New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education 9819956080, 9789819956081

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Mathew A. White Faye McCallum Christopher Boyle   Editors

New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education

New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education

Mathew A. White · Faye McCallum · Christopher Boyle Editors

New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education

Editors Mathew A. White School of Education, Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics The University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia

Faye McCallum Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics, School of Education The University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia

Christopher Boyle Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics, School of Education The University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia

ISBN 978-981-99-5608-1 ISBN 978-981-99-5609-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

In the light of demographical and worldwide trends building and maintaining wellbeing, especially in children, is essential for the economy, the community, and for life success of future generations. While wellbeing is often seen as the desired condition to pursue I consider wellbeing to be a catalyst, a prerequisite for optimal psychological, social, and physical development to become a responsible member of society. While children grow up in various contexts, the majority of children spend large amounts of time in educational settings. In order to create optimal settings to let our children flourish, interdisciplinary research with a focus on wellbeing in education, integrating new issues in teaching and learning, and exploring best practises in post-COVID-19 pedagogy is crucial. This book New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education edited by Associate Professor Mathew A. White, Prof. Faye McCallum, and Prof. Christopher Boyle draws on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s conceptual framework for teachers’ occupational wellbeing to problematise the new directions of wellbeing education research across primary, secondary, and higher education. New interdisciplinary research on wellbeing education, defined as how school leaders and teachers plan to implement evidence-informed wellbeing interventions to promote wellbeing and academic goals, is described by a mixture of early, mid-career, and established researchers in wellbeing education, assessment and evaluation, teacher education, and pedagogy. The 18 chapters in the book explore wellbeing education in the context of, for example, curriculum and pedagogy theory and development, educational administration, management, and leadership, primary, secondary, and higher education, but also (initial) teacher education and the professional development of educators. With a mixture of contributions of 40 invited scholars, a broad spectrum of wellbeing education is covered providing a critical review of current research and a vision on the future of wellbeing education.

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Foreword

In some country’s wellbeing education or teaching young people about wellbeing science, evidence-informed approaches, and interventions to support their wellbeing and the wellbeing of others has been introduced by in-class lessons or enrichment programmes. Other countries, though, have no or less developed wellbeing programmes in educational settings. It is my sincere hope that this book will inspire and encourage leaders and policymakers all around the world to broadly integrate evidence-informed wellbeing approaches in learning, teaching, and education. Only together and with rigorous science and successful implementation, we can fully support our future generations with all essential opportunities to empower themselves and live a happy life. Prof. Dr. Meike Bartels University Research Chair Professor in Genetics and Wellbeing, Program Director Research Master Genes in Behaviour and Health, President International Positive Psychology Association, Department of Biological Psychology Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Preface

In 2025, wellbeing education research will approach 25 years since the launch of the positive psychology movement. Although wellbeing education research predates this marker, it is a helpful point to consider where we are heading. This book investigates that challenge—what lies ahead for wellbeing research. In 2021, the editors wrote to a mixture of internationally recognised wellbeing researchers and encouraged new research voices to explore the implications of the advances in wellbeing science in their discipline. The goal was to create an interdisciplinary and international response to new research in wellbeing education across primary, secondary, and higher education. The outcome of this challenge is represented by the chapters in this book exploring the field’s possible future direction. The chapters have been arranged thematically to explore different dimensions of wellbeing education. They have also been designed to stand alone. Our hope is that researchers, school leaders, teachers, and policymakers may use individual chapters and the book as whole as a resource to stimulate discussion, thought, and debate over these issues in their culture and context. As the international community learns how to live with COVID-19, new societal pressures and existing fault lines have emerged and reasserted themselves. Yet, questions about how researchers and practitioners should integrate this into teaching with greater rigour are explored in this book. In this publication, researchers explore questions related with priorities for new student wellbeing, developments in arts curriculum and wellbeing, new developments in whole school wellbeing approaches, and persistent global education wellbeing challenges. Chapters in the book explore research issues related to wellbeing education, describe case studies of populations and how they have responded to wellbeing challenges, and synthesise research studies. Adelaide, Australia

Mathew A. White Faye McCallum Christopher Boyle

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Acknowledgments

Thank you to Ms. Grace Ma, Senior Editor, Education Books for Springer Nature, for her help, who supported the book’s aim from the outset. We want to acknowledge the expertise and efforts of our international collaborators on this research project. This book is a genuinely interdisciplinary research book focusing on how wellbeing education is related to research from the fields of: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Creative arts, curriculum, and pedagogy; Curriculum and pedagogy theory and development; Education policy; Educational administration, management, and leadership; Educational counselling; Higher education; History and philosophy of education; Humanities and social sciences curriculum and pedagogy; Multicultural education; Primary education; Secondary education; Initial teacher education; Teacher and student wellbeing; Teacher education and professional development of educators.

Each chapter evaluates or presents new knowledge generating new concepts, methodologies, and understandings of wellbeing education in the context of three years into the COVID-19 pandemic. Thank you to 35 scholars from Australia, France, Germany, Mexico, the USA, and the UK who responded to the call for contributors to the book: • • • • •

Associate Professor Kelly-Ann Allen, Monash University, Australia Dr. Rosalinda Ballesteros, Universidad Tecmilenio, Mexico Dr. Rachel Bleeze, School of Education, The University of Adelaide Professor Ilona Boniwell, University of East London, UK Bonnie Bozorg, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

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Acknowledgments

• • • •

Dr. Guillaume Broc, Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, University of Montpellier, France Dr. Carlos G. Castro, Universidad Tecmilenio, Mexico Tiger Chan, University of Cambridge Professor Janet Clinton, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Australia Dr. Emily Dollman Elder Conservatorium of Music, The University of Adelaide, Australia Dr. Mohamed Fadhil, Ph.D., School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Australia Professor Kristján Kristjánsson, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham, UK Maxwell L. Keller, Minnesota State University Fleur Le Roux, École des Psychologues Praticiens, Paris, France Professor Ulrike Lichtinger, Katholische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany Dr. Tiffany Lyndall-Knight, Flinders University, Australia Yumin Lu, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Australia Elena Lucciarini, University of East London, UK Professor Charles Martin-Krumm, École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris de l’Institut Catholique de Paris, France Dr. Nina Maadad, School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Australia Dr. Caomhan McGlinchey, University of Exeter Clément Métais, University of Lorrain, France Anita Müller, École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris de l’Institut Catholique de Paris, France Marie Oger, Université de Lorraine, France Professor Anne Pender, School of Humanities, The University of Adelaide Alberto Pérez Arroyo, Universidad Tecmilenio, Mexico Dr. Sarah Peters, Flinders University, Australia Professor Andrea Reupert, Monash University, Australia Dr. Mark Seton Excelsia College, Australia Laura Smith, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Australia Mario Toledo, Universidad Tecmilenio, Mexico Duyen T. Vo, Monash University, Australia Stéphanie Vouteau Douet, l’Université catholique de l’Ouest, France Professor Lucas Walsh, Monash University, Australia Professor Lea Waters AM, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Australia Denise Wong, Monash University Dr. Marizon Yu, School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Australia

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Thank you to the anonymous peer-reviewers for their important feedback on each chapter and the book’s structure overall. The editors

Acknowledgments

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thank the University of Adelaide for supporting our research. We thank Prof. John Williams AM., Prof. Jodie Conduit, Acting Executive Dean and Deputy Dean (Research) for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics; Prof. Anton Middelberg, the Deputy Vice Chancellor and Vice President (Research); and Prof. Laura Parry Pro-Vice Chancellor (Research Excellence) at the University of Adelaide.

Adelaide, Australia

Mathew A. White Faye McCallum Christopher Boyle

Contents

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Where to from Here? Priorities for Wellbeing Education, Pedagogy and COVID-19 Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathew A. White

Part I

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New Priorities for Student Wellbeing

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Students’ Quality of Life, Resources, and Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clément Métais, Marie Oger, Guillaume Broc, Stéphanie Vouteau Douet, Anita Müller, Fleur Le Roux, and Charles Martin-Krumm

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Fostering Students’ Belonging Through Appreciative Advising . . . . Carlos Gustavo Castro, Mario Toledo, and Alberto Pérez-Arroyo

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Understanding High School Students’ Perceptions of Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathew A. White

Part II 5

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New Developments in Arts Curriculum and Wellbeing

Wellbeing for Student Actors: #MeToo and New Initiatives in the Australian Tertiary Drama Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anne Pender, Tiffany Knight, Sarah Peters, and Mark Seton

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Positive Museums, Community Intervention in Wellbeing Through the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Rosalinda Ballesteros, Iván Guerrero, and Mario Toledo

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The Value of Music Education for Child Development and Wellbeing in the Post COVID-19 Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Emily Dollman

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Contents

Part III New Developments in Whole School Wellbeing Issues 8

The Toolbox Approach: Towards a Novel Flexible Way of Implementing and Testing Positive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Elena Lucciarini and Ilona Boniwell

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Flourishing SD—A Positive School Development Approach . . . . . . . 191 Ulrike Lichtinger

10 Using Metaphors to Shine a Light on Wellbeing Education . . . . . . . . 207 Duyen T. Vo, Kelly-Ann Allen, Andrea Reupert, and Lea Waters 11 Well Leaders, Well Teachers, Well Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Faye McCallum Part IV New Research on Persistent Global Education Wellbeing Challenges 12 Wellbeing and Online Learning: Perspectives of Refugee-Background Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Nina Maadad and Marizon Yu 13 Flourishing as the Aim of Education: An outline—and Ten Remaining Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Kristján Kristjánsson Part V

New Perspective on Post-school Wellbeing

14 The Dynamic-Grit Mindset: Flourishing in the Future Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Mohamed Fadhil 15 The Role of Preservice Teachers’ Wellbeing, Dispositions and Self-Awareness in Predicting Future Teacher Behaviour . . . . . . 313 Janet Clinton and Laura Elvie Smith 16 Putting the “We” in Wellbeing Through Belonging Research . . . . . . 341 Kelly-Ann Allen, Lucas Walsh, Tiger Chan, Caomhan McGlinchey, Denise Wong, Yumin Lu, and Maxwell Keller 17 Enhancing Positive Wellbeing in Schools: The Relationship Between Inclusion and Belonging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Christopher Boyle, Kelly-Ann Allen, Rachel Bleeze, Bonnie Bozorg, and Kayla Sheridan 18 New International Research Priorities for Wellbeing Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Mathew A. White

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Assoc. Prof. Mathew A. White, Ph.D. is Deputy Dean, International, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics at the University of Adelaide in Australia, where he is Associate Professor and Deputy Head of the School of Education. Mathew has taught and researched curriculum, pedagogy, wellbeing education, and teacher education. He has supervised higher-degree research students in these areas. Mathew previously served as Acting Deputy Dean, Learning and Teaching, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics, and Interim Head of the School of Education at the University of Adelaide in 2020–21. He was Visiting Scholar at the University of Oxford’s Department of Education in 2022. He is also Principal Fellow at the University of Melbourne’s Melbourne Graduate School of Education. Mathew was awarded his Ph.D. in education from the University of Adelaide, Australia, in 2004. Mathew has researched curriculum and pedagogy, wellbeing, and teacher education; he is Author, Co-author, and Co-editor of seven books and over 54 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters on wellbeing and education, including Integrating Wellbeing and Learning in Schools: Evidence-Informed Approaches for Leaders and Teachers (in-press), Transforming Teaching: Wellbeing and Professional Practise (2022, with Faye McCallum), Wellbeing and Resilience Education COVID-19 and Its Impact on Education (2021, with Faye McCallum), Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, and Leadership: Enhancing Educational Outcomes (2020, with Faye McCallum), Future Directions in Wellbeing: Education, Organisations, and Policy (2017, with Gavin Slemp and Simon Murray), Theology Encountering Positive Psychology (2017, with Gillies Ambler, Matthew Anstey, and Theo McCall), and Evidence-Based Approaches in Positive Education: Implementing a Strategic Framework for Wellbeing in Schools (2015, with Simon Murray). He was appointed Fellow in 2021 after serving as President of the Education Division of the International Positive Psychology Association (2019–2022). Mathew has received international and national education leadership awards. In 2022, he was highly commended in the Stephen Cole the Elder Awards for Excellence, the University of Adelaide’s most

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prestigious awards for learning and teaching. Mathew was award-winning secondary school English and French Teacher for 20 years before joining academia in 2018. He also has a decade of senior leadership experience in schools. Prof. Faye McCallum, Ph.D. is Adjunct Professor of Education at the University of Adelaide where she was Head of the School of Education. She has published more than 100 scientific journal articles and book chapters. Her research books include Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, and Leadership: Enhancing Educational Outcomes (with Mathew A. White) published by Springer in 2020, the 2022 Transforming Teaching: Wellbeing Education and Professional Practice: (with Mathew A. White) is published by Springer, and Nurturing Wellbeing Development in Education: From Little Things, Big Things Grow (with Deb Price) published by Routledge in 2015. She was awarded the 2019 Australian Council for Educational Leaders South Australian Branch Dr. Alby Jones AO Gold Medal ‘for her contribution to the study and practice of educational leadership’. She was a finalist for the Telstra Business Women’s Awards 2020. Her next co-authored research book with Associate Professor Mathew White on Wellbeing Education and Professional Practice: Transforming Teaching will be published by Springer (forthcoming 2022). Prof. Christopher Boyle, Ph.D. is Professor of Inclusive Education and Psychology at the University of Adelaide. He is Fellow of the British Psychological Society and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. He was previously Editor-in-Chief of The Educational and Developmental Psychologist (2012–2017) and is currently Co-inaugural Founding Editor of Belonging and Human Connection (with KellyAnn Allen) of the new journal Belonging and Human Connection launched in 2022. He is internationally recognised and respected Academic and Author about inclusive education and psychology. He is Registered Psychologist in the UK and Australia.

Contributors Kelly-Ann Allen School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Rosalinda Ballesteros Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, N.L., México Rachel Bleeze School of Education, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia Ilona Boniwell University of East London, London, UK Guillaume Broc Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, University of Montpellier, EPSYLON EA, France Christopher Boyle School of Education, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

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Bonnie Bozorg The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Carlos Gustavo Castro Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México; Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México Tiger Chan School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Janet Clinton The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Emily Dollman Elder Conservatorium of Music, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia Stéphanie Vouteau Douet Department of Educational Sciences, West Catholic University, Nantes, France Mohamed Fadhil School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Iván Guerrero Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, N.L., México Maxwell Keller School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Tiffany Knight Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia Kristján Kristjánsson Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, School of Education, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Fleur Le Roux École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, Paris, France Ulrike Lichtinger University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Eichstätt, Germany; International University (IU), Erfurt, Germany Yumin Lu School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Elena Lucciarini University of East London, London, UK; Valais University of Teacher Education (HEP-VS), Saint-Maurice, Switzerland Nina Maadad The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Charles Martin-Krumm APEMAC EA 4360, UDL, Metz, France; Laboratoire de Psychologie de l’École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, Paris, France Faye McCallum School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Caomhan McGlinchey School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia

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Clément Métais APEMAC EA 4360, UDL, Metz, France Anita Müller Laboratoire de Psychologie de l’École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, Paris, France Marie Oger APEMAC EA 4360, UDL, Metz, France Anne Pender The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Alberto Pérez-Arroyo Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México; Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México Sarah Peters Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia Andrea Reupert Faculty of Education, School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Mark Seton Institute of Higher Education, Excelsia College, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia Kayla Sheridan The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Laura Elvie Smith The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Mario Toledo Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, N.L., México Duyen T. Vo Faculty of Education, School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Lucas Walsh School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Lea Waters Melbourne Graduate School of Education, Centre for Wellbeing Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia Mathew A. White School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia Denise Wong School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Marizon Yu The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

Chapter 1

Where to from Here? Priorities for Wellbeing Education, Pedagogy and COVID-19 Recovery Mathew A. White

1.1 Introduction As the international community manages the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, it raises questions about priorities for wellbeing, education, learning and teaching and new research (Krishnaratne et al., 2022). In an article published on World Teachers Day, Ding et al. (2022) assert that the ‘monumental task ahead’ for education is ‘to support the learning recovery efforts of the 1.6 billion schoolchildren who were shut out of schools globally at the height of the pandemic’. This book, New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, responds to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD, 2021) call for investigation into broader education research strategies to promote wellbeing published in the Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) Tackling the mental health impact of the COVID-19 crisis: An integrated, whole-of-society response, which notes: To effectively respond to the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the mental health of the population, integrated and cross-sectoral policies are needed to improve mental health support [...] An approach built on early recognition and integrated services is becoming more important now. Combined with broader strategies and campaigns, policies can reduce stigma surrounding mental health and promote schools and workplaces that contribute to better mental health for the general population. (p. 8)

1.2 Wellbeing Education Research Various theories of wellbeing have been adopted in education—coining the term ‘wellbeing education’, which for this book is defined as how school leaders and teachers plan to implement evidence-informed wellbeing interventions to promote M. A. White (B) The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_1

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wellbeing and academic goals. In this section, I focus on recent developments in wellbeing education. The OECD (2021) challenge to ‘promote schools and workplaces that contribute to better mental health for the general population’ (p. 8) comes at a time when the field of wellbeing research approaches 25 years. The aspect of contemporary Western wellbeing education can be traced to the publication of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) article founding positive psychology and Seligman et al.’s (2009) article founding positive education. But wellbeing education has a long history before these two landmark publications in character education, as argued by Arthur (2003, 2005), and virtue-ethics approaches to teaching (Carr, 2018). It can be found in early approaches to character education or holistic approaches to education, which focus on the development of character and intellect. Partly stimulated by the launch of positive psychology by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) and positive education by Seligman et al. (2009), education research on wellbeing has grown worldwide. The terms wellbeing, positive and resilience education have been used interchangeably by researchers, school leaders and teachers to describe interventions and approaches to teaching that integrate evidence-informed strategies from wellbeing science that promotes human flourishing. A large-scale computer-generated linguistic word count analysis of positive education terms spanning 100 years by Waters and Loton (2021) and Owens and Waters (2020) found three main approaches to what could be described as wellbeing education or teaching for personal and social-emotional skills and academic growth. These education paradigms included social-emotional learning (Beaty, 2018), resilience education (Brown et al., 2001) and coping skills (Frydenberg, 2014). Towards the end of 1998, Seligman (1998) delivered his presidential address to the American Psychological Association, which laid the foundation for the new positive psychology movement and focused on evidence-informed approaches to human flourishing. At the start of the millennium, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) published an introduction to positive psychology, claiming it ‘concentrates on repairing damage within a disease model of human functioning. This almost exclusive attention to pathology neglects the fulfilled individual and the thriving community’ (p. 5). This article is widely recognised as foundational for establishing the positive psychology movement, from which the subfield of education would rapidly emerge with early research on grit (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005), strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) and resilience (Gillham et al., 2013). However, it was not named ‘positive education’ until Seligman et al. (2009). Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) original article argued that education was one of the significant institutional aspects of society that could align strongly with the call for a new wellbeing science. One approach proposed integrating positive psychology principles and research into school learning and teaching as a preventative mental health strategy. This article calls for a reorientation of education focusing on the vision of schools teaching human flourishing. As Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) assert: Psychologists need now to call for massive research on human strengths and virtues. Practitioners need to recognise that much of the best work they already do in the consulting room is to amplify strengths rather than repair the weaknesses of their clients. Psychologists

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working with families, schools, religious communities, and corporations need to develop climates that foster these strengths. (p. 8)

The rapid growth of positive psychology and its application in schools was dominated in the first instance by resilience education, as noted by Brunwasser et al. (2009), and positive youth development (White, 2021). While these approaches focused on theoretically diverse approaches to wellbeing, resilience education focuses on ameliorating and returning from adversity (Gillham et al., 2013). In contrast, wellbeing education focuses on initially improving the wellbeing of students and equipping them with skills to navigate the initial challenges of mental health in the future (Seligman et al., 2009). The wellbeing models of the early 2000s revealed several different theoretical approaches. These included character education approaches in the United Kingdom by Arthur (2003, 2005) and in the United States of America by Berkowitz et al. (2017), which adopted a far more philosophical and educationalist approach to character development influenced by neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics (Kristjánsson, 2019). In contrast, positive psychology came from a psychological perspective and adopted an empirical approach. In the early 2000s, wellbeing education research emphasised wellbeing research’s measurement and empirical elements and its application within schools (Forgeard et al., 2011). The terms positive education (Seligman et al., 2009), wellbeing education (White et al., 2017), education for happiness, education for flourishing (White & McCallum, 2022), positive youth development (Damon, 2004) and resilience (Frydenberg, 2014) in education were used interchangeably by school leaders and teachers. Therefore, translating the research into wellbeing education in school settings was highly diverse in its approach. Further, it emphasised difficulties in conceptualisation and clarity for schools applying these concepts and conceptual frameworks. In the second half of the 2000s, research and translation of these concepts in education saw the rise of whole-of-school approaches (Lester et al., 2020; Roffey, 2016; Wyn et al., 2000), which integrated more specific and measurable goals aligned with organisational frameworks. Wellbeing education has adopted many wellbeing theories. The dominant ones have been drawn from Seligman’s (2011) PERMA theory, which theorises flourishing as an individual’s levels of positive emotion, engagement, relationship, meaning and accomplishment; Huppert and So’s (2013) theory of flourishing; or derivatives of neo-Aristotelian approaches. What unifies these definitions of wellbeing within education is their call for a more holistic approach that teaches young people the social skills for human flourishing drawn from psychological research and traditional academic growth. Frameworks for wellbeing have now developed a more empirical basis, including Waters and Loton’s (2019) SEARCH framework, which adopts a bibliometric analysis to create the framework based on (1) strengths, (2) emotional management, (3) attention and awareness, (4) relationships, (5) coping and (6) habits and goals. Nevertheless, a persistent gap has existed during the last 25 years of research between wellbeing research integration into learning and teaching.

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Compounding these challenges has been how preservice teachers are educated in initial teacher education offerings (White, 2020). Primarily governed by standards of professional practice determined by government policy, one of the pervasive gaps has been the scattergun approach to the integration of wellbeing as either a contemporary issue within education or a topic rather than being considered an integral part of the initial teacher education framework, not only from a philosophical point of view but also from an empirical perspective, and what this means for teacher professional practice (White & McCallum, 2020). The rise of evidence-informed teaching strategies, which focused on preparing teachers to be able to interpret academic data to improve evidence-informed teaching strategies, has been a significant educational reform of the last 25 years alongside a better understanding of the science of wellbeing education. Leaders and teachers have reported being increasingly asked to engage and manage wellbeing issues in the classroom and beyond. These challenges of the lived experience of school leaders and teachers, the advancement of wellbeing education and its initiatives in interventions, and how this is operationalised within education have been significant tensions of the last 25 years of wellbeing research in educational contexts. International research by scholars, including Daniele et al. (2022), emphasise the benefits of interventions promoting mental health and wellbeing with young people. Today, more schools claim they are integrating evidence-informed wellbeing programs and approaches in their daily offering to improve the quality of the school experience and the student program (Graham et al., 2022). In a handful of case studies, some schools argue the link between wellbeing education and academic progress as the benefits of these approaches. Norwich et al. (2022) also argue that mental health and wellbeing concepts should adopt a dual-factor model to distinguish between the fields. Initially, wellbeing education research from 2000 to 2020 focused on evidenceinformed programs for young people (Seligman et al., 2009), increased awareness of teacher wellbeing and broader employee wellbeing, which emerged as areas of investigation. Soon, research moved from the efficacy of programs to adopting a more systems-informed approach (Hatzichristou et al., 2012). In 2020, the COVID19 pandemic dramatically affected schools around the world, appearing to sharpen the focus on the wellbeing of young people with the rapid acceleration of online learning (Ozdamli & Karagozlu, 2022; World Bank, 2022). In education leadership, Heffernan et al. (2022) note that wellbeing emerged as a pillar within strategies as more schools started to adopt organisational approaches as part of strategic planning initiatives. The debate about wellbeing for learning or wellbeing and learning emerged. In 2020, the pandemic’s immediate impact on schools and the wellbeing of students and teachers was uncertain; however, it was soon evident that the pandemic may rewrite numerous approaches to learning and teaching (Krishnaratne et al., 2022). Soon there were early studies speculating on the potential impact of anxiety, depression, loneliness and belonging in schools from students’ perspectives (Mulholland & Parker, 2022). Further, divisions between individuals with access to health care

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and those without received greater scrutiny from society. Childs et al. (2022) emphasise the impact of social isolation as rolling lockdowns across the world brought the discussion about wellbeing education into a new space and one that no one predicted. Schools have adopted various wellbeing approaches, including character education, neo-Aristotelian approaches, Seligman et al.’s (2009) positive education, Seligman’s (2011) PERMA theory of flourishing, Huppert and So’s (2013) ‘feeling good and functioning well’ and Waters and Loton’s (2019) SEARCH framework. In some countries, wellbeing education—or teaching young people about wellbeing science, evidence-informed approaches and interventions to support their wellbeing and the wellbeing of others—has been introduced by in-class lessons or enrichment programs. These approaches raise several questions, including: How can the arts (drama, music, visual arts) support wellbeing education? How has wellbeing education research influenced education theory? How have the case studies of wellbeing education shaped or hindered its development? What role can neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics play in wellbeing education? What is the role of school leaders in advancing teacher and student wellbeing? How can schools support student wellbeing in a post COVID-19 landscape?

1.3 About This Book This book’s goal is to establish new knowledge in areas that have not been fully examined in wellbeing education. The book has three aims: (i) advance new knowledge and understanding of the nature of wellbeing in the context of education (ii) examine issues related to ongoing problems of the integration of wellbeing concepts into pedagogy in a post COVID-19 world, and (iii) investigate international examples of best practice in wellbeing education research. Edited by Associate Professor Mathew White, Professor Faye McCallum and Professor Christopher Boyle from the University of Adelaide, this research book includes a mixture of established and early career international researchers. It will examine issues related to wellbeing education and cross-cultural education, curriculum and pedagogy, education policy, education systems including primary and secondary education, teacher education and professional development of educators, educational administration, management and leadership, and inclusive education (Reupert et al., 2022). As evidenced by international research from Aarah-Bapuah et al. (2022) and Childs et al. (2022), we assert that the unrelenting and pervasive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the anxiety it triggers in youth and educators appear to have strengthened a case for school wellbeing education. It also raises questions about equity in access to education offered to students with disabilities, as investigated by Daniele et al. (2022) and Lipkin and Crepeau-Hobson (2022). Further, it has encouraged education leaders, as established by Hatzichristou et al.’s

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(2012) research, and policymakers to broadly integrate evidence-informed wellbeing approaches in learning, teaching and education (Graham et al., 2022). This book draws on international experience in the field across different continents, grappling with the universal implications of the pandemic on wellbeing education. At the time of White and McCallum (2021), the first vaccines had been developed and were beginning to be distributed throughout the world. Three years after that publication, it is argued that another publication should address the new directions the field of wellbeing education research is heading in, drawing on new international voices in the field of wellbeing education and research and investigating topics in greater depth. COVID-19 has delayed conferences, research and meetings, but it appears that wellbeing education is about to reach the crest of another wave in research findings. This book seeks to generate new knowledge and develop new research agendas for the diverse field of the application of wellbeing science in education. Expected outcomes from this publication will be new approaches to measuring wellbeing, more international case studies of wellbeing interventions, and a greater focus on the potential for wellbeing and education to work together in promoting excellence in learning and teaching. We hope this book will not only benefit school leaders, teachers and scholars but also stimulate prospective academic analyses in unresolved areas of the field. Therefore, we assert there is a need for new research presented in this publication that examines the current state of positive education in schools. Additionally, we investigate how students’ perceptions of quality of life are changing. From a philosophical perspective, there are unresolved issues regarding teaching flourishing in education (O’Toole & Simovska, 2022; Roberts, 2022; Williams, 2022). In higher education, the role of wellbeing for actors in higher education remains an underresearched area. We also assert there is a need to understand the role metaphors can play to enable individuals to interpret wellbeing education. Following the closure of so many cultural institutions during the first wave of COVID-19, it has emerged how museums can act as a home for community wellbeing and cultural engagement. Further, the editors call for an investigation into the role the arts and music can play in developing wellbeing in a post COVID-19 world. We claim that it is only through collaborative research from international perspectives that wellbeing education can advance into the next decade of investigating these issues. We also argue that COVID-19 has presented the research community on wellbeing education with a significant opportunity to reflect deeply on how advances in wellbeing science and interventions that may benefit broader improvement for schools and school structure can be applied more ballistically. This book draws on interdisciplinary research from a diverse field of scholars. Throughout, we aim to stress the research and teaching nexus characteristic of applying many wellbeing concepts and initiatives in the education sphere. In this book, we have far more engagement from creative and performing arts scholars in higher education. We also see new approaches to learning and teaching

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questions that have persisted for the last 25 years of professional practice and wellbeing. We argue it is time to invite international researchers to provide a critical review of current research and what they argue is the future of wellbeing education.

1.4 Conceptual Framework For this book, to investigate problems associated with wellbeing education, Viac and Fraser’s (2020) conceptual framework for teachers’ occupational wellbeing is used to problematise the new directions of wellbeing education research across primary and secondary school systems and higher education. The framework proposes a broad definition of wellbeing education as evidence-based approaches to learning and teaching that aim to positively impact social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual development in students, whether in schools or higher education. This is adopted as the operational definition for this book. The conceptual framework of Viac and Fraser (2020) posits that research in an education environment is in policy settings that focus on conditions for learning, standards and allocation of distribution of resources. In turn, these influence the quality of a work environment with an impact on demands and resources. Here, individual school and systems characteristics impact teacher wellbeing across the cognitive, subjective, physical, mental and social wellbeing dimensions. In turn, there are internal stresses, or motivators, and outcomes on classroom processes and student wellbeing. This book focuses on the relationship between intractable and new conceptual problems between teacher wellbeing, professional practice, classroom processes and student wellbeing. Internationally, wellbeing is being understood as a key policy indicator of the health of wider society. Around the world, various governments are adopting wellbeing measures to demonstrate the impact of education on the broader health of society. The potential policy implications here for education are very rich indeed. For example, the OECD compass for learning has wellbeing as a universal outcome by 2030. Challenges are found internationally around the attraction and retention of quality teachers who can foster both student wellbeing and learning, regardless of circumstances. This book engages with the dimensions of social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual wellbeing across each chapter. Within each chapter, you will see that the authors have considered these dimensions in the context of the research undertaken. Based on Viac and Fraser’s conceptual framework (2020), we have developed the following themes for the chapters of the book: • • • • •

Part 1: New priorities for student wellbeing Part 2: New developments in arts curriculum and wellbeing Part 3: New developments in whole school wellbeing issues Part 4: New research on persistent global education wellbeing challenges Part 5: New perspectives on post-school wellbeing.

New priorities for student wellbeing will examine studies focusing on student outcomes in schools and higher education. Recent developments in arts curriculum

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Fig. 1.1 Conceptual framework for the occupational wellbeing of teachers (Viac & Fraser, 2020)

and wellbeing extend earlier research and expand the applications of wellbeing concepts in the creative and performing arts. This is a significantly understudied area in wellbeing education generally, and the chapters here contribute to the growth of knowledge in the area. New developments in high school wellbeing issues examine some of the pervasive and intractable challenges of wellbeing education over the last 25 years. The chapters here explore new approaches to problems. Finally, new research on persistent global education wellbeing challenges looks at universal themes that, internationally, have remained unresolved within the area of investigation (Fig. 1.1).

1.5 About the Structure of the Book This chapter claims that wellbeing research is at a new juncture as the field approaches a quarter of a century in investigation and application of wellbeing concepts and now begins to respond to a different phase of the wellbeing, learning and teaching impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Through the conceptual framework of Viac and Fraser (2020), we position the remaining chapters in this publication as engaging with diverse policy settings, job demands, resources and teacher wellbeing, resulting in diverse outcomes at the classroom and student wellbeing levels. Below is a summary of the book’s structure and how they relate to each part of the text, as supported by Fig. 1.2.

1 Where to from Here? Priorities for Wellbeing Education, Pedagogy … Chpter 1: Where To from Here? Priorities For Wellbeing Education, Pedagogy & COVID-19 Recovery

Part 1: New Priorities for Student Wellbeing

Part 2: New Developments in Arts Curriculum and Wellbeing

Chapter 2: Students’ Quality of Life, Resources, and Promotion

Chapter 5: Wellbeing For Student Actors: #Metoo And New Initiatives in The Australian Tertiary Drama Curriculum

Chapter 3: Fostering Students’ Belonging Through Appreciative Advising

Chapter 4: Understanding Secondary Students Perceptions of Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study

Part 3: New Developments in Whole School Wellbeing Issues

Chapter 8: The Toolbox Approach: Towards a Novel Flexible Way of Implementing and Testing Positive Education in Schools

Part 4: New Research on Persistent Global Education Wellbeing Challenges

Part 5: New Perspectives on Post-School Wellbeing

9 Chapter 18: New International Research Priorities for Wellbeing Education

Chapter 14: Dynamic-Grit Mindset: Flourishing in the Future Workforce Chapter 12: Wellbeing and online learning: Perspectives of refugeebackground students

Chapter 9: Flourishing Sd A Positive School Development Approach

Chapter 15: The Role of Wellbeing and Selfawareness of Preservice Teachers and Predicting Future Teacher Behaviour

Chapter 10: Using Metaphors to Shine a Light on Wellbeing Education

Chapter 16: Putting the “We” in wellbeing through Belonging Research

Chapter 6: Positive Museums, Community Intervention In Wellbeing Through the Arts

Chapter 7: The Value of Music Education for Child Development and Wellbeing in the Post COVID Landscape

Chapter 13: Flourishing as the Aim of Education: An Outline – and Ten Remaining Problems Chapter 11: Well Leaders, Well Teachers, Well Children

Chapter 17: Enhancing Positive Wellbeing in Schools: The Relationship between Inclusion and Belonging

Fig. 1.2 Structure for new research and possibilities in wellbeing education

Part 1: New Priorities for Student Wellbeing Chapter 2, written by French researchers Clément Métais, Marie Oger, Guillaume Broc, Stéphanie Vouteau Douet, Anita Müller, Fleur Le Roux, and Charles MartinKrumm, asserts that international research shows that adolescents report high rates of mental illness, and the COVID-19 pandemic has worsened this picture. The chapter explores the topical issue of climate change also triggering anxiety, which may lead a whole generation of people to experience uncertainty and fear for their future. Such mental health concerns also have twin problems in the school context; so many school students around the world experience anxiety, stress and fatigue, and see their quality of life at school altered. Chapter 3, by Mexican academics Carlos Castro, Mario Toledo and Alberto PérezArroyo, examines an appreciative advising approach to counselling as a powerful tool for building rapport with students, discovering their strengths, unleashing their dreams and devising plans to make them come true. Literature has shown positive outcomes, such as students belonging, by applying appreciative advising principles. However, few applications have been documented in developing countries such as Mexico. Consistent with its approach to student wellbeing, Tecmilenio University in Mexico has built a mentoring program developed on the appreciative advising phases: disarm, discover, dream, design, deliver and don’t settle. In Chap. 4, Australian researcher Mathew White claims the importance of wellbeing education is being better understood by school leaders, parents, policymakers and the broader population. However, given the rise of anxiety and depression among young people, few wellbeing education initiatives engage students from the outset in their design. The diversity of wellbeing definitions, theories and models can be challenging for school leaders as they seek to engage their students. Rarely are students

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asked to define wellbeing in their own words before large-scale wellbeing interventions begin. This chapter explores how students define wellbeing in their own words. Part 2: New Developments in Arts Curriculum and Wellbeing Chapter 5 focuses on issues related to wellbeing education in the creative arts. It is authored by Australian scholars in drama and theatre Anne Pender, Tiffany Knight, Sarah Peters and Mark Seton, who highlight that researchers have reported concerns about the health and wellbeing of those who work in the entertainment industries, citing mental health problems, excessive drug and alcohol use, and suicidality. They note that 63% of actors earn less than the minimum wage. The authors investigate problems related to economic and psychological wellbeing and extreme stress among those surveyed and the #MeToo movement, which have led to curriculum initiatives to address student wellbeing during training. In Chap. 6, Mexican researchers Rosalinda Ballesteros, Iván Guerrero and Mario Toledo investigate the emerging field of positive humanities, which emphasises human flourishing—that is, continually growing—from various academic perspectives. Together, they investigate creative arts projects and wellbeing education like Positive Museums at Universidad Tecmilenio in Mexico. Since 2013, the university’s Institute for Integral Wellbeing and their Wellbeing and Happiness Ecosystem have guided community initiatives that connect with opportunities to bring wellbeing to others through the arts. In Chap. 7, Australian researcher Emily Dollman discusses the value and importance of music education in maximising student wellbeing and development in the post COVID-19 learning landscape. She argues that the rapid development of the neuromusical field of research over the past 20 years has enabled an understanding of the significant benefits of music in promoting physical, cognitive and socioemotional child development. She explores the importance of participatory musicmaking, including ensemble performance, and acknowledges research pointing to the value of this area of music education. Part 3: New Developments in Whole School Wellbeing Issues In Chap. 8, French researchers Elena Lucciarini and Ilona Boniwell ask what is the most significant way to implement wellbeing skills in classrooms? There are several ways to apply wellbeing skills, either implicitly or overtly, including entire school initiatives, programs, subject-specific teaching materials and instructors’ pedagogy. Programs are also difficult to include in most nations since instructors must adhere to a syllabus frequently because there appears to be little political will to fund them or provide a specific time during the school week. Lucciarini and Boniwell analyse the research on evidence-based positive psychology therapies to offer a different course of action. From research, theory and real teaching situations, short, personalised, selfselected, evidence-based and quantifiable interventions can foster wellbeing literacy. Chapter 9, written by German researcher Ulrike Lichtinger, examines wellbeing education and the impact of the PISA shock of 2000 school development in Germany and Austria. While schools have been geared towards improving academic outcomes,

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they have produced unsatisfactory results in maths and reading and decreased student and teacher wellbeing. In Chap. 10, the Australian research team of Duyen Vo, Kelly-Ann Allen, Andrea Reupert and Lea Waters explores the overlooked topic of metaphors in wellbeing education research. They argue that despite the growing focus on wellbeing over the decades, scholars and the public continue to question how wellbeing is best understood and defined. The team claim that metaphors have been used as a powerful learning tool in fields such as medicine, psychology and business to aid understanding of a range of topics, including the human body, therapy, family dynamics and workplace conflict. Metaphors’ ability to evoke vivid imagery, stimulate intuitive interpretation and highlight profound comprehension makes them ideally suited for use in wellbeing education. This chapter calls for the wide, deliberate and strategic use of metaphors in wellbeing education. In Chap. 11, Australian researcher Faye McCallum claims that wellbeing education has advocated for the wellbeing and resilience of children and young people in the schooling sector. With this promotion have come multiple policies, programs, approaches and interventions. With varied success, researchers have observed a greater awareness of the need for wellbeing education in schools. However, less attention has been awarded to the wellbeing of teachers as critical in-school influences on children’s wellbeing, happiness, satisfaction and achievement, and even less attention has focused on the wellbeing of school leaders. Leaders, teachers and students are all important elements that create a ‘well’ school community. McCallum has long advocated that for children to be well, teachers’ need to be well. In this chapter, she argues that for school communities to be well, we need well leaders, teachers and students. Part 4: New Research on Persistent Global Education Wellbeing Challenges In Chap. 12, Australian researchers Nina Maadad and Marizon Yu investigate the experiences of refugee-background students, who are one of the most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups in Australian schools. They argue that having come from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, their families have navigated arduous roads to get to Australia and faced the challenges of adjusting to new environments, schools and language. Although many refugee-background students have already experienced disruption in schooling in their countries of origin, the COVID19 pandemic further exacerbated this experience with lockdowns. This chapter investigates the perspective of refugee-background students on online learning during the lockdowns in South Australia. In Chap. 13, Kristján Kristjánsson offers a brief overview of the main themes of an earlier publication on character education and examines unresolved theoretical problems and issues of flourishing in education. Part 5: New Perspectives on Post-school Wellbeing In Chap. 14, the study of Singaporean researcher Mohamed Fadhil bin Mohamed Ismail aims to challenge the prevailing narrowing attitudes towards workers older than 50 years by discovering their appreciation factors through the participation of key

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stakeholders in Singapore’s employment sector. In Singapore, the local workforce is expected to plateau from 2020 onward, indicating there will be little or zero growth in the local workforce based on current employment and retirement rates. Although credited for their contributions, older Singaporean workers are perceived by many employers as liabilities and thereby confined to secondary labour markets. In Chap. 15, Janet Clinton and Laura Smith from the University of Melbourne investigate the importance of the wellbeing and self-awareness of preservice teachers in predicting future teacher behaviour. Following desktop data, Clinton and Smith used the Teacher Capability Assessment Tool database to investigate the problem. Over 18,000 preservice teacher applicants were analysed. Structural equation modelling was used to assess the link between reported wellbeing and expected intentional teacher behaviour. The approach showed obvious links between teacher intentionality and wellbeing. This research involves beginning teacher educators and supports the development of self-reflective behaviours of preservice teachers and knowledge and skills in health education. This study affects initial teacher education, teacher selection, classroom preparation and health education. In Chap. 16, an international group of researchers led by Kelly-Ann Allen, including Lucas Walsh, Tiger Chan, Caomhan McGlinchey, Denise Wong, Yumin Lu and Maxwell Keller, explain the concept of belonging in the context of wellbeing research. They claim that the COVID-19 epidemic has contributed to an increase in the prevalence of loneliness and isolation. Belonging, a fundamental human desire, plays a crucial role in understanding loneliness and isolation and fostering mental health and welfare. Several variables impact the experience of belonging, and across the many stages of life, belonging is vital to an individual’s psychological, social and general functioning. In schools, helping young people establish a feeling of belonging to school favourably benefits their wellbeing. Considering its beneficial effect, increasing student belonging should be a focus through wellbeing education. Wellbeing education focuses on competencies for belonging, chances to belong, motives to belong and perceptions to belong, which are based on the meta-integrated framework for creating belonging. Targeting attributions and adopting a systems approach through a socio-ecological lens must be addressed in constructing treatments. School policies fostering belonging should be in place for such interventions to succeed. In Chap. 17, Australian educational psychologist Chris Boyle asserts that inclusive and wellbeing education improves school culture. Modern education lacks articles linking these two critical sectors since they are usually considered different ideas. Inclusive education research shows that mainstreaming children with special needs can have pros and cons. Belonging and wellbeing in schools are linked to creating an inclusive and functional school environment. According to the research, many schools profess to be inclusive, but this is not translated into everyday practice. In Chap. 18, I reflect on the main themes of New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education. Five questions frame the chapter, asking: ‘What are the new priorities for student wellbeing?’, ‘What are the new arts curriculum and wellbeing developments?’, ‘What are the new developments in the whole school’s wellbeing approach?’, ‘What is the new research on ongoing global education while facing

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challenges?’ and ‘What are the new perspectives on post-school wellbeing?’ The chapter examines the conceptual challenges to advanced wellbeing education. Last, new international research priorities are suggested.

1.6 Significance of This Book Despite the advances in wellbeing scholarship and its alleged potential in education settings, there remain unresolved theoretical questions for education, which this book explores from an international perspective. A decade ago, Rusk and Waters (2013) established that the field of positive psychology and wellbeing sciences was growing in importance in areas as diverse as neuroscience, management and public health. This study highlighted that integrating wellbeing science into learning, teaching and education theory was in its infancy. While the gap between psychology, educational psychology and education theory is narrowing, there are still conceptual and theoretical problems for wellbeing education relating to teacher professional practice. Recently, White (2021) evaluated the wellbeing education research across two periods, 2009–2014 and 2015–2020, emphasising the shift from positive education to wellbeing education in the research and application in schools. He claims that the field of wellbeing education has started to mature, and there have been advances in the application of wellbeing education at the programmatic level. As noted by the scholars in this book, the new research in the field of wellbeing education is moving towards integrated and systems-based approaches at the school level and a wellbeing education approach that is more culturally and contextually developed. Uniquely, Part 2 of this book draws on interdisciplinary research of educationalists, psychologists and humanities scholars to investigate the impact of wellbeing on arts education research. Only a handful of studies have been conducted, including Karkou and Glasman (2004), exploring how the arts can enhance students’ socialemotional learning and examining the potential of the arts in the wellbeing education field. These chapters extend earlier research, and Clift et al. (2016) and McDonald et al. (2017). While many earlier studies examine what teachers are doing today to engage with wellbeing in their classrooms, it is only recently that scholars have started to explore the implications for the next generation of teachers and the role that initial teacher education may play. Collectively, the chapters address gaps in wellbeing research and foreshadow the new research required to advance the field of wellbeing education forward. To draw on the analysis of Vo et al. in Chap. 10, it is possible to argue that wellbeing education is about reaching the crest of another wave in new research as the world lives alongside the health, education, social and cultural ramifications of the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 may have been the catalyst for many school leaders, teachers and policymakers to reconsider how wellbeing concepts can be integrated more systematically into policies and approaches to learning and teaching. Still, more research is needed to resolve theoretical and empirical evidence for a wellbeing education.

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1.7 Conclusion This chapter has provided an overview of wellbeing education research and asserts that it is entering a new era. Moreover, the chapter outlines this book’s aims, which are to: (i) advance new knowledge and understanding of the nature of wellbeing in the context of education (ii) examine issues related to ongoing problems with the integration of wellbeing concepts into pedagogy in a post COVID-19 world (iii) investigate international examples of best practices in wellbeing education research. To frame the issues raised by each chapter related to wellbeing education in schools and schooling, the book’s editors adopt Viac and Fraser’s (2020) conceptual framework for the occupational wellbeing of teachers. Further, the book has been divided into five parts that explore the topics of new priorities for student wellbeing, new developments in arts curriculum and wellbeing, new developments and whole school wellbeing issues, new research on ongoing global education while being challenged, and new perspectives on post-school wellbeing. The chapter provided an overview of the book’s structure and positioned each of the contentions of various researchers.

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response. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/tackling-the-mental-hea lth-impact-of-the-covid-19-crisis-an-integrated-whole-of-society-response-0ccafa0b/ O’Toole, C., & Simovska, V. (2022). Wellbeing and education: Connecting mind, body and world. In Wellbeing and schooling: Cross cultural and cross disciplinary perspectives (pp. 21–33). Springer. Owens, R. L., & Waters, L. (2020). What does positive psychology tell us about early intervention and prevention with children and adolescents? A review of positive psychological interventions with young people. Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(5), 588–597. Ozdamli, F., & Karagozlu, D. (2022). Online education during the pandemic: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 17(16), 167–193. https:// doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v17i16.32287 Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press. Reupert, A., Greenfeld, D., May, F., Berger, E., Morris, Z. A., Allen, K. A., Summers, D., & Wurf, G. (2022). COVID-19 and Australian school psychology: Qualitative perspectives for enhancing future practice. School Psychology International, 43(3), 219–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/014 30343221091953 Roberts, P. (2022). Performativity, politics and education: From policy to philosophy. Brill. Roffey, S. (2016). Building a case for whole-child, whole-school wellbeing in challenging contexts. Educational & Child Psychology, 33(2), 30–42. Rusk, R. D., & Waters, L. E. (2013). Tracing the size, reach, impact, and breadth of positive psychology. Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(3), 207–221. Seligman, M. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and wellbeing. Simon and Schuster. Seligman, M. E., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). The president’s address. American Psychologist, 54, 559–562. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (Eds.). (2000). Positive psychology—An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 Viac, C., & Fraser, P. (2020). Teachers’ well-being: A framework for data collection and analysis (OECD Education Working Papers No. 213, OECD Publishing, Paris). https://doi.org/10.1787/ c36fc9d3-en, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/teachers-well-being_c36fc9d3-en Waters, L., & Loton, D. (2019). SEARCH: A meta-framework and review of the field of positive education. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 4, 1–46. Waters, L., & Loton, D. (2021). Tracing the growth, gaps, and characteristics in positive education science: A long-term, large-scale review of the field. Frontiers in Psychology, 5262. White, M. (2021). A decade of positive education and implications for initial teacher education: A narrative review. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 46(3), Article 5. http://doi.org/10. 14221/ajte.2021v46n3.5 White, M., Slemp, G., & Murray, A. (Eds.). (2017). Future directions in wellbeing: Education, organizations and policy. Springer International Publishing. White, M. A. (2020). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of character and wellbeing. In M. White & F. McCallum (Eds.), Critical perspectives on teaching, learning and leadership: Enhancing educational outcomes (pp. 165–187). Springer. White, M. A., & McCallum, F. (Eds.). (2021). Wellbeing and resilience education: COVID-19 and its impact on education. Routledge. White, M. A., & McCallum, F. (2020). Responding to teacher quality through an evidence-informed wellbeing framework for initial teacher education. In Teacher education in globalised times: Local responses in action (pp. 115–137). Springer. White, M. A., & McCallum, F. (2022). Transforming teaching. Springer. Williams, E. (2022). Introduction: The crisis in mental health and education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 56(1), 4–11.

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World Bank. (2022, January 26). Learning loss must be recovered to avoid long-term damage to children’s wellbeing and productivity, new report says. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ press-release/2022/01/26/learning-loss-must-be-recovered-to-avoid-long-term-damage-to-chi ldren-s-wellbeing-and-productivity-new-report-says Wyn, J., Cahill, H., Holdsworth, R., Rowling, L., & Carson, S. (2000). MindMatters, a wholeschool approach promoting mental health and wellbeing. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34(4), 594–601.

Associate Professor Mathew A. White, Ph.D., is Deputy Dean, International, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics at the University of Adelaide in Australia, where he is an Associate Professor and Deputy Head of the School of Education. Mathew has taught and researched curriculum, pedagogy, wellbeing education, and teacher education. He has supervised higher-degree research students in these areas. Mathew previously served as Acting Deputy Dean, Learning and Teaching, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics and Interim Head of the School of Education at the University of Adelaide in 2020–21. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Oxford’s Department of Education in 2022. He is also a principal fellow at the University of Melbourne’s Melbourne Graduate School of Education. Mathew was awarded his Ph.D. in education from the University of Adelaide, Australia, in 2004. Mathew has researched curriculum and pedagogy, wellbeing, and teacher education; he is the author, co-author and co-editor of seven books and over 54 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters on wellbeing and education, including Integrating Wellbeing and Learning in Schools: Evidenceinformed Approaches for Leaders and Teachers (in-press), Transforming Teaching: Wellbeing and Professional Practise (2022, with Faye McCallum), Wellbeing and Resilience Education COVID-19 and Its Impact on Education (2021, with Faye McCallum), Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, and Leadership: Enhancing Educational Outcomes (2020, with Faye McCallum), Future Directions in Wellbeing: Education, Organisations, and Policy (2017, with Gavin Slemp and Simon Murray), Theology Encountering Positive Psychology (2017, with Gillies Ambler, Matthew Anstey, and Theo McCall), and Evidence-Based Approaches in Positive Education: Implementing a Strategic Framework for Wellbeing in Schools (2015, with Simon Murray). He was appointed Fellow in 2021 after serving as President of the Education Division of the International Positive Psychology Association (2019–2022). Mathew has received international and national education leadership awards. In 2022, he was highly commended in the Stephen Cole the Elder Awards for Excellence, the University of Adelaide’s most prestigious awards for learning and teaching. Mathew was an award-winning secondary school English and French teacher for 20 years before joining academia in 2018. He also has a decade of senior leadership experience in schools.

Part I

New Priorities for Student Wellbeing

Chapter 2

Students’ Quality of Life, Resources, and Promotion Clément Métais , Marie Oger , Guillaume Broc , Stéphanie Vouteau Douet , Anita Müller , Fleur Le Roux , and Charles Martin-Krumm

2.1 Introduction Two decades of research show that the psychological ill-health of adolescents should be a concern of high importance as many of them around the world are reporting high rates of mental illness (Moghaddam et al., 2016; Patel et al., 2007; Polanczyk et al., 2015). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017), such psychological problems represent 16% of the global ill-health burden of children and adolescents (10–19 years), with depression and suicide representing some of the leading causes of disability and death among teens (15–19 years; WHO, 2022). In fact, as if it was not enough for teenagers to experience considerable levels of mild stress and anxiety as a consequence of day-to-day adversity and the challenges unique to adolescence (Klimstra et al., 2010), researchers, for example, have found that 11% of the adolescents and young adults (aged 16–24) in the United Kingdom (UK) suffer from a major depressive disorder (Green et al., 2005), while half of C. Métais (B) · M. Oger APEMAC EA 4360, University of Lorraine, Metz, France e-mail: [email protected] S. V. Douet Department of Educational Sciences, West Catholic University, Nantes, France A. Müller Laboratoire de Psychologie de l’École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, Paris, France F. Le Roux École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, Paris, France G. Broc Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, University of Montpellier, EPSYLON EA, France e-mail: [email protected] C. Martin-Krumm Institut Catholique de Paris École de Psychologues, Paris, France © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_2

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the teens (aged 13–18) from a large scale survey (i.e., 10,000+ teens) in the United States of America (USA) reported disorders, with anxiety being the most common one, followed by behavior, mood, and substance use (Kessler et al., 2012; Merikangas et al., 2010). Alarmingly, such issues have also been observed in many other countries and cultures, so that high suicide rates in this age group, teenagers getting concerned about their mental ill-health, posttraumatic stress disorder cases (PTSD) and the multiplicity of mental health problems have respectively been reported in France, Australia, Palestine and several Scandinavian countries (Bremberg, 2015; Observatoire National du Suicide, 2018; Shaheen & Oppenheim, 2016; Volanen et al., 2015). In addition, the advent of the COVID-19 global pandemic has had a further negative impact on the physical and mental health of our youth and makes this topic even more important. In 2020 and in 2021 many teenagers across the globe have faced quarantine situations, school closures, lack of physical and outdoor activities, disrupted sleeping habits, social isolation from the peer group, lack of faith in their future, increase in substance use (i.e., tobacco, alcohol, cannabis), and so on (Ghosh et al., 2020; Rolland et al., 2020; Xiang et al., 2020). These challenges have resulted in distress, boredom, impatience, frustration and heightened levels of anxiety, depression and PTSD in adolescents (Ghosh et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2020; Marques de Miranda et al., 2020; Michaud et al., 2021; Xiang et al., 2020). Moreover, several topical issues such as climate change also raise serious concerns within the general population and perhaps spark a form of anxiety and a feeling of vulnerability among young people (Hickman et al., 2021). For 75% of adolescents and young adults (16–25 years old), the future, in regard to the climate and to ecosystems’ health, is frightening (Hurley et al., 2022). What can be called eco-anxiety, or solastalgia (Albrecht, 2005), is in fact growing very rapidly and it is taking a whole generation to an era in which individuals experience uncertainty and fear for their future. This awareness of the negative effects of climate change on the planet and on all forms of life leads to affective reactions and has mental health consequences like depression, anxiety and extreme emotions such as sadness, anger and fear (Léger-Goodes et al., 2022). In light of such worrying observations testifying that adolescence is a life stage where young people struggle and, given that distress at this stage can even spark mental illness in the adult years (De Girolamo et al., 2012; Kim-Cohen et al., 2003), Seligman1 ’s questioning becomes even more compelling: What do we want for our youths? For our children? What do parents want? Usually answers do not overlap much with what school teaches—e.g., success, math, literacy, work—and rather revolve around what most of us value as fundamental like happiness, love, fulfillment, health (Seligman, 2012). Yet with their potential for wide-scale impact on the mental health prevention of teenagers (Challen et al., 2014; Dray et al., 2017a; Stallard & Buck, 2013; Ungar et al., 2014), schools can represent ideal places to embed interventions that foster 1

Co-founder of positive psychology in the late 90s/early 2000s (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

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positive mental health on an individual level by teaching the cognitive skills that will assist students to navigate adversity (Métais et al., Submitted) and on a more systemic level where schools can create environments and situations that strengthen its community members (e.g. a school culture that provides safety, creates a sense of belonging for its community, celebrates failure, offers ongoing situations that call for students to adapt positively to threats and to change, etc.). Lastly, schools have also been identified by several authors and agencies as key institutions to help young people build their resilience and cope with the COVID-19 global pandemic (e.g., Capurso et al., 2020; Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, 2020; World Health Organization, 2020). This chapter will explore and try to clarify what we know about students’ quality of life and what demands or which adversity could potentially lead some of them to burnout and poor mental health and/or motivation. Yet this chapter will also explore what resources schools and school environments may offer to students and to school communities. Programs and designs for implementing such positive assets will finally be discussed.

2.2 What Do We Know About Students’ Quality of Life at School? 2.2.1 How Do Students Feel at School? Somehow mirroring the more general outside world, schools happen to fall into the category of environments where students’ quality of life can be altered. A case study based on individual interviews involving high school students investigated this alteration—or perhaps this potential deterioration of their quality of life—and provided concrete evidence (Oger, 2021). The aim of the study was to explore the feelings of students and the perception of their own functioning within the school environment. Various comments revealed that some of them were suffering and, against all expectations, that these students were not necessarily those with the worst academic results but sometimes those showing top tier results. Elements related to stress, fatigue and workload emerged strongly from these qualitative enquiries. Here are some verbatim from the students: Olympe, 16 years old, excellent student in 11th grade: “Well, at night, I don’t sleep, I’m… panicked when I arrive here (at school), um… I have anxiety attacks, um… I can’t breathe, [silence] I cry [silence] and… it even goes as far as vomiting… When I have to do my homework, I panic a lot. My nose is bleeding, I’m losing concentration, I’m losing time. Well, I’ve… I’ve always stressed about grades, about homework, but this is the first time I’ve been so stressed. For me, it’s complicated to express my uneasiness.

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Charlotte, 16 years old, in 10th grade: “Well, I’m very tired […] um, tiredness, yes, I experience it. I experience it so much at times that my eyes tend to get painful […] and this tiredness even translates into being fed up, fed up with school.” Justine, 17, 11th grade in a vocational school: “It’s heavy, perhaps unbearable a bit. And even if school contributes to my wellbeing, it also contributes to my stress and my anxieties. And I would say that since I’ve been here, high school, in general, in the most global way, leans more towards the negative than the positive. The figure below summarizes the students’ comments by extracting the words (spoken during the interviews) with the highest occurrence (see Fig. 2.1). Designed upon a lexicometric analysis with the IRAMUTE Q software, the figure shows how the demands that schools can often induce manifest amongst the eight students expressing low perceived quality of life at school. Stress, difficulty of obtaining the grades needed to enter the next grade or higher education, and workload were the most important issues. Additionally, quality of sleep was also widely mentioned. Yet such observations not only emerge from the case study presented in this section, the suffering of young people at school is a real struggle in many school systems and it has been the subject of several studies in which the problems of

Fig. 2.1 Word cloud illustrating how school demands manifest for the uneased students

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school stress (e.g., Esparbès-Pistre et al., 2015; Zakari et al., 2011) and even school burnout (e.g., Broc et al., 2020; Meylan et al., 2015; Oger et al., 2020; Oller-Perret & Walburg, 2018) were discussed and recognized.

2.2.2 Analysis of the Quality of Life of Students with an Innovative Approach How can we explain these problems of unease, or perhaps ill-being, among young people in schools? What are the leading factors and the processes involved? To answer these questions, we have focused our research on the quality of life of students, but we have chosen to observe it from a particular angle, that of the “Job DemandsResources” model (JD-R) developed by Demerouti et al. (2001). This explanatory model of stress, borrowed from the organizational field, is an innovative and original approach to such analysis that makes it possible to explain the problems of stress and burnout among students. In fact, the school environment, alike the work environment for adults, has its share of demands such as the pace of classes, the workload (i.e., each teacher giving homework or lessons to learn in his or her own subject), the pressure associated to the various assessments or that put on by teachers and parents, or even by the students on themselves, or also the potential relational tension between students. Yet the school environment also offers resources such as support and guidance from teachers, an even distribution and planning of homework during the week, and quite often the mutual help between young people. These resources and demands are perceived and experienced differently by each student. All in all, the balance between the resources and demands, or constraints, perceived by young people in their school environment, coupled with their personal resources (e.g., sense of personal effectiveness), influences greatly their quality of life, which in turn influences their psychological and behavioral functioning (Oger et al., 2022b, 2022c; Salmela-Aro & Upadyaya, 2014). Based upon the JD-R model, the study conducted aimed to test the twodimensional, demands/resources model. The main objective was to assess the extent to which demands and resources are predictors of both quality of life and student engagement (Oger et al., 2022a). Beforehand, the JD-R scale was adapted to the French culture and the French school environment. It was named EMERE (i.e., in French: Échelle de Mesures des Exigences et des Ressources à l’École) (Oger et al., 2022b). Then, the study was scheduled over the duration of the first term of the 2019– 2020 school year (from the end of September to the beginning of December, a period known to be busy and quite intense for students) and broken down into three measure times during which various scales were administered to the 470 volunteer students aged 12–23 years (139 girls and 331 boys, M age = 15.7 years, SD = 2.12). At T1, at the beginning of the school year and when students are physically and mentally fresh (as they are coming out of the summer holidays), the EMERE scale and the scale measuring Self-Efficacy (i.e., French scale: Sentiment d’Efficacité Personnelle,

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Masson & Fenouillet, 2013) were administered. These scales allow to evaluate the level of resources and demands perceived by the students at school and also to assess how they perceive their ability to organize and to carry out a series of actions in order to succeed in a task. At T2, at the end of the teaching phases and beginning of the revision stage, the Burnout Measure Scale from Isoard-Gautheur et al. (2010) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students (UWES-3) (Schaufeli et al., 2019) in its version adapted to the school environment (UWES-S) were administered. The three components of burnout (physical and/or emotional exhaustion, self-esteem and sense of accomplishment) as well as engagement in school work were measured via a global score. Finally, school wellbeing and negative coping were measured at T3, just before the Christmas holidays, a busy time during which school fatigue may hit many students (they have to undergo several table-top exams and many teachers need grades for the report card). These measures were carried out using the French version of the multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (Fenouillet et al., 2015) and using as well a tool which was developed in order for us to evaluate how students adapt or not to the school environment in terms of school results, attendance at the infirmary, absenteeism in class and school-related stress (Oger et al., 2022a). The data processed by structural equation modeling reveal that the quality of students’ adjustment (i.e., engagement or exhaustion) depends on the balance between the demands and the resources they perceive from their environment and their own resources (see Fig. 2.2). It also plays a key role in their wellbeing, either by altering it (i.e., absenteeism, visits to the infirmary) or, on the contrary, by promoting or reinforcing it (i.e., satisfaction, commitment).

Fig. 2.2 Analysis of predictive paths between variables of interest (Oger et al., 2022a)

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2.2.3 Identification of Students’ Profiles: A Helpful Model in Order to Analyze What They Perceive Yet not all students experience and perceive the same things. What differences can then be observed? In order to understand and explain the differences in levels of perceived personal resources but also in the resources and demands perceived in the school environment by the students, a cross-sectional study was conducted (Oger et al., 2022c). The main objective was to develop and isolate profiles of learners with respect to the JD-R model and in a second time to test their influence on students’ motivation and on the perception of their health. Four hundred and sixtyeight students aged 12–23 years (139 girls and 329 boys, M age = 15.7 years, SD = 2.12) agreed to participate in the study. They were from middle schools (grades 7–9), high schools (grades 10–12), or first year universities, from private and public schools in the same regional education authority. They completed several scales at the end of the first term (a very busy period for school examinations) and their overall averages obtained during that term were collected (i.e., Grade Point Average; GPA). First, the data were processed in a latent class analysis methodology using MPlus software. The table below shows the results of this latent class analysis through which three profiles were identified (see Table 2.1) based on four variables: Life satisfaction, selfefficacy (advocating for perceived personal resources) and resources and demands perceived in the school environment. We observed 40 “vulnerable” subjects (i.e., low in resources, satisfaction and self-efficacy and high in demands), 217 “robust” subjects (i.e., high in resources, self-efficacy and satisfaction and low in demands) and 211 “ambitious” subjects (i.e., intermediate in resources and high in demands). Table 2.1 Descriptive data based on the three latent factors (Oger et al., 2022c) Variable

Latent profiles

Means

SD

SE

Life satisfaction

1

40

3.67

0.46

0.26

2

217

6.0

0.41

0.14

3

211

4.99

0.47

0.14

1

40

3.27

1.27

0.07

2

217

4.74

0.89

0.03

3

211

3.83

1.03

0.03

1

40

4.07

1.49

0.24

2

217

3.82

1.73

0.12

3

211

4.27

1.27

0.09

1

40

3.05

0.99

0.16

2

217

6.39

0.76

0.05

3

211

5.01

1.04

0.07

Self-efficacy

Demands

Resources

N

N = 468; profiles 1, 2, and 3 respectively “vulnerable”, “robust” and “ambitious”

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Then a series of anova’s were performed with SPSS 27.0.1.0. to test the effects of the profiles on motivation (i.e., product of engagement and GPA), on students’ perceived health (i.e., health variable, see Table 2.2), on infirmary visits, on an indicator comparing the perception of their health with that of others (i.e., health comp variable), on an indicator of the students’ satisfaction regarding their own health level (i.e., health satis variable) and finally on burnout. The table here below shows the effects of the profiles on these variables. The results showed that these profiles have a strong predictive power on motivation (i.e., engagement and GPA) and perceived health of the students (see Table 2.2), with the lower the indicators of perceived health, the better. In essence, the results reveal that for students in profile 1, “vulnerable”, the indicators of motivation (i.e., engagement and academic performance) and perceived health are low and burnout is high. For students in profile 2, “robust”, the indicators of motivation and perceived health are high, while the burnout scores are low. And for those in profile 3, “ambitious”, the indicators are intermediate. Thus the effects of these profiles reveal how important it is to take them into account because of the consequences they can have in terms of health and motivation. By doing so, teachers could adjust the classroom climate in which they place their students and they could as well consider primary prevention measures to face problems of low perceived health and burnout. Moreover, the results point to the needs to strengthen the resources present within the school environment but also those specific to the students, guaranteeing a better involvement and fostering their coping and more generally their adaptation skills. Table 2.2 Descriptive data on the means of the variables by profile (Oger et al., 2022c) F

p

partial-η2

3.40c

50.02

0.001

0.18

12.66a

14.22

0.001

0.06

1.42b

1.76c

26.31

0.001

0.10

1.27ab

1.06a

1.17b

5.53

0.01

0.02

Health comp

3.10a

1.94b

2.44c

25.19

0.001

0.10

Health satis

2.42a

1.52b

1.85c

26.80

0.001

0.10

Burnout

3.19a

2.20b

2.71c

56.68

0.001

0.20

Variable

Profile 1 N = 40

Profile 2 N = 217

Profile 3 N = 211

2.90a

4.82b

12.33a

13.61b

Health

2.18a

Infirmary

Engagement GPA

= 468; a , b , c

N indicates statistically different means. Each different letter represents a statistically different mean from the other Note For each variable the means with different indices indicate a significant difference using a Games-Howell test

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2.3 Psychological Resources that Can Be Enhanced and Skills that Can Be Taught in Order to Prevent Burnout, to Promote Quality of Life and to Develop Resilience 2.3.1 The Benefits of Teaching Non-technical Skills Non-technical skills cover teaching content that is not linked to a specific school subject, as would be the rules of grammar for a foreign language or theorems in mathematics. They are likely to be taught by each teacher and are supposed to enable the pupil to develop and overcome adversities in the school environment and throughout his or her life. It is therefore possible to find in it what concerns emotional regulation through the practice of mindfulness meditation or breathing exercises by means of cardiac coherence for example. It is also possible to consider the development of hope through support that allows the student to define the goals he or she wishes to achieve (e.g., in terms of educational orientation or the intended occupation), how to achieve them and what meaning they have. This covers the components of hope, goals, pathways and agency (Martin-Krumm et al., 2015). Beyond the framework of hope, the one allowed by explanatory styles is likely to allow teachers to take care of the quality of their feedback (Martin-Krumm, 2012). Indeed, in assessment modalities, it is quite possible for teachers not only to adjust feedback in terms of an optimistic worldview, but also to attribute student success to internal, stable, global and controllable causes and errors to internal, unstable, specific and controllable causes. Particular attention is paid to the fact that it is essential that the student perceives that he/she has control over his/her environment, which is why the causes invoked must remain internal and controllable, regardless of the situation. Beyond these examples, students need to be made aware of the benefits of physical activity for their quality of life, both during their school career and in managing their future physical life (Brady & Grenville-Cleave, 2017).

2.3.2 What Do We Know About School-Based Resilience Programs? Yates, Tyrell, and Masten see resilience as “the processes by which individuals achieve positive developmental outcomes despite exposure to known threats to adaptation” (2015, p. 773). Researchers advocate that resilience may be seen as a preventative resource diminishing the risks for adolescents to encounter depression or to suffer from other psychological problems and as a conducive resource promoting adaptative functioning and teen wellbeing during times of distress (Ungar, 2008; Yates et al., 2015).

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While early research into resilience conceptualized it is as an inborn gift (Anthony, 1974; Pines, 1975) or a fixed trait (Block & Block, 1980), contemporary researchers see resilience as a dynamic state that is shaped by the interaction of the individual with its environment. That is, the cognitive approach to resilience (i.e., a focus on how internal states and cognition shape one’s reaction to the environment), which shaped much of the research in the ‘70s–‘90s, has been expanded to a more ecological approach that recognizes external influences. Furthermore, as an illustration of the more recent thinking coming through resilience research, Métais et al. (2022) argue that resilience conceptualizations have progressively turned to transactional and constructivist influences which move beyond a subjective eye (i.e., the cognitive approach) to focus on the alchemy resulting from the interactions the individual experiences in a situation thus granting the full consideration of resilience with a more situational lens and as a function of the “individual in an environment and [more particularly] their agency” (p. 112). Viewing resilience as such a dynamic process that involves individual and situational factors makes it even more compelling that schools represent ideal institutions for disseminating mental-health-based interventions (e.g., school-based resilience programs) as they are able to provide a package that allows for individual and situational factors to be targeted. Three major assets to enhance and preserve teens’ mental health can be distinguished in schools (Dray et al., 2017a; Masten et al., 2008; McHale, 2015; Ungar et al., 2014). Firstly, they can provide a nurturing environment or a culture in which its community will feel safe and will develop a sense of belonging and inclusion. Secondly, schools can teach many non-technical skills that foster wellbeing and that are involved in the resilience process so that it may assist pupils “to navigate adversity” (e.g., stress appraisal, cognitive reframing, problem-solving skills, mindfulness, emotion acceptance, seeking help/drawing support, adjusting, setting goals, etc.) (Métais et al., 2022, Submitted, p. 2). Thirdly, schools can also provide ongoing situations that allow the pupils to put to test the methods they have learnt, the skills they have acquired and the nurturing environment from which they can draw support. Oral and writing tests, transitioning to higher grade levels, or going on school camps are threats and changes that can trigger stress and therefore call for the pupils to adjust positively (Dray et al., 2017a; Ungar et al., 2014). We can distinguish two broad sorts of school-based resilience programs: targeted programs and universal programs. Targeted programs are interventions focusing on youths that are considered at high risk of depression or unsuccessful transition into adulthood (Challen et al., 2014). Universal programs are rather focusing on the general population and are delivered in more mainstream contexts to youths not specifically considered being at-risk. They often address the more common internalizing problems (i.e., symptoms affecting the self; e.g., stress, anxiety) and externalizing problems (i.e., symptoms affecting others and manifesting externally; e.g., behavioral disorders, attention disorders) (Dray et al., 2017a; Stallard & Buck, 2013; Weisz et al., 2005). Yet as a second way to categorize resilience programs, there are those designed as stand-alone modules and those that follow a more whole-school approach. Stand-alone programs can be considered as ‘pre-set lessons’ disseminated in classroom sessions which pupils attend and pursue over the time period set by the

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program (Boniwell, 2011; Dray et al., 2017a; Stavrou & Kourkoutas, 2017) (e.g., a couple of classroom lessons per week over the course of one or more terms). Standalone programs use explicit lessons which “refer to the teaching of wellbeing [or resilience] in classes specifically designed for positive education” (Norrish, 2015, p. 36); these are dedicated classroom-setting sessions during which pupils will either discover theories and concepts (e.g., what is the whole range of existing emotions? Do I experience particular emotions sometimes? Can I accept them?), work on case studies (e.g., problem-solving cases, stress and situation appraisal, evaluating causes, setting goals) or interact through activities and role plays (e.g., what is the whole range of existing character strengths? What are my friends’ character strengths? What are mine?).

2.3.3 From School-Based Resilience Programs Towards Whole-School Approaches: Resilience, Wellbeing and Positive Education Embedded in All Levels and All Areas of the School Experience Whole-school resilience programs are wider in nature than stand-alone interventions. Adopting McHale’s (2015) viewpoint, whole-school programs can be referred to as “cohesive, collective and collaborative action in and by a school community that has been strategically constructed to improve student learning, behavior and wellbeing… All aspects of the school experience can have an effect on their pupils’ emotional wellbeing [or resilience], from the school ethos and environment to the curriculum and specific opportunities” (McHale, 2015, p. 4). Whole-school programs (or approaches) are typically whole-school or involve school-wide curricula (Pickworth, 2016; Ungar et al., 2014; Worsley, 2014). Where it could be said of standalone programs that they mainly adopt the individual approach to resilience in that pupils are taught about the role of their own thinking on resilience (e.g., refer to Penn Resiliency Program for an example), whole-school resilience programs that build opportunities for resilience through diverse experiences inside and outside the classroom adopt a situational understanding of resilience and reflect the modern and complex understandings of resilience as a dynamic and multi-systemic process of interactions between the adolescents internal traits and the external factors that influence a one’s ability to bounce back (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Masten, 2007, 2014; Stavrou & Kourkoutas, 2017; Wright et al., 2013). Essential principles of both stand-alone and whole-school programs partially stem from the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) movement, that aims to help pupils “understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions” (CASEL, 2019). Additionally, school-based resilience programs partly rely on the Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies (CBTs) based upon the ABC model (i.e., A = Activating event; B = Beliefs; C = Consequences) from Ellis (1957).

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CBTs help pupils to understand that their way of thinking and reflecting (thoughts), their emotional response (feelings and emotions), and their reaction (behavior) are highly linked and form a system of its own alchemy. More precisely, school-based resilience programs nowadays adopt the more nuanced theories from the third wave of CBTs’ (Hayes & Hofmann, 2017), which not only advocates for a reduction of ill-being symptoms but also fosters the development of positive mental health and positive behavioral habits (e.g., emotion acceptance, mindfulness, empowerment, development of creativity, building of adaptation skills) (Hayes, 2004; Hayes et al., 1999; Hayes & Hofmann, 2017; Métais et al., Submitted; Segal et al., 2004). Yet the difference that will always remain between both types of resilience programs is the fact stand-alone programs will mostly rely on SEL and CBTs principles to provide explicit ways of learning for the pupils (i.e., classroom dedicated lessons for a set period of time), whereas whole-school programs are larger in scope so that they will incorporate SEL and CBTs tenets to the whole school functioning, to the whole school culture and for its entire community. In this case, pupils will therefore be able to access more implicit ways of learning the skills of resilience and other positive education concepts; such concepts will surround them in their daily lives at school (Métais et al., Submitted). Some researchers emphasize such an approach to education and advise that in order to “unlock the potential of positive institutions” (White & Murray, 2015, p. 15), transformation must apply at a system’s level in addition to implementations of ready-made interventions solely providing pre-set lessons (Seligman et al., 2009; Waters, 2011, 2017; White & Murray, 2015).

2.4 The Positive School and How to Organize It 2.4.1 How to Approach Positive School Systems? No matter the field of action considered (society, health, education, etc.), a crosscutting procedure is applicable in order to deal with a given phenomenon: Diagnose, understand and act. The first two sections of this chapter were devoted to investigating and understanding students’ quality of life of life. The studies presented, along with their results, made it possible to spot some factors involved in the fluctuations of students’ quality of life. In response to these fluctuations and potential alterations in quality of life, a number of levers were identified in terms of increasing psychological resources and improving non-technical skills and resilience skills in particular. A means of action could now emerge: A positive and more global approach to school. The last part of this chapter will therefore be dedicated to field application: What methods should be used in school systems? What strategies should be put in place? What prerequisites are needed to implement positive education programs in order to positively influence students’ quality of life?

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Raising the question of improving students’ quality of life calls de facto for questioning school wellbeing, a relatively recent field of research that entered the international scientific scene at the beginning of the twentieth century, particularly in English-speaking countries and during the inter-war period (Kergoat et al., 2016). Investigated through numerous studies in the field of psychology as well as in sociology, economics, health and more recently in education, it is a dynamic and transversal research field. But whatever the disciplinary field, wellbeing remains a polysemous concept, which continues to give rise to heated debates and to a lack of consensus (Pollard & Lee, 2003) on how to operationalize the general sense of enjoyment and flourishing it designates, or on how to define the factors likely to influence it. The definitions and indicators considered are numerous (Ibid., ref), yet since one or two decades, advances in the field of positive psychology have brought light to a more comprehensive approach that integrates both the hedonic and eudaimonic philosophical traditions into a global theory of human wellbeing (Delle Fave et al., 2011).

2.4.2 A Three-Level Conceptualization The desire to act on the quality of life of students and, through it, to act on school wellbeing first requires asking the question of the level at which certain tools and levers should be activated. Without this, there is a risk of taking a truncated, reductive view on how to implement positive content into schools, which would limit the scope for action. Therefore we propose a three-level model: The macro level advocating for the whole school environment and school climate; the mezzo level standing for groups of individuals (i.e., teachers, school staff, students, etc.) and their quality of life; and the micro level with a focus on individual wellbeing. School climate, quality of life at school and wellbeing should therefore be considered from a systemic perspective (see Fig. 2.3), as fundamental elements of a complex and multidimensional organization. School climate—Macro level. In a report entitled ‘School climate: definition, effects and conditions for improvement’, Debarbieux et al. (2012) state that school climate has been the subject of systemic studies since the middle of the twentieth century and that these have increased significantly in recent years in many countries. The scientific literature on this topic is abundant, showing a research craze for this field. Rather than vainly attempting to define precisely what school climate is, let us first establish what it is not: A sum of individual states of wellbeing (Murat & Simonis-Sueur, 2015). Taking up Cohen and his colleagues’ model (2009), Debarbieux et al. (2012) base their approach to school climate upon five elements within schools: Relationships; Teaching and Learning; Safety; Physical Environment; and Sense of Belonging. In addition to these five dimensions, the authors state that three other factors can be added: Meaningful participation, response to risky behavior/behavioral problems, school attention to family life. Figure 2.4 here gives an overview of such design.

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Fig. 2.3 Systemic conceptualization of wellbeing at school Fig. 2.4 Macro level—school climate

Quality of life—Mezzo level. Quality of life is a broad concept, which goes beyond that of living conditions and refers to human flourishing, happiness, environmental health, life satisfaction and the general wellbeing of a society (Bacro, 2019). Although quality of life at school is more tangible and directly observable than school climate, its fine modeling still seems to be debated. However, certain features seem to be accepted and validated by the international scientific community: For most authors, quality of life at school is a construct of the student’s general quality of life that relates more specifically to his or her perceptions of his or her living conditions and satisfaction with the school context (Huebner, 1991; Randolph et al., 2009). It is

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Fig. 2.5 Mezzo level—quality of life at school

then measured by the level of wellbeing or satisfaction of students, by the positive and negative experiences they have in the daily activities of their school life (Bacro et al., 2013; Coudronnière & Mellier, 2016; Huebner et al., 2001; Malin & Linnakylä, 2001). Then, as shown in Fig. 2.5, although all parameters related to quality of life are important, school context for some authors seems to be one of the major dimensions of quality of life (Bacro et al., 2017; Coudronnière et al., 2015). Wellbeing at school—Micro level. For some years now, the world of education has placed particular emphasis on school success. On the contrary the results of international comparative surveys, such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA),2 are of course no stranger to the fact that school systems could additionally put emphasis on wellbeing and, through it, on the development of lifelong non-technical, wellbeing related skills (Bacro, 2019). Thus, the more traditional school systems (i.e., school functioning mainly focused on academic performance), such as the French schooling system, are now progressively turning towards more global and more human-oriented educational concerns that they had perhaps relatively neglected earlier, namely: The future of the individuals, their self-fulfillment, healthy social relations and quality of life (Gibbons & Silva, 2011). School wellbeing is therefore much more than just the students’ academic success and it rather largely incorporates human-functioning-related skills and factors. Figure 2.6 here below displays the main features involved in individual wellbeing at school. All in all, while school wellbeing is indeed to be considered at the level of the individual, it is clear that this perceived wellbeing cannot be disconnected from the interaction feature (i.e., relations with others and between groups of individuals at school) and the school environment feature, so that wellbeing and quality of life at school, must be considered in a systemic manner. Thus, opting for a threelevel conceptualization makes it possible not only to grasp full the systemicity and

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PISA 2015 Results: Students’ Wellbeing (Volume III).

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Fig. 2.6 Micro level—individual wellbeing

multidimensionality of the model, but also to highlight the numerous assets and ameliorative entry points induced at the macro, mezzo and micro levels.

2.4.3 The Future of PosEd: Recommendations for Implementing Positive Education Programs and for Aiming at More Positive School Systems A thematic review on school wellbeing performed by Ferrière et al. (2016) shows that research on general wellbeing is correlated with the expansion of the field of positive psychology since its advent at the end of the twentieth century thanks to the work of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000). The review also reveals that research related to wellbeing in a school context is experiencing a growing interest, which is also linked to the increase in ‘school life expectancy’, which was 16 years in France in 2013 and was 18.6 years in 2019 (Ferrière et al., 2016; Lombard, 2022). As the duration and quality of the school experience have an impact on adult life, it seems important today to take into account a form of ‘educational kindness’ or wellbeing at school (Ferrière et al., 2016). Moreover, alongside the three-level conceptualization of positive school systems—a conceptualization similar a whole-school approach to positive education programs (i.e., programs involving school-wide curricula where all aspects of the school can be used to foster wellbeing, Métais et al., Submitted; Pickworth, 2016; Ungar et al., 2014; Worsley, 2014)—several additional recommendations for schoolbased resilience programs could also be acknowledged: (1) Universal programs (i.e.,

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delivered on a large scale in mainstream contexts, addressing non-clinical symptoms) are efficient and can reach a majority of pupils (Boniwell, 2011; Dray et al., 2017b; McHale, 2015); (2) programs taught by actual school teachers can be more efficient (CASEL, 2019; Weissberg & O’Brien, 2004); (3) training and acceptance of those teachers are therefore quite crucial (Challen et al., 2014; Waters, 2014); (4) the earlier the intervention is disseminated to the pupils the better it is (Boniwell, 2011; Greenberg et al., 2003; Reivich & Gillham, 2005); (5) the content and teaching strategies of such programs should be evidence-based (Boniwell, 2011; Stavrou & Kourkoutas, 2017); (6) programs should keep a significant place for implicit teaching by offering to the pupils the opportunity to forge their skills through experiences and challenging events (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000; Masten et al., 2008; Norrish, 2015; Rutter, 2015). Yet not all schools and governments have either the sufficient resources to follow a whole-school approach or the organizational means to integrate all of the recommendations listed above. In this case, changes should be made step by step. In order to transform schools progressively, the right strategy could be first to suggest lighter implementations. Most importantly, it is the empowerment process that schools engage in through each of the measures taken at the level of the students, classes, teams and schools. More than the path taken, it is therefore the start-up that is important: Placing wellbeing at the heart of a school’s policy means creating the conditions for staff and students to find their way back to school with pleasure (Garcia & Veltcheff, 2016).

2.5 Conclusion First, this chapter has shown that students’ quality of life is of utmost importance nowadays. In fact many students around the world experience real struggles outside but also within school systems: Many of them suffer from stress, fatigue and heavy workloads. It was also noticed that students’ quality of life depends on the balance between the demands and the resources they perceive from their environment and their own resources, so that different profiles could then be highlighted (i.e., vulnerable, robust, ambitious). Second, this chapter has exposed that the development of non-technical skills (i.e., skills that concern emotional regulation and other psychosocial features), or resilience and wellbeing skills could bring a solution to such alteration of students’ quality of life. These skills, or perhaps these resources, could be approached as preventative resources diminishing the risks for adolescents to experience mental illness and as conducive resources promoting adaptative functioning and teen wellbeing. Third, a more global step for school systems was finally discussed in this chapter. Ideal solutions would see schools embrace positive education in a curricula-wide perspective, at all levels and in all areas of their core functioning. Ethics The studies mentioned in this chapter were approved by the University of Lorraine (France) and by the regional education authority of Angers (France).

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Waters, L. (2014). Balancing the curriculum: Teaching gratitude, hope and resilience. In H. Sykes (Ed.), A love of ideas (pp. 117–124). Future Leaders. Waters, L. (2017). Progressing positive education and creating visible well-being. In S. I. Donaldson & M. A. Warren (Eds.), Scientific advances in positive psychology (pp. 229–256). Praeger Publishing. Weissberg, R. P., & O’Brien, M. U. (2004). What works in school-based social and emotional learning programs for positive youth development. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203260093 Weisz, J. R., Sandler, I. N., Durlak, J. A., & Anton, B. S. (2005). Promoting and protecting youth mental health through evidence-based prevention and treatment. American Psychologist, 60(6), 628–648. White, M. A., & Murray, A. S. (2015). Building a positive institution. In M. A. White & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Evidence-based approaches in positive education: Implementing a strategic framework for well-being in schools (pp. 1–26). Springer Netherlands. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-0179667-5_1 World Health Organization. (2017). Global accelerated action for the health of adolescents (AAHA!): Guidance to support country implementation. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/ 255415/1/9789241512343-eng.pdf World Health Organization. (2020). Helping children cope with stress during the 2019 nCoV outbreak. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/helping-children-copewith-stress-print.pdf World Health Organization. (2022). Pocket book of primary health care for children and adolescents: Guidelines for health promotion, disease prevention and management from the newborn period to adolescence. WHO Regional Office for Europe. Worsley, L. (2014). Building resilience in three Australian high schools, using the resilience doughnut framework. In S. Prince-Embury & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), Resilience interventions for youth in diverse populations (pp. 217–257). Springer. Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In S. Goldstein & R. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 15–37). Springer. Xiang, M., Zhang, Z., & Kuwahara, K. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents’ lifestyle behavior larger than expected. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 63(4), 531–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.04.013 Yates, T. M., Tyrell, F. A., & Masten, A. S. (2015). Resilience theory and the practice of positive psychology from individuals to societies. In S. Joseph (Ed.), Positive psychology in practice: Promoting human flourishing in work, health, education, and everyday life (2nd ed., pp. 773–788). Wiley. http://adlab.ucr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Yates-Tyrell-Mas ten-2015-Published-Copy.pdf Zakari, S., Walburg, V., & Chabrol, H. (2011). Stress et sentiment d’épuisement scolaire chez des lycéens français. In D. Curchod-Ruedi, P. A. Doudin, L. Lafortune, & N. Lafranchise (Eds.), La santé psychosociale des élèves (pp. 47–64). Presses de l’Université du Québec.

Clément Métais, graduated from the Institut National Supérieur du Professorat et de l’Éducation in Strasbourg (France), Clément Métais is a doctoral student at the University of Lorraine in the APEMAC EA 4360 laboratory (Metz). Interested in Positive Psychology, Positive Education, and Outdoor Education, Clément’s current work focuses particularly on resilience and its application in school-based resilience programs. He is particularly interested in whole-school approaches and fully embedded programs such as the Positive Education program set by Geelong Grammar School. Clément worked for a year on the Timbertop wildly nestled campus (Australia, VIC), where the trail running and hiking programs offer the school community an environment conducive to developing resilience. This campus is an extension of Geelong Grammar School, a school that received Martin Seligman’s expertise in 2008 and is now considered a pioneer in

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Positive Education. Yet Clément also worked during two seasons as a professional touring guide in Iceland, where he would take groups on trips around Iceland (i.e., driving four-wheel drives, hiking, being in charge of the camp and food logistics, etc). His love for sports, nature, and going out into nature is, therefore, quite strong in him, so such experiences should always be incorporated into the school experience and school programs. Marie Oger, Ph.D., from APEMAC, University of Lorraine obtained her Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching in Private Education in 2004. Since then, she has taught high school students physical and sports education. Besides she defended her thesis in health psychology in November 2021. She was a member of the APEMAC EA 4360 laboratory in Metz (France). She is now qualified as a lecturer in psychology and science and techniques of physical and sports activities. Her research focuses on the quality of life and wellbeing of students in secondary schools. More particularly, she has transposed Demerouti and Bakker’s (2001) work demands-resources model, originally applied to the field of work psychology, to the teaching environment. She has integrated a variety of cognitive (e.g., self-efficacy, achievement expectations, burnout, academic performance), affective (e.g. emotions), and behavioural (e.g., attendance at the infirmary, absenteeism) variables into her model to understand the processes involved and to propose interventions for students and training for teachers. She published five peer-reviewed papers (four as first author) presenting her thesis work and seven book chapters (three as first author). She is also interested in positive psychology and has participated in several national and international conferences to present her work in oral presentations. Guillaume Broc is a Psychologist and Assistant Professor in Health Psychology. He has expertise in complex program planning to improve both the diagnosis pathway and comprehensive care of patients living with a chronic disease (with a specific focus on endometriosis, chronic pain and cancer). He conducts collaborative research involving patients and stakeholders whose main objective is to model the process of psychological adaptation to stressors to come up with practical recommendations. Guillaume Broc is also a specialist in Psychometry (development, adaptation and validation of psychological measurement tools) and Psychostatistics (notably, he co-authored a book on Structural Equation Modeling using R software) and Qualitative and Mixed Methods. Stéphanie Vouteau Douet from West Catholic University, Department of Educational Sciences, Nantes, France, has been a certified secondary school teacher for over 20 years. Trained in the diagnosis, understanding and support of parental burnout by the Training Institute for parental burnout, her areas of research and intervention are the development of psychosocial skills in schools and their impact on the school climate and wellbeing of students. In 2018 she graduated with a master’s degree in Teaching, Education, and Training with an option in Adaptation to Disability Situations. Since then, she has conducted a research project entitled «From unease to the wellbeing of students with special educational needs: Positive Discipline as a vector of school wellbeing». This research started with several observations: The feeling of unease shown by some students with special needs when schooled in a familiar environment and the disarray of their families—as of their teachers—faced with this situation. Despite the diversity of the students’ profiles, programs teaching life skills and non-technical skills seem to be promising, in particular, Positive Discipline (PD) skills. A case study then explored how a program targeting psychosocial skills, like positive discipline, can improve those students’ wellbeing in school and boost their selfesteem. Since 2020, Stéphanie has been a lecturer at the West Catholic University in the Department of Educational Sciences. She teaches in the second and third year of her degree program in Angers and Nantes. She is also the pedagogical manager of a teacher training organisation and has been a teacher trainer since 2019. Anita Müller from the Laboratoire de Psychologie de l’École de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris, France is a clinical psychologist. She graduated with a Master’s degree from École de

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Psychologues Praticiens Paris in 2022. She is now a doctoral student in health psychology at Université Paris Cité. Her main topics of interest are existential-, positive- and health psychology. During her master’s degree, she was a research assistant at the laboratory of the École de Psychologues Praticiens. This led her to work on topics related to positive- and educational psychology, so she collaborated with Marie Oger on two papers for her thesis project. Anita’s research work focuses mainly on psycho-oncology-related topics. More precisely, her thesis subject is “Fear of cancer recurrence in ocular melanoma patients”. Part of this work will develop psychosocial e-health interventions to enhance patients’ overall quality of life. Besides, Anita is working on e-health interventions and patient-reported outcomes in the field of oncology for “Evaluation Software Development” (ESD) in Innsbruck, Austria. Her research work aligns perfectly with her clinical practice. She namely specialized in clinical psycho-oncology and worked as an intern in various cancer treatment facilities in France (Montpellier Cancer Institute, François Baclesse Comprehensive Cancer Center in Caen, Curie Institute in Paris) and Belgium (Jules Bordet Institute, Brussels). Fleur Le Roux is currently a fifth-year student at the École des Psychologues Praticiens in Paris. She first studied mathematics at the University of Strasbourg and graduated in 2015. She then worked for two years with adults suffering from mental disabilities. She has been studying psychology since 2018 and joined the research laboratory of the École des Psychologues Praticiens in Paris the following year, which allowed her to work on two papers in the field of educational psychology with Anita Müller and Marie Oger. Her main interests are social psychology, educational psychology, and the therapeutic implications of mindfulness and sleep disorders. More precisely, she is currently working on the interaction between mindfulness and sleep disorders in subjects experiencing post-traumatic stress. Professor Charles Martin-Krumm, Ph.D., from the Ecole de Psychologues Praticiens de Paris de l’Institut Catholique de Paris began his research on explanatory styles and interactions with resilience and motivation in school environments. He then extended his work on resources to hope, humour, inspiration, emotions, mindfulness, passion, and the effects on the quality of life in general, health, educational, organisational, volunteering, or sports environments. His work has resulted in more than a hundred publications. It has led him to give papers at all the international events in the field of Positive Psychology, from Winchester in 2002 to the present day. He is also developing research projects on the effects of physical activity on health in patients with cancer, type 2 diabetes or working in a confined environment. He directs the research laboratory of his school, has implemented courses in positive psychology and has published several significant works in French, academic works (4; 2011, 2013, 2019 and 2021), others of popularisation (3; 2015, 2018 and 2021). He has developed collaborations with some of the best international researchers in the field. He is IPPA Fellow.

Chapter 3

Fostering Students’ Belonging Through Appreciative Advising Carlos Gustavo Castro , Mario Toledo , and Alberto Pérez-Arroyo

3.1 Introduction While completing his Ph.D. program at Case Western Reserve University in 1980, Dr. David Cooperrider decided to help Al Jensen with his dissertation on physician leadership at the Cleveland Clinic, asking physician leaders about their biggest success and failure stories. Since the beginning, Cooperrider was more interested in the successful career episodes that had led physicians to contribute to Cleveland Clinic becoming one of the best tertiary care centers in the Western Hemisphere. In his own words, he recalls being “amazed by the level of positive cooperation, innovation, and egalitarian governance at the clinic” from the experiences reported by respondents (Cooperrider et al., 2008).

3.2 Appreciative Inquiry: Fundamentals for Appreciative Advising Such findings triggered Cooperrider’s interest in the key successful features and igniting elements that made those stories of achievement so special, and more importantly, brought the clinic’s environment to a very effective system where people were “alive, committed, and empowered” (Cooperrider, 1985). Notably, these findings did not imply there were no failures, breakdowns, or disappointments within that work setting. However, none of these interested Cooperrider because he was pursuing hints

C. G. Castro (B) · M. Toledo · A. Pérez-Arroyo Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México e-mail: [email protected] Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, México © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_3

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of data signaling or pointing toward a brand-new theoretical conception of organizational research: there were positive features distinctive and likely common to all these success stories. All the elements that defined the best leadership stories gave birth to a new approach to information gathering or data collection regarding the distinctive positive aspects that any given organization might have, without even necessarily knowing it. It further bore a new dimension of research focusing on appreciating the positive (including organizational climate, wellbeing, future perspective, etc.) rather than negative features, as seen in more traditional problem-solving-oriented methods. This qualitative research technique was later expanded into different steps and a coherent rationale conceived as appreciative inquiry (AI), as referred by Cooperrider and many colleagues and researchers around the world. The AI model has two characteristics that define its name: “appreciative,” which means appreciation, to appreciate, to value. It means recognizing the best in people and in the world, and affirming the strengths, successes, and potentialities from the past and present. The second feature is the element of questioning: “inquire,” which means search. It refers to the act of exploring, discovering, asking questions, and being open to new possibilities and potentialities (Cooperrider & Subirana, 2013). AI comes from an inquiry procedure built on affirmation and appreciation that relies on four fundamentals: (1) people individually and collectively have unique gifts and skills, (2) organizations are human systems, (3) the images of the future guide our individual and collective actions, and (4) people can shift their attention and action away from problem analysis to lift up worthy ideals and productive possibilities for the future (Whitney & Trosten-Bloom, 2010). One of the primary strategies for using AI is through the 4-D model (see Fig. 3.1). This model suggests four phases of inquiry: discovery, dream, design, and delivery. The discovery phase is devoted to searching for stories about people’s peak experiences. In the dream phase, participants envision themselves and their organization functioning at their best; people think broadly and holistically about a desirable future. Based on these dreams, in the design phase, participants propose strategies, make decisions, and develop collaborations that support positive change. They develop provocative detailed visions based on what was discovered about past successes, oriented to its replicability. In the destiny phase, participants begin to implement both the newly discovered and re-discovered features and the design based on their overall visions of the dream.

3.3 What Is Appreciative Advising? Building on the AI model (Cooperrider, 1985), Bloom and Martin (2002) incorporated the AI principles into the academic advising process. Appreciative advising (AA) is a powerful tool for building rapport with students, discovering their strengths, unleashing their hopes and dreams, and devising plans to make them come true. Research in the US by the Global Community for Academic Advising—formerly

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Discovery “What is the best of what is?”

AppreciaƟng

DesƟny “How to empower, learn and adjust/improvise?”

Dream

AppreciaƟve Inquiry

Sustaining the Change

“What might be?”

Envisioning results

Design “What should be the ideal?”

CoconstrucƟng the Future

Fig. 3.1 Appreciative inquiry’s 4-D cycle. Source Adapted from Watkins and Mohr (2001)

known as the National Academic Advising Association (NACADA)—has shown positive effects on integrating these elements into successful programs aimed at probation students, students changing their majors, and students who have been readmitted to the institution. Prior studies have confirmed AA as a powerful framework for advisors to utilize to retain and mentor students (Cooney et al., 2016; Isreal, 2013). AA aims to identify personal strengths and sources of motivation to heighten individual potential. It is built on two premises. First, a student’s achievement peaks when institutional expectations align with their motivation and personal strengths. Second, academic advisors can help students identify their strengths and align them with institutional expectations through positive questioning (Hutson, 2006). Based on the AI 4-D cycle, there are six stages in AA: (1) disarm, (2) discovery, (3) dream, (4) design, (5) destiny, and (6) don’t settle. The disarm phase refers to building

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rapport with the student, earning their trust, and prompting a quality connection. The discovery stage involves inquiring and looking for student resources through positive, open-ended questions, requesting a narrative in which the student describes a successful experience. The advisor listens when the student reveals strengths and passions, asking questions that lead the student to describe them in detail. The dream phase is focused on learning about the student’s hopes and dreams. In the design phase, the advisor and student work together to align the student’s strengths and passions with a career path. The destiny phase considers that the student’s path often changes over time and often encounters unexpected roadblocks. Collaborating with the advisors, students will come up with creative solutions to impediments along their journey. Don’t settle means always keeping track of the student’s journey, revisiting their goals, and setting higher and challenging new goals once they achieve them. Ultimately, students become aware of their personal strengths and how they may be aligned with academic and personal plans (Bloom, 2007). Literature has shown positive outcomes on applying AA in higher education and with different populations over the past several years, including students who have been required to change majors, probation students, and readmitted students (Hutson, 2006). Also, Bloom et al. (2015) applied the six stages of AA to the college admissions cycle, to what Pulcini (2016) identified as a useful strategy in helping Appalachian women to degree completion. The combination of the appreciative admissions and advising models creates a strategy for new students that facilitates the development of co-created educational plans beginning at a pre-enrollment stage. Additionally, AA has been used to help international students to achieve success in American community colleges (Zhang, 2016). AA can also be a powerful tool to help academically discouraged students by generating insights into their strengths. One great example is the Student Academic Services (SAS) office at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro’s (UNCG) AA program. In this program, students on academic probation are reminded of their personal motivation for going to college and why family and teachers supported them to do so. It is an eight-week course that combines mandatory classroom attendance with regular meetings with the instructor. This program was implemented for students who are placed on probation after finishing their first semester. Results of this program showed that retention of first-time probation students improved by 18%. Additionally, the students who participated in the UNCG’s SAS 30 program showed a statistically significant increase in their GPA (p = 0.03) compared to students who did not take the program (p = 0.03) (Hutson, 2006). At UNCG, students who have been dismissed for academic reasons may appeal for readmission after one year. In a 2006 pilot, readmitted students were asked to voluntarily sign a contract with SAS committing to several AA sessions in which they identified personal strengths and interests, developed a personal academic recovery plan, and found sources of academic and personal support. By the end of the semester, Hutson (2006) found that 90% of the participants in the program were eligible to continue the next semester, and 58% earned term GPAs of more than 3.00-unit increments.

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Despite the evidence and variety of applications of AA in the US, there are few documented applications of it in foreign and developing countries such as Mexico. One clear example of an application of AA is Tecmilenio University.

3.4 Appreciative Advising in a Mexican University Tecmilenio University is a Mexican educational institution with the mission of helping students to find a purpose in life and develop the competencies to achieve it. Since 2012, Tecmilenio adopted a new educational approach built on fostering students’ wellbeing and developed their own wellbeing ecosystem (see Fig. 3.2) based on the PERMA model (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), which integrates the elements of positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, achievement, mindfulness, and physical health. These elements have been unified on all academic and administrative levels within the university, resulting in its recognition as the first positive university in the world (Seligman & Adler, 2018). Tecmilenio aims to positively impact the wellbeing of 100% of its community: today, more than 60,000 students and over 4000 collaborators and teachers. As a positive university, Tecmilenio understood the importance of integrating its mission and ecosystem with the students’ personal motivations and strengths; therefore, it selected AA as a strategy to do so. With the guidance of Dr. Jennifer Bloom and her team at UNCG, the academic department of Tecmilenio has created a mentoring program based upon the AA principles (Bloom & Martin, 2002). The purpose of this chapter is to present the adaptation of the AA model, sharing the key components of the Tecmilenio mentoring program.

3.5 The Tecmilenio Manual for Appreciative Advising and Mentoring The chapter will now show the steps to follow according to the manual and some descriptive comparisons of student retention between past years and the present time. Stating a Mission as Mentors in Tecmilenio An important first step in the mentoring process is to align the mentors with a mission statement. Being the closest figure to students and parents, the mentor’s mission statement in Tecmilenio is: “Helping students by enabling them to discover their life purpose and succeed during their stay at Tecmilenio University, while at the same time, cultivating their character strengths.”

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Fig. 3.2 Tecmilenio University’s ecosystem. Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

Appreciative Mentoring Consistent with the mission of being a positive university, the mentoring process is aligned to also promote positive psychology and positive education strategies. Under this premise, the mentors must ensure that through their actions, they can transform lives in a positive way. Mentors are constantly reminded about the importance of their role in the student’s career path. By consistently seeking to be better mentors, they inevitably and personally strive to be the best version of themselves, and in doing so, become positive life role models for students. To do so, mentors, as part of their training, start a journey of self-discovery that requires learning about their purpose and their own strengths. A way to do this is to assess their own character strengths. Every mentor at Tecmilenio takes the virtues in action (VIA) test to assess their character strengths. They also take a course on the fundamentals of positive psychology to learn about recognizing strengths in themselves and others. At the same time, this allows mentors to relate more effectively with students by using a common taxonomy of strengths. In this sense, mentors understand they cannot

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improve and achieve without learning from their students, which is why they must maintain a growth mentality and humility to allow them to acknowledge what they have learnt. Affirmations in Appreciative Mentoring The mentoring process has been defined in line with Bloom and Martin’s (2002) work; therefore, mentors must advise on defined premises based on some of the following appreciative affirmations: 1. Every student has the potential to be successful. 2. Each student has unique strengths. 3. Students can identify their strengths by exploring their experiences, present state, relationships, goals, and dreams. 4. In order to be successful, students must build on their strengths. 5. Not all students have clarity about their strengths. 6. Mentors enhance their educational experience and improve their self-awareness. 7. Interactions influence thoughts, viewpoints, and behaviors. 8. Mentors must be aware of how their perspectives, attitudes, and language affects the mentoring relationship. The Appreciative Mentoring Mindset Having the right mindset is key for professors, mentors, and tutors to earn trust and start developing positive relationships with students. Cultivating the following cognitions can help mentors develop a fully appreciative and positive mindset in the future: • I believe in the potential of my student. • I see the extraordinary in the ordinary. • “People who make a difference in your life are not those with the highest academic degrees, with the most money or with the most awards. They are the ones who care about you.” Steve Gilliland • I appreciate the opportunity to be a mentor. • I can improve my skills as a mentor • Mentoring has great power. • “People can forget what you did, what you said; but they will never forget, how you made them feel”. Maya Angelou • I take care of my students. • There are no two students alike/each student is unique. • I respect any culture. • I can always learn from my students. Imagine attending a school where no one believed in your strengths or emerging abilities. It is almost certain that you will eventually lose motivation and fail repeatedly and consistently before the end of your course programs. A mentor with an appreciative mindset can prevent this from happening.

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Keys to Appreciative Mentoring In addition to an appreciative mentoring mindset, mentors can use other key tools to reshape attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors. These tools will provide advantages in the process of building useful, positive, and goal-oriented appreciative mentoring. 1. Positive reinforcement: It is essential that when listening to our students’ stories, we can detect, point out and reinforce the positive behaviors that we hear in each narrative. Let us remember that there is a bias toward the negative aspects that consistently prevents us from detecting when we have done something positive. 2. Paralinguistic elements: As tutors or mentors, we must be fully aware of the impact our non-verbal communication has on interactions with students. Being careful with our voice tone and expressions is essential for communicating emotions. Remember that students are always watching, and a careless reaction on our part can put the mentoring process at risk. 3. Positive open questions: Through positive questions, we allow students to explore those stories that help us detect their strengths together. For example: (a) What’s the subject you enjoy the most? Why? (b) What person inspires you? Why? (c) What was the best moment of the day? What were you doing? Who were you with? (d) Tell me about a moment in your life when you felt confronted, when you even felt pressured by the scale of the challenge, but you were able to achieve it in the end. (e) Listening skills. Nothing is as effective in increasing the perception of trust in a student as listening to them effectively, so it is important to remember some aspects: (f) Listening validation: Paraphrasing what the student is telling helps us to verify that we are truly understanding, while they can appreciate that we are listening carefully. (g) Eye contact: Try to make it comfortable for both the student and yourself. (h) Observation: Be attentive to the reactions of the student. (i) Reflection: It is very important that each interaction reflect what for, rather than the how. For example, when we establish strategies for a student to improve their grades in a certain subject, is it clear why?

3.6 The Phases of Appreciative Mentoring Based upon the AA model created by Bloom (2007; Bloom & Martin, 2002), we have built a model (see Fig. 3.3) that allows us to start from the establishment of trust between the mentor and the student. This is done by disarming the barriers between them, to discovering who the student is through their own stories that will lead us to identify their strengths, to help them dreaming about their best version, to design and co-create a plan to achieve it, helping them to deliver it by keeping track of their

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Fig. 3.3 Phases of appreciative mentoring. Source Taken from the Appreciative Education team from The FAU College of Education: https://www.appreciativeadvising.net/

actions according to the plan, and constantly challenging them to reach higher goals according to their life purpose. Phase 1: Disarming or Establishing Rapport The disarm phase consists of the “initial creation of a safe, welcoming environment for students” (Bloom et al., 2008, p. 35). When creating a welcoming space, advisors should remember to look after similarities with their students, sharing personal experiences or even displaying personal artifacts that can be helpful to prompt deeper connections between one another (Bloom et al., 2008). While you were studying, do you remember the first time you met one of your teachers, counselors, or principals? It is likely that when you saw them before entering their office, you had doubts about who they were, why it was necessary to speak to them, if they would really be interested in helping you, etc. All this surely cleared up during the first few minutes of interaction, so you both could build trust for future interactions and avoid contact with that person due to a negative first impression. For this reason, we must give special importance to that first impression when we are about to meet our students. Such impressions not only occur when we meet a person for the first time but are also present every time, we start a conversation after not seeing each other for a while. The students do not have the context of how our day has gone, if we are going through a period of stress, sadness, or anger; for them, it is a space in which they seek to feel safe and hope to receive our guidance. Recognizing that we have the power to shape those first minutes of interaction will lead us to create an experience that lays the foundation of trust for the following conversations. Some elements to consider in generating a positive first impression: • Smile. • Be nice.

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• Stop what you are doing to make eye contact with the person. Looking into the eyes shows that you care. • Keep an appropriate tone of voice. • Greet the student by name. • Always be yourself. • Take care of your posture and non-verbal language. • Choose a workspace for the session that is suitable for the topic to be discussed. Where would you rather meet a person? In the cafeteria? Or in an office? • You may be going through a bad time or day, but the student does not know it. How would you like to be treated if you were the student? • Remember that the first three minutes of most interactions (as well as the last three) will stay as an important memory in the student’s recollection of events. • Remember that the first impression lasts forever. It is important that our students know our basic elements, enabling us to produce a high level of trust. Empathy is key to building trust: • When talking with your students, try to imagine for a moment that it is really you when you were their age. • How would you like the talk to be? What would you like to know about that person who will accompany you for a while? • How would you like me to treat you? How would you like me to refer to you (name, language,1 gender, etc.)? • Tell them about yourself: What are your strengths? What do you like? What have you fought for? What are the challenges you have overcome? What are your dreams today? What were you like when you were their age? Who accompanied you and acted as your guide? Why do you like being a mentor? What do you want to convey? In addition to the elements mentioned above, it is very important that you choose the best place to meet with your students, depending on the topic to be discussed. Is it just a quick follow-up on academic tasks? Does the session require the use of some materials (computer, questionnaires, screen, etc.)? Is it a personal or sensitive matter that requires discretion? Based on the topic, the mentor should choose the best environment to provide the student with a safe space and have a successful session. • On campus: – – – – – 1

student center tutoring space library cafeteria open space.

In Mexico, people can refer to each other with a different set of pronouns that implies either a more casual or a formal interaction.

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– Virtually: – via Skype or videoconferencing system – email. Note: It is important that during official sessions, you avoid the use of asynchronous messaging systems. All formal sessions must be synchronous. Open and public spaces are great for personal and quick follow-ups, help to bring down the barrier of formality, and encourage the students to form a better rapport. Close and private places are optimal for intimate issues; the student must feel safe to share personal and private matters without worrying if someone else is listening. Virtual tools are also powerful; for example, email can provide formality when it is needed (i.e., defining commitments, keeping record of progress, scheduling meetings, etc.). A suitable environment for the mentoring session implies having clarity and being well-prepared for the session, knowing beforehand what you will talk about with your student, and whether there were any follow-up commitments prior to the session. That is, be sure to arrive with all the necessary information so the student can interpret that you really care and dedicate time to it. Remember that a session with your student should be a dialogue and not a monologue. The application of the appreciative mentoring phases is not intended to be carried out as if they were a checklist or a pre-established script. In sessions, confidentiality and privacy are keys to establishing trust. So, you must clarify the issues that will be disclosed and the system you will use to report them; for instance, who will have access to that information or if it is necessary for you to discuss it with their parents or a generation leader. Phase 2: Discovery The discovery phase suggests exploring and discovering the relationships and patterns in the system that work well. It requires advisors to motivate students to tell their stories and teach them to recognize their own narratives as a basis for advancing their academic careers. They should focus on positive experiences, assets, and successes (Bloom, 2007) to create references for students to go to when cocreating their academic plan with them, and achieve continued success by encouraging the student to realize that through their work ethic and grit they can achieve big goals and advance in their career path. Can you imagine hiring a person who has 10 years of experience to carry out professional duties? Well, our students have at least 14 years of experience as human beings, so it is valid to ask them questions oriented toward sharing stories about such life experiences. From these stories, we can extract: • • • •

their achievements represented by academic, sports or cultural awards life lessons that go far beyond academics how they have coped with difficult times positive impact on the lives of their families, friends, or society.

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To encourage open dialogue between both parties, mentors must use openended questions that encourage students to evaluate past scenarios when they were successful and use them as a reference to establish pathways to future success. Positive questions should focus on finding strengths, likes, interests, passions, skills, achievements, and successes. Some examples of positive open questions are: • Could you share with me a moment when you felt very good in your math class? • Could you share with me a moment in your life when you positively influenced another person? • Who is the person you most admire? Why? What are their strengths? In what way(s) are you similar them? • How have you managed a challenge you thought you were incapable of solving? • What are some activities that, when you do them, the time just “flies by”? Remember to keep an effective listening behavior, establishing eye contact to allow them to feel you are giving your full attention. Uphold an appropriate tone and speed of speech, ensure your comments do not divert the conversation, do not interrupt the student, reaffirm the strengths you are detecting in their stories, and always reflect authenticity in your body language. On the other hand, one of the main concepts of appreciative listening (Read et al., 2017) worth mentioning separately is the power to “enjoy the silence.” Sometimes when we ask students questions, we can experience anxiety if the student takes too much time to answer, and we put words in their mouth when they are generating their thought process to give us a reply. We invite you to learn to enjoy the silence and give the student space when they need time to elaborate on any response. A simple way to carry out the discovery process is: 1. Invite the student to tell you a story. 2. Write down the strengths you detect in their story. You can also identify the sources of motivation or elements that specifically interest you. 3. Paraphrase the student mentioning the strengths you identified. Tell the student what you admire about them, or what you have learned from their stories to apply in your life. 4. Be sure to monitor that students face their challenges with the strengths you helped them identify. Phase 3: Dream and Projection In the dream phase, the mentor encourages the students to share their biggest, wildest dreams; they help them cultivate a positive vision of the future, which is the first step toward setting and reaching their goals. Dreams infused with hope can motivate the student to define the personal meaning of success (Bloom et al., 2008). Can you imagine appearing on the cover of a magazine 20 years from now? What magazine would it be? What would it say about you? These are some of the questions that can help us visualize the future. Considering that we have already been successful

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and then asking ourselves questions about what we did to achieve it is easier than taking the opposite approach, whereby students first visualize the short term and then imagine results in the long run. Sharing our dreams with someone else is not an easy task, especially if we are just getting to know each other, so the first two phases of the methodology help ensure that when we reach this phase, there is already a certain level of trust. At this stage, we must help our student visualize their future in a positive way. The time frame will depend on what we are trying to accomplish with the student. For instance: • If we are dealing with topics related to life purpose, imagining oneself 20 years from now can be a good frame of reference. • If we are helping the student make the most of a course they are failing, managing a time frame of six months may be more appropriate. • Remember again that active listening in their visualization process is key to this phase’s objectives. Respect for what the student is visualizing is essential for them to feel encouraged. It does not matter how crazy or unrealistic that dream may seem; it allows students to verbalize everything that is on their mind and helps guide them in having positive imagery and visualization of themselves. • A tool that can also be powerful in implementing this imagining exercise is that the student can also “take home” that vision, along with the strengths you collaboratively discovered in the previous phase. The process you can follow when reaching this phase is: 1. Ensure the student visualized the strengths derived from their story. 2. Help the student in the process of visualizing the future, for example: “Close your eyes. Now imagine that while you have your eyes closed, time rushes by and when you open them, 20 years have passed. In front of you, you find a magazine, and you are surprised because you are on the cover. Why have they given you the cover story? What does it say about you?” 3. Give students a blank sheet of paper to design their cover. 4. Help them with questions to clarify their visualizations. Who are they with? What strengths do they have? etc. “Close your eyes. Now imagine that while you have your eyes closed, time passes quickly, and when you open them, four months have passed. You are in the math classroom and your teacher is handing out the results of the group. It’s your turn, and you go to talk to the teacher. What do they tell you? What result did you get? What did you learn?” 5. Allow them to express their visualizations through drawings, a diagram, or any representation that they find functional and attractive. 6. Validate if they can identify the strengths they have in those visualizations.

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Phase 4: Design Dreaming is something wonderful, for it can take us to worlds that perhaps no one has imagined, but they are of little use if we do not establish a plan to reach them, or at least get closer to them. The development of such plans will allow students to make their own decisions that could bring them closer to their visualizations. By co-creating an educational plan with their mentors, students may view themselves as partners (Pulcini, 2016). This can represent a big step toward a student’s autonomy and independence. Thus, the mentor must avoid playing an authoritative role while co-creating the student’s academic plan. Role models who engage in students’ learning experiences are highly effective when they share the journey with their students instead of directing it (Belenky et al., 1986). After acquiring a clear understanding of the student’s vision for the future, the mentor uses an appreciative approach to collaborate with them to co-create a plan for accomplishing the outlined goals. In appreciative mentoring, we talk about the co-creation of a plan, since it is the only way the student actively participates in its creation. Still, at the same time, our participation and helping intentions are also clear. When the “expert” role takes over and we dictate the path students must follow, from beginning to end, to achieve their goals, it is most likely that they perceive it is our plan and not theirs. Conversely, if we dedicate ourselves to only listening to their plans, students will perceive them as solely their plans and assume we lack interest. Hence, co-creation is very powerful in connecting students with their mentors. The process you can follow for the cocreation of the plan is: 1. Ensure there is a clear idea of how students have achieved the dream they envisioned. 2. Help the student with “reverse” questions that help them identify how they could have achieved their dream. (a) What did you do to learn math? (b) What did you do to design the most efficient and non-polluting car? 3. Most of what they verbalize should be translated into goals that are consistent with the greatest objective (becoming what they dream). “If you were capable of dreaming it, you are capable of achieving it.” 4. Make sure the student sets SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound) goals for the short, medium, and long term. 5. The proposal of objectives must be carried out by students. 6. If a student is not setting an objective, we consider necessary, we can mention it as a question. For example, “What would happen if, in addition to what you mention, you attended math consultancies? Do you think it would help you achieve your goal?” 7. Verify that the degree of difficulty increases as the student acquires more skills (as in successive approximations). 8. Remember that as mentors, we can help broaden their vision, or find resources or strategies that help students achieve their goals (co-create).

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Some techniques that can help you in the co-creation process are: • Brainstorming: Brainstorm the student’s options to face a challenge or achieve a goal. Review the pros and cons of each option. • Decision-making: Allows students to investigate and reflect on their options. Advise them on possible crossroads or consequences that their decision may produce. Always keep in mind that it is the student who will live with the consequences of their decisions. • “Let’s make a toss” technique: This is very useful when the student has two or more alternatives and does not know which one to choose: • “So, you don’t know what decision to make, and you find yourself between two options. Let’s toss a coin in the air and what results, that’s what you will do”. • Usually at that point, students say, “No!”. This provides an excellent opportunity to understand their motivations. • Positive reinforcement: Making students feel they can make it is essential in the process. Remind them of the strengths they have developed already and that those will be there for them during the whole process. • Learner mindset: Place yourself in a learner position with a learning mindset, because if we only act as experts, we will be denying ourselves the opportunity to explore ideas students have, and we will immediately discard them. • Simple language: Try to use simple and understandable language for the student. • Remitting: Send students to people, institutions, or companies that, from your standpoint and experience, can help them with their objectives. • Throughout this process, it is important to make the student aware that they have the leading role in their own film, so unlike a victim, who considers everything that happens as the consequence of the circumstances, the protagonist: • accepts responsibility for their behaviors • knows they are the one in control (of their responses, at least) • recognizes themself as responsible for what happens to them. Phase 5: Delivery (Follow-up) After setting SMART goals with the support of their mentor, students prepare to execute the co-created plan during the design phase. The mentor must help students to keep energized and focused on achieving the goals they have articulated (Bloom et al., 2008). At this stage, letting the student know that we are aware, not only of their academic progress but also as a person, is very important, so comprehensive monitoring is essential. Whether we advise them to boost their performance in their classes or provide them with tools to discover their life purpose, they should always connect what they do with their personal growth. We strongly recommend upholding strict control of the goals your students have established so you can offer a comprehensive follow-up in a timely manner. Having the goals of your students scheduled in your Outlook, for example, will allow you to contact the students through a call, an email, a message, or in the hallway to simply ask them:

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How was the event you went to? How did counseling with your math teacher go? How is your mom after her surgery? What happened with the interview you were about to have? Have you started your English course already? Some tips to keep track are:

• Remember to keep your meeting schedule with student updates; it will be important for both of you. • Your notebook or notepad will be vital to follow up. • Stay tuned to news of your students’ achievements regarding their plans to reach their goals. • Keep in mind that the student will face many obstacles while moving forward and may not achieve all goals; however, encourage them, show them how it is possible to get ahead, and let them know that you care. • There are many ways to get to Rome, they say: • Setbacks are very valuable because they generate learning and can be interpreted as a motivation to keep going. • Remind your students they have acquired many tools at school and in their lives to achieve what they are looking for and, very importantly, they are not alone. • At the end of the follow-up, remember to recognize the small or great progress your student has made. This will increase their confidence and give them importance. Phase 6: Challenge Different from Bloom and Martin’s (2002) model, one of the adaptations made for Mexican students was shifting the “don’t settle” phase into the “challenge phase”. This change was done to better grasp Mexican students’ idiosyncrasies. When piloting the program, both students and mentors identified more with the concept of a challenge than settling. As this last concept has a negative connotation as an underachieving term, most preferred the notion of challenge. Additionally, the Tecmilenio population related the concept of a challenge with the notion of “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 2005), in that optimal experiences should confirm perfecting the balance between skills and challenges. To maintain students’ wellbeing, there must always be an awareness about this balance. Having too many challenges and few skills will make them anxious and having too many skills and few challenges will make them bored. Yet, if they continuously work in pushing challenges according to their skills, they will find a flow channel that prompts their wellbeing (see Fig. 3.4). Once our students have achieved any of their goals, it is our role to motivate them to go further. Under this idea of increasing skills and levels of challenge, the student might identify that the only thing we are looking for is to help them live with greater confidence and wellbeing. For this reason, you must be able to demand a little extra effort throughout each phase. Even though they can show good improvement, we should not fall into conformity. Students will establish their own level of commitment,

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Fig. 3.4 Flow channel

and our role is to lead them through their dreams and performance, so the limit is not static but keeps rising. At the same time, we must be carefully realistic because letting them set very high limits regarding their current state or skill level can discourage them from not achieving such unrealistic high goals. Create virtuous circles with the student, as this will allow both the mentoring relationship and the student’s life to enter a positive spiral.

3.7 The Appreciative Advising Inventory The appreciative advising inventory (AAI) is a tool available for academic advisors to support AA use (Hutson & He, 2019). It is an assessment based on the 40 developmental assets proposed by the Search Institute (He et al., 2010), which defined assets as the positive traits students need to be successful (Search Institute, 2003). These include traits like positive identity, positive values, support, commitment to learning, and constructive use of time. The AAI (Hutson & He, 2019) consists of 44 items grouped into two subscales: internal and external assets. The four concepts used to measure internal assets are commitment to learning, positive values, social competencies, and positive identity.

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The external assets are measured through support and connectedness, empowerment, boundaries and expectations, and constructive use of time. It uses a 5-point Likert scale with responses ranging from strongly disagree to disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. Also, as an additional resource for advisors, the AAI offers a list of follow-up questions. The AAI has proven to be an effective assessment to evaluate programs based on the six stages of AA (Bloom et al., 2008). Therefore, Tecmilenio has taken the task of validating a Mexican version of the AAI as part of the adaptation process. To do so, the research department from the Institute for Integral Wellbeing (IIWB) in Tecmilenio is collaborating with the mentoring department to develop an AAI version that is valid and reliable for Mexican students from Tecmilenio. As part of the adaptation process, we started by translating the 44 AAI items into Spanish, using a back translation technique. It requires the translation of items to Spanish and then back to English by independent experts and then comparing it with the original version, checking for a complete similarity. Items that do not translate back correctly should be revised and follow the same process over again. Once a correct translated version was ready, we conducted a series of cognitive interviews to check for cultural biases or alternative interpretations of the items. We conducted three focus groups in which three groups of five students were asked to take the AAI and rate the items in terms of how easy it was for them to answer the 44 items and what they thought each individual item was asking. All items except one were found to be appropriate for Mexican students. Students reported Item 1, “I am committed to being a lifelong learner,” as confusing due to the term “lifelong learner” being a novel, unknown concept for most of them, so we adapted the term in the final version: “I am committed to have a constant learning attitude”. At the time of publication, we are conducting a pilot test with Tecmilenio students to validate the latest version of the Mexican AAI to establish proper psychometric properties. The final goal of this validation is to have an appropriate tool, culturally adapted and psychometrically strong, to assess the effectiveness of the Tecmilenio appreciative mentoring program.

3.8 Preliminary Results: School Permanence Tecmilenio has established the six phases in a manualized mentoring process used to train professors, mentors, and tutors to help them with their work and interactions with the student community. Starting in 2016, these procedures have been set up as part of the university’s culture in a permanent revision and actualization process. Next, we present the percentage variations of school permanence in Tecmilenio between 2011 and 2022 (see Fig. 3.5). A sustained increase in the re-entry percentages was observed, rising from 71.1% at the beginning to 83.2% currently, with a slight drop in decimals from 2020 to the present. Notably, in addition to being a minimal negative variation, it reflects decreases that occurred in the most critical periods of the

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STUDENT PERMANENCE 100.0% 95.0% 90.0% 85.0% 80.0% 75.0%

81.9%

83.2% 83.3% 82.6%

83.4% 83.2%

2017

2018

2021

79.3% 75.4%

76.3% 76.8%

2013

2014

71.1% 71.7%

70.0% 65.0% 60.0% 55.0% 50.0% 2011

2012

2015

2016

2019

2020

2022

Fig. 3.5 Variations in student permanence

COVID-19 global pandemic; thus, numerous health and economic causes affected readmission. Naturally, the greatest advantage of this type of descriptive analysis is that it enables observation, in a standardized and synthetic measure, of the variations between past years and the present time.

3.9 Conclusions At Tecmilenio, we have the mission of using tools to strengthen the experience of our students living the seven elements of the university’s wellbeing ecosystem. However, making valid inferences remains a pending matter; we still must figure out relevant relations among variables, especially those related to positive interactions and the mentoring process with overall wellbeing indexes. The future direction points toward generating valid quantitative indicators of these pillars to measure the impact initiatives such as the one described in this chapter, have on our student community. The field of AA is still young, yet it has proven to provide powerful mechanisms for increasing student retention and achievement. The results of the UNCG studies indicate the great potential of AA principles. They can be imbued into first-year experience programs, student retention programs, early warning systems, and more. One of the biggest challenges we faced was not only the translation of the appreciative mentoring process but also the adaptation to the cultural context of our country. The challenge was to achieve the same appreciative effect reported in universities abroad

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but in the framework of our reality. With this goal in mind, we have translated all elements of the AAI following a translation-and-back-translation process, as well as item equivalence corroboration by applying the instrument in both English and Spanish to our bilingual students, who gave extensive feedback about each item. The Spanish version of the AAI is currently in data collection and the quantitative validation phase. Soon we will count on a reliable tool for setting in motion the discovery phase of AA and exploring relationships between it and students’ internal and external developmental resources. Further, our processes have been exposed and submitted to revision in international forums convened by the AAI, where we have shared our findings and insights on the application of this methodology in Mexico. This contribution to the field means that more Spanish-speaking communities will have access to this framework of reference, which has proven so impactful in student development through AA. Finally, it guides students to uncover and appreciate the strengths and passions they have brought to the institution. It is perhaps the best example of a fully student-centered approach. Acknowledgements We want to thank Tecmilenio University’s Chancellor Bruno Zepeda, the Academic Vice Chancellor Luis A. Gutiérrez, and the Director of the Institute of Integral Wellbeing Sciences (IIWB) Rosalinda Ballesteros, for their support in carrying out this work. Special thanks to both, all tutors, and professors in Tecmilenio, who’s actions and commitment are essential for this mentoring process to succeed and Associate Professor Mathew White and the University of Adelaide for the opportunity to present it among such relevant academic material as the presented throughout this book.

References Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind. Basic Books. Bloom, J. L. (2007). The impact of appreciative advising on student success. National Center for the First Year Experience E-Source for College Transitions Newsletter, 5, 4–7. Bloom, J. L., Flynn, D., & Edington, S. (2015). Appreciative admissions. Journal of Appreciative Education, 2(2), 16–23. http://libjournal.uncg.edu/jae/article/view/1074/735 Bloom, J. L., Hutson, B. L., & He, Y. (2008). The appreciative advising revolution. Stipes. Bloom, J. L., & Martin, N. A. (2002). Incorporating appreciate inquiry into academic advising. The Mentor: An Academic Advising Journal, 4(3). https://journals.psu.edu/mentor/article/view/ 61701 Cooney, M., Pernick, J., Rice, K., & Monago, E. (2016). Utilization of change theory to implement an appreciative advising model. Journal of Research, Assessment, and Practice in Higher Education, 1(1), 21–25. https://ecommons.udayton.edu/jraphe/vol1/iss1/8 Cooperrider, D. L. (1985). Appreciative inquiry in organizational life: Toward an applied science of social innovation. Case Western Reserve University. Cooperrider, D. L., & Subirana, M. (2013). Indagación apreciativa. Kairos. Cooperrider, D. L., Whitney, D., & Stavros, J. M. (2008). Appreciative inquiry handbook: For leaders of change. Angewandte Chemie International Edition (11). https://psycnet.apa.org/rec ord/2008-08051-000

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Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2005). Flow. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 598–608). Guilford Publications. https:// psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-08058-032 He, Y., Hutson, B. L., & Bloom, J. L. (2010). Appreciative team building in a learning organization: The story of a small group of thoughtful and committed advisors. National Academic Advising Association. Hutson, B. L. (2006). Monitoring for success: Implementing a proactive probation program for diverse, at-risk college students. University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Hutson, B. L., & He, Y. (2019). Appreciative advising inventory. Journal of College Orientation, Transition, and Retention, 19(1). http://doi.org/10.24926/jcotr.v19i1.2776 Isreal, A. L. (2013). Bridging the gap to increasing the number of black student into graduate school: An academic advising tool. Journal of Appreciative Education, 1(2), 19–23. http://libjournal. uncg.edu/jae/article/view/616 Pulcini, B. (2016). Appreciative advising to promote degree completion by Appalachian women. NACADA Journal, 36(2), 47–53. http://doi.org/10.12930/NACADA-15-016 Read, A., Hicks, J., & Christenbery, T. (2017). Appreciative advising in nursing education. Nurse Educator, 42(2), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNE.0000000000000304 Search Institute. (2003). Insights and evidence newsletter. http://www.searchinstitute.org/content/ what-are-developmental-assets Seligman, M., & Adler, A. (2018). Positive education. Global happiness policy report (pp. 52–73). Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 Watkins, J., & Mohr, B. (2001). Appreciative inquiry: Change at the speed of imagination. JosseyBass/Pfeiffer. Whitney, D., & Trosten-Bloom, A. (2010). The power of appreciative inquiry: A practical guide to positive change (2°). Berrett-Koehler Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.21433 Zhang, Y. L. (2016). Appreciative advising with international students in American community colleges. In International education at community colleges: Themes, practices, and case studies (pp. 93–109). Palgrave Macmillan. http://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53336-4_7/COVER

Dr. Carlos Gustavo Castro, Ph.D., studied for a bachelor’s degree at the Faculty of Psychology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM); he continued his studies at the doctoral level within the same institution until 2013. Dr. Castro’s doctoral thesis project won Mexico’s SEP-CoNaCyT 2008 Basic Science Call, which implied the administration and optimisation of public resources for the conception, design, and execution of research protocols. Dr. Castro has collaborated with international projects by obtaining a postdoctoral fellowship from the National Council for Science and Technology of Mexico (CoNaCyT) and funding from the National Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC) to carry out a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Calgary, AB. Dr. Castro’s work has focused mainly on disseminating science by publishing research articles in indexed journals and presenting scientific materials in specialised national and international forums within a framework of Evidence-Based Clinical Research. Dr. Castro has continued his professional work in clinical research and the academic field, teaching at the postgraduate level and private clinical practice. He currently holds the position of Research Director at the Institute of Integral Wellbeing Sciences in Tecmilenio University, Mexico. Mario Toledo is a research specialist at the Institute for Integral Wellbeing (IIWB) at Tecmilenio University. He has master’s degrees in social psychology, applications of positive psychology and organizational psychology. He worked for Tecnológico de Monterrey (Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education: ITESM) as a life and career advisor and as an academic tutor. At the IIWB he has focused on designing programs and bespoke solutions for educational institutions and organizations. As for today, his main research interest is measuring positive psychology practices’ effects on education, organizations, and communities. He has also studied museums as

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spaces oriented to generate wellbeing through the arts. He’s currently a member of the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA) positive and organizational division and the International Society for Quality-of-life Studies (ISQOLS). He is an author of articles in academic journals and book chapters. He has also presented his work on national and international forums like congresses and summits, always pursuing to share knowledge to help people improve their quality of life. Alberto Pérez-Arroyo from the Universidad Tecmilenio, in Monterrey, México he studied the career of Computer Systems Engineer at Tecnológico de Monterrey (Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education: ITESM) in Mexico. Upon graduation, he served as a software engineer and Operations Director at Grupo CAPSI and BIT Technologies. He is a founding professor of Universidad Tecmilenio (Tecmilenio University) Campus Toluca in 2005, was appointed Director of Professional Development of the same campus in 2011 and also served as Director of Marketing. He took the position of General Director of the Cuernavaca Campus in 2012. Since 2014 he has been the National Director of Mentoring for Tecmilenio University, where he has designed support programs for more than 40 thousand high school and university students. In 2013, he graduated from his Administration’s Master (MScA) with a Specialty in Marketing at Tecmilenio University and in 2018, he completed his Positive Leadership’s Master at the formerly Institute for Happiness and Wellbeing Sciences (currently IIWB) at Tecmilenio University too, where he also had the opportunity to get to direct the program. He has been able to apply his knowledge about Positive Psychology, Positive Leadership, and Positive Organisations by teaching certificates and courses and giving conferences for Human Resources groups such as AERI and companies such as Robert Bosch and BBVA, among many others. His life purpose is to apply his creativity, leadership, and perseverance to design strategies that will allow people to find their best selves and flourish together as a society.

Chapter 4

Understanding High School Students’ Perceptions of Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study Mathew A. White

4.1 Introduction The role of student voice in implementing education initiatives is a growing area of research (Anderson & Graham, 2016; Flynn & Haynes, 2021; Forshaw & Woