelines for the design of preschool institutions in BiH as quickly as possible, which will be based on architectural standards and norms, as well as the practices of countries that are leading in this field. In addition, it is concluded that it is necessary for architects in BiH to be coordinators between all interested parties when it comes to the creation of architectural guidelines for the design of preschool institutions.Recommendations for future researchers are to recognize stakeholders in this process of creating architectural guidelines at the state level so that over time such

324

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

guidelines become the umbrella document for all administrative units when creating pedagogical standards and norms for preschool education.

References 1. Khan, H., Ebrahimi, M.H.: Analyzing Preschool Education Models in Architectural Design. A+ Arch Design Int. J. Archit. Design 7(1), 53–70 (2021) 2. Department of Education and Children’s Services: Early Childhood Facilities (birth to age 8): Design Standards and Guildines, [Mrežno]. https://www.education.sa.gov.au/sites/default/ files/early-childhood-facilities-birth-to-age-8-design-standards-and-guidelines.pdf?acsf_f iles_redirect. [Pokušaj pristupa 2 September 2022] 3. Gay, L.R., Airasian, P.: Educational research: Competencies for analysis andapplication. Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (2000) 4. Neufert, E., Neufert, P.: Architects’ data, 4th ur., Chichester: John Willey & Sons (2012) 5. Neill, S.: Open-plan or divided space in preschool? Education 3–13, svez. 10, br. 2, pp. 45–48 (1982) 6. Clark, A.: Talking and listening to children, u Children’s Spaces, pp. 1–13. Routledge, London (2005) 7. Dudek, M.: Children’s Spaces. Routledge, London (2005) 8. Pickering, P., Malcolm, N.R., Lampe i John, R.: Bosnia and Herzegovina, 20 August 2022. [Mrežno]. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina. [Pokušaj pristupa 23 August 2022] 9. Minstarstvo vanjskih poslova Bosne i Hercegovine, Administrativno-teritorijalno uredenje, [Mrežno]. https://www.mvp.gov.ba/dobro_dosli_u_bih/drzavno_uredjenje/administrativno_ teritorijalno_uredjenje/?id=265. [Pokušaj pristupa 25 May 2022] 10. Pedagoški Zavod USK: Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju, Službene novine USK, broj 23/11, [Mrežno]. http://www.pzusk.ba/besplatni/Zakonopredskolskomodgojuiobrazova nju.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 12 May 2022] 11. Pedagoški Zavod USK: Pedagoški standardi i normativi za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje, Službene novine USK, broj 28/18, 7 September 2018. [Mrežno]. http://www.pzusk.ba/bespla tni/2018%20Pedagoski%20standardi%20za%20vrtice).pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 12 May 2022] 12. Ministarstvo civilnih poslova BiH: Informacija o izvršenju Okvirnog zakona o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini, Ministarstvo civilnih poslova BiH, 2015. [Mrežno]. http://mcp.gov.ba/attachments/bs_Migrirani_dokumenti/Sektori/Obrazovanje/ Obrazovanje-zakoni/Izvrsenje_Okvirnog_zakona_o_predskolskom_2015_(2).pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 2 May 2022] 13. Ministarstvo prosvjete, znanosti, kulture i sporta Županije Posavske: Pedagoške standarde i normative za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje, Narodne novine Županije Posavske, broj 4/11, 28 June 2011. [Mrežno]. http://www.podaci.net/_gBiH/propis/Pedagoski_standardi_i/P-snp oob68v1104.html. [Pokušaj pristupa 11 May 2022] 14. Ministarstvo obrazovanja i nauke Tuzlanskog kantona: Pedagoški standardi i normativi za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje u Tuzlanskom kantonu (“Službene novine TK”, broj: 8/19), Ministarstvo obrazovanja i nauke Tuzlanskog kantona, 27 August 2019. [Mrežno]. https://montk.gov.ba/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/pedagoski-standardi-pre dskolsko.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 1 May 2022] 15. Ministarstvo obrazovanja i nauke Tuzlanskog kantona, »Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju - preˇciš´ceni teskt (“Službene novine TK”, broj: 10/20 i 5/22),« Ministarstvo obrazovanja i nauke Tuzlanskog kantona, 25 June 2020. [Mrežno]. https://montk.gov.ba/wpcontent/uploads/2022/04/zakon-o-predskolskom-sa-izmjenom.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 1 May 2022]

In-Depth Analysis of Current Legislation on Architectural Standards

325

16. »Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju (“Sl. novine Zeniˇcko-dobojskog kantona”, br. 7/2010 i 8/2012),« Pravna i ekonomska izdanja za uspješno i zakonito poslovanje, [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.paragraf.ba/propisi/zenicko-dobojskog-kantona/zakon-opredskolskom-odgoju-i-obrazovanju.html. [Pokušaj pristupa 8 June 2022] 17. Službene stranice Skupšine i Vlade ZDK: Pedagoški standardi i normativi za predškolsko obrazovanje i odgoj ZDK, “Službene novine Zeniˇcko-dobojskog kantona”, broj 2/11, 18 February 2011. [Mrežno]. https://www.zdk.ba/sluzbene-novine. [Pokušaj pristupa 16 May 2022] 18. Assembly of the Bosnian-Podrinje Canton of Goražde: Zakono za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje Bosansko-podrinjskog kantona Goražde, Službene novine Bosansko-podrinjskog kantona Goražde“, broj 15/09, 2009. [Mrežno]. http://www.bpkg.gov.ba/mo/media/uploads_mo/ 2013/02/Zakon-o-predskolskom-odgoju-i-obrazovanju.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 9 May 2022] 19. Ministarstvo za obrazovanje, nauku, kulturu i sport BPK Goražde: Pedagoški standardi i normativi za predškolske ustanove, “Službene novine Bosansko-podrinjskog kantona Goražde”, broj 9/10, 8 July 2010. [Mrežno]. http://www.bpkg.gov.ba/mo/media/uploads_mo/2013/ 02/pedago%C5%A1ki-standardi-za-pred%C5%A1kolski-odgoj-i-obrazovanje-novin.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 2 May 2022] 20. Skupština HNŽ: Zakon o predškolskom odgoju, “Narodne novine”, broj 5/2000, 7 August 2000. [Mrežno]. http://www.vrtici-mostar.ba/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/scan0020. pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 14 May 2022] 21. Parlamentarna skupština Bosne i Hercegovine: Okvirni zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini, “Službeni glasnik BiH”, broj 88/07, 20 November 2007. [Mrežno]. http://www.sluzbenilist.ba/page/akt/kp3kegtox00=. [Pokušaj pristupa 30 April 2022] 22. Ministarstvo obrnzovanja, nauke, kulture i sporta HNK: Pedagoški standard i normativ za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje HNK, “Službene novine HNK”, broj 9/08, 9 September 2008. [Mrežno]. http://cms.monkshnk.gov.ba/Upload/Dokumenti/PEDAGO%C5% A0KI%20STANDARD%20I%20NORMATIV%20ZA%20PRED%C5%A0KOLSKI%20O DGOJ%20I%20OBRAZOVANJE%20HNK-35a55f0.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 1 May 2022] 23. Skupština Županije Zapadnohercegovaˇcke: Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i naobrazbi,« “Narodne novine”, broj 7/1998, 16 June 1998. [Mrežno]. https://mozks-zzh.com/mozks/wp-con tent/uploads/2020/11/Zakon-o-predskolskom-odgoju-i-naobrazbi.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 30 April 2022] 24. Skupština Županije Zapadnohercegovaˇcke: Pravilnik o pedagoškim standardima predškolskog odgoja i naobrazbe ZHŽ, “Narodne novine Zapadnohercegovaˇcke županije”, broj 8/07, 29 June 2007. [Mrežno]. https://mozks-zzh.com/mozks/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/PRA VILNIK-o-pedagoskim-standardima-predskolskog-odgoja-i-naobrazbe.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 7 May 2022] 25. Skupština Kantona Sarajevo: Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Kantonu Sarajevo, “Službene novine Kantona Sarajevo”, broj 26/08, 24 July 2008. [Mrežno]. https://mo. ks.gov.ba/sektori/pos/legislativa. [Pokušaj pristupa 16 May 2022] 26. Vlada Kantona Sarajevo: Odluka o predagoških standardima i normativima za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje,« “Službene novine Kantona Sarajevo”, broj 46/16, 17 November 2016. [Mrežno]. https://mo.ks.gov.ba/sites/mo.ks.gov.ba/files/odluka_o_pedagoskim_standa rdima_i_normativima_za_predskolski_odgoj_i_obrazovanje_sn_ks_46_16.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 10 May 2022] 27. Ministarstvo obrazovanja, znanosti, mladih, kulture i športa Kantona Središnja Bosna: Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju Srednjobosanskog Kantona, “Službene novine SDK”, broj 10/17, 2017. [Mrežno]. https://mozks-ksb.ba/hr/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Zakon-opred%C5%A1kolskom-odgoju-i-obrazovanju.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 3 May 2022]

326

N. Smajlovi´c Orman et al.

28. Skupština Hercegbosanske županije: Zakon o o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Hercegbosanskoj županiji, “Narodne novine Hercegbosanske županije”, broj 8/09, 23 October 2009. [Mrežno]. Available: http://www.vladahbz.com/sadrzaj/dokumenti/ministars tvo-znanosti-prosvjete-kulture-i-sporta/2021/Zakon%20o%20pred%C5%A1kolskom%20o dgoju%20i%20obrazovanju.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 16 May 2022] 29. Ministarstvo obrazovanja i kulture RS: Zakon o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju, “Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske”, broj 79/15, 29 September 2015. [Mrežno]. https://www. vladars.net/sr-SP-Cyrl/Vlada/Ministarstva/mpk/PAO/Pages/Predskolsko_Obrazovanje.aspx. [Pokušaj pristupa 15 May 2022] 30. Ministarstvo obrazovanja i kulture RS: Pravilnik o programu predškolskog vaspitanja i obrazovanja, “Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske”, broj 69/19, July 2019. [Mrežno]. https://www.vladars.net/sr-SP-Cyrl/Vlada/Ministarstva/mpk/PAO/Pages/Predskolsko_Obr azovanje.aspx. [Pokušaj pristupa 16 May 2022] 31. Skupština Brˇcko Distrikta BiH: Zakono o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Brˇcko distriktu Bosne i Hercegovine,« „Službeni glasnik Brˇcko distrikta BIH“, broj 13/07, 28 February 2007. [Mrežno]. https://skupstinabd.ba/3-zakon/ba/Zakon%20o%20preds--kol skom%20odgoju%20i%20obrazovanju/01B13-07%20Zakon%20o%20preds--kolskom% 20obrazovanju%20Brc--ko%20Distrikta%20BiH.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 3 May 2022] 32. Pedagoški standardi i normativi za predškolsko vaspitanje i obrazovanje Brˇcko Distrikta, 2012. [Mrežno]. https://sindikat-obrazovanje.ba/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Pedago%C5% A1ki-standardi-i-normativi-za-pred%C5%A1kolsko-vaspitanje-i-obrazovanje.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 3 May 2022] 33. U.S. Department of State: The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), [Mrežno]. https://www.state.gov/the-organization-for-economic-co-operation-anddevelopment-oecd/. [Pokušaj pristupa 20 September 2022] 34. OECD, Starting Strong II: Early Childhood Education and Care, Paris: OECD (2006) 35. Skolverket: Curriculum for the Preschool 2019. [Mrežno]. https://www.skolverket.se/getFile? file=4049. [Pokušaj pristupa 15 September 2022] 36. Skolverket: Child Care in Sweeden, 2000. [Mrežno]. https://www.skolverket.se/download/ 18.6bfaca41169863e6a653a14/1553956850507/pdf633.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 17 September 2022] 37. OECD: Encouraging Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC): International Comparison: Minimum Standards, [Mrežno]. https://www.oecd.org/education/school/ 48483436.pdf. [Pokušaj pristupa 19 September 2022]

Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem Based on Mixed-Integer Linear Programming Mateja Držeˇcnik1(B) and Uroš Klanšek2(B) 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and Architecture, Chair of Building

Structures, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia [email protected] 2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transportation Engineering and Architecture, Chair of Construction Management , University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia [email protected]

Abstract. The ready-mixed concrete dispatching problem (RMCDP) represents an actual optimization challenge that often encounters in construction management. Namely, the RMCDP comprises the optimal selection of production plants from the multitude of those available that should meet the timed demand for fresh concrete shown by active construction sites. Besides, the RMCDP solution needs to provide bases for optimal determination of delivery vehicles, order quantities as well as transportation routes among concrete batching plants and construction sites. Due to combinatorial nature of feasible space, determining the exact optimal solution of RMCDP most times exceeds human capacities and needs to be handled by advanced computer-aided tools. In this context, the present paper gives an overview of state-of-the-art optimization tools for RMCDP based on mixedinteger linear programming. Their features are discussed in terms of objectives, constraints, input and output data. The study reveals a literature gap and indicates perspective directions for further research in the field under consideration. Keywords: construction management · ready-mixed concrete dispatching problem · optimization tools · mixed-integer linear programming

1 Introduction In the construction sector, the distribution of ready-mixed concrete (RMC) pose a major logistical and financial challenge. RMC is produced according to a recipe in a batch plant and then delivered to a construction site. Controlled processing allows RMC to achieve the required level of quality [1]. Due to rapid hardening, RMC cannot be produced and then stored in a batch production plant. A challenge that occurs during construction is the RMC dispatching problem (RMCDP), where narrower time windows for delivery demand an in-depth operations steering that relies on advanced decision-support systems [2], integrated management systems [3], and/or supply chain management systems [4]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 327–335, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_35

328

M. Držeˇcnik and U. Klanšek

In addition, optimization approaches continue to evolve based on the specific sizes, constraints, and objectives of tasks encountered in practice. Three factors have emerged in research and practice that are among the factors with the most decisive influence on the effectiveness of RMC dispatching [5]. The first important influencing factor is certainly the travel time between the concrete batching plant and the construction site. Here, the travel time is influenced by the distance between these two points, the permissible speed of the truck transporting the RMC, and the traffic conditions on the connecting route. In most cases, the handling time can hardly be predicted exactly due to the uncertain traffic situation. The second factor is the operating time of concreting at the construction site, because if the truck with the delivered RMC does not arrive at the delivery site in the scheduled time, the production process comes to a standstill, which can have a critical impact on the progress of construction. The third factor is the number of deliveries needed. This quantity depends on the volume of RMC required, the loading capacity of the truck, and the road capacity allowed by regulations. A more detailed analysis can also take into account the following parameters [6]: the time window in which the customer needs the concrete, the available truck fleet, the production level at the construction site in question, and the type of concrete ordered by the customer. The RMCDP is not only relevant to the construction industry, but also represents a challenging optimization task that attracts research worldwide. Namely, due to combinatorial nature of feasible space, determining the exact optimal solution of RMCDP is in most cases beyond human capabilities and needs to be handled by advanced computational tools. In this context, the present paper gives an overview of state-of-the-art optimization tools for RMCDP based on mixed-integer linear programming (MILP). Their features are discussed in terms of objectives, constraints, input and output data.In the continuation, the study reveals a literature gap and indicates perspective directions for further research in the field under consideration.

2 MILP Optimization Problem In general, the MILP optimization problem can be defined as follows: Minz = cT x + d T y s.t. Ax + By ≤ b x ∈ X = {x ∈ Rn |xLO ≤ x ≤ xUP } y ∈ Y = {0, 1}m where x denote the vector of continuous variables specified within compact set X, y covers the vector of binary 0–1 decision variables, cT and d T represent vectors of parameters. The term A x + B y ≤ b stands for a subset of mixed-linear (in)equality constraints. MILP problems can contain both types of variables only in linear terms. Nonlinear functions can be converted to linear form using discretized or (piecewise) linear expressions. However, it should be noted that the complete correspondence between the nonlinear smooth function and the discretized function can be achieved in discrete points, while

Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem

329

the (piecewise) linear approximation of the nonlinear expression can only be achieved under a certain linearization deviation.

3 Overview of Optimization Tools for RMCDP Based on MILP In the following, we provide an overview of the literature on RMCDP that discusses the topic from viewpoint of objectives, constraints, inputs and outputs in the context of studies conducted by various researchers over the years. It is clear today that various optimization tools can be used to find the optimal solution of RMCDP. However, obtaining said solution is generally difficult for any of them since the problem is NPhard [7]. Over the years, several researchers have worked on finding an optimal solution to the above problem using the MILP approach. Research efforts were often directed towards the development of MILP models that are capable of determining optimal solutions of RMCDPs while consuming reasonable computation time. MILP optimization proved to be flexible and capable of solving large and complex RMCDPs. The conducted overview revealed various MILP formulations for RMCDP with different objectives and constraints. The origin of the RMCDP formulation in terms of MILP can be found in [8]. However, if we focus on more recent achievements, a computer experiment has already been conducted in [9] to evaluate the feasibility of finding an optimal schedule for assigning three trucks to nine tasks. From the objective point of view, there are researchers who have focused on minimizing the cost of system operation [8–11, 16, 17, 20, 21, 23]. Feng et al. [5] considered only time in formulating the objective function and minimized construction delays at construction sites. Further research conducted by Yan et al. [9, 10] dealt with the same objective. Input data included truck fleet size, travel time between the plant and each construction site requirement, handling time and capacity (including overtime) at the plant and at the construction sites, and other associated operating costs. To validate the model, the study conducted numerical tests using real-time data. Input data also considered government traffic management regulations, the timing of the start of construction at each site, and RMC’s production capacity. The development of a new model embedded in a mixed time and event oriented spatio-temporal network that can efficiently integrate RMC production planning and truck dispatching, in terms of time and space, was the main contribution of the paper. Asbach et al. [11] and Maghrebi et al. [19] minimized the total travel and penalty costs for unsatisfied demand. The aforementioned study [11] was one of the few that excluded batch selection where travel time is longer than the time the concrete can remain in the mixer. In most studies, the RMCDP has been approached from a static point of view, meaning that all input data are available at the time the solution is computed. This does not include changes in orders during work, time windows, etc. Vehicle breakdowns must also be considered, and vehicles may be on the road longer than expected due to congestion. In Asbach et al. [11], this was considered using a generic local search algorithm by human dispatchers and other decision support software that can be recalculated at night for the next day when new information is available. The optimization model of Schmid et al. [12] covers the possibility that the truck does not return to its home plant once it has met the needs of the first customer. It has the

330

M. Držeˇcnik and U. Klanšek

option of finding a nearby plant to load and deliver to the second customer. The nearby plant is determined based on the location of the job sites and the associated orders. As the truck does not have to travel long distances to its plant and wait for some time for a new order, the same truck can deliver to another customer at the same time.The model formulation of Hertz et al. [13] addressed the problem of cement delivery with a heterogeneous fleet and multiple plants. The fact that customer demand is usually greater than vehicle capacity means that customers are visited more than once. It was a vehicle routing problem (VRP) for split delivery with additional constraints. The researchers have proposed a two-stage solution method formulated as MILP. The first stage involves assigning deliveries to vehicles and the second involves planning vehicle routes. Both phases were combined into a single program. The objective of the paper was to show that good solutions to the considered cement delivery problem can be obtained by solving MILP without the use of metaheuristics. In the study conducted by Yan et al. [14], as in the case of the previous authors, an objective function that minimizes the operating cost while taking into account the associated operational constraints was used. The problem posed in practice was large-scale and therefore the researchers also proposed a heuristic approach based on decomposition and relaxation techniques. CPLEX, a computer program suitable for solving MILP tasks, was used to solve the problem addressed, proving that the proposed model and heuristic algorithm are more efficient than the manual approaches used until then. A similar study to [11] was performed by Liu et al. [15], but three penalty clauses were added, namely a clause related to the time window for delivery, the number of pumps needed, and the definition of time intervals between deliveries of the same order. The last clause accounts for the cost in case construction sites are waiting for the first delivery. The study [11] includes a penalty term in the objective function to fulfil all orders, and this study includes these three penalty factors to avoid waiting times. Maghrebi et al. [16] pointed out that an optimal resource allocation technique is required for each RMC. In two papers [17, 18], researchers address the problem of planning and logistics of RMC deliveries to several customers from a single plant. Thus, the issue was how to satisfy the maximum number of customers while keeping transportation costs as low as possible. This formulation, which considers customers rather than deliveries, reduced the number of constraints and decision variables so that less computational effort was required compared to similar formulations, which was the main contribution of the work. In this problem, scheduling conflicts should be avoided, and dispatching time constraints should be considered. The basic task in RMC dispatching was closely related to the VRP, but in the RMCDP, the same truck makes more than one trip to a customer to fulfil deliver. In order to optimally solve the large-scale RMCDP, the study [19] proposed the socalled Benders decomposition, which divided the RMCDP into a master problem, named the lower bound, and a subproblem, called the upper bound. The master problem, which deals only with integer variables, usually takes the form of an integer programming problem, and the subproblem usually takes the form of a linear programming (LP) problem. Kinable et al. [20] were focused on the concrete delivery problem (CDP), which aimed to find optimal routes for a fleet of (heterogeneous) vehicles moving between concrete plants and construction sites. The researchers found a weakness in the formulation, which they called CDP1, namely that a vehicle cannot visit the same customer more than

Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem

331

once. Unfortunately, this constraint is unrealistic, as trucks travel back and forth between production and construction sites. Therefore, the formulation of Asbach et al. [11] was modified and adapted to a notation equivalent to CVRPTWSD and PMSPTWMTL. The result was a second formulation, called CDP2, in which the CDP1 constraint was omitted. Unfortunately, customers generated a large set of nodes, which quite enlarged the feasible space and affected the problem complexity. Distribution and routing constraints had to be strictly observed. They further proposed a formulation based on the problem of routing full capacity vehicles with time windows and split deliveries (CVRPTWSD) and on the problem of scheduling machines in parallel with time windows and maximum time delay (PMSPTWMTL), where the objective, which has not been pursued anywhere else until then, was to maximize satisfaction, i.e., to provide a schedule that satisfies the demand of all customers. Maghrebi et al. [21] dedicated their research to evaluate the impact of expert decisions on RMCDP and to determine how much reliance can be placed on the correctness of these decisions. They first modelled the problem using integer programming (hard time window) and MILP (soft time window). Since the problem proved to be overly complex and NP-hard, two heuristic methods were applied. The study concluded that the decisions made by the experts are optimal with an average accuracy of 90%, because the experts prefer a more stable planning system with slightly higher costs, while the optimization models only try to achieve the lowest costs. This was an important finding for all further studies, especially for the part dealing with how to reduce the dependence of decisions on human resources. In another research, Maghrebi et al. [22] investigated the implementation of machine learning techniques to automatically measure the feasibility of RMC dispatching tasks. The selected techniques, of which there were six, were tested on data obtained by a developed simulation model. The results showed 80% accuracy of the algorithms thus selected, which means that it is possible to apply such an approach in practice. Yan et al. [23] extended previous research and developed an optimization model for the problem of RMC production scheduling and truck dispatching under stochastic travel times. The authors used the optimization co10ncept in combination with the spatio-temporal grid technique to develop a stochastic model for RMC production scheduling and truck dispatching in the presence of temporary mixer failures under stochastic travel times (SM). Further research led to a deterministic model (DM). Some research papers have investigated RMCDPs with real-time data, e.g., Feng et al. [5], whose study examined three hypothetical examples with different numbers of sites, i.e., 3, 5, and 9. Five trucks were considered available in the first two examples and 20 in the third one. The research addressed cases where orders did not change throughout the day, as is to be expected in a real-world environment. In studies [9, 10, 14], Yan et al. encompassed real-time data from a company in northern Taiwan. The data in reference [9] related to several construction sites supplied by one plant with two mixers with 32 RMC trucks. In [10], data from the same company were used for a plant with 45 RMC trucks serving five construction sites with different types and quantities of concrete. In the example [9], the working hours were specified from 08:00 to 00:00, while in the second study [10], the working hours were determined from 08:00 to 13:00, which

332

M. Držeˇcnik and U. Klanšek

means that the first study allowed more flexibility for the schedule. In [14], the authors used the same data as in [10] but considered working hours between 08:00 and 12:00. Asbach et al. [11] included real-time data from a large concrete distribution company that included information for five working days and for seven different fleets. In a study by Hertz et al. [13], data were collected for 10 orders spanning two work weeks. The number of customers ranged from 18 to 27 and the number of orders ranged from 20 to 33. Liu et al. [15] incorporated real-time data from a concrete company in Wuhan, China, based on a case of seven construction sites served by one plant. Maghrebi et al. [16] selected two algorithms and they tested them on a set of 6 randomly selected real cases in the city of Adelaide (Australia). The dataset covered a period of two months. Kinable et al. [20] demonstrated a dataset with 128 distinct instances that approximated real-world problems. Finally, in reference [22], a simulation model with 200 working days was developed, considering the following parameters: the delivery day of the week, the amount of concrete ordered for each project, the travel time, loading, transportation, concreting, and return of each order, the time delay between each concreting, the location of each order, and the delivery order specified by the dispatcher.

4 Discussion The literature review showed that solving the RMCDP using the MILP optimization model can be time consuming and difficult. Therefore, heuristic methods were also included in the solving process though they may assure only near-optimal solutions. Such approach was used, e.g., in [8, 9]. Heuristics were also used, alongside MILP, in Yan et al. [9] to reduce the solution set, which enabled obtaining the solution in a reasonable time in [10]. Unfortunately, both studies used a limited dataset that hardly corresponds to real industry conditions. In another study [14], the authors recognized that other types of events, e.g., mixer failures, which may cause major disturbances, should be considered in addition to the stochastic travel times that occur during regular operation. Liu et al. [15] also used GA in addition to MILP optimization. In [16], two types of methods were proposed to solve the RMCDP, namely the evolutionary - robust GA and the numerical - column generation (CG). The results showed that the numerical CG technique obtained solutions with an average 20% lower cost, while GA converged 40% faster, although the number of unassigned clients was almost the same for both techniques. Also in [22, 23], the MILP approach provided optimal solutions in computation times that increased rapidly as the feasible space increased. On the other hand, the heuristics again provided near-optimal solutions in much shorter times. From this, we can see the literature gap, namely finding optimal solutions with the MILP approach employing commercially available supercomputers that enable faster convergence of solving processes for real large-scale RMCDPs. Some researchers have used real-time data, and we see the possibility of linking MILP optimization models to enterprise resource planning (ERP), which refers to the type of software used by organisations to manage day-to-day business activities such as accounting, procurement, project management, risk and compliance management and supply chain operations. By collecting an organisation’s common transactional data from

Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem

333

multiple sources, ERP systems avoid data duplication and ensure data integrity with a single source of truth. It would be interesting to use road navigation data or road capacity data, since we know that a fully loaded truck of a certain weight cannot travel all roads and consequently cannot deliver fresh concrete on all roads. There is a potential to combine RMCDP programs with building information modelling (BIM), the foundation of digital transformation in engineering. Here, the computer files can be read, shared, or networked. Quantities and general material properties can be easily extracted from the model, and the scope of work can be determined and defined.

5 Conclusion This article reviewed the current state of RMCDP optimization tools based on MILP. Concrete is a perishable material that is difficult to dispose of or make in advance. In addition, the allowable transport time for RMC after mixing is quite limited. The main findings about RMCDPs are that the most reliable optimization model formulations for them are actually currently based on MILP. Due to the difficulty of the said optimization problems, researchers also resort to heuristic methods, which provide sufficiently good and faster solutions, but just the near-optimal ones. In real-world construction, the optimal distribution of trucks varies daily under certain constraints of time, demand, and resource availability. Future research should consider scenarios that involve route optimization and the development of user-friendly models for practitioners. A promising research direction for RMCDP model development is sustainability. This includes economic, social equity, and environmental issues that arise at every stage of a construction project, and RMCDPs are no exception. Acknowledgement. The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (Research Core Funding No. P2-0129).

References 1. Wongthatsanekorn, W., Matheekrieangkrai, N.: A case study of bee algorithm for ready mixed concrete problem. Int. J. Mech. Aerospace Ind. Mechatronic Manuf. Eng. 8 (2014). https:// doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1093862 2. Marovi´c, I., Peri´c, M., Hanák, T.: A multi-criteria decision support concept for selecting the optimal contractor. Appl. Sci. 11 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041660 3. Mandiˇcák, T., Spišáková, M., Mésároš, P., Kozlovská, M.: Design of economic sustainability supported by enterprise resource planning systems in architecture, engineering, and construction. Buildings 12 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122241 4. Mandiˇcák, T., Mésároš, P., Kanáliková, A., Špak, M.: Supply chain management and big data concept effects on economic sustainability of building design and project planning. Appl. Sci. 11 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311512 5. Feng, C.-W., Cheng, T.-M., Wu, H.-T.: Optimizing the schedule of dispatching RMC trucks through genetic algorithms. Autom. Constr. 13, 327–340 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aut con.2005.04.001

334

M. Držeˇcnik and U. Klanšek

6. Tzanetos, A., Blondin, M.: Systematic search and mapping review of the concrete delivery problem (CDP): formulations, objectives, and data. Automation in Construction, vol. 145 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104631 7. Zayed, T., Minkarah, I.: Resource allocation for concrete batch plant operation: case study. J. Constr. Eng. Manage. 130(4), 560–569 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-936 4(2004)130:4(560) 8. Garey, M.R., Johnson, D.S.: Computers and intractability: A guide to the theory of NPcompleteness. W.H. Freeman & Company, San Francisco (1979) 9. Ng, W., Mak, K., Zhang, Y.: Scheduling trucks in container terminals using a genetic algorithm. Eng. Optim. 39(1), 33–47 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1080/03052150600917128 10. Yan, S., Lai, W.: An optimal scheduling model for ready mixed concrete supply with overtime considerations. Autom. Constr. 16, 734–744 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2006. 12.009 11. Yan, S., Lai, W., Chen, M.: Production scheduling and truck dispatching of ready mixed concrete. Transp. Res. Part E Logistics Transp. Rev. 44(1), 164–179 (2008). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tre.2006.05.001 12. Asbach, L., Dorndorf, U., Pesch, E.: Analysis, modeling and solution of the concrete delivery problem. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 193, 820–835 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2007.11.011 13. Schmid, V., Doerner, K.F., Hartl, R.F., Salazar-Gonz´alez, J.-J.: Hybridization of very large neighborhood search for ready-mixed concrete delivery problems. Comput. Oper. Res. 37, 559–574 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cor.2008.07.010 14. Hertz, A., Uldry, M., Widmer, M.: Integer linear programming models for a cement delivery problem. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 222, 623–631 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2012.04.039 15. Yan, S., Lin, H.C., Jiang, X.Y.: A planning model with a solution algorithm for ready mixed concrete production and truck dispatching under stochastic travel times. Eng. Optim. 44, 427–447 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/0305215X.2011.58074 16. Liu, Z., Zhang, Y., Li, M.: Integrated scheduling of ready-mixed concrete production and delivery. Autom. Constr. 48, 31–43 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.08.004 17. Maghrebi, M., Periaraj, V., Waller, S.T., Sammut, C.: Solving ready-mixed concrete delivery problems: evolutionary comparison between column generation and robust genetic algorithm. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, pp. 1417–1424 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784413616.176 18. Maghrebi, M., Rey, D., Waller, S.T., Sammut, C.: Reducing the number of decision variables in ready mixed concrete for optimally solving small instances in a practical time. In: Proceedings of the CSCE2014 General Conference, Halifax (2014) 19. Rey, D., Maghrebi, M., Waller, S.T.: A single depot concrete delivery with time windows model using integer and assignment variables. In: 19th International, Conference of Hong Kong Society for Transportation Studies, Hong Kong, pp. 163–170 (2014) 20. Maghrebi, M., Periaraj, V., Waller, S.T., Sammut, C.: Using benders decomposition for solving ready mixed concrete dispatching problems. In: ISARC. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, vol. 31. IAARC Publications, Sydney, Australia, pp. 680–688 (2014). https://doi.org/10.22260/ISARC2014/0092 21. Kinable, J., Wauters, T., Vanden Berghe, G.: The concrete delivery problem. Comput. Oper. Res. 48, 53–68 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cor.2014.02.008 22. Maghrebi, M., Waller, S.T., Sammut, C.: Optimality gap of experts’ decisions in concrete delivery dispatching. J. Build. Eng. 2, 17–23 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2015. 04.001

Overview of Optimization Tools for Ready-Mixed Concrete Dispatching Problem

335

23. Maghrebi, M., Sammut, C., Waller, S.T.: Feasibility study of automatically performing the concrete delivery dispatching through machine learning techniques. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 22, 573–590 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-06-2014-0081 24. Yan, S., Wang, W.-C., Chang, G.-W., Lin, H.-C.: Effective ready mixed concrete supply adjustments with inoperative mixers under stochastic travel times. Transp. Lett. 121, 103423 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/19427867.2016.1188522

Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced Soil Structures Danija Ðonko and Azra Špago(B) Faculty of Civil Engineering, University “Džemal Bijedi´c” of Mostar, Sjevernilogor bb, 88 104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. Development of modern methods of soil reinforcement has led to a greater application of reinforced soil in civil engineering, especially in road design. Reinforced soil retaining structures are a cost-effective alternative to traditional reinforced concrete retaining structures. They have many advantages, some of which are adaptability to site conditions, simple and fast construction, economy, aesthetic features, excellent performance under seismic conditions and durability, and they can be safely constructed as steep slopes or vertical walls. All that makes reinforced soil structures excellent and efficient solution in both rural and urban areas. Application of reinforced soil structures in transportation systems was analyzed in this paper: MSE (mechanically stabilized earth) wall for a new road construction in an urban area, steep reinforced soil slope for road widening, and reinforced soil embankment for a new road. Keywords: Reinforced soil · Design and construction technology · Mechanically stabilized earth walls · reinforced soil slopes

1 Introduction Mechanically stabilized earth or reinforced soil is a composite material formed by combining soil with some applicable form of reinforcement. Soil is a material with high compressive strength, and low tensile strength. By adding reinforcement, its tensile strength increases, and the new composite material has high compressive and tensile strength [10]. Soil reinforcement isn’t a novelty. Even in ancient times inclusions such as straw, sticks and branches were used to improve soil [2]. One of the most famous structures in the world The Great Wall of China, built over 2000 years ago, contains parts built of clay and gravel reinforced with tamarisk branches [5]. Modern methods of soil reinforcement were developed by a French architect and engineer Henri Vidal in 1963. Since then, reinforced soil has had greater application in civil engineering. That composite material was named Reinforced Earth® and it contains metal strips as reinforcement. New methods of reinforcement have been developed since, such as geotextiles and geogrids, and many systems of reinforced soil are available on the marketplace today [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 336–344, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_36

Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced

337

2 Mechanism of Reinforced Soil Reinforced soil is somewhat similar to reinforced concrete in that its mechanical properties are improved with reinforcement placed parallel to the principal strain direction to compensate for soil’s lack of tensile strength. The improved tensile properties are the result of interaction between the soil and the reinforcement [2]. If a confined soil, subject to confining stress σ3 is loaded with a vertical stress σ1 it will undergo an axial compression δv and a lateral expansion δh . If several layers of reinforcement are inserted into the soil, the magnitude of these deformations will be reduced. This is the result of the confining stress generated by the interaction between the soil and the reinforcement. (See Fig. 1) [6].

Fig. 1. The effect of reinforcement on soil – unreinforced (left), reinforced (right) [6]

3 Components of Reinforced Soil Structures Reinforced soil structures have three basic components: soil/backfill (preferably cohesionless with a high internal friction angle to prevent slip between the soil and the reinforcement, well-graded soil to provide drainage, and with other properties that comply with the type of used reinforcement), reinforcement (most common types are strips, grids and sheets, made of geosynthetics and metal), and facing elements if necessary (segmental precast concrete panels, dry cast modular block wall units, welded wire mesh, gabion facing, geosynthetic facing…). (See Fig. 2.) Additional elements to consider with reinforced soil structures are capping units, leveling pads and drainage [8].

Fig. 2. Cross sections of reinforced soil structures [10]

338

D. Ðonko and A. Špago

4 Application of Reinforced Soil Structures Reinforced soil is a simple composite material that can be formed easily and quickly, it’s flexible so it can withstand significant deformations without sustaining damage, and it’s economical because of which reinforced soil has many applications in civil engineering. Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls are a cost-effective alternative to traditional gravity and reinforced concrete walls for retaining soil. They can be used as bridge abutments and wing walls. They are an economical solution in steep-sided terrain, ground subject to slope instability, and in areas where the foundation soil is poor. Reinforced soil allows building steep slopes instead of flatter stable unreinforced slopes, which is particularly useful when there is a need for road widening in areas with right-of-way restrictions. Reinforces soil slopes (RSS) can be used to repair slope failures. Reinforced soil can also be used for road/railway embankments on poor foundation soil [2, 8].

5 Advantages of Reinforced Soil Structures MSE walls have many advantages compared to conventional reinforced concrete and concrete gravity retaining walls. Construction of MSE walls uses a simple and fast procedure that doesn’t require large equipment; MSE walls don’t require special skills for construction; they require less construction site preparation; during construction they require less space in front of the wall; they are tolerant to deformations; they are cost-effective; they’re technically feasible to heights over 30 m; they don’t require rigid foundations; when constructing new roads, the application of MSE walls for soil retaining can reduce right-of-way acquisition.The usage of precast concrete wall facing units can improve the esthetic of the wall because those units can be made in different shapes and with different textures. That way MSE wall can fit into urban areas, or other types of facing can be used depending on the environment [2]. Reinforced soil makes it possible to build safe steeper slopes than would normally be possible. Economical advantages of using steep slopes come from saving on space taken up by the slope at the bottom, as well as the possibility to use lower-quality materials. When repairing a slope failure, it’s possible to reuse the slide debris. RSS are an economical solution when road widening is needed in areas where acquiring space for that is hard or impossible. RSS can be a cost-effective alternative for retaining walls, even MSE walls. They can be constructed with vegetated facing to fit into their environment [2].

6 Construction of Reinforced Soil Structures Construction of reinforced soil structures, simply put, consists of placing the soil, placing the reinforcement, and constructing the face. (See Fig. 3) [3].

Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced

339

Fig. 3. Construction sequence of MSE walls with precast concrete facing elements [4]

After site preparation, the leveling pad for erecting facing elements is placed, after which the first row of facing units is placed on the leveling pad. Simultaneously backfill soil is placed. Backfill is placed and compacted to the height of the first reinforcement layer. The first layer of reinforcement is placed over the compacted backfill and connected to facing units. The next layer of backfill is placed over the reinforcement layer and compacted. The steps are repeated until the designed height of the wall is achieved, and then coping units are placed. If the MSE wall has flexible facing, the construction sequence is the same with a few differences: a leveling pad usually isn’t necessary, the first reinforcing layer is placed over subsoil, and facing is constructed with removable face forms. The same construction sequence is used for reinforced soil slopes [2] (See Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4. Construction sequence of MSE walls and slopes with flexible facing [11]

7 Design of Reinforced Soil Structures Design of reinforced soil structures consists of establishing the geometric, loading and performance requirements for design, determining engineering properties of soils at the

340

D. Ðonko and A. Špago

construction site, as well as properties of available fill. Design parameters of reinforcement are evaluated next: allowable reinforcement strength, durability, soil-reinforcement interaction. After checking the stability of the unreinforced slope, reinforcement is designed to provide stability by determining the required strength, length and spacing of the reinforcement. The external stability of reinforced soil structures depends on the ability of the reinforced zone to act as a stable block and carry all external loads without failure. Possible external failures of reinforced soil structures are: slip, overturning, bearing capacity failure, and global stability failure. Internal stability failure can be the result of tearing of the reinforcement and the reinforcement being pulled out [3].

8 Design Examples of Reinforecd Soil Structures 8.1 MSE Wall In the first example, an MSE retaining wall was analyzed. The retaining wall was needed to provide stability to otherwise unstable slope under a new road in an urban area. Since the advantages of MSE walls are most often highlighted when compared to traditional retaining structures, a gravity retaining wall was analyzed for the same unstable slope, and those results were compared. MSE wall is 4 m high. Its facing is made of 20 rows of modular concrete block wall unitsset on a leveling pad. Natural soil is uniformly graded sand, and backfill is well-graded compacted gravel. Since it’s a city road, the wall was designed to withstand surcharge of 16,67 kN/m2 (vehicle V300). To achieve stability, three grades of strength of the geosynthetic reinforcement were used, spaced after every three facing blocks (six layers total). Every reinforcement layer is of the same length, 5,50 m. (See Fig. 5.)

Fig. 5. MSE retaining wall – reinforcement

Gravity retaining wall that would provide stability is shown in Fig. 6. Its total height is 5,26 m, its bottom width is 5,30 m, and at the top its width is 1,50 m. Its weight is 312,85 kN/m3 . (See Fig. 6) the structure was analyzed in Gravity Wall program (GEO5 software suite).

Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced

341

Fig. 6. Gravity retaining wall – dimensions

The results of stability checks for both retaining are shown in Table 1. Analysis was performed in GEO5 software suite: MSE Wall program, and Gravity Wall. Verification methodology used was standard – safety factors. Note: Other types of verification were performed depending on the structure, but the results weren’t necessary for the comparison of the two retaining structure and were omitted from the table. Table 1. Results of MSE wall and gravity wall stability checks Verification

Safety factor for the MSE retaining wall

Check for overturning stability 13,88 > 1,50

Safety factor for the gravity retaining wall 8,12 > 1,50

4,41 > 1,50

3,55 > 1,50

Verification of bearing capacity 1,91 > 1,50

1,84 > 1,50

Bishop

1,56 > 1,50

1,56 > 1,50

Spencer

1,57 > 1,50

1,55 > 1,50

Check for slip Global stability

8.2 Reinforced Soil Slope (RSS) Reinforced soil slopes are a cost-effective solution when there is a need for widening roads in areas where space is an issue. Use of RSSs allows for constructing steeper slopes from the bottom of existing flatter slopes, thus providing area at the top for new road lanes. The principle of this is shown in Fig. 7. RSS analyzed in this paper is one necessary to widen a road in a rural area where right-of-way limit has already been reached. The existing road is on an embankment 5m high with 1:2,5 slope. To widen the road, it’s decided to erect RSS from the bottom of the existing slope. New slope has 1:1 inclination. This way the embankment is widened by 7,50 m. Reinforcement is placed in 13 layers (See Fig. 8.)

342

D. Ðonko and A. Špago

Fig. 7. Road widening with reinforced soil [6]

Fig. 8. RSS reinforcement

Verification was performed in MSE Wall program (standard – safety factors method), and the RSS was checked for stability under 33,30 kN/m2 surcharge (vehicle V600). The results are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Results of RSS stability checks Verification

Safety factor

Check for overturning stability

30,61 > 1,50

Check for slip

6,29 > 1,50 1,51 > 1,50

Verification of bearing capacity Global stability

Bishop

1,56 > 1,50

Spencer

1,57 > 1,50

Note: Other types of necessary verifications were performed. The table shows only external and global stability checks

8.3 Reinforced Soil Embankment Third design example is for an embankment needed for constructing a new highway. The embankment is 5,0 m high with 1:1 slope. Reinforcement necessary to ensure stability under traffic load (V600) is shown in Fig. 9, and the results of stability check in Table 3.

Design and Technology of Construction of Reinforced

343

Fig. 9. Reinforcement of the embankment

Table 3. Results of reinforced embankment stability checks Verification Global stability

Safety factor Bishop

1,72 > 1,50

Spencer

2,53 > 1,50

9 Conclusion Reinforced soil structures are retaining structures with many areas of application. By adding reinforcement soil can carry significant loads including traffic loads, and the soil can be with a steep slope or even vertical. Three such cases were analyzed in this paper: MSE wall, steep RSS, and an embankment, all designed for traffic loads. The results showed that an MSE wall is a better alternative to a traditional gravity retaining wall, that RSSs can be successfully used to widen a road without needing extra space at the base of a slope, and that a reinforced soil embankment can be used in highway design.Given the several types of facing of reinforced soil structures, they can blend well into their environment.

References 1. Akaolisa, C.C.Z., Akinola, A.O., Jack, L., Okechukwu, S.I., Okeke, O.C.: Reinforced Earth: Principles and Applications in Engineering Construction. In: International Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 14–33. Str (2016) 2. Berg, R.R., Christopher, B.R., Samtani, N.C.: Design and Construction of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes – Volume I, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. (2009) 3. Berg, R.R., Christopher, B.R., Samtani, N.C.: Design and Construction of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes – Volume II, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. (2009) 4. Ivši´c, T.: Nasuteipotpornegradevine – Predavanje, Zagreb (2009) 5. Mandal, J.N.: Geosinthetics Engineering: In Theory & Practice, Mumbai 6. Plancq, J.: The Design of Reinforced Earth Walls (2013) 7. Rajagopal, K.: Geosynthetics and Reinforced Soil Structures: Introduction & Need for Geosynthetics – Lecture, Madras

344

D. Ðonko and A. Špago

8. Saran, S.: Reinforced Soil and Its Engineering Applications. I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2010) 9. Shukla, S.K.: Reinforced Soil Engineering – Basic Concepts (2012) 10. www.huesker.co.uk/geosynthetics/applications/earthworks-foundation/steep-slopes-and-ret aining-structures/ 11. www.slideshare.net/Armtecltd/mse-walls-geosynthetics-design-basics-webinar-april-2016

Airport Pavement Maintenance and Repair Muharem Šabi´c(B) , Edvin Šimi´c, and Džubur Damir Faculty of Traffic and Communications, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. Long-term traffic load and environmental influences can seriously damage the wearing surfaces and sublayers of the airfield pavement. The appearance of the first visible damage is a sign that there has been damage to the wearing layer or that there have been changes in the structure of the supporting layers. Inspection procedure and sampling have to be identified in order to get PCI (Pavement Classification Index) and subsequent treatment measures. The repair methodologies have to be developed for each category of damage. Keywords: Flexible pavement · rigidpavement · Pavement Classification Number (PCN) · modulus of elasticity · And flexural strength

1 Introduction Construction of the runways at the airports in Bosnia and Herzegovina was taken up in the mid-seventies last century. Since then, operations have been mostly carried out by narrow-body aircraft of MTOW (Maximum Take-off Weight) of up to 80 tons. The largest number of damages was caused by inadequate surface maintenance and overloading caused by the operations of heavier aircraft. The wear layer was repaired frequently, but not the base and subbase layers. Airfield pavement should ensure basic functions as normal bearing capacity, expected surface quality, and airfield pavement friction characteristics. Other requirements which are important are longevity and ease of maintenance. Pavement Classification Number (PCN)represents an International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) standard used in combination with the Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) to indicate the bearing capacity of a runway, taxiway and apron. Airfield pavement distresses which appear most often are surface irregularities as cracks, dents and bulgesfollowed by degraded friction coefficient. Deteriorated surfaces of runways, taxiways and aprons are tested in order to provide data that will allow Pavement Condition Index (PCI) assessment. Pavement repairs encompass permanent repairs, semi-permanent repairs, temporary repairs and emergency repairs.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 345–351, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_37

346

M. Šabi´c et al.

2 Airfield Pavement Structure Airfield pavements are designed to carry the projectedaircraft traffic loads and surfaces need to keepa quality defined by the standards of aircraft operations. To meet these performance standards, the pavement must have the necessary strength to bear the loads imposed on it. The bearing layers of flexible pavement consist of crushed limestone and gravelof different granulations (Fig. 1a). For rigid pavement, the bearing layer is concrete and the layers below are stabilizing structure (Fig. 1b). Depending on the type of subgrade soil, a drainage layer and a geosynthetic foil are usually installed. The thickness of the individual layers depends on the designed load (critical aircraft ACN), the bearing capacity of the subgrade, coefficient of permeability and climatic conditions, and the ACN-PCN methodology is most often used. ASPHALT SURFACE STABILIZED BASE

CONCRETE SURFACE STABILIZED BASE DRAINAGE

BASE

BASE

SUBBASE DRAINAGE

SUBBASE GEOSYNTHETIC SUBGRADE

GEOSYNTHETIC SUBGRADE

a.

b. Fig. 1. Typical flexible and rigid pavement structure [1]

The magnitude of the stress caused by aircraft depends on the loads transmitted through the aircraft’s main landing gear, number of the wheels and the tire pressure.Flexible pavement spread the load until the stress is reduced to a level that the upper and lower bearing layers can withstand (Fig. 2a). Rigid pavement protects the subgrade by basically dissipating the stress within the concrete slab. Q

Q

asphalt concrete

bearing layers

subgrade subgrade

critical load

a.

b.

Fig. 2. Stress distribution of flexible and rigid pavement structure [3]

Airport Pavement Maintenance and Repair

347

Subgrade categories of flexible and rigid pavementsare defined in accordance withAerodrome Design Manual, Part 3, Pavements (ICAO Doc 9157 - Part 3) [4]. Before calculating pavement PCN, it is necessary to definethe cumulative damage factor. It represents the amount of used structural fatigue and is expressed as the ratio of repeated traffic loads to the permitted repeated loads before the structure breaks.

3 ACN-PCN Methodology Since 1983, when ICAO accepted amendment 35, Annex 14, ACN-PCN, classification is applied by comparing the ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) and PCN (Pavement Classification Number) numbers to determine the limit load of airfield pavement. ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) is a number that represents twice the load of an equivalent single wheel with atire inflation pressure of 1.25 MPa expressed in thousands of kilograms. ACN is calculated by the formula (2) [4]: ACN = ACN MAX −

(MTOW − AOW ) × (ACN MAX − ACN EMPTY ) (MTOW − OEW )

(2)

where is: – – – – –

ACN MAX , ACN for the maximum allowable take-off weight, MTOW , Maximum Take-Off Weight, AOW , Actual Operating Weight, OEW , Operating Empty Weight, ACN EMPTY , ACN for operating Empty Weight.

For each individual aircraft, subgrade category and pavement type, the ACN number is defined by the aircraft manufacturer. The critical aircraft is the aircraftthat will operate on the airfield,which has the highest ACN and is determined specifically for rigid and especially for flexible pavement. PCN (Pavement Classification Number) is a number that indicates the bearing capacity of the pavement structure, and the numerical definition of the value is equal to the value for ACN. PCN is calculated according to the “U” and “T” method (Table 1). U method is an empirical method and generally accepts the ACN of the heaviest aircraftwhich will use the airfield pavement. The T method is based on the measurement of the response of pavement to traffic load. There are three methods for PCN calculations: the ICAO method, the Boeing method, and the cumulative damage method [5].

348

M. Šabi´c et al. Table 1. Pavement codes for reporting PCN [4].

PCN value

Pavement type

Subgrade category

Tire pressure

PCN method

70

RigidR

High A

UnlimitedW

TechnicalT

Medium B

HighX

Low Strength C

MediumY

Ultra-Low D

LowZ

FlexibleF

UtilityU

Example:70/R/B/Y/T/

4 Evaluation of Pavement Damages Cyclical repetitions of dynamic loading and unloading lead to pavement fatigue and the possibility of crack occurrence inside slabs. It is necessary to do investigative work in order to determine the layering of the foundation soil, its general and physical-mechanical characteristics, as well as its water permeability. Visible surface damage is a consequence of environmental influences or a sign that the supporting structure is damaged. Damage to the surface most often appears in the form of cracks, holes, dents and folds. Determining the cause is carried out by field investigations and geophysical tests. Exploratory drilling is carried out in the damaged areas using the continuous coring method. Non-destructive geophysical testing is carried out using a falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and ground penetrating radar (GPR) (Fig. 3).

F1

F1: RIPPLING F2: ALLIGATOR CRACKS

R1: SLAB CRACKS R2: JOINT CRACKS

R1

R2

F2

Fig. 3. Common pavement surface defects [8]

Airport Pavement Maintenance and Repair

349

Depending on the number of observed damages, it is necessary to perform a minimum number of samplings (95% confidence) in order to get statistically adequate assessed PCI index [8]:    (2) n = Ns2 / e2 /4 (N − 1) + s2 where is: – e, error threshold (±5%), – s, standard deviation (10 for asphalt and 15 for concrete), – N, the total number of samples. By conducting these tests, each sampleis obtained layer thickness, layer granulation, modulus of elasticity, Poisson number and flexural strength.Based on this data, experts determine the PCI index, which reflects the state of pavement and possible degradation of damaged areas. The next step is the determination of the PCN number using ACNPCN methodology for runway, taxiway and apron. Analysis of the results leads to the selection of the optimal maintenance and rehabilitation strategy.

5 Tuzla Airport Case Study Airport Tuzla was built during the 1960s with concrete pavement and reconstructions were done several times without known documentation. During the last reconstruction, the concrete pavement on runway and taxiways was overlayed with an asphalt layer. Surface evaluation by PCI revealed many surface irregularitiesas cracks, dents and bulges. The determined damages of the surfaces are within the limits prescribed by ICAO Annex 14. The largest deformation occurred in runway touchdown zone due to the dynamic load of an aircraft landing gear. For all affected pavement areas, a structural analysis was performed by taking drill cores samples and falling weight deflectometer testing was performed. A total of 39 drill cores samples were taken by drilling on suspected areas and examined compressive strength, flexural strength and splitting strength. Drill cores and FWD test data were the base for back-calculation of elasticity modules. Obtained SCI, BCI and D1800 indexes were very in homogeneous for almost every area of airport (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Tuzla airport pavements [9]

350

M. Šabi´c et al.

Generally, it should represent approximately 70% reliability of the determined PCN value. Fleet mix, containing types of aircraft to be operated (Airbus A320–200, Airbus A321neo, Boeing 747-8F) with their annual departures (42 000, 13 500, 450), was used in calculations. For PCN calculations, the PCASE software version 2.09.07 was used.PCASE software has the ability to design and evaluate flexible and rigid pavement based on empirical methods of modulus of subgrade, CBR, and analytical method of LED (Layered Elastic Design) [10]. Since Boeing 747-8F (442 000, MTOW) is the heaviest aircraft in fleet mix, it is controlling aircraft with the highest ACN value for specific conditions. The average point on the runway has a PCN of 99F/C/W/T, with a weak point which has a PCN of 52F/C/W/T. Due to the condition of individual areas, analysis recommended planning the pavement reconstruction of the following areas: – local places at RWY, – Apron 2-F, taxiway B, taxiway C and taxiway D. It is clear, airport areas are allowed for movement only for aircraft Airbus A320–200 and Airbus A321neo from current fleet mix or similar aircraft which have lower ACN. Due to inhomogeneity in all pavement structures, for longer use of pavement with a higher number of operations it is strongly recommended to perform ground penetrating radar testing to avoid sudden failing defects.

6 Conclusion Assessment of the airport pavement condition is determined by visual inspections, measuring the coefficient of friction and measuring unevenness. Visual inspection involves determining the type of damage and assessing the extent of damage to get the PCI index. If the PCI is unsatisfactory, further tests are carried out to find the cause of the damage. The method used to measure the bearing capacity of the pavement structure is the method of back calculation with input data collected by investigative fieldwork. Pavement structure and bearing capacity of PCI unsatisfactory spots are obtained from drilled cores and falling weight deflectometer measurement. In this way, for each measuring point is obtained layer thickness, modulus of elasticity, Poisson number and flexural strength. Using this data as input to PCASE software, PCN calculation is performed for fleet mix reduced to one controlling aircraft. In order to increase the reliability of the determined PCN value it is recommended to use the plot of ground penetrating radar measuring. The results of such measurements can be used by management in the decision-making process for preventive maintenance or complete reconstruction of airfield pavement.

Airport Pavement Maintenance and Repair

351

References 1. Airport Pavement Design and Evolution, AC No: 150/5320-6G, Federal Aviation Administration, 2021 2. Standard Test Method for California Bearing Ration (CBR) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils, American Standard Test Method ASTM D1883 (2021) 3. Šabi´c, M., Brankovic, N.: Dizajn aerodroma i aerodromske operacije, Fakultet za saobra´caj i komunikacije Sarajevo, ISBN 978-9958-619-43-4 (2021) 4. Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 3 Pavements, ICAO Doc 9157-AN/901, 3rd Edition (2022) 5. Chia-Pei, C.: Methodology of Applying Heavy Weight Deflectometer for the Calculation of Runway Pavement Classification Number. Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, PhD Candidate (2014) 6. Standard Guide for General Pavement Deflection Measurements, ASTM D4695–03, ASTM International (2020) 7. Use of Non-destructive Testing in the Evaluation of Airport Pavements FAA Advisory Circular, AC No. 150/5370-11A (2022) 8. Pavement Evaluation and Rating, ALACPA, Short Course on Pavements Maintenance, The Louis Berger Group INC (2012) 9. PCN Declaration–Tuzla International Airport, Technical report (2021) 10. Yavari, M.R., Balali, A.: Evaluation of runway pavement design software and application of modified asphalt overlay on airfields. J. Civil Eng. Urban 5(6), 257–264 (2015)

Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes Azra Mahini´c Vrce1 , Žana Džubur1 , Merima Salˇcin1(B) , and Mirsad Tari´c2 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Sjeverni Logor bb,

Univerzitetski Kampus, 88104 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Tehnical Sciences, University of Pristina, Filipa Visnjica bb, 38220 Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo

Abstract. The most sustainable material used in building is wood. In addition to being an anisotropic material, the presence of defects in wood has a significant impact on the mechanical characteristics of glued laminated timber. Innovations in the field of materials has a significant role in economic success. The process of upgrading timber structures using fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) has grown intensively in the last decade. It was the combination of these two materials that resulted in the improvement of the mechanical characteristics of glued laminated structures in terms of load-bearing capacity and stiffness. The paper presents an analysis of experimental research in the field of using FRP strips to improve the mechanical characteristics of glued laminated timber, a comparison of the research results, as well as a numerical analysis of the experimental model. Keywords: Glulam · Timber · FRP reinforcement · Strips · Beam

1 Introduction The use of wood as a building material has a long tradition. Its all mechanical and physical characteristics and capabilities are known. Wood has a lot of positive qualities, but it also has shortcomings, primarily anisotropy and the presence of defects. At the beginning of the 20th century, some shortcomings in wooden structures were overcome by the discovery of glued laminated timber. The basic principles of creating glued laminated timber that were applied then are still in use. Glulam beams retained the anisotropy of the wood, on the other hand, it reduced the presence of defects and the mechanical characteristics became uniform [1-9]. The basic caracteristic of glued laminated timber, which has been especially appreciated in the last ten years, is that it has a low carbon footprint, which ranks it among the top sustainable materials [10]. The special importance of glulam beams that makes it competitive to other materials, such as steel and concrete, is the ratio of volumetric mass to strength. Glulam beams has relatively low stiffness, which can be overcome by combining it with other materials in order to improve structural characteristics [11]. Ways of strengthening glued laminated beamswere subject of research in the past, so today we have many ways to improve the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 352–359, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_38

Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes

353

properties of glulam beams and wood in general. One of the ways is the use of FRP material, which implies the use of strips or rods that are glued to the wooden element. Many research done in this area so far have shown good results and provided many possibilities for their combination and application. Reinforcement with FRP material in the form of strips is used for concrete and masonry constructions [12], and in wooden constructions it was used later,so today they are equally used for glued laminated timber and structural wood (solid timber) [1316]. It is often used in cases where wood of lower quality needs to be strengthened or for the restoration of structures of historical importance, also in situations where it is not economical to change load-bearing beams, i.e. when it is more economical just to strengthen them. The position of reinforcement is in accordance with the specific requirements of the object, i.e. in accordance with the design situation.

2 Reinforcements of Glued Laminated Timber The research done by Raftery and Rodd [14] wasconsisted of testing unreinforced and reinforced glulam beams manufactured from low-quality wood to analyze their behavior in bending tests. The reinforced beams included 1.86% GFRP strips (glass strips) placed in the tension zone. A total of 21 beams with the dimensions and reinforcement characteristics were tested (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Beam configurations [14]

The results of the experimental research showed that there is no premature delamination in the reinforced beams. The strengthened beams showed a moderate increase in stiffness of 18% and a significant improvement in ultimate moment of 31%. The use of GFRP strips changed the fracture mode from brittle to pseudoductile, whose behavior depended on the quality of the wood. Depending on the quality of the tensile lamellae, the reinforced beams showed a certain capacity reserve after the initial failure.

354

A. M. Vrce et al.

In another research, done by H. Yang et al. [17] observed and analyzed the behavior of 46 beams in 16 series until failure, by bending tests as well as comparison with the theoretical model. The samples were 6.0 m long and had cross-sectional dimensions of 75 × 300 mm. GFRP bars, GFRP strips, and CFRP strips were used as FRP reinforcements. The position of the FRP strips in the cross-sections was vertical and horizontal, in the tensile and/or compressive zone. Each of the sixteen seriesthat were tested had a different percentage of reinforcement between 0.27% and 2.3%. The research results showed that with an increase in the level of reinforcement, there is a more ductile behavior in reinforced glulam beams due to fracture in the compressive zone. Reinforced beams with reinforcements in compression and tension zones showed better bending stiffness than strength, due to premature buckling or delamination of the reinforcement. The increase in strength and bending stiffness is 56.3% and 27.5%, respectively, compared to unreinforced glulam beams. Deformations on the tension zone in beams reinforced with vertical strips increased by 49.4%, while in beams reinforced with horizontal strips the increase was 35.1%. Donadonet al. [18] in their research conducted an experimental, numerical and analytical analysis of strengthening of the glued laminated beams with Vectran FRP fibers. Eight beams with a cross-section dimensions of 5.3 × 18 cm and a length of 3.0 m were reinforced with strips based on synthetic fibers and tested for bending. Five beams had the reinforcement position on the tension side of the beam, while the remaining three beams were unreinforced. The percentage of strengthening was from 1.9% to 5%. The results of the experimental tests showed an increase in load capacity from 7% to 40%, while the increase in stiffness was from 19.48% to 34.95% compared to the control group of beams. Also, the fracture mechanism changed from brittle to ductile fracture in the compression zone. The use of synthetic fibers in glued laminated beams, made of a wood with low mechanical properties, has improved the mechanical characteristics without significantly changing the assembly of the beam. Minjuan et al. [19] conducted a study on 18 glued laminated beams reinforced with carbon strips in the tensile cross-section zone. Glued laminated beams are made of Douglas fir, section dimensions 14 x 30 cm, length 3.0 m. The CFRP strips used in the experimental program had a high modulus of elasticity (H MOE) and a low modulus of elasticity (L MOE). The percentage of reinforcement in the beams was0.04%. The dimensions of the cross section as well as the reinforcement points for glulam beams are given bellow (Fig. 2). The contribution of their experimental research is reflected, among other things, in the fact that all tested beams experienced a very brittle fracture that occurred at tension zone without the presence of shear forces. Both series of reinforced beams had an increase in load capacity from 4.48% to 6.51%. The results of testing the stiffness of reinforced beams show that the presence of CFRP strips with a high modulus of elasticity reduces the stiffness of the beam by 2.11%. While the beams that were strengthened with CFRP strips of lower elastic modulus had an increase in stiffness by 6.4%.

Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes

355

Fig. 2. Reinforcement scheme [19]

3 Theoretical Analysis For the development of the analytical model of reinforced and unreinforced glued laminated beams, the basic constitutive laws for the glued laminated wood and FRP composite material are shown bellow (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Stress-strain relation for glulam (left) and FRP (right)

The behavior of glued laminated timber under axial tension is linear-elastic, while under axial compression it is linear up to the elastic limit, after which plastic deformations follow. Linear-elastic behavior was adopted for CFRP strips. In the theoretical model, the assumption is made that expansions are linear along the entire height of the section, the presence of defects in the wood is ignored and the modulus of elasticity is the same for all cross-section lamellas, also the connection between the wood and the FRP strip is considered without any imperfections. Flexural failure in glulam beams occurs when the limit value of tensile strength fwtu is reached in the outer fiber of the tensioned side of the cross-section. The analytical model that was developed is used to determine the stiffness and limit load, shown in Fig. 4. The position of the neutral axis is known from the conditions of equilibrium of internal forces, which are expressed through the stress diagram in the cross section

356

A. M. Vrce et al.

Fig. 4. Theoretical model of bending stress distribution

(Eq. 1). The bending moment will be calculated as the sum of the moments of the internal forces around the neutral axis (Eq. 2), while the stiffness is calculated according to Eq. 3. Ft1 + Ff + Ft2 + Ft3 = Fc1 + Fc2

(1)

   2 h h a 1 2 M = Ft1 · (e1 − h2 − a) + Ft2 · (e1 − 2 ) + Ft3 · (e1 − 2 ) + Ff · e1 − h2 − + Fc1 · e2 + e3 + Fc2 · e2 3 2 3 2 2 3

(2) 2 EI = Ew · Iw + Ef · If + Ew · Aw · yw + Ef · Af · yf2

(3)

Table 1. Mechanical properties of material[19] Property

Value

Compressive strength of wood

fc

47,73 MPa

Tensile strain of wood

εt

4,11 ‰

Compressive yield strain of wood

εcy

4,06 ‰

Compressive ultimate strain of wood

εcu

10 ‰

Young‘s modulus of wood parallel to grain in compression

Ew

11742MPa

Young‘s modulus of CFRP material-HMOE

Ef

235000 MPa

Young‘s modulus of CFRP material-LMOE

Ef

204000 MPa

When it comes to modeling the wood as a material, we take the fact that the ultimate tensile stress during bending is greater than the ultimate tensile stress during axial tension. Also, the ultimate tensile stress can be increased due to CFRP reinforcement. Higher breaking tension indicate higher elongation at break. Given the facts about the behavior of reinforced glued laminated timber and a review of previous research in this area, a modification factor αm = 1.27 was adopted for reinforced glued-laminated beams. The modification factor is used in the theoretical model for reinforced glulam beams, and takes into account the effect of carbon strip reinforcement resulting in an increase in

Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes

357

strength. Compressive ultimate strain of wood is not given within norms and standards, most authors suggest a value between 10–12‰ [17]. The mechanical characteristics of the wood material and the CFRP strips used in the development of the analytical model are given in Table 1. Table 2 shows a comparison of experimental and theoretical results of reinforced glued laminated beams. For each series of experimental tests of glued laminated beams according to research [19] and Fig. 2, the mean values of the bending moment in the middle of the beam at the maximum force, and the bending stiffness are shown. The table also shows the results of theoretical models developed for two series of beams, as well as the difference between experimental and theoretical results. Table 2. Comparison of experimental and analytical results Test series

Experimental result

Analytical result

Difference(%)

Bending moment [kNm] H MOE

135,11

129,03

4,71

L MOE

108,42

118,15

8,97

Stiffness EI [kNm2 ] H MOE

3970

3786,33

4,62

L MOE

3380

3674,8

8,72

The differences between the two models are within 10%, which indicates a satisfactory agreement between experimental tests and analytical model.

4 Conclusion Strengthening of wooden structures and methods of improving certain properties of wood are the subject of many researches. Some of the research in this area is presented in this paper, as well as the confirmation of the theoretical model that was done for one of the experimental tests, all with the aim of overcoming the possible imperfections of wood and increasing the use of this energy-efficient material. This paper can also serve as a confirmation of the analytical model, where we obtained a satisfactory difference between the two models, which is within the limits of 10%. The recommendation for further research in this area is to carry out more experimental tests regarding the combination and position of FRP reinforcement in the beams, where the emphasis should be on the use of lower-class wood, where improving its characteristics would affect more the use of lower-class wood, and therefore the use of reinforcement from FRP material would be more profitable and more justified.Today, the use of FRP strips is most common in the restoration of old structures, and not as an initial design solution, so some innovations and solutions in this direction would be desirable.

358

A. M. Vrce et al.

References 1. Ramage, M.H., et al.: The wood from the trees: the use of timber in construction. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 68(1), 333–359 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.107 2. Van De Lindt, J.W., Pei, S., Pryor, S.E., Shimizu, H., Isoda, H.: Experimental seismic response of a full-scale six-story light-frame wood building. J. Struct. Eng. 136(11), 1262–1272 (2010).https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000222 3. Ceccotti, A., Sandhaas, C., Okabe, M., Yasumura, M., Minowa, C., Kawai, N.: SOFIE project—3D shaking table test on a seven-storey full-scale cross-laminated timber building. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 42(13), 2003–2021 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2309 4. Herzog, T., Natterer, J., Schweitzer, R., Volz, M., Winter, W.: Timber Construction Manual. Walter de Gruyter, Basel, Switzerland (2012) 5. Monahan, J., Powell, J.: An embodied carbon and energy analysis of modern methods of construction in housing: a case study using a lifecycle assessment framework. Energy Build. 43, 179–188 (2011) 6. Yadav, R., Kumar, J.:Engineered wood products as a sustainable construction material: a review. In (Ed.) Engineered Wood Products for Construction. IntechOpen. (2021). https:// doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99597 7. Dietsch, P., Tannert, T.: Assessing the integrity of glued-laminated timber elements. Constr. Build. Mater. 101, 1259–1270 (2015) 8. Frangi, A., Fontana, M., Mischler, A.: Shear behaviour of bond lines in glued laminated timber beams at high temperatures. Wood Sci. Technol. 38, 119–126 (2004) 9. Falk, R.H., Colling, F.: Laminating effects in glued-laminated timber beams. J. Struct. Eng. 121, 1857–1863 (1995) ´ 10. Wdowiak-Postulak, A., Swit, G.: Behavior of glulam beams strengthened in bending with BFRP fabrics. Civil Environ. Eng. Rep. 31(2), 1–14 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2478/ceer2021-0016 11. Wdowiak-Postulak, A.: Numerical, theoretical and experimental models of the static performance of timber beams reinforced with steel, basalt and glass pre-stressed bars. Comp. Struct. 205(1) (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.116479 12. Foli´c, R., Glavardanov, D.: Mehanizmi ošte´cenja, modeli održavanja i sanacija betonskih konstrukcija pojaˇcanih FRP elementima. Gradevinski materijali i konstrukcije 52(1), 63–73 (2009) 13. Fossetti, M., Minafò, G., Papia, M.: Flexural behaviour of glulam timber beams reinforced with FRP cords. Constr. Build. Mater. 95, 54–64 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbui ldmat.2015.07.116 14. Raftery, G.M., Rodd, D.: FRP reinforcement of low-grade glulam timber bonded with wood adhesive. Constr. Build. Mater. 91, 116–125 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2015.05.026 15. Gilfillan, J.R., Gilbert, S.G., Patrick, G.R.H.: The use of CFRP composites in enhancing the structural behaviour of timber beams. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 22, 1373–1388 (2003). https:// doi.org/10.1177/073168403035583 ´ 16. Salˇcin, M., Džubur, Ž., Catovi´ c, F., Džiho, E.: Strengthening timber structure with fiber reinforced polymer – an overview. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Mandžuka, S. (eds) New Technologies, Development and Application V. NT 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 472. Springer, Cham. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-052309_109 17. Yang, H., Liu, W., Lu, W., Zhu, S., Geng, Q.: Flexural behaviour of FRP and steel reinforced glulam beams: experimental and theoretical evaluation. Constr. Build. Mater. 106(1), 550–563 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.135

Analysis of Glulam Beams Strengthened with FRP Stripes

359

18. Donadon, B.F., Mascia, N.T., Vilela, R., Trautwein, L.M.: Experimental investigation of glued-laminated timber beams with Vectran- FRP reinforcement. Eng. Struct. 202 (2020). doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.109818 19. He, M., Wang, Y., Li, Z., Zhou, L., Tong, Y., Sun, X: An Experimental and analytical study on the bending performance of CFRP-reinforced glulam beams. Front. Mater. 8 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.802249

Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing Through the International Sustainability Rating Systems of Buildings Kosara Kujundži´c1 and Slavica Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c2(B) 1 A TEAM Ltd., 85330 Kotor, Montenegro 2 Faculty of Architecture, University of Montenegro, Dzordza Vasingtona bb, 81000 Podgorica,

Montenegro [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Firstly established in 1990s (BREEAM,1990; LEED,1998), the sustainability rating systems have been constantly evolving in terms of the sustainability categories, evaluation criteria and indicators. Moreover, the health and wellbeing-related aspects have been improving, especially within the lately introduced systems, e.g., WELL, 2016. In addition to the initially prevailing quantifying parameters, qualitative, especially biophilic aspects have been addressed. These tendences underline the sustainable architecture paradigm shifting toward regenerative approach fostering life-supporting, symbiotic and interdependent relationships between built and natural environment with the focus being on health and well-being of building users. Keywords: sustainability rating systems · health and well-being · sustainable architecture · building users · qualitative parameters · biophilic design · regenerative sustainability

1 Introduction Systematic development of ecological awareness and sustainability concepts perceived as complex relations between the built and the natural environment originates from the industrial revolution in the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th century, as a result of the sudden, excessive and uncontrolled urbanizations. More specifically, Ebenezer Howard’s concept of English garden city was introduced in 1898, followed by Patrick Geddes’ explorations of the living city and urban growth models in 1915, and Arthur Tansley’s definition of ’eco-system’ in 1935 [1]. In addition, General Systems Theory (GST) introduces the new scientific approach reflecting growth, change, and development in contrast to the linear, analytic way of thinking previously dominant in the western science [2]. The ecological, ‘green’ orientation in architecture emerges from the 1970s and energy-economic (oil) crisis in 1973 having impact on architectural considerations of energy conservation in relation to building. In addition, the main topics become building materials, especially in relation to the facades [3]. The sustainable © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 360–367, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_39

Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing

361

development syntagma dates to 1987 and have since developed as general, and global stabilization project of living conditions on Earth [4]. The first sustainability rating systems of buildings were established in 1990s: British Research Establishments’ BREEAM in 1990, and Leadership in Energy – LEED, established by the U.S. Green Building Council in 1998.Those assessment methodologies were dominantly focused on building performances in reference to energy efficiency, i.e., reduced and controlled energy consumption and related environmental impact. The regenerative design concept representing a comprehensive sustainability paradigm emerges from the 1990s and foundation of the Regenesis Group [5]. This approach encompasses harmonized, co-evolving, and life-supporting relations between humans and the natural world, representing the peak of the sustainability concept development: from conventional, green, sustainable, restorative to regenerative (Fig. 1) [6]. The key topics become: human-centric design, health, well-being, bioclimatic and biophilic design. The development of the sustainable design concept toward the regenerative approach has been reflected to the sustainability rating systems, especially in the recently introduced WELL-BUILDING standard (2016). The paper addresses BREEAM, LEED and WELL building assessment systems, the focus being on biophilic design health and well-being related aspects.

Fig. 1. Sustainability paradigm shift: from conventional to regenerative–‘green’, sustainability rating systems of buildings within lower part of the diagram (LEED, GB Tool, etc.) [6].

362

K. Kujundži´c and S. Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c

2 Concept of Health and Wellbeing Through the International Sustainability Rating Systems of Buildings People spend 70–90% of the lifespan inside buildings (living, work, education, etc.), which proves the relevance of architecture to the health and quality of our life. Therefore, a relevant goal of sustainable design should be the creation of agreeable, healthy and comfortable places. New design approaches and methodology should be developed, aimed at promoting human health and well-being, and connections to nature, based on regenerative principles and focused on contributing to positive outcomes (e.g., bioclimatic design, biophilic design, biomimicry, topophilic design, isotopic design, salutogenesis, etc.) [7]. Human connection to nature is an innate, biological, physiological and psychological need, essential for the health and well-being [8]. The concept of biophilia (in Greek: bios-life, philia-love; the love for life) is oriented to fostering symbiotic relations of humans and the natural world. Bioclimatic design relying on the biophilia concept, has evolved from the 2000s. Kellert, a prominent of the biophilic design, implies that only the design methodology leading to positive environmental impacts and the improvement of people’s physical and psychological health, and productivity, can be regarded as biophilic design [9, 10]. Furthermore, biophilic design enhances perceptive users’ connections to nature (senses of sight, smell, hearing and touch), as well as symbolic, psychological connections through mental images/illusions of connection even if it is not realized. Well-being has already been a relevant aspect of the design and building parameters within the sustainability certification systems of buildings (e.g., LEED, BREEAM, and WELL Building Standard). The recently introduced system- WELL (2016) represents the first assessment system related to building performance and operations only in reference to the impact on building occupants’ state of health and well-being. The main objective of establishing sustainability certification systems was to decrease the negative environmental impact through the entire building life cycle, and to provide objective rating and reliable buildings’ sustainability assessment and recognition which would promote sustainable design and building [11]. Despite the evident growing number of sustainability assessment methods related to health and well-being, the focus is still maintained on the ‘green’ and energy related physiological factors(e.g., air quality, daylighting, acoustics), while the biophilic aspects remain underrepresented [12]. In addition, quantitative and tangible parameters are more represented than qualitative, intangible factors, reflecting regenerative sustainable design methodology. A research of the regenerative sustainability topics in the sustainability assessment systems in reference to the well-being of building occupants is conducted through the evolution of biophilic design aspects within the following systems: BREEAM, LEED, and WELL. Those three certification methods are selected as internationally popular and diffused worldwide. The first two were firstly introduced, during the 1990s, while the WELL standard represents one of the most recent (introduced in 2016), but influential and widely spread sustainability assessment systems.

Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing

363

2.1 Sustainability Rating Systems: BREEAM, LEED and WELL British Research Establishments’ – BREEAM, brought in 1990, was the first introduced sustainability rating system. Over the years, the sustainability categories, criteria and indicators were developed in reference to the environmental impact and physical and mental well-being of building users. The version- BREEAM 18, adopted in 2018, encompasses the entire section dedicated to health and well-being (Sect. 2), enhancing comfort, health and safety of building occupants, visitors, and other people in vicinity, thus improving quality of indoor and outdoor environment [13]. The two more sections are partly related to health and well-being of building users, in total 33% (3/9). U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) is a non-government, international sustainability rating system introduced in 1998, providing certifications in terms of energy efficiency and ecology of buildings. Nowadays, it is the mostly spread international system worldwide, implemented in more than 100 countries, covering more than 18 thousand building certifications only in the Table 1. Sustainability rating systems: BREEAM, LEED and WELL, in reference to the building users’ health, and well-being (*adopted and modified table [12]) Sustainability Certification System

BREEAM (UK) 1990/2018

LEED (USA) 1998/2019

WELL (USA) 2016/2020

Main Sustainability categories

Nine (9) categories: • Management • Health and Wellbeing • Energy • Transport • Water • Materials • Waste • Land Use and Ecology • Pollution

Six (6) categories: • Location and Transportation • Sustainable Sites • Water Efficiency • Energy and Atmosphere • Materials and Resources • Indoor Environmental Quality

Ten (10) categories: • Air • Water • Nourishment • Light • Movement • Thermal comfort • Sound • Materials • Mind • Community

Categories with prevailing design aspects related to health/well-being

One category 1/9 (11%) -Health and Wellbeing

One category 1/6 (17%) -Indoor Environmental Quality

Five categories 5/10 (50%) -Air -Light -Thermal comfort - Sound - Mind

Categories with partly present design aspects related to health/well-being

Two categories 2/9 (22%) -Materials -Land Use and Ecology

Two categories 2/6 (33%) -Sustainable Sites -Materials and Resources

Two categories 2/10 (20%) - Movement - Materials

Overall

3/9 (33%)

3/6 (50%)

7/10 (70%)

364

K. Kujundži´c and S. Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c

USA. The version introduced in 2019 (v.4) incorporates one category entirely dealing with the health and well-being design aspects (regarding indoor environmental quality), and the two more partly dealing with those topics (Table 1) [14]. Overall, half of the sustainability categories are related to health and well-being design aspects. The WELL-BUILDING standard- WELL, introduced by the International Wellbuilding Institute in 2016 in the USA, represents the first sustainability rating system established only in reference to the health and well-being of building users. Today spread in more than 50 countries, it reflects human centered approach to sustainability. The volume 2 adopted in 2020 encompasses in total 70% of the sustainability categories dealing with health/well-being and comfort design aspects, which demonstrates the highest relevance of the subject within the most recent rating system [15]. Despite the evident increase in user-oriented and health and well-being related factors within the recent versions of the three abovementioned sustainable rating systems,

Fig. 2. Weight of “user experience” in sustainability rating systems: BREEAM In use, LEED v4 i WELL [16]

Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing

365

buildings’ energy performance assessment prevails in comparison to the ‘’users’ experience” factors (users’ needs and users’ environmental perception)- Fig. 2 [16], proving the tendency to sustain the dominance of quantifying, ‘green’, energy-related aspects in reference to health and well-being (thermal, visual, acoustic, and air-quality). In terms of the biophilic design, all of the analyzed rating systems have addressed fostering humans’ relations with the natural world (Table 2). However, only the WELL encompasses the psychological/symbolic biophilic representational parameters (artworks) in relation to building users’ health and well-being. In addition, WELL covers the most, diverse sensory stimuli biophilic design factors (visual, acoustic, tactile) encouraging interaction with nature. Furthermore, the biophilic aspects have been constantly improved from the first version of WELL (2016). More specifically, the first edition included biophilia/quantitative parameters, which were amended/extended with biophilia/qualitative parameters in 2019, and finally, more specified in the version of 2020. Table 2. Sustainability rating systems: BREEAM, LEED and WELL, in reference to the biophilic design aspects Sustainability Rating Standard

Biophilic Design Category/Subcategory

Criteria/ Parameters of Biophilic design

BREEAM (UK) 2018

• Health and Well-being - Visual comfort -Safe and healthy surroundings

- views (nature) - natural daylight - green/recreation area, supporting interaction of people and the natural environment

LEED (USA) 2019

• Sustainable Sites - Open space - Light pollution Reduction

-open space stimulating activity and interaction -outdoor open space area meeting the following requirements: ≥ to 30% of the total site area; ≥ 25% either vegetated area or the area covered by vegetated canopy -gardens (diverse vegetation providing year-round visual stimuli) - green roofs - nighttime activities (night sky access, improved visibility) (continued)

366

K. Kujundži´c and S. Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c Table 2. (continued)

Sustainability Rating Standard

Biophilic Design Category/Subcategory

Criteria/ Parameters of Biophilic design

WELL (USA) 2020

• Mind - Nature and Place - Enhanced Access to Nature

Implementing natural elements indoors: -plants (potted, plant walls) -water (fountain) -views (nature, artwork) -natural materials -natural patterns and shapes -natural colors -natural images -natural sounds Implementing other locally specific cultural, aesthetic elements (e.g., artwork, crafts)

3 Conclusion The regenerative sustainability approach represents recent, comprehensive design paradigm oriented toward fostering co-evolving and symbiotic relations between humans and nature, i.e., natural and built environment, aimed at enhancing building users’ health and well-being. Therefore, the biophilic design aspects have the highest relevance within the regenerative sustainable design methodology, in reference to building occupants’ physical and mental well-being. The analysis of the three internationally spread and popular sustainability certification/assessment systems (BREEAM, LEED, and WELL) in terms of the building users’ health and well-being, and the biophilic design aspects, have confirmed the advancement in the user-oriented design methodology. In this regard, the most developed system is WELL, dedicated to enhancing health and well-being factors, encompassing quantitative and qualitative, physiological and psychological/symbolic biophilic design criteria/indicators. However, energy-performance and green aspects of buildings remain dominant in comparison to user perception, implying the necessity of developing sustainability rating systems further toward more biophilic, user and human-centered, integrative approach, contributing to achieving regenerative sustainability goals.

References 1. Mang, P., Reed, B.: Regenerative Development and Design. In: Loftness, V., (ed.) Sustainable Built Environments, Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Series, pp. 115– 141. Springer, NY (2020) 2. Hofkirchen, W., Schafranek, M.: General system theory. In: Philosophy of Complex Systems (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science, vol. 10, pp. 177–194 ( 2011) 3. Koolhaas, R. (ed.): Elements of Architecture - Façade, Venice Architecture Biennale, Marsilio, Venice, Italy (2014)

Evolution of the Concept of Health and Wellbeing

367

4. Pusic, Lj: Grad, drustvo, prostor, sociologija grada, Zavod za udzbenike: Beograd (2015) 5. https://regenesisgroup.com 6. Brown, M., et al. (eds.) Sustainability, Restorative to Regenerative - An exploration in progressing a paradigm shift in builtenvironment, thinking, from sustainability to restorative sustainability and on to regenerative sustainability. RESTORE Working Group One: Vienna, Austria, p. 107 (2018) 7. Apró, D., Weinstein, Z., Várnagy, S.: Living buildings. In: Brown, M., (eds.) Sustainability, Restorative to Regenerative - An exploration in progressing a paradigm shift in builtenvironment, thinking, from sustainability to restorative sustainability and on to regenerative sustainability. RESTORE Working Group One: Vienna, Austria, pp. 47–66 (2018) 8. Kujundzi´c, K.: Principles of Sustainable Architecture as a Means of Valorization of Health Tourism Facilities. Case stady: Igalo, Montenegro.Doctoral Dissertation, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia (2019) 9. Kellert, S.R.: Dimensions, elements, and attributes of biophilic design. In: Kellert, S.R., Heerwagen, J., Mador, M., (eds.) Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life. Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA (2013) 10. Zhong, W., Schroder, T., Bekkering, J.: Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, well-being, and sustainability: a critical review. Front. Archit. Res. 11, 114–141 (2022) 11. Suzer, O.: A comparative review of environmental concern prioritization: LEED vs other major certification systems; Journal of Environmental Manage. 154, 266–283 (2015). ISSN 0301-4797 12. Kujundzic, K., StamatovicVuckovic, S., Radivojevi´c, A.: Toward regenerative sustainability: a passive design comfort assessment method of indoor environment. Sustainability 15, 840 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010840 13. BREEAM UK New Construction (Non-domestic Buildings, United Kingdom), Technical Manuel, Version SD5078: BREEAM New Construction, 2018 3.0. https://files.bregroup.com/ breeam/technicalmanuals/NC2018/ 14. LEED v4 for Building Design and Construction, 25 July 2019. https://www.usgbc.org/resour ces/leed-v4-building-design-and-construction-current-version 15. The WELL Building Standard™ version 2 (WELL v2™) Dynamic. Resilient. Validated. The Next Version of the WELL Building Standard. International WELL Building Institute, 2020. https://v2.wellcertified.com/en/wellv2/overview 16. Nicolini, E.: Built environment and wellbeing - standards, multi-criteria evaluation methods,. certifications. Sustainability 14, 4754 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084754

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo Yousef Zaarir(B) Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University, Ul.Francuskerevolucijebb. , 71 210 Ilidža, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The aim of the research is to apply the term of adaptive reuse on the historic building White fortress in Sarajevo. The paper focuses on the implementation of the adaptive reuse of the historic Buildings, also the social benefits of the implementation of this term on the white fortress as a way of rehabilitation of the building. Qualitative Research Methodology is used in this research and aimed to review and analyzed similar examples of similar historic buildings across the world, that have been rehabilitated in the same way, in order to apply the same principle on this selected case study building. The research results are that the adaptive reuse of the historic sites and buildings could be applied on the White Fortress in Sarajevo, and this implementation of building reuse will have social and economic benefits for the city. The reuse of bijelatabije could be a good way to save the building from damage and destroy also could be used for a new function. Keywords: Social benefits. Adaptive reuse. Rehabilitation. White fortress · Historic Buildings

1 Introduction Historic building means any building or structure that is significant in the history, architecture or culture of a country, its rural or urban communities or the nationAdaptive reuse, also referred to as building reuse, is the process of reusing an old structure for a new purpose. By converting them into neighborhood amenities, such as affordable housing, student housing, community centers, or mixed-use spaces, adaptive reuse gives old buildings new life. Commercial real estate developers handle the majority of adaptive reuse projects. They have the resources and expertise to successfully reuseold buildings[1]. Adaptive reuse could be performed on any building, but it is most commonly used for historic buildings. Through adaptive reuse, older historic buildings can be restored – recovering back their magnificence and unique characteristics through planning and strategic design. More and more historically significant buildings are becoming in need of renovation.[2]. The BijelaTabija is one of the most impressive and valuable structures in the region’s architectural heritage. It is located on Sarajevo’s southeast side and conceals the city’s history from the Middle Ages to the present beneath its stone facade. The dominant © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 368–379, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_40

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

369

position of BijelaTabija in relation to the city’s historical center’s natural amphitheater and view the stretches along the Miljacka River all the way to the West of Sarajevo’s contemporary residential areas combine to form a peculiar, almost natural choreography of nature and human creativity [3]. The research aims to implement the term of adaptive reuse of historic buildings on the white fortress historic building in Sarajevo. By applying and discussing the principles and the benefits of the adaptive reuse of historic buildings. By checking and summarizing the social benefits of reuse of the historic Bijelatabija a modern way.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Stone Historical Buildings A building stone is a sound rock that can be used safely in a construction situation as a massive dressed or undressed unit. Granites and marbles used in monumental and unaffordable buildings as finely dressed blocks, slabs, or columns are good building stones. Sandstones and limestone, for example, are common building stones used in forts, retaining walls, and boundary walls, and as well as blocks in stone houses and bungalows. Slates, which are used in many areas as roofing material for ordinary constructions and in pavements, are also classified as building stones [4]. 2.2 Adaptive Reuse of Stone Historical Buildings Adaptive reuse tailors creative thinking to focus on what available presently and how it can be thoughtfully incorporated into future goals and ideas. Although adaptive reuse could be applied to any building, it is most frequently used when fixing up historic structures. More and more historically significant buildings are becoming obsolete and in need of renovation [5]. First must recognize the value of historical buildings and architecture in order to comprehend the significance of adaptive reuse. Adaptive reuse is the aware decision to preserve the past whilstplanning for the future. For instance, numerous adaptive reuse projects connect various worlds by transforming churches into restaurants, hospitals into schools. Actually, adaptive reuse is a great example of how individuals can that there are creative options for recycling, reusing, and repurposing resources that already exist [2]. Projectof adaptive reuse starts by applying an inspection of the building, to assure the infrastructure exists to keep it in function in the future. After that looking for wonderful features and characteristics that make the building unique. This features could be highlighted in new ways, giving them significance and purpose once more. Ability to preserve stories and memories is the main motivator for adaptive reuse. In a planet where mass production and copying is the gauge, adaptive reuse goes against the grain, literally building upon existing stories [5]. 2.3 Successful Adaptive Reuse While there are many advantages to reusing old structures, there are limitations as well. Opening up old buildings will probably present some special difficulties. The result will

370

Y. Zaarir

be a more significant space with historic charm if approaching the project for the right reasons and with the right mindset [6]. Taking advantage of the opportunities the building provides you with is one of the keys to a successful adaptive reuse. Your ability to think outside the box and design creatively will be naturally encouraged by the building. Highlight the building’s historic features while making sure not to remove the details that provided it its unique character. Be genuine and honest when describing the needs. Adaptive reuse requires reimagining what the space could be. Frequently, this entails discarding outdated notions of what you deem necessary. It also entails thoughtfully incorporating contemporary conveniences and building systems that respect the historical architecture. However, the ultimate goal is to create a space that functions well. Involving the right stakeholders. One of the most important parts of adaptive reuse success has nothing to do with the building. The project can only work if the right people are at the table[7]: • Be sure to speak with the neighborhood’s residents. What they hope for the building and what it means to them. • Request advice from the previous owner of the building. • Involve the Historic Preservation Office as soon as possible, if necessary. • Make sure important faculty and student groups are involved in the decision-making process. 2.4 Criteria for Evaluating the Adaptive Reuse Successes in Historical Buildings Land Availability, Adaptive reuse is a fantastic option, renovating an old building allows you to save space rather than causing urban sprawl or moving to a less desirable area. Environmental Conservation adaptive reuse are choices that help us break our habit of constantly consuming while also taking care of the buildings that have already been constructed. Historic Consideration, besides preserving a part of history, but it also allows projects adaptive reuse allows us to take advantage of trademarks of historic buildings. Sometimes, Adaptive reuse can be the only option, mostly while dealing with protected buildings by organizations. Reimagining Functional, while adaptive reuse strives to preserve many of the architectural features of buildings, there is a lot of reinvention that can take place throughout the project. Buildings constructed for a specific prior use do not need to continue that use to be successful. Future accommodation. Just because older buildings do not still meet the standards of today’s businesses and owners. Adaptive reuse allows change, while still being mindful of what already exists. Intelligent Reconciliation. Adaptive reuse projects can bring the best of technologies and inventions to beautiful, historic buildings in main locations [7]. The importance of the adaptive reuse for the community [8]: • Preserves cultural heritage, adaptive reuse restores cultural sites. • Slows urban spread. When searching for new construction sites, they must often choose land awy outside the city center since old buildings or more real estate that is expensive usually claims the land within a city. This unrestricted expansion of urban areas.

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

371

• Establishes a new community beacon. Adaptive reuse could be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. Adaptive reuse could be an excellent option for many building projects [9]: • Reduced construction costs. Adaptive reuse has financial advantages besides saving the cost when compared to traditional projectconstruction. • Accelerates construction. Construction a new building typically takes more time than rehabbing an existing structure. • Well-liked in the community. Civilslike the historical preservation of unique buildings in their neighborhood as well as the creation of new unique landmarks through creative adaptive reuse projects. The general steps of the implementation of the Adaptive Reuse [10]: Building assessment Hiring a professional to investigating old structure to ensure it is suitable for adaptive reuse. It may be tempting to completely avoid a formal analysis in order to save money, but proceeding with an adaptive reuse project without adequately assessing the building can result in excessive hidden costs and dangerous workplaces if the building is not staible. Along with the assessment, local zoning laws should be researched to see if the idea is viable. Survey the neighborhood Survey the surrounding area while deciding whether the building is a good fit for the project. Before accepting the project, consider transportation options, pedestrian patterns, and surrounding homes and businesses. • Define a budget. While adaptive reuse is less expensive than new construction, it can be costly. It is necessary to have a contractor estimate the cost of the project. Find the right team In a restoration project, a restoration contractor and a design profession are required. If the project involves a historic building, it may be necessary to consult a historic conservation professional or even the local preservation office to determine whether any changes will harm the structure’s historical integrity. Develop plans It is time to make official plans with the team. Determine which elements, from the roof to the doors to the windows to the walls, will be reused or replaced during the planning process. Every element that can be reused is reused in the best adaptive reuse projects to respect the building’s historic features and materials (as well as any unique features). Consult the building’s repair history during the design process to determine which zones have recently been fixed or consistently degrade.

372

Y. Zaarir

Start the construction process Once the plans have been finalized, construction can begin. Working with an old building requires extra care to avoid damaging viable materials.

3 Methodology The aim of this research is to apply the term of adaptive reuse of historical buildings made of stone- case study selected the white fortress historic building in Sarajevo. The following Research Questions were set by author in order to reach the aim of the paper. What are the social benefits of the white fortress adaptive reuse could the city receive? What are the main process of the adaptive reuse as a way of rehabilitation of the building? What are the possible ways of implementing the adaptive reuse on the white fortress? Research Hypotheses of the research are the following. Many social benefits may occurs by implemented the adaptive reuse technics to the white fortress in Sarajevo. Adaptive reuse is an acceptable rehabilitation way of the white fortress. A qualitative comparative case study based research method used in this paper, by analyzing and discussing previous successful adaptive reuse examples of historic buildings around the world up to the evaluation criteria dedicated by the author. The same criteria will be applied on the case study BijelaTabija in Sarajevo. Evaluation criteria of the research, which will be the measurement of the comparative aspects between case study examples and the case study of this paper White Fortress in Sarajevo. The historical value of the building, the location in the city, the value of the building after the process of reuse. The new materials used in preservation, Types of construction elements added to the building. Case studies Adaptive reuse examples of historic stone buildings around the world PombalCastle The castle of Pombal, Portugal (Fig. 1), claims to the power of time as the primary contributor to the transformation of the built environment. The top of a hill overlooking the Arunca River valley has been occupied since the Roman Empire. Since then performed multiple roles and configured very many spatial and social practices. From a small provincial community, it evolved into a vital defensive structure in a territorial network of military apparatus, and eventually became a tourist destination and a regional identifier. Following the redesign of Pombal castle’s hill, comocoarquitectos was commissioned to design a visitor center for the castle’s ward, including landscaping and the revitalization of the amenities already installed in the Torre de Menagem [11]. ComocoArquitectos added, we thought of the new volume as an object that should embody some ambiguity: we wanted to establish a creative dialogue with the situation ‘as found,’ in an attempt to activate dormant spatial experiences through the new construction [12].

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

373

Fig. 1. Pombal castle [11].

The commission’s primary challenge was to define the strategy of the design that could follow to the richness of the castle’s multi-layered history without being either ostensive or subdued. Finding its voice among the many built artifacts that occupy that space. The brief called for the creation of a guest reception area, a storage area, and a room to show a virtual history of the castle. The architects chose to expand this programme to include the new observation deck. “We thought of the new volume as an object that should embody some ambiguity,” said the team, which previously has designed a visitor center for another Portuguese castle. “On the one hand it should seamlessly mingle with the existing features in the castle’s ward, and on the other hand it should become a conspicuous new addition to the existing built structures. In other words, we sought for a creative dialogue with the situation as found,” they added [13]. The staircase gradually ascends the southeast elevation of the building, providing access to the entire rooftop. A thin metal railing that is barely visible surrounds the space. The entrance is housed in a triangular recess in the facade. Inside, the projection room is on the right, and the storage area is beneath the stairs. An existing Corten-steel viewing deck and exhibition gallery were also updated as part of the project. The architects redesigned the interior, changed the railings, and installed new furniture. The final intervention was to repair the limestone-cobbled pathways in the surrounding landscaping [13]. Baena Castle Restoring the XII century castle, in Baena, Córdoba, (Fig. 2) has become a major feature, as it is one of the most important architectural restoration projects. The architect in charge of the project, Granada native José Manuel López Osorio, "seeks an integrated vision of heritage that considers both the consolidation and enhancement of its historic structures, such as the ability to integrate the urban areas where it is located into global revitalization processes." For this, the project addressed the recovery of existing structures early on and incorporated new elements that allow for their use in a later stage. At this point, Lopez Osorio has completely relied on his work, experience and expertise of Grupo GUBIA, an architecture office leader in the design and construction of all types of spaces and structures in wood, to technically solve an “experimental” system of iroko wood walkways, which connect the different towers of the ruins [14].

374

Y. Zaarir

Fig. 2. Baena castle [14].

Contemporary architecture and Restoration both are part of the intervention carried outat the Castle of Baena between 2006 and 2015taking into account both the conservation work on the historical structures and their ability to be integrated into new architectural and urban developments that are capable to revitalize the environment [15]. Restoration process of the historic masonry was based on a deep archaeological and stratigraphic analysis that revealed the various construction phases of the buildings: in the mid-14th century, a structure of Islamic origin was converted into a Christian fortress, and in the 16th century, and into a palace whose court was occupied by five reservoirs in the second half of the twentieth century [16]. The architectural involvement is part of the recognition of the ruin and its historical design, and partially restores the skyline of the towers, of which graphic and written records of their original form have been preserved. The castle’s new walls consist of reinforced masonry made of sandstone and stainless steel ribs, which are statically connected to reinforced concrete cores in the towers. The restoration of the volume and the creation of new interior spaces open up new possibilities for the use of the old castle for cultural and monument preservation objective [16]. Case study – BijelaTabija or White Fortress in Sarajevo. BijelaTabija (Fig. 3) is definitely one of the most notable and valuable buildings in the architectural heritage of the region, Located on the south-eastern side of Sarajevo and hiding under its stone mantle the history of the city from the middle ages to the present day [17]. The dominant position of BijelaTabija in relation to the natural amphitheater of the historic heart of Sarajevo, as well as the view that stretches along the Miljacka River to modern residential areas in western Sarajevo, form a peculiar, almost completely natural choreography of nature and human creativity [18].

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

375

Fig. 3. White Fortress[19].

Historical value of white fortress. The town of Vratnik with its walls, fortresses (tabijas), gates (kapijas) and towers (kapi - kulas) gives a distinctive shape and personal stamp to the heart of old Sarajevo. It is protected by law by Decree No. 381/71 issued on June 17, 1971 by the Institute for Monument Protection of the City of Sarajevo. It was included in the Register of Protected Monuments on the basis of Decree No. 4006/71 of the First City Court of Sarajevo of September 9, 1971 [17]. The construction of the town of Vratnik started in 1729 and was finished in 1739. The need for construction was recognized much earlier, particularly after Prince Eugene of Savoy’s attack on Sarajevo in 1697, when specific weaknesses in the city’s defense system were discovered. Ahmed-Pasha RustempasicSkopljak, the then-Bosnian governor, began its construction by expanding the existing Sarajevo Fortress and building the wall. The wall should capture 450 houses and enough empty space to build as many new unites. Rustem-Pasha, his son, supervises the work. However, Ahmed-Pasha was transferred from Bosnia the following year, and construction was stalled. Hecim-ogluAlipasa only resumed his studies in 1739. The building of the Vratnik City. Initially, there was one dungeon there, and as the city expanded, another one was built. The town of Vratnik was still in the same shape when the year 1878 came. The Austrian authorities built a modern barracks within the city walls, popularly known as the Jajce barracks [17]. BijelaTabija is a protruding part of the old Vratnik City’s wall that dominates the Eastern, the city’s natural entrance. It is made of stone. There used to be a gun crew and ammunition storage inside. There are canon openings in its thick walls. Various theories have been advanced regarding the time of construction of BijelaTabija. According to one of them, it was built around 1550 (based on information provided by traveler Katarino Zeno) and was destroyed during the construction of Vratnik City when a new fort was built in its place. According to another opinion, even in the Middle Ages, there was a fortress in the location of BijelaTabija that was no larger than the typical medieval defense fortresses protecting an open settlement. This shape origins it to the late 14th or early 15th century, which is when the medieval settlement on the site of today’s Sarajevo is first mentioned in written documents [17].

376

Y. Zaarir

Buildings Components The complex BijelaTabija (Fig. 4) must be equipped with the following components according to the intended and planned functional units (Fig. 5): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Outdoor summer stage with auditorium and side rooms Outdoor exhibition area with covered side rooms Covered exhibition and advertising area Catering facilities Coveredand open-air commercial and tourism spaces

Fig. 4. Actual status of the complex of BijelaTabija [17]

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

377

Fig. 5. Reconstruction of the state of complex in 1882 [17]

4 Results and Discussion By orienting the project of structural repair and preservation of BijelaTabija to the active use of this area in terms of shaping not only a permanent point of the city’s cultural scene, but also the entire tourist offer, a large number of development opportunities of multifunctional use range from open stages for a variety of forms of expression to closed exhibition halls and hotel and tourism businesses are being developed. The placement of the BijelaTabija object in the process of active use, including the current state of the Vratnik rampart, could be a good rules for continuing the integration of the entire space of the Vratnik rampart in order to bring it to its final objective. By analyzing the giving examples in the case study, we could conclude that case study examples are historic building with a historic value in countries where they located, as a similarity with the white fortress in Sarajevo, they all historic buildings with historic values in cities. The case study buildings also in a similar structural situation before the process of preservation. Buildings are in a damage situation with a need for a structural stabilization. The location of the chosen examples somehow near to the location of bijelatabija in the city, they all located in a top location. The adaptive reuse for every building gave the historic buildings some of a new function and put the building in use again. Designers of the reuse process of the historic building choose the material used in the preservation

378

Y. Zaarir

process of the given examples. The materials could be near to the used material in the historic building or even could be of different type; it depends on the idea and the concept of the reused design of the architecture designer. It is noticed that designer added some new construction elements in the historic building to enhance the new function of the building, by using the same types of stone or even a deferent types of building materials. The adaptive reuse project of BijelaTabija is primarily aimed at bringing the object into an active function, and only after performing stabilization works (repairs of structure) and revivation on individual objects of the Vratnik Wall, dealing of the entire area as a center of tourist activities in the field of protection and exploitation of the culturalhistorical heritage essentially includes a number of parallel activities.

5 Conclusion Adaptive reuse of the historic stone buildings is a way of rehabilitation of historic buildings. By reusing the old structure of the historic building, and may giving it a new function, or adding a new types of building materials to make the building more stable, also adding an new construction and building elements to the historic building to ensure the new function added to the project. Adaptive reuse could be an excellent way to save of using the old historic buildings and at the same time preserving and saving the historic building. By analyzing the given examples of adaptive reuse around the world, we could realize that it have a huge similarities with the White Fortress in Sarajevo, and the building could have rehabilitation in a similar way as given examples, this reuse of bijelatabije could be a good way to save the building from damage and destroy, also could give the building a new function which somehow will have a possible and positive social effects for the city and neighborhood.It could enhance tourist and visitors to visit the historic building, although it could be used for some social activity for the citizens of the city and neighborhood.

References 1. M. staff, “masterclass” 08 November 2020. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/adaptivereuse-architecture-guide#what-is-adaptive-reuse-architecture 2. Hempstead, S.: schmidt associate, 27 May 2021. https://schmidt-arch.com/the-value-of-ada ptive-reuse/ 3. h. a. n. h. S. Cantonal Institution for the protection of cultural. https://www.vijecnica.ba/en/ article/219/white-fortress 4. Malek, R.: Geography notes. https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/building-stones/ building-stones-meaning-and-properties-geology/5924 5. MücahitYıldırım, G.: Sustainable development in historic areas: adaptive re-use challenges in traditional houses in Sanliurfa, Turkey. Sci. Direct. 36(4), 493–503 (2012) 6. C. L. J. S. s. f. h. b. Sheila Conejos, "Improving the implementation of adaptive reuse," in Bond University, Gold Coast, 2011 7. Associates, S.: Schmidt Associates, 25 September 2019. https://schmidt-arch.com/4-tips-foradaptive-reuse-in-higher-education/

The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Builings - Case Study the White Fortress in Sarajevo

379

8. T. R. A. I. o. Architects. Preserving our past, building our future. The Royal Australian Institute of Architects, Australia (2004) 9. Marinakos, P.: Link in. Adaptive Building Reuse, 4 April 2022. https://www.linkedin.com/ pulse/adaptive-building-reuse-plato-marinakos/ 10. t. M. staff. Master class. 08 November 2020. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/adaptivereuse-architecture-guide#how-does-adaptive-reuse-work 11. Pereira, M.: Archdaily, 19 October 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/563933/pombal-castles-visitor-centre-comoco-arquitectos?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all 12. Spirou, K.: yatzer. 04 May 2016. https://www.yatzer.com/pombal-castle-visitor-centrecomoco 13. Frearson, A.: dezeen, 27 November 2014. https://www.dezeen.com/2014/11/27/comoco-arc hitects-pombal-castle-visitor-centre-portugal/ 14. Santibañez, D.: Archdaily, 31 October 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/779486/baenacastle-restoration-jose-manuel-lopez-osorio?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result _all. Accessed 24 07 2022 15. Archipendium. Archipendium (2022). https://archipendium.com/en/architecture/the-castleof-baena/ 16. Architizer. Architizer (2022). https://architizer.com/projects/restauration-of-the-castle-ofbaena-cordoba-spain/ 17. V. C.-C. V. A. -. Museta. The Program of Structural Repairs, Conservation, Restoration And Revitalization Of Bijela Tabija. The Institute for the Protection of Cultural-Historical and Natural Heritage of Canton Sarajevo, Sarajevo 18. h. a. n. h. s. cantonal institution for the protection of cultural. https://www.spomenici-sa.ba/ 2006/12/22/bijela-tabija/ 19. Sarajevo.ba. Grad Sarajevo. sarajevo.ba, 14 July 2020. https://www.sarajevo.ba/bs/article/ 9665/bijela-tabija-jedna-od-najznacajnijih-turistickih-atrakcija-sarajeva

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Possible Alternatives Up to Sustainable Construction Principles Yousef Zaarir(B) Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International Burch University, Ul.Francuskerevolucijebb., 71 210 Ilidža, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. With the advancement of construction technologies, the use of new types of construction materials, as well as the need for investors to make new housing facilities as economical and energy efficient as possible the development in the design importance and the way of understanding the space, today it is possible to recognize a significant difference between the sustainable and the local way of construction. This paper focus on the sustainable principle of the building construction materials, in this paper will investigate on the structural system of family houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina checking and comparing it with the principle of the sustainable building construction. The results gained by analyzing seven family houses were built in last 10 years in Bosnia and comparing it with the scientific sustainable principles of the building construction. It has been conducted that the structural construction materials of the family houses in Bosniamostly match the sustainable construction principles. Keywords: Sustainability · Building · materials · sustainable principles · Sustainable structure

1 Introduction The 1992 Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development recognized the importance of sustainable development. Sustainable development is an idea of guarantee a better quality of life for everyone. It means achieving social, economic and environmental objectives at the same time. Sustainable is an ability to use efficiently natural resources side by side creating better buildings that improve human health, create a better environment and saving the cost. A short definition of sustainable development is an improvement in the economic, social, and technological aspects of living conditions over the long term in order to protect the environment [1]. The construction sector has an enormous impact on our quality of life. Structures and buildings alter the nature, appearance, and function of our cities and rural areas. Sustainable construction is also referred to as a subset of sustainable development because © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 380–390, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_41

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses

381

it encompasses design, tendering, site planning and organization, material selection, recycling, and waste minimization [2]. Sustainable means we are taking less from the environment, consuming less material, taking less energy. Where regenerative is actually producing its own. Buildings are ones that actually give back to the environment [3]. According to a United Nations Environment Programme report, sustainability is something that often shows up when discussing the construction future. Nearly 40% of yearly global CO2 emissions are generated by buildings., building operations are responsible for 28%, besides building materials are responsible for an additional 11%. Sourcing and manufacturing building materials contribute significantly to climate change [4]. Figure 1 shows the annual global CO2 emissions.

Fig. 1. Annual Global CO2 Emissions [4]

This research gives an overview on application of sustainable construction principles, as it is one of the applications of sustainable development practices. This research will base on comprehensive literature review, followed by qualitative method by analyzing and comparing the results. This study has an objective to raise the awareness and understanding of the characteristics of the construction materials used in family houses in B&H.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Sustainable Development Sustainable development encompasses the three broad topics of social, environmental, and economic responsibility. According to Malik ET [5] Sustainable is a possibility to use natural resources more efficiently while providing healthy buildings that enhance human health, produce a better environment, and save money. A green building is one that is designed, built, operated, renovated, or reused in an environmentally friendly and productive manner. Green buildings are intended to achieve specific goals, such as occupant health protection. Developing worker productivity, utilizing energy, water, and other resources more effectively, and lowering overall environmental influence [6].

382

Y. Zaarir

2.2 Sustainable Construction Sustainability is a fundamental concept that underpins a wide range of efforts to ensure a high standard of living for upcoming generations. The Bruntland Report defines sustainable development as meeting current needs without risking future generations’ capacity to fulfill their own. This definition points out that thesocial and environment matters are as essential as economic issues, and ensure that human, economic and natural systems are connected. It also encompasses intergenerational equality, which is the concept that the current generation borrows the planet’s resources, environmental function, and efficiency from following generations [7]. The implementation of sustainable development in the construction sector is commonly referred to as sustainable construction. The Conseil International du Batiment (CIB) defined sustainable construction in 1994 as "creating and operating a healthy built environment based on resource efficient and ecological principles". The definition is expanded by Hill and Bowen to include the four pillars of social, economic, biophysical, and technical. Du Plessis defined it as “a holistic process aiming to restore and maintain harmony between the natural and built environments, and create settlements that affirm human dignity and encourage economic equity” [8]. Environmental, technical, social, political, and economic factors, as well as their interactions and inescapable balances, must all be taken into account in order to find the best solutions to today’s complex infrastructure and construction problems. In this context, sustainability expresses solutions that take into account the entire system, with a full range of outcomes as expressed by a variety of comments and conclusions [9]. A sustainable construction industry does not simply mean continuing to do business and expand. it must also follow the rules of sustainable development, which may require it to stop growing or grow in various ways in some situations [9]. 2.3 Sustainable Construction Principals The CIB suggested seven principles of sustainable construction that guide decisionmakers at several stages of the design and construction process and last for the duration of a building’s life cycle. These principles are: lowering resource consumption; recycling and reusing resources; protecting the environment; getting rid of toxic materials; using life-cycle costing; and emphasizing quality [8]. Sustainable construction, according to Charles J. Kibert, Maydefined as a management of a healthy built environment based on resource efficacy and ecological principles. Generally, sustainable construction refers to the incorporation of sustainable development into the construction sector. Furthermore, sustainable construction described as a part of sustainable development, which consists of design, tendering, site planning, organization, material selection, recycling, and minimization of waste [2]. Six fundamental principles for sustainable construction, presented by Charles J. Kibert [10]. The are the principles: 1) Minimizing of consuming resources 2) The maximum of resource reusing

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses

3) 4) 5) 6)

383

Using of renewable and recyclable resources Save the natural environment Develop a healthy environment Strive for quality when developing the built environment.

As a conclusion, sustainable construction principles could be summed up as the way of creation and responsibilities management in order to strive a healthy building. 2.4 Sustainable Construction Barriers The main obstruction to the adoption of sustainable construction is perceived cost, but there are other potential obstacles as well. It seems that most people do believe that sustainable buildings are more expensive than traditional buildings. It could increase initial costs of two to seven per cent over ordinary building cost, and onlysome projects can recover overall costs in a short period. Decision makers rarelyuse whole life cycle costs to estimate reduced operating expenses [11]. By changing stakeholders’ perceptions from cost to value and from short-term to long-term, these barriers can be overcome In order to implement sustainable construction, Manoliadis and Tsolas highlighted fifteen drivers for change, which include: energy conservation; waste reduction; indoor environmentally quality; environmentally-friendly energy technologies; resource on servation; incentive programmers; performance-based on standards; land use regulations and urban planning polices; education and training; re-engineering the design process; sustainable construction materials; new cost metrics based on economic and ecological value systems; new kinds of partnerships and project stake holders; product innovation and certification and recognition of commercial buildings as productivity assets. These drivers should encourage stakeholders to include sustainable design in their construction project during the briefing stage [12].

3 Research Methodology The aim of this paper is to check the sustainability of the construction building materials used in family houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The authors developed the research questions in order to recognize the model developed in this paper: Does the construction materials of the structural system of family houses in Bosnia matches the sustainable principles of the building construction? Do which level of sustainability do the construction materials reached in B&H? What are the possible alternatives more sustainable materials? The samples selected to check the main research questions are seven family houses built in the last 10 years in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By analyzing and focusing on the construction materials of the structural system. The research samples were chosen based on the time period in which the house was built to insure that it was capable with the construction material from the market.

384

Y. Zaarir

This research was conducted of a research method consists of three phases: – Literature review of a previse studies and explanation of the subject. – Analyzing building materials of the structure system of seven family houses built in Bosnia and Herzegovina last 10 years. – Checking and comparing the analyzed results with the results found by literature review.

4 Results and Discussion Analyzing the construction materials of family houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina, after analyzing measure it with the principles of sustainable construction. The samples, which used in this study are seven family houses located in deferent places in B&H. The following Table 1 is the characteristics of the sample houses. Table 1. Gathered information form analyzed houses. NUM

ADRESS

HOUSE AREA/M2

NUM OF FLOOR

1

SARAJEVO- ILIDZA-OSJEK

120

2

2

SARAJEVO-ILIDZA- OSJEK

135

2

3

SARAJEVO-ILIZA- OTES

320

2

4

SARAJEVO- ILIDZA-OSJEK

250

3

5

BREZA- SUTJESICA

212

2

6

BREZA- SUTJESICA

149

2

7

BREZA- SUTJESICA

151

2

The analyzing process was focused on the materials of the structural components. Which are in the following Table 2. Table 2. Analyzing process of the sample houses. House Num

Foundations

L-B walls

Columns and grids

Slaps

Roof structure

Roof cover

1

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles

2

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles (continued)

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses

385

Table 2. (continued) House Num

Foundations

L-B walls

Columns and grids

Slaps

Roof structure

Roof cover

3

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Metal

4

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles

5

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles

6

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles

7

Reinforced concrete

Clay block

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

Wood

Clay tiles

After analyzing seven family houses built in last 10 years in Bosnia. The results are. The structural system of a house is system of masonry load bearing walls (clay block), with RC trusts or columns in the corners to connect walls together. The foundation and slaps are also constructed from RC concrete. The roof is made from wooden tempers, covered with metal roof or clay roofing tiles. 4.1 Clay Brick It is possible to accomplish a range of aspects of ecologically friendly site planning by using brick masonry. The advantages of brick masonry’s thermal mass are repeatedly shown to be greatest when they are exposed on the inside of the property or implemented as an element of a cavity wall system, according to both practical experience and energy models. Studies on residential wall systems have shown that exposed interior brickwork or brick cavity walls can save up to 23% more energy than similarly insulated woodframed wall assemblies with light cladding [13]. When comparison to lightweight wall systems, brick requires up to 7% less energy to cool and heat than an otherwise identical structure with solid wood [14]. Interior brick walls and paving has the ability to hold heat and restrict temperature fluctuations. A University of Newcastle study [15]. Indicated that When an exposed brick thermal energy storage wall was added to the interior of experimental housing units, the energy required for heating and cooling was reduced by 14 to 34%.Brick is unique in that It can be recovered for several years of use on exterior and interior walls, in addition to paving applications, and will continue to provide benefits for many more decades. Numerous methods of recycling brick are available. Alternatively, they can be utilized as brick chipping in landscaping, baseball fields, and tennis courts. Scrap brick and demolition brick can be smashed and converted into new brick [16]. By sourcing materials locally, you can lessen the environmental effects of transportation of materials while simultaneously boosting your community’s economy. The majority of brick is manufactured using materials obtained just a few kilometres of the

386

Y. Zaarir

production facility. A life-cycle assessment can also be performed for an entire building, taking into account all of the materials used, the impact of the construction process and repairs throughout the life of the building until obliteration at an indicated point in time. This approach is especially essential when designing a sustainable building. Brick masonry is exceptionally long, with a lifespan of many centuries [16]. 4.2 Hollow Brick Hollow brick is produced from earth, water, air and fire [17]. While performing the same function in anchored veneers, hollow brick uses less raw material than solid brick. Hollow bricks are environmentally friendly because they are made from recycled/waste material/natural alternatives such as coal ash, rice husk, granite slurry, fly ash, etc. Because of their thermal insulation, Depending on the season, hollow bricks can decrease the need for HVAC systems. These bricks work like thermal insulators since air is present in their hollow bottom. Hollow bricks keep the interiors cool in summer and warm in winter. When compared to solid bricks, they also offer higher sound insulation. Hollow bricks are useful for installing heavy wall compartments because they have a high compressive strength. Instead of solid bricks, which require scraping, increasing work, damage, and cost, hollow space makes it simpler to pass electrical and plumbing fixtures. Hollow bricks are lighter compared to solid bricks. This reduces the overall structural cost. Using hollow bricks also reduces costs by reducing the number of joints that should be filled. Because these bricks are much lighter in weight than solid bricks, their ease of use promotes faster constriction and project completion. Furthermore, one Hollow brick is equivalent to 9 bricks; these are faster and easier to install, saving construction time and labor costs. Because of their large size, these bricks reduce the amount of mortar used as well as the number of joints that must be filled during the construction process. Hollow Bricks are 60% lighter than the volumetric equivalent of nine bricks. As a result, dead load will be decreased by using holly brick, and t cost structure will be lower. Hollow bricks are an environmentally beneficial building material that are made from recycled waste and resources including coal ash, rice husk, and fly ash. The Indian Green Building Council recognizes it [18]. Clay bricks, blocks and roof tiles are natural produced, it is manufactured of earth, water and fire. Extraction is to suspect; clay extraction for construction products accounts for a small portion of total mineral extraction. The manufacturing process is both resource and energy efficient [18]. They make buildings more comfortable and healthy to live in. They provide designers with creative solutions. They help to keep a building properly insulated. Buildings made of clay are strong and resistant to fire and flooding. They require little to no maintenance and have a duration of more than a century. Clay constructions assist in the preservation of regional historic buildings in Europe. Buildings made of clay preserve a high level of economic worth throughout time and can be passed onto future generations [19]. 4.3 Sustainability of Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete is hardly a sustainable material, but for large buildings, cannot be avoided. Simultaneously, Reinforced concrete, in all of its forms, is a flexible building

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses

387

material that can offer a variety of sustainable advantages, including cost-effective construction, thermal mass, durability, fire resistance, acoustic performance, adaptability, and recyclability. Choosing the right concrete construction method for the type of building will ensure that these benefits are combined to deliver the most sustainable outcome [20] with a perfect balance between the specific building’s economic, environmental, and social impacts. Reinforced concrete durability is specified by the durability of the used components. 4.4 Sustainability of Concrete Concrete on the planet, is the mostcommonly consumed construction material [21], and it is made in concrete plants using a combination of the ingredients aggregates, sand, cement, water, chemical combinations, and mineral mixtures. While some materials can be acquired without using a lot of energy or creating a lot of waste, the clinkering phase of cement manufacturing uses a lot of energy and generates a lot of greenhouse gasses [22]. 4.5 Sustainability of Reinforcement Reinforcing bars, which used in concrete constructions, are made of hot-rolled, tempered, unfinished steel that has undergone minor heat treatment hardening. To establish a stronger mechanical bond between the structural reinforcements and the concrete, they are ribbed. Steel reinforcement is a fully recyclable product that is made entirely from recycled scrap steel. The steel reinforcements that have been removed from the concrete when a reinforced concrete structure reaches the end of its lifespan can be recycled and reused without compromising quality, becoming a raw material for the manufacture of reinforcing steel [22]. Semi fabricated clay Fig. 2 is one of the RC slaps available on the market in bosnia and herzegovina. This type of slaps is appropriate for family houses, the construction materials of the slaps consists of a cley slap block and grids, mixed with a reinforecd concret grids and the uper slap part. This type of slaps reduce time and woking labors hours [17]. Clay is manufacuring locally in Bosnia and Heryegovina so it could reduce the cost and the polution of trasportaion. 4.6 Roof Construction Materials Forests and forest land cover more than 56% of the country, Forests have long been the most important natural resources in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a high economic value. Following the postwar economic recovery, the wood industry is attempting to transition from simple commodity and subsistence production to a modern wood processing industry [23]. 4.7 Timber Timber as a building material has many advantages, including its availability, physical and aesthetic qualities, workability and versatility, environmental sustainability, flexibility of space arrangement, dry construction, industrial production, and comparative cost

388

Y. Zaarir

Fig. 2. Semifabricated cley slaps [17]

effectiveness. Wooden structures require less energy to construct and maintain, reducing our reliance on fossil fuels. Only a few other materials can compete with wood’s unique combination of benefits, including its strength, affordability, and environmental sustainability [24]. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, timber is readily available. It can be buy locally and transported to the site in small vehicles. There are 1,425 companies in the wood industry, with 30,000 employees. Most cultures regard timber as an attractive building material [23]. The renewability and biodegradability of timber are among its most well-known environmental advantages. Low manufacturing process energy and safe air emissions characterize it. Timber is a great insulator in both hot and cold climates. The wooden timber ciling is another option to slap construction [25]. 4.8 Clay One of the most environmentally friendly roofing materials is clay tile. It is incredibly strong, recyclable, and made of a natural substance obtained from clay pits. Producers can add colors and glazing to natural clay to increase the range of colors available. Because it is simple to form and burn to dry and crucify the finished object, clay is a great green option. Two-piece clay tile has been produced for more than 2000 years, with modest changes in the profiles and thickness over the decades [26]. Clay tile manufacturers have been creating several clay tile layouts that enhance air flow beneath the tile. There are two goals for air movement. First, it drains the moisture from beneath the tile, which should prolong the life of the underlayment. Second, it assists in regulating the surface temperature underneath the tile, which lowers cooling expenses [26]. 4.9 Pitched Roof Constructionadvantages When using clay tiles, pitched roof construction performs significantly better than flat roofs.. It has the potential to provide numerous environmental benefits. Pitched roofs are

Sustainability of the Structural Construction Materials of Family Houses

389

more valuable than flat roofs because they provide more living spaceThey are easy to maintain and have a long lifespan. Furthermore, because pitched roofs ensure that little energy is lost through the roof, one can considerably reduce their energy costs if they build a pitched roof with clay tiles. One option to lessen the long-term environmental impact of a structure is to build a home with a pitched roof covered in clay tiles. Its environmental impact is minimized by using natural materials like clay. When it comes to reuse and recycling, materials like clay are readily recyclable. High technical value, good ventilation, acoustic insulation, natural sunlight collection, fire resistance, ability to withstand significant snowfall, and wind resistance are all features of pitched roofs [27].

5 Conclusion Constrcution of the structural system of family houses in Bosnia and Herzegovina, consists of several constrcution materials such as reinforecd concret, clay block, wooden timper and clay roof tiles, most of thes materials are sustainabile and matchingsomehow with the principle of the sustainabile construction. Most of the construction materials of the strutural system of family houses could be manufactured locally,clay, wood and cement, for example could be manufuctured locally in Bosnia. That could reduce the cost and the polution of transporations of the materials, and could have a direct impact on the economical aspect of the contry, by employing more people at home. This has a direct contact with the definion of the sustainabile development. There ae some possible alternative for better sustainabile results of some constrcution materials, alternativs are suiatabile and could be manufactured in B&H.

References 1. F.P.-T.P.A. Norman Clark, Evolutionary Dynamics and Sustainable Development, vermont,us: Edward Elgar Publishing, number 90 (1995) 2. C. a. D. langston, sustainable practice in the built environment, OXFORD: Butterworth Heinemann (2001) 3. Ellis, G.: Digital Builder, Autodest Construction Cloud, 17 March 2021. https://construction blog.autodesk.com/sustainability-crisis-construction/. Accessed 12 Jan 2022 4. Theme, E.W.: Architeture 2030. The Building Sector. https://architecture2030.org/why-thebuilding-sector/ 5. Khalfan, M.M.A.: Sustainable Development and Sustainable Construction. Loughborough University, Department of Civil Engineering (2002) 6. Sey, A.: Sustainabile Development in wall Contruction. Jurnal Teknoligi 33, 25–40 (2000) 7. Kibert, C.J.: sustanabile construction, Green Building Design and Delivery. Published by John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey (2013) 8. Mohd. S.H.A.B.: Application of Sustainable Construction Principles in Construction Industry, Universiti Tekno; OGI Malazsia (2005) 9. Ferng, A.P.J.: An exploration of the synergies between Six Sigma, total quality management, lean construction and sustainable construction. Int. J. Six Sigma Compet. Adv. 1, 167 (2005) 10. Yasuyoshi, M.: Technology development and sustainable construction. J. Manag. Eng. 4(12), 27–32 (1996)

390

Y. Zaarir

11. Castillo, R.A.C.N.: Last update, the value of sustainability. Stanford, 2005 April 21. http:// www.stanford.edu/group/CIFE/online.publications/WP091 12. Manoliadis, O.T.I.A.N.A.: Sustainable Construction and Drivers of Change in Greece. Constr. Manage. Econ. 24, 113–120 (2006) 13. VanGeem, M.G.: Dynamics of masonry. Thermal Mass Works – CMU vs Wood. SMART 2, 4 (2015) 14. D. W. R. D. K. a. C. B. Burch: NIST (1982). http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build82/PDF/b82 001.pdf 15. K.B.M.H.S.a.A. Gregory: A thermal performance study of common Australian residential construction systems in hypothetical modules. In: 4th International Brick and Block Masonry Conference, Sydney, Australia, February 2008 16. B.I. Association: Sustainability and Brick. TECHNICAL NOTES on Brick Construction, November 2015 17. IGM. Ciglasnki Proizvodi. Industrija Gardjevinski Materijal. https://www.igm.ba/cigla/ 18. B. E. f. W. India. GO smart brick. Wienerberger India (2021). https://gosmartbricks.com/hol low-bricks/#:~:text=Hollow%20bricks%20are%20an%20Eco,rice%20husk%2C%20and% 20fly%20ash.&text=These%20bricks%20are%20used%20mostly,as%20per%20their%20c ompressive%20strength 19. T. &. B. E. AISBL. Sustainability. Tiles & Bricks Europe AISBL (2019). http://www.tilesbricks.eu/sustainability 20. Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, Sustainable Concrete Buildings. Briefing, 13 April 2010 21. Tarun, F., Naik, R.: Sustainability of concrete construction. CBU-2007–02. ASCE Practice Peri-odical on Structural Design and Construction 13(2), 98–103 (2008) 22. Attila Puskas, L.M.: Sustainability of reinforced concrete frame structures - a case study. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. Plann. 10(2), 165–176 (2015) 23. Murˇco Obu´cina, M.K.K.D.S.: Use of Sustainable Wood Building Materials in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia and Sweden. University of sarajevo, sarajevo 24. Abimaje, J.A.B.A.N.: An Assessment of Timber as A Sustainable Building Material in Nigeria. Int. J. Civ. Eng. Constr. Estate Manage. 1(2), 39–46 (2014) 25. A.Y.M.D.A. a.P.O.O. Ogunsote: Modern Techniques of Using Timber in Building Structures and Components in. Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure 26. Skoog, E.: Be Building Enclosure. 21 April 2017. https://www.buildingenclosureonline.com/ articles/86720-top-five-sustainable-materials-to-consider-for-your-roof. Accessed 2022 27. T.G. Wienerberger India: Go Smart Bricks. Wienerberger (2018). https://gosmartbricks.com/ pitched-roof-construction/. Accessed 2022 28. Šeˇcunovi´c, A.: FAKTOR. Zašto se smanjuje broj ciglana u BiH: Trendovi diktiraju proizvodnju cigle, 2 September 2016. https://www.faktor.ba/vijest/zato-se-smanjuje-broj-ciglana-ubih-trendovi-diktiraju-proizvodnju-cigle-213424

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure with and Without Vertical Edge Insulation Jovana Jovanovic(B) Faculty of Civil Engineering and Management, University Union Nikola Tesla, Belgrade, Serbia [email protected]

Abstract. In this manuscript, the floor slab construction of modeled multi-story steel building and its static loads were configured and analyzed. Static analysis and modelling of multi-story steel building was made in SAP (SAPV14–2000) software according to the Yugoslavian engineering standards, i.e. JUS standards (PBAB 87). The floor slab construction is composite, consisting of reinforced concrete slab and form of crossed, steel girders beneath it. As a matter of energy consumption in such building, in the first case, the thermal transmittance coefficient (U) of the ground floor (slab-on ground) was computed and referred to a case where no edges of the ground floor were insulated. In the second case, vertical edge insulation was added to the floor construction. The used, simplified, mathematical equations have been previously validated in the Energy Efficiency Handbook, created by ENSI (Energy Saving International AS), Norwegian consulting company for the needs of energy-retrofitted buildings. The mentioned Norwegian Energy Saving International AS company has been known for the services on energy capacity of buildings, energy efficient and eco-friendly refurbishments of outdated buildings. The present computations of thermal transmittance coefficient U of a ground floor in the paper were carried out in compliance with the building ISO standard (13370:2017). Keywords: floor slab construction · multi-story steel building · energy consumption · thermal transmittance coefficient · Ground floor

1 Introduction The construction practice encounters numerous exemplars of composite structures assembly, specifically the floor composite structures. More accurately, the steel composite constructions have accomplished over 60% of overall construction output in Europe. Thus, in the article [1], have been discussed the studs, as junctions among cast-in-situ, prestressed hollow-core floor slabs and newly designed composite (steel and concrete) beams. The studs were tested in accordance with Euro code 2 and showed sufficient loadbearing capacity to be a bonding element of slabs and composite beams. The findings from the article [2], suggest that the taken consistent techniques for security assessment © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 391–405, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_42

392

J. Jovanovic

and monitoring of the construction stage should be a guarantee for no collapsing of steelreinforced concrete constructions. The paper [3] investigates the infirmities in strength and ductility of steel connections and concrete slabs in composite, steel-concrete floor systems and their influence on the tendency towards collapse. The composite, deck floorings result in faster construction and lighter floors. It was described that the shear, bonding elements, like embossments in the metal deck sheets, improve the adhesion and a mechanical interlock between the concrete and steel deck [4] in the composite deck slabs. Furthermore, the shear bond behavior of the composite flooring slab was also investigated by ABAQUS 6.13 software, using finite element method [5]. This manuscript can be brought down to two parts. In the first part of the manuscript, the composite floor slab and its static loads were configured and analyzed. The static schemes of the composite floor slab (inter-floor construction and steel floor girders) were laid out in two phases. The whole multi-story steel building model was dragged over SAP (SAPV14-2000) software. In the second part of the manuscript, the computations of the thermal transmittance coefficient U for a ground composite floor structure (slabon-ground) with and without vertical edge insulation, were carried out. The calculation apparatus of the thermal transmittance coefficient U for these two cases stemmed from Energy Efficiency Handbook which was created by Norwegian ENSI (Energy Saving International AS) company. Ultimately it was proved that calculation patterns on energy efficiency parameters of building elements are not so intangible and inapplicable as they seem. Furthermore, energy efficiency parameters of building elements and its calculation patterns are immensely significant for up-to-date environmentally conscious housing. In total, the damping effects of the vertical edge insulation to the thermal transmittance throughout ground floor cannot be neglected, because as proved in the manuscript, the ground floor with vertical edge insulation had lower thermal transmittance coefficient in comparison to the ground floor without vertical edge insulation. The linear thermal transmittance coefficient, used as a correction term for the linear influence of a thermal bridge, has been considered as a significant parameter.

2 Computational and Structural Analysis of the Composite Floor System In The Multi-storey Steel Building 2.1 The General Description of the Building Model In this manuscript, the discussed and analyzed building model is a steel construction of a multi-story, residential-office building. The building in the basis has a regular shape, with the axle dimensions 72 × 36 m and the total number of stories is 9(G+9). The static height of the ground floor is 5 m, while the static height of the other floors is 3.5 m. The total construction’s height is 36.5 m [6]. The building is located in the 9th seismic zone by the MCS scale. The terrain of the construction is suitable for the construction organization and assembly. The construction system was designed as an articulated structural system with vertical stiffening, whose main function was to accept horizontal forces that result from the effects of seismic

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

393

loads and wind loads. Construction vertical stiffening, therefore, reduces any shift in the lateral direction. The spatial distance between frames in the construction is 9m. Beams of all frames in the construction have as a cross section, adopted steel profile [400. The construction pillars, anchored in foundations, are also arranged on a 9m distance in the horizontal and vertical direction. Composite floor construction consists of a few upper material layers, inter-floor, (reinforced concrete slab), the gridiron of steel girders ([400 steel profiles) beneath it and a plaster. These inter-floor reinforced concrete slabs were designed of reinforced concrete MB 35, according to JUS standards, and cast in the formwork of trapezoidal steel sheet TR 60/175. Frame beams are connected to the pillars by coupling agents. Reinforced concrete foundations have in basis a squared shape of dimensions 2.0 × 2.0 m. Reinforced concrete foundations are connected with the foundation beams of dimensions 0.5 m × 0.5 m, in the x and y direction [6]. 2.1.1 The Composite Floor Structural System In this manuscript, the composite floor construction is carrying in one direction. The inter-floor reinforced concrete slab, as one part of the composite floor construction, is designed of reinforced concrete MB 35, according to JUS standards and cast in the formwork of trapezoidal steel sheet TR 60/175. The trapezoidal steel sheet TR 60/175 is chosen according to the Serbian manufacturer’s catalog, has a thickness of 0.7 mm and a weight of 9 kg/m2 . The total height of the inter-floor, a reinforced concrete slab is 15 cm, while the cover layer of concrete is 9 cm. The inter-floor, the reinforced concrete slab is double reinforced with mesh reinforcement MAG 500/560 Q131 and with ribbed reinforcement RA 400/500 and leans over the gridiron of steel floor girders. In the disposition of composite floor construction, 72 m × 36 m, the steel, floor girders spread over both axes, x, and y, at different spacing. In the axis 1 to 13, are set the steel girders along the x-direction, at the spacing of 3 m. These steel girders are backbones to the trapezoidal steel sheet. In the axis, A to I, are set the steel girders of Y direction, at the spacing of 9 m (Fig. 1.) [6]. As the length of the trapezoidal steel sheet, is taken 9 m, which is suitable for covering of the building disposition 72 m × 36 m. On Fig. 1, the scheme of steel girders of composite floor construction is shown.

394

J. Jovanovic

Fig. 1. The scheme of steel girders of a composite floor construction [6]

60

150.0

90

Within the composite floor construction, the static loads can be assigned in two phases. In the 1. Phase, the trapezoidal steel sheet TR 60/175 is mounted over the beams of steel floor girders along the X-axis, and it serves as the formwork for a poured, fresh concrete. In this phase, the trapezoidal steel sheet and a self-weight of reinforced concrete slab are main, constant loads, for which the control of stress and deflection is carried out. In the 2. Phase, the concrete is hardened, the concrete with the trapezoidal steel sheet works as coupled and takes over the all remained loads (beside self-weight, the weights of all multiple layers and temporary load, defined according to the JUS standards) [6]. Furthermore, on Fig. 2, the cross-section of load-bearing inter-floor construction is shown.

86.0 Fig. 2. The cross-section of the inter-floor construction [6]

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

395

The composite floor construction has other multiple material layers, whose weights are taken into consideration as a remained, constant load in the 2. Phase of coupled, concrete and steel profile [6]. In the subsequent parts of this manuscript, the assumed static systems and load schemes of composite floor construction, according to the JUS standards [PBAB 87], were adopted. 2.2 Static Loadanalysis Ofinter-Floor Reinforced Concrete Slab, Asapart of Composite Floor Structural System The composite floor slab (composite floor structural system) carried in one direction. The overall height of inter-floor reinforced concrete slab was 15 cm, while the covering concrete layer was 9 cm. The composite floor slab was double reinforced with mesh reinforcement(armature) MAG 500/560, type Q131 and ribbed reinforcement (armature) RA 400/500. The floor slab consisted of inter-floor reinforced concrete slab with its multiple material layers and a gridiron of steel floor girders on which it leans. The interfloor concrete slab was designed of reinforced concrete MB 35, cast on the spot in a hollow formwork, for which a trapezoidal steel sheet TR60/175, of thickness 0.7 mm and weight 9 kg/m2 was provided [6]. For the inter-floor concrete slab, the assumed static system was the beam over 3 fields (with 3 spans) and the total load was computed in two phases. The graphical scheme of assumed static system was given below. The spans dimensions were given in mm (Fig. 3). Phase I: 1. The scheme of a static system of the interfloor concrete slab, continuous carrier [spans’ dimensions are in mm]:

A

C

B 3000.0

3000.0

D 3000.0

Fig. 3. The static scheme of the inter-floor concrete slab [6]

2. Static load analysis: 2.1 Constant load: – the own weight of the trapezoidal steel sheet - 0.09 kN/m2 ; – the own weight of the reinforced concrete slab -0.15x25 = 3.75kN/m2 ; The total constant load is q = 3.84kN/m2 ;

396

J. Jovanovic

3. The static influences: – the relevant moment load was one in the field- M = 0.08xgxl2 = 2.765kNm/m – According to the Yugoslovenian standard, must be verified if there is exceeding of the load, – caused by the moment. 4. The control of the stress in the trapezoidal steel sheet: σallowed = 16kN/cm2 ; The stress is calculated like a ratio among the moment load and resistant moment load: M = 2.765x100 = 15.5kN/cm2 ; σ= W 17.81 2 15.5 KN/cm < 16 kN/cm2 ; That means that trapezoidal steel sheet of a designation TR 60/175, made of a speˇ cific steel type C0361, (according to the Yugoslovenian engineering standards) can be implemented as a formwork for a concrete. Phase II: 1. Static load analysis: 1.1 The remaining constant load (of remaining multiple material layers): – – – –

weight of the floor covering - 0.50 kN/m2 weight of the finishing layer - 0.25 kN/m2 weight of the acoustic and thermal insulation – 0.2 kN/m2 weight of the layer for conducting electrical installations -0.2 kN/m2

The weight of the steel construction (steel profiles) is not taken under consideration like a static load. It is encompassed by itself. The total remaining constant load is q = 1.15kN/m2 1.2 The useful static load:

p = 2.5kN/m2 2. The static influences: 2.1 Constant: Field of girder: Mg = 0.080xgxl2 = 0.828kNm Support of girder: Mg = 0.1xgxl2 = 1.035kNm

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

397

Transversal forces: TA = 0.4xgxl = 1.38kN TB = T1B = 0.6xgxl = 2.07kN Tc = 0.5xgxl = 1.725kN Reaction from support: RB = 1.1xgxl = 3.795kN 2.2 Occasional: Field of girder: Mp = 0.08xpxl2 = 1.8kNm Support of girder:Mp = 0.1xpxl2 = 2.25kNm Transversal forces: TA = 0.4xpxl = 3kN TB = 0.6xpxl = 4.5kN TC = 0.5xpxl = 3.75kN Reaction from support:RB = 1.1xpxl = 8.25kN Total: Field: Mtotal f = 1.6 × Mg + 1.8 × Mp = 4.565kNm Support:Mtotal s = 1.6 × Mg−s + 1.8 × Mp−s = 5.71kNm Transversal force:Ttotal = 1.6 × TB + 1.8 × TB = 11.412 kN 3. Dimensioning: MB 35- fB = 2.3 kN/cm2 , τr = 1.2 MPa = 0.12 kN/cm2  Field: Mtotal f = Mtotal f × 0.175 = 0.798 kNm  Support: Mtotal s = Mtotal s × 0.175 = 1 kNm  Transversal (shear) force: Ttotal = Ttotal × 0.175 = 1.997 kN[6]. 3.1 Field: The adopted armature in the field μ ×b × h× fσB = 0.156 cm 2 , adopted 1RF8(0.50 cm2 ) - adopted armature Aa1 = 100 bar in the field. 3.1 Support: Aa1 =

fB μ ×b × h× = 0.162cm2 100 σ

100 Aa1 = 0.162x 17.5 = 0.926cm2 /m, adopted bar of mesh armature (reinforce2 ment) Q131 (1,31 cm /m).

The verification of the shear stress:

398

J. Jovanovic

2.3 3D Building Model in SAP Software The three-dimensional building model was designed in a stiffened, frame system, in a program for a static modelling SAPV14-2000. Inter-floor constructions were composite, coupled concrete-steel constructionscontaining trapezoidal steel sheet [6] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The 3D model of a building

3 A Review of Thermal Transmittance Coefficient (U) of Structuralcomposite Floorsystems The calculation pattern for the thermal transmittance coefficient U is the simplest for the building elements which consist merely of flat, parallel, uniform layers: the heat flow through such an element is directly in a straight line, from inside to outside and the U value is inversely proportional to the sum of thermal resistances for layers. For the building elements with non-uniformities in surfaces, successive layers are not flat and parallel, and the heat no longer transmits in a straight line [7–9].

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

399

As for the heat flow or heat transfer through the floor systems, by building standard 13370, the biggest heat transfer is at the edge of the floor area, and the smallest in the middle of floor area. Generally, the thermal transmittance coefficient U for all floor systems depends on laid out perimeter and area of the floor. Specifically, the U values for composite floor systems, adjacent to the ground (slab-on the ground) and for basements should comprise also the buffering effect, originating from the ground itself [7]. The values of thermal transmittance coefficients U for the basements depend on whether the basements are heated or unheated (non-living) spaces. With the thermographic survey [10] conducted on the walls of different buildings situated in Italy, the results of in-situ thermal transmittance measurements were showcased. The walls of differently aged buildings were monitored; the late 1800s, early 1950s and the one built 15 years ago. The heat transfer by conduction, radiation and convection could be diminished with appropriate construction techniques and with a certain assortment of materials. In one case study for a building in the city of Famagusta, Cyprus the thermal resistance (R) and transmittance (U) of building elements (roof, wall and floor) were analyzed relative to the construction materials that were engaged [11]. The plywood-faced sandwich panel PSW with fiberboard fill was manufactured as a wood-based structural insulation for walls and floors. It was designed as a transition to the environmentally, eco-friendly building materials [12]. Non-uniformities in the indoor thermal comfort, indoor temperature drifts and fluctuations affected by the floorings were discussed in [13]. When it comes to the flooring as a building section, some flooring materials are good in a heat retention while some are good in cooling off.Ubiquitous, worldwide statistics cite that the 15–20% of total building heat loss is through the floor. Other thermal transmittance coefficients, such as linear thermal transmittance coefficient ψ and point thermal transmittance coefficient χ can be obtained in compliance with the building standard BS EN ISO 10211. Below, on Fig. 5, the enclosed diagram depicts the thermal transmittance U values of 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.35 W/m2 K of rectangular, solid ground floors, without insulation of the floor slab (slab-on ground) [7]. 3.1 Computation of a Thermal Transmittance Coefficient (U) of the Ground Floor(Slab-on Ground) The thermal transmittance coefficient’s value U of the ground floor depends on various factors such as: type of the floor construction, parameters of the inter-floor construction, multiple material layers of the floor and their thermal resistances, surrounding soil (gravel, sand, rock or sludge), geometry parameters and existence of heated or unheated basement. Methods for the U-value computation of ground floor are in compliance with ISO standards, ISO 13370:2007 and ISO 13370:2017 [14, 15]. In the aim to define and compute the thermal transmittance coefficient of the ground floor (slab-on ground) (U) of observed building type, characteristic dimension B’ of the inter-floor construction was taken into consideration [16]. The value B’ represents the hydraulic radius, which is by the definition equal to the ratio of the surface of the inter-floor construction (floor surface) A and half of the exposed floor perimeter P.

400

J. Jovanovic

Fig. 5. Thermal transmittance (U) values of rectangular ground floors, without insulation of the floor slab (slab-on ground)

Successively, it brings to the following equation [16]: 

B =

A . 0.5P

(1)

where is: B  - characteristic dimension of the inter-floor construction in m; A-the surface of the inter-floor construction (floor surface) in m2 ; P- the exposed perimeter of the inter-floor construction in m. 

B = 24 m

(2)

The characteristic dimension of the inter-floor construction, B’ of the analyzed building is 24 m. For the determination of the thermal transmittance coefficient’s value U of the ground floor, the total equivalent thickness of floor construction, marked as dt is significant. It is relevant to note that for the computation of thermal transmittance coefficient U of the ground floor (slab-on-ground) has not been taken the actual thickness of the floor construction calculated as 55 cm (0.55 m) plus multiple material layers. It has been taken the initial assumption that the total thickness of the floor construction depends on the total thickness of the external (observed) wall.

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

401

The equation showing the dependence of the total equivalent thickness of floor construction dt and the total thickness of external wall w was used. So is the [16], dt = w + λ × (Rsi + Rf + Rse)

(3)

dt–total equivalent thickness of the floor construction in m; w- the total thickness of the external (observed) wall in m; λ- thermal conductivity coefficient of the soil in W/mK; Rsi-thermal resistance of the inner surface of the floor, by convection of the air in m2 K/W; Rf-thermal resistance of the floor construction, including the thermal resistance of one or all insulation layers above, below or inside the floor construction, which can be neglectedin m2 K/W, Rf ~ 0; Rse-thermal resistance of the external surface of the floor, by convection of the air in m2 K/W. In the Table 1. Were given the thermal resistances of the inner and outer surfaces, depending on various building element types and a heat flow direction [7]. Table 1. Thermal resistances of the inner and outer surfaces of building elements based on a heat flow direction [7] Heat flow direction

Building element type

Rsi (m2 K/W)

Rse (m2 K/W)

Horizontal

Wall, window

0.13

0.04

Upwards

Roof

0.10

0.04

Downwards

Floor

0.17

0.04

The dimensions of the inter-section of the columns are 300 × 300 × 2.5 mm. The considered total thickness of the external wall, in the case of this building, was taken as w = 0.3 m. Table 2. Shows different values of thermal conductivity coefficient λ of the soil, depending on the type of soil where the building was constructed [16]. Table 2. Thermalconductivity coefficient of the soil type [16] Category

Description

λ(W/mK)

Heat capacity by volume (J/m3 K)

1

loam or sludge

1.5

3.0 x 106

2

sand or gravel

2.0

2.0 x 106

3

homogeneous rock

3.5

2.0 x 106

As the soil category, where the building was constructed, was considered the 2nd category of soil, which implies that λ = 2 W/mK.

402

J. Jovanovic

The following values of thermal resistances for floor surfaces are validated as: Rsi = 0.17 m2 K/W Rf = 0 m2 K/W Rse = 0.04 m2 K/W In the case of this building’s floor construction, taking into account the mentioned parameters, it implies that dt = w + λ × (Rsi + Rf + Rse) dt = 0.3 + 2 × (0.17 + 0 + 0.04) dt = 0.72 m the total thickness of the floor construction is dt = 0.72 m. If the dt < B’ (for non-insulated or moderately insulated floor construction), then the equation which is used for thermal transmittance coefficient U is [16]:    2λ πB U= +1 (4) ln  dt πB + dt U = 0.247

W ; UO = 0.247 W/m2 K m2 K

The calculated thermal transmittance coefficient U of the ground floor, according to this equation is U = 0.247 W/m2 K. 3.2 Computation of Thermal Transmittance Coefficient (U) of the Groundfloor with Vertical EDGE’S Insulation In the case of vertical edge’s insulation, laid vertically on the internal side of ground floor(foundation wall) at a certain depth D, next to the ground floor system, the value of the thermal transmittance U of the ground floor is lowered in comparison to the previous case. The vertical edge’s insulation has a thickness of 75 mm with the thermal conductivity coefficient of 0.05 W/mK. Depth D at which was laid the vertical edge insulation on the internal side of ground floor (foundation wall) is 0.5 m. The linear thermal transmittance coefficient g,e, of the vertical edge’s insulation must be calculated [16]. Addition of vertical edge’s insulation: dn = 75 mm = 0.075 m λn = 0.05 W/mK

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

403

D = 0.5 m Rn =

0.075 m dn = = 1.5 m2 K/W λn 0.05 W/mk

(5)

dn- thickness of the vertical edge insulation of the floor (foundation wall); λn- thermal conductivity coefficient of the vertical edge insulation; Rn- thermal resistance of the vertical edge insulation at thefloor(foundation wall); Furthermore, 

R = Rn −

dn λ

(6)

R’-additional thermal resistance of floor construction due to the vertical edge insulation; In this case, 

R = Rn − 

dn 0.075 = 1.5 − = 1.463 m2 K/W λ 2 

d = R × λ = 1.463 × 2 = 2.926 m 

d - additional equivalent thickness of floor construction due to the vertical edge insulation at the floor (foundation wall). The linear thermal transmittance coefficient of the floor construction,  g,e including vertical edge insulation is now calculated as:      2D 2D λ + 1 − ln + 1 (7) g, e = − × ln π dt dt + d       2 × 0.5 2 × 0.5 2 x ln + 1 − ln +1 g, e = − 3.14 0.72 0.72 + 2.926 g, e = −0.637 × [0.871 − 0.242] g, e = −0.637 × 0.629 g, e = −0.4W/mK Here, the negative value of linear thermal transmittance coefficient g, e means that the vertical edge insulation, laid on the internal surface of the ground floor, cools down the ground floor construction. Since that here two types of materials conjuge to each other, this is a clear spot of a heat loss actually a thermal bridge. Thermal transmittance coefficient of ground floor with vertical edge insulation can be calculated according to: U = Uo +

2 × g, e B

(8)

404

J. Jovanovic

U = 0.247 −

2×0.4 24

= 0.214 W/m2 K; U < UO

This shows that the vertical edge insulation buffers the heat flow or heat transfer through this composite floor system and therefore there is a reduced U value of the ground floor with the vertical edge insulation in comparison to the thermal transmittance coefficient U of the mere ground floor.

4 Conclusions The conclusions of this manuscript can be summarized in the following few points: • Calculation patterns on energy efficiency parameters (U, , χ…) of building elements are not so intangible and inapplicable as it seems. • The advantages on calculation procedures of energy efficiency parameters of building elements lie in raising awareness for environmentally conscious housing and curbing of redundant housing energy consumption. • Vertical edge insulation, laid on the internal surface of the ground floor, has its damping effects to the heat flow through the ground floor construction because, as proved in the manuscript, the ground floor with vertical edge insulation had lower thermal transmittance coefficient U in comparison to the ground floor without vertical edge insulation. • The linear thermal transmittance coefficient has been shown as a representative of a thermal bridge. • The calculation pattern of a thermal transmittance coefficient U has been implemented on a physical model of a building, which has not been the case in the past.

References 1. Derysz, J., Lewinski, M.P., Wiech, P.P.: New concept of composite steel-reinforced concrete floor slab in the light of computational model and experimental research. Procedia Eng. 193, 168–175 (2017). Elsevier https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.06.200 2. Peng, L.J., Ho, M.C., Chang, P.Y., Chan, L.S.: Study on collapse of steel-reinforced concrete structure caused by self-weight during construction. J. Const. Steel Res. 156, 276–286 (2019). Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2019.02.002 3. Ding, Y., Song, X., Zhu, T.H.: Probabilistic progressive collapse analysis of steel-concrete composite floor systems. J. Const. Steel Res. 129, 129–140 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jcsr.2016.11.009 4. Lakshmikandhan, N.K., Sivakumar, P., Ravichandran, R., Jayachandran, A.S.: Investigations on efficiently interfaced steel concrete composite deck slabs, Hindawi Publishing Corporation. J. Structures 1–10 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/628759 5. Lambe, K., Siddh, S.: Analysis and design of composite slab by varying different parameters. IOP Conf. Series: Mat. Sci. Eng. 330, 012115 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/ 330/1/012115

Determination of Thermal Transmittance (u)of a Ground Composite Floor Structure

405

6. Jovanovic, J.: Conceptual design of the steel structure of the multi-story office building, Master thesis, pp. 1–107 (2014) 7. Anderson, B.: Conventions for U-value calculations, BRE Scotland (2006). ISBN 1 86081 924 9 8. Mijuca, D.: Uvod u energetskuefikasnost u zgradarstvu, 1–110 (2008) 9. Hoyle, B.: Low energy building engineering 1–143 (2011) 10. Evangelisti, L., Guattari, C., Gori, P., De LietoVollaro, R.: In situ thermal transmittance measurements for investigating differences between wall models and actual building performance. Sustainability 10388–10398 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3390/su70810388 11. Akankali, F., Zefer Alibaba, H.: Analysis on the thermal transmittance/conductance of building elements (roof, wall and floor) based on the different building materials used in Famagusta. Int. J. Civ. Struct. Eng. Res. 99–108 (2019) 12. Kawasaki, T., Kawai, S.: Thermal insulation properties of wood-based sandwich panel for use as structural insulated walls and floors. J. Wood Sci. 52(1), 75–83 (2006). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10086-005-0720-0 13. KabirDantata, M., Zefer Alibaba, H.: The effects of flooring material on thermal comfort in a comparative manner. Ceramic tile and wood flooring. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 1470–1486 (2018) 14. ISO 13370:2007. Thermal performance of buildings -Heat transfer via the ground- Calculation methods, Preview version 15. ISO 13370:2017. Thermal performance of buildings -Heat transfer via the ground- Calculation methods, Preview version 16. ENSI Translated Book. Energetska Efikasnost Zgrada-Metodologi jaenergetskogpregledaiproracunaindikatora EE, (2011). Copyright

Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation of Buildings Emina Japi´c and Aida Huseti´c(B) Faculty of Technical Engineering, University of Biha´c, 77000 Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. Today, the building industry is one of the largest energy consumers in the world. In addition to the loss of energy through the building envelope and openings on the building, there is also a loss of energy on the surface due to thermal bridges. A thermal bridge is a smaller area on the facade of the building where the heat flow is increased due to a change in the material, thickness, or construction part geometry. Due to the existence of thermal bridges, the building loses up to 30% of heat. To avoid the problem of thermal bridges, proper planning, design, and performance are necessary. During the renovation of existing buildings, thermal bridges must be properly evaluated in the energy audit. In this paper, the basic types of structural, systemic, and geometric thermal bridges will be discussed, as well as how their impact can be reduced during the energy renovation of existing buildings. The use of materials with low thermal conductivity in the energy renovation of buildings could help reduce the impact of thermal bridges. Keywords: Thermal bridges · Energy efficiency · Energy loss

1 Introduction A thermal bridge is a smaller area in the building envelope through which the heat flow is increased due to a change in the material, thickness, or geometry of the construction part. Due to the reduced resistance to thermal conductivity R = 1/U, (m2K/W) compared to the typical section of the structure, the temperature of the inner surface of the partition on the thermal bridge is lower than on the rest of the surface, which increases the risk of water vapor condensation. According to the law of thermodynamics, the heat of higher temperatures moves to a place of lower temperature. The greater the difference between outside and inside temperature, the faster the building gains/loses energy [1]. The detection of thermal bridges is most easily done using thermographic cameras, where an increased thermal bridge is easily detected through temperature differences [2] (Fig. 1).

2 Types of Thermal Bridges Thermal bridges can be divided according to the areas of the building where they are formed: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 406–413, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_43

Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation

407

Fig. 1. Example of detection of thermal bridges on the example of external joinery, balconies, and external walls[3]

• • • • • •

Geometric thermal bridges Thermal bridges conditioned by the material Combined thermal bridges Constructive thermal bridges Air bridges Thermal bridges conditioned by the environment [4]

Constructive thermal bridges are created by combinations of different types of materials, which, due to their diversity, result in different heat flows and interactions. An example of this is the connection of the ceiling to the external wall, a reinforced concrete pass-through panel in the area of the balcony, or reinforced concrete supports in the wall of the skeleton construction [5] (Fig. 2). Geometric thermal bridges occur due to changes in the shape of the structure, for example, the corners of buildings. In most parts of the building, the internal surface that receives heat and the external surface that transmits heat are the same sizes. In the case when the external surface, which transmits heat in the area of the corner, is significantly

Fig. 2. View of a section through two materials, dark gray color with high conductivity (steel) and gray with medium conductivity (concrete). The direction of the heat flow is shown by arrows. Heat flows from a warm room to a cooler area through the material [4].

408

E. Japi´c and A. Huseti´c

larger than the internal surface that receives heat, an increased heat flow occurs in the area of the corner [5] (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Section of the corner of the building where the arrows show the flow of heat from the warm to the cold area [4]

3 Positions of the Appearance of Thermal Bridges and Consequences The most common positions where thermal bridges appear are the following: • • • • • • • •

Corners of buildings Joints of internal and external walls Combination of wooden beams and rafters with reinforced concrete cerclages Connection of the ceiling and the outer wall Connection of the wall and roof Connection of the wall and the surface of the floor/ceiling of the basement Window and door joints •Breakthroughs of insulating layers (balconies, consoles, etc.)[6]

The appearance of thermal bridges causes different consequences in the building. Most often, it is heat loss and increased energy consumption. Condensation of water vapor occurs on the surface, and fungi and mold appear. If the occurrence of thermal bridges is not prevented or their effect is reduced, damage to building elements may occur. For example, the non-insulated part of the structure has 5 times lower thermal resistance compared to the insulated part. A 25 cm thick wall insulated with 5 cm of thermal insulation has R values of 1.40–1.60 m2 K/W, while the uninsulated part has R values of 0.20–0.30 m2 K/W.

Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation

409

4 Recommendations for Reducing the Impact of Thermal Bridges To avoid the consequences of thermal bridges, attention should be paid to them when solving constructive details. It is recommended that in the main and executive project, all details where the occurrence of thermal bridges are possible are worked out following the technical regulations on saving thermal energy and thermal protection of buildings. It is impossible to build a building without thermal bridges, but with properly designed thermal protection details, the impact of thermal bridges can be reduced to a minimum. Recommendations for reducing the impact of thermal bridges are: – Elaboration of the project including the detailed solution of all thermal bridges – To achieve the continuity of the installation of thermal insulation (without interruption) wherever it is technically possible – If there is additional thermal insulation, place it on the outside – Good sealing of all joints – Install the windows flush with the external thermal insulation – Thermally insulate boxes for blinds – Install elements to break thermal bridges when construction parts with weak thermal insulation properties penetrate through the building envelope – Thermally insulate the base of the walls, and pass the thermal insulation partly over the foundation – Zones of the walls of unheated or open spaces that continue into heated spaces must be thermally insulated at a length of at least 50 cm from the junction of the structures (extension of the thermal bridge). [5] The following example shows the relationship between thermal insulation thickness and thermal bridge loss coefficient (Fig. 4). The higher the U-value and the thickness of the thermal insulation of the outer wall, the lower the value of the loss coefficients through thermal bridges.

410

E. Japi´c and A. Huseti´c

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2

Isolaon thickness t(m)

0.15

Value Ψ (W/Mk)

0.1 0.05 0

0.17 0.13 0.1 0.07 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.12 U-value outer wall [W/m2K]

Fig. 4. Relationship between thermal insulation thickness and thermal bridge loss coefficient

4.1 Possibilities of Reducing the Impact of Spot Thermal Bridges with the ETICS System Exclusion of the thermal bridge on the metal connectors of the ETICS lining is possible by lowering the “head” of the connectors or by using connectors that are fixed to the sides of the panels, as shown in the following photos (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. a) Cross-section of the recessed coupling head; b) Recessed coupling heads; c) Clamps for lateral attachment [4]

In the case of ventilated facades and metal supports, the point thermal bridge can be broken by using supports of ventilated facades made of composite materials or glass fibers with low thermal conductivity or by using pads made of Teflon or plastics whose low thermal conductivity contributes to the reduction of point thermal bridges [4] (Fig. 6).

Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation

411

Fig. 6. Interruption of the thermal bridge at the supports of ventilated facades [4]

During the energy renovation of the building, it is necessary to remove thermal bridges or reduce their influence as much as possible. Depending on the cladding of the facade, classic support systems occupy an average of 0.8–1.6 m2 per 10 m2 of the facade. That is why the surface made without breaking the thermal bridge is very important. 4.2 Reducing the Impact of Thermal Bridges Near the Balcony From an energy point of view, the old balcony is usually a weak point where, due to the connection of the balcony with the ceiling panel through the outer wall, thermal bridges appear. In that place, much more energy and heat are lost through the outer wall than on the rest of the wall. For this reason, in the thermal renovation of buildings, solutions are sought to reduce the thermal bridge on the balcony to a minimum. Often, the

Fig. 7. Removal of the AB balcony for the purpose of energy renovation [4]

412

E. Japi´c and A. Huseti´c

optimal solution is the complete removal of the balcony by sawing and the installation of prefabricated balconies, that is, the constructive separation of the balcony based on the principle of free-standing balconies [4] (Figs. 7 and 8).

Fig. 8. Prefabricated steel balcony [4]

Solutions have been developed for the thermal separation of balconies on existing buildings, whereby it is possible to install a prefabricated concrete or steel balcony on an existing reinforced concrete or steel structure [4].

5 Conclusion The paper analyzes the types of thermal bridges and the consequences of thermal bridges and gives recommendations for reducing their effects. To reduce the impact of thermal bridges as much as possible, it is necessary to pay great attention to the details during the design of the project and how it will be carried out later. Heat loss and increased energy consumption are the most common consequences of thermal bridges. In addition to these actions, it is very important to emphasize that surface condensation of water vapor occurs, and the appearance of fungi and mold affects human health. All of this can lead to damage to building elements. Considering the consequences that thermal bridges create in the building, reducing their impact is very important.

References 1. Priruˇcnik za energetske savjetnike, Poticanje energetske efikasnosti u Hrvatskoj, dostupno na: https://www.enu.hr/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Priru%C4%8Dnik-za-energetske-savjet nike.pdf 2. Pusila, J.: Thermal bridge comparison - thermal benefits of CLT. Lahti University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Technology, Lahti (2015) 3. Schöck Ltd. Thermal Bridging Guide, Schöck Ltd, Oxfordshire (2018) 4. Kreiranje baze znanja tipskih i ostalih rješenja u energetskoj obnovi zgrada, Gradevinski fakultet Sveuˇcilišta u Zagrebu, dostupno na: https://www.energetska-obnova.com/assets/media/doc uments/baza_tipskih_rjesenja.pdf

Thermal Bridges - Effects and Solutions in the Energy Renovation

413

5. Bateli´c Franko, Energetska uˇcinkovitost na primjeru zgrade Srednjoškolskog centra u Puli – Centar novih tehnologija, Pula (2015) 6. Toplinski mostovi, Ytong sistem gradnje, dostupno na: https://www.arhitekti-hka.hr/files/file/ pdf/baza-proizvoda/ytong/Toplinski_mostovi.pdf

The Role of Heat Pumps in the Energy Efficiency of Buildings: Review Aida Huseti´c(B) and Redžo Salki´c Faculty of Technical Engineering, University of Biha´c, 77000 Biha´c, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The benefits of energy efficiency in buildings are best seen through financial savings for heating, cooling, and electricity consumption. The paper will analyze heat pump systems from the aspect of energy sources, media, and efficiency parameters. Systems with geothermal heat pumps achieve high heating factors in the range of 3–6 during the coldest days of the year, while heat pumps that use air as a source of heat energy achieve a heating factor of 1.75–2.50 only during cold days. The efficiency and economy of the system also depend on other factors, the type of heating/cooling elements, the purpose and orientation of the rooms, and other physical factors of the space (surface area, volume, built-in materials, and their thermal properties, etc.). The paper will therefore analyze all these factors from the aspect of overall energy efficiency in building construction.an analysis of electricity consumption is given for space heating using a heat pump and electric boiler. Keywords: Heat pumps · Energy efficiency · Heating · Cooling · Energy

1 Introduction In the field of building construction industry, the most energy is spent on heating the building, so special attention should be paid to this segment during construction. Decisions related to the heating/cooling system should be made already in the building planning phase, in order to avoid the costs of subsequent interventions on the construction parts of the building. Planning includes calculations of potential heat losses, gains from solar energy and devices, etc. The tendency to install heat pumps for heating and cooling low-energy buildings is one of the basic principles of solving these systems. A heat pump is an extremely efficient device that transfers energy from one environment to another. For this transfer, electrical energy is used, which is several times smaller than the energy transferred by the device. The purpose of using these devices is to save money by using natural energy for the purpose of heating and cooling the building with as little use of harmful gases as possible. There are different definitions of heat pumps. In this context, it can be said that heat pumps are devices that, using the work of electricity and the energy potential of the environment, in winter conditions raise the temperature in the heated space, and in summer conditions “pump out” the heat from the space and take it to the environment, achieving the cooling effect [6]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 414–419, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_44

The Role of Heat Pumps in the Energy Efficiency of Buildings

415

2 Standard Types of Heat Pumps and Prerequisites for Installation The difference between the types of heat pumps is in their system of operation and installation.We distinguish between two basic types of commercial heat pumps [2]. a) Monoblock; b) Split system. Monoblock and split systems of heat pumps can perform equal roles in heating and cooling. Very simply, both variants can heat DHW (Domestic Hot Water), but only in the integrated version all the necessary elements and the tank are inside one compact unit [3] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Presentation of different operating principles of heat pumps depending on the medium used for operation [7]

The hydraulics of the installation system for both heat pumps is identical. The most important difference: in monobloc heat pumps, the entire circular cooling cycle is located in the outdoor unit, and from the outdoor unit to the indoor unit, the supply and return lines of the heating system run. In a split heat pump, the circular cooling cycle is divided. The evaporator, compressor,and expansion valve are located in the outdoor unit and the condenser is in the indoor unit. From the outdoor unit to the indoor unit, the supply and return lines of the cooling circuit run. The advantage of split heat pumps is that their outdoor units are more compact and lighter. They can be more easily mounted on the facade of the house and take up less space than monobloc heat pumps [1]. Depending on the size of the split heat pump and the type of refrigerant used, it can happen that split heat pumps exceed a CO2 equivalent of a maximum of 5 tons. In this case, the heat pump must undergo a mandatory annual coolant test. In the case of monobloc heat pumps, COP values of up to 4.93 can be achieved, which means that at a certain moment, the amount of thermal energy generated is 4.93 times greater than the electrical energy consumed, while with split heat pumps the achievable COP is lower (up to 4.8) [3].

416

A. Huseti´c and R. Salki´c

3 Effect of Heat Pumps Heat pumps have a great effect and efficiency in maintaining a constant temperature in the winter period when temperatures are extremely low. The energy efficiency of heat pumps is expressed through the coefficient of performance COP. It is the relationship between the energy that is invested and the energy that we get at the output, for heating. The higher this coefficient, the more effective the energy efficiency. The effect of the heat pump depends on the quality of the heat pump itself, the outside air temperature and the heated space of the object. Table 1. Heat pump mediums and their heating capacities [6] Heat pump type

COP

Heating capacity

According to DIN EN14511

According to EN255

Ground/water heat pump GEO

4,0–4,4

4,4–4,7

5-36kW

Air/water heating pump AERO

3,4–3,5

3,7–3,8

8-35kW

Water/water heat pump AQUA

5,1–5,5

5,5–5,8

7-46kW

Table 1 shows heat pump mediums according to European standards and their heating capacity. We can see that the higher the COP performance coefficient, the more efficient the heating capacity. Table 2. Comparison of the heat pump and other heating systems A building of Unit of 250 m^2 with a measure height of 3.0 m was taken into account for a winter period of 30 days, in which the temperature goes below -10 °C

Consumption

Price

Pellet

Gas

Air/water heat pump 16kW

Investment duration min

–

–

15

15

20

A year

(continued)

The Role of Heat Pumps in the Energy Efficiency of Buildings

417

Table 2. (continued) A building of Unit of 250 m^2 with a measure height of 3.0 m was taken into account for a winter period of 30 days, in which the temperature goes below -10 °C

Consumption

Price

Pellet

Gas

Air/water heat pump 16kW

Total initial investment

–

–

10.000

10.000

25.000

Rate of increase % in energy prices per year

–

–

10

5

–

Pellet heating costs (30 days)

1t

1,69

570

963,30 km

–

–

Gas heating costs (30 days)

liter

562

1,51

–

848,62 KM

–

Heating costs TP (30 days)

kWh

1.384,24

0,082

–

–

113,50 km

KM

By analyzing “Table 2”, we can conclude that the use of heat pumps is effective and more efficient than other heating methods. The heating installation itself is no different from other systems. The advantage of heat pumps is not only that they are used for heating the building, but also in the summertime they serve as cooling devices for the building. Table 3. Comparison of mediums consumption of heat pumps Heating pump mediums

Heated surface

Ground/water heat pump 16kW

Heat pump water/water 16kW

Heat pump air/water 16kW

Unit of measure

Total

Unit of measure

total

Unit of measure

m2

150

m2

150

m2

Total 150 (continued)

418

A. Huseti´c and R. Salki´c Table 3. (continued)

Heating pump mediums

Ground/water heat pump 16kW

Heat pump water/water 16kW

Heat pump air/water 16kW

Unit of measure

Total

Unit of measure

total

Unit of measure

Total

Electricity consumption per hour of a cheap tariff

kW/h

1,91

kW/h

2,0

kW/h

3,8

Electricity consumption on a monthly basis per 12 h of work at a cheap tariff

kW/h

687,6

kW/h

720

kW/h

1.368

Total consumption in KM

28,20

29,52

56,08

In “Table 3” we have shown the differences in electricity consumption for media of heat pumps for heating where the temperature does not exceed 0 °C for the month of December 2022. By analyzing this table, we can conclude that the first two heat pump mediums are economical compared to the third pump, but the first two heat pumps are mainly used for collective housing, while the third type of pump are the best solution for households. Table 4. Assessment of the influence of solar radiation on space cooling[4] Parameters

Raised blinds

Lowered blinds

Time of measurement

14:00h

14:30 h

◦

◦

Outside temperature

34, 7 C

Adjusted temperature on the heat pump

24 C

Internal measured temperature

25, 25 C

25 C

Air conditioner power

439W

262W

◦

34, 7 C ◦

24 C ◦

◦

As we can see from Table 4, the power of the air conditioner when the blinds are raised is almost twice as high as when they are completely lowered. Specifically, in this case, the difference amounts to 177 W, which if converted into consumed electricity on a monthly basis, assuming that the air conditioner works 8 h a day, we get 42.48 kWh of potential savings. Much greater savings can be expected in rooms oriented to the south. The negative side of tinted windows is the loss of room illumination, which can be compensated by optimal and coupled control of the air conditioning system and the lighting system [5].

The Role of Heat Pumps in the Energy Efficiency of Buildings

419

4 Conclusion One of the key goals is to raise the living standard and the awareness of citizens in order to reduce the need to use fossil fuels and to produce as much electricity as possible, that is, to obtain from renewable energy sources, as well as thermal energy that can be used indefinitely, reducing the harmful impact on nature as well as the emission of greenhouse gases. Due to their flexibility in application, heat pump systems not only heat the space, but can also cool it in the hot summer months when electricity consumption is at its highest. By simultaneously installing a tank for domestic hot water in the system, the consumption of electricity used by electric heaters in electric boilers is reduced by adding solar collectors to the system for reheating the water in the tank. Monobloc and split systems of heat pumps can perform equal roles in heating and cooling. In monobloc systems, all the necessary elements are located inside the external unit, and the external unit is connected to the elements inside the building through a pipeline containing the working medium (water). The disadvantage of such systems is in places of extremely low temperature, where water can freeze in the pipeline from the outdoor unit to the entrance to the facility if the pipeline is not well insulated, and there is a need to inject glycol into the system. And in these conditions, the effect is somewhat lower. With the split systems, there is an outdoor unit and an indoor unit that are connected to each other by copper pipes. The most common working medium for connecting the indoor and outdoor units is freon. The advantage of the split system is that there is no water in the pipes outside the building, as with monoblocs, but only non-freezing freon. So the effect of this system is greater.

References: 1. Hrvoje Š.,Razlikeizmedumonoblok i split sustavadizalicatopline,December (2022). https:// www.klimakoncept.hr/hr/podrska-bjasnjavamo__razlike_izmedu_monoblok_i_split_sust ava_dizalica_topline-/3183/135 2. Monoblok i split sustav. https://hr.avktarget.com/articles/tehnologii/raznica-mezhdu-monobl okom-i-split-sistemoj.html 3. Bošnjak I.: Obnovljiviiizvorienergije, 14 Sept 2022. cˇ asopisIndustrija. https://www.industrija. rs/vesti/clanak/oie-energija-buducnosti 4. Ivanovi´c, Ž, Kneži´c, M.: Koriš´cenjetoplotnihpumpi u niskoenergetskimzgradama, Univerzitet u BanjojLuci, Infoteh-Jahorina, Vol. 12, March 2013 5. rogradnja, funkcionalne i energetskee dizalicetoplote, April 2020., https://www.progradnja.hr/ kategorije/kategorije/grijanje-i-klima/funkcionalne-i-energetski-ucinkovite-dizalice-toplinezrak-voda ˇ 6. Cenejac, A.: Studija o mogu´cnostiprimjenetoplotnihpumpinataeritorijiApVojvodine, kakozaindividualneikomercijalneobjektepojedinaˇcno, takoi zadaljinskesistemegrejanjapougleduna EU. Univerzitet u NovomSadu, Fakultettehniˇckihnauka, Novi Sad (2012) 7. Turanjanin, V., Vuˇci´cevi´c, B., Jovanovi´c, M.: Different heating systems for single family house: energy andeconomic analysis. Therm. Sci. 20(suppl. 1), 309–320 (2016)

Economics, E-Business, Entrepreneurships

The Influence of the Quality of Electronic Learning Platforms on Improving the Competences and Performance of Employees ˇ Haris Palalija1(B) , Elvir Cizmi´ c2(B) , Zijada Rahimi´c2(B) , and Munira Šesti´c2(B) 1 Symphony Digital SA, Kolodvorska 11a, 71 000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

[email protected]

2 School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg oslobodenja 1., 71 000,

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina {elvir.cizmic,zijada.rahimic,munira.sestic}@efsa.unsa.ba

Abstract. The paper examines the effectiveness of electronic platforms for the improvement of the performances and competencies of employees in organizations. The introductory part of the paper is focused on recognizing the conceptual framework for understanding the culture of learning and human resources development, and especially for modeling an effective e-learning system in organizations with a focus on talented employees. Through the presentation of current researches, which are focused on issues related to the quality of electronic learning systems, including questioning the quality of content, the quality of information, the quality of organizational support, the culture of continuous learning and quality of electronic learning platforms, research model is shaped along with the design of constructs that are the subject of analysis for their mutual influence and determination. The paper presents the results of research for the key constructs of e-learning system design that influence the development of competences and the improvement of human resources performances in organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The research sample consists of 228 randomly selected respondents from different organizations of the service sector. Finally, the paper aims to propose possible future guidelines in the process of shaping the content and the electronic platforms functioning with the aim of strengthening the competencies and performances of talents. Keywords: Human resource development · Continuous learning culture · Electronic learning · Employee competencies

1 Introduction Knowledge management as a modern application subcomponent of strategic human resource management has become an indispensable content in all types of organizations in the last few decades. A quality knowledge management system in an organization today is largely based on information technology, virtual space and digital competencies of the organization and employees in the context of creating and using e-learning platforms as an extension of standard knowledge management processes. In this context, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 423–429, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_45

424

H. Palalija et al.

present research focuses on defining and modeling the relationship within the e-learning system via electronic platforms with focus on the effectiveness and the efficiency of e-learning within the business environment in order to create higher competitiveness for companies through the involvement of the organization learning principles.

2 Literature Review The application of electronic platforms related to the transfer of knowledge is used in the majority of service companies and institutions, and even production companies are not far behind, the mentioned processes improve the effectiveness and efficiency of every organization. As AI-enabled learning systems evolve, future research should keep a close eye on the developments with regard to the inclusion of more advanced techniques, such as deep learning and natural language processing [1]. Given the increased use of AI in education, it is essential that we gain a better understanding of the approaches to AIsupported learning in the human-AI community. The application of the approaches for learning framework to the human-AI community can unravel the intents and strategies underlying human-AI interactions, thereby holding promises for facilitating the use of AI and the development of pedagogy for AI-supported learning [2]. The environment based on information technologies creates the need for many companies to be in line with the development of technology just to maintain a competitive advantage [3]. Learning enhanced by information and communication technologies is referred to in the literature as e-learning, online learning and digital learning. E-learning is any form of learning, teaching or education that is supported by the use of computer technologies, especially computer networks based on Internet technologies [4]. Learning in a business environment has several goals that include improving individual performance, refreshing employee knowledge, solving organizational problems, and orienting new employees [5]. One of the biggest advantages of e-learning is its flexibility and constant online accessibility for any number of courses [6]. Companies rely on e-learning as a way to invest in their employees to ensure higher level of motivation with greater job satisfaction, advance career development and improve loyalty. Learning culture is important for an organization to continue to innovate and develop. Numerous advantages of creating a strong culture of continuous learning in the organization are evident, including increasing productivity and effectiveness, increasing profits, reducing employee turnover due to increased job satisfaction, improving standards in the field of work tasks based on the established expectation of continuous improvement, joint ownership of projects and mutual responsibility for results, sharing knowledge and increasing the ability of individuals to accept changes [7]. Perceived organizational support for learning could be defined as employees recognizing that the organization cares about their well-being and appreciates their contribution, they will feel obligated to reciprocate with behavior that will benefit the organization [8]. The literature mentions studies that tested the impact of organizational support for learning and development of employees with completely different conclusions. Inconsistent results suggest that the effects of organizational support may be limited or driven by contextual variables [9]. The organizational support in the context of employee learning implies, in addition to financial, various other preconditions that include organizational

The Influence of the Quality of Electronic Learning Platforms

425

transformation, operations, processes and activities that create the possibility for employees to learn at any time through learning-by-doing, learning-by-using techniques and a number of other very often self-tailored learning systems. A learning management system is often used interchangeably with a virtual learning environment that refers to an operating system and specialized learning management software that enables employees and instructors to plan, organize, monitor, coordinate and control learning activities to facilitate the learning process and optimize desired learning outcomes [10]. The quality of e-learning content was described by in the dimensions of e-learning types. There are two main types of e-learning asynchronous and synchronous, depending on the interaction between the learner and the instructor [11]. The quality of e-learning service evaluates the quality of the interaction between the trainee and the trainer and can use metrics such as timeliness, availability and helpfulness. In the context of the quality of e-learning services, and in addition to service support for the use and improvement of systems and content for e-learning, the most important role is played by instructors or other personnel responsible for communication, facilitation, monitoring and support for learning. Efficiency is the ratio of output to input, and effectiveness is focused on outputs [12]. Introducing many definitions of effectiveness can lead to reflection and inspiration for the appropriate use of effectiveness concepts, thereby enabling educational professionals to better align their expectations and focus their measurement efforts on what is important to them and their students [13]. The effectiveness of e-learning is defined in the literature from different points of view. In study of Noesgaard and Ørngreen (2015) [13] various outputs are used for measurement of the effectiveness of an education program that are using e-learning, appearing in a sample of a total of ninety two study articles. It can be concluded that in the included sample, the effectiveness of e-learning in the context of higher education institutions is defined by learning outcomes, while in the business environment the focus is on the application of what has been learned, the result of “being familiar with something” is not primary, but the concrete use of what has been learned. One of the basic models for evaluating the effectiveness of education is Donald Kirkpatrick’s model [14]. This model is the most well-known and frequently used evaluation framework. In the model, a conceptual framework was created to help determine which data will be collected. Kirkpatrick’s model predicts four levels of elearning program evaluation [15]: reaction, learning, behavior and the results. In addition, findings explained the underlying reasons from the perspective of capital theory and found several directions to promote learning quality in the future [16].

3 Methodology and Research Conceptual Framework The research is conceptually based on the adapted DeLone and McLean model of information systems. In addition to factors related to system quality, information quality, and service quality, the adapted and extended model in the specific research takes into account two additional elements, namely organizational and user support for learning, with a special apostrophization of the culture of continuous learning in business organizations. The model is set as follows in Fig. 1. The constructs, thus the variables Culture of continuous learning-CCL, Organizational support-OS, Quality of the e-learning platform-QeLP, Quality of content and

426

H. Palalija et al.

online courses-QCC and User support for e-learning -UseL, represent five predictor variables, while the construct development of competencies and increase in performance of human resources-DCPHR represents a criterion, or dependent variable in the multiple regression model. Culture of continuous learning-CCL

Organizational support-OS

Quality of the e-learning platform-QeLP

Development of competences and increase in performance of human resources-DCPHR

Quality of content and online courses-QCC

User support for elearning-USeL

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of the research (Authors’ illustration)

The aim is to identify and explain the effectiveness factors of e-learning and empirically prove their impact on employee competencies and performances. The main research hypothesis assume a positive influence of factors for effective learning on development of competencies and increase in performance of human resources-DCPHR in different types of companies, and it will be proven through the validity of a multiple regression model. Additional hypothesis could be defined in relation of assumption of positive influence of all individual constructs (CCL, OS, QeLP, QCC and USeL on DCPHR).

4 Sample Features The research was conducted on a random sample that includes company directors, HR department directors, HR and employee development experts, staff involved in the administration and coordination of e-learning activities in the company, IT support and employees who used e-learning as a education medium. The majority of respondents come from the field of information and communications 38%. Companies in area of finance and insurance, non-governmental sector, professional, scientific and technical activities, education and other service activities were also represented in the sample with a share of more than 40%. Other business areas were classified in the category other had a total representation in the sample of 18%. In addition to questions about the demographic characteristics of the participants, the questionnaire contained the following six scales CCL (16 items); OS (5 items); QeLP (7 items); QCC (8 items); USeL (4 items) and DCPHR (7 items). Filling in the questionnaire was anonymous, while statistical analyzes were performed in the SPSS 23 software package.

The Influence of the Quality of Electronic Learning Platforms

427

5 Research Findings The correlation coefficients between the independent and dependent variables were found to be in the range of moderate to high values and the same amounts respectively CCL-DCPHR, r = .43, p < .001; OS-DCPHR, r = .40, p < .001.; QeLP-DCPHR, r = .66, p < .001.; QCC-DCPHR, r = .69, p < .001. And USeL-DCPHR, r = .64, and they are statistically significant which indicates that it makes sense to investigate the influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable in the proposed model. Through further analysis and in order to determine the total proportion of variability of the criterion variable, that is, the dependent variable DCPHR, as well as to assess the relative importance of individual predictors in this explanation, a multiple regression analysis was performed. Table 1. Regression model indicators for prediction of DCPHR-five integrated predictors β

T

P

TOL

VIF

CCL_OS

.13

2.65

.009

.79

1.26

QeLP_QCC

.47

7.27

< .001

.47

2.13

UseL

.26

4.14

< .001

.51

1.96

R

.75*

R2

.55

*F(3, 224) = 93.98, p < .001

Although it was initially planned to include all five predictors in the regression model, due to the problem of multicollinearity (high correlation of individual predictors, which makes them redundant in the regression model, they explain the same part of the variability of the criterion variable, and after including one predictor, the second, highly related predictor does not contributes to further improvement of the model) two factors of effective e-learning are excluded from further analysis. The first such factor was organizational support, whose correlation coefficient with the continuous learning culture factor was above .70 [17]. Another factor excluded by the same criterion was the quality of the e-learning platform, due to its high correlation with the variable quality of content and online courses. At the same time, the culture of continuous learning and the quality of content and online courses were, compared to the two factors mentioned, more strongly related to the criterion variable, which was the reason for their retention in the model. Another factor excluded by the same criterion was the quality of the e-learning platform, due to its high correlation with the variable quality of content and online courses. At the same time, the culture of continuous learning and the quality of content and online courses were, compared to the two factors mentioned, more strongly related to the criterion variable, which was the reason for their retention in the model. New adopted model with three predictor variables included for predicting the effectiveness of e-learning in the same step: culture of continuous learning, quality of content

428

H. Palalija et al.

and online courses, and user support for e-learning. Multicollinearity indicators for all predictors were satisfactory and variance inflation factor and equivalent tolerance indicator are acceptable and they do not show violations of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. Based on these indicators, the tested model met the prerequisites for performing multiple regression analysis. To further verify the justification of testing the regression model for the criterion variable DCPHR with three predictors (CCL, QCC and USeL), a regression model was tested in which two of the three included predictors were formed as a composite score of two highly correlated variables each. Statistical indicators for the mentioned model are presented in Table 1. In relation to the regression model with three predictors, the regression model with included composite scores for the variables CCL and OS, and QeLP and QCC produced very similar (almost identical) statistical indicators, both in terms of the value and significance of the individual β coefficients and in terms of the share of the explanation variance. Standardized regression equation for the criterion variable development of competences and increase in the performance of human resources:  = 0,13Z CCL_OS + 0,47Z QeLP_QCC + 0,26Z USeL YDCPHR

(1)

Based on the multiple analysis of the collected data, the model with three predictors (CCL, QCC and USeL) can be accepted for predicting the effectiveness of e-learning. The CCL predictor certainly represents a basis that will give impetus to continuous educational initiatives, but also generally create an environment that supports learning and application of new knowledge. The significant influence of the quality of the content coincides with the user’s expectations that e-learning will be an interesting experience that will enable them to acquire the desired knowledge. The close connection with the QeLP predictor identified by the data analysis can be interpreted that users see the platform and the content as one system. The USeL predictor covers a significantly wider spectrum of conditions than solving certain user difficulties, where this especially refers to consultations with an instructor or other expert with domain knowledge.

6 Conclusional Interpretation One of the primary contributions of this paper is a better understanding of e-learning technologies and the context of their use in the corporate environment, and the second chapter provides an overview of educational technologies and the benefits of their introduction as a method of delivering knowledge and skills to employees. It is recognized in the literature that digital solutions are becoming the heart of the entire work system of the learning and development department, not only for the development of employees, but also for attracting new ones and retaining existing ones. Given that certain trends can still be recognized somewhat later in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the expectation is that this work will be a good research basis directed for managers of learning and development within different companies if they want to innovate and strengthen the competencies and performances of talented employees – manager’s task currently significantly different and more challenging than which was the case ten years ago.

The Influence of the Quality of Electronic Learning Platforms

429

References 1. Kabudi, T., Pappas, I., Olsen, D.H.: AI-enabled adaptive learning systems: a systematic mapping of the literature. Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. 2, 1–12 (2021). 100017 https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.caeai.2021.100017 2. Wang, X., et al.: What matters in AI-supported learning: a study of human-AI interactions in language learning using cluster analysis and epistemic network analysis. Comput. Educ. 194, 1–17 (2022). 104703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104703 3. Günes, P.: Overcoming the Barrier: Virtual Learning: The Impact of learning in Second Life in Higher Education. Jönköping: Jönköping International Business School (2008) 4. Brown, S., Fallon, C.: E-Learning Standards: A Guide to Purchasing, Developing, and Deploying Standards-Conformant E-Learning. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2002) 5. Dolan, S., Schuler, R.S., Valle, R.: La Gestion de los Recurosos Humanos. McGraw-Hill, Madrid (1999) 6. Gareiss, D.: E-Learning around the World, Information Week (Manhasset), 63–64 (2001) 7. Chanani, L., Wibowo, U.B.: A learning culture and continuous learning for a learning organization. In: International Conference on Meaningful Education, Yogyakarta: KnE Social Sciences (2019) 8. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., Sowa, D.: Perceived organizational support. J. Appl. Psychol. 71, 500–507 (1986) 9. Kraimer, M.L., Seibert, S.E., Wayne, S.J., Liden, R.C., Bravo, J.: Antecedents and outcomes of organizational support for development: the critical role of career opportunities. J. Appl. Psychol. 96(3), 485–500 (2011) 10. Lengyel, P., Herdon, M., Pancsira, J., Ráthonyi, G., Füzesi, I.: The effectiveness of the elearning applications: assessment of the service quality using binominal logistic regression. J. Efficiency Responsibil. in Educ. Sci. 10(2), 51–57 (2017) 11. Ajmera, R., Dharamdasani, D.K.: E-Learning Quality Criteria and Aspects. Int. J. Comput. Trends Technol. 12(2), 90–93 (2014) 12. Rumble, G.: The Costs and Economics of Open & Distance Learning. Kogan Page, London (1997) 13. Noesgaard, S.S., Ørngreen, R.: The effectiveness of e-learning: an explorative and integrative review of the definitions. Methodologies and Factors that Promote e-Learning Effectiveness. Electron. J. e- Learn. 13(4), 278–290 (2015) 14. Kirkpatrick, D., Kirkpatrick, J.: Evaluating Training Programs, 3rd edn. Berrett Koehler Publishers, San Francisco (2006) 15. Hamtini, T.M.: evaluating e-learning programs: an adaptation of kirkpatrick’s model to accommodate e-learning environments. Jordan J. Comput. Sci. 4(8), 693–698 (2008) 16. Zhao, L., Cao, C., Li, Y., Li, Y.: Determinants of the digital outcome divide in E-learning between rural and urban students: Empirical evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic based on capital theory. Comput. Hum. Behav. 130, 1071–1077 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chb.2021.107177 17. Tabachnick, B.G., Fidell, L.S.: Using Multivariate Statistics. Pearson, Boston (2013)

Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content in Service Businesses ˇ Elvir Cizmi´ c1 , Haris Palalija2 , Senad Softi´c1 , and Munira Šesti´c1(B) 1 School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg oslobodenja 1., 71000

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina {elvir.cizmic,senad.softic,munira.sestic}@efsa.unsa.ba 2 Symphony Digital SA, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. The paper analyzes the perception of different categories of human resources related to the use of digital platforms for the improvement of electronic learning for various organizational and operational business aspects. The introductory part recognizes key findings related to the mentioned problem through the analysis of rare researches in this field so far. Presented attainable researches are focused on issues related to differences in the perception of the quality of e-learning systems, including a special questioning of gender differentiation, while other segmentation systems, related to the level of education, organizational position or the length of work experience of the respondents, are not separately analyzed. Next, the paper presents the results of the research on the key constructions of the design of the e-learning systems used in organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, viewed through the analysis of differences in the perception of human resources for various criteria of differentiation. The research sample consists of 228 randomly selected respondents from different organizations and different areas of the service sector. Finally, the paper aims to suggest the guidelines that should be followed in the process of shaping the content and functioning of electronic platforms with regard to the different categories of human resources usage, with the tendency for increasing their overall efficiency. Keywords: Electronic learning platforms · User perception · Organizational support · Continuous learning culture

1 Introduction There are several studies related to the use of digital platforms in organizations for elearning and knowledge sharing, in organizations in general and business organizations in particular. Rudimentary researches in this area have been started at universities with the aim of testing scientific phenomena in the context of professors and students for learning outcomes, but this was not enough to draw general conclusions that are valid for the company, experts and employees. Furthermore, the initial studies tested gender differences in attitudes, which included questions about content, communication, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 430–437, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_46

Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content

431

learning, length of access, frequency of participation, and a range of other issues among students, for specific knowledge acquired. When it comes to companies, it is important on how a digital platform through elearning can influence the competencies of employees and their efficiency. In this regard, it is good to investigate how digital platforms affect the development of employees, and therefore how this leads to a higher level of potential for the survival, growth and development of companies. This is one small segment that can be recognized to some extent as a logical predictor of competence development, but only if digital platforms are focused on dedicated time and content, otherwise they can “drag” employees in the opposite or “wrong” direction. In the aforementioned context and as a continuation of previously conducted researches, the paper analyzes a certain number of constructs with precisely defined particles and with the aim of comparison in the aspect of gender, length of service, level of education, belonging to different activities, and in accordance with the obtained results certain conclusions are defined.

2 Literature Review When designing an e-learning strategy in a certain organization, it is wise to take into account the experience in the use of digital technologies of both trainers and trainees with the aim of improving the effects of this type of learning. Women generally communicate more via electronic networks, maintain their social connections and presence, and they are generally more satisfied with e-learning activities with a tendency to search for useful information via the network more than they use it for simple internet communication [1]. Analysis reveal differences between men and women in the context of the effects of using electronic platforms for learning in terms of their characteristics related to self-efficacy, motivation, attitudes, but also their performance[2]. Historically, computers and information technologies have been perceived as “male” devices and an image has been created that they are more suitable for men than female, so that through early attitudes on this issue, a gender stereotype was created in favor of men and to the detriment of women since early childhood. Differences related to technology are generally apostrophized from early childhood if parents directing boys preferentially towards technologies and girls towards some other aspects of interest. Some results showed no differences between boys and girls in competence beliefs in digital learning, indicating that girls and boys have equal levels of perceived abilities in digital learning [3]. On the other hand, even today, certain differences exist regarding preferences for digital technologies, both between individual countries, which is generated by cultural differences in raising children, where statistically significant differences appear in the context of children’s motivation to use digital platforms in terms of gender aspect. Statistically significant differences were found between girls and boys on all three motivational orientation scales [4]. Another recognized research contribution is towards the identification of an interesting gender difference - a considerable gender difference on the impacts of students’ computer self-efficacy on their perceived accomplishment and enjoyment. Specifically, both impacts were statistically significant for females, but not for males [5].Further contribution regarding gender difference is the first empirical test of gender difference as a

432

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

moderator in the technology-to-performance chain. The results show that the effect of task technology fit on the perceived usefulness is greater for male. It means that, when there is a fit between task and technology, men are more likely to perceive the usefulness of the technology [6]. Additional research that may indicate the need for further testing of possible differences regarding the attitudes of men regarding the use of information technologies generally do not show statistically significant differences in different constructs, but through a deeper analysis, some significant differences can be recognized regarding specific particles that question the usefulness of used information technologies for learning and performing at the workplace. Attitudes towards using information technology devices and applications to learn and acquire new knowledge and skills in context of digital literacy on workplace, do not show high level of gender differences but, though attitudes are slightly in favor of male. The perception of male and female respondents do not differ much regarding to main items that create employee perception of satisfaction with job design and content by using technological innovations based on 4IR at the working place [7]. Furthermore, there are some studies that are controversial and contradictory to a certain extent, since there are some points for the existence of discrimination against women in the process of e-learning activities, while other studies show that women are favored through these learning systems. In general, there are no significant differences in average participation, grade, motivation and satisfaction between male and females. There are just some differences in the use of some Moodle resources and in a limited number of items related to the higher perceived interferences of the e-learning activities with social life for men and a greater sense of duty for women [8]. All mentioned indicates that it is possible to use a more analytical approach to test the differences in the attitudes of men and women regarding various aspects related to electronic learning, starting with the attitudes regarding main variables that define model of e-learning, as follow: Culture of continuous learning-CCL, Organizational support-OS, Quality of the e-learning platform-QeLP, Quality of content and online courses-QCC and User support for e-learning-UseL, represent five predictor variables, while the construct development of competencies and increase in performance of human resources-DCPHR represents a criterion, or dependent variable in the multiple regression model. In addition to the above, due to the average value on which the sizes of these constructs are based, it is good to examine the gender, level of education and age differences in the attitudes of respondents for individual items that make up the above constructs, which will be the key research focus.

3 Methodology and Research Conceptual Framework The research was conducted in a way that the research instrument was specifically designed and segmented according to e-learning model based on the adapted DeLone and McLean model of information systems with six composite variables, thus first order constructs were tested with their items separately for more detailed analysis. In this sense, Research Proposals were categorized according to different criteria by testing differences of respondents attitudes according gender, age, experience and level of education based

Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content

433

on specific empirical research through above mentioned constructs and their items, as follows: RP 1: Is there a difference in the perception of respondents regarding factors of e-learning concept in terms of their gender? RP 2: Is there a difference in the perception of respondents regarding factors of e-learning concept in terms of their age? RP 3: Is there a difference in the perception of respondents regarding factors of e-learning concept in terms of their experience? RP 4: Is there a difference in the perception of respondents regarding factors of e-learning concept in terms of their level of education? We can recognize two independent/unpaired samples for each category that we want to use for comparison analysis by grouping them according to some criterion in wider groups. The research model can be set up as follows H0 : µ1 = µ2 and it is a general null hypothesis and H1 : µ1 = µ2 is a general research hypothesis for all examined differences in different respondents categories perception according their attitudes regarding main factors of e-learning. The null hypothesis assumes that the arithmetic means of the populations separated according to different criteria are equal while the research hypothesis assumes that they are not equal and the above mentioned test can be used to test the above claims. Statistical instrument that includes independent samples T test for Equality of Means and Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances with the test of Equality Variances and F statistics and their value reading from the statistical confirmation, test the relationship in terms of recognizing the level of statistical significance of differences for individual constructs and their items according to certain characteristics of the respondents regarding the key factors of the e-learning concept.

4 Sample Features The sample is composed of 228 randomly selected respondents and the questionnaire covered five main areas, as the base for testing differences in respondents’ attitudes based on previously defined criteria. The structure of the respondents is made up of 126 men and 102 women, which represents 55.26% of men and 44.74% of women, respectively. When it comes to the age of the respondents, 41 (17.98%) are between 18–30 years old, 143 (62.72%) between 31–40 years old, 37 (16.23%) respondents between 41–50 and the smallest number there are also 7 (3.07%) respondents in the age group between 51–65 years. Regarding the level of education, respondents come with different levels of education, starting with high school level, 9 of them or 3.9%, college level of 2 of them or 0.90%, while other with higher levels of education are more significantly represented, so that I cycle of higher education is 80 or 35.10% of respondents, with completed II cycle of higher education 122 or 53.50% of the respondents, while 9 or 3.9% of them completed the III cycle of higher education, and other levels of education that do not fall into the mentioned categories only 6 or 2.6%.For working experience, there were 49 (21,5%) of them with experience 5 years or less, 78 (34,2%) of them between 6–10 years, 70 (30,7) of them between 10–20 and 31 (13,6) of them have more than 20 years of experience. The majority of respondents is from the field of information and communications sector as up 87 companies or 38%. Respondents, that are coming from the organisations that belong to the others service sectors, are finance and insurance companies 25 (10,96%) respondents, non-governmental sector 25 (10,96%) respondents,professional services

434

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

companies, scientific and technical activities 19 (8,33) respndents, education 18 (7,89) and other service activities including wholesale and retail trade, public administration and defense, energy delivering, administrative and auxiliary service activities, health care and social care activities, transportation and storage, art, entertainment and recreation, hotels and hospitality industry and real estate trading businesses were also represented in the sample with a together share of aproximately 21% or 48 of respondents whileothers sectors were nigligible.

5 Research Findings The mean values of the respondents’ attitudes by gender (Table 1) can be clearly read in relation to the mean values of the attitudes regarding the integral constructs, that is, the factors taken as segments of the e-learning concept. The mean values of attitudes are slightly higher for males compared to females, which can be interpreted in such a way that males’ attitudes regarding organizational issues aimed for the development of a learning culture are higher by slightly more than 0.3. Regarding the issue of organizational support for the application and use of e-learning tools, the average attitudes of men compared to women are higher by almost 0.5, which can be interpreted as men observe the efforts of organizations related to learning support in a more positive way than women. Differences in the average attitudes of men and women regarding other factors involved in e-learning concepts such as quality of the e-learning platform, quality of content and online courses, user support for e-learning and development of competencies and increase in performance of human resources are in favor of males approximately 0.2 units. Table 1. The means of respondents’ perception on e-learning concept factors according to gender Group Statistics Gender

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Male

126

5,5243

1,03745

,09242

Female

102

5,1544

1,24195

,12297

OS_Mean

Male

126

4,8794

1,45109

,12927

Female

102

4,3980

1,63125

,16152

QeLP_Mean

Male

126

5,8345

,88496

,07884

Female

102

5,5938

1,11543

,11044

QCC_Mean

Male

126

5,5615

,94403

,08410

Female

102

5,3468

1,11456

,11036

Male

126

5,2163

1,13241

,10088

Female

102

5,0637

1,29052

,12778

Male

126

5,6599

,91211

,08126

Female

102

5,3810

1,44493

,14307

CCL_Mean

USeL_Mean DCPHR_Mean

Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content

435

In the subject research, we are dealing with unpaired, that is, independent samples where the variables are normally distributed, so the prerequisite for using the t-test for Equality of Means is to test the differences in the respondents’ attitudes in the context of individual constructs of the integral e –learning model. When analyzing the quantifiers that are taken into account as prerequisites for the statistical significance of the mentioned differences, it can be seen that the mentioned differences between men and women regarding the first two factors of the e-learning integral concept are statistically significant, while the remaining four are not. For the first construct, it is based on reading the value of Levene’s Test for Equality of Variance for the significance level below 0.05 and is 0.023, so that the existence of Equal variances assumed cannot be assumed, while for the second construct, the sig is higher than 0.05 and is 0.064, so that it can be assumed Equal variances assumed, but in both cases the significance value of the t-test is less than 0.05 and 0.017 and 0.019, respectively, as can be seen on the basis of the t-test for Equality of Means, which implies that the differences between men and women regarding the first two constructs are statistically significant and are in favor of men, which means that the null hypothesis in the general setting can be rejected while accepting the research hypothesis that says that differences exist and the same goes in terms of an average more positive perception of men regarding learning culture and learning support in the organization in relation to on women. When it comes to the other four constructs, the mean values are not much different between men and women and they are not statistically significant, so in this case the null hypothesis is accepted, which states that the differences, even if they exist, are not statistically significant in the context of gender affiliation and are the same considering the values forconfirmation in this part can be ignored, which points to the convergence of women’s and men’s views on the mentioned issues. When different levels of education are observed, it can be concluded that there are no statistically significant differences, that is, that the null hypothesis can be accepted while the research hypothesis is rejected. Regardless of the statistical indicators, a certain contradiction can be observed here in the results, where slightly more positive attitudes were observed on average in respondents with a lower level of education - perhaps this can be explained by the fact that the respondents are still in the education process since it is younger people who could not even have a higher level of education at that time. Through further analysis and testing of differences, this explanation is shown to be well-founded, because in the part of the respondents with fewer years of service, it leads to the conclusion that they are relatively younger employees, a higher average value of attitudes regarding the above-mentioned six constructs appears. In the same time this is statistically significant in the first three constructs - it can be concluded that the attitudes of younger respondents regarding learning culture, learning support and the quality of e-learning platforms are more positive compared to respondents with more experience, so the research hypothesis is accepted in this case, while there is no significant difference in the other three constructs the difference in respondents’ attitudes according to length of service. Finally, tendencies that contribute to the behavior of the average values for individual constructs are clear, so in the constructs where there are statistically significant differences in the respondents’ attitudes according to certain characteristics, the items of those constructs move in the direction for predominant mean values in favor

436

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

of respondents who are recognized as such in the integral construct for the largest number of items of the same.

6 Conclusional Interpretation Research conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, related to attitudes on use and usefulness of e-learning concepts at workplace, produced results that are in some segments in line with previous researches, while in other segments certain deviations and contradictions are shown. There are no statistically significant differences between men and women on their attitudes regarding the quality of electronic platforms, quality of electronic platform content, customer support, competence development and employee performance. It can be concluded that the conducted research shows that in the mentioned segments there is no discrimination between women and men in terms of e-learning systems and this represents a different point of view compared to some earlier research. Men and women perceive the quality of e-learning platforms and content in the same way and are equally satisfied with developing their competences and improving their performance through their use. On the other hand, there are statistically significant differences in the attitudes of men and women in favor of men, in the part that refers to the culture of continuous learning and organizational support. This may mean that women are generally less satisfied on average with the elements of the learning culture and the climate that supports e-learning in organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the remaining factors of the e-learning model, there are no statistically significant differences in attitudes. On the other hand, certain individual preferences can be identified, but not on the basis of gender, because scientific work is genderless, but can be based on other demographic criteria, such as the number of years of service, the age of the respondents. or level of education - a statistically significant difference can be observed in most model factors in favor of a younger population that is more inclined to different learning systems. Convergence of attitudes, effects and relationships related to the e-learning model between women and men, and ultimately for younger and older employees, can be expected to be in focus in the coming period with an increasing acceleration of the acceptance of all elements and factors of the e-learning model, since such knowledge transfer systems are proving to be more and more efficient and effective in general.

References 1. González-Gómez, F., Guardiola, J., Rodríguez, O.M., Montero Alonso M.A.: Gender differences in e-learning satisfaction. Comput. Educ. 58(1), 283–290 (2012) https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.compedu.2011.08.017 2. Zhonggen, Y.: A meta-analysis of gender differences in e-learning outcomes, (PREPRINT Version 1): 2 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-493822/v 3. Korlat, S., et al.: Gender differences in digital learning during COVID-19: competence beliefs, intrinsic value, learning engagement, and perceived teacher support. Front. Psychol. 12, 637776 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637776 4. Veraksa, A., Gavrilova, M., Lepola, J.: Learning motivation tendencies among preschoolers: impact of executive functions and gender differences, Acta Psychologica, 228: 1036–1047 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103647

Perception Differences of Electronic Learning Quality and Content

437

5. Dang, Y.M., Zhang, Y.G., Ravindran, S., Osmonbekov, T.: Examining student satisfaction and gender differences in technology-supported. Blended Learn. J. Inf. Syst. Educ. 27(2), 127 (2016) 6. ChongWoo, P., Dong-gook, K., Sunyoung, C., Hyo-Joo, H.: Adoption of multimedia technology for learning and gender difference. Comput. Hum. Beh. 92, 288–296 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.029 ˇ 7. Rahimi´c, Z., Cizmi´ c, E., Šesti´c, M., Hrnji´c, A.: Differences of the employee perception to the main job design parameters in the context of digitalization. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Mandžuka, S. (eds.) New Technologies, Development and Application V. NT 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 472, 1073. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-031-05230-9_126 8. Cuadrado-Garcia, M., Ruiz-Molina, M., Montoro-Pons, J.: Are there gender differences in e-learning use and assessment? Evidence from an interuniversity online project in Europe. Procedia - Social Beh. Sci. 2, 367–371 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.027

Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee Within Digitalization Context Challenges ˇ Elvir Cizmi´ c1(B) , Ðevad Šaši´c2 , Venan Hadžiselimovi´c3 , and Adil Trgo4 1 School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trgoslobodenja 1,

71 000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 CEO HIFA-OIL doo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 4 Faculty of Economics, Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Bearing in mind the specificities of transitional societies in the context of the process of changing ownership relations and the development of new management concepts, it is necessary to consider the impact of technological innovations and digitization on the description, standardization and specialization of work in the context of employee satisfaction and performance. The goal of the research is to examine how a clear job description, precisely defined job standardization, and clear job-related specialization and competencies specification determine employee performance and satisfaction in the context of the fourth technological revolution and digitalization. Within the scope of this research, important aspects related to the attitudes of employees of different organizations are questioned in terms of their perception regarding clearly structured tasks at work, clearly defined procedures for the work execution, and a clear job description and necessary qualifications for performing the work in relation to the performance and satisfaction of employees. The research sample consists of 186 respondents randomly selected from different types of organizations, the analysis of which is intended to provide clear guidelines related to the shaping of work design parameters in the context of contemporary phenomena related to automation, digitalization and the use of man-machine interfaces with a focus on increasing performance and employees’ job satisfaction. Keywords: Digitization · Job Abalysis · Job standardization · Job specification · Employee performance

1 Introduction Human resource management is an indispensable category in both theoretical and practical aspects of running any type of organization. Human resources management starts from four key content elements for managing human resources, i.e. organizations in the context of their participation in business decision-making, management of human © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 438–446, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_47

Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee

439

resource flows, salary and reward systems, and work systems. The first three segments have been largely researched, while employment has received little attention in recent research. In this regard, this paper focuses on work systems from the aspect of the process of organizing and managing human resources, understanding them in a way that ensures the correct positioning of each individual in the organization through the job analysis process through clearly defined workplace design parameters sublimated through the job description, standardization work, and job specification and specialization on the basis of which contours of training and indoctrination of human resources in the organization can be recognized.All the mentioned activities can only be performed through the operational work of employees, which indicates that the job design parameters should be clearly adjusted with the aim of clearly determining the job description, job specification and, of course, job standardization through the job analysis process, which is the same output. When the above elements are taken into account, it can be clearly understood that clearly adjusted job design parameters can clearly determine the employee’s performance at work, but in addition to the above, the very nature of the employee can largely mediate the interaction of the above elements in the above context. If to the above question is added the component of post-industrial society and the fourth technological revolution, where the characteristics of a new employee are defined as categories of diverse skills, diversity and changes in the job itself, and general mobility, one can clearly see new elements that must be incorporated into standard job analysis models and the same are related to issues of advanced work design and organization, which also include issues of digital literacy of employees. In this paper, the focus is on the research of the influence of innovative technologies on the formation of key content elements of job analysis and their impact on employee satisfaction and performance through the lens of human resources management in the part related to employee participation in the business decision-making process and job analysis, which should be understood as a process of guidance for behavior of employees in the organization in the context of relationships determined by trust, motivation, job content, standards and interaction between leaders and followers.

2 Literature Review Bearing in mind the specifics of transitional societies in the context of entrepreneurship development, but also the process of changing ownership relations and the development of new concepts of corporate and business management, it is necessary to consider issues of job design and employee performance in the organization in general, and through the application of technological innovations and digitalization, in particular. The key problem that can be recognized in this part is related to indirect indicators, that is, intangible resources that are largely based on the organizational structure and organizational culture. The problem can be described through the establishment of a link between the potential and the performance of the organization, that is, its employees in the context of variables related to job design issues based on the conducted job analysis and the improvement of employee performance through standardization as causal activities that can contribute to better quality work of the entire organization while achieving better overall business results the same. Areas for identifying causal variables on the quality

440

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

of business and long-term survival, growth and development of various organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina represent a more precise way of observing this problem.In the aforementioned sense and based on previous research in this field, the model will take into account the influence of all the usual components of job analysis on the key performance of employees, which include a higher level of employee satisfaction and a higher level of delivered value to the organization’s clients, including other interest groups. Accordingly, the job description as an important product of the job analysis process also includes certain elements of employee empowerment in the sense of giving a certain level of responsibility and authority to employees and will be observed in the context of digitization and the fourth technological revolution. Therefore, a job description (JD) not only describes the role content in terms of level and complexity but also is used as a way of determining salary scales [1]. In the aforementioned sense, the inevitable questions for aligning the construct of specialization and job specification in the organization regarding the competences, knowledge, skills and abilities of employees in the context of the fourth technological revolution and digitalization consist of areas that cover issues related to employee qualifications that are a prerequisite for quality performance of work and adequate understanding of the communicated content, understanding of the content of the job description in the right way by the employee, and the timeliness of the applied communication process in the organization [2]. Of course, all the above-mentioned questions are viewed in the context of the impact of technological innovations on job specification and specialization as a research construct, through individual questions, or items, which will serve to align the views of managers and employees regarding the above-mentioned construct. The next research construct represents the issue of job standardization as an essential parameter of job design, which is a product of the job analysis process in organizations that are related to defining the basis for measuring the quality of job implementation by employees through a clear procedure. In the aforementioned sense, the basic questions that are taken as relevant for aligning this construct start from the issue of freedom and creativity in the critical reflection of human resources in the organization, willingness to reward agile employees, easier problem solving in the organization, and better application of teamwork in the organization [3]. Employee-centred leaders engage their subordinates in making workplace decisions, while production-centred leaders focus on tasks like organizing, setting standards and ways of job accomplishment [4]. Within the framework of the subject research, the focus is placed on the attitudes of managers and employees regarding the key aspects of this construct with the aim of balancing the capacity of employee participation in the process of work realization, including their behavior at work.All previously mentioned constructs will be viewed as independent variables in the model, while the dependent variable in the model will be related to individual efficiency, that is, satisfaction and performance of employees in the organization.

3 Methodology and Research Conceptual Framework The aim of the paper is to examine and present key aspects of the impact of technological innovations on interaction, i.e. relational relationships between job analysis and employee performance in the organization with a focus on key constructs related to job

Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee

441

design as a predictor latent variable and employee performance as a dependent variable of the model where it is observed, that is, it also includes their satisfaction. In addition to the key question to which the subject paper should give an answer, which concerns the influence of the previously mentioned constructs, as independent variables, intensified through the use of technological innovations on the quality of work implementation, the research and analytical part of the paper also aims to answer the following questions: 1. Do technological innovations affect the job description in the organization in terms of employee job satisfaction and the quality of the job realization process, i.e. employee performance? 2. Do technological innovations affect the specialization and specification of work in the organization in terms of employee job satisfaction and the quality of the process of work realization, i.e. employee performance? 3. Do technological innovations affect the standardization of work in the organization in terms of employee satisfaction with work and the context of the quality of the work realization process, i.e. employee performance? In the context of this research, under the term technological innovation, all modern technological systems that include communication, automation, storage and all other contents that are implied by the fourth technological revolution, including artificial intelligence, and advanced human-machine interfaces in the context of the improvement of all business segments with special with an emphasis on questioning the relationship between segments of job analysis and design with employee performance [5]. Finally, the goal of this paper is a clearer positioning of man as the basic bearer of social, economic, research, educational and all other business processes in the context of a better understanding of various phenomena that will become, or have already become, part of the reality we live. All the mentioned processes are observed in the context of digitization, both in the content-applicative sense of work and for the creation of assumptions for a certain level of digitization of human resource management activities related to the same. To find relevant literature on e-recruiting in general, and resume design in specific, a systematic search method was applied. We have reviewed the related work in e-recruiting and in ontology mapping and carefully selected the articles that are most relevant to our research. Many e-recruitment tools for recruiting candidates for job have significantly spread in recent years [6]. Based on the research problem, the purpose and objectives of the research, and the research questions that are highlighted, certain cause-and-effect hypotheses can be formulated: 1. “The application of modern methods in business management practices related to job analysis in the part of the job description improves the satisfaction and performance of employees in the context of the fourth technological revolution.” 2. “The application of modern methods in business management practice related to job analysis in the area of specialization and job specification improves employee satisfaction and performance in the context of the fourth technological revolution.” 3. “The application of modern methods in business management practice related to job analysis in the part of job standardization improves the satisfaction and performance of employees in the context of the fourth technological revolution.” In the context of the mentioned segments, a questionnaire was created through which the data necessary for conducting the analysis, as well as providing answers

442

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

to the research questions and testing the hypotheses, was created. The questionnaire has seven key segments based on 33 particles that form key research constructs, along with an eighth segment that takes into account a certain number of questions related to the demographic characteristics of the respondents and a certain number of questions related to attitudes about the intensity of use of information technologies and the success of the organizations from which the respondents come. The data collection was realized in the month of November 2022 where was collected by 186 randomly selected respondents.The conceptual framework of the research will be completely based on a job analysis that is oriented towards people in the context of recognizing the impact of the application of technological innovations and digitalization processes within independent and dependent variables, which is adequately determined through questions adapted to new circumstances. In the aforementioned sense, the quality of the job description in the organization, the specialization and specification of the job in the organization, as well as the issues of setting and understanding the standards of the employees’ work in the organization, and issues related to the performance and satisfaction of employees in the context of the fourth technological revolution will be used as basic variables, i.e. research constructs. The complete research model is based on key theories of organization design and work design (Fig. 1).

Job description-JD Job specialization-JSp

Effectiveness: Employee satisfaction and performances-ESP

Job standardisation-JSt Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of the research (Authors creation)

The job description scale is composed of five items that include the job description clearly indicates the name of the company where the job is performed, the job title is clearly defined through the job description, the work that need to be done is clearly described with clearly specified and detailed activities, the job description clearly defines the responsibilities related to the job or work location and through the job description, the complexity of the job is clearly defined and the professional training required to perform it [7]. The recruiter would be able to assess resumes based on job criteria and quickly find those that best match the job description [8]. The scale of job specialization consists of five items and it is dominantly related to the following questions focused on the status of the division of labor and the necessary expertise in the context of performing the job. In this connection, attitudes related to the next set of items are questioned work specialization and digitization through clearly defined tasks encourages excellence in work, job specialization and digitization ensure the compatibility of the job description and the executor’s expertise, job specialization and digitization lead to optimization of employees’ competencies and skills, specialization and digitalization generate savings

Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee

443

related to wasteful costs and bottlenecks at work and work specialization and digitalization shorten the total time of work realization. The scale related to job standardization focuses on five basic particles that within the concrete construct focus on issues related to the existence or absence of operational procedures for the implementation of work, time at work focused on the exact following of certain procedures, crisis situations and procedures of behavior at work, the use of automation in order to ensure the consistency of the delivered value, and issues related to the fact that everyone has specific procedures to follow in their work. The final five-item scale assessed the degree in which contact-employees adhere to obeying the standard procedures while performing their job. Employees indicated their agreement with each item, using a seven-point scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to “strongly agree” [9]. When looking at the key elements that form the integral construct that represents the dependent variable, it is composed of two scales, or their average, where the first subscale has five particles and the second subscale has three particles, which makes an integral scale with eight particles. The key issues that are emphasized in this case are related to the standard performance of employees and they start from questioning the attitudes regarding better and clearer understanding of individual significance and contribution to the organization’s goals, the convergence of several tasks into one, which makes the job more interesting and challenging, better communication and message understanding between employees who work closely together, ensuring the implementation of employee tasks at the workplace in the given quality and time better recording and documentation of the communicated content and the work performed. When it comes to the part related to the employee’s behavior, which is taken as a separate set of performance, the same questions are related to their job satisfaction and the same make up the employee satisfaction scale with the following questions digitization has improved my satisfaction and i am satisfied with my work, digitization has contributed to the feeling that now i like to work even more and perform tasks with enjoyment and digitization has enhanced my sense of doing a job well, which makes me satisfied without the intention of changing jobs. To assess satisfaction in this research are used particles that take into account issues related to the improvement of employee satisfaction through the digitalization process, issues of the intensity of preference of the current job in the upcoming period in the context of digitalization, and issues related to the general increase of satisfaction through better work performing with the use of digital tools, along with a statement about the absence of desire for leaving the organization within which executor currently operates [10].

4 Sample Features In a sample of 186 randomly selected respondents, 138 respondents or 74.2% of them were men, while 48 of them, or 25.8%, were women. When it comes to the age of the respondents, 22 or 11.8% of them belong to the younger age category in the range between 18–30 years, while employees in the range between 31–40 years numbered 60 respondents or 32.3%, 69 or 37 of them, 1 are between 41–50 years old, while 35 or 18.8% of employees come from the ranks of employees who belong to the range between 51–65 years old. The educational structure of the employees is mostly related to employees who graduated from college, 109 or 58.6% of the respondents, 40 or 21.5

444

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

respondents completed a master’s degree, 22 or 11.8% completed secondary school, and finally 15 or 8.1% have completed doctoral studies. When it comes to experience at work, 29 or 15.5% have 1–5 years of experience, 27 or 14.5% have 6–10 years, while 80 respondents or 43% have between 11–20 years of experience and 50 respondents or 27%. Most respondents or more than 80% of them come from micro, small and mediumsized enterprises and most of the enterprises belong to service activities starting from trade, finance, education and other service activities, which makes up approximately 80% of the sample. At least 75% of the respondents come from companies that have innovative potential, while positive financial results and stable operations are related to more than 96% of the companies from which the respondents come.In addition to questions about the demographic characteristics of the participants, the questionnaire contained the following four scales JD(5 items); JSp(5 items); JSt(5 items) and ESP (8 items). All items in the questionnaire on all scales were presented in the form of affirmative statements for which respondents expressed their views, assessed the degree of agreement on a Likert-type scale, from 1 - I do not agree at all to 7 - I completely agree.

5 Research Findings When reading the statistical printouts from the tables obtained from the data analysis, one can notice high correlations (Pearson Correlation) between each of the independent variables with the dependent variable, which respectively amounts to JD-ESP (0.671), JSp-ESP (0.791) and JSt-ESP (0.715). Which indicates a medium to high intensity of connection and it is significant and it makes sense to test the regression relations between the independent and dependent variables of the model in the further procedure. When the coefficients of determination of individual linear regressions are observed separately for each predictor in relation to the criterion or dependent variable, it can be seen that R Square and Adjusted R Square respectively amount to JD → ESP (0.451 and 0.448), JSp → ESP (0.626 and 0.624) and JSt → ESP (0.511 and 0.508) and all the mentioned relationships were again shown as statistically significant by reading the ANOVA printout.When all three independent variables are entered into the model at the same time by reading the Model Summaryb tables (Table 1) related to multiple regression, it can be seen that the multiple correlation coefficient is quite high and amounts to 0.821, while R Square and Adjusted R Square are respectively 0.674 and 0.669, where again through the reading of ANOVA statistics shows that the stated relationship is statistically significant so that it can be claimed that the null hypothesis can be rejected and the research hypothesis that claims that the stated relationship is different from zero and positive can be accepted. The above relationships indicate that almost 67% of changes in the variance of the criterion, or dependent variable, can be explained by the action of three predictors simultaneously, or their linear combination.

Job Analysis Impact in Satisfaction and Performance of Employee

445

Table 1. Multiple regression of JD, JSp and JSt on ESP Model Summaryb Model

R

R Square

Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

1

,821a

,674

,669

,7755823

a. Predictors: (Constant), JD, JSp, JSt; b. Dependent Variable: ESP.

Based on the reading of beta coefficients from the Coefficients table, a multiple regression equation can be created as follows: ESP = 0.892 + 0.163JD + 0.462JSp + 0.183JSt. When a hierarchical model of multiple regression is applied to the specified model of multiple regression analysis by reading the output of the Model Summary table in the R Square Change part, where through the gradual introduction of each new predictor, it is clearly seen that the relations between the independent and dependent variables are significant, where the contribution of the second predictor variable through (model 2) is statistically significant and amounts to more than 20% of the additional explanation of the variance of the criterion variable, while the additional contribution to the influence of the third introduced predictor variable (model 3) is significantly lower and amounts to about 2%. Regardless of the stated situation, the indicated indicators do not point to redundancy and the exclusion of the last variable from the model, so that the model as set up remains consistent and creates quality prerequisites for conclusions related to behavior, i.e. employee satisfaction and efficiency, and as such can be used in scientific and business conclusion and decision making..

6 Conclusional Interpretation When thinking about the impact of technological innovations, it is necessary to highlight the key parameters of workplace design that represent the outputs of the job analysis process, namely the job description, job standardization, job specification and other important elements that are observed in this paper as key parameters of workplace design through the analysis of them as certain latent variables, i.e. constructs as independent variables of the model in relation to employee performance, which include their behavior and satisfaction. Study results show that job standardization and job satisfaction exert significant positive effects on service quality. Empirical evidence also suggests that job standardization has a significant positive impact on job satisfaction, while work specialization influence employee development by shaping the level of training and mentorship, skill growth, career advancement, and efficiency.

446

ˇ E. Cizmi´ c et al.

On the basis of the above and on the basis of reading the height of the variance inflation factor and the tolerance threshold with clear indicators of a significant relationship, it can be said that the multiple regression model gives a clear picture that well-defined workplaces with clearly defined elements of specialization and standardization of work significantly determine the satisfaction and efficiency of employees in the job And in conditions that are impregnating with the fourth technological revolution and digitization.

References 1. Harris, M.A., Snaith, B., Adamson, H.K., Foster, B., Woznitza, N.: An analysis of advanced and specialist posts in diagnostic radiography: Do job descriptions describe advanced practice? Radiography 27(2), 437-442 (2021). ISSN 1078-8174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi. 2020.10.008. Pg. 438 2. Clampitt, P.G.: The questionnaire approach from: Auditing Organizational Communication, A handbook of research, theory and practice Routledge (2009). https://doi.org/10.4324/978 0203883990.ch3. Pg. 76, Accessed 22 Dec 2022 3. Arnold, J.A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J.A., Drasgow, F.: The empowering leadership questionnaire: the construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. J. Organizat. Beh. 249–269 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:33 4. Tauceana, I., Tamasila, M., Negru-Strauti, G.: Study on management styles and managerial power types for a large organization. Procedia Soc. Beh. Sci. 66–75 (2016). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.09 5. Miriam, H., Dominik, S., Guido, H.: The automation of leadership functions: would people trust decision algorithms? Comput. Hum. Beh. 23 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020. 106635 6. SenthilKumaran, V, Annamalai, S.: Towards an automated system for intelligent screening of candidates for recruitment using ontology mapping EXPERT. Int. J. Metadata, Semantics Ontol. 8, 56–64 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMSO.2013.054184. Pg. 58 7. Sridevi G.M., Kamala Suganthi, S.: AI based suitability measurement and prediction between job description and job seeker profiles. Int. J. Inf. Manage. Data Insights, 2(2), 100–109 (2022). ISSN 2667–0968, pg. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjimei.2022.100109. Pg. 3 8. Tejaswini, K., Umadevi, V., Kadiwal, S.M., Revanna, S.: Design and Development of Machine Learning based Resume Ranking System, Global Transitions Proceedings, 2021 (2021), ISSN 2666-285X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gltp.2021.10.002. Pg. 374 9. Hsieh, Y.-M., Hsieh, A.-T.: Enhancement of service quality with job standardisation. Serv. Industries J. 21(3), 147-166 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1080/714005029. Pg 155 10. García-Rodríguez, F.J., Dorta-Afonso, D., González-de-la-Rosa, M.: Hospitality diversity management and job satisfaction: the mediating role of organizational commitment across individual differences. Int. J. Hospitality Manage. 91, 102698 (2020). ISSN 0278-4319, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102698. Pg. 6

Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month Interdisciplinary Innovation and Commercialization Course Alyssa Bagoyo, Grace Kilbourn-Barber, Spencer Egbert, Isaac Murri, Meghan Sarles, Ethan Ritchie, and Bryan Howell(B) Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The Crocker Innovation Fellowship is a transformative, interdisciplinary, one-year innovation experience for undergraduate students at Brigham Young University (BYU) from any major. Five teams of six students study and practice the principles of entrepreneurial innovation, drawing on ideas from design thinking, entrepreneurship, product development, and agile software. This paper features the experience of one team of students from chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, entrepreneurial management, information systems, and industrial design majors in our start-to-finish innovative and commercialization process for Plant Au Pair, a smart Internet of Things (IoT) plant health product. It uses variable lighting and mobile phone notifications to alert indoor plant owners when and how much to water their plants based on their specific plant species, home temperature, and humidity. Explanations and demonstrations in the mobile app help customers to understand these variables in plant growth and health. The app allows owners to create plant personas for each plant, creating names, birth dates, and personalities. This course provides a fast-paced environment and collaboration with students from other disciplines while providing a real-world understanding of building a product and company from the ground up. Keywords: multi-disciplinary education · student start-up · product design · educational collaborations · design-driven innovation · entrepreneurship

1 Introduction Entrepreneurship and interdisciplinary collaboration are closely linked [1, 2], as entrepreneurs often need to draw on a variety of disciplines to bring their ideas to fruition. There is a growing trend toward fostering interdisciplinary entrepreneurship at universities, as scholars and students from different fields come together to tackle complex problems and find creative solutions to address real-world challenges in areas such as healthcare, sustainability, law, and technology [3–5]. The Crocker Innovation Fellowship Program at Brigham Young University (BYU) promotes interdisciplinary innovation by providing specialized experiential learning opportunities where undergraduates work with experts from a variety of different fields, apply what they have © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 447–455, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_48

448

A. Bagoyo et al.

learned in the classroom to real-world situations, and are provided with resources to create and validate viable businesses. Students go through an application process to get into the year long course by providing their CV and an essay and participating in an interview with course faculty. Thirty students are selected for admittance from around 80 applications. The instructors come from Entrepreneurship, Industrial Design, Mechanical Engineering, and Law, and there is also a business school staff member who manages the program’s finances. The instructors assign teams with students from the different majors to cultivate interdisciplinary collaboration [6, 7]. Teams are provided a broad topic such as “Homeowners and Landscaping” or “Moving Companies” to conduct research and identify experience pains. Teams ideate potential products to address problems within their assigned industry, innovate with prototypes [7, 8], and build a business out of a functioning IoT product. The class was to meet twice a week for 75 min, with the expectation that outside of that time, each student was to additionally dedicate ten hours a week to working on the product. One class period was reserved for a lecture from the professors, with the occasional guest speaker. Lectures provided specific instruction on various topics regarding entrepreneurship such as business model validation, start-up technique mastery, and raising capital through investors [7]. Other times, classes are considered “workdays” for teams to meet and work together. During the other class period, student teams would meet, every other week, with the professors and conduct a corporate style “Design Review,” where the teams reported what they have been working on, ask questions, and receive individual and disciplinary feedback. The course is privately and generously funded by Gary and Ann Crocker. Their donation covers all necessary materials, tools, prototyping, and travel costs students need to develop their products. This includes a $1,000 USD stipend given to each student per semester to cover the student’s individual needs. Once the course ends, funding from the Crocker Foundation ends, and students are expected to secure funding on their own. As one of the teams in the Crocker Innovation Fellowship 2022 cohort, we will present our educational experience behind the creation of our new product, Plant Au Pair, an Internet of Things (IoT) device that revolutionizes plant care by providing realtime monitoring and maintenance of plant health. Through this product, we provide your plant a voice and transform the way people nurture and connect with their plants.

2 Our Team Process In the first week, teams decide how to structure their business functions, communication, and decisions making. While the professors helped by suggesting various methods of communication [7], students were free to develop their own systems. After class each week, our team would discuss our goals and how we would complete them. We would then use video conferencing software to conduct weekly follow-up meetings outside of class to check in on each other’s progress and discuss any issues. We also communicated with each other via text messages or instant messaging platforms such as Slack to complete tasks. Our team’s progress and research information were organized on Miro, where we would map out our week and keep track of each team member’s tasks. We used our Miro board to report to our professors during the bi-weekly design reviews. See

Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month

449

Fig. 1. Other software we used included Dropbox, Canva, Instagram, Facebook, Wix, Qualtrics, Solidworks, and Google Drive.

Fig. 1. Miro was one of our team’s main collaboration tools to document progress.

3 Problem Recognition Our team was given an initial topic, “Homeowners and Landscaping,” to investigate and find the pains people in this area experience. This required each team member to carry out both primary and secondary research and conduct interviews and independent investigations [7]. A Qualtrics survey was created, asking general questions about the homeowner landscaping experience, and disseminated through channels such as Instagram stories, Facebook posts, both private feeds and public groups, and any other way that large groups of people could be reached. The goal was to immerse ourselves in this topic to understand these people and their unmet needs. We gathered and analyzed over 1,100 interviews and survey responses. 3.1 Identifying the Pain Once all the data was gathered, it was sorted and analyzed together as a team. We discussed themes we discovered, decided which topics to research further, and started to ideate possible pain solutions. We found that watering was one of the biggest pain points of taking care of lawns and plants. Wealso learned that while watering lawns was a major pain point, it already had a large variety of existing solutions. However, we also learned watering indoor plants was a topic with which plant owners strongly felt they struggled and needed help. We decided to dive into this pain.

450

A. Bagoyo et al.

3.2 Identifying the Target Market To create a solution, our team needed to deeply understand whom we were helping and create a persona we could design for. We described our “plant parents” as individuals who are emotionally attached to their “plant children.” They are deeply invested in caring for their “children,” but because they are not plant experts, they don’t know how to accomplish this goal. Because we were specific about who these individuals were, we were able to find a lot of data regarding their needs. We found many “plant parents” to whom we could talk and found that plant parents not only needed help understanding the watering needs of their houseplants but also needed a way to communicate with each “plant child” to know when it needed water. The “plant parent” persona we defined helped us to generate various ideas to fill that unmet need.

4 Solution Exploration and Development 4.1 Existing Solutions Existing products that help plant parents take care of their plants are capacitance-based soil moisture sensors, probes, and meters. These products are often unreliable in their measurements and can’t be calibrated by the owners for their specific species of plant. The sensors should indicate if the soil is damp, but we found that most affordable devices were very inaccurate. People who use these products often end up killing their plants. Most of these probes are also coupled with a mobile application to help the person interact with the device. Unfortunately, the unreliability of the measurements renders these applications problematic. There are also stand-alone applications that function more as a calendar or water schedule for your plant but also don’t consider the needs of different plant species or tell you how much water to use. 4.2 Prototype Iterations Our v1 prototype was a capacitance-based soil moisture sensor. This was before we discovered how inaccurate these sensors and probes were. In response, we were determined to make a more accurate capacitance-based sensor. The v1 prototype would have the hardware housed in a box that would sit adjacent to the plant. When the plant needed water, a light would illuminate on top of the box to signal to the plant parents that the plant needed to be watered. Our initial tests with this prototype helped us see just how inaccurate sensors are and how our sensor was just like the other sensors currently on the market. See Fig. 2. Our v2 prototype used weight to make more accurate measurements. We used load sensors and an ESP32 microcontroller with a hard coded algorithm for specific plant species. The v2 also had an LED light that would light up when the algorithm determined that the plant needed water. See Figs. 3 and 4. The algorithms needed to be individually hard coded before sending them out for user testing because we weren’t tracking any of the weights with a database. Our goal was to get more accurate measurements and keep the plant alive better than the capacitance-based sensors. We were extremely successful

Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month

Fig. 2. The first iteration of our prototype, v1, uses a capacitance-based soil moisture sensor.

Fig. 3. Our team solsering to build hardware for v2.

451

Fig. 4. Completed hardware setup for v2.

with our tests and managed to keep a variety of plants alive better than when using the probes. Our v3 prototype, integrated a database so that we didn’t need to hard code any of the algorithms. The v3 had Wi-Fi capabilities and could interact from anywhere if they were connected to the tester’s Wi-Fi network. This allowed us to gather data needed for our Algorithm’s calculations and store data about different species of plants. We also added a feature where multiple LED lights could be programmed to match different plant personalities. This allowed plant parents to interact with their plants more, and plants could light up with different colors to send different messages about their watering needs, thus giving the plant a voice. This iteration tested whether we could provide a functional product that wasn’t hard-coded and whether the plant personality lighting feature helped users connect on a deeper level with their plants. The overwhelming response to both tests was positive. See Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Our current working prototype, v3.

452

A. Bagoyo et al.

4.3 Database Construction A critical advantage of any IoT device is that of collecting, interpreting, and applying valuable data. For this to occur a real-time database was needed. This led us to choose a NoSQL database, allowing scalability and connection points with many unique devices simultaneously. This required us to learn how the selected NoSQL database integrated with each individual unit to store unique IDs paired with each. Integrating the hardware and software proved to be a challenging task where we needed to pool our collective knowledge from our different disciplines to be successful. It was simpler to use the real-time database for prototyping and rapidly iterating, but we realize that in the future we will want to move to a relational database to analyze relations between data and to combine queries. 4.4 Branding Just as important to our product itself is the way that we present it to the market. We desired to have a fun and interactive brand that reflected the user experience by selecting plant-friendly appropriate colors, fonts, and designs that would accurately convey our message in the product, mobile app, exhibition booths, product packaging, and company marketing materials, such as trade show shirts and advertising. 4.5 App and Plant Personality Experience For the Plant Au Pair experience to connect users with their plant, the mobile application needed to amplify the emotional connection between each individual and their plant. Simplicity was important and a step-by-step walkthrough of how to calibrate the plant with the device as part of the “birthing” process was designed. Plant personalities allow users to connect with their plants and provide fun interaction. This is an experience feature, rather than an engineering feature. Our data showed us that younger customers desired to connect emotionally with their plants and responded positively to the idea of plant personalities. For older users, the engineering features sufficed, and they can skip this experience in the app if they wish. See Figs. 6 and 7.

5 Customer Validation 5.1 Online Engagement To ensure that our solution accurately solved customers’ pain, product validation [9] was conducted throughout the entire design and development process. Early on, we tested prototype mock-ups through ads and online Qualtrics surveys. Facebook and Instagram ads were employed to measure the overall engagement and test competing product designs and functions. We used surveys to further target key demographics and collect specific data that led to the creation of our company name, branding style, and current product design.

Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month

Fig. 6. Part of the Plant Au Pair website featuring the product logo and tagline.

453

Fig. 7. Plant Au Pair mobile app featuring the brand colors and part of the set-up phase.

5.2 Consulting with Industry Professionals Once the design of our physical housing was determined, we reached out to several industry professionals who specialize in horticulture, plant biomechanics, and engineering. Each expert individually helped us overcome specific hurdles including product functionality, testing plant health metrics, and overall plant knowledge. One expert, the head of the BYU Life Sciences Greenhouse, provided access to the University greenhouses to test our product on the different species of indoor plants. Each plant we support on our platform must first go through testing to create a “baseline” for that species. The greenhouse contains hundreds of different plants, and we typically have 10–12 units testing different plants at any given time. The greenhouse further allowed us to replicate different environments so that we had valid data for different scenarios. It also helped us gather insights into how humidity, sunlight, and temperature levels translate to individual plant needs. The connections we made with industry professionals opened doors that speed up the product development process saving us time and money. 5.3 Trade Shows To validate our product, we first went to local nurseries and set up a booth. These first public displays allowed us to test different data collection techniques such as online surveys, face-to-face interviews, and writing specific comments made by customers. We developed a pitch to attract interest and learned how to speak with customers and receive honest feedback. See Fig. 8. This included asking open-ended questions, showing excitement for our product, and mentioning that we were university students. Our team also attended a Home Expo trade show where we demonstrated a functioning product in a booth. See Fig. 9. We recorded customer reactions and collected willingness-to-pay data. We received data on how we might improve the product and why they might be hesitant about purchasing the product. In two days, we accumulated

454

A. Bagoyo et al.

Fig. 8. Example of a Plant Au Pair poster that was used at trade shows.

Fig. 9. The Plant Au Pair booth at the Salt Lake City Home Expo.

over 50 units on our product sales waitlist. The trade show confirmed and validated our product solution and gave us deeper insight into our customers’ pain, preferences, and needs. 5.4 Beta Testers We currently have ten beta testers using our product. Each tester has different levels of experience taking care of houseplants, but all consider themselves plant parents. All participants were specifically chosen and have been instructed on how to use the product and to record their experiences periodically. All testers received a different species of plant, along with a journal to document thoughts, struggles, and potential improvements. This experience allows us to understand how customers interact with our product without us being present. It has revealed several technical and design problems we need to address before final design. 5.5 Current Business Model As of last year, the indoor plant market was valued at $17.93 billion USD with an annual growth rate of just under 5% [10]. This is a thriving market and will continue to grow in the coming years. Our current business model consists of three different revenue streams. The first, selling our product directly to customers. Our product’s current selling price is around $100 USD with a $90 gross profit per unit parts and material cost. This price has been tested and accepted by customers through trade shows, surveys, and in-person interviews [7]. The second comes through our app in the form of ads. We will offer a free version of our app with ads. The third revenue stream comes through a subscriptionbased, premium version of the app. This premium version includes more features that will allow plant parents to connect with plants and charts to help them see how their plant has grown over time.

Student Educational Experiences in a 12-Month

455

6 Conclusion The Crocker Innovation Fellowship Program introduced and guided a group of students from different disciplines to problem-solve together, innovate a product, and build a viable company from the ground up. As the course ends, all intellectual property will be transferred to the student’s newly created LLC upon submission of an operating agreement approved by both team members and course professors. To date, our studentrun company has received over $3,500 in funding for product and business development and a $1,000 stipend per student, per semester, for a total of $15,500 USD for our team. Since completing the course, we have also received $2,400 in outside funding from different competitions. We plan to use these new funds to further develop our product and launch our company by January 2024. As course participants, we worked in an industry-like interdisciplinary team that allowed us to merge our individual skill sets and subject matter expertise to achieve a common goal. This experience has opened our eyes to the profound value of interdisciplinary collaboration to create meaningful solutions and solve real-life problems as undergraduate university students. Several of our team members have secured fulltime employment because of this course. We acknowledge that without the generous help of funding from the Crocker sponsors and the shared knowledge from the program professors, we would not have gained this pivotal proficiency in interdisciplinary entrepreneurship.

References 1. IDEO. The field guide to human-centereddesign: Design kit. San Francisco: IDEO.org (2015) 2. Sanders, E.B.-N., Stappers, P.J.: Convivial toolbox: Generative research for the front end of design. BIS Publishers, Amsterdam (2012) 3. Anderson, C., Howell, B.: Design thinking in law school: a case study of SoloSuit. In: Conference proceedings for the Academy for Design Innovation Management Conference 2019 (ADIM19), London, UK, June 18–21 4. Morris, M.H., Kuratko, D.F., Cornwall, J.R.: Entrepreneurship programs and the modern university. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham (2013) 5. Kovacevic, A., et al.: Application of “Codeve” methodology in transatlantic student design project. In: Conference Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education; Design Education: Diversity or Conformity? (E&PDE18), pp. 726–731, London, UK (2018) 6. Mattson, C.A.: Interdisciplinary Teams. The BYU Design Review, February 2020. https:// www.designreview.byu.edu/collections/interdisciplinary-teams 7. Hatch, N.W.: Innovate like an entrepreneur: Integrating design thinking and lean entrepreneurship for successful entrepreneurial innovation, seeking a publisher (2018) 8. Mattson, C.A.: How to Ideate as a Team. The BYU Design Review, November 2019. https:// www.designreview.byu.edu/collections/how-to-ideate-as-a-team 9. Mattson, C.A.: Verification versus validation. The BYU Design Review, November 2020. https://www.designreview.byu.edu/collections/verification-versus-validation?rq=verifi cation 10. “Global Indoor Plants Market – industry trends and forecast to 2029. Indoor Plants Market Size, Industry Trends & Forecast Predictions, 01 January 2021. https://www.databridgema rketresearch.com/reports/global-indoor-plants-market. Accessed 29 Dec 2022

New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education Darko Lovrec(B) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia [email protected]

Abstract. New technologies that are present within the concepts of Industry I4.0 and the increasingly present I5.0 or Society 5.0 require the mastery of appropriate, even completely new, knowledge and skills. Due to the extremely rapid development and introduction of new technologies in the modern industrial environment, in most cases they represent a considerable obstacle to the existing personnel, experts employed in the industry. The knowledge that today’s employees acquired years ago during their education is therefore often either outdated or non-existent, because of the need for these skills, e.g. it didn’t exist three decades ago. Likewise, all modern knowledge must be possessed by an expert who is educated in the present time. The paper presents the starting points and guidelines for the reform of higher education for a green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0. The outcomes of the reform should be suitable for those educated in regular programmes, as well as for those who want to acquire additional necessary knowledge and competences. Keywords: society 5.0 · higher education · reform · starting points · guidelines

1 Introduction With the development and consequent changes in society, the needs for suitable skills also change. Since all knowledge becomes obsolete over the years, continuous education, improvement and acquisition of new knowledge and skills suitable for building, using, and mastering modern machines and devices, is necessary. Because of this, there is a need for lifelong learning and training. This is even more pronounced in the last two decades, in which we have witnessed an extremely intense emergence and introduction of new technologies. This applies not only to the industrial environment and the entire production process, but also to our daily tasks. Due to the presence of ever-new technologies occasional professional education and training is no longer enough. Radical changes and new approaches are needed, which apply not only to the national level, but also to the wider community, for example, at the European level. Based on these needs (so that we do not “fall too far behind” in the field of Modern technologies), a European project was created that deals with the reform of higher education for the green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0. The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 456–463, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_49

New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education

457

basic purpose of the reform is to establish a system that responds quickly to the needs of the environment and creates highly qualified workers for the professional profiles of the future [1-10]. Figure 1 shows the basic characteristics of the individual stages of human society development. As seen in various studies, a lot of attention is paid to the “transformation” of society and the environment, especially in industrially and technologically developed environments, such as Japan.

Fig. 1. Smart society – Society 5.0 (Source: Government of Japan [1, 2])

Thus, there are many studies and publications of a very “recent date” (e.g. for example, in the years between 2019 and 2022), among which are also government strategies dealing with this topic [1]. Similar studies, the direction of the development of society, including studies related to the necessary changes in educational processes, are also present increasingly in individual countries across Europe. Based on this, a common EU strategy was created and general EU guidelines were given, which should be followed by national studies and projects.

2 Society 5.0 and the Need to Renew the Education System Society 5.0 is a Japanese development initiative that aims to achieve coexistence between the virtual and real worlds, balance economic development and consider social challenges, while ensuring a more innovative and sustainable people-oriented society. Such a society represents the next stage of Industry I4.0, when new technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, and the Internet of Things will be used more widely. Apart from the technological aspect of Society 5.0, business is also considered as another aspect. Society 5.0 wants to promote an innovative business ecosystem in which different companies will cooperate in a mutual and beneficial way, considering the sustainability

458

D. Lovrec

aspect. People will be (more) satisfied if sustainable development and environmental protection are also taken care of. This society strives for sustainable development, in accordance with the United Nations SDG – Sustainable Development Goals) All three aspects together represent a new style of society of the future. 2.1 Reasons and Background for the Reform of Higher Education More and more people in Europe and around the world need to update their knowledge, skills and competences in order to close the gap between formal education and the rapidly growing need for new skills. The Covid-19 pandemic and its recovery, as well as the presence of digitization and informatics in all areas of everyday life, have accelerated changes in the way of living, learning and working. One of the major challenges faced by European companies and employers, in addition to disruptions and delays in the supply of components, is also an inadequately educated workforce. At the same time, workers are faced with unprecedented changes in the way work is organised. At the same time, due to the digital and green transition, task profiles and knowledge and skill requirements are changing fundamentally. All workers should be able to anticipate the needs of the labour market and adapt to them better, through continuous training and retraining. Only in this way can workers respond to the needs of their current workplace or when transitioning to new jobs in the increasingly important “green and digital sector”. People need simple and effective access to quality learning in various forms and environments, as this is the only way they will develop their professional competences. To this end, education and additional training systems must become more flexible and offer solutions for more accessible and learner-centred learning in various fields of expertise. 2.2 Starting Points for Renewal and the Green Transition at the EU Level The way to achieve the “green transition” is given by several documents and starting points, both within the European Community and beyond. Let us mention briefly some of the most important ones [11]: – "The European Green Deal” and the “EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030”, highlighting the key role of schools, higher-and other education institutions when working with everyone involved (students, parents, teachers and the wider community). – The “United Nations Sustainable Development Goals” [12], particularly Goal 4.7, calls on everyone to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to promote sustainable development by 2030, including education on the importance of sustainable development and lifestyles. – "The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training” in the realisation of the European education area and beyond (2021–2030), the European pillar of social rights and the renewed European Research Area (ERA) contain calls for the orientation of education and training policies and investments in these areas to an inclusive green and digital transition for future resilience and prosperity.

New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education

459

– "The European Framework of Reference for Key Competences for Lifelong Learning” [13], sets out the key competences intended to support people across Europe in acquiring the skills and competences needed for health, employability and social inclusion in a time of rapid and radical change. – "The European Skills Program” [14] is to support the development of a set of basic green skills for the labour market, to form a generation of environmentally aware professionals and green economic subjects, and to integrate environmental and climate issues into higher education and research. In Europe, we need highly qualified professionals to be among the leaders in the field of sustainable technologies. – The “European Climate Pact” calls on individuals, communities, and organisations to participate in climate action and build a greener Europe, by providing opportunities to learn about climate change, develop and implement solutions, and network with others to increase the impact of those solutions. – The “Action Plan for Digital Education” [15] provides a vision for high-quality and widely accessible European digital education and underlines the great importance of digital technologies. – The “Recommendation of the Council on Learning for Environmental Sustainability”, (in preparation), sets out the intention to support Member States, schools, higher education institutions and all other education providers to provide learners with knowledge and skills in the fields of sustainability, climate change and the environment. – "The European Competence Framework for Sustainability” [16], defines the competences needed for a green transition, including critical thinking, self-initiative, respect for nature, and understanding the impact that everyday actions and decisions have on the environment and global climate. – New European Bauhaus [17] is an EU initiative that is part of the European Green Deal and a reflection of the EU’s goal to create an aesthetic, sustainable and inclusive environment, products and lifestyles. It promotes a new lifestyle where sustainability goes hand in hand with style, which will accelerate the green transition in various economic sectors such as construction, the furniture industry, fashion, our societies, and other areas of our everyday life. Sustainability transition towards Society 5.0 is socio-technical, based on coevolutionary processes between the society, technology and institutions. Transformation towards sustainability requires: – Novel business models, – Change in consumer behaviour and engagement with nature, and – New ways of learning, developing and conveying knowledge. Such processes are: – Highly complex and rooted in, – Defined by uncertainty – no proven models (walking on uncharted territories), – Require experimentation and systematic learning.

460

D. Lovrec

As part of the green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0, several pilot projects are being implemented for the purpose of renewing HE – higher education programmes, which address many issues. These refer to the Ideation, Orientation, Iteration and Impact of the project. [18] Such questions are, for example: – What is the shape of pilot studies‘ composition at your university? – What are pilots about? What are the goals? Who is involved in finalising? – How are these pilots connected to the guidelines? To the entire higher education reforms at national level? – How do they cover the green mainstream dimension? – What could happen during implementation? What learning could surface? – What are we likely to adapt and change along the way? – What impact would you like to achieve with private pilots? With the set of pilots at university level? Based on these starting questions, it is first necessary to review the current situation in society carefully, at universities regarding the educational programmes implemented, and, above all, the situation of educated personnel in industry. If we focus only on the orientation of the project, then, in accordance with Climate-KIC, we arrive at the following items, which determine the breadth and content of the necessary actions [18]: – – – – – – – –

Internal transformation of each HE Institution, Transformation of HE Institutions in relation with external stakeholders, Support for HE Institution staff and teachers, Quality system for sustainability, Micro-credentials in sustainability, Education for Green transition, Compliance with the European Sustainability competence Framework, and Compliance with the new European Bauhaus.

Considering the above, it is a very extensive transformation of the higher education system, which should lead to the set goals as quickly as possible and reduce the deficit in individual areas. 2.3 Goals of the Reform at the National Level EU members must also follow the mentioned goals and intentions at their national level and include them in their development strategies. In the case of Slovenia, one of these is the “Resolution on the national programme of higher education until 2030 – Green and creative development of higher education activity, based on excellence and openness for the benefit of the wider society”. [19] Here, education and science are recognized as key areas for achieving the sustainable development of society, for the green and digital transition, and for the development of the smart society. The document, or the contents of the document, are very broad, and cover the company as a whole, and in view of the set strategic goals it is also necessary to change or adapt the higher education system.

New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education

461

Among the measures to achieve strategic goals in the field of Social Development and the higher education system is the promotion of higher education as a place of research, where appropriate solutions for the future can be tested safely, which assumes that higher education will be included in all priority strategic areas of social development, and will address key challenges such as: climate change, loss of biodiversity, green technologies, demographic changes, healthcare, biotechnologies, the environment, agri-food, Artificial Intelligence, digital transformation, smart specialisation strategy, transition to a sustainable society, as well as migration and equal opportunities or social equality. [19]. As part of the targeted transformation of higher educationprogrammes for the future, it is envisaged that the modern Study Programmes offered will consider the European Green Agreement, the digital transformation of society and the transition to a sustainable society, ensured good employability and professional competence of graduates of both genders and competitiveness on the domestic and international labour market. In the transition to Society 5.0, great emphasis is also placed on adapting, and thus renewing, the education system. One such project is the Slovenian national project called Reform of higher education for a green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0, which provides guidelines for the renewal of professional higher education with a proposal for an implementation plan. [20].

3 Conclusion The increasingly present new technologies, both in industry and in everyday life, require new skills. This is especially true for the current transition period from the Industry I4.0 system to I5.0 – Society 5.0. Both those who are already employed and those who are just getting their education need new skills. These require the renewal of educational programmes, especially in the higher education system. In the last decade, all technologically developed countries have been dealing with the method and strategy of how to introduce new knowledge into curricula as quickly as possible, and how to fill in the missing gaps in new knowledge. Thus, at the level of the European Community, a project was created for a Green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0, which also includes changes in higher education, including lifelong education supported by modern educational approaches. The paper presents the starting points for the reform of higher education and education in Europe, which is required by Society 5.0. According to the schedule, the reform should be carried out by 2030, and all its members are committed to it. Acknowledgement. This work is a part of the project “The Recovery and Resilience Plan (NOO, No. 3300-22-3522)”, financed by the Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation, and the European Union – NextGenerationEU.

462

D. Lovrec

References 1. Gov J: Science, Technology, and Innovation Basic Plan, Government of Japan (2021). 93 pages, https://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/english/index.html 2. Uehara, I.: Toward the realization of smart regional societies. To Be the Social ICT Pioneer, NTT Technical Rev. 19(4) (2021). 8 pages 3. Hitachi-UTokyo Laboratory: Society 5.0 - A People-centric Super-smart Society, Springer open (2020). ISBN 978-981-15-2988-7 ISBN 978-981-15-2989-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-981-15-2989-4. 189 pages 4. Mytra, P., Wardawaty, W., Akmal, A., Kusnadi, K., Rahmatullah, R.: Society 5.0 in Education: Higher Order Thinking Skills; BIS-HSS 2020, November 18, Indonesia Copyright © 2021 EAI http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.18-11-2020.2311812 (2021) 5. N.N.: Digital transformation in the manufacturing industry: challenges and accelerators, www: https://www.i-scoop.eu/industry-4-0/society-5-0/. Accessed 22 Dec 2022 6. N.N: How Japan is Preparing its Students for Society 5.0, www: https://foreignpolicy.com/ sponsored/how-japan-is-preparing-its-students-for-society-5-0/. Accessed 22 Dec 2022 7. N.N.: Education Management: What Changes with Education 5.0?, SYDLE, https:// www.sydle.com/blog/education-management-61f0548cedf3b925976d1fdd/. Accessed 30 Oct 2022 8. Tavares, M.C., Azevedo, G., Marques, R.P.: The Challenges and Opportunities of Era 5.0 for a More Humanistic and Sustainable Society—A Literature Review; Societies 2022, 12, 149 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12060149, 21 pages 9. Aktürk, C.,Talan, T.,Cubukçu Çerasi, C.: Education 4.0 and University 4.0 from Society 5.0 Perspective; October 2022; DOI:https://doi.org/10.1109/ACIT54803.2022.9913099; Conference: 12th International Conference on Advanced Computer Information Technologies (ACIT’2022); Spišská Kapitula, Slovakia, 7 pages (2022) 10. Herabudin: Education Policy in the Era of Society 5.0: How is the Transformation of Higher Education Policy in Indonesia, Journal of Positive School Psychology 2022, Vol.6, No. 4, pp. 9631– 9639, (2022) 11. N.N.: Smernice za prenovo visokošolskega strokovnega izobraževanja s predlogom izvedbenega naˇcrta, (Delovna verzija 1.1), Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, Znanost in šport, Republika Slovenija (Engl.: Guidelines for the renovation of higher education professional education with a proposal for an implementation plan, (Working version 1.1), Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, Republic of Slovenia), 47 pages, 4–2022, (2022) 12. N.N.: Kazalniki ciljev trajnostnega razvoja, Statistiˇcni urad Republike Slovenije (Engl.: Sustainable Development Goals Indicators, Statistical Office, Republik of Slovenia). https://www. stat.si/Pages/en/goals 13. N.N.: Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning,text valid for EGP. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/SL/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.C_.2018. 189.01.0001.01.SLV&toc=OJ%3AC%3A2018%3A189%3ATOC 14. N.N.: Sklep EU 2021/820 Evropskega parlamenta in sveta, 20. 5 2021 o strateškem inovacijskem programu Evropskega inštituta za inovacije in tehnologijo, (EIT) za obdobje 2021– 2027: (Engl.: Decision EU 2021/820 of the European Parliament and of the Council, 20.5.2021 on the strategic innovation program of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) for the period 2021–2027. https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/SL/TXT/HTML/?uri= CELEX:32021D0820&qid=1650872632889&from=EN 15. N.N.: Naˇcrt za digitalno izobraževanje (Engl.: Digital Education Plan). https://education.ec. europa.eu/sl/akcijski-nacrt-za-digitalno-izobrazevanje-2021-2027 16. N.N.: GreenComp - The European sustainability competence framework, JRC Publications Repository. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC128040

New Technologies and Updating of Higher Education

463

17. N.N. New European Bauhaus, EU. https://europa.eu/new-european-bauhaus/index_en 18. N.N.: Climate KIC -Knowledge and Innovation Community, Co-founded by the European Community, (dosegljivo na: https://www.climate-kic.org/) 19. MIZŠ: Resolucija o nacionalnem programu visokega šolstva do 2030 (Engl.: Resolution on the National Higher Education Program until 2030), (Uradni list RS, št. 49/22), p 19 (2022). http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=RESO139 20. MIZŠ: Smernice za prenovo visokošolskega strokovnega izobraževanja s predlogom izvedbenega naˇcrta (working version 1.3), Ministrstvo za izobraževanje znanost in šport Republike Slovenije, (Engl.: Guidelines for the renovation of higher education professional education with a proposal for an implementation plan, Working version 1.3, Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, Republic of Slovenia), 47 pages, (2022)

Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills Darko Lovrec(B) and Vito Tiˇc(B) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia {darko.lovrec,vito.tic}@um.si

Abstract. The rapid introduction and use of new technologies consequently requires the mastery of relevant, even completely new, knowledge and skills. Thus, a gap appears between the knowledge that currently employed workers acquired during their education years ago, and the knowledge they need now. For the knowledge and skills to be adequate for mastering new technologies, it is necessary to receive additional education or requalification. Thus, several options are available, such as various shorter or longer courses or trainings, independent study, internal supplementary education, and the like. These activities are not regulated systematically. The providers of various trainings are different, as are the individual contents, which often take place at a local or internal level. One of the possibilities of how to reduce the gaps in the necessary new knowledge in the field of New Technologies as quickly and efficiently as possible, is the introduction of micro-credentials. The paper presents the starting points of the European Union which support the development, implementation and regulate the mutual recognition of microcredentials, both between individual institutions, companies, sectors and within the EU area. Micro-credentials enable the effective implementation of lifelong learning, which is critical to providing everyone with the knowledge, skills and competencies they need to succeed in their personal and professional lives. Keywords: New Technologies · EU-education reform · Micro-credentials · objectives · implementation

1 Introduction From the era of the Fourth industrial revolution, the so-called Industry I4.0, (also called Digitalization Society or Informatics Society), we are moving increasingly faster to a higher new one, to the Knowledge Society (Smart Society or Society 5.0). Within the framework of one generation of employees, we first went “from kilograms to bits”, but now we are reaching the level of new values that we create through cooperation with several different systems. We plan to standardise data formats, models, system architecture, etc., and we develop the necessary personnel resources. In addition, it is expected that there will be improvements in the development of intellectual property, international standardisation, IoT system building technologies, big data analysis technologies, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 464–472, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_50

Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills

465

Artificial Intelligence technologies, etc., which will increase our competitiveness in the “super smart society” [1]. Here, however, there is a gap between the scope and type of knowledge that current employees have acquired as part of their education in the past, and between the knowledge that is needed for the present time, for the current state of technology. This gap is recognised around the world and everyone solves it in their own way. Based on this cognition and the need for changes in the education system, the Council of the European Union (EU) adopted the Recommendation on learning for the green transition and sustainable development on June 16, 2022. The recommendation is a key policy statement that highlights the key role of education and training in efforts to achieve the goals of the European Green Deal. The accompanying Staff Working Document serves as a Handbook for practitioners, with examples of good practice [2]. Within the framework of these recommendations, the following is stated regarding the need for changes in the education system: «Education and training must respond to the challenges and realities of the 21st century, meet learners’ needs and help them to deal with the feelings of stress and anxiety experienced in the face of a planetary crisis. To equip learners with the competences needed to shape a more sustainable economy and society, learning for the green transition needs to be transformative and interdisciplinary. It needs to focus on cognitive, practical, and socio-emotional skills, and go beyond mere awareness of the climate crisis, helping learners to develop a sense of agency. Education should equip learners of all ages with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to act for more sustainability, and to understand and participate in the decision-making processes necessary to enact lasting, structural change.» [2–4]. Institutions at the national level must also follow these guidelines and recommendations, and approach changes in the education system in the form of pilot projects. In Slovenia, for example, this task was approached with the pilot project Reform of higher education for a green and flexible transition to society 5.0. The pilot project covers both the renovation and adaptation of the content of regular higher education, as well as the method of continuing education through the introduction of micro-credentials. The latter is necessary, not only for the additional acquisition of relevant modern skills for the needs of modern industry and society, but also for achieving the necessary target percentage of working people with higher education across the EU [5, 6].

2 Necessary Share of Highly Qualified Staff The aim of the EU and national projects is to ensure better adaptability, sustainable orientation and responsiveness of higher education to the needs of the environment. This would speed up economic recovery, increase productivity, and encourage cohesion and balanced environmental, economic and social development. This includes the creation of highly qualified jobs for the professions of the future and the Society 5.0. The focus of the reform is therefore on creating a set of skills (competencies) that enables graduates to immediately enter the labor market, and later encourages them to constantly upgrade and deepen their higher education knowledge – lifelong learning. Based on the results of the first implemented so-called pilot projects, the starting points for green, sustainable and digitally connected higher education will be prepared

466

D. Lovrec and V. Tiˇc

by 2026. This will provide a basis for systemic changes in higher education at the following three levels [5]: – Content (renewal of the curriculum taking into account the competencies that are key to the green and digital transition, taking into account the needs of the labor market in terms of knowledge and skills, if necessary also restructuring the workforce (with a lifelong learning approach) to achieve Society 5.0. – Normative (optimisation and flexibility of the study process and creation of a range of Study Programmes and enough enrolment places according to society’s needs). – Infrastructural (support the changing study process with increased use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology), considering the environmental aspect, for example, the development of a sustainable and smart classroom, low-carbon ethical digitization using intelligent equipment. 2.1 Areas of Change and the Need for Appropriate Staff Five areas of change are covered: social development and the higher education system, legislation and financing, quality, internationalisation, and digitalisation. The key goals are to raise the level and quality of higher education in the EU Member States while taking care of the quality of education and excellence in research, increasing the responsiveness, flexibility and attractiveness of the higher education system in relation to the needs of the economy. The same applies to non-economy and society, including strengthening international integration, improving access to education and opportunities for lifelong learning in higher education in every EU Member State. According to the study and predictions, in 2025, half of all jobs will require higher education. Higher education must address the expansion of the student population with more inclusive and flexible learning approaches. Higher education teachers and colleagues need to be trained for quality teaching, with the main new challenges being: working with diverse groups of students who have different needs because they come from diverse backgrounds and with different expectations, the digital transition (meaningful and advanced use of ICT2), and considering environmental sustainability or greening. Higher education institutions are key actors in the Member States that can tackle major social challenges and become real generators of the development of cities and regions and encourage civic engagement. For this, they must assume their role in promoting social mobility and the production of knowledge, accelerating the recovery and sustainable development of the economy, and providing appropriate competences for the digital and green transition of Slovenia and the professions of the future, and as central actors of the square of science (education, research, innovation and services for society) to modernise Study Programme curricula and management structures of the higher education ecosystem related to their implementation. As part of this, we will also have to consider the Comprehensive strategic project of decarbonisation through the transition to a circular economy. The reform project is focused on the existing professional higher education, the basic purpose of which is to enable students to acquire professional knowledge and be qualified to use scientific methods in solving demanding professional and work problems,

Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills

467

developing the ability to communicate within the profession and between professions. A mandatory part of this study is also practical training in a working environment. In order to reduce the discrepancy between the knowledge of graduates and the needs of the labour market, space will be established for the development of a culture of dialogue between higher education stakeholders, the purpose of which will be to harmonise the expectations of graduates’ skills from the labour market (and future professions) and the creation of competencies that graduates should acquire with higher education studies, with the aim of co-creating and co-designing the study process and curriculum, which is adapted to the local needs society. 2.2 Strategic Goals and Reform for Slovenia Within the framework of the Resolution on the National Programme of Higher Education in Slovenia until 2030, strategic goals in the fields of Social Development and the higher education system are given. [6] Eleven goals expressing the need to improve the international comparability and disciplinary plurality of the higher education system. Among these are: defining public service, enabling free study for all at all three levels, closer links between higher education, research and technological development, establishing constructive cooperation between public research institutions and higher education institutions, upgrading the quality and efficiency of the higher education system in accordance in line with the Bologna process, etc. and the goal that at least 50% of Slovenian citizens, between the ages of 30 and 34, complete one of the levels of higher education by 2030. This share is in line with EU Acts. The indicator of the share of the population with tertiary education aged 30 to 34 who completed tertiary studies successfully (e.g. at a university or higher professional institution) in the last 20 years shows that the average of 49% is already very close to the target of 50%. A more detailed picture of the share by gender reveals that the share of men with such education is below 40% – Fig. 1. In light of this, it is necessary to raise this proportion, especially for educational programmes that are considered to be “more masculine professions or profiles”, e.g.

Fig.1. Population with tertiary education by gender in Slovenia [7]

468

D. Lovrec and V. Tiˇc

technical professions. To achieve this goal it will be necessary to establish an appropriately updated teaching method, based on professional research work, which will be focused on students for the successful and timely completion of their studies. Flexible adaptation of learning content will ensure the appropriate qualification of graduates, including an appropriate combination of virtual and conventional learning approaches. It will be also necessary to intensify the cooperation of experts from industry and university teachers. Apart of that, it will be necessary to design such study programs that are suitable for professions, challenges and tasks in the future and are consistent with the European Green Deal, the Digital Transformation of Society and the Transition to a Sustainable Society. It will also be necessary to regulate the facilitation and promotion of entrepreneurship systematically in Study Programmes and courses. It will also be necessary to promote and ensure a suitable entrepreneurial environment by establishing start-up companies (spin-off, spin-out and start-up) based on creative development results. It is also very important to establish a functioning lifelong learning system at the higher education level, including appropriate evaluation and recognition of learning outcomes. In this way, as much of the active population as possible will be able to acquire the latest scientific and professional knowledge – an education-based attitude for the future [8].

3 Implementation of the Reform For the successful implementation of the Higher Education Reform for a green and sustainable transition to Society 5.0, it is first necessary to design combinations of knowledge (competencies) that enable graduates to enter the labour market early and encourage them to lifelong learning – continuous upgrading and deepening higher education knowledge. Furthermore, to establish a system of shorter higher education courses for the acquisition of knowledge and competences, as a response to short- and medium-term needs on the labour market (micro-credentials). There must also be an opportunity to establish flexible study courses, as an alternative path of education for non-traditional groups of students. The target groups for the fastest and most efficient implementation of the reform and the achievement of the prescribed goal are: – Graduates who need to qualify further, i.e. upgrade and deepen their knowledge, – Students who wish to acquire knowledge from other fields of study already during their studies, e.g. ICT, – Dropout students who dropped out of their studies and would like to complete them, and – Individuals who do not enrol in higher education, but have completed secondary school and meet the conditions for enrolment, or they have prior knowledge to upgrade their knowledge at the higher education level. The people in the target groups are diverse, with different skills and qualifications. Therefore, within the framework of the pilot project, it is necessary to find the way and

Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills

469

forms of education and contents of the curricula, which will provide the students with the knowledge necessary for the society of the future, and for those who are already employed, the possibility of additional qualifications for individual fields or content related to the work they perform. Although traditional education and training qualifications and diplomas still play a key role, alternative credentials are seen as necessary to make existing qualification and credential systems more fit for purpose. This priority is enshrined in the EU’s Skills Agenda 2020, which calls for a European approach to micro-credentials. [9].

4 Form and Significance of Micro-credentials Several different terms are used for the required form of obtaining additional qualifications e.g. digital badges, nano-credentials, minor awards, micro-qualification, micro-certificate, micro-credentials, etc. In terminological terms, the term micro-credentials also has a related, frequently used term, micro-qualification, but it is not completely equivalent. The latter denotes a related concept, namely, the competence that the participant acquires within the framework of short training. In the first case, it is, therefore, a proof of a certain qualification, while, in the second, it is a qualification itself. To avoid nomenclatural confusion, it is better if the term micro-credentials is used instead of micro-qualifications, which is also more appropriate from the point of view of the content of the term. Since these are relatively new terms, the terminology is not yet established everywhere. Other terms, such as “certificate of acquired competence”, “certificate of learning outcome” and “certificate of competence” are also too descriptive, and, as such, are not the most suitable [10]. Also in terms of the method of obtaining such “additional qualification” or “additional knowledge”, there are several different interpretations or explanations, as well as approaches and implementations. Thus, the possibility of obtaining micro-credentials is participation in a certain course, certain schooling, or training, or some other form of knowledge acquisition; whether it is an organised activity for a group of participants, which is carried out in a classic way (lecture, exercises, experiments), whether it is independent learning with the help of appropriate e-material, or a hybrid way of acquiring knowledge, or something else. Also, the duration of such knowledge acquisition can vary in length, one day, two, three or more, or it is determined by the number of hours completed in a certain period of time. It can also be given with credit points, which have the corresponding equivalent in hours, by individual activity (lecture, theoretical exercises, computer exercises, experimental exercises…) and altogether named with the term “micro-credentials”. Apart from that, micro-credentials are provided by a variety of organisations in the public and private sectors, active in the areas of education, training, employability, lifelong learning and higher education institutions. Companies, professional associations, government departments and international organisations are using microcredentials increasingly, while some countries (Ireland, Malta) have already included micro-credentials in their accredited national education and training system [10, 11] Fig. 2 shows the main categories of micro-credential providers.

470

D. Lovrec and V. Tiˇc

Fig. 2. Micro-credential provider [11]

Each of these providers has advantages and disadvantages regarding the usability and accessibility of the offer to a wide range of educated people. Increasing collaboration between providers from different sectors and technological developments are also blurring the lines between different types of providers and approaches to education. According to the OECD, this development is changing the traditional relationship between providers and participants of education [11, 12]. 4.1 Micro-credentials and Higher Education In the higher education (HE) system, micro-credentials play different roles depending on the concept, structure, tradition and other factors of education, such as the demand for certain skills or the offer of other forms of education and training. The desire to increase visibility and reputation is certainly one of the reasons why higher education institutions are increasingly showing interest in micro-credentials. The next important reason relates to learning supported by MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), as there are possible savings in implementation costs, time, less need for classrooms and laboratories, and at the same time a larger number of participants can be present. It is also possible to test new pedagogical approaches and technologies, to improve learning efficiency and also to obtain additional income [11]. To illustrate the variety of microcredit programmes offered by European higher education institutions, the OECD has published an overview of programmes that meet the characteristics of microcredit programmes, and are currently available in some higher education institutions – Fig. 3 [12]. Most of higher education “credit” study programs across Europe use ECTS, with which they specify the study loads of subjects, which allows a common understanding of how much study and workload is required of a student to achieve the appropriate amount of ECTS. This, however, is not standardized and can vary greatly between institutions, as well as within the institutions themselves. According to the OECD overview, individual

Micro-credentials as an Effective Way of Acquiring Necessary Modern Skills

471

Fig. 3. Number of ECTS credits by subject in European HE systems [11, 12]

courses ranged from 1 ECTS to 60 ECTS, whereby 60 ECTS is equivalent to one year of full-time study [12]. Many aspects of introducing micro-credentials, problems, presentation of different approaches, case studies for individual EU countries, potential, etc., are discussed in more detail in the working version of the extensive working document Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability from 2021, based on which (public) document number 9237/22 was created. Two appendices are added to the document, which define in more detail the European standard for the description of micro-credentials and the European principles for their design and issuance [13]. Based on these starting documents, pilot projects are underway in individual EU member states. Based on the results of pilot projects and established good practices, after 2026 (according to the document), we can expect a definitive form of micro-certificate that will be valid for demonstrating certain knowledge and skills throughout the EU.

5 Conclusion Due to the awareness of the lack of modern knowledge, the need has arisen for additional education and adaptation of higher education to the needs of today’s/future times. Thus, the need for more responsive education, training and learning systems that allow individuals to upgrade and retrain in faster and more flexible ways emerged, and microcredentials came to the fore. Micro-credentials are considered necessary to match existing qualifications and credential systems better with the knowledge and skills needs of today’s technology level and society. Different methods, forms, duration and approaches to acquiring the necessary additional knowledge and skills need to be unified by introducing unified micro-credentials. For this purpose, extensive studies have been carried out and guidelines have been defined for the introduction of micro-credentials. The activities take place within the framework

472

D. Lovrec and V. Tiˇc

of pilot projects in individual EU Member States, based on which universally valid micro-credentials will be introduced after 2026, and higher education will be adapted to the needs of modern society and technology. Acknowledgement. This work is a part of the project “The Recovery and Resilience Plan (NOO, No. 3300-22-3522)”, financed by the Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation, and the European Union – NextGenerationEU.

References 1. Hitachi-UTokyo Laboratory: Society 5.0 – A People-centric Super-smart Society, Springer open (2020). ISBN 978-981-15-2988-7 ISBN 978-981-15-2989-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-981-15-2989-4, 189 pages 2. EU: Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability, Council of the European Union, General Secretariat of the Council, Brussels, 25 May 2022 (2022) 3. EU: A European approach to micro-credentials – Flexible, inclusive learning opportunities, European Education Area, European Commission, (available at: https://education.ec.europa. eu/education-levels/higher-education/micro-credentials 4. EU: A European approach to micro-credentials, EU brochure, December 2021(2021). https:// education.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2022-01/micro-credentials%20brochure%20upda ted.pdf 5. MIZŠ: Smernice za prenovo visokošolskega strokovnega izobraževanja s predlogom izvedbenega naˇcrta (working version 1.3), Ministrstvo za izobraževanje znanost in šport Republike Slovenije, (Engl.: Guidelines for the renovation of higher education professional education with a proposal for an implementation plan, Working version 1.3, Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, Republic of Slovenia), 47 pages (2022) 6. MIZŠ: Resolucija o nacionalnem programu visokega šolstva do 2030 (Engl.: Resolution on the national programme of higher education to 2030), (Uradni list RS, št. 49/22), 19 pages (2022). http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=RESO139 7. SDG Indicators, Republic of Slovenia, Statistical Office. https://www.stat.si/Pages/en/goals/ goal-4.-ensure-inclusive-and-equitable-quality-education-and-promote-lifelong-learningopportunities-for-all/4.3-tertiary-educational-attainment 8. EUR-Lex, Document 52019DC0653, European Commission 17 Dec 2019 (2019). https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN-SL/TXT/?from=SL&uri=CELEX%3A52019DC0653 9. EU: Microcredentials: are they here to stay? CEDEFOP - European Centre for Development of Vocational Training. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news/microcredentials-are-theyhere-stay 10. New Zealand Qualification Authority, Micro-credentials (2020). https://www.nzqa.govt.nz/ providers-partners/approval-accreditation-and-registration/micro-credentials/ 11. EUR-Lex, European Commission 10. 12. 2021, Commission Staff Working Document, Accompanying the document Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability (2021). https://eur-lex.eur opa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52021SC0367 12. OECD: Micro-credential innovations in higher education: Who, What and Why?, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 39, OECD Publishing, Paris (2021). https://www.oecd-ili brary.org/education/micro-credential-innovations-in-higher-education_f14ef041-en 13. EUR-Lex, European Commission 25. 5. 2022, Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability – Adoption (2022). https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-9237-2022-INIT/en/pdf

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans Irena Petruši´c1(B) and Borislav Ðukanovi´c2 1 Faculty of Management Herceg Novi, University Adriatic, Zemunska 143,

85348 Meljine, Herceg Novi, Montenegro [email protected] 2 Faculty of Applied Psychology, University of DonjaGorica, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro [email protected]

Abstract. In researches of remote working, predominantly positive effects stand out within economic sphere (Gajendran, Harisson, 2007; Bloom et all., 2013; Burke, 2015) and somewhat more accentuated negative ones regarding psychosocial adaptability (Sang, Gui, Halsam, 2010). In this study, we tended to examine both of these, emphasizing psychosocial adaptability. The research covered 1,031 respondents working remotely from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Northern Macedonia and Serbia. Three research instruments are applied: Scale of psychosocial adaptability, Questionnaire on economic aspects of remote work and Questionnaire on employment in the “Gig” economy. Largely contrary to expectations, respondents in all four countries are well adjusted to remote working, and to this respect such adaptability is slightly better in Serbia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Better psychosocial adaptability and resilience to adverse psychosocial factors is connected with strong social network and social support of family and close persons, higher development of information and communications technologies, and regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina – greater number of young people working in IT sector, at least according to the results of our respondents. Satisfaction with remote work is also conditioned with tendency of respondents in all four countries to color the work over platforms pink to certain extent, simply because it provides them significantly better earnings, despite number of difficulties and limitations. In certain aspects, this adaptation is somewhat worse in Montenegro. The study discusses anachronistic collective psychological risk factors regarding this worse adaptation, as well as certain anachronic traditional sociocultural patterns. Keywords: remote work · resilience · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Montenegro · Northern Macedonia · Serbia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 473–483, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_51

474

I. Petruši´c and B. Ðukanovi´c

1 Introduction The most significant advantage of new forms of work is in increase of the autonomy of workers and strengthen motivation [1]. Control over schedule of working activities and impact on setting balance between work and private life creates feeling of content, resulting in good mental health [2]. Increase in productivity and all types of savings are particularly stressed [3–5]. Negative aspects of remote work originate in a wide range of psychological and psychosocial problems [6]. It is rather important to mention that the line between positive and negative aspects at moments rather thin. Remote workers often lose support of their colleagues [7]. Autonomy of remote workers may be significantly reduced due to unrealistic expectations of assistance provided by others in achieving objectives [8]. Poor mental health of remote workers represents great problem for majority of countries [9]. In 2016 in Great Britain, due to poor mental health, 16 million of working days was lost which incurred costs to Britain in the amount of 65 billions of pounds or 3% of gross domestic product. Workers in the Netherlands have the most problems with mental health in the OECD countries and this represents 3% of the national product of the Netherlands annually. In the European Union, and due to depression, total costs of loss for decrease in productivity, medical treatment costs and payments of disabilities amount EUR 620 billion [10]. Situation in Japan is even worse: 66% of Japanese workers stated that their mental health has been damaged, and their requests regarding remuneration of damage for these problems increased nine times in the last two decades [11]. After this rather dull epidemiological situation in Europe and Japan, authors stress that, for successful remote work and mental health preservation, the most important are support and understanding of work organization and family [12]. Numerous measures regarding prevention of mental problems are proposed, including a number of simple ones such are pauses for chatting, short morning strolls, etc. However, they also indicate certain strategic moves as are those implemented in Japan such as four-day working week which in Japan increased productivity for 40% [13]. According to a study, typical problems of mental health of people working from/at home are indicated as follows: loneliness, irritability, anxiety, indignation, guilt [14]. Loneliness is one of the most intensive feelings of people working remotely. It occurs as a consequence of the lack of social support due to which insecurity and lack of confidence in own’s abilities develop. Irritability occurs due to break of social connections and loss of control over situation caused by obstructions of others [15]. When working remotely, irritability increases because persons causing obstruction are at great physical distance. Anxiety occurs due to the lack of support, in particular in difficult tasks or tasks with short deadline. In addition, anxiety may turn to panic. Indignation occurs as a result of inability to disconnect from work and lack of acknowledgement of any type of excessive work, but also due to the feeling of frustration in implementation of favorite family activities. Guilt occurs due to the inability of setting balance between work and family duties, which leads to internal conflicts of remote workers, and frustration due to the lack of support. Anxiety, social isolation, loneliness and stress often lead to depression. In this study we tended to describe psychosocial adaptability to work from home in four

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

475

countries of the Western Balkans, and, in particular, to social and social-psychological factors of resilience to adverse psychosocial effects of work at/from home. To this regard, special emphasize is placed on similarities and differences among countries.

2 Research Objectives Since this is an explorative study, research objectives are mainly directed towards specifying theoretical and hypothetical framework in modern researches. The first objective is describing psychosocial adjustability to work from home in mentioned countries of the Western Balkans. The second objective is analyzing social and social-psychological factors impacting strengthening and weakening resilience to negative phenomena related to work at/from home. The third objective is examining similarities and differences regarding impact of risk and protective factors to resilience in these four countries.

3 Samples Four samples consist of 1,031 respondents surveyed in previously mentioned countries of the Western Balkans: 201 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 201 in Montenegro, 221 in Northern Macedonia and 408 in Serbia. These samples are adequate because they incorporate all those working either from home or at home who accepted to complete the questionnaire in electronic form. Due to the absence of representation, all generalization of results to general public/population of those working from their home would be considered unreliable and these may be used as orientation for future researches.

4 Research Instruments The main research instrument is Scale of psychosocial adjustability and resilience consisting of 14 statements (see Table 1). Responses were provided in the form of Likert’s five-degree scale (Table 1).

5 Method The main research instrument is Scale of psychosocial adjustability and resilience consisting of 14 statements (see Table 1). Responses were provided in the form of Likert’s five-degree scale (Table 1).

19.4

15.5

15.0

9.5

15.5

7.5

14.9

10.0

20.9

38.3

10.0

3.5

9.5

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

9th

10th

11th

12th

13th

20.4

14.4

20.9

27.4

25.4

28.4

25.4

17.9

31.8

15.9

18.9

20.4

37.8

Indecisive

70.2

82.1

69.2

34.3

53.7

61.7

59.7

74.6

52.8

74.7

65.1

64.2

42.8

Yes

Note: Numbers are shown in percentages

No

Statements

Bosnia and Herzegovina

14.5

4.0

21.9

54.7

33.8

9.5

11.0

3.5

17.4

24.9

25.3

17.9

64.3

No

18.4

21.9

28.4

18.4

28.9

24.9

30.3

29.4

30.3

23.4

22.4

27.9

27.4

Indecisive

Montenegro

67.2

74.1

49.8

26.8

37.3

65.7

58.7

67.2

52.3

51.6

52.3

54.3

28.4

Yes

21.2

17.6

17.2

40.8

23.1

22.2

17.2

20.8

22.6

20.4

14.9

19.0

37.1

No

15.8

13.6

17.6

27.1

19.9

19.0

17.1

13.1

24.0

11.8

15.4

11.8

9.5

Indecisive

62.9

68.8

65.2

32.2

57.1

58.9

65.6

66.1

53.4

67.9

69.7

69.3

53.4

Yes

Northern Macedonia

9.6

5.9

12.3

33.8

16.4

16.4

16.7

9.0

26.0

16.9

16.2

23.3

34.3

No

Serbia

13.5

11.8

14.5

28.4

20.8

26.5

22.3

18.4

24.5

17.2

11.8

13.5

17.2

Indecisive

77.0

82.4

73.3

37.8

62.7

57.2

60.1

72.5

49.5

65.4

72.1

63.2

48.6

Yes

13.0

7.6

14.7

40.2

22.1

15.0

15.3

10.2

21.5

17.8

17.5

No

Total:

16.3

14.6

19.1

26.0

23.1

24.9

23.4

19.3

27.0

17.0

16.0

Indecisive

Table 1. Allocation of items from the Scale of psycho-social adjustability and resilience in these four countries of the Western Balkan.

70.7

77.8

66.1

33.8

54.8

60.1

61.2

70.5

51.5

65.3

66.6

Yes

476 I. Petruši´c and B. Ðukanovi´c

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

477

6 Results The following are the statements: 1st After I started my business, I have significantly less time for myself and my hobbies. 2nd Work at/from home does not stop me to set time and motivation for recreation (exercise/sport) 3rd Work at home negatively impacted to quality and quantity of sleep. 4th Since I work at home, I am less devoted to my family and my partner. 5th Since I work at home, I have less time to socialize with friends. 6th Work I now do fulfills me. 7th Present income I gain are sufficient to cover my essential needs. 8th I am certain in future success of the work I am now doing. 9th I have a problem to separate my work from private life. 10th I would like to, during my work, have more contact with other people. 11th Since I work at/from home, I feel more tension and anxiety. 12th My family and closest friends are mainly supporting me in my present work. 13th During work at home, others (such are family, friends, neighbors) do not distract me and I can commit myself to my work completely.1 It is also important to remind that negative statements in this Scale have been recoded. From Table 1 it may be seen that regarding the first statement “After I started my business, I have significantly less time for myself and my hobbies” there are noteworthy differences between these countries. We used ANOV (F = 9.881; p = 0.000). The interviewed persons from Montenegro, in fact, have significantly less time for their pastimes and activities than those interviewed from Bosnia and Herzegovina (I-J = − 0.62189; p = 0.000), interviewed persons from Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.61165; p = 0.000) and interviewed persons from Serbia (I-J = −0.58224; p = 0.000). Therefore, those interviewed from Montenegro are the ones that manage to persist professional pressures requested by the work at/from home the least. Situation is rather similar regarding the second statement indicating lack of time for sport and physical recreation: respondents from Montenegro provided negative answers to this question more often than those from Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.3224; p = 0.012), and interviewed persons from Serbia less than those from Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.2159; p = 0.049) though this variance is practically at the border line of statistical importance. There no statistically more substantial differences were found between Serbia, on one, and Montenegro, on the other side. Respondents from Montenegro are relatively more challenged by reduced sleep as well as reduced quality of sleep due to work at home; nearly one quarter (more precisely 22.4%) stated that they had problems with sleep. These were also confirmed with the conclusions of ANOV (F = 10.038; p = 0.000). Respondents from Montenegro had considerably more problems with sleep owing to work at home than respondents in Bosnia 1 Scale consists of 14 items. Question “Is your work space separated from the space you spend

free time or sleep in (separate room, or something similar), requiring answers YES/NO is not included in processing because it has binary distribution.

478

I. Petruši´c and B. Ðukanovi´c

and Herzegovina (I-J = −0.35821; p = 0.004), respondents in Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.52509; p = 0.000) and respondents in Serbia (I-J = −0.56940; p = 0.000, Table 1). Less resilience of respondents from Montenegro due to psychosocial problems of work at/from home are reprecuting on health plan as well. Regarding socializing with family and partner, differences among countries are also significant (F = 8.2; p = 0.000). Since working at home, respondents in Montenegro pay less attention to family and partner than thosein Bosnia and Herzegovina (I-J = − 0.60697; p = 0.000), Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.35814) or Serbia (I-J = −0.43638). The statement number five – “Since I work at home, I have more time to socialize with friends” there have not been determined statistically meaningful variances among countries (F = 1.182; p = 0.316). Table 1. Indicates that there may be lack of time for socializing with friends due to work from home have been indicated at somewhat over half of the respondents, and more than a quarter could not provide accurate estimation. Statement under the number six, “Work I am now doing fulfills me”, indicates that persons interviewed in the survey are, typically, content with the work they doat home. The exception are respondents from the Northern Macedonia that are considerably less content with their current work at home than all the others (F = 4.542; p = 0.004). They are less content than thosein Bosnia and Herzegovina (I-J = −0.2982; p = 0.005), those in Montenegro (I-J = −0.2683; p = 0.012) and those in Serbia (I-J = −0.3220; p = 0.000). Three fifths of the interviewed person in all four countries are rather content or content by their current revenue, and the proportion of those that are not content with these amounts only around one sixth of respondents (Table 1). Similar to work conducted at home they are the most content with, the respondents are content with current revenue as well, though somewhat less (for further reference see Table 1). Nevertheless, variances amongst countries regarding current revenue do not reach the level of statistical importance (F = 0.122; p = 0.947). Respondents in all four countries are, in approximately three fifths of responses, certain into forthcoming success of the work they are now doing (Table 1). By applying ANOV among countries, no statistically note worthy variances (F = 2.463; p = 0.061) were determined. Nevertheless, it should be noticed that surveyed persons in Northern Macedonia were rather most doubtful ones with regard to futures achievement of the work they are now doing, which may explain the fact that value of F test in this particular circumstance are close to the borderline of significance as of 0.05. Respondents from Montenegro have more problems than all the other respondents to distinct their work at home from their personal life – one third of these respondents stated that they have difficulties in doing so, but less than in all the other countries (for further reference, see Table 1). These relative variances are greatest with regard to respondents from Serbia in which similar problems were indicated by almost half of that percentage of respondents (Table 1). Variances are statistically highly important (F = 14.023; p = 0.000). With regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina these amount (I-J = −0.48259; p = 0.000), Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.46386; p = 0.000) and Serbia (I-J = −0.73101; p = 0.000). Additionally, surveyed persons in Montenegro to a lesser extent than all the other respondents would want to, during their work from home, have contacts with other

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

479

people; it should be noted that more than a half of them did not prompt so (Table 1). Variances are statistically important with regard to the remaining three countries, as follows: with regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina (I-J = −0.35821; p = 0.000), Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.32516; p = 0.015) and Serbia (I-J = −0.50578; p = 0.000). Because of their work at home, the most tension and anxiety is noticed with respondents from Montenegro (Table 1). It is remarkable to note that respondents in Bosnia and Herzegovina are, to greatest percentage, stated that they do not feel tension or anxiety during work at/from home (approximately 70%), similar to those from Northern Macedonia, whilst respondents from Serbia, in almost three quarters of cases, indicated ambivalence of feelings regarding work at/from home. Variances are statistically important with regard to respondents in Montenegro and other respondents, as well as among respondents in Serbia and those in Northern Macedonia (F = 12.672; p = 0.000). Respondents from Montenegro are considerably more stressed and anxious during work at home than those in Bosnia and Herzegovina (I-J = −0.50746; p = 0.000), Northern Macedonia (I-J = −0.36402; p = 0.000) and Serbia (I-J = −0.62533; p = 0.000). Respondents from Serbia are less tensed and anxious than respondents from Northern Macedonia (I-J = 0.26131; p = 0.009). Family and friends provided support to respondents in their work at home in rather comparable percentages, while slightest support was provided to respondents in Northern Macedonia, following by respondents in Montenegro (for further reference, see Table 1). Surveyed persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina have considerably more support in work from home than thosein Northern Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as thosein Serbia compared to respondents in Northern Macedonia and Montenegro (F = 10.718; p = 0.000). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, respondents are considerably more supported from family and friends than thosein Northern Macedonia (I-J = 0.4053; p = 0.000) and those in Montenegro (I-J = 0.2189; p = 0.033). In Serbia, respondents are more supported than respondents in Northern Macedonia (I-J = 0.4495; p = 0.000) and respondents in Montenegro (I-J = 0.2631; p = 0.003). Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia do not considerably differentiate from one another. Lastly, family and friends do not disturb our respondents in their work at home and they enable them to dedicate themselves to work in great percentages from slightly over two fifths (Northern Macedonia) to over three quarters (Serbia, see Table 1). To this regard, the most similar are Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nonetheless, variances are statistically important (F = 7.138; p = 0.000). Family, friends and neighbors less disturb respondents from Serbia to completely dedicate themselves to work at/from home than respondents from Northern Macedonia (I-J = 0.4342; p = 0.000) and from Montenegro (I-J = 0.3029; p = 0.003). Respondents in Bosnia and Herzegovina are also less disturbed than respondents in Northern Macedonia (I-J = 0.025; p = 0.025). Between Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina there were no statistically important variances found.

7 Discussion and Conlcusions Despite differences in psychosocial adjustability to work at home in four countries of the Western Balkans, it may be concluded that resilience of our respondents to adverse aspects of work at/from home in overall is rather well, although differences may be

480

I. Petruši´c and B. Ðukanovi´c

noted among these four countries, in particular between Montenegro and remaining three countries. The finding on generally well psychosocial adjustability and resilience differentiate significantly from results of foreign researches [16]. This basic finding is less expected also with regard to a number of adverse conditions for work at home in the Western Balkans, as well as shorter tradition of this type of work in the Balkans compared to western countries and less developed information and communication technologies. Underdevelopment of market and general poverty impacted structure of activities at home where trade and more simple educational programs are predominant. Our findings and their comments may be summarized in several items, as follows. 1. Despite differences, similarities between results of this and foreign researches were found. The least resilience of ours as well as foreign remote workers show in reduction of social contact brought by work at/from home. It is obvious that social isolation and loneliness represent key psychological problems of those working at/from home in all four countries of the Western Balkans as well as in previously mentioned researches [17–19]. Amplified social isolation of respondents in all four countries is probably contributed by more increasingly pronounced forms of sociability, conditioned by collectivistic and cultural patterns in all four countries, than it is the case in western countries. 2. Whilst similarities are expected and rather easy to explain, differences are unexpected and they require more complex explanations, where some, at the first glance, may seem to be paradox. In the first place, lower forms of work at/from home dominated by more rudiment types of works, less paid, weaker infrastructure (worse Internet and technical equipment), finally, do not affect positive standpoints and general content with work at/from home. Moreover, respondents in all four countries express content with income; they are certain that they will be successful in the future as well and they have undivided standings that they would not change their current job and work at/from home. Unexpectedly, these positive standings are mostly expressed by freelancers – the most elite part of those working remotely, that do not achieve essential working rights (rather insecure incomes, lack of social, often even pension, insurance). How this contradiction may be explained? It seems that work at/from home by the use of information-communication technologies offer better opportunities for earnings, greater independence and better control over professional life, with, at the same time, greater opportunities regarding entrepreneurial activities than employment at employers, where opportunities are significantly limited or, even, in a number of segments, non-existing. These are the reasons many respondents feel to be privileged.

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

481

3. More optimistic image of work at/from home may not be attributed to dishonesty of our respondents, but these are not conditioned by lesser psychological and social burdens. Basically, by feeling privileged due to permanent and rather secured employment, with good earnings, our respondents tend to color their professional achievements pink more than it deserves to and more than remote workers in majority of western countries. 4. One should bear in mind that certain collectivistic forms of traditional patriarchal heritage in this context have particularly important positive contribution to strengthening resilience to adverse psychosocial aspects of work at home, especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Serbia. Indeed, respondents in these two countries estimated social support provided in different manners to them by members of their families and friends as the most important for strengthening resilience and psychosocial adjustment to work at/from home. 5. At first it may seem to be a paradox, but underdevelopment of economy and market, as well as certain inferiority regarding information and communication technologies, impacts smaller working requirements and therefore reduced psychophysical strains of those working from home in four countries of the Western Balkans, at least regarding certain activities, which to certain extent facilitates achievement of satisfactory level of resilience and their psychosocial adjustability. 6. As stated previously, among countries, there are differences in resilience to psychosocial problems in work at/from home, and the most important one is between respondents from Montenegro and respondents in the remaining three countries. Respondents from Montenegro, unlike respondents in the remaining three (or two) countries, indicate more of the following problems: – – – –

Since they work at home, they have less time for their leisure and pastimes; They have significantly less quality of sleep; Since they work at home, they pay less attentiveness to family and friends; They have more problems to distinct their work from private life than respondents in the remaining three countries of the Western Balkans; – Respondents from Montenegro, less than all the others, want to achieve social contacts with close persons; – While working at home, they feel fewer tension and anxiety than all the others. Possible factors of worse psychosocial resilience and adjustability to work at/from home of respondents from Montenegro, compared to respondents from the remaining three countries, are underdevelopment and discrepancy of economic activities in Montenegro, rather low level of consumerism, in particular during pandemic of Covid-19. Nearly one third is dealing with online trade. With rather adverse economic situation, one should bear in mind turbulence in political context, which makes already confuse situation even more complex. Although work at home is one of the best approaches in such social patterns, a matter of installment of necessary technological infrastructure in short period of time remain, regardless of the fact that personnel basis was rather satisfactory.

482

I. Petruši´c and B. Ðukanovi´c

7. The same cultural patterns of sociability in changed anachronic forms in Montenegro produce opposite effects from those mentioned previously in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. Namely, strong collectivistic and narcistic patterns affect reduced support of family and friends to those working at home thereby reducing their resilience to psychosocial problems related to this type of work. Due to the overemphasized ego, every, even the slightest failure, is psychologically more difficult to overcome thereby causing greater tension and anxiety, which is conditioned by culturally formed and intergenerationally maintained collective narcissistic patterns. 8. Respondents from Montenegro are somewhat similar to respondents from Northern Macedonia, above all by reduced sociability and less connection to family. Additionally, respondents from Northern Macedonia are relatively less satisfied with work at/from home, which may be explained by less paid educational work via platforms, whilst being overburdened at the same time. By resilience and psychosocial adjustability to work at home, surveyed persons in Serbia and surveyed personsin Bosnia and Herzegovina show the most similarities.

References 1. Pritchard, R.D., Payne, S.C.: Performance management practicesandmotivation. In: The new workplace: a guide to the human impact of modern working practices. Holman, D., Wall, T.D., Clegg, C.W., Sparrow, P., Howard, A. (eds.) Wiley&Sons: West Sussex, UK, pp. 219– 244. Kotera, Y. Green, P. Shefield, D. (2018). “Work-lifebalanceof UK constructionworkers: Relationshipwithmentalhealth”. Construction Management andEconomics, 38, 291–303 (2003) 2. Kotera, Y., Green, P., Shefield, D.: Work-life balance of UK construction workers: relationship with mental health. Const. Manage. Econ. 38, 291–303 (2018) 3. Gajendran, R.S., Harrison, D.A.: The good, the bad, andthe unknown about telecommuting: meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences. J. Appl. Psychol. 92(6), 1524–154 (2007) 4. Bloom, N., Liang, J., Roberts, J., Ying, Z.J.: Doesworkingfrom home work? Evidencefrom a Chineseexperiment. Quarterly J. Econ. 130(1), 165–218 (2015) 5. Burke, A.E.: The Role of Freelancers in the 21st Century British Economy, PCG Report, London: PCG (2012) 6. Sang, K.J.C., Gyi, D.E., Haslam, C.: Musculoskeletal symptoms in pharmaceuticales representatives. Occup. Med. 60(2), 108–114 (2010) 7. Halford, S.: Hybrid work space: re-spatialisations of work, organisation and management. New Technology Workand Employment. 20, 19–33 (2005) 8. Mazmanian, M., Orlikowski, W.J., Yates, J.: The autonomy paradox: the implications of mobile email devices for knowledge professionals. Organ. Sci. 24, 1337–1357 (2013) 9. Kestrel, D.: Mental Health intheWorkplace. World Health Organization (2019). https://www. who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/mental-health-in-the-workplace. Accessed 19 Aug 2019 10. Matrix Insight Economic: Analysis of Workplace Mental Health Promotionand Mental Disorder Prevention Programmes; Executive Agency for Health and Consumers: Luxembourg (2013) 11. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan: White Paper for Prevention for Karoushietc. [Karoushi nado boushitaisakuhakusho]; Ministryof Health, LabourandWelfare: Tokyo, Japan (2019)

Resilience in Remote Working in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

483

12. De Bloom, J., et al.: Effects of park walks and relaxation exercises during lunch breaks on recovery from job stress: two randomized controlled trials. J. Environ. Psychol. 51, 14–30 (2017) 13. Jackman, S.: Microsoft Japan SaysFour-DayWorkWeekBoostedProductivity 40%. Bloomberg. 4 November 2019 (2019). https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/201911-04/microsoft-japan-says-fourdaywork-week-boosted-productivity-40. Accessed 14 April 2020 14. Montreuil, S., Lippel, K.: Telework and occupational health: a Quebec empirical study and regulatory implications. Saf. Sci. 41(4), 339–435 (2003) 15. Pekrun, R., Frese, M.: EmotionsinWorkandAchievement. Int. Rev. Industr. Organ. Psychol. 7, 153–200 (1992) 16. Huws, U.: The New Homeworkers: New Technology and the Changing Location of White Collar Work. Low Pay Pamphlet, No.28. London: LowPayUnit (1984) 17. Mann, S., Varey, S., Button, W.: An exploration of the emotional impact of televorking. J. Managerial Psychol. 15(7), 668–690 (2000) 18. Mann, S., Holdsworth, L.: The psychological impact of teleworking: stress, emotions and health. New Tehnol. Work Employment 18(3), 196–211 (2000) 19. Rook, K.S.: Research on social support loneliness, and social isolatuon: toward an integration. In: Shaver, P. (ed.), ReviewofPersonalityandSocialPsychology: Emotions, Relationshipand Health, London: Sage Publications (1984)

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment in Bosnia and Herzegovina Ðevad Šaši´c, Merima Tanovi´c(B) , Amel Deli´c, and Amar Kozadra Faculty of Administration, University of Sarajevo, Igmanska 40A, 71 320 Vogosca, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. Following the notion that countries with traditional bureaucracy in administrative procedures make difficulties in doing business, as well as the existing indicators of corruption in the country, Bosnia and Herzegovina set the quality of the public services provision as one of key priorities in the accession process to European Union. Primary prerequisite for future harmonization in this sense is better regulation. Relevant international indicators position Bosnia and Herzegovina as stagnantly unfavourable business environment for investors and businesses, with the public sector that is not customer oriented due to the limiting digital environment. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the impact of the introduction of new digital solutions with the interoperability development plan to business environment in Bosnia and Herzegovina, within the implementation of one-stop shop practices. The research is focused at predicting the impact of regulations and strategic reforms to the digital transformation of the public sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with emphasis to the improvement of business environment and effectiveness of administrative procedures. Within the research, key stakeholders (businesses) shall identify ex-ante the degree of innovation and transformational effect on the acceleration of administrative procedures. Keywords: public sector reform · e-governance · new digital era · digital transformation · better regulation

1 Introduction In relation to the status of the competitiveness of the business and investment environment of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the aspect of indicators related to the development of e-government, official international indicators point to a trend of stagnation in a low positioning, so this scientific research will be focused on an ex-ante regulatory analysis to whether the business environment objectively depends on the estimated importance of new digital solutions for businesses in Bosnia and Herzegovina. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 484–493, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_52

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment

485

The connection between international indicators such as the Ease of Doing Business, the Corruption Perception Index and the Governance Index since 2012 indicates that there are no significant movements towards favourable zones in the parameters significant for the acceleration of business processes and the abolition of administrative barriers, with the exception of the normative framework in terms of the adoption of the Law on Electronic signature at all administrative levels. Also, European Commission Report for Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2022[1]still finds that country is at early stage of public administration reform, with limited progress made and essential steps needed in addressing the Opinion key priority 14. According to SIGMA Executive Summary Report in May 2022 [2], there is no central policy for improvement of service delivery, and satisfaction with digital services is by far lowest in the region, especially because digitalization is not centrally promoted nor supported by overall strategies, so relies on individual service providers and initiatives. The Strategic framework for the reform of public administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018–2022) [3] envisages the reform area of the quality of the provision of public services, and in this direction, in 2022, the basic normative basis for the electronic communication of authorities and parties, as well as the digitization of certain administrative phases and actions administrative procedure. And administrative actions, as well as the formation of an one-stop shop, which, along with the certain beginning of the application of electronic signatures and the digitization of processes in local self-government units, will move forward the necessary reform activities in the approximation and harmonization of domestic legal regulations and practice with the acquis. Also, the COVID-19 circumstances accelerated the growth and need for digital change, as the dislocated response of governments and the protection of citizens proved to require advanced digital conditions. According to the eGovernment Benchmark 2022 [4], all EU member states and countries that have candidate status, which Bosnia and Herzegovina just acquired, measure and monitor digital progress according to clear parameters for citizens and businesses, and a greater degree of so-called digital maturity in EU countries have digital governments that focus on Business Start-up, Regular Business Operations as well as Cross-Border Mobility considering wider interest for abroad, transit and internal access to online services during cross-border control, because small and medium-sized enterprises are the carriers of the development of the European economy. The perception of users of new digital solutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina in this research includes relevant parameters in order to form starting assumptions for the further development of digitization in Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as civic or business orientation and expediency.

2 Literature Review There is a constant dilemma and competition who is the driving force of society throughout the history – a state that regulates or strives to regulate most of relevant community affairs or self-regulating market that produces new values. The answer could be found in observance to first peoples and first communities, that were founded in order to provide in organized manner the implementation of multiple and complex activities that are more

486

Ð. Šaši´c et al.

effective to be performed at non-individual level. Following this concept the distribution of roles in the community and establishment of future community organizations in aimed to implement the service role of community authorities. From that moment throughout the history the states are to design and implement the optimal environment for citizen and their various organizations. Such environment is reached throughout the effective state institutions and legal regulations, with the emphasis to rule of law and integrity in public space. Digital transformation of public service is on agenda in the past few decades, but with different approaches. These are all valuable, while the recent research favours the holistic approach. Digital transformation is a holistic effort to revise core government processes and “evolves along a continuum of transition from analogue to digital to a full stack review of policies, current processes, and user needs and results in a complete revision of the existing and the creation of new digital services. The outcome of digital transformation efforts focuses among others on the satisfaction of user needs, new forms of service delivery, and the expansion of the user base [5]. Contemporary states need a continuous transformation, in order to remain competitive in continuous changes in modern and globally dependent societies that are affected with urbanization, digitalization, migrations, emerging demands related to variety of aspirations of individuals and organizations, new professions, demands for transparency, efficiency, value for material and non-material investment within society, security risks etc. Following such holistic approach, interoperability governance in the public sector is promoted with emphasis to integrated governance approach across legal, technical, semantic, and technical interoperability. [6] Digital transformation is therefore not simply a participation process, but may involve the re-organization of the relationships, and the interaction and co-operation between different actors [7]. E-Governance regulations and practices are in very different phases of their adoption and implementation in various countries and often in different decentralized levels of government within one country. Designing and sustaining e-government systems requires rigorous consideration of political, economic, technological, social, cultural and legal status of the country. Such prerequisites impose significant design challenges, which have to be faced by developing countries. Most developing countries suffer from emerging economies, high corruption, political instabilities, unclear legal structures and diverse social and cultural norms, which greatly contribute to the challenges of designing e-government systems. [8] very significant number of countries are today in fourth digital revolution, implementing the Blockchain technologies and other e-governance tools while some transitional countries, like Bosnia and Herzegovina are in a slow transition of still adopting or amending the regulations favourable towards prior mentioned contemporary achievements. Digital transformation of public service is challenged with legal barriers. Legislatures must ensure that laws are updated to recognize e-documents and e-transactions. This demands very broad prior consultations including multiple relevant social stakeholders, amendment or adoption of laws and related bylaws that are adjusted to needs of enterprises and global contemporary business, and reform of administrative procedures

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment

487

by simplifying regulations and procedures. [9] The barriers are different for developing and developed countries, while they differentiate in technological, environmental and organizational terms, but in both cases effective e-governance regulations have significant relationship to economic performance. Motivating factors for e-governance in developing countries are human capital and business environment. In developed countries, all three factors – technology, environment and organization affect the development of e-government, while only environmental context is significant for the development of e-business in developed countries. This leads to a conclusion that diversity of strategies should be promoted when tackling with e-government, e-regulations and e-businesses issues. [10].

3 The Concept and Ex-Ante Impact Assessment of New Digital Solutions for Businesses in Bosnia and Herzegovina E-governance phase 1 considers implementation of multiple benefits for potential users, businesses and citizens, so the main „building block“ is unique user registration eplatform(E-governance portal) for divisional E-services, which, for instance, in 2023 mainly develops E-building permits in five Local Government Units in Bosnia and Herzegovina(implementation started in „pilot“ municipalities: Centar Sarajevo, Tešanj in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, followed with implementation in Republic of Srpska), as an strategic step forward in ease of doing business starting point problem facing business environment and investments potential. Also, E-governance solution in 2023 also considers actualization of E-signature and E-payment, interoperability between administrative units(Government Service Bus), improvement of Epublic procurement system and E-inspections for parallel law enforcement and anticorruption mechanisms, so as strengthening of Civil Society Organizations to monitor implementation of user-oriented E-services (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Building blocks of E-governance phase 1: 2023/User E- services approach Source: Author’s

Fig. 2. E-governance solution phase 2: 2023–2025/User Flow Diagram Source: Author’s

The most important innovative and future oriented features are digital improvement path and expansion of e-government system in Bosnia and Herzegovina through E-governance development phases and Border Inspection Management System 2 in context of Cross-border Mobility, but also more efficient cooperation and „background“

488

Ð. Šaši´c et al.

integration, development of interoperability accompanied with elimination of administrative barriers, arise of participatory democratic culture of interested public or feedback systems by citizens/businesses (two-way communication) and monitoring of Civil Society Organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Digital transformation process in Bosnia and Herzegovina is introducing innovations in aim to remove administrative barriers and shorten the user’s journey to quality in e- delivery of public services. For import-export businesses in context of Cross-Border Mobility, new digital design in Border Inspection Management System 2 operationally starting in 2023, especially improves quality and automated time duration of cross-border control procedure by border inspections, in order to ensure cross-border flow of goods for users and the market (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Border Inspection Management System 2 model 2023. Source: Author’s

4 Methodology and Research Framework 4.1 Sample Features The data collection was conducted during December 2022 in Bosnia and Herzegovina and it included randomly selected respondents from 104 companies. The research was conducted on a random sample that includes top managers, middle-level managers, first-line managers and employees. The sample included companies from the fields of manufacturing industry (9.6%), water supply and waste water drainage, energy (11.5%), construction (12.5%), wholesale and retail trade (16.3%), transportation and storage (4.8%), informatics and communications ICT (12.5%), administrative and auxiliary service activities (9.6%). The majority of respondents come from the field of other service activities 28%. The largest number of respondents comes from micro enterprises

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment

489

40.4%, followed by small 29.8%, medium 17.3% and large 12.5%.When the structure of the respondents is in question, i.e. their position in the company, the most suitable is top management 39.4%, mid-level managers 16.3%, first-line managers 16.3% and employees 27.9%. In addition to the above questions, the questionnaire consisted of 22 questions related to three segments. The first set of questions refers to current administrative procedures, i.e.assessment of the respondents about their consequences on the business community and the investment climate (signing of the deed of incorporation and certification by a notary, obtaining a certificate from the tax authorities that the founders have no tax debts, court registration at the municipal courts, obtaining municipal approval to engage in planned activities, registering the company to obtaintax number in the appropriate tax office, opening a company account in a commercial bank, VAT registration, notification of the start of business activities in cantonal inspection, registration of employees for health and pension insurance). The second set of questions refers to respondents’ views on the introduction of new digital solutions to improve business operations (E-social registers, E-public procurement, E-building permits, Digital innovations and reforms of e-services (e-citizen), E-communication, e-documents and delivery, E-data exchange, E-signature and e-identity, E-inspector, E-cross-border control and cross-border mobility (Border Inspection Management System). The third set of questions was related to the current administrative concept of business orientation and processes regarding the possibility of the risk of inflow of corruption, and the perception of the impact of new digital solutions and web services of e-government on combating corruption. Items in the questionnaire on all scales were presented in the form of affirmative statements for which respondents expressed their views, assessed the degree of agreement on a Likert-type scale, from 1 - I do not agree at all to 5 - I completely agree. 4.2 Research Findings Based on the research problem, the purpose and objectives of the research, certain research questions were formulated: 1. Do the current administrative procedures negatively affect the business community and the investment climate in Bosnia and Herzegovina? 2. Do new digital solutions contribute to the ease of doing business and the improvement of business in Bosnia and Herzegovina? 3. Does e-business have a positive effect on reducing the risk of corruption in the public sector? The mean values of the respondents’ attitudes towards their position in the organization can be clearly read in relation to the mean values of the attitudes of the segment of the concept of e-business and the impact on the fight against corruption. The mean values of attitudes are significantly slightly higher for top managers and mid-level managers compared to the attitudes of first-line managers and employees. The above can be interpreted as top-managers and mid-level managers have greater confidence in the introduction of digitization of business, i.e. e-administration, especially when it comes to the variable of combating corruption, where first-line managers and employees generally do not have enough confidence in digital solutions, which can be the cause and insufficient

490

Ð. Šaši´c et al.

knowledge about blockchain technologies and their advantages. On the other hand, there is a high degree of correlation of 0.784 (Pearson’s correlation) between the variables of digitization of administration (introduction of digital solutions, e-Government) and ease of doing business (improvement of the business environment), where almost all respondents believe that digital solutions contribute to the ease of doing business and improving business in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Table 1. Corellation analysis Correlations

Improvement of the business environment

Pearson Correlation

Improvement of the business environment

Introduction of digital solutions

1

.784*

Sig. (1-tailed) N

Introduction of digital Pearson Correlation solutions Sig. (1-tailed) N

.001 105

104

.784*

1

.001 104

104

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed)

All individual parameters related to the digitization of administration (e-business) also show a high level of correlation with the dependent variable Ease of doing business, where the results indicate a medium to high intensity of connection, which was further analyzed through multiple regression and beta coefficients. According to the research questions and the construction of the questionnaire, three variables were created, namely two independent variables (the introduction of digital solutions and the perception of combating corruption) and one dependent variable (improvement of the business environment and investment climate). When both independent variables are entered into the model simultaneously by reading the Model Summaryb tables (Table 1) related to the multiple regression, it can be seen that the multiple correlation coefficient is quite moderately high at 0.689, while the R Square is 0.603. The above relationships indicate that almost 60% of the changes in the variance of the criterion, that is, the dependent variable, can be explained by the action of both predictors simultaneously, or by their linear combination (Table 2).

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment

491

Table 2. Multiple regression Model Summaryb Model

R

R Square

Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

1

.689a

.603

.017

1.024

a. Predictors: (Constant), Suppression of corruption(Sc), 2 Introduction of digital solutions(eGov) b. Dependent Variable: 1. Improving the business environment and investment climate (Ibe)

The coefficient of determination was, to some extent, influenced by the answers of employees and first-line managers in the context of the impact of e-business on the fight against corruption. Consequently, a two-factor ANOVA procedure was used to see if there were any differences in the answers when it comes to respondents’ attitudes according to the position in the company and the size of the company (Table 3). Table 3. Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variancesa Dependent Variable: 2. To what extent do you think that E-business will affect the Ease of doing business and the improvement of business in Bosnia and Herzegovina? F

df1

df2

Sig

.794

15

88

.681

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups a. Design: Intercept Your position + Number of employees in your company Your position * Number of employees in your company

The results of Levene’s test show that the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not violated. The output results reveal that the main effects for the number of employees and position in the company are not significant (p > 0.05), which means that regardless of the size of the company and the position of the respondents, we can conclude that better regulation and new digital solutions would have a positive impact on the business environment and the investment climate in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

5 Conclusional Interpretation The effects of implementation of e-governance services are clear and the process is inevitable. However, there is significant disproportion in expected and achieved outcomes, in phase of e-governance reform implementation and impact of various social, cultural, legislative, institutional, financial, market, and other variables in various parts of the world. Prior Research has suggested that e-Government can have both immediate and longer term indirect impacts. The immediate impacts are the consequences of service outcome

492

Ð. Šaši´c et al.

from the usage of the e-Government systems and are experienced by the clients of the service and the public agency offering the service. The longer term outcomes emerge from the It resources that are developed in order to deliver e-Government services. IT resources can generate positive organizational outcomes. [11] Due to very specific position of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the country striving to transition from initial phases of e-Government due to very slow initiation and implementation of e-Regulations, and supported by the conducted research described above, we can set some objectives and expected impact as a result of this ex-ante analysis. Key findings from analysis indicate that middle and top management in businesses are more confident in positive effects of e-governance regulations and practices in fighting the corruption within public administration, while lower positions employees do not possess confidence and probably adequate knowledge about subject related processes. There is also significant relation between effectiveness of E-governance and Ease of doing business. In Bosnia and Herzegovina the interfering factor are not long, not applicable or not expedient tradition of e-regulations. Following described context, we recommend the following advancements: improving management, leadership, coordination and control systems; reducing systematic fragmentation and deharmonization; strengthening infrastructure and operability; efficiency in public administration and achievement of strategic goals of the government; planned and systematically oriented inspections; mobilization and targeted action of human resources; internal and external communications; effective protection of public and private interest; and eliminating the perception and occurrence of corruption. The achievement of listed objectives will create impact in terms of: digitization and automation of administrative procedure relevant for businesses; establishing an e-risk assessment system for evidence-based inspection activities; standardization of the framework of inspection work, limitation of discretion and strengthening of internal control; establishing a system for monitoring the achievement of objectives, monitoring and evaluating performance in generated e-reports; measuring and evaluating the performance of employees and inspections; greater accountability, mobilization and performance of employees; transparency, openness and anti-corruption. Public administration, at institutional and individual level, needs to be qualified, motivated in material and non-material aspects, professionally committed and with high level of integrity, well organized and neutrally oriented towards the regulation of social life. Precondition for that is adequate and comprehensive legal framework that support the contemporary global and market oriented trends. Such condition creates friendly business environment, focusing not on bureaucracy but rather the level of attractiveness of their investments and necessity of innovations to be presented to their potential clients.

References 1. European Commission Report for Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2022 -https://neighbourhoodenlargement.ec.europa.eu/bosnia-and-herzegovina-report-2022_en 2. SIGMA Executive Summary Report in May2022- https://www.sigmaweb.org/publications/ Monitoring-Report-Executive-Summary-May-2022-Bosnia-and-Herzegovina.pdf 3. Strategic framework for the reform of public administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018– 2022) -https://parco.gov.ba/en/rju/o-rju-2/strateski-okviri-za-rju/

Impact of E-Governance Regulations on the Business Environment

493

4. eGovernment Benchmark 2022 - https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/egover nment-benchmark-2022 5. Mergel, I., Edelmann, N., Haugh, N.: Defining digital transformation: results from expert interviews. Gov. Inf. Q. 36(4), 101385 (2019) 6. Tan, E., Mahula, S., Crompvoets, J.: Blockchain governance in the public sector: a conceptual framework for public management. Gov Inf. Quart. 39(1), 101625 (2022) https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.giq.2021.101625 7. Gawlowski, R.: Co-production of public services in terms of the polish experience. Polish Pol. Sci. Yearbook, Volume 47 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2018108 8. Mkude, C.G., Wimmer, M.A.: Strategic framework for designing e-government in developing countries. In: Wimmer, M.A., Janssen, M., Scholl, H.J. (eds.) EGOV 2013. LNCS, vol. 8074, pp. 148–162. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40358-3_13 9. Almarabeh, T., AbuAli, A.: A general framework for E-Government: definition maturity challenges, opportunities, and success. Eur. J. Sci. Res. 39(1), 29–42 (2010). ISSN 1450–216X © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm 10. Srivastava, SH.K., Panigrahi, P.K.: The impact of e-government and e-business on economic performance: a comparative study of developing and developed countries. J. Contemp. Issues Bus. Gov. 22(1) (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.06.002 11. Titah, R., MacLean, D.: A systematic literature review of empirical research on the impacts of e-government: a public value perspective. Public Adm. Rev. 82(1) (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.1111/puar.13413

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality - Jakši´c-Stojanovi´c Milorad Katni´c(B) , Ivana Katnic, and Andela Faculty of International Economics, Finance and Business, University of DonjaGorica, Oktoih 1, DonjaGorica, 81 000 Podgorica, Montenegro [email protected]

Abstract. World have been dramatically changed. Economic and demographic transformations, together with new technologies have changes also world of finance that we knew. Until the last decades there were few that could have imagined negative interest rates. It sounded irrational, even impossible. However, with great contribution of expansive monetary policy, interest rates in developed countries have been negative for a longer period of time, in certain countries even for the decade. Many have thought that it is new economic reality. Their plans and expectations were based on the cheap money. However, some rules are still valid. Monetary expansion leads toward inflation. While trying to stop inflation central banks have introduced restrictive monetary policies. This paper will examine phenomena of negative interest rates, their causes and consequences. Especially in the context of the back to the normality on financial market in a sense of positive interest rates. Changes in the policies of central banks have increased boom-busts cycles. The highest risk is in countries that are highly indebted and companies that are in need to refinance their debts and request new financing. In short term, big inflation will lead to the decrease of the relative level of the debt. In long term, in best possible scenario, states and companies will be faced with high costs of new loans. In worst scenario, they will not be able to finance and will be in the risk of bankruptcy. Keywords: Interest rates · Inflation · Boom-busts cycles · Public debt · Fiscal sustainability

1 Introduction Those who save are withdrawing of the current consumption because of the higher consumption in the future. At the macro level savings are precondition for the accumulation of the capital, therefore also for investments, that should lead to the development and prosperity. Those who saved added interest to principal. After the savings they had more for the consumption. Individual savings were accumulated and transformed in consumption and investments loans. Consumption and investments have created new working places, economic growth and growth of the income. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 494–501, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_53

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality

495

That is what could be found in textbooks from monetary politics and macroeconomics. And really, world of finance has been functioning like that always. Interest rates were positive for three centuries. It was like that not only for citizens and companies, but also for states. It was like that until recent history. “Although the fall in real interest rates has been ongoing since the peaks of the 1980s disinflation, the drop was particularly acute after the GFC, leading to intense academic and policy discussion over what factors might best explain it.” [1] When central banks decreased reference interest rates to the 0 and many have thought that interest rates could not be lower than 0. Central banks and markets have undeceived us. “Low interest rates around the world due to accommodative monetary policy regimes have been a source of concern for the banking industry for some time. In the immediate wake of the global financial crisis of 2007–2009, policy rates in several advanced economies fell to levels close to the so-called “zero lower bound.” Many banks have argued that nominal deposit rates could not fall below zero without eroding their customer bases.” [2]. It turned out that 0 was bottom level for the positive interest rates, and the top to the negative interest rates. “The zero bound has its roots in a diverse range of frictions but is due above all to the fear of central banks that if they push the short-term policy interest rates, which they set, too deeply negative, there will be a massive flight into paper currency. Cash, of course, pays no interest, positive or negative.” [3]. This is especially important while having in mind that “the role of central banks is to avoid overheating, which might lead to increasing inflation, as well as underheating, which leads to excessive unemployment.” [4] That is the reason why central banks around the world have decided to introduce negative interest rates for business banks that “keep” liquidity. Negative interest rates have transferred toward public and private sector. On the developed market, interest rates for government bonds, corporative bonds and for savings have become negative. That is the reason why savings were discouraged, and borrowing encouraged. Those that were saving were punished. After expiring period of the term deposits, they should give back smaller amount. It was like living in the experiment of the negative interest rates. “We believe that the these trends are best analyzed in terms of changes in saving and investment propensities or equivalently in terms of trends in desired wealth holdings by consumers and desired capital accumulation by producers. While factors involving liquidity, scarcity and risk no doubt bear on levels of real interest rates we find it highly implausible that they are the main factor accounting for trend movements.” [5]. Monetary and fiscal stimuli maybe prevented repetition of the great economic crisis, but long-term consequences of those politics were very dangerous. The effects of those have been investigated by number of authors in last years. Blanchard (2022) and Rogoff (2022) examined influence of those measures and analyzed effects of fiscal and monetary policies on interest rates. Beckmann, Gernand Jannsen (2022) provided great overview on interest rates in euro area, combining both theoretical explanations but also available empirical evidence. Since Mario Dragi have stated that he will do everything to keep euro, over indebted states of Europe received infusion of the great and cheap money, which have helped them to postpone painful structural reforms.

496

M. Katni´c et al.

2 Inflation and IT’S Influence on Interest Rates For a long period of time inflation was like a ghost for economists and decision makers. Controlling inflation is only or one of basic tasks for the central banks in world. In all developed countries of the world, except Iceland, targeting of the inflation is one of the goals of monetary policy. While facing inflation central banks usually use instrument of the increase of reference interest rates. That is the reason why reference rates of some of main central banks from’70 last century were above 10%. In order to fight two digit inflation Federal reserves in the 70’s years of last century have increased reference interest rate on almost 20%. In smaller economies, like Israel, most important stabilization element for the high inflation in middle 80’s of last century were high reference interest rates. Similar things were in Argentina during stabilization program in 80’s years of last century. [6] After high levels of inflation in 70’s and 80’s years of last century, last decades we were witnesses of “global disinflation”. Decreasing of the inflation in most developed countries of the world have led to the decrease of reference interest rates, starting from 80’s years of last century. The main shift of economic problems was from inflation toward the unemployment and need to speed up and increase economic growth. Little by little, monetary policy was subordinated toward those questions. That is the reason why reference interest rates were used as one of the instruments for the increase of economic growth and decrease of unemployment. While using politics and measures, most important central banks in world in the last

Fig. 1. Central bank interest rates, USA, Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan and Switzerland, 1988–2019, source: Mike, C., Negative Interest Rates, Cursed Cash, and Bitcoin (2019), available at https://burningw0rds.medium.com/negative-interest-rates-cursed-cashand-bitcoin-be195c0573c6 [7]

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality

497

30 years have contributed to the trend of the decrease of interest rates with cheap and available money, in order to speed up economic growth and decrease unemployment (Fig. 1). Monetary stimuli given by most important central banks were especially important after the economic crisis occurred in 2008. “After the economic crisis started, in 2008, most of richest countries, especially those that had fiscal possibilities, additionally increased their consumption. Growth was very visible in the countries that owned their own currencies and that have implemented politics of cheap money and quantitative stimulus. In that context fiscal politics was “leaned” on modern monetary theory that suggests that countries that can borrow their own currency should not worry about public debts, and therefor not worry about deficit and costs, because they could print money in order to finance debt” [8]. Therefore, central banks did decrease of reference interest rates and additionally putted “cheap” money in order to keep financial system functional, and to encourage consumption and investments and to speed up economic growth. After the crisis started FED did decrease of interest rates for nine times in a row, and on December 17th 2008 he decreased it for the tenth time on 0,25%. Denmark was first state in world that introduced negative interest rates in 2012. European central bank was resisting temptation to decrease reference interest rates. However, the second wave of debt crisis started for euro currency in 2012 and treated to ruin euro as common currency, European central bank started expansion monetary policy. After few adjustments and decrease of interest rates, European central bank was first among big central banks that introduced negative interest rates in June 2014 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. ECB interest rates and deposit facility rates 2000–2020, source: authors, data from https:// tradingeconomics.com/euro-area/interest-rate

Similar policies were adopted by central banks from Sweden, Switzerland and Japan. At one period negative interest rates of central banks were present in the countries that are making 25% of global GDP. If we add countries in which reference interest rate was at very low level (bellow 2%), including USA, we could conclude that around 60% of global economy had used measures of low interest rates. However, question of interest rates was not only under the influence of politics of central banks. In order to do comprehensive analysis of decrease of interest rates we

498

M. Katni´c et al.

should analyze other factors that have influence on growth of supply and decrease of demand on the money market. And interest rate is price for the specific good- money. And price is determined by supply and demand. In the case of money, price is dependent on the politics of central banks, but also of savings and consumption/investments (demand for money). “In addition to risk, the factors which influence interest rates are: inflation, bank operating costs, demand for credits compared with supply” [9]. There are few socioeconomic factors that influence interest rates, and it seems that two are most important. Firstly, it is influence of demographic trends. Aging population, especially in developed countries, brings higher share of generation aged 40 to 65, and “period of falling interest rates has coincided with a period when the population share of the high-saving middle-aged (40–65 years) has been rising relative to that of the population aged over 65” [10]. This factor, together with income growth in states where citizens are prone toward saving, like in China, have brought big changes in the level of global savings. Second important factor is decrease in productivity. Decrease of productivity, at global level, and especially in most developed countries of world, caused smaller economic growth, smaller level of investments, smaller growth of income and therefore smaller tendency toward consumption of households. Every of these elements, and especially all of them together can cause smaller demand for money. Additionally, world was faced with intensive geopolitical tensions and big technologic changes. Insecurity and unpredictability are always enemies of business and investments. When expectations are negative, then companies try to avoid saving, and citizens to spend money. When citizens and companies postpone their consumptions, than demand for money is smaller. That is causing additional decrease of interest rates. Besides these two factors, decrease of the price of money was caused by big economic and technological changes that had brought more important role of the sector of services. In the new economic framework, knowledge and innovations have become more important and valuable, and for many companies capital is not needed or not that important. “That is the reason why many start-up companies that are worth billions of euros, were not initially made from capital, but from innovation and knowledge. In the sector of IT and digital industry a great number of new occupations and thousands of new working places are created, and for many of those capital was not primary force” [11].

3 Visible and Less Visible Consequences of Low Interest Rates Low level of reference interest rates should lead toward cheaper credits, and therefore it should provoke consumption and investments, and consequently economic growth and growth of employment. Those were expectations of the decrease of interest rates. However, the real consequences were different and multi-layered. Recent experience has thought us that low and negative interest rates should not always lead to higher consumption/investments and growth of economy. Although it was available and cheap money it was not dominantly transferred toward households and companies. Consumption and investments are not significantly increased. At the same time, lower level of reference interest rates on certain markets does not mean lower level of interest rates for clients. Why it is so?

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality

499

Memories are still fresh from recent financial and debt crisis and high levels of uncollectible credits in banks. Relatively high level of loans and stagnating income did not allow citizens to additionally borrow money. At the same time, expectations from future were not so positive and that means that citizens and companies will have smaller propensity toward consumption, and that at the same time bank will in calculate additional premium of risk in the price of money. Regulators of banking sector put additional more strict requests for capital adequacy and reservations what makes borrowing more expensive and additionally decrease tendency to take risk. All together, these factors are alienating banks from taking higher risks and lowering interest rates. Instead of deliberate stimulating consumption and growth of economy, monetary stimulus lead to increase of the price of bonds, that is decrease of rates for borrowers that are considered to be most secure- states and companies with investment credit rating. Investments in government bonds are encouraged by regulators that consider these investments as less risky and do not ask for additional reservations. That is the reason why investments in government bonds at the beginning of process when returns on bonds were positive, for bank was useful and rationale decision. Low price of the sources of funds from European central bank allowed for a certain period of time banks to earn high margins on the placements to indebted states from Europe. That was supposed to help them in renewal of profitability and strengthening of capital, so they could renew their credit activity toward households and companies. However, high demand for government bonds and additional stimulus of European central bank, together with direct buying of bonds, have decreased interest rates on government bonds toward the historical minimum (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Negative-yielding bonds (2017–2022), source: Ranasinghe, D., Euro zone’s negativeyielding debt pile has almost disappeared, Reuters, October 2022, available at: https://www.reu ters.com/markets/currencies/euro-zones-negative-yielding-debt-pile-has-almost-disappeared-tra deweb-2022-10-03/ [12]

At the same time “the overall effects of interest rate changes on risk-taking is ambiguous under positive interest rates, but there is strong evidence that negative interest rates tend to increase risk-taking.” [13]. As Marques, Casiraghi, Gelos, Kamberand Meeks(2021) concluded “life insurance companies and other institutional

500

M. Katni´c et al.

investors may have an incentive to increase risk-taking because of guaranteed positive nominal returns to their policyholders and requirements to hold a certain fraction of their assets as liquid (potentially negative yielding) government securities”[14]. In July 2022 European central bank, after 11 years of decrease in interest rates, increased them and “went out” of area of negative interest rates. After almost decade of negative interest rates Denmark increased interest rates above 0 immediately after European central bank. Money suddenly became less available and significantly expensive.

4 Conclusion Inflation, especially high and sudden has great effect on debts. In short run, high inflation decrease deficit and debt. Nominal state revenues, usually during the high inflation grow faster than nominal expenditure. That leads to the decrease of deficit. At the same time, higher nominal GDP makes the share of debt lower. That is the reason why in 2021 public debt in most of the developed countries was decreased by inflation. Similar situation will be probably in 2022. However, if inflation is not short-term phenomena that it will cause inflation expectations. Pressure on expenditure will lead toward their increase or toward social unrest. At the same time, inflation expectations make credits more expensive and less available. States with high level of public debt will be under the highest pressure, especially those that are more exposed to he external shocks- rapid economic impairment or negative change at international financial market. States that have higher level of initial public debt in the situation of rapid decrease in economic activity, decrease of international exchange (import and/or export) and decrease of budget revenues will face the risk of worse fiscal sustainability and sustainability of public debt. External shock that includes increase of interest rates on international market and smaller availability of money leads toward higher costs of refinancing debts and in extreme situation to situation where money could not be provided. Rollover risk is always higher for countries with higher public debt, and especially is significant in countries which have shorter debt maturity, and which are dependent on smaller number of international investors. During last years, especially as a reaction on COVID 19 pandemics, many governments have narrowed their fiscal area. Political instability and risks of recession have made situation for highly indebted countries even more sensitive. With important growth of interest rates, fiscal crisis are again reality with which many indebted countries are faced. At the same time, high inflation and shocks on food and energy market together with volatility of process are increasing risk of social unrest. Prioritizing in the public consumption, with special social programs and responsible plan for fiscal consolidation are best possible response for uncertainty with which are faced high indebted countries. For states that are faced with no possibility to refinance their obligation at market, last solution could be IMF with painful fiscal and economic adjustments.

From Negativne Interest Rates Toward Old Normality

501

References 1. Rogoff, K.S., Barbara, R., and Schmelzing, P.: Long-Run Trends in Long-Maturity Real Rates, Harvard University academic paper (2022). https://scholar.harvard.edu/rogoff/public ations/long-run-trends-long-maturity-real-rates 2. Lopez, J., Rose, A., Spiegel, M.: Why have negative nominal interest rates had such a small effect on bank performance? Cross country evidence. Eur. Econ. Rev. 124 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2020.103402 3. Rogoff, K.: Dealing with monetary paralysis at the zero bound. J. Econ. Perspect. 31, 47–66 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.3.47 4. Blanchard, O.: Fiscal Policy under Low Interest Rates. MIT Press (2022) 5. Lukasz, R., Summers, L.: On falling neutral real rates, fiscal policy, and the risk of secular stagnation. Brookings Papers Econ. Activity (1), 1–54 (2019). https://www.brookings.edu/ wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RachelSummers_web.pdf 6. Guillermo, A.C., Carlos, A.V.: fighting inflation with high interest rates: the small open economy case under flexible prices. J. Money, Credit, Bank. 27(1), 49–66 (1995) 7. Mike, C.: Negative Interest Rates, Cursed Cash, and Bitcoin (2019). https://burningw0rds. medium.com/negative-interest-rates-cursed-cash-and-bitcoin-be195c0573c6 8. Katnic, I., Katnic, M.: Zasto rastu javni dugovi. Dug i (ne)razvoj, Institutdruštvenihnauka, Centar za ekonomskaistraživanja, Beograd, ISBN: 978-86-7093-218-0, pp. 172–183 (2019) 9. Steševi´c, I.: Econometric model of interest rates on deposits in montenegro. Panoeconomicus 55(3), 383–398 (2008). https://panoeconomicus.org/index.php/jorunal/article/view/257 10. Bean, C.: Causes and consequences of persistently low interest rates, VOXEU (2015), available at: https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/causes-and-consequences-persistently-low-interestrates. Accessed Dec 2022 11. UNDP: (Ne)zaposlenost mladih u Crnoj Gori – Politike za pove´canje zaposlenosti mladih, UNDP u Crnoj Gori, Podgorica; ISBN 978-9940-614-30-0 (2017) 12. Ranasinghe, D.: Euro zone’s negative-yielding debt pile has almost disappeared, Reuters (2022). https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/euro-zones-negative-yieldingdebt-pile-has-almost-disappeared-tradeweb-2022-10-03/ 13. Beckmann, J., Gern, K.-J., Jannsen, N.: Should they stay or should they go? Negative interest rate policies under review. Int. Econ. Econ. Pol. 19, 885–912 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10368-022-00547-4 14. Marques, L.B, Casiraghi, M., Gelos, G., Kamber, G., Meeks, R.: Negative Interest Rates: Taking Stock of the Experience So Far, IMF, Volume 2021: issue 003, ISBN: 9781513570082 (2021). https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513570082.087

Conceptual Foundations for the Formation of the Paradigm of Neo-industrialization in Modern Conditions Yuri Doroshenko(B) , Irina Malykhina, and Olga Leonova Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, 308012 Belgorod, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. This article presents the conceptual foundations for the formation of the neo-industrialization paradigm as an effective tool for increasing the economic, scientific and technological sovereignty of the Russian Federation in modern conditions, characterized by a high level of instability in the geopolitical situation, volatility of the national currency, and an unprecedented scale of sanctions pressure on the Russian economy. The article analyzes the scientific and theoretical provisions of the concept of innovative development of economic systems, justifying the need for the transformation of human capital, the format of intersectoral interaction and the choice of effective forms and methods of technological modernization. The characteristics of the external environment that form modern challenges that influence the substantiation of fundamental approaches to the formation of the neo-industrialization paradigm as a formula for the development of the domestic economy are studied. Keywords: Neo-industrialization paradigm · Innovation trajectory · Economic systems · Economic development · Modern conditions

1 Introduction The second millennium of the modern history of human development began with a significant pace of scientific and technological progress, as a result of which the interest of the scientific sector in the issues of industrial development in the light of ongoing technical revolutions and the onset of the era of neo-industrialization is natural and understandable. One of the key reasons for these transformations is the unviability of the current model of economic development - raw materials or export-oriented, inscribed in the ideology of liberal monetarist policy. And today an effective model of economic development should be formed based on the needs of modern society. The specificity of the improvement of the world economy in modern conditions predetermines the innovative scenario as a development vector. At the same time, scientists associate the innovative development of economic systems with the formation of the neo-industrialization paradigm, however, in the search for an effective response, including the Russian society, to the global challenges of today, it is © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 502–510, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_54

Conceptual Foundations for the Formation

503

necessary to take into account the features and consequences of the interaction between man and nature, man and technology, social institutions. The most important conclusion is that the essence of neo-industrialization lies in the answer to the main question: “Is the economic system capable of implementing a high-tech and science-intensive production process?” The specifics of the Russian economy predetermines great opportunities for the implementation of a large-scale neo-industrial reboot of industry, primarily manufacturing industries, implemented in the plane of the Industry 4.0 concept and the results of the sixth technological order. The transformation of industrial sectors and the modernization of the domestic economy actualizes the problem of creating a fundamentally different industrial basis, where the most important determinants are the advanced achievements of scientific and technological progress, which form the foundation for the implementation of post-industrial changes.

2 Other Topics The transformation of industrial development policy vectors in the current conditions of modernization of the domestic economy is based on the implementation of the neoindustrial paradigm and the scientific, theoretical, methodological substantiation of the imperatives of its development. The specificity of the Russian economy determines the dependence of the processes of neo-industrial development on the institutional foundations for the formation of a democratic society, taking into account the formed integration ties that affect the efficiency of production processes. Domestic scientists who develop the relevant area of economic science agree that the paradigm of neo-industrialization should take into account the peculiarities of structuring and strategizing the innovative development of economic systems of various levels of the hierarchy, while its formation is based on a triune approach: the need to transform human capital, intersectoral interaction and the choice of effective forms and methods of technological modernization. At the same time, the regular features of the indicated processes predetermine the need to clarify the conceptual and categorical apparatus of the study. Thus, the term paradigm (translated from Greek means “example, sample, model”), in terms of content characteristics, reflects a generally accepted example of rational and optimal research activities. In our opinion, the goal of the neo-industrialization paradigm is to update the policy of scientific, technological and industrial development, the transformation of the domestic economy based on the development of human capital, strengthening the format of intersectoral interaction and choosing effective forms and methods of technological modernization. Then we study the scientific and theoretical provisions that contribute to the formation of the neo-industrialization paradigm, which modern economic science has at its disposal. Thus, honored scientists E.G. Animitsa and Ya.P. Silin are convinced that the essence of neo-industrialization must be sought in the opposite direction, remembering the root cause of its occurrence. Thus, the liberal monetary model in the Russian economy predetermined deindustrialization, which in fact means the oppression of the real sector due to the violation of the structural, parametric and functional balance of capital investments in technological production [1].

504

Y. Doroshenko et al.

As noted by S.S. Gubanov in his numerous scientific works devoted to the problems of neo-industrialization of the national economy, the totality of scientific data available to modern economic science makes it possible to form and put forward a neo-industrial paradigm. According to the scientist, at the beginning of this century, two systemic laws of neo-industrial progress were formed and substantiated. Thus, according to the first law, labor is subject to machine substitution. At the same time, the second law scientifically explained vertical integration. And the problem of reindustrialization, according to the law of time, was transformed into the problem of new industrialization, i.e. based on the phenomena of the fourth industrial revolution. In support of the indicated ideas, we quote the scientist: “Technological backwardness is intolerable for Russia. A real rise is possible only when moving towards a science-intensive mode of production, only through neo-industrialization. The strategy for its implementation should be based in every possible way on the potential of its own economic basis [2, 3]. Also it is important to analyze the process of paradigm formation in the context of establishing and developing mutual methods of influence between the object of transformation and the methods that affect it, in order to identify the applied nature of the paradigm of neo-industrial development [4]. The importance of the applied nature of the neo-industrialization paradigm is also confirmed by E.B. Lenchuk in the course of ongoing scientific research. Thus, economically developed states, which are technological leaders in the global market in various industries and sectors of high technology production, purposefully strengthen the role of industry in the processes of stimulating the innovative development of the economy. Both the prospects for the use of industrial potential and the possibility of continuous technological renewal predetermine the level of competitiveness and the prospects for the strategic development of economic systems of all levels of organizational complexity. At the same time, these prospects should be indicated in the strategic vector of economic policy, which predetermines the essence of neo-industrial development. The purpose of neo-industrialization is to stimulate large-scale transformations of the industrial base of the national economy, both in the structural and functional planes, based on the formation of a fundamentally new technological basis for production processes that meet the requirements of the fourth industrial revolution. Neo-industrialization involves the processes of transformation of the sectoral structure of industry and inter-sectoral interaction, due to the introduction of technological innovations, which are subject to analysis from the point of view of several aspects [3]: – macroeconomic aspect: analysis of the impact of neo-industrialization on economic development trends through the prism of changes in the role of the most important factors in dynamics; – structural aspect: analysis of the sectoral content of neo-industrialization through the prism of the impact of industries on economic development trends, as well as socioeconomic, technological, geopolitical competitiveness of the economic system. At the same time, the choice of priorities for creating the industrial structure of the economic system largely determines the effectiveness of neo-industrial transformations.; – technological aspect: analysis of the technological content of ongoing projects in industrial sectors and sectors through the prism of modernizing the production apparatus, as well as diversifying technological capabilities;

Conceptual Foundations for the Formation

505

– resource aspect: analysis of the ratio of opportunities and needs of resource support for the priorities of structural improvement of neo-industrialization through the prism of non-financial and financial resources (human, industrial, scientific and technological potential) to eliminate existing or potential resource constraints; – institutional aspect: analysis of formal and informal regulations and norms of interaction between key subjects of neo-industrialization through the prism of evaluating their effectiveness in order to form recommendations for improving the quality of the institutional environment in order to implement innovative processes. The reflected aspects of neo-industrialization are interconnected, interdependent, and influence the process of policy formation for the modernization of the industrial potential of economic systems. An analysis of the institutional environment and structural priorities of the neo-industrialization of the domestic economy from the point of view of industrial modernization based on the latest knowledge and technologies forms the prerequisites for a deeper scientific understanding of the definition of “neo-industrialization”. The issues of neo-industrial development, problems and prospects of industrial and scientific and technological policy are widely represented in the works of domestic scientists: S.D. Bodrunova, A.V. Buzgalina, S.Yu. Glazeva, S.S. Gubanov, V.V. Ivantera, V.L. Inozemtseva, G.B. Kleiner, V. M. Kulkov, E. B. Lenchuk, D.S. Lvov, V.I. Mayevsky, V. Mau, O.S. Sukharev, A.I. Tatarkina, A.V. Todosiychuk and others. The formation of an innovative trajectory for the development of economic systems at various levels of the hierarchy is predetermined by the processes of neo-industrialization. Scientific and theoretical approaches to the study of the principles of technological development of economic systems as the basis for the policy of neo-industrialization are reflected in the works of foreign authors D. Bell, K. Clark, A. Coomaraswamy, M.J. Enright and others. Total complex of scientific works of scientists engaged in the study of the problems of neo-industrial development of the domestic economy convincingly proves the existence of the potential for creative impact. The presence of the scientific, theoretical and methodological base of neo-industrialization creates conditions and forms the prerequisites for abandoning the current model of economic development and transition to a new one based on the latest knowledge and high technologies, as well as a qualitative transformation of economic systems in order to form the skills of their selforganization. The conceptual basis for the formation of a neo-industrial platform in modern conditions can be a synthesis of the scientific provisions of economic synergy, the theory of institutional development, socio-economic, scientific, technological and industrial development. Summarizing the opinions of leading scientists in the subject area of knowledge, we highlight the key aspects of the author’s approach to understanding neo-industrialization as a scientific category and substantiating its essential characteristics. Thus, it is proposed to understand neo-industrialization as a tool for building an innovative type of economy through the implementation of a system of tools, measures, conditions and mechanisms for the formation of a new industrial base for the organization of high-tech and science-intensive production processes based on the transformation of human capital, determining the optimal format for intersectoral cooperation, using effective methods and forms of technological modernization industry.

506

Y. Doroshenko et al.

We believe that in order to form a certain “coordinate system” of the innovation field for the implementation of neo-industrialization processes, it is necessary to structure and strategize the innovative development of economic systems. We emphasize that the process of formation and implementation of the strategy of innovative development of economic systems is not simple and homogeneous. Since the process of neo-industrialization covers all levels and all participants in the national economy. At the same time, the most innovatively oriented market participant is innovative business. Modern development conditions are characterized by instability of socio-economic, geopolitical and other processes, which together transforms all internal processes and phenomena, including the structure of the economy. Thus, nowadays the structuring of the innovative development of economic systems is influenced by: – implementation of sanctions measures against the Russian economy; – prolonged pandemic and forced restrictive measures due to the spread of a new coronavirus infection COVID-19; – volatility of the national currency - instability of hydrocarbon fuel prices; – restriction of foreign investment capital; – imperfection of institutional development of innovative activity; – weak legal regulation of relationships in the area of innovative development of the Russian economy; – insufficient integration of participants in the innovation process; – lack of a culture of insurance due to a number of objective reasons, including the risks of innovation, etc.. And at the same time, the processes of structuring and strategizing innovative development are closely interrelated. Thus, it was revealed that the step-by-step, logically determined process of strategizing is influenced by factors whose genesis is in the plane of structural transformations (the factors correlate with the chronology of the implementation of the stages of the innovation process), namely: – identification, substantiation and evaluation of innovation development priorities; – formation and implementation of strategic programs and pilot projects initiated by public authorities aimed at supporting the subjects of the innovation process; – infrastructure support for the process of strategizing innovative development; – analysis and evaluation of the time interval for the implementation of the strategizing process; – implementation of the organizational and economic mechanism of innovative development of the economic system; – cumulative assessment of the effectiveness of the strategizing process; – analysis of the results, adjustment of the strategy of innovative development. The scientists-economists note that the high dynamism of the external environment significantly affects the process of strategizing innovative development, since it involves the implementation of continuous and ongoing planning. However, the implementation of the strategy for the innovative development of economic systems and their subjects requires constant monitoring.

Conceptual Foundations for the Formation

507

Having considered the processes of structuring and strategizing innovative development, it is important to highlight the following fundamental provisions that reflect the essence of the implementation of neo-industrialization: – identifying the functions of participants in the process of neo-industrialization involved in the process of innovative production; – the effectiveness of management decisions in activities related to the formation of a new industrial platform for the domestic economy; – stimulation of high-tech and knowledge-intensive production; – intensification of processes and phenomena that stimulate the compliance of domestic economic systems with the requirements of the Industry 4.0 concept and the sixth technological order, etc.. And it is important to constantly monitor and analyze the tools and methods for implementing the neo-industrial development of the Russian economy in order to constantly update and improve them. We believe that the universal tools for the implementation of neo-industrial policy are: – strategizing, planning of strategic development; – implementation of project management within the framework of the program-target approach, priority in the field of high-tech and science-intensive industrial production; – economic clustering; – digitalization of the economy; – public-private and public-municipal partnership; – formation of technological platforms, etc. As noted by A.Yu. Nikitaeva and O.V. Pisarskaya, in modern conditions, the transition to the stage of neo-industrial development is feasible only when analyzing large-scale challenges of a technical and technological nature, which include [5]: – stimulating the creation of new technological innovations introduced in the production process; – increase in the cost of developing the latest product samples; – growth in the scale of individualization and customization of production; – complication of production processes at all stages; – ubiquitous robotization of production; – increase in the degree of intellectualization of production; – strengthening of integration interaction between the manufacturer of innovative products and its developer; – reduction of the time range for the introduction of new product samples; – increasing the speed and transfer of technologies, routinization of this process; – the emergence and application of new forms of integration interaction, the formation of new integration structures, including the industrial type, the intensification of industrial integration. According to the authors, the policy of neo-industrialization of the Russian economy should be characterized by a differentiated system of conditions, indicators and factors

508

Y. Doroshenko et al.

of innovative and technological development, the formation of which is possible when taking into account the unique features of development inherent only to it, entailing the subsequent strengthening of competitive positions in areas leading to the emergence of a multiplier effect in within the framework of high-tech and knowledge-intensive production [6]. As a part of the study, the authors have identified a triad of critical parameters of neo-industrialization, the first in which is human capital. Undoubtedly, this scientific definition is actively studied by both foreign and domestic scientists, as it is the most important tool for the formation of a new type of economy, since it has an innovative status. Human capital as an economic category has been widely studied, the formed scientific and theoretical provisions create a holistic picture regarding the reflection of the evolution of socio-economic relations in terms of highlighting the theoretical, practical aspects of their development, taking into account the trends in the dynamism of social relations. Thus, human capital is a set of knowledge, skills, abilities, experience of a person adequate to the needs of modern society as a specific resource that has a certain value and has the ability to accumulate and improve. The second parameter of the triad is intersectoral interaction, which represents a system of real and potential economic relationships planned in the future. Their formation takes place between the participants of the national economy of various production sectors, industries and industrial complexes for effective cooperation that meets the interests and needs of all participants. An important aspect of the implementation of intersectoral interaction is the need for investment in the form of capital investments that develop production capacities, speed up the production cycle, and strengthen production potential in order to develop technological capabilities. The third most important parameter of neo-industrialization, according to the authors, is technological modernization. Under technological modernization, we propose to understand the process of re-equipping the complex of national production, priority industrial sectors of the national economy, as well as ensuring its compliance with the criteria of science-intensive and high-tech production at a global level at all stages of the technological cycle to strengthen the competitive positions of market participants, production sectors, industries and the economy as a whole. Definitely, nowadays, there are serious problems associated with the technological development of the Russian economy, which is confirmed by official statistics. At the same time, the implementation of the neo-industrialization policy is aimed at eliminating the structural problems of the domestic economy, generated and located in the plane of the innovation system. Thus, in order to stimulate the processes of neo-industrial transformations, it is necessary to implement the following set of measures [7, 8]: – Stimulating the inflow of investment resources into R&D, developing critical technologies and innovative solutions that meet the requirements of the Industry 4.0 concept and the sixth technological order. – Development of the institutional foundations of neo-industrial transformations, achieving a balance in the interaction of the most important institutions in the interests of high-tech and knowledge-intensive industries. – Development of the infrastructure for innovative and technological activities in the framework of the production of high-tech and science-intensive products.

Conceptual Foundations for the Formation

509

– Development of financing and investment mechanisms for innovatively active and technologically advanced business entities. – Training of unique, highly qualified personnel, suppression of their outflow abroad. – Analysis, assessment and risk management of neo-industrial transformations. – Stimulation of solvent demand for high-tech and science-intensive products of domestic production.

3 Conclusion In conclusion, we should note that nowadays there is a necessary to transform the traditional structure of the national economy, to abandon the raw material export model, which cannot be done without the transition of the economy to the path of neo-industrialization. The gap in technological development that has developed over many decades from the leading world powers does not give a chance to ensure a decent level of social well-being and take a leading position in the world arena. Wherein at the same time, a feature of the Russian economy in the implementation of neo-industrial transformations is the dependence of all processes on the state, the inability to attract large foreign investments, the lack of own reserves, the suspension of globalization and integration processes, and the closure of international markets. Modern conditions are characterized by serious shocks not only for business entities, but also for national economies. It is important to skillfully identify, structure and typify the key barriers to the neo-industrialization of the domestic economy, identify, analyze and specify the current trends in the transformation of material production and the real sector in the context of Industry 4.0, since the potential that the fourth industrial revolution brings is the objective basis for the transition from the comprador model of functioning to the innovative trajectory of the development of the Russian economy.

References 1. Silin, Ya.P., Animitsa, E.G.: The Russian model of new industrialization: to the formulation of the problem. Proc. USUE 5(73), 44–53 (2017) 2. Gubanov, S.S.: State breakthrough. New industrialization of Russia and vertical integration, Moscow, Russian Federation (2012) 3. Bodrunova, S.D., Silina, Ya.P., Ryazanova, V.T., Animitsy, E.G.: New industrialization of Russia: strategic priorities of the country and the opportunities of the Urals: [monograph], Ministry of Education and Science Ros. Federation, Ural. state economy un-t. - Yekaterinburg: Ural Publishing House. state economy un-ta, Moscow, Russian Federation (2018) 4. Krasnyuk, L.V.: Diagnostics of the stages of economic development and the formation of the neo-industrialization paradigm of the Russian industry. Scientific and technical statements of the St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University. Econ. Sci. 1(235), 158-166 (2016) 5. Nikitaeva, A., Pisarskaya, O.V., Matveeva, L.G.: Model and Information Platform of Economic Processes: [monograph]. Publishing House of the Southern Federal University, Rostov-n / D, Russian Federation (2015) 6. Lenchuk, E.B., Filatov, V.I., Vlaskin, G.A., Ivanov, A.E.: New industrialization as a condition for the formation of an innovative model for the development of the Russian economy, IE RAN, Moscow, Russian Federation (2013)

510

Y. Doroshenko et al.

7. Doroshenko, Yu.A., Malykhina, I.O.: Strategy of innovation-oriented business: problems and prospects in the context of neo-industrial challenges, Economics. Society. Human. Issue. XXXIX. Transformations and risks of modernity: interdisciplinary research: materials of the national scientific-practical conference with international participation / scientific. ed. Doctor of Economics sciences, prof. E.N. Chizhova, Belgor. state technol. un-t im. V.G. Shukhov; Belgor. region. Department of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. Belgorod: Publishing house of BSTU 1, 76–80 (2020) 8. Doroshenko, Y., Malykhina, I.O., Leonova, O.V., Rudychev, A.A.: The analysis of infrastructural support for high-tech development of the domestic economy in the context of neo-industrialization. Linguist. Cult. Rev. 5(1), 318–328 (2021)

Development of the Raw Material Sector of the Russian Industry in the Post-covid and Sanctions Period Riapukhina Viktoriia(B) Institute of Economics and Management, Belgorod State Technological University Named After V.G. Shukhov, BSTU 46 Kostykova St., 308012 Belgorod, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents the results of study of development of the raw materials industry sector of the Russian economy. The research was carried out on the changes caused by the sanctions policy of the collective West immediately after the corona crisis. On the one hand, large-scale industrial production was not affected as much by the pandemic as, for example, the service sector. On the other hand, external pressure is radically increasing on the Russian economy. At the same time, the raw materials industry is being actively modernized and rebuilt in the conditions of Industry 4.0. The analysis of results was performed on the official and internal statistic. A review showed that the diversification has allowed Russia to move away from raw material dependence. According the share of this industry is still large, the issue of its modernization is a state priority. The samply from the metallurgy sector showed that the current innovative activity level of industrial enterprises in actual conditions is different, and the implemented transformations make it easier to adapt. Keywords: Russian economy · Consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic · Western sanctions · Innovation · Industrial development

1 Introduction The sanctions policy of the so-called collective West towards Russia has reached a critical level and is embodied in the current economic sanctions, including energy resources, finance, and high technologies. The number of sanctions imposed on Russia is about 13 thousand, which is 4 times more than there were for Iran. Considering the future of the sanctions war, we note that the potential for mutual measures has not yet been exhausted. Thus, within the ninth package, the EU decided to ban investments in the mining industry (including loans). Previously, new investments in oil, gas and coal extraction were already prohibited. In fact, the new restrictions include the mining of lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, silver, diamonds and other precious stones and construction materials. However, there are broad exemptions covering projects that mine or produce bauxite and aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, mineral fertilizers (including © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 511–518, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_55

512

R. Viktoriia

phosphate and potassium), molybdenum, nickel, palladium, rhodium, scandium, titanium, and vanadium, rare earths elements. Earlier, the EU excluded Russian titanium, aluminum, copper, nickel, palladium, and iron from the sanctions [1]. Under the conditions of the sanctions, Russia’s international reserves were reduced to 587.423 billion dollars, while in the same period in 2021, their volume reached 605.242 billion dollars. However, the direct impact of the sanctions on the Russian economy was only to 10%. We note that at the end of 2020, a sharp budget deficit was recorded, so it is possible to look for the beginning of the crisis even before the events of February 2022. A sudden drop in oil prices was recorded at the beginning of 2020, when the whole world learned about new infections with the corona virus. Then it was maximally limited not only internationally, but also movement and transport within the country, so the demand for energy products decreased [2]. The COVID-19 pandemic caused a price collapse in energy markets, and afterward damaged Russian raw material exporters. From January to May, the value of oil exports from Russia decreased in annual terms by 33% (up to $33.7 billion), coal - by 34% (up to $4.8 billion), pipeline gas by 53% (up to $9.7 billion) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) by 16% (up to $3.3 billion). Over the same period, the physical volumes of exports also fell: oil - by 3% (to 104.4 million tons), coal - by 15% (to 72.3 million tons) and pipeline gas - immediately by 23% (up to 73 billion cubic meters) [3]. At the same time, the crisis of 2020 was one of the shortest, and overcoming its peak was associated with the OPEC + deal. The short-term high exchange rate of the dollar and the devaluation of the national currency were caused by speculative inflation, broadcast by world prices, and a peg to the US dollar. Indeed, to many manufacturers, rising dollar prices for goods have created a temptation to broadcast those prices domestically. At the same time, a sharp jump in oil prices since the end of 2021 has led to high inflation in the United States, and, unlike in Russia and other countries, inflation in the West is real. Inflation and price growth in 2020 are united by one thing - the speculative part, which was present in all past crises. The collapse of the Russian stock market in February 2022 is also largely a speculative game against the backdrop of foreign policy events. The immediate cause of the fall was a partial outflow of capital, reinforced by margin positions. However, the Russian Central Bank made the right decision and limited trading on the Moscow Exchange, and the subsequent increase in the key rate suppressed inflation. An additional incentive for the direction of oil to the Russian market, and the growth in domestic consumption in 2022 was an increase in the export duty on oil by $2.9 to $61.2 per ton [2].

2 Methodology To analyze the role of innovation in the development of the Russian extractive industry in the context of the pandemic and sanctions, we will consider the cases of leading enterprises. We used the experience of Daši´c, P.; Dasic, J.; Antanaskovi´c, D. & Pavi´cevi´c, N. in Statistical analysis and modeling of global innovation index [4]. We believe that the implementation of a sustainable economic growth trajectory is ensured by the effective use of innovative potential, despite the institutional and organizational limitations of the system. At the same time, the technical and technological gap between various enterprises in the industry is due to a violation of the cycle of reproduction of innovations.

Development of the Raw Material Sector of the Russian Industry

513

The process approach makes it possible to reveal the non-linear nature of scientific and technological progress, since new technological formation is based on a set of transformations. This means that it is not the innovations themselves that cause the lifting waves of cycles, but the changes in economic activity caused by them. The functional approach reveals the fundamental role of market activity and state regulation for the formation of a lifting wave in the economy. The system-institutional approach, in turn, makes it possible to develop the concepts of innovative systems and a theoretical development of the diffusion of innovations. B.M. Musaeva and Kh.M. Koshukoev say that within the framework of this approach, all enterprises change their behavior in accordance with formal and informal rules and norms, including information and organizational processes that form the prerequisites for learning, developing and simulating innovations, the ability to change existing structural relations [5]. Innovation, unlike the usual innovation that can be used in production, determines changes in all areas of economic activity. The innovative component lies in each type of potential: economic, industrial, social, etc. The results of innovation activity should be in high demand.

3 Results and Discussions Effective development gives enterprises an advantage over competitors, helps to increase production, and ultimately plays a huge role in the country’s economy. Understanding this, the Russian authorities have begun the process of accelerating the development of high-tech business, the implementation of which since 2019 is the responsibility of the national project “Digital Economy”. At the same time, key areas of support for the industry were formalized in the federal projects “Digital Technologies” and “Artificial Intelligence”. As part of the first, preferential loans are issued for digital transformation projects (total in the amount of 100 billion rubles). There is also preferential leasing - also for the introduction of digital technologies and platform solutions, mainly of domestic origin. And the second project ensures the growth in the number of domestic developments in the field of artificial intelligence and the satisfaction of staff shortages for business [1]. The companies of the raw material sector of the Russian industry are actively using the opportunities that have been opened up. An industry leader in innovation, Norilsk Nickel is the world’s largest producer of refined nickel and palladium. The company was one of the first to organize remote access for employees, and communication became the most significant barrier. In 2015, as part of the basic automation of production, the company launched the Technological Breakthrough program. In 2020, Nornickel launched a new Technological Breakthrough 2.0 program, which, despite the pandemic, was successfully completed in April 2021. The changes covered all the company’s divisions included in the information block, and all production sites, from ore mining to metal production. At the moment, digital solutions have increased the company’s total production by 7% and productivity per employee by 15%. By the end of 2022. 95 percent of employees must complete a basic digital literacy course, and thanks to the modernization of production, the company plans to save $400 million by 2030 [3]. A representative of the traditional sector, Severstal is one of the flagships of Russian ferrous metallurgy and a long-term champion in terms of profitability in the industry.

514

R. Viktoriia

The company launched the transformation process in 2018; the strategy is designed for 5 years. Also, the company develops digital projects based on machine learning, neural networks, and artificial intelligence. First of all, Severstal created a hybrid storage of technological data (Data Lake) - the basis on which all the company’s IT solutions are built. In 2020, an AI-based solution was successfully launched, which helped increase productivity by more than 6.5%. If everything goes according to plan, then work in a new format should allow the company to grow by 10–15% annually at the level of EBITDA [2]. The pandemic did not hit the raw material sector of Russian industry too hard. But, the new sanctions of the collective West could inflict damage. In mid-March 2022, the EU imposed a ban on the import of Russian steel products. Severstal suffered the most from them, and Norilsk Nickel suffered the least. In addition to this, personal restrictions were set against top management of companies. Russian metallurgists tried to redirect their products to other clients: to Asia, South America and the Middle East. However, this was only partially achieved. The second quarter of 2022 was the lowest point in this crisis, as the company manages to reorient more and more of its products to other markets every day [2]. Initially, Severstal suffered the most from the new sanctions, as in 2021 it supplied almost a third of its products to the EU. The company predicted a drop in its production by the end of the year by 25–30%. An additional negative factor is that in Russia since March 2022 there has been a strong drop in steel prices, which is explained by a surplus in our market. As for Norilsk Nickel, for now, the West has decided not to impose any restrictions on the company. However, some clients, even without sanctions, decided to abandon Russian nickel raw materials and find new suppliers. Given its leading position in the industry, Norilsk Nickel was able to quickly replace its departed partners. Norilsk Nickel can be considered a defensive asset on the Russian market, since no one will impose sanctions against the company due to the devastating consequences for all commodity markets [2]. Within our analysis of development of the Russian raw material sector industry in the post-covid period and period of sanctions, two trends can be distinguished: 1. Investment in digital technologies (this trend has become more obvious, and the priority of digitalization programs has at least not fallen); 2. Investment in personnel and social programs (this area will require additional costs, but these processes are necessary so that employees are ready for non-standard situations, trained and loyal to the company). But, in fact, digitalization is far from being a trend of pandemics and sanctions, and most companies have long been implementing modernization programs adequate to our time. Shkalenko, A.V., Inshakova, A.O., Inshakova, E.l. describes “the importance of the company’s external knowledge in the innovation implementation and examples of successful convergence as a process of institutional changes based on the application of the blue ocean strategy, including removal, reduction, growth and creation”. An obligatory element of the considered industrial transformations is the transfer in digital format and into a virtual mode of all processes - from design to testing, which thereby forms “digital factories”. Deserted “smart factories” that operate on the basis of a complete transition to the use of robots, artificial intelligence and industrial Internet technologies are becoming another attribute of the ongoing processes. A global reflection of digitalization is

Development of the Raw Material Sector of the Russian Industry

515

the location anywhere in the world of “virtual factories” embedded in production chains using the industrial Internet [6]. Inshakova, E.I., Ryzhenkov, A.Y., Inshakova, A.O. said that “Ensuring the competitiveness of the Russian economy under an increasing market uncertainty, and growing negative impacts from global competitors necessitates innovative modernization of the Russian economy as an imperative of its transition to a new technological mode. This highlights the importance of implementing the neo-industrial transformations in the Russian economy, the large-scale application of breakthrough technologies in production, the development of the manufacturing industry on a new technological basis, the increase in the share of high-tech industries and in production of the new generations of goods (“products of the markets of the future”) using the potential of the NBIC-convergence. The necessity, main opportunities and current problems of digitalization of the Russian economy are substantiated” [7]. Digital transformation is not just a technological re-equipment, but a complete restructuring of the business model, since a significant part of the decisions will be made based on the analysis of continuously incoming data by artificial intelligence, eliminating the impact of the “human factor”. In the raw material sector, the “digital twin” technology is increasingly being used - a mathematical model that is created at the design stage to test the operation of an object under various conditions. According to the testing of the model, it is possible to correct the project if any shortcomings are found. After the facility is put into operation, it must be constantly updated. Industrial Internet of things, machine learning technologies that allow to predict the behavior of the system under various circumstances, many sensors to collect information about the operation of the equipment, are ultimatively needed for creating a “digital twin” of an existing installation. Digital twin choose the optimal mode of operation, conduct virtual experiments that can actually damage the equipment, collect data on the maintenance performed, find out the degree of wear, the possibility of failure of components and parts, reduce the cost of repairs and preventive maintenance [8]. The ecosystem, formed by the appropriate infrastructure and institutional environment, is a platform for the implementation of the organizational and economic mechanism of digital transformation. At the same time, socio-economic factors, technical and technological solutions, legislation and the regulatory framework must be considered as key elements that ensure the synergistic effect of the interaction of various hierarchical levels. Doroshenko, Y.A., Malykhina, I.O., Somina, I.V. postulate that «Russian economy is characterised by raw materials dependence, the impossibility of using the latest achievements of the sixth technological mode, rapid digital development, internationalisation of scientific and technological progress, the impact of technological shifts on structural transformations. These aspects lead to the implementation of an innovative scenario for the development of regions in the context of neo-industrial challenges, which is necessary for identifying and consolidating the most effective tools for innovating the modern Russian economy. This problem primarily affects regional economic systems with a set of innovative economic entities. To solve the problem, we analysed and generalised the scientific-theoretical, methodological framework, and practical aspects of regional innovative development, taking into account current trends and key parameters

516

R. Viktoriia

of neo-industrialisation. Considering neo¬industrialisation in regional economic systems, the innovative development path increasingly depends on such critical parameters as human capital, intersectoral interaction, and technological modernisation processes» [9]. The characteristics of the neo-industrial paradigm in Russia are widespread use of artificial intelligence in the raw material sector. Analyzing the current global digital strategies and initiatives, S.N. Rastvorceva focuses on the introduction of a certain set of technical and technological tools in the raw material sector. We consider the industrial Internet, the Internet of things, digital platforms for the sale and purchase of industrial goods, which allows expanding the commodity market of an industrial product, optimizing the cost of acquiring raw materials, components for production, as well as selling industrial products of the customer [10]. Malykhina, I.O., Riapuhina, V.N., Chizhova, E.N., Rozdolskaya, I.V. postulate that «a paradigm concept for the innovation of economic systems in the context of the implementation of neo-industrialization policies has been formed as a response to modern challenges and threats» [11]. As implementation factors of modernization and digitalization in the Russian raw material industry, we identify: 1. a customer-oriented approach and changes in market demands; 2. Access to effective technologies for cost reduction and development in the field of labor protection, work safety; 3. Partnership; 4. Competition for better personnel; 5. Environmental aspect. At the same time, there are objective reasons for the slowdown in innovation activity. According to K. Istratova, the barriers are: 1. Unavailability of existing technologies; 2. Conservative leadership development policy and resistance to innovation; 3. Insufficient or inadequate qualification of personnel; 4. High cost and risk of investment in innovation. Despite this, in general, industrial production was not affected as significantly in the post-covid as, for example, the service sector, according to experts from Standard & Poor’s Global (S&P). Large manufacturers that have effective strategies for surviving a crisis are able to overcome sanctions more easily. At the same time, the pandemic and sanctions have shown that, whether a new threat is foreseen or not, the company must take into account the possibility of such a development in its plans. Obviously, companies with more widely developed communication capabilities will always be in the most advantageous situation.

4 Conclusion Generally, the Russian economy has learned the lessons of the 2014–2015 crises. After it, significant progress was achieved in food import substitution, and the structure of budget revenues by the end of 2021 consists of oil and gas revenues by only 36%. 32% of income comes from domestic production (domestic VAT, excise, income tax) and 19% from imports, including VAT and excise on imported goods, as well as duties. Since 2014, the increase in revenues to the budget related to domestic production amounted to more than 160%, and from oil and gas - only about 22%. Along with the low corporate sector debt load, the Russian economy has large reserves. Thus, the amount of funds from the National Welfare Fund is $174.9 billion, which is equivalent to 10.2% of GDP. In coal production in 2020, the drop also became. For example, in May, according to the Central Dispatch Office of the Fuel and Energy Complex, it decreased by 13.8% (up to 31 million tons), and according to the results of the first five months of the year - by

Development of the Raw Material Sector of the Russian Industry

517

10.6% (up to 162.7 million tons). S. Voronov notes that one can say that the market will straighten itself out. But with the help of an administrative resource, it will straighten out faster for sure [12]. Therefore, under unprecedented pressure on the banking and financial sector, temporary forced restrictions on oil production, markups for metallurgists, a temporary increase in the key rate, the desire to exclude US dollar in calculations, as well as an increase in domestic consumption, national currency have been strengthened. All this suggests that the Russian economy is learning and adapting. The Russian Central Bank switched from a rigid exchange rate to a floating one, and reduced state and corporate debt. Now, the state budget depends on oil and gas revenues by only a third, and sanctions gave an incentive to develop domestic production and diversify budget filling. The changes caused by the “corona crisis” and sanctions have made adjustments to the main trends in the development of the Russian economy. The current level of industrial production was determined by the mentioned conditions. On the background of neo-industrialization of the economic system, the role of innovation has been strengthened. The basis of the innovative trajectory within economic system development is the digital transformation of traditional industries. The unstable situation on the market also determines the feasibility of digitalization (automation of production, the introduction of cyber-physical systems, etc.) as a source of increasing productivity and reducing product costs to increase profitability. In industrial practice, the phenomenon of digitalization is mainly embodied in intelligent monitoring systems that reduce repair and downtime, reduce operating costs through the introduction of the industrial Internet of things; big data technologies; advanced process control systems and “digital twin” technologies (technical equipment, external influencing factors, environment models). After the coronavirus pandemic, automation, robotification, digitalization and virtualization can become ubiquitous.

References 1. Istratova, K.: Trudnyj put’ innovacionnyh tekhnologij v sfere dobychi [The difficult path of innovative technologies in the field of mining]. Dobyvayushchaya promyshlennost’ 6, (2020) 2. Kompanishchenko, N.: Sankcii — 2022. Pervye itogi: rossijskij syr’evoj sektor [Sanctions — 2022. First results: Russian commodity sector]. Otkrytyj zhurnal 06.07, (2022) 3. Istratova, K.: Uchla li gorno-metallurgicheskaya otrasl’ uroki pandemii? [Has the mining and metallurgical industry taken into account the lessons of the pandemic?]. Dobyvayushchaya promyshlennost’ 6, (2020) 4. Daši´c, P., Daši´c, J., Antanaskovi´c, D., Pavi´cevi´c, N.: Statistical analysis and modeling of global innovation index (GII) of Serbia. In: Karabegovi´c, I. (ed.) NT 2020. LNNS, vol. 128, pp. 515–521. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46817-0_59 5. Musaeva, B.M., Koshukoev, H.M.: Osobennosti issledovaniya innovacionnogo razvitiya regional’noj social’no-ekonomicheskoj sistemy [Features of the study of innovative development of the regional socio-economic system]. EGI 2(28), 206–210 (2020) 6. Shkalenko, A.V., Inshakova, A.O., Inshakova, E.l.: The digital economy in action: integration of institutional economy paradigms and law in the neo- industrialization period. Adv. Res. Russian Bus. Manage. 99–116 (2022) 7. Inshakova, E.I., Ryzhenkov, A.Y, Inshakova, A.O. Neo-industrialization of the Russian economy: Technol. Dig. Dev. Stud. Comput. Intell. 826, 239–250 (2019)

518

R. Viktoriia

8. Berdnikov, V.A., Resnyanskij, M.M.: Model’ innovacionnoj transformacii ekonomicheskoj sistemy v kontekste sankcionnoj praktiki Zapada [Model of innovative transformation of the economic system in the context of Western sanctions practice]. Vestnik VUiT 1(45), 13–21 (2020) 9. Doroshenko, Y.A., Malykhina, I.O., Somina, I.V.: Regional innovative development in the context of current trends of neo-industrialisation. Econ. Reg. 16(4), 1318–1334 (2020) 10. Rastvorceva, S.N.: Innovacionnyj put’ izmeneniya traektorii predshestvuyushchego razvitiya ekonomiki regiona [An innovative way to change the trajectory of the previous development of the regional economy]. Ekonomika regiona 1, 28–42 (2020) 11. Malykhina, I.O., Riapuhina, V.N., Chizhova, E.N., Rozdolskaya, I.V.: Neo-industrialization as the bases of the innovative trajectory of the development of Russian industry before and during the coronavirus disease-19 pandemic. Open Access Macedonian J. Med. Sci. 8(E), 685–692 (2020) 12. Voronov, S.: Dihotomiya rossijskih krizisov: ot potryasenij k blagopoluchiyu. God 2022 ili 2020? [The dichotomy of Russian crises: from upheaval to well-being. Year 2022 or 2020?]. Otkrytyj zhurnal 08.02, (2022)

The Potential of Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement the Position of Marginalized Categories of the Population Aleksandar Djordjevic1(B) and Aleksandra Djordjevic2 1 Technological University, V.G. Shukhov, 308012 Belgorod, Russian Federation

[email protected] 2 Faculty of Economics, University of Nis, 18000 Nis, Serbia

Abstract. Social enterprises represent the basis for solving social problems in an economy. They are formed and function in situations where there are certain social and ecological problems that prevent further growth and development, and which the state is unable to solve with its measures and activities. The importance of this type of company is the similarity with profit and non-profit organizations, but due to their focus on a certain group of people (marginalized groups, the poor, members of minority groups), efforts to develop them and the specificity of business, these companies differ. The aim of the work is to point out the problems that the regions and certain sensitive groups of people are facing in the Republic of Serbia, possible directions of state aid and intervention in the function of encouraging and developing social entrepreneurship, and all in the function of ensuring better living and working conditions for oppressed groups of people. Keywords: social entrepreneurship · regional problems · social problems · regional development

1 Introduction Social enterprises operate in order to achieve a financial return, but the basic driver of such an act is the social mission. Every social enterprise starts with the goal of solving a social problem. Social or environmental goals are key to these types of projects, as they create social value and business purpose for both the team and the community. The direction of these goals is to improve society and main differentiation here is: from access to health services, saving energy or reducing unemployment to the inclusion of socially vulnerable groups. There are four parts in the paper. The subject of the first part of the paper will be the importance of social entrepreneurship for solving social and environmental problems faced by both developed and developing countries, if the state cannot solve them effectively. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 519–528, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_56

520

A. Djordjevic and A. Djordjevic

In the second part of the work, is unemployment analysis in the Republic of Serbia, the region, the age of the population, as well as the main causes of high unemployment at the beginning of the 21st century. The state implemented reforms aimed at increasing employment, but in this field it is necessary to continue making significant efforts in order to reduce unevenness in the development of the region and increase the employability of vulnerable categories of the population. Social enterprises differ in their organizational form, size, area in which they operate, but despite these differencesthey all have certain common characteristics as: these enterprises are focused on social goals, their operations contribute to inclusion, employment and unemployment reduction, they undertake risk and realize profits that they reinvest in the further development of the company itself and the achievement of a social goal. In recent years, social enterprisesisgaining an importance both in Europe and in the world, and we know it because of the fact that the number of employees and volunteers, the number of enterprises increases from year to year, which is especially significant considering that due to the impact of the latest global economic crisis, social problems are increasingly pronouncing in different parts of the world. After defining the concept and importance of social entrepreneurship and looking at the state of employment in the Republic of Serbia, the emphasis in further work will be the analysis of social entrepreneurship in the Republic of Serbia. A novelty in this sector is the adoption of the law on social entrepreneurship, as one of the most advanced legal solutions for this sector in Europe, the implementation of which will support the further development of social enterprises. Since the support of the state is significant and at the same time necessary, this part of the paper will analyze the measures and instruments applied by the state in the function of the development of social enterprises. 1.1 The Importance of Social Entrepreneurship Rapidly changing conditions on the market, increasingly frequent negative events (the COVID-19 pandemic, the Ukraine-Russia conflict, sanctions and restrictions on trade with Russia as a country whose business affects world flows) with a devastating effect on the economies of numerous countries in the world, lead to numerous social and economic and environmental problems. It is difficult to solve them with the labor market reform, the reform of the social protection system and the traditional philanthropic approach of companies. For this reason, it is possible to use social entrepreneurship as an innovative and creative approach in the fight to reduce poverty and solve other social problems that the state cannot effectively solve, and it is gaining more and more importance and is being imposed as a necessity. The very term social enterprise and social entrepreneurship was created in the 1970 s, butgained importance in practice only at the end of the 20th century. It is estimated that on a global level, social entrepreneurship sector today employs over 40 million people and more than 200 million volunteers [1]. The term social entrepreneur was used by Banks in 1972 in his study “Sociology of Social Changes” in an effort to highlight the need to use managerial knowledge, tools and techniques in the social sphere, and since then it has been widely accepted, while the term first used by Bowen in his book “Social Responsibilities of the Businessman” [6]. Social entrepreneurship is defined as

Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement

521

an entrepreneurial activity that is focused on social goals. The term “social” in social enterprises implies a social mission that contains, depending on the specific enterprise, a recognized problem in the community that can be solved by generating profit and investing it in solving the problem. Social enterprises are non-profit private organizations that produce goods and provide services, which is directly related to their clear goal that the community benefits from their activities. Their main goal is to have a social impact, not to profit from their owners or shareholders. They often employ socially excluded persons, thus contributing to social cohesion, employment, inclusion and reducing inequality. Social enterprises can be different in terms of organization and structure, but they all have a very clear social and public purpose, they reinvest the realized profit and are non-profit, and they use entrepreneurship to achieve their social goal [7]. Social enterprises can have different legal status, but despite this, all organizations of this type have in common that they are aiming at achieving social goals and benefits, such as reducing the rate of long-term unemployment, including marginalized groups and individuals in the market, providing social services, poverty reduction, etc. They rely on collective dynamics, including different types of stakeholders in their governing bodies; they value their autonomy highly and take the economic risk associated with their activities. The operation of social enterprises is based on a triple goal line (three pillars - people, planet and profit), and the activities of these enterprises are directed towards achieving social, ecological and economic goals. Social goals take precedence over economic goals, and achieving them by the application of economic business principles [7]. The focus of social enterprises on solving social needs does not exclude the possibility and necessity of achieving appropriate financial effects, given that these effects serve as the basis for achieving the wider social and environmental goals of the social enterprise. Social enterprises perform economic activities that bring profit, and are exposed to risk in their operations. This fact represents a fundamental difference between social entrepreneurship and non-profit organizations. On the other hand, social entrepreneurship differs from for-profit enterprises in that the main goal of traditional entrepreneurs is to make a profit, while the orientation of social enterprises is towards broader social goals and interests of the community, i.e. they strive to increase social benefits and solve economic, environmental, health, educational, social and other problems, and the profit that is realized is reinvested in the further development of the company itself and the realization of the social goal. Social enterprises are either legally prohibited from distributing profits or are structured and established to exclude profit as a primary objective. In the article Social Entrepreneurship Swanson and Zhang define social entrepreneur as someone who „targets an unfortunate but stable equilibrium that causes the neglect, marginalization, or suffering of a segment of humanity; who brings to bear on this situation his or her inspiration, direct action, creativity, courage, and fortitude; and who aims for and ultimately affects the establishment of a new stable equilibrium that secures permanent benefit for the targeted group and society at large [14]. In Serbia, this concept gained importance at the beginning of the 21st century, and it was influenced by the increased social needs of society after the collapse of socialism and insufficient social capacities of the state during the transition period. Social enterprises

522

A. Djordjevic and A. Djordjevic

belong to “hybrid” business models, and their income is a combination of business, market income from the sale of goods and services to the private or public sector, and non-market income that comes from state subsidies, donations, private donations, contributions in kind, and the like. The field of activity of social enterprises can be the provision of social services that were not adequately regulated by the public authorities or the offer of certain products on the market with the intention of directing the realized profit to the achievement of social goals. In addition to the pronounced social function, social entrepreneurship contributes to more even economic development by increasing the supply of public services (social, educational, health and other services), reducing the volume of the gray economy, improving the socio-economic situation, protecting the environment and developing the green economy, accumulating human capital, increasing the social inclusion of marginalized groups and their economic independence, as well as by reducing the number of people in need of social protection [3]. There are social enterprises whose activity is focused on the labor integration of members of hard-to-employ and marginalized social groups, creating new jobs and activating the unemployed, and then there are social enterprises whose activity falls into areas that are not traditional for the social economy, such as local development, cultural services, environmental protection and using local resources that were not used, recycling, etc. Despite the numerous benefits that social entrepreneurship brings to the state, the potential of social entrepreneurship has not yet been used in the Balkan, given that the main problems that hinder its development have not been resolved, the most important of which are the inadequate legal framework, the absence of a body responsible for coordinating the activities of social enterprises, limited the possibility of taking loans and the need for financial support, inappropriate tax treatment, misunderstanding of the concept of social economy, low awareness of citizens about the importance of social entrepreneurship, lack of statistical monitoring and the like. Social enterprises form an important part of the world and European economy, because they employ 11,000,000 people in Europe, which is about 6.5% of the working population of the EU. It is estimated that 3.2% of the total world population is engaged in this sphere. Over 2.8 million social enterprises operate in the European Union [4]. At the same time, health services and social protection services provided by the social economy include 120,000,000 users. These companies were given priority in the regional policy of the European Union, so for the period from 2014 to 2020, about 90,000,000 euros have been allocated for a new social financial instrument, with which the EU will help pay off the debt and new investments of social companies [5]. In almost all countries, regardless of geographical location, size, type of social organization and level of development, there are various forms of social entrepreneurship. However, the most notable results were achieved in developed countries [11]. 1.2 Structure of Employment by Region and Age Events from the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century led to a crisis in the Republic of Serbia. In the mentioned period, hyperinflation affected employment and economic flows, then in the post-inflationary period, developed countries introduced

Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement

523

economic sanctions and isolation from the international community, which led to a decline in economic activity. In addition to these negative events at the beginning of the 21st century, the Republic of Serbia, with the aim of development, initiated the process of transition and privatization, and with the initiated restructuring process, there were numerous changes that negatively affected the employment rate. In recent times, the emergence of the COVID-19 virus pandemic, strained relations and conflicts in the world have influenced the emergence of a new global economic crisis, and the positive effects of the mentioned undertaken processes have been reduced, and there has also been a decrease in employment, an increase in poverty and inactivity of the population, and the economy faced numerous challenges that deepened existing inequalities. Large public debt of the Republic of Serbia, population migration and low wages of employees is supporting these negative effects. The increase in unemployment had a negative impact on society in the political and social sphere, the rate of stress among people increased, and there was also increased criminal activity. Unemployment has a direct impact on the economic growth of certain sectors of the economy, as well as on the entire state and world economy (Fig. 1).

42.4

45.5

44.3

5.1

5.2

7

52.5

49.3

48.7

Belgrade region

Vojvodina region

Employed

Unemployed

50

6.8 43.2

Sumadija and western Eastern and Souther region region Populaon outside of the labor force

Fig. 1. Structure of employment, unemployment and inactivity by region in 2021 (in %). Source: Anketa o radnojsnazi u RepubliciSrbiji, 2021, str.17, [13].

The highest unemployment in combination with the population outside the labor force is present in Southern and Eastern Serbia, while the lowest unemployment is recorded in the Belgrade region. Observed by region, analyzing the data of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, it can be concluded, that the largest decrease in the number of unemployed in 2021 was recorded in the Region of Sumadija and Western Serbia (-16,300), and the increase in the number of unemployed was recorded in the Region of Southern and Eastern Serbia (+9,300) [9].

524

A. Djordjevic and A. Djordjevic

In addition to the problem of a high unemployment rate, people in the southern region of Serbia find it harder to find work and earn lower wages, which lowers the standard of living in these regions. On the other hand, people in Belgrade region and Vojvodina earn higher average wages and find work more easily. It is evident that the mentioned problems deepen the problem of uneven regional development. The high gap in the level of development between the regions slows down the economic development of Serbia [3] (Fig. 2).

Acve

Employed

Unepmloyed

Populaon outside of the labor force

9.0% 6.1%

6.5% 4.9%

9.5% 4.1%

39.4%

41.8%

41.1%

50.0%

28.9% 2.4% 33.1%

6.6%

85.0%

18.4% 45.5%

46.7%

25-34

35-44

45.2%

25.0% 15-24

45-54

35.6%

55-64

0.1% 7.4% 7.5% 65 AND MORE

Fig. 2. Structure of employment, unemployment and inactivity by age of citizens in 2021 (in %). Source: Authors based on: Anketa o radnoj snazi u Republici Srbiji, 2021, str. 18, [13].

On the basis of figure number 2, the category of heavily employed persons includes both persons over 30 years of age and persons over 50 years of age. The reason for this is that a large percentage of young people are studying and their main focus is personal development, which is why they do not appear on the labor market until the age of 25, and after finishing school they face the problem of more difficult employability, even though they have the necessary knowledge, they do not have the experience they are looking for employers. There is a large gap between the knowledge and skills that young people possess after finishing school and between the skills that employers are looking for in the labor market. On the other hand, older than 50 years find it more difficult to find a job because their skills are outdated due to the dynamism of the business environment and their inability to adapt to rapid changes. In addition to young and elderly people, the problem of unemployment is also faced by people with disabilities, Roma people, refugees and displaced persons, and the rural population. The labor market in Serbia is characterized by a decrease in the number of unemployed persons as a result of privatization and economic reforms, however, these did not

Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement

525

lead to a sufficiently rapid compensatory expansion of employment in the private sector and the increase in employment was not achieved in the appropriate volume that would lead to stabilization effects in the economy [2]. The process of restructuring and privatization, the economic crisis, as well as the change in labor market institutions affected the conditions of the labor market. Basic indicators, such as the activity rate, employment and unemployment rates are worse than the average in the European Union, despite certain improvements in the labor market. Therefore, in recent years, emphasis has been placed on the development of awareness of social entrepreneurship as a business model that can alleviate the important problems that our society is facing. Problems such as the relatively high share of “vulnerable” employment, the high rate of informal employment and the low share of employed workers with indefinite contracts point to the low quality of employment in Serbia. 1.3 Social Entrepreneurship in the Republic of Serbia Each country, when choosing a form of organizing social entrepreneurship, starts from its own specificities, and that is why there is no universal model of a social enterprise. Also, differences between countries can be observed in terms of the legal regulation of the field of social entrepreneurship and its definition. After almost a decade of work on the Draft Law, Republic of Serbia adopted the Law on Social on February 4, 2022. In the Republic of Serbia, social entrepreneurship is considered to be “the performance of activities of general interest, for the purpose of creating new and innovative opportunities for solving social problems, problems of individuals or socially sensitive groups and preventing the emergence and elimination of the consequences of social exclusion, strengthening social cohesion and solving other problems in local communities and society as a whole” [15]. Social entrepreneurship is a business in which the profit is invested in the integration of socially sensitive groups, environmental protection, rural development, education, culture, social innovation and other areas of wider social interest. It consists in research to fully define a certain social problem, and then in organizing, creating and managing a social enterprise in order to achieve the desired change. Change may or may not involve the fundamental elimination of a social problem. It can also represent a whole life process focused on improving existing circumstances. Based on law of social entrepreneurship article 5) Social entrepreneurship is particularly realized through: production of goods and provision of services (social, educational, health, etc.), in accordance with this law; labor integration, in accordance with this law; business that contributes to the sustainable development of devastated areas and local communities; business that solves problems in other areas of general interest [15]. The law represents one of the most advanced legal solutions for the social entrepreneurship sector in Europe and, for the first time in Serbia, sets the legal framework for the sector in which around 500 companies operate.According to NALED, the newly adopted law will help Serbia’s long-term unemployed, victims of violence, homeless people, returnees from serving sentences, women and other vulnerable groups to more easily integrate into society and find work. In Serbia, social enterprises operate in

526

A. Djordjevic and A. Djordjevic

very different legal forms, most often as: footnote 1 p.8 citizens’ associations, endowments and foundations, companies for work integration of persons with disabilities, cooperatives, limited liability companies. 1.4 State Support for the Development of Social Entrepreneurship The common characteristic of all social enterprises is that they contribute to the social and economic development of marginalized groups and the community as a whole. The positive effects of the operation of social enterprises are reflected in the creation of new jobs, the employment of socially sensitive groups, the production of products and services on the market that serve to protect the environment, etc. Because of all of the above, it is crucial to involve the state through various measures and instruments that are important for their survival and development. The state can support and encourage the development of this type of enterprise through the application of active employment policy measures, fiscal benefits and lending, which leads to the conclusion that the importance of state intervention and state involvement is a crucial element of the development of social entrepreneurship. In addition to state support, intersectoral cooperation is also very important, as well as the contribution of civil society, the economy, educational institutions and public administration institutions [8]. The economy must be sensitive to social entrepreneurship, and the importance of putting people before or in line with profit must be emphasized and recognized by the economy. Analysis of the work of social enterprises in EU countries indicates that these enterprises play a significant role in the creation of new jobs, inclusion of groups that are more difficult to employ, environmental sustainability, etc. In Serbia, there are still no concrete measures and instruments for the development of social entrepreneurship, but there are provisions in a series of laws that can also apply to social enterprises. The social entrepreneurship sector in Serbia is characterized by a small number of employees, a small number of companies, an insufficient number of measures to encourage development, as well as a law on the regulation of this area that came into force 15th of November 2022 the effects of which will be reflected in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to implement reforms that will lead to the recognition of social enterprises as providers of specific services of general interest and enable the performance of activities that have a positive effect on social goals. Subsidized employment is the most effective way to work integration of persons from the category of less employable. Subsidies are paid in a one-time amount, whereby the amount varies depending on the development of the region in which the social enterprise operates and the category of less employable persons (Table 1).

Social Entrepreneurship for Regional Development and Improvement

527

Table 1. The number of subsidies for employment depending on the development of the municipality and the category of less employable persons Long-term unemployed persons, young people under the age of 30 without qualifications/with low qualifications, persons over 50 who have the status of surplus employees and Roma

People with disabilities, able-bodied beneficiaries of financial aid, victims of domestic violence and young people in residential care, foster and guardian families

The first and second group of 200.000 municipalities in terms of development

240.000

The third group of municipalities in terms of development

225.000

270.000

The fourth group of municipalities in terms of development and devastated areas

250.000

300.000

Source: Authors based on: Nacionalni akcioni plan zapošljavanja za 2020. Godinu, 2019

In addition to the subsidies shown in the table, the National Employment Agency provides subsidies to unemployed persons for self-employment, with priority given to young people under 30 years of age, redundant employees, Roma, people with disabilities and women. A person from the less employable categories who wants to establish a shop, cooperative or some other form of entrepreneurship, as well as a company if the founder establishes an employment relationship in it, receives a subsidy in the one-time amount of 250,000 dinars, while persons who have the status of redundant employees receive 220,000 dinars and persons with disabilities 270,000 dinars [12]. However, subsidies to social enterprises are minimal and mostly given to enterprises for professional rehabilitation and employment of people with disabilities. In 2020, self-employment is planned for 100 beneficiaries of cash benefits for unemployment, employment of 360 persons with disabilities and 15 beneficiaries of cash benefits for unemployment.

2 Conclusion In Serbia, public authorities recognized the concept of social entrepreneurship, and thus a law was passed that adequately regulates the legal system. The legal regulations that regulated this matter until the adoption of the law on social entrepreneurship were not adequate. Therefore, the function of the law on solidarity entrepreneurship is to improve other laws with the aim of creating a more favorable framework for the operation of social enterprises. The new law represents one of the most advanced legal solutions for the social entrepreneurship sector and adequately defines the business conditions and frameworks for the functioning of social enterprises. The goal of the law is to define the concept

528

A. Djordjevic and A. Djordjevic

of social economy and the conditions for acquiring the status of a social enterprise, in order to enable existing entities that already practice social entrepreneurship to be institutionally recognized [10]. Social entrepreneurship exists in Serbia and their main feature is the establishment initiated by a private initiative, and the main motive is the offer of sustainable solutions that will enable the development of communities, environmental protection with the help of innovative products, social inclusion and social innovation. Although the social entrepreneurship sector is heterogeneous, social enterprises are often focused on work integration and inclusion of some of the vulnerable social groups, support for socially vulnerable groups of citizens, local development and entrepreneurship development.

References 1. Dejanovi´c, A.: Primeri dobre prakse socijalnih preduze´ca - priruˇcnik/examples of good practice of social enterprises handbook (2019) - c, M., Veselinovi´c, P.: Razvojne karakteristike srpske ekonomije u periodu tranzicije, 2. Ðordevi´ Škola biznisa, broj 1, Kragujevac (2010) - c, M., Ðordevi´ - c, A.: Analiza mera fiskalne politike za razvoj socijalnog preduzetništva 3. Ðordevi´ u Republici Srbiji, Regionalni razvoj i demografski tokovi zemalja Jugoistoˇcne Evrope, Niš (2019) 4. European Regional Development Fund, Synthesis report on previous EU project an initiatives. https://projects2014-2020.interregeurope.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_tevprojects/lib rary/Overview%20on%20past%20projects%20and%20ongoing%20initiatives.pdf, 12 Dec 2022 5. Evropska komisija, Program EU-a za zapošljavanje i socijalne inovacije (EaSI). https://ec. europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1081&langId=hr, 14 Oct 2022 6. EWOR Team, Discovering the History of Social Entrepreneurship (2022). https://ewor.io/dis covering-the-history-of-social-entrepreneurship/, 11 Nov 2022 7. Grupa 484 (2010). Elektronski bilten o socijalnom preduzetništvu broj 1. https://www.gru pa484.org.rs/h-content/uploads/2020/04/Socijalno-preduzetnistvo_Elektronski-bilten-broj1-2010-grupa-484.pdf, 2 Nov 2022 8. Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A., Banjanovi´c-Mehmedovi´c, L., Daši´c, P.: Handbook of research on integrating Industry 4.0 in business and manufacturing. Hershey (Pennsylvania – USA): IGI Global, p. 661 (2020). ISBN 978–1–7998–2725–2. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-79982725-2 9. Republiˇckizavodzastatistiku, Anketaoradnojsnazi, Bilten, Beograd, (2021). ISSN 0354–3641 10. Komisija za razvoj socijalne ekonomije, Usvojen moderan i podsticajan zakon o socijalnom preduzetništvu. https://solidarnaekonomija.rs/usvojen-moderan-i-podsticajan-zakon-osocijalnom-preduzetnistvu/, 15 Nov 2022 11. Komisija za razvoj solidarne ekonomije, Baza socijalnih preduze´ca. https://solidarnaekonom ija.rs/baza/, 12 Nov 2022 12. Ministarstvo za rad, zapošljavanje, boraˇcka i socijalna pitanja. Nacionalni akcioni plan zapošljavanja za 2020, godinu (2019) 13. Republiˇckizavodzastatistiku. Anketaoradnojsnazi, III kvartalbroj 329 - god. LXXI, 30.11.2021. Republiˇckizavodzastatistiku (2021) 14. Lundström, A., Zhou, C., von Friedrichs, Y., Sundin, E. (eds.): ISE, vol. 29. Springer, Cham (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01396-1 15. Zakon o socijalnom preduzetništvu “Službeni glasnik RS”, broj 14 od 7. februara (2022)

The Concept of Value in Knowledge-Based Organizations Aurel Mihail T, ît, u1,2(B) , Madalina Maria Pan˘a3 , and Constantin Oprean4 1 Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, 10 Victoriei Street, Sibiu, Romania

[email protected]

2 The Academy of Romanian Scientists, 54 Splaiul Independentei, Bucharest, Romania , 3 Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Robotics, University Politehnica of Bucharest,

Splaiul Independen¸tei nr. 313, 6th District, Bucharest, Romania 4 Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, 10 Victoriei Street, Sibiu, Romania

Abstract. The present scientific paper aims to study the concept of value and the ways in which today’s organizations carry out activities having as their final purpose the creation of value.Since the earliest times, human activities have had as their goal the creation of value.Whether we are discussing about tangible values that serve physiological purposes, for example, hunting, which was aimed at providing food, up to objectives related to the satisfaction of higher needs, such as the need for education, the need for self-knowledge, human activities have as their main goal the value creation.This paper will address the ways in which companies approach concepts such as “value”, “resources” and how these concepts contribute to the achievement of economic objectives within knowledge-based organizations. Keywords: Value · Organization · Resources · Knowledge-based organizations

1 Introduction Nowadays, the concept of “value” is more and more common, whether we are talking about building a strategy within economic organizations, academic activities within educational organizations, or about simple, everyday activities, value seems to become more and more important in people’s lives. Whether we are talking about organizations that aim to obtain profit (such as businesses or corporations), or organizations that do not necessarily aim to achieve profit (such as foundations or associations), all of these operate in an economic, social, political, and technological environment which influences various aspects of their activity and which is in a continuous and dynamic change. The development of information technology and the evolution of e-business are bringing about radical changes in the ways in which businesses can evolve and provide unprecedented opportunities and directions by providing new means through which companies can create value for their customers [1]. To describe the concept of value, I find Warren Buffet’s affirmation very relevant: “Price is what you pay. Value is what you get.“ - from which we deduce that the value © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 529–535, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_57

530

A. M. T, ît, u et al.

of a thing is not only limited to the financial, quantifiable component, but goes further than numbers, reaching the impact that the specific thing has and its importance, from the improvement of various organizational processes, up until the improvement of the quality of life of the people using the respective good or service. Of course, for organizations the financial component is probably the most important, or the easiest to determine through simple calculations, but what we mean by “value” today goes beyond these calculations and goes as far as determining those components of the valuethat are life-changing for the users’ daily lives, ultimately changing the image and day-to-day life of the organizational environment. “Valuable” does not necessarily mean “expensive”, just as “cheap” does not necessarily mean worthless - for each of us the value represented by an object or service has a different meaning, and this cannot be limited to just to the monetary value of that object.Nowadays there are many expensive elements that do not necessarily have a significant contribution to the quality of life, just as there are elements whose monetary value is not high, but their existence is significant for people’s lives. Each product or service ischaracterized by a mix between price, cost, and value, as seen in the below Fig. 1:

Fig. 1. Cost, Price, and Value Convergence

2 Knowledge-Based Organizations The ability to manage knowledge is becoming increasingly important in today’s knowledge-based economy. Although knowledge is seen as an intellectual good, it has certain characteristics that make it totally different from any other valuable goods, namely:

The Concept of Value in Knowledge-Based Organizations

– – – –

531

Using knowledge does not consume it. The transfer of knowledge does not result in its loss. Knowledge is vast, but the ability to use it is limited. Much of the valuable knowledge in organizations goes out the door at the end of the day.

If 40 years ago almost half of all workers in the industrialized countries produced or contributed to the production of objects, nowadays, during the 5th industrial revolution, the proportion has dropped to about 20%. The intense, predominantly manual labor has been replaced by knowledge-based organizations where fewer people produce more value (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Stages of Industrial Evolution [10]

An organization in the Knowledge Age is one that learns and acts based on the best information, knowledge and skills available. To be successful in today’s organizational environment, companies must learn from their mistakes, avoiding to reinvent the wheel every time [2]. But what exactly is this “Knowledge Age”? The Knowledge age, also known as the age of innovation orthe age of information is represented by the actual time period in the evolution of human kind, in which the value creation is mainly related to the posession of knowledge or to the access to information [11] (Fig. 3).

532

A. M. T, ît, u et al.

Fig. 3. Periodization of human history [12]

In general, it is said that anything that can be measured can be subjected to the managerial process, but knowledge is, by its nature, intangible, it cannot be touched or measured, which created difficulties in analyzing it and led to the interpretation that it cannot be measured or managed. Within organizations, however, all this knowledge takes the form of processes (organizational, technological, social, etc.), subsequently leading to the creation of goods or services produced by the company. The knowledge management is different from the information systems’ management, the first having as object the dynamics of knowledge whose support is the human resource present in the organization, while the second is a technological management [3]. A confusion that is made frequently, Learning Organizations are different from Organizational Learning. The second one being, by definition, a process through which organizations do, in order to acquire and transfer knowledge and expertise, but also to apply that knowledge [13]. At the border between transforming organizations into Learning Organizations through the usage of Organizational Learning, there are the behaviors of employees that allow to facilitate this transformation, as seen below (Fig. 4):

Fig. 4. Organizational Learning to Learning Organizations [14]

The Concept of Value in Knowledge-Based Organizations

533

Also known as Learning Organizations, knowledge-based organizations have the following characteristics: 1. Continuous and systematic learning: The employees of these organizations learn continuously and frequently, they share their knowledge with others, thus creating a learning system that includes several levels in the company (from the individual level and the team level, reaching up to the entire organization). 2. Generating and sharing knowledge: Employees are asked to think of new ways of learning, both critically to analyze various assumptions and collaboratively to discuss new ways of working with each other. The value is represented by the creation, identification and sharing of knowledge, so that all the people who need it, have easy and fast access to knowledge. 3. Systematic thinking ability: Employees are encouraged to think at a systematic level so that they can identify connections between various information and feedback on it. 4. Greater participation and accountability from a bigger number of employees: Ideas and information should emerge from everyone who has a contribution, regardless of their role or position in the organization. Increased responsibility raises the need to learn new things. 5. A culture and a structure based on rapid communication and learning: Learning is rewarded, supported and promoted from the top down in knowledge-based organizations.In these organizations, knowledge sharing is rewarded with the help of various reward systems, and people are expected to learn from their mistakes, to take various calculated risks, to experiment and to share all the knowledge regardlessof various rules or limitations [7].

3 The Value Concept in the Organizational Environment According to Peter F. Drucker, running a business must always begin with a business theory. In his vision, this “business theory” is represented by the way in which organizations plan to create value for their customers, or for the people they direct their attention towards. To formulate this theory, the following questions must be answered: – – – – –

What is the organization’s mission? What are the key competencies that can be found inside the organization? Which are the organization’s clients and non-clients? What can be taken into consideration as results for the organization? What should the business theory for the organization be? (Question that leaves an openroom for innovation inside the organization) [4]

Value is a product of innovation, without the ability to innovate and find economic utility where none existed, what we know today as “resources” would still be worthless objects.Thus, every medicinal plant would have been a useless weed, or every precious mineral a mere stone.Not so long ago, neither mineral oil seeping out of the ground, nor

534

A. M. T, ît, u et al.

bauxite, or aluminum ores were seen as valuable resources - they were seen as anomalies that made the soil infertile.Similarly, penicillin was seen as a pest, not a precious resource. These are all examples of the fact that without the tool of innovation, there is neither resource nor value [5]. Over the time, the concept of value has evolved: from the vision according to which the created product represents the most valuable asset of a company, to the concept nowadays, according to which the most attention must be paid to customers, since their perception is the one that dictates the value of the product or service purchased, hence the conclusion that the notion of value is subjective, and something valuable for one person can be completely worthless for another. Of course, we are talking about perceived value here, not about cost [6]. From a project management perspective, there are multiple ways to create value: creating a new product, a new service, a result that meets the demands and expectations of a customer, creating a positive social or environmental contribution, improving efficiency, productivity, effectiveness and responsiveness, implementing the changes needed to facilitate the transition at the organizational level to a future state, and sustaining the benefits already implemented by previous projects or programs. There are numerous components that can be used individually or together to create value - whether it is products, projects, programs, or portfolios of projects - all of which, taken together, can lead to the creation of a system that aims to deliver value in line with the strategy of the organization in which they are used [8]. Nowadays, value is defined based on the importance and the uniqueness of the knowledge and information that organizations possess and use in order to produce services and products. Due to technological evolution and to the access to new information, this definition of value is more current and applicable in today’s organizations and makes the old definition of value, which was based on the quantity and quality of the material things used in various industries, to be obsolete and diminish its importance. In addition, according to the same definition, it is less important for today’s organizations to work on a reorganization to increase production performance, but much more important to work on understanding the new technologies that can be used, on discovering new information and technologies and to the disseminate this information throughout the organizational environment, having at their center workplaces oriented towards the competence of employees to research and discover, rather than oriented towards their ability to produce. This evolution towards research-based and information-based jobs has also allowed for an evolution of employees who are much more capable of self-management and who find motivation in using their own judgment regarding day-to-day tasks, even if this this means that they will probably end up in a situation where they will have to learn from their own mistakes [9].

4 Conclusions Regardless of whether we are talking about economic activities, or activities that do not have a financial component, the concept of value represents an element to which organizations today tend to direct their attention more and more.Unlike the era when this value

The Concept of Value in Knowledge-Based Organizations

535

was represented and measured strictly taking into account the monetary component, nowadays the value acquires different valences and goes to the area of information, that of technology, of the knowledge that has the potential to change human lives. Nowadays, value is no longer measured by taking into account exclusively financial aspects, but rather, it is measured in the ability to improve everyday activities, in the opportunities that open up by accessing various areas that were, not so long ago, inaccessible, or were hardly available to the general public: new ideas, new methods of learning and knowledge, all these represent a resource much more precious and more difficult to quantify nowadays and, at the same time, one that is becoming increasingly valuable. If manufacturing activity can today be easily replaced by intelligent machines or intelligent robots, this is not (yet?) fully possible in terms of the creative and innovative capacity of human resources, which is the basis of organizations based on knowledge, and represents, in fact, the most valuable asset of this type of organization.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14.

Candea, R.M., Candea, D.: Competenteleemotionalesisuccesul in management Dalkir, K.: Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice (2005). ISBN 0–7506–7864-X Br˘atianu, C.: Managementulcunos, tint, elor. Conceptefundamentale (2015) Drucker, P.F., Maciariello, J.A.: Management (Revised Edition) (2008) Drucker, P.F.: Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Practice and Principles (2009) Kumar, A., Dubey, B.R., Agarwal, T., Khamankar, S.: The impact of value-driven marketing techniques on B2B industry: the importance of value-driven marketing in lead generation and customer acquisition in B2B markets, published in Sailabaji. Int. J. Manage. Sci. (2022) Marsick, V.J.: The learning organization: an integrative vision for HRD, published in Human Resource Development Quarterly (1994) Project Management Istitute: A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), ed.7, (2021) Novikova, I.V., Hamse, L.: Modern organizational structures: transformation from vertical to flexible. In: Proceedings of BSTU, issue 5, Economics and Management, no. 1 (244) (2021) Chen, X., Eder, M.A., Shihavuddin, A., Zheng, D.: A human-cyber-physical system toward intelligent wind turbine operation and maintenance. Sustainability 13, 561 (2021) Tan, S.C., Hung, D., Scardamalia, M.: Education in the knowledge age — engaging learners through knowledge building. In: Hung, D., Khine, M.S. (eds) Engaged Learning with Emerging Technologies. Springer, Dordrecht (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-366 9-8_5 https://understandingcontext.com/2012/06/dawn-of-the-age-of-knowledge/. Accessed 25 Dec 2022 Liao, S.-H., Wu, C.-C.: The relationship among knowledge management, organizational learning, and organizational performance. Int. J. Bus. Manage. (4) (2009) https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/organisational-learning-vs-organisations-how-shaped-rampattabiraman/. Accessed 25 Dec 2022

How Do We Use Our Social Networks? A Study from Bosnia and Herzegovina Amra Kožo(B) and Suada Peštek School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg oslobodenja Alija Izetbegovi´c 1, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. This study observes the use of social networks among employees in companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The survey conducted online on a sample of 526 employees provides an overview of the most popular and frequently used social networks and the use of social networks at work for personal and work purposes. In addition, the paper treats the habits of checking social networks and the relationship with employees’ well-being. Also, differences in the habits of checking social networks based on gender, age, level of education, and position in the organization were observed. The results of the research confirmed that employees most often access social networks via mobile phones, that some companies do not approve the social networks use during work, and that there are differences in the habits of using social networks in terms of gender and age. Keywords: social media · social networks · social networks checking habits · well-being

1 Introduction In a time of rapid technological changes, companies face intense and dynamic competition as well as internal changes related to the workplace environment. Moreover, the fast technological advancements reflect changes in professional life [1]. Nowadays, it is impossible to observe the workplace environment, jobs, tasks, and responsibilities without technology. While it took radio 37 years and television 15 years, the Internet needed just three years to reach a global audience of 50 million [2], as cited in [3]. In addition, authors [4, 5] discuss how social media is expanding and how online social networks are becoming a common facet of modern life. When they first appeared, social networks were often used for personal purposes (i.e., fun, social connections, information, and similar). Today, social networks have become an indispensable part of many segments of everyday life. While on the one side, companies use social media as integral parts of their work activities, on the other, their employees use social networks for both work and non-work purposes. Social media represents a unique form of technology that supports user communication directed to the development of social networks [6]. Holland et al. [7] describe social media as “all digital platforms where people connect and share information.“Kaplan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 536–544, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_58

How Do We Use Our Social Networks?

537

and Haenlein [8] argue that even if many would agree that Facebook or YouTube are part of social media, we still lack a unique approach to categorizing various social media applications. Systematic categorization is even more challenging since new sites regularly emerge. Even though different forms of social media are widespread today (such as social network sites (e.g., Facebook, Instagram), instant messaging services (e.g., WhatsApp), blogging sites (e.g., Twitter, WordPress), etc.), social network sites are presumably among favorite and most used [4]. Social network sites are described as “a form of computer-mediated communication that provides a digital platform or environment which allows for interaction and sharing all sorts of information with both known and unknown others, as well as allowing access to what (un)known others either publicly or privately share” [9]. Boyd and Ellison [10] describe social networks sites through the three characteristics: (1) users create their profiles within a bounded system that can be viewed online by other users (2) users can connect with other users of sites, thus creating connections (3) users can view and move through own connections and connection lists of other members. In addition, the literature describes social networks as communication established on the Internet and belonging channels broadly used for various purposes [8, 11]. From the moment social networks appeared, they occupied the attention of many scholars and practitioners. Nowadays, they have found their role in organizations and employees’ professional lives, whether used for personal or work purposes. According to Carlson et al. [6], there is no doubt that employees use social media in the workplace; however, the effect of this use might be ambiguous since the use of social media in the workplace contributes to both productive and unproductive behaviors. As research subjects, social networks are related to different aspects of organizational studies, for instance: procrastination [12], technostress [1, 13], workplace productivity [14], collaborative behavior and communication [15], motivation and work performance [16], personality traits [5, 17, 18], collaborative learning [19], employee voice [7], beneficial and harmful social media-related work behaviors [20], job performance [21], job inattention, ostracism and time management [11], personal social capital and well-being [9], individual work-related outcomes [22]. Moreover, some of the studies explore the impact of the Internet on social capital among older adults [23], gender differences in personality traits offline and on social media [24], or focus on the overuse of mobile phones and technostress effect on health and personal work-related issues [25]. This paper aims to explore the use of social networks among employees in companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as to observe how the use of social networks influences the well-being of employees. The present study discusses how employees approach social networks through the prism of their checking habits. Also, the study seeks to determine how habits of checking social networks differ regarding gender, age, educational level, and position in organizations. Hence, the following research questions are imposed: RQ1: What social networks do employees use, and how intensive is the use of social networks? RQ2: Are there differences in habits of checking social networks among employees in terms of gender, age groups, educational levels, and positions within the organization?

538

A. Kožo and S. Peštek

2 Present Study This study observes social networks checking habits and their relation with well-being among employees in companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In order to explore if there are differences related to habits of checking social networks among employees, sociodemographic data, namely, gender, age, educational level, and position in the company, were used. Data analysis was performed with SPSS v.22. 2.1 Methodology A quantitative survey was conducted, and data were collected using an online survey method and a snowballing technique. Participation in the study was voluntary and anonymous. The sample consists of 562 responses, where 78.5% of respondents are females and 21.5% are males. Most respondents come from the age group of 26–35 years (37.7%) and hold a university degree (49.6%). Regarding marital status, 63% of respondents are married or live with a partner and 35.9% are single (1.1% are other), and 50.9% have children. More details on the descriptive characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the sample Variable

Item

%

Gender

Female

78.5

Male

21.5

High school diploma

27.2

University degree

49.6

Master’s or doctoral degree

23.2

18–25

14.1

26–35

37.7

36–45

34.2

46–55

12.8

56–65

1.2

Position in organization

Employee

81

Managerial position

19

Work experience

1–5 years

36.3

6-10years

20.3

Education

Age group

Note: N = 526

11-20years

27.8

More than 20 years

15.6

How Do We Use Our Social Networks?

539

Apart from socio-demographic data, the questionnaire contained questions related to the Internet, and social networks use, in general, and at work. Most of the respondents, on a daily level (both for personal and work purposes), spend 1–3 h (37.2%) and 4–5 h (29%) on the Internet. However, 15.3% of participants spend more than 8h on the Internet during the day, and 11.2% spend 6–8 h on the Internet. Only 7.3% of respondents spend less than one hour on the Internet daily. Almost ¾ of the respondents (73.5%) are allowed to use social networks in their companies during working hours, while 26.5% are not allowed to use social networks at work. Most participants (63.9%) use social networks via mobile phones, while the rest of the sample use desktop computers and laptops (21%), and 15.1% of respondents claim they avoid using social networks at work. In terms of preferred social networks, Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram are mainly used (Table 2. Social networks). Table 2. Social networks Social networks

The use of social networks (%)

Facebook

95.02

YouTube

69.04

Instagram

66.37

LinkedIn

29.54

Twitter

13.34

Snapchat

11.56

TikTok

11.2

Pinterest, Xing, Reddit

0.36 (each)

Note: possible to select more than one answer

In terms of using social networks per day, both at work and for personal purposes, more than half of the respondents (52.7%) spend between one and three hours daily on social networks, while 18.9% spend less than one hour per day using social networks. While 16.7% of participants use social networks 4–5 h per day, 7.3% use them 6–8 h per day, and 4.4% use social networks more than eight hours per day (in total, at work and for personal purposes). Regarding the use of social networks at work for non-work purposes, 20.5% of respondents claim they do not use social networks for personal purposes. However, almost ¾ of the sample use social networks for personal reasons at work up to three hours per day; precisely, 57.1% claim they use social networks for personal purposes at work for less than one hour daily, and 17.1% use between one and three hours per day. The rest of the respondents use social networks four and more hours per day at work for non-work purposes. In order to measure social networks checking habits and the well-being of employees related to social networks, measurement scales were adapted from Meier et al. [12]. In their work, Meier et al. [12] developed two measurement instruments: “Facebook

540

A. Kožo and S. Peštek

checking habit” and “Facebook-induced strains on well-being”. We adjusted these scales on “Social networks checking habits” and “Social networks-induced strains on wellbeing”. The scale “Social networks checking habits” consists of four items, and an example item is “Using social networks is something I do without thinking”, while the scale “Social networks-inducedstrains on well-being” contains six items, and an example item is “My social networks use impairs my general well-being”. All items were measured with a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (does not apply at all/never) to 5 (fully applies/very often). 2.2 Results All ten items from the two adjusted measurement scales (social networks checking habits and social networks-induced strains on well-being) were subjected to exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The maximum likelihood extraction (MLE) method with the criterion of eigenvalues higher than one was used with oblique rotation. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was verified with a value of KMO = 0.868. Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated adequate correlation structure for factor analyses with values X2 (45) = 3353.68, p < 0.001. MLE resulted in a two-factor solution explaining 63.52% of the variance. All factor loadings are greater than 0.4 (please see [26, 27]), ranging from 0.62 to 0.86. Table 3. Brings the results of conducted factor analysis. Table 3. EFA with the items of social networks checking habits and social networks-induced strains on well-being Items

Factor 1

I often check my social networks accounts without having to consciously remember

0.78

Using social networks is something I do without thinking

0.85

Sometimes I start using social networks before I realize I’m doing it

0.86

While logging in on social networks, I think about completely different things

0.62

My social networks use…

Factor 2

… impairs my general well-being

0.77

… puts strains on my personal relationships

0.84

… leads to stress in my day-to-day life

0.85

… makes it more difficult to relax in my day-to-day life

0.78

… impairs my temporary moods

0.74

… hinders my personal growth

0.80

Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood; Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization

How Do We Use Our Social Networks?

541

Both scales showed a unidimensional structure, with no cross-loadings between factors. Moreover, the correlation between factors is r = 0.2 with a significance level of p < 0.01. Thus, convergent validity and discriminant validity are confirmed. In the next step, a reliability test was performed. For both observed constructs, Cronbach’s Alpha values are greater than 0.7 (Table 4. Descriptive statistics and correlation). Table 4. Descriptive statistics and correlation Variables

SN checking habits

SN-induced strains on well-being

SN checking habits

1

0.2

SN-induced strains on well-being

0.2

1

M

3.07

2.15

SD

1.05

0.94

Alpha

0.862

0.912

Notes: N = 526; p < 0.01; M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Alpha = Cronbach’s alpha; SN = social networks; SN checking habits = 4 items; SN-induced strains on well-being = 6 items

To explore if there are differences in social networks checking habits across gender, age groups, educational levels, and positions in the organization, t-test, and one-way ANOVA were performed. The results of the t-test (t(560) = 2.016, p < 0.05) indicated significant differences among genders since female respondents exhibit a higher level of social networks checking habits (M = 3.12, SD = 1.04) compared to male respondents (M = 2.9, SD = 1.07). However, the t-test (t(560) = 0.333, p > 0.05) did not reveal significant differences related to the two observed positions in the organizations, indicating that employees (M = 3.07, SD = 1.05) and managers (M = 3.1, SD = 1.05) have similar social networks checking habits. A one-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc test was performed to compare social networks checking habits among different age groups and educational levels. In terms of age groups, the test results (F(4,557) = 8.95, p < 0.05) indicated significant differences, so respondents from younger age groups showed higher levels of social networks checking habits. Post hoc tests revealed that the highest level of social networks checking habits is among participants from the age group 18–25 (M = 3.42, SD = 0.98), and it is significantly different from the level of social networks checking habits of participants from the age groups 36–45 (M = 2.88, SD = 0.99) and 46–55 (M = 2.69, SD = 1.02). In addition, the level of social networks checking habits of the age group 26–35 (M = 3.27, SD = 1.06) significantly differs from the levels of checking habits among age groups 36–45 and 46–55. The lowest level of social networks checking habits is registered among participants aged 56–65 (M = 2.46, SD = 0.9). A one-way ANOVA

542

A. Kožo and S. Peštek

test conducted to compare differences in educational levels (high school diploma, university degree, master’s and doctoral degree) related to social networks checking habits (F(2,559) = 0.116, p > 0.05) did not reveal significant differences.

3 Discussion and Conclusion Since social networks have an indispensable role in modern life, this study aimed to observe the use of social networks, patterns in checking habits of social networks, and social networks-induced strains on the well-being of employees. Moreover, the study’s results suggest how employees use social networks, what social networks are mainly used and how often employees check their social network accounts. The research results demonstrate frequent daily Internet use for personal and work purposes. According to the obtained results, 15.3% of participants use the Internet more than eight hours daily, while 11.2% spend 6–8 h daily on the Internet (for personal and work purposes). A considerable percentage of respondents spend in total 4–5 h (16.7%), 6–8 h (7.3%), or even more than eight hours (4.4%) a day on social networks (for personal and work purposes). Thus, it is not surprising that the study’s results suggest employers’ decision to not support the use of social networks at the workplace for 26.5% of employees who participated in the study. However, only part of them, more precisely 15.1% of respondents, confirmed that they do not use social networks at work. Most employees (63.9%) use their mobile phones to check their social network profiles, and the most popular social network sites among participants of the study are Facebook, with even 95.02% users, followed by YouTube and Instagram. Even though most of the respondents (52.7%) spend 1–3 h using social networks daily for both personal and work purposes, when it comes to the use of social networks at work for non-work purposes, more than half of the respondents (57.1%) spend less than one hour daily using social networks. Moreover, 17.1% of respondents use social networks at work for non-work purposes 1–3 h a day, which is not negligible in the context of work-productive behavior. Only 20.5% of employees do not spend time on social networks at work for non-work purposes. Explorative factor analysis showed a unidimensional structure for both measurement scales: social networks checking habits and social networks-induced strains on wellbeing. Given that scale for social networks checking habits ranged from one to five, the value of mean (M = 3.07; SD = 1.05) implies quite intense social networks checking habits in the observed sample, which corresponds with the rest of the data related to the number of hours spent on social networks per day (as discussed earlier). However, social networks-induced strains on well-being among employees are below the scale average, at a low level (M = 2.15, SD = 0.94), indicating that employees do not observe the use of social networks as a factor that can weaken their well-being. In the observed sample, females are more prone to checking social networks than males, which corresponds with the idea that women have more connections and spend more time on social media than men [24]. In addition, younger employees more often check their social networks compared to older colleagues. According to the study’s results, employees and managers have similar habits of checking social networks, and also checking habits are similar among employees regardless of their educational level.

How Do We Use Our Social Networks?

543

Even though there is a thin line between productive and unproductive use of social networks, it is undeniable that there are numerous contributions of social networks use for both work and non-work purposes. The obtained findings should help organizations, managers, and employees to recognize how social networks influence their work-related behavior and the role of social networks in an organizational context.

References 1. Merdan, E., Karadal, H.: The role of flexible working arrangements in reducingtechnostress and job tension that negatively affect service innovation behavior. In: Handbook of Research on Cyber Approaches to Public Administration and Social Policy, pp. 542–562. IGI Global (2022) 2. Coyle, D., Kay, J.: Does the new economy change everything?. Aust. Financ. Rev. 20 (2000) 3. Forster, N.: The impact of emerging technologies on business, industry, commerce and humanity during the 21st century. Vision 10(4), 1–27 (2006) 4. Ryan, T., Allen, K.A., Gray, D.L., McInerney, D.M.: How social are social media? A review of online social behaviour and connectedness. J. Relationships Res. 8(e8), 1–8 (2017) 5. Sindermann, C., Duke, É., Montag, C.: Personality associations with Facebook use and tendencies towards Facebook use disorder. Addict. Behav. Rep. 11, 100264 (2020) 6. Carlson, J.R., Zivnuska, S., Harris, R.B., Harris, K.J., Carlson, D.S.: Social media use in the workplace: a study of dual effects. J. Organ. End User Comput. (JOEUC) 28(1), 15–31 (2016) 7. Holland, P., Cooper, B., Hecker, R.: Social media at work: a new form of employee voice? In: Holland, P., Teicher, J., Donaghey, J. (eds.) Employee Voice at Work. WOE, pp. 73–89. Springer, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2820-6_4 8. Kaplan, A.M., Haenlein, M.: Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Bus. Horiz. 53(1), 59–68 (2010) 9. Simons, M., Reijnders, J., Peeters, S., Janssens, M., Lataster, J., Jacobs, N.: Social network sites as a means to support personal social capital and well-being in older age: an association study. Comput. Hum. Behav. Rep. 3:100067 (2021) 10. Boyd, D.M., Ellison, N.B.: Social network sites: definition, history, and scholarship. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 13(1), 210–230 (2007) 11. Shakki, F., Esfahani, Nia A., Bai, N.: Negative consequences of using social networks at the workplace from the point of view of the sports and youth departments staff. Ann. Appl. Sport Sci. 7(3), 10–20 (2019) 12. Meier, A., Reinecke, L., Meltzer, C.E.: “Facebocrastination”? Predictors of using Facebook for procrastination and its effects on students’ well-being. Comput. Human Behav. 64, 65–76 (2016) 13. Khlaif, Z.N., Sanmugam, M., Joma, A.I., Odeh, A., Barham, K.: Factors influencing teacher’s technostress experienced in using emerging technology: a qualitative study. Technol. Knowl. Learn., 1–35 (2022) 14. Awolusi, F.: The impacts of social networking sites on workplace productivity. J. Technol. Manage. Appl. Eng. 28(1) (2012) 15. Chansukree, P., Sagarik, D., Cho, W.: Public Employee use of social media at work: competency, collaboration, and communication of workplace policy. Public Pers. Manage. 51(3), 330–354 (2022) 16. Leftheriotis, I., Giannakos, M.N.: Using social media for work: losing your time or improving your work?. Comput. Hum. Behav. 31, 134–142 (2014)

544

A. Kožo and S. Peštek

17. Gil de Zúñiga, H., Diehl, T., Huber, B., Liu, J.: Personality traits and social media use in 20 countries: how personality relates to frequency of social media use, social media news use, and social media use for social interaction. Cyberpsychol., Behav. Soc. Netw. 20(9), 540–552 (2017) 18. Kircaburun, K., Alhabash, S., Tosunta¸s, S.B., ¸ Griffiths, M.D.: Uses and gratifications of problematic social media use among university students: a simultaneous examination of the Big Five of personality traits, social media platforms, and social media use motives. Int. J. Mental Health Addict. 18(3), 525–547 (2020) 19. Henderson, M., Snyder, I., Beale, D.: Social media for collaborative learning: a review of school literature. Australian Educ. Comput. 28(2) (2013) 20. Landers, R.N., Callan, R.C.: Validation of the beneficial and harmful work-related social media behavioral taxonomies: development of the work-related social media questionnaire. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 32(5), 628–46 (2014) 21. Lee, S.Y., Lee, S.W.: Social media use and job performance in the workplace: the effects of facebook and kakaotalk use on job performance in South Korea. Sustainability 12(10), 4052 (2020) 22. Taboroši, S., Popovi´c, J., Poštin, J., Rajkovi´c, J., Berber, N., Nikoli´c, M.: Impact of using social media networks on individual work-related outcomes. Sustainability. 14(13), 7646 (2022) 23. Barbosa Neves, B., Fonseca, J.R., Amaro, F., Pasqualotti, A.: Social capital and Internet use in an age-comparative perspective with a focus on later life. PloS one. 13(2), e0192119 (2018) 24. Bunker, C.J., Saysavanh, S.E., Kwan, V.S.: Are gender differences in the big five the same on social media as offline?. Comput. Hum. Behav. Rep. 3, 100085 (2021) 25. Boonjing, V., Chanvarasuth, P.: Risk of overusing mobile phones: technostress effect. Procedia Comput. Sci. 111, 196–202 (2017) 26. Field, A.: Discovering Statistics Using SPSS, 3rd edition. SAGE Publication Ltd. (2009) 27. Stevens, J.P.: Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences, 4th edn. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ (2002)

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review ˇ Denis Berberovi´c(B) , Adi Ali´c, Merima Cinjarevi´ c, and Benjamin Mešanovi´c School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg Oslobodenja – Alija Izetbegovi´c 1, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]

Abstract. This study presents state-of-the-art avatar consumption research in business as a scientific field. To this end, the following research questions were formulated: RQ1: Which scholarly articles have been the most influential in terms of the number of citations? RQ2: What has been the predominant research methodology used in research on the topic of avatar consumption? RQ3: What are the main themes and theories used in research on the topic of avatar consumption? We used a systematic literature review to provide answers to these research questions. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement served as the foundation for conducting a systematic literature review. We decided to extract the data for this study from the Web of Science (WoS) database, which is a prevalent choice for bibliometric research due to its comprehensive coverage of the world’s scholarly literature. By limiting the scope of the search according to the scientific field of interest - management, we retrieved data from the Wo S database for the years 1990–2022 using the following search query: “avatar consumer” OR “avatar consumption” OR “avatar marketing” OR “avatar”. The final search yielded 50 peer-reviews articles by searching the query mentioned above by abstract in WoS records. The results indicate that the scholarly work related to avatar consumption is still nascent. Among several theories used to explain avatar consumption (e.g., theory of reasoned action, social presence theory, theory of self-determination, theory of symbolic construction, theory of consumer identity construction), we focused on the theory of self-determination to explain how avatar usage is related to the expression of identity and the construction of multiple consumer identities. Keywords: Avatar · Consumer identities · Avatar consumption · Video games · Consumer behavior

1 Introduction With the rise of internet, a plethora of opportunities have emerged for different aspects of businesses. Virtual reality has turned out to be one of the most prominent technological solutions for both marketers and consumers. A particular development has been noted within the consumer identity domain, with consumers creating avatars which are virtual representations of their online identities. The avatar construction is driven by different © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 545–555, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_59

546

D. Berberovi´c et al.

consumer motives, amongst which entertainment is standing out. The entertainment environment is one of the rising stars of the virtual reality as the global virtual reality gaming market is projected to grow from $7.92 billion in 2021 to $53.44 billion in 2028. Therefore, it is of no surprise that avatar consumption in video games has emerged as a new form of consumer practice.

2 Virtual Reality in Marketing The wealth of available technological solutions has greatly influenced the image of modern society, changing marketing and strongly influencing the behavior of modern customers, who in their purchasing decisions place greater importance on the shopping experience, often more than the product itself [1]. The development of new technologies, such as automation tools; technologies for processing big data; virtual, augmented or mixed reality; they all have opened up new opportunities for creating and enriching shopping experiences, and the application of various marketing methods. The total number of VR users has reached 171 million in 2021. According to estimations, the market size of VR industry is 7.72 billion USD with the prospect of growing to 26.9 billion USD in 2027.1 This has led some authors to associate the economies in virtual world with those in the physical world [2]. It is not surprising therefore that numerous businesses have already established their presence in virtual realities [3]. VR technologies can be applied in different areas, such as entertainment [4], tourism [5], construction [6], psychology [7], neuroscience [8], education [9], medicine [10], and human resources [11]. Yet one of the most promising areas of applying VR is marketing [12]. Virtual reality has been recognized as one of the most rising technologies in the future, with great business potential, particularly in the domain of marketing. It is considered to be one of the technological top trends progressing the digitization of all aspects of human life [13–15]. VR can be defined as computer-based and simulated environment, into which individuals completely immerse. Such computer-based environment can be similar to real life, but it can also be completely different, thereby giving users the feeling of being completely part of the virtual setting [16]. Virtual reality is created by hardware and software devices which collaborate together. They construct a virtual space in which users can move freely. Approach to this digital world is made possible by both VR users and accessories designed specifically for VR usage [17]. Users can navigate their movements in a three-dimensional artificial reality with the support of VR interactive devices. They can do so as if they were part of the imaginary world [18, 19]. This is what makes immersion, the experience of being fully engaged in the simulated environment, complete [20]. Marketing scholars believe that VR is one of the most promising marketing tools for practitioners in contemporary marketing. The most significant contribution of VR is in creating unique customer experiences. Through immersion of customers in virtual settings, and offering solutions not available in the physical worlds, VR is expanding the set of tools for constructing customized solutions to users. Authors have defined three 1 Zippia. “25 Amazing Virtual Reality Statistics [2022]: The Future Of VR + AR” Zippia.com.

Oct. 9, 2022, https://www.zippia.com/advice/virtual-reality-statistics/.

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review

547

main groups of VR usage in marketing: 1) new communication channel for existing or future products [21]; 2) tool for testing new store design concepts [22]; 3) tool for investigating different aspects of consumer behavior [23].

3 Avatars as Virtual Consumer Identities One of the most important outcomes of virtual reality usage in marketing is the ability for consumers to construct desired consumer identities [24]. Through such identities consumers have the opportunity to define and redefine different aspects of themselves during their interaction in the virtual world. Virtual consumer identities (VCI) are virtually constructed online presence created through textual and visual elements. Textual elements are verbatim descriptions of the desired VCI, while visual elements are graphically constructed online embodiments of the desired VCI, also known as avatars. During the avatar construction, consumers use different components of identities, such as affective, cognitive and behavioral, although they are differently organized [25]. Although avatars are constructed selectively [26, 27] and their identities are not necessarily linked to consumers’ offline identities [28], three strategies in this respect are employed: a) complete construction of the VCI; b) VCI is a combination of the online and offline identity; c) VCI is an identical representation of the offline identity [29]. Consumers can construct multiple avatars in same and different environments. Different avatars usually emphasize different aspects of their identities [30, 31]. Thereby avatar construction offers opportunities for playfulness and exploration of different identity elements. Thereby traditional identity elements such as age or gender are by-sided [32]. However, some authors warn that identity exploration through avatar creation can promote inauthenticity. This might further lead to unethical online behavioral patterns with less commitment and responsibility [33, 34]. Yet in most cases consumers care about the online reputation of their avatars [35], no matter whether they have socially driven motives such as vanity, enjoyment, social network accessibility, escapism [27], self-exploration, compensation, or facilitation [30, 36]. Avatar construction can also be motivated by the desire to present their true identity elements which cannot (easily) be presented in the real world [37]. Security is an additional set of motives for avatar construction, such as disinhibition, privacy concerns, avoidance of others, disturbance by others [27], anonymity, or pure self-protection [30, 38]. It has come to scholarly attention that consumers’ construct their avatars for the purpose of entertainment. The most prominent form of entertainment in virtual realities is gaming [39–41]. Two main reasons have emerged as differentiating points between traditional and online gaming. First, the level of immersion into the environment provided by virtual reality is much greater in online then offline environments [42]. The second point of difference is the body of the avatar, which becomes the main interface for interacting with the virtual world [43]. One of the most significant behavioral patterns of such interaction is avatar consumption.

548

D. Berberovi´c et al.

4 Avatar Consumption in Online Video Games Avatar consumption is a form of digital virtual consumption and differs from the consumption of material possessions in offline settings as virtual goods cannot be consumed outside the virtual environment; hence, virtual consumption cannot be used for fulfilling physical needs. However, virtual goods cannot be considered as unreal.They are real in the virtual environment, as they can be consumed in such environments, thus can fulfil a plethora of non-physical needs, such as social, psychological, or even imaginative [44]. Virtual consumption is not a utilitarian type of consumption, but rather symbolical one. Virtual goods are produced for the purpose of their symbolic value which is used for virtual identity construction. Underlying meanings of virtual goods help consumers construct desired avatars and communicate desired messages [45, 46]. Constructing an avatar through symbolic consumption of virtual goods offers consumers an opportunity to virtually materialize desires and imagination, being completely immersed in the online setting. Although virtual goods are not material in the offline setting, they are, however, very realistic in the online setting. They help consumers construct avatars according to their desires, and they even allow for imaginative elements, such as dragons or having several lives, to become real [47, 48]. In such settings consumers may be wealthy, owning significant amounts of money which they use to fulfil desires and imagination, purchasing virtual goods and constructing, thereby, avatars as desired online self-representations [49]. The fact that avatar consumption is happening in online games only adds to the imaginative and immersive. These aspects of avatar consumptions are important as they help companies understand consumers’ virtual identity construction. Thereby companies are enabled to approach consumers effectively and offer virtual solutions which might not be available in the offline setting.

5 Systematic Literature Review on Avatar Consumption 5.1 Methodology The current research aims to present a state of the art of avatar consumption research. Given the lack of systematic literature review studies addressing avatar consumption and the outstanding importance of this concept, this study expands the current knowledge about avatar consumption. The following research questions were formulated: RQ1: Which authors have been the most influential in terms of the number of citations? RQ2: What has been the predominant research methodology used in research on the topic of avatar consumption? RQ3: What are the main themes and theories used in research on the topic of avatar consumption? The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement served as the foundation for conducting a systematic literature review [50]. We decided to extract the data for this study from the Web of Science

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review

549

(WoS) database, which is a prevalent choice for bibliometric research due to its comprehensive coverage of the world’s scholarly literature. By limiting the scope of the search according to the scientific field of interest - management, we retrieved data from the WoS database for the years 1990–2022 using the following search query: Query: “avatar consumer” OR “avatar consumption” OR “avatar marketing” OR “avatar”. The choice of this period (1990 – 2022) was due to the fact that no relevant research was indexed in the WoS database before the year 1990. We narrowed our search to journal articles as the unit of analysis since academia considers such publications as the most up-to-date source of knowledge. 5.2 Results of Systematic Literature Review Based on the number of peer-reviewed articles and citations (Fig. 1), we can conclude that scholarly work related to avatar consumption is still nascent.

Fig. 1. Number of articles published in WoS and the number of citations in WoS

Understanding the adoption of the avatar consumption idea across different regions is possible by categorizing scholarly work by country. The research’s country-by-country distribution revealed that scholars from the United States produced one-third of the articles on avatar consumption. The most prominent journals publishing scholarly work on avatar consumption are Computers in Human Behavior, Cyberpsychology behavior,Decision Support Systems, Information Systems Frontiers, and Internet Research. To explore the maturity of the scientific research on avatar consumption, we relied on the maturity analysis framework proposed by [51]. The maturity of extant research on avatar consumption was assessed using two criteria: the breadth of methods and authorship (co-citation analysis). Regarding the variety of methods, almost all empirical studies on avatar consumption have adopted quantitative methods. More precisely, about 95 per cent of the empirical studies employed quantitative methods, 5 per cent used qualitative methods, and zero studies used mixed methods. In terms of the research design, the dominant research

550

D. Berberovi´c et al.

design used in the empirical studies on avatar consumption is the experimental research design. More than half (58 per cent) of quantitative empirical studies on avatar consumption used the experimental research design. This analysis reveals a propensity toward quantitative methods in avatar consumption research, indicating a methodological imbalance. Given the prevalence of quantitative approaches in avatar consumption research, further qualitative and mixed-method studies are needed to understand the antecedents and consequences of avatar consumption comprehensively. Aiming to assess the relationships between authors, we used the VosViewer software to conduct the citation analysis of the 50 peer-reviewed articles identified in the WoS database. As presented in Fig. 2, the relationships between authors are very weak, indicating that the intellectual structure of the extant research on avatar consumption is in the earliest stages of development.

Fig. 2. Most influential authors in the extant research on avatar consumption

Our citation analysis revealed that Holzwarth, M. Janiszewski, C and Neumann, M. M. are the most influential authors in the extant research on avatar consumption. Anchored in the social response theory, Holwarth et al. (2006) found that adding an avatar to Web-based retailing will positively affect satisfaction with the retailer, attitude toward the product, and purchase intention. Their work provided a foundation for the research stream focusing on the link between different attributes of the graphical representation of avatars and consumers’ reactions to the digital persona (avatar). The second research stream is focused on avatar-based innovation initiatives and is based primarily on the work of Thomas Kohler. The citation analysis results confirmed that avatar consumption is an emerging research topic and that the weak relationships between authors characterize that intellectual structure. Aiming to explore the emerging themes within the extant research on avatar consumption, we carried out a co-occurrence analysis of keywords in 50 peer-reviewed articles using the VOS viewer. The results of the co-occurrence analysis indicate the existence of two clusters (Fig. 3).

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review

551

Fig. 3. Co-occurrence analysis of keywords

The first cluster (colored in red) encompasses 24 keywords. Based on the keywords of this cluster (e.g., technology, acceptance, user, enjoyment), we can conclude that peerreviewed articles within this cluster represent a research stream focusing on the factors influencing the adoption of avatars as technology innovation in different online environments. The second cluster (colored in green) includes 13 keywords (e.g., consumer, consumption, identity, virtual reality). Peer-reviewed journals belonging to this cluster explore how game-oriented virtual worlds (e.g., World of Warcraft or Everquest) and socially oriented virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life) can be reflected upon consumers’ identities and personalities in real life. Regarding theoretical perspectives used in avatar consumption literature, the most frequently used theories are the social response theory, self-determination theory, and dual-congruity theory. Social response theory, which is sometimes referred to as the computers as social actors (CASA) paradigm, postulates that “anthropomorphic characteristics of avatars elicit consumers’ socialness perceptions, often in an automatic, spontaneous, mindless process that induces varying degrees of cognitive, affective, and social responses to avatars” [52]. Self-determination theory is a well-founded theoretical framework that explains people’s innate drive to play games aiming to satisfy their fundamental psychological needs met via game interactions. This theory is prevalent among scholars exploring the effects of the avatar on consumer behavioral intentions toward game items. Previous studies revealed that greater identification with the avatar would enhance autonomy, immersion, invested effort, pleasure, and positive feelings. In the context of purchasing behaviors, previous work shows that people consider their avatars to be “genuine” extensions of themselves. Thus, when people have a stronger connection to their avatar, they are more inclined to purchase avatar-related products [53].Selfcongruity theory postulates that individuals strive to reduce differences between their perceived self-images and their self-concepts. As a result of these inconsistencies, consumers engage in compensatory shopping behavior to improve their self-perception and bring it more in line with their ideal. In the context of avatar consumption, proponents of self-congruity theory argue that a consumer is more likely to have positive attitudes

552

D. Berberovi´c et al.

(such as affection, connection, and passion) toward an avatar that more closely resembles the consumer. Similarly, it was found that the consumer can evaluate the quality and performance of apparel products betters when the avatar has a higher degree of similarity to the consumer [54].

6 Conclusion Although avatar consumption as a form of consumer practice in virtual environments attracts increasing attention amongst consumers-gamers and companies, the conducted literature review concluded that the topic is still in its academic early stages. The mostly cited authors in this regard are Holzwarth, M. Janiszewski, C and Neumann, M. M. The predominant methodology used for empirical research in articles on avatar consumption has been quantitative research. Theories on which the articles are based are: 1) Social response theory, stating that individuals will accept social behavior in interaction with computers, influenced by other individuals involved; in terms of avatar consumption this implies consumer-gamers aligning their behavior with the behavior of other consumergamers. 2) Self-determination theory, which suggests that motives for creating avatars and their consumption lies in consumers’ individual autonomy, competences and relatedness; 3) Self-congruity theory, posing that consumers will act upon minimizing the gap between self-image and self-concepts. This implies that avatar consumption is, in fact, an effective intermediary between recognized opposites.The gaming market is rising significantly, but consumers’ behavior in it still appears not to be elaborated enough. Acceleration of such academic discussion is therefore highly needed.

References 1. Kotler, P.: Marketing management. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited (2009) 2. Castronova, E.: Virtual Worlds: a first-hand account of market and society on the cyberian frontier, CESifo Working Paper, No. 618, Center for Economic Studies and ifo Institute (CESifo), Munich (2001) 3. Messinger, P.R., et al.: Virtual worlds past, present, and future: new directions in social computing. J. Decis. Supp. Syst. 47(3), 204–228 (2009) 4. Stapleton, C., Hughes, C., Moshell, M., Micikevicius, P., Altman, M.: Applying mixed reality to entertainment. Computer 35(12), 122–124 (2002) 5. Guttentag, D.A.: Virtual reality: applications and implications for tourism. Tour. Manage. 31(5), 637–651 (2010) 6. Whyte, J.: Innovation and users: virtual reality in the construction sector. Constr. Manag. Econ. 21(6), 565–572 (2003) 7. Teo, W.P., Muthalib, M., Yamin, S., Hendy, A. M., Bramstedt, K., Kotsopoulos, E., Perrey, S., Ayaz, H.: Does a combination of virtual reality, neuromodulation and neuroimaging provide a comprehensive platform for neurorehabilitation? - a narrative review of the literature. Front. Human Neurosci. 10, 284 (2016) 8. Fox, J., Arena, D., Bailenson, J.N.: Virtual reality: a survival guide for the social scientist. J. Media Psychol. 21(3), 95–113 (2009) 9. Lege, R., Bonner, E.: Virtual reality in education: the promise, progress, and challenge. The JALT CALL J. 16(3), 167–180 (2020)

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review

553

10. Yeung, A.W.K., et al.: Virtual and augmented reality applications in medicine: analysis of the scientific literature. J. Med. Internet Res. 23(2), e25499 (2021) 11. Xie, B., et al.: A review on virtual reality skill training applications. Front. Virtual Real. 2, 645153 (2021) 12. Alcañiz, M., Bigné, E., Guixeres, J.: Virtual reality in marketing: a framework, review, and research agenda. Front. Psychol. 10, 1530 (2019) 13. Koivisto, J., Hamari, J.: The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 45(2019), 191–210 (2019) 14. Lee, H., Jung, T.H., Tom Dieck, M.C., Chung, N.: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Inf. Manage. 57(5), 103229 (2020) 15. Suh, A., Prophet, J.: The state of immersive technology research: a literature analysis. Comput. Hum. Behav. 86(2018), 77–90 (2018) ˇ 16. Berberovi´c, D., Ali´c, A., Cinjarevi´ c, M.: Virtual reality in marketing: consumer and retail perspectives. In: Karabegovi´c, I., Kovaˇcevi´c, A. Mandžuka, S., (Eds.) New Technologies, Development and Application V. NT 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 472,pp. 1093–1102. Springer, Cham, CH (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-052309_129 17. Dall’Acqua, L., Gironacci, I.M.: Political Decision-Making and Security Intelligence: Recent Techniques and Technological Developments. Hershey, PA: IGI Global (2020) 18. De Regt, A., Barnes, S.J.: V-Commerce in retail: nature and potential impact. In: tom Dieck, M., Jung, T., (Eds.) Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, pp.17–25. Springer, Cham, CH (2019) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06246-0_2 19. Satava, R.M.: Virtual reality surgical simulator. Surg. Endosc. 7(3), 203–205 (1993) 20. Tredinnick, L.: Virtual realities in the business world. Bus. Inf. Rev. 35(1), 39–42 (2018) 21. Bonetti, F., Warnaby, G., Quinn, L.: Augmented reality and virtual reality in physical and online retailing: a review, synthesis and research agenda. In: tom Dieck, M., Jung, T., (Eds.) Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, pp.119–132. Springer, Cham, CH (2018). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-64027-3_9 22. Massara, F., Liu, S.S., Melara, R.D.: Adapting to a retail environment: modeling consumer– environment interactions. J. Bus. Res. 63(7), 673–681 (2010) 23. Verhulst, A., Normand, J.M., Lombard, C., Moreau, G.: A study on the use of an immersive virtual reality store to investigate consumer perceptions and purchase behavior toward nonstandard fruits and vegetables. In: Proceeding of the IEEE Virtual Reality, (IEEE), 2017, pp. 55–63 (2017) 24. Turkle, S.: Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. Simon&Schuster Publ, New-York, NY (1995) 25. Flenina, T.A.: Setevaya identichnost’ v samosoznanii rossijskoj molodezhi [Online identity in the identity of the Russian youth]. Izvestiya Rossijskogo gosudarstvennogo pedagogicheskogo universiteta imeni A. I. Gertsena, 178, 76–79 (2015). [in Rus.] 26. Kim, H.-W., Zheng, J.R., Gupta, S.: Examining knowledge contribution from the perspective of an online identity in blogging communities. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27(5), 1760–1770 (2011) 27. Hu, C., Zhao, L., Huang, J.: Achieving self-congruency? Examining why individuals reconstruct their virtual identity in communities of interest established within social network platforms. Comput. Hum. Behav. 50(C), 465–475 (2015) 28. Hongladarom, S.: Personal identity and the self in the online and offline world. Mind. Mach. 21(4), 533–548 (2011) 29. Davis, D.Z., Chansiri, K.: Digital identities – overcoming visual bias through virtual embodiment. Inf. Commun. Soc. 22(4), 491–505 (2019) 30. Valkenburg, P.M., Schouten, A.P., Peter, J.: Adolescents’ identity experiments on the internet. New Media Soc. 7(3), 383–402 (2005)

554

D. Berberovi´c et al.

31. Valkenburg, P.M., Peter, J.: Adolescents’ identity experiments on the internet: consequences for social competence and self-concept unity. Commun. Res. 35(2), 208–231 (2008) 32. Bell, D.: An Introduction to Cybercultures. Routledge, New York, NY (2001) 33. Dreyfus, H.K.: On the Internet. Routledge, New York, NY (2001) 34. Borgmann, A.: Holding On to Reality: The Nature of Information at the Turn of the Millennium. University Of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL (1999) 35. Brennan, G., Pettit, P.: Esteem, Identifiability, and the Internet. In: van den Hoven, J., Weckert, J., (Eds.) Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, pp. 175-194. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2008) ˘ ˙IT˙IM VE B˙IL˙IM 36. Ceyhan, E.: Internet-based identity experiments in late adolescence. TED EG 39, 249–258 (2014) 37. Hu, C., Kumar, S., Huang, J., Ratnavelu, K.: Disinhibition of negative true self for identity reconstructions in cyberspace: advancing self-discrepancy theory for virtual setting. PLoS ONE, 12(4), e0175623 (2017) 38. Huang, J., Kumar, S., Hu, C.: Does culture matter? A comparative study on the motivations for online identity reconstruction between China and Malaysia. SAGE Open 10, 1–17 (2020) 39. Williams, D., Yee, N., Caplan, S.E.: Who plays, how much, and why? Debunking the stereotypical gamer profile. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 13(4), 993–1018 (2008) 40. Wulf, T., Bowman, N.D., Rieger, D., Velez, J.A., Breuer, J.: Video game nostalgia and retro gaming. Media Commun. 6(2), 60–68 (2018) 41. Pallavicini, F., et al.: What distinguishes a traditional gaming experience from one in virtual reality? An exploratory study. In: Knee Imaging. ANRPR, pp. 109–116. Springer, Milano (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-3950-6_20 42. Slater, M., Linakis, V., Usoh, M., Kooper, R.: Immersion, presence, and performance in virtual environments: An experiment with tri-dimensional chess. In: Green, M., Fairchild, K.M., Zydam, M., (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST 1996), pp. 163–172, New York, NY: ACM Press (1996) 43. Hübsch, L., et al.: J. In: Massenkeil, G. (ed.) Metzler Sachlexikon Musik, pp. 448–457. J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05199-8_10 44. Denegri-Knott, J., Molesworth, M.: Concepts and practices of digital virtual consumption. Consum. Mark. Cult. 13(2), 109–132 (2010) 45. Belk, R.: Extended self in a digital world. J. Cons. Res. 40(3), 477–500 (2013) 46. Berberovi´c, D.: Postmoderni potrošaˇcki identiteti: potrošnja cˇ ini cˇ ovjeka, Savremene teme u biznisu (ur. Amra Kožo), pp. 41–55, Sarajevo: Ekonomski fakultet u Sarajevu (2020) 47. Zwick, D., Dholakia, N.: The epistemic consumption object and postsocial consumption: expanding consumer-object theory in consumer research. Consum. Mark. Cult. 9(1), 17–43 (2006) 48. Zwick, D., Dholakia, N.: Bringing the market to life: screen aesthetics and the epistemic consumption object. Mark. Theory 6(1), 5–10 (2006) 49. Molesworth, M., Denegri-Knott, J.: Digital play and the actualization of the consumer imagination. Games Cult. 2(2), 95–113 (2016) 50. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G.: PRISMA Group: Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009 21 (6/7) (2009) 51. Keathley-Herring, H., Van Aken, E., Gonzalez-Aleu, F., Deschamps, F., Letens, G., Orlandini, P.C.: Assessing the maturity of a research area: bibliometric review and proposed framework. Scientometrics 109(2), 927–951 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-016-2096-x

Avatar Consumption in Video Games: A Systematic Literature Review

555

52. Miao, F., Kozlenkova, I.V., Wang, H., Xie, T., Palmatier, R.W.: An emerging theory of avatar marketing. J. Mark. 86(1), 67–90 (2022) 53. Chung, D.: Something for nothing: understanding purchasing behaviors un social virtual environments. Cyber Psychol. Behav. 8(6), 538–554 (2005) 54. Suh, K.-S., Kim, H., Suh, E.K.: What if your avatar looks like you? Dual-Congruity perspectives for avatar use. MIS Q. 35(3), 711–729 (2011)

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies for the Application of Industry 4.0 with the Help of an Expert System ´ 1(B) , Savo Stupar1 , Munira Šesti´c1 , and Isak Karabegovi´c2 Mirha Biˇco Car 1 School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg oslobodenja 1,

71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] 2 Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bistrik 7, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. It is almost unnecessary to emphasize the importance of the application of Industry 4.0 technologies, i.e. Artificial Intelligence, for the competitiveness of every modern company, both on the domestic and global markets. The speed with which these new technologies are developing seems unreal, but it is real. This knowledge “forces” company’s management to assess the company’s readiness to accept and apply the mentioned technology as soon as possible. First of all, it is important to understand that the implementation of Artificial Intelligence technologies requires significant investments in time and financial resources.That’s why companies should urgently conduct a readiness assessment to determine if they are ready for that step. The main goal of this paper is to show how to create and use a tool (a model with a knowledge base, which consists of a large number of IF -THEN rules and attributes) for assessing the readiness of companies to implement Industry 4.0 technologies, using one of the questionnaires used to make that assessment. In order to perform this procedure as quickly and simply as possible, a deductive approach was used to build an expert system with the help of the Doctus Knowledge Based System Shell.It should be noted that this approach, where Artificial Intelligence in the form of an expert system helps the faster application of other forms of Artificial Intelligence, will be used more and more often in practice. The secondary goal of this paper is to show the procedure of building and applying an expert system, i.e. a tool that will be used to assess the readiness of companies for Industry 4.0. Keywords: Industry 4.0 Technologies · Artificial Intelligence · Expert Systems · Companies’ readiness to apply Industry 4.0 technologies · Doctus

1 Introduction The only way to discover the limits of the possible is to go beyond them into the impossible. Arthur C. Clarke © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 556–568, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_60

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

557

Experience is not what happens to you. It is what you do with what happens to you. Aldous Huxley Failing to prepare is preparing to fail. Benjamin Franklin Huxley’s message refers primarily to human beings, but if it is applied analogously to machine learning, which is the basis of most Artificial Intelligence technologies, then it means that it is necessary, but not enough, to memorize and collect experiences from some problem area. In order for these experiences to have an effect, it is necessary to translate them into an algorithm, which will allow Artificial Intelligence applications to learn from experience. One of the main ways in which existing Artificial Intelligence technologies can help in the development of new ones, which is one of the more sophisticated features of Artificial Intelligence that will be presented in this paper, is the use of machine learning. Namely, the expert system, as one of the technologies of Industry 4.0, created on the basis of a questionnaire for the assessment of the readiness to accept the technologies of Industry 4.0, helps in the mentioned assessment by quickly and simply determining the level of readiness of the company, and after several such individual assessments (Cases), can, on the basis of the Case Based Reasoning methodology, which is nothing but Machine Learning, conclude which of the attributes from the questionnaire is of crucial importance for defining the company’s level of readiness for accepting Industry 4.0 technologies [1]. Accordingly, Machine Learning enables Artificial Intelligence systems to analyze large amounts of data and identify (discover) recurring patterns and regularities. It is logical to expect that these patterns and regularities will be repeated in the future, so it is possible to use them to improve the algorithms and predictions of the Artificial Intelligence system. To put it another way, Franklin’s saying could read: “Good preparation is more than half the work done.” When we look at this as an analogy with the topic of the work, it is logical to conclude that the assessment of readiness for the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies is a necessary step that prepares the realization of this process, that is, it represents more than half of the work successfully done, if the assessment is done satisfactorily.

2 Research Methodology Since the research methodology used in this paper is based on the construction and application of an expert system, it is necessary to briefly say something about the concept of an expert system. 2.1 Defining the Term Expert System The expert system represents the first application of Artificial Intelligence in such a way that it simulates the knowledge and behavior of a human expert in a specific problem area. The expert system consists of three basic parts: knowledge base, inference engine and

558

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car

user interface[1, 2]. A knowledge base contains knowledge about a specific domain that has been collected from experts in that area. Most often it is a set of so-called production or IF - THEN rules. The Inference Engine uses these rules to make inferences based on the questions asked and the information it receives from the user.The user interface allows users to interact with the system and get answers to their questions or solutions to their problems. Expert systems are systems used by managers to assist in decision-making, based on their knowledge to identify potential and actual problems, and to provide recommendations with relevant explanations [3]. An expert system differs from other AI (Artificial Intelligence) technologies in that it focuses on solving specific problems in a certain domain, while other technologies, such as Machine Learning or Deep Learning, look for patterns and patterns in archived data to learn to work with new data and new situations. Expert systems are useful in situations where it is necessary to solve complex problems in a specific domain and when experts in that area are not always available. These systems can help improve efficiency and accuracy in a variety of industries, including medicine, finance, engineering, and others. Expert systems imitate human capabilities and all ways of human reasoning and behavior [4]. In order to achieve the goals of AI systems such as expert systems, they must include learning, thinking and perceiving activities [5]. Expert systems are software applications created with the goal of solving complex, both structured and unstructured problems in a certain specific domain, the solution of which requires an above-average level of human intelligence and expert knowledge[6]. “Software systems [7, p. 259], which successfully compete with human experts, and in which more than 2000 inference rules (so-called production rules) from the problem domain are incorporated, are called expert systems, while for smaller software systems, which contain up to 200 inference rules from the problem domain and which were developed with the help of Artificial Intelligence techniques, use the term knowledgebased systems” [8]. Doctus is a knowledge-based expert system used for decision support, also known as knowledge-based DSS [9]. It uses logic to encode human knowledge in the form of “If A then B” rules commonly called production rules [10]. Reasoning when using Doctus can be inductive and deductive. With inductive reasoning, we make a decision based on previous experience, while deductive reasoning implies originality when making a decision based on the data and rules we entered into the system. Instead of creating new rules, Doctus infers from cases that have happened before and uses them to create generalized rules for decision-making. 2.2 Approaches to Building an Expert System for Assessing Readiness for Industry 4.0 as a Research Methodology For the purposes of research, this paper used the deductive approach methodology to build an expert system with the help of the Doctus Knowledge Based System Shell. After the exploitation of the expert system for assessing readiness for Industry 4.0 on a large number of companies (cases), it was possible to use the inductive approach methodology (Case Based Reasoning or Machine Learning), so that the expert system

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

559

could conclude which attributes from the questionnaire were crucial (attributes with the highest informativeness coefficient) to assess the highest level of readiness for accepting Industry 4.0 technologies. The basic difference between deductive and inductive reasoning is in the type of logical connection that exists between the premises and the conclusion [11]. In deductive reasoning, the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises because we conclude from the general to the particular, and many object to the deduction that it does not bring anything new, because the conclusion is already contained in the premises. With inductive reasoning, it is not possible to reach a safe conclusion, which is probably why researchers are focused more on deductive reasoning [12].

3 Readiness of Companies to Accept Industry 4.0 Technologies The readiness of companies to implement Industry 4.0 technologies can be defined as the ability and/or willingness of the company’s management to adopt, acquire or develop and apply new digital technologies in its production processes, business models and business as a whole [13] in order to improve the efficiency of the production process, product quality, competitiveness and innovation. Companies that are ready to implement Industry 4.0 technologies usually have a clear strategy and vision of their company’s digital transformation, awareness of the potential benefits and challenges of Industry 4.0 technologies in their own business, and the ability to implement and integrate new technologies into their existing systems and processes, as well as a culture of innovation that supports change and experimentation with new technologies [14]. The readiness of companies to implement Industry 4.0 technologies also depends on their internal resources, including knowledge and skills of employees, financial resources for investments in new technologies, technological infrastructure and readiness to face potential risks and challenges that come with the implementation of new technologies [15]. In short, the readiness of companies to implement Industry 4.0 technologies can be defined as the integration of strategy, resources and culture of innovation with the aim of realizing the advantages provided by new digital technologies. A readiness assessment usually involves several steps: 1. Assessment of business processes and goals: The company should assess what are its main business processes, goals and problems that they want to solve by applying Artificial Intelligence technologies. This will help them find out how Artificial Intelligence could be applied to their business [16]. 2. Data evaluation: Artificial Intelligence is based on data, so companies must check whether their data is sufficiently structured, of high quality and in sufficient quantity for the application of Artificial Intelligence. If the assessment shows that the data is not good enough, then they should think about improving the quality of the data and increasing its availability [17]. 3. Skills assessment: The implementation of Artificial Intelligence technologies often requires the possession of special skills, which are not always available within the companies themselves. That’s why the company’s management should define what

560

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car

skills are missing and think about the possibility of hiring new experts or hiring external consultants who possess the mentioned skills [17, 18]. 4. Assessment of laws and regulations: The implementation of Artificial Intelligence may have consequences for laws and regulations that apply to a particular industry or a particular country. Companies should check whether they are compliant with these regulations and if they are not, they should comply before implementation [19]. 5. Assessing Ethical Issues: The implementation of Artificial Intelligence can have significant ethical implications, so company’s management should think about potential ethical issues and make a plan to address them [20]. Only after the readiness assessment is carried out, companies can make informed decisions about how and when to apply Industry 4.0 technologies to their business. The questionnaire, on the basis of which the expert system was created, is presented in Table 1: Table 1. Questionnaire for assessing the readiness of companies for Industry 4.0 [21] A - DATA Data Quality 1– No Activity 2– Clear Responsibility 3– Effort known + Benefit analysed 4– KPI (Key Performance Indicator) defined 5– Continuous Improvement for Data” Data sharing 1 – No Data sharing 2 – Data is exchanged between the individual devices within the department 3 – The machines and computers in the company can communicate with each other without barrier 4 – Company-wide sharing (across locations) 5 – Cross-company use (between companies) Data storage 1 – The data is stored in the respective machine or PC 2 – The data is stored on the server of the local department 3 – The data is stored on the company server 4 – Simple cloud technology is used 5 – Advanced and optimized use of cloud technology for storage

Data processing 1 – No Activity 2 – Define standard data format The effort and benefit for all report are known, The biggest waste and idle time are known, Selection of processes & Data for automation (RPA) 3 – Define “lead software” for data input Determine primary system for data analysis Identification the relevant signal process Selection of Robotic Process Automation (RPA) software 4 – Define central data storage Create instructions and rules for data entry, Optimization the signal process, Analysis and description of processes and data flow to implement RPA 5 – Open access for all software to central data storage Continuous improvement of data processing (reporting + production process), Application of RPA

(continued)

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

561

Table 1. (continued) B - SOFTWARE: Product design and development 1 – The software is only used to create 2D drawings or 3D models on CAD 2 – Additional technical calculations, simulations and analyses are carried out using software 3 – Implementation of automated cost calculation software and the use of 3D printing to speed up testing, trial and decision-making 4 – Integration software and implementation of product data management (PDM) and product lifecycle management (PLM) 5 – The use of Digital Twin technology for the development of complex products

Smart material planning 1 – Start to develop material planning 2 – Applying the refill strategy and MRP software for material planning 3 – Optimization of delivery planning by evaluating the KPIs of suppliers 4 – The automation of administrative processes in material planning by RPA 5 – Connecting material planning with suppliers

Smart production 1 – Planning is not done by Excel (not special software) 2 – Use of PPS (production planning and control) software but not integrated yet to other software 3 – Creating an interface between CAD and PPS, defining data standards and applying lean principles to avoid waste 4 – Introduction of production data acquisition with MES and SCADA software 5 – Integrate PPS system into the ERP system

Smart maintenance 1 – Start to develop of manual maintenance planning 2 – Identification of critical components 3 – The using of sensors for monitoring critical components and introduction of KPI 4 – The using of software to evaluate sensor data and for maintenance planning 5 – Connecting the maintenance software with the ERP software

Smart maintenance 1 – Start to develop of manual maintenance planning 2 – Identification of critical components 3 – The using of sensors for monitoring critical components and introduction of KPI 4 – The using of software to evaluate sensor data and for maintenance planning (predictive maintenance) 5 – Connecting the maintenance software with the ERP software

Smart logistic 1 – Traditional logistics system 2 – Use of Microsoft Office for a simple logistics system 3 – Introduction of route planning and a logistics information system 4 – KPI evaluation and optimization of the logistics system 5 – Excellent logistics system with state-ofthe-art IT (e.g. 5G network) and complete automation (continued)

562

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car Table 1. (continued)

C – HARDWARE: Machines readiness 1 – Know critical process parameters 2 – Know the status of the control and sensors of the machines 3 – Sensors and control (hardware) for process optimization available for individual machines 4 – Sensors and control for process optimization available on all machines V Hardware (machines, robots and computers) for process optimization with AI available

Machine communication 1 – The machines do not communicate at all 2 – Individual machines are networked together or via a central computer 3 – The use of Object linking and Embedding (OLE) for process control 4 – The application of Open Platform Communications (OPC UA) 5 – All machines are networked with each other and OPC UA has been introduced across the board

IT security 1 – Password & user-name 2 – Initiate exchange information and add device´s ID for accessing 3 – Encryption and Decryption the exchanged data 4 – Data security and digital transaction efficiency through Digital Signature, Biometric data, Ledger (hardware wallet), Smart Contract and Block Chain technology 5 – Continuous monitoring & Security Analytic

4 Development of an Expert System (Tool) for Assessing the Readiness of Industry 4.0 Technologies As already mentioned, one of the goals of developing and implementing an expert system for assessing the level of readiness of companies to adopt Industry 4.0 technologies is to significantly shorten the time necessary for the assessment. However, another no less important goal of building this tool is to improve the quality, that is, the accuracy of such an assessment. The expert system, the construction of which is presented in this paper, was created on the basis of the questionnaire from Table 1. To assess the level of readiness of the company for Industry 4.0, a Likert’s scale with a range of 5 values was used for all attributes (assessment criteria, which we can also call independent variables). The number of attribute values can be higher or lower. Therefore, it is not fixed, but more than 7 values are not recommended. The Decision attribute, or more precisely the attribute on the basis of which a decision is made (dependent variable), which can be a suggestion, recommendation, advice or diagnosis about the company’s level of readiness for Industry 4.0, also has 5 values: There is not, Unsatisfactory, Satisfactory, Very good and Great. This is important to note because by increasing the range of possible attribute values, i.e. assessment criteria or the domain of independent variables (the domain of a variable is a set of values that it can take),the complexity of the model increases, because the

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

563

number of production (IF-THEN) rules, which make up the knowledge base and on the basis of which the assessment is made, increases. At the same time, in this way the time necessary to enter additional rules into the knowledge base of the expert system increases. On the other hand, it is important to note that with the increase in the number of possible values of the assessment attributes, the quality of the assessment increases, i.e. the validity of the assessment of readiness for Industry 4.0, and the need to include Artificial Intelligence as support for solving this problem also increases. When building a tool for assessing the level of readiness for Industry 4.0, the Doctus shell and a deductive approach to the development of an expert system were used. The sequence of activities is shown in Fig. 1. One of the most commonly used techniques for structuring and formalizing factual knowledge, the basic feature of which is to divide the problem to be solved (most often a decision-making problem) into several attributes (criterias) on which values depend the outcome of the final decision.This technique of sets of ordered attribute-value pairs is used not only in this case, but also in most cases. The attributes into which the decision-making problem is decomposed build a model of the solution to the decision-making problem [22], that is, they build the so-called the tree of decision-making attributes, where each attribute is a node of that tree, and the root of the tree structure, represents a decision-making problem solution (Rule Based Graph in Doctus).For each attribute, it is necessary to define the possible concrete values that it can take (the so-called attribute value domain), it can also be in numbers (e.g. from 1 to 5), but it is preferable in a qualitative form (e.g. unsatisfactory, satisfactory, good, very good, excellent, etc.).

Fig. 1. Deductive approach to the development of an expert system (order of activities)

The beginning of the development of the expert system for assessing the level of readiness for Industry 4.0 refers to the entry of attributes, that is, decision criteria. As we emphasized earlier, first the decision attribute or dependent variable is entered, which we named Readiness for I4.0 with 5 values: There is not; Unsatisfactory; Satisfactory; Very good and Great, and then other attributes (independent variables) with their values, in order from “least desirable” values (in relation to the outcome) to “the most desirable”. Figure 2 shows the abbreviated names of the entered attributes and their values (full names are shown in Table 1).

564

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car

Fig. 2. Abbreviated names of the entered attributes and their values

Figure 3 shows the Rule Based Graph, which shows the hierarchy of attributes in relation to the origin attribute (decision attribute).

Fig. 3. Rule Based Graph for the expert readiness assessment system for I4.0

After defining the hierarchy of attributes in relation to the original attribute, it is necessary to first define the rules for the dependent attribute Data on the Rules of Data tab on the Doctus Rules tab (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Defining the IF THEN rule for the dependent attribute DATA.

Example of the first rule entered:IF Data Quality = No Activity AND Data Sharing = No Activity AND Data Processing = No Activity AND Data Storage = In the Machine or PC THEN DATA = Unsatisfactory. After that, the second rule is entered, then the third and so on up to 625 rules (all possible combinations of attribute values) that refer only to the DATA attribute. The entry of the rules is shown in Fig. 5 and 6.

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

565

Fig. 5. Entry of individual IF-THEN rules in Doctus for the DATA attribute

Fig. 6. Entering the resulting value for the DATA attribute

After entering all 625 rules related to the dependent attribute DATA, it is necessary to enter the rules related to the dependent attribute SOFTWARE and the rules related to the dependent attribute HARDWARE in the same way. After entering these rules, rules are entered to define the value of the initial attribute (Readiness_for_I4), which represents the final dependent variable, which takes its value depending on the already defined values of the attributes DATA, SOFTWARE and HARDWARE, which in this step represent independent variables. The values that these variables can take are: Unsatisfactory, Good, Very Good, Great. The last step of building an expert system for assessing the level of readiness for Industry 4.0 is the creation of an HTML file (Fig. 7). When that file is called into operation, it enables the entry of the values of certain attributes, which refer to a specific company, and as a result, after pressing the Reason button, we get an estimate of the level of readiness for Industry 4.0, which can take some of the following values: There is not; Unsatisfactory; Satisfactory; Very good, Great. In Fig. 7, due to the drop-down menu, where one of the values of the IT Security attribute is selected, the final value for Readiness I4.0 is not visible, i.e. the final assessment of the level of readiness for Industry 4.0, which, as already mentioned, can take

566

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car

Fig. 7. The result of calling the HTML file into operation

values:There is not; Unsatisfactory; Satisfactory; Very good; Great. In this way, we wanted to show that for each of the attributes a drop-down menu appears with the domain of possible values that that attribute can take. That drop-down menu, in the picture, covers the field for the value of the original attribute Readiness I4.0. Since the main goal of the work was to show, first of all, the procedure for creating an expert system for assessing the level of readiness for Industry 4.0, we did not burden ourselves with creating all the IF-THEN rules for the attributes DATA, SOFTWARE and HARDWARE, which should be entered by one or more experts. Due to the fact that not all rules have been entered, i.e. that the knowledge base is not complete, putting into operation the prototype of the expert system (HTML file) and entering all the values of the independent variables (values of the decision criteria), after pressing the Reason button, the result (the value of the dependent variable Readiness I4 would be “unkown”, that is, an unknown value.When the knowledge base is completed with all possible rules, that result will be one of the values: There is not; Unsatisfactory; Satisfactory; Very good; Great, which represents the final assessment of a company’s readiness for Industry 4.0.

5 Conclusion The paper shows in a simple way the steps, i.e. the procedure for creating an expert system for assessing the level of readiness of companies for the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies using one of the questionnaires used to make that assessment, as well as the method of its application.To build this Artificial Intelligence tool, a deductive approach was used to develop an expert system with the help of the Doctus shell. One of the secondary goals of the work was also achieved, which was related to demonstrating and elaborating one of the most important characteristics of Artificial Intelligence, the characteristic that one type of Artificial Intelligence (expert system) helps in the implementation and creation of other types of Artificial Intelligence, or even creates new types of Artificial Intelligence. This feature could be called the “reproduction” feature, which is characteristic only of living beings and which enables faster development and implementation of new Artificial Intelligence systems. Acknowledgment. The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Youth, Canton Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, grant for co-financing

Assessment of the Readiness of Companies

567

of scientific research/artistic research and research projects of special interest to Sarajevo Canton for 2022.(Number:27–02–35–35137–57/22, Sarajevo: 28.09.2022)

References 1. Giarratano, J., Riley, G., & Giarratano, J. C. (2010). Expert systems: Principles and Programming. Course Technology 2. Jackson, P. (1999). Introduction to expert systems (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman 3. Blanning, R.W.: Management applications of expert systems. Information & Management 7(6), 311–316 (1984) 4. Kulkarni, P. and Joshi P. (2016). Artificial intelligence: Building Intelligent Systems. PHI Learning 5. Padhy, N.P.: Artificial Intelligence and Intelligent Systems. Oxford University Press (2005) 6. Galindo, F., Takizawa, M., Traunmüller, R. (eds.): LNCS, vol. 3180. Springer, Heidelberg (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/b99664 7. Harmon, P., King, D.: Expert Systems: Artificial Intelligence in Business, p. 259. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1985) ´ 8. Šahi´c, E., Stupar, S., & Biˇco Car, M. (2020). Kreiranje prototipa ekspertnog sistema za procjenu tipa organizacione kulture, Jahorinski poslovni forum 9. Hayes-Roth, F., Waterman, D.A., Lenat, D.B.: Building expert systems. Addison-Wesley Longman (1983) 10. Baracskai, Z., Bevanda, V., Dorfler, V. (2000). Knowledge Management by DOCTUS Knowledge-Based System 11. Barker, S. F. (1989). Reasoning by Analogy in Hume’s Dialogues. The Johns Hopkins University 12. Kazdin, A. E. (2000). Encyclopedia of Psychology. London: APA: Oxford University Press 13. Schumacher, A., Selim, E., Sihn, W.: A Maturity Model for Assessing Industry 4.0 Readiness and Maturity of Manufacturing Enterprises. Procedia CIRP 52, 161–166 (2016). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.07.040 14. Impuls (s.a) Industrie 4.0-Readiness. Online Self-Check for Businesses. Available online: https://www.industrie40-readiness.de/?lang=en 15. Basl, J, Doucek P. A (2019) Metamodel for Evaluating Enterprise Readiness in the Context of Industry 4.0. Information. 2019; 10(3):89. https://doi.org/10.3390/info10030089 16. Trstenjak, M., Opetuk, T., Cajner, H., Hegedi´c, M. (2022) Industry 4.0 Readiness Calculation—Transitional Strategy Definition by Decision Support Systems, Sensors (Basel), 22(3): 1185, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031185 17. WMG, International Institute for Product and Service Innovation: (s.a) An Industry 4 readiness assesment tool. The University of Warvick 18. Vrchota J. (2019) Human Resources Readiness for Industry 4.0, Journal of Open Innovation Technology Market and Complexity 6(1):3 19. Kousar S. et al. (2017). Technological factors and adoption of green innovation: moderating role of government intervention: a case of SMEs in Pakistan, Pak. J. Comm. Soc. Sci. (PJCSS), 11 (3), pp. 833–861) 20. Berrah, L., Cliville, V., Trentesaux, D., Chapel. C. (2021) Industrial Performance: An Evolution Incorporating Ethics in the Context of Industry 4.0. Sustainability, 2021, 13 (16), pp.9209. ff10.3390/su13169209ff. ffhal-03344380, https://hal.science/hal-03344380/document

568

´ et al. M. Biˇco Car

21. Axmann, B. & Harmoko H. (2020) Industry 4.0 Readiness Assessment: Comparison of Tools and Introduction of New Tool for SME, Tehniˇcki glasnik, 14(2):212–217 22. Bohanec, M. & Rajkoviˇc, V. (1990). „Decision Support using DEX, an Expert system shell for Multi-Atribute Decision Making”, Ekonomika i izgradnja informacionih sistema, Andri´c, M. (urednik), str. 80–92, Mostar, svibanj 1990, Ekonomski fakultet u Mostaru, Ekonomski fakultet u Sarajevu, Sarajevo

The Impact of Digitalization and Digital Consumption on Social Development Ilda Kashami1 and Arjan Çuri2(B) 1 Department of Education, Communication and Competence Skills, Mediterranean University,

Tirana, Albania 2 Department of Psychology and Social Sciences, Mediterranean University, Tirana, Albania

[email protected]

Abstract. The present article aims to explore and investigate a relatively recent occurrence within digital media and the impact social networking has on journalism and society. The methodology of the present work is a mixed one that combines quantitative and qualitative research through the dissemination of 100 interviews of early career digital-media journalists who are engaged in social-media news and the qualitative method of content analysis. Results revealed that there is a real concern and a growing interest by both media makers and journalists in the new Social Mass- Media. From the selected sample, directors of selected web media responded 42% positively and 58% negatively to whether there was a Code digital for media workers to follow when posting information on social networks. Regressive analyses of the qualitative interviews found that Management of digital Profile (β = .37, t (89) = 6.01, p < .001), Communication, and writing style in the new routines in the newsroom (β = .40, t (89) = 5.0, p < .001), Use of Social Networks and Object Relations (β = .32, t (89) = 3.8, p < .001) and Media Identity (β = .24, t (89) = 2.96, p < .001) produced an R2 = .94, indicating that all components from the factor weight accounted for 91% of the variance in the Social Media content analysis. Conclusions Revealed that the strong relationship between the offline and online world, the profile of the media worker, communication and writing style, social relationships, and media identity significantly impact success in the social media world. Training in social networks is highly recommended as an enhancement for the image of media and journalism professionally within the universities for journalists. Keywords: social media · digitalization · digital communication · training · social development

1 Introduction The first decade of the XXIst century constitutes a period characterized by important transformations in the communication and media industry, especially the audiovisual media. Beyond a natural evolution in the dynamics of this sector of the communication © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 569–576, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4_61

570

I. Kashami and A. Çuri

industry, a succession of phenomena related to technologies, globalization, regulation, and consumer behavior has raised a new configuration of the media scenario [1, 2]. Post-industrial media assumes that existing institutions are going to lose revenue and market share and that if they hope to maintain or even increase their relevance, they will have to take advantage of the new network methods and processes provided by the digital medium [2–5]. Digital media has the potential to be more meticulous than traditional informative agencies [1–6]. Beyond New Media and social media, totalization influences overall social developments, the way people relate to the world, and the increase of new educational methods. The Web, the mobile phone, wikis in general, blogs, and social labels are generating new forms of communication, social connection, information acquisition, and how to share it, both in large-scale society and in higher education [7–10]. As research generally agree, social media, and networks, are the new weapons of communication for a majority of citizens. They are the ideal platform for connections between friends, companies, organizations, and the media, who find smartphones, the easiest and most massive tool to communicate [11–15]. In further research, studies revealed that people who were informed and who were active participants in civil society were much more formidable and less compliant than those who were only ‘active’ at the ‘consumer’ level in digital media consumption [1, 12–15]. In his arguments relating to digital media and consumption, research states that “we are entering an era of transition and prolonged transformation in the web- media operate [16]. The digital revolution is already here, and it affects our social relations, our way of informing ourselves, and our customs. In other studies, it is argued that the newly emerge media is a novel ecosystem, where online communities discuss and extend the stories created by the media stream [17]. These communities also produce participatory journalism, coverage, reviews, comments, and verifications, which provide the media stream, developing them as a pool of advice, sources, and history of ideas. In the cultural context, as research suggests, the development and Technological changes related to communication have also created new ways in which people perceive reality today, and these new ways of perception are definitive to understanding the various ways of life at a social and mental level [18–20]. The influence of industrial factors, advances in technological changes and globalization processes make this transformation maintain a dynamic growth pace, to the extent that a fundamental factor in the traditional economic model can be assured, also applicable to the media market: digital consumption [12].

2 Method 2.1 Purpose The purpose of the present study is to explore and investigate the impact that social networking and digital media consumption have on the digital community. The methodology of the present work is a mixed one that combines quantitative and qualitative research through the dissemination of a questionnaire and thematic content analysis.

The Impact of Digitalization and Digital Consumption on Social Development

571

2.2 Sample The sample of the present study is composed of a group of 100 interviews of early career digital media journalistswho are engaged in social media aged 19–27 years old (M = 22; SD = .98) of whom 64 women and 36 men. The sample was selected in a non-probabilistic way due to the access of the participants. 2.3 Research Design This study is of correlation typology because it seeks to examine the relationship between two variables through a correlation coefficient. 2.4 Instruments For the present study, a 40-item questionnaire was used, of which the first five are questions regarding demographics, and the following ones are grouped into six different modules that delve into six different aspects related to the use of social networks in 10 major media networks in Albania. The survey questions ask about the following dimensions: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

use of social networks in the newsroom, economic performance, management of social networks and digital profiles, ethics and forms of display. social networks and new routines in newsrooms and, training in social networks.

Although most surveys have been obtained by email, to expedite the process, many have been carried out by mobile phone and, in exceptional cases, in person at the newsrooms of some newspapers. The second instrument used for the aim of the present research was the semistructured interview with the selected sample. In the administration time the first interview was carried out on October 15, 2022, and January 15, 2023, approximately in six months with a space-time after the third month. All interviews were collected by the respondents: 20% by online recording and 80% face-to-face in the newsroom. 2.5 Data Administration For the collection of information in the present study, a formal letter of introduction was sent to the Directorate of all the selected media and social media networks in Albania from where we obtained the authorization to contact the early-career digital media journalists from whom 100 interviews of early career journalists aged 19–27 years old were. selected. The selected respondents were informed about the Informed Approval. The time of administration of the questionnaires for the Journalists varied between 15–20 min, while the interviews had a duration of about 45 min with a tolerance of about 5 min beyond the requested time.

572

I. Kashami and A. Çuri

Data Analysis. The statistical program JASP and THEME for content analysis were used for the collected data of the present study. First, the distribution of data through the Shapiro-Wilk coefficient was examined, which showed an abnormal distribution, so a more complete measurement like Pearson Winzor was used [21] that has some advantages in small samples where rw ≥ .10 low rw ≥ .30 average; rw ≥ .50 high. The Man-Whitney U test with the probability of superiority (PSest) was used for comparisons as an instrument influencing effects [22]: Low (PSest ≥ .43); Medium (PSest ≥ .66) and High (PSest ≥ .79).

3 Ethical Issues Based on the approval of the Ethics Commission at the Union of Journalists of Albania, we started collecting data on the respondents in the study. A Detailed Informed Approval was presented to respondents regarding the purpose, research design, general questionnaire and interview guidelines, and expected research outcomes. All the procedures of selection, contracting, and following-up respondents respected the requests of the Helsinki Act for research with human subjects. In the end, a full copy of the treatment outcomes Report was delivered to each interested party in the study. Special attention by the examiners was given to: – Maintaining the confidentiality and anonymity of subjects under which subjects were informed about the treatment of personal data of children and minors. – Collected data would be used only for research purposes respecting the principle of anonymity and confidentiality under the European Data Privacy Protection Act for Research Issues.

4 Results The following table presents descriptive statistics of the study variables: use of social networks in the newsroom, economic performance, management of social networks and digital profiles, ethics and forms of display; social networks and new routines in newsrooms and, training in social networks. The indices show a total arithmetic mean equal to Tot M = 10.306 in all variables. In variability, it is seen that Digital performance scores maintain a good dispersion (SD = 6.02), while, Training in social networks has the lowest levels of variability(SD = 3.49). It is also seen that all variables maintain a positive asymmetry in the distribution which means that there is a low tendency toward scoring. Kurtosis indices show a higher amount of mean grouping in the low ethical and forms of display management profiles.

The Impact of Digitalization and Digital Consumption on Social Development

573

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of study Dimensions Variable

Trimmed*

SD

Asymmetric

Kurtosis

%

Use of social networks in the newsroom

17

6.02

.15

.012

40%

Economic performance

15

5

.001

.0011

37%

Management of social profiles and digital

12.04

4.92

0.3

.247

10%

Ethics and forms of display

7.32

3.4982

-.02

-.012

5%

New routines in the newsroom

6.912

4.32

.73

.025

6%

Training in social networks

3.564

5.33

.045

.0017

2%

Note: Trimmed=summed mean;SD=standard deviation;g1=asymetrics;g2=curtosis;%= accumulative percent

Pearson correlations data, not presented in the present article, revealed significant indices between study variables. There is a strong and positive relationship between the use of social networks and economic performance is seen to be strong and positive (rw = .95), meaning that the more the use of social networks in the newsroom, the more the growth of economic performance for the media agency is set to be. There is a real concern and a growing interest by both media makers and journalists in the new Social Mass- Media. From the present sample of early-career Digital media Journalists (N = 100), 40% replied positively and 60% negatively to whether there was a Code of Ethics for media workers to follow when posting information on social networks. This index is in line with our correlation analysis that found a significant and negative correlation is seen in two dimensions: ethics and forms of display (rw = -.37) and training in social networks (rw = -.20) meaning that both have a low impact in the digital media world. Regressive analyses of the qualitative interviews found that Management of digital Profile (β = .37, t (89) = 6.01, p < .001), Communication, and writing style in the new routines in the newsroom (β = .40, t (89) = 5.0, p < .001), Use of Social Networks and Object Relations (β = .32, t (89) = 3.8, p < .001) and Media Identity (β = .24, t (89) = 2.96, p < .001) produced an R2 = .94, indicating that all components from the factor weight accounted for 91% of the variance in the Social Media content analysis.

5 Discussion In the current research, we focused on the impact that social media usage on journalism and the community. Our objective was to examine the relationship between cyber-media and the factors that most impact them. This study aimed to determine the impact that digital media and the impact social networking have on digital media journalism and society. The results of the study found a strong and positive relationship between the use of social networks and economic performance between the dimensions with a major score on the use of social networks and economic growth (rw = .95). Regressive analyses

574

I. Kashami and A. Çuri

of the qualitative interviews found that Management of digital Profile (β = .37, t (89) = 6.01, p < .001), Communication, and writing style in the new routines in the newsroom (β = .40, t (89) = 5.0, p < .001), Use of Social Networks and Object Relations (β = .32, t (89) = 3.8, p < .001) and Media Identity (β = .24, t (89) = 2.96, p < .001) produced an R2 = .94, indicating that all components from the factor weight accounted for 91% of the variance in the Social Media content analysis. These findings are also supported by the research of various scholars who showed the impact that digital media have on journalism and the community [1, 6–8, 14, 20]. The indices related to the low usage of ethics are supported by our analysis that found a significant and negative correlation seen in two dimensions: ethics and forms of display (rw = -.37) and training in social networks (rw = -.20) meaning that both have a low impact in the digital media world.

6 Conclusion Technological developments and the growth of the internet and social media users have played a positive role in increasing the importance of influencer marketing. One of the characteristics that people consider most important in a digital-media world and that would make the latter more reliable in their eyes is the product experience,hence the digital profile, Communication, and use of Social Networks. Specifically, in the present work we analyzedthe role ofinformation provided to digital consumers and new media journalists regarding digital commercial practices, within the framework of the assumed Ethical and Consumer Code, and a particular reference to the different types of dimensions that can characterize the digital being-professional relationship. The new consumer and digital media dimension are increasingly exalted by today’s society where mass consumers take place through means and methods that abandon the traditional ritual of exchange anchored to material things and to the simultaneous presence of the contracting parties. The results reported in the present work are also supported by the findings of various research that revealed that the lack of training in social media and update on Ethical Codes have a significant impact on the quality of social network and economic performance [23–27]. Acknowledgment. The authors want to express their gratitude to all the participants and colleagues who participated in the present study. Both authors have contributed equally to this work.

References 1. Vial, G.: Understanding Digital transformation: a Review and a Research Agenda. J. Strateg. Inf. Syst. 28(2)118–144 (2019) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsis.2019.01.003 2. Callahan, S.: New Challenges of Globalization for Journalism. J. Mass Media Ethics 18(1), 3–15 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327728jmme1801_02

The Impact of Digitalization and Digital Consumption on Social Development

575

3. Coelho, P.M.F., Correia, P.P., Medina, I.G.: Social Media: A New Way of Public and Political Communication in Digital Media. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (IJIM), 11(6), 150 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v11i6.6876 4. Anderson, C., Bell, E., Shirky, C.: Post-Industrial journalism: Adapting to the present. PostIndustrial Journalism: Adapting to the Present. Tow Center for Digital J. (2014). https://tow center.columbia.edu/news/post-industrial-journalism-adapting-present 5. Atton, C.: Alternative media. Sage Publications (2010) 6. Campbell, R.: Excellence in Online Journalism: exploring current practices in an evolving environment. Digit. Journal. 1(1), 175–176 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2012. 740281 7. Mills, C.: The transformative, mediational, and synergist roles of digital media. Commun. Res. Pract. 6(2), 71–78 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/22041451.2020.1750125 8. Liu, D., Baumeister, R.F., Yang, C., Hu, B.: Digital Communication Media Use and Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 24(5), 259–273 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz013 9. Buongiorno, F.: Towards a Philosophical Understanding of Digital Environments. Philos. Study. 11(2) (2021). https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5313/2021.02.003 10. Kjell, E.: Rudestam Schoenholtz-Read, J.Handbook of online learning. Sage Publications (2010) 11. Patriani, I., Trustisari, H., Parmawati, S., Nugrahanti, T.P., Kespandiar, T.:Network Society: dgital empowerment or disempowerment. Al Qalam: JurnalIlmiahKeagamaan Dan Kemasyarakatan 17(1), 161 (2023) https://doi.org/10.35931/aq.v17i1.1795 12. Cochoy, F., Licoppe, C., McIntyre, M.P., Sörum, N.: Digitalizing consumer society: equipment and devices of digital consumption. J. Cult. Econ. 13(1), 1–11 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 17530350.2019.1702576 13. Larsson, A.O.: Media, society, world: Social theory and digital media practice. Eur. J. Commun. 30(3), 367–368 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323115589268a 14. Knight, M.: Alternative journalism, alternative voices; Challenging the news: The journalism of alternative and community media. Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies 35(1), 120–123 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/02560054.2014.886664 15. Gonzalez, A.: Digital Citizenship: The Internet, society, and participation. J. Am. Soc. Inform. Sci. Technol. 59(13), 2189–2190 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20906 16. Jenkins, H., Ford, S., Green, J.:Spreadable media: creating value and meaning in a networked culture. New York University Press (2013) 17. Bowman, S., Willis, C.: We Media: How audiences are shaping the future of news & information. Retrieved 19 Jan 2023 http://www.ndn.org/webdata/we_media/we_media.htm 18. You, Y., Yang-Huang, J., Raat, H., Van Grieken, A.: Social media use and health-related quality of life among adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study (Preprint). JMIR Mental Health, 9 (10) (2022) .https://doi.org/10.2196/39710 19. Chandran, S., Mathur, S., Rao, K.M.: Media and the role of digital psychiatry in mental health. Digital Psychiatry 2(1), 34–44 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/2575517x.2019.1651625 20. Finnemann, N.O.: Digital Humanities and networked digital media. MedieKultur: J. Media Commun. Res., 30(57), 21 (2014) https://doi.org/10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15592 21. Tu˘gran, E., Kocak, M., Mirtagio˘glu, H., Yi˘git, S., Mendes, M.: A Simulation-Based Comparison of Correlation Coefficients about Type I Error Rate and Power. J. Data Anal. Inf. Process. 03(03), 87–101 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4236/jdaip.2015.33010 22. Ventura-León, J.: Pearson Winsorizado: un coeficiente robusto para lascorrelaciones con muestraspequeñas. RevistaChilena de Pediatría. 91(4) (2020). https://doi.org/10.32641/rch ped.v91i4.2300

576

I. Kashami and A. Çuri

23. Bonnes, C., Leiser, C., Schmidt-Hertha, B., Rott, K.J., Hochholdinger, S.: The relationship between trainers’ media-didactical competence and media-didactical self-efficacy, attitudes, and use of digital media in training. Int. J. Train. Dev. 24(1), 74–88 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1111/ijtd.12171 24. Almiron, N.: Media Ethics and Global Justice in the Digital Age. Eur. J. Commun. 34(4), 451–454 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119861736 25. Tsatsou, P.: Literacy and training in digital research: Researchers’ views in five social science and humanities disciplines. New Media Soc. 20(3), 1240–1259 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1177/1461444816688274 26. Vocational Training: Expectations and Research Results of the Use of Web 2.0. Int. J. Adv. Corp. Learn. (IJAC), 7(3), 29(2014). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v7i3.4013 27. Campana, J.: Learning for work and professional development: The significance of informal learning networks of digital media industry professionals. Int. J. Training Res. 12(3), 213–226 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/14480220.2014.11082043

Author Index

A Abramenko, Ivan 154 Ademovic, Amir 261 Ali´c, Adi 545 Avdagi´c, Admir 179, 189 Avdic, Faruk 270 Avdi´c, Subha 164 B Bagoyo, Alyssa 447 Bajri´c, Alen 164 Bali´c, Besim 179, 189 Bali´c, Tarik 22 Bartáková, Gabriela Pajtinková Berberovi´c, Denis 545 ´ Mirha 556 Biˇco Car, Bodnaruk, Iryna L. 75 Bratovcic, Amra 107 C ´ Catovi´ c, Fuad 284 Causevic, Amir 270 ´ cez, Marko 284 Ce´ Celenta, Giampiero 125, 132 Celenta, Giampieto 253 Cero, Mehmed 228 Chihvintseva, Olga 236 ˇ Cinjarevi´ c, Merima 545 ˇ Cizmi´ c, Elvir 423, 430, 438 ˇ Cubri´ c, Goran 197 Çuri, Arjan 569 D Damir, Džubur 345 Damir, Špago 22 Davidsson, Paul 3

Deli´c, Amel 484 Djordjevic, Aleksandar 519 Djordjevic, Aleksandra 519 Ðonko, Danija 336 Doroshenko, Yuri 502 Držeˇcnik, Mateja 327 Dudic, Branislav 242 Ðukanovi´c, Borislav 473 Džaferovi´c, Ejub 14 Dzidic, Sanin 261, 270 Džubur, Žana 352

242

E Egbert, Spencer 447 El Sayed, Ahmed 261, 270, 299, 312 Elmin, Hodži´c 145 F Formato, Andrea

125, 132

G Gubíniová, Katarína

242

H Hadžiahmetovi´c, Halima 54 Hadži´c, Emina 62 Hadžidervišagi´c, Dino 179 Hadžiselimovi´c, Venan 438 Hajdarevi´c, Edina 164 Haseˇci´c, Amra 14 Hodzic, Nihad 45, 86 Hodži´c, Nihad 95 Howell, Bryan 447 Huseti´c, Aida 406, 414 Husika, Azrudin 54

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 I. Karabegovic et al. (Eds.): NT 2023, LNNS 707, pp. 577–579, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34721-4

578

I Isi´c, Safet 54 Ivankovi´c, Dalila

Author Index

N Nazdraji´c, Sanela 118 Nechitailo, Yuliia 154 Novali´c, Adnan 299, 312

170

J Jakši´c-Stojanovi´c, Andela Japi´c, Emina 406 Jelena, Kneževi´c 145 Jovanovic, Jovana 391 Jugovi´c, Gojko 292 Jusuf, Musi´c 145

494

K Kadic, Kenan 45, 86 Kadi´c, Kenan 95 Kalaˇca, Nejla 179 Karabegovi´c, Isak 556 Kashami, Ilda 569 Katnic, Ivana 494 Katni´c, Milorad 494 Kazagic, Anes 45 Kilbourn-Barber, Grace 447 Klanšek, Uroš 327 Kogoj, Dušan 292 Kozadra, Amar 484 Kožo, Amra 536 Kujundži´c, Kosara 360 L Leonova, Olga 502 Leto, Alma 118, 220 Lijun, Jia 125 Lojo, Ahmet 189 Lorusso, Angelo 253 Lovrec, Darko 456, 464 M Malekian, Reza 3 Malykhina, Irina 502 Mandryk, Oleg M. 75 Mešanovi´c, Benjamin 545 Miˇcijevi´c, Alma 118, 220 Miliši´c, Hata 62 Milosavljevi´c, Milan 236 Mostarli´c, Kenan 284 Muhamedagi´c, Fatima 228 Mulahusi´c, Admir 292 Murri, Isaac 447 Musi´c, Jusuf 189

O Oprean, Constantin 529 P Palalija, Haris 423, 430 Pan˘a, Madalina Maria 529 Perekrest, Andriy 36 Peštek, Suada 536 Petrov, Antonija 197 Petruši´c, Irena 473 Pleitz, Maximilian 14 Popovac, Maja 299, 312 R Rahimi´c, Zijada 423 Rami´c, Mesud 14 Ritchie, Ethan 447 Rolich, Tomislav 197 Romano, Raffaele 125, 132 S Šabi´c, Muharem 29, 345 Šabi´c, Said 29 Šahinagi´c-Isovi´c, Merima 284 Salˇcin, Merima 352 Salki´c, Redžo 414 ˇ Salopek Cubri´ c, Ivana 197 Sarles, Meghan 447 Šaši´c, Ðevad 438, 484 Šertovi´c, Edina 228 Šestan, Almir 170 Šesti´c, Munira 423, 430, 556 Shendryk, Sergii 36 Shendryk, Vira 3, 36, 154 Shlapak, Lubomur S. 75 Shuai, Zhou 132 Šimi´c, Edvin 29, 345 Skenderovi´c, Isat 164 Smajlovi´c Orman, Nerma 299, 312 Softi´c, Senad 430 Špago, Azra 336 Špago, Damir 54 Stamatovi´c Vuˇckovi´c, Slavica 360 Stupar, Savo 556

Author Index

579

Šukali´c, Aida 118, 220 Sydorenko, Valeriy 36

Tuts, Oleh M. 75 Tymchuk, Sergii 154

T Tanovi´c, Merima 484 Tari´c, Mirsad 352 Tiˇc, Vito 464 T, ît, u, Aurel Mihail 529 Tokar, Andrey 236 Torlo, Lamija 220 Torlo, Miron 22 Trgo, Adil 438 Tuno, Nedim 292

V Velid, Halilovi´c 145 Viktoriia, Riapukhina 511 Vrce, Azra Mahini´c 352 Vrvi´c, Miroslav 205 Z Zaarir, Yousef 368, 380 Zejak, Dejan 242 Zhyla, Viktor 154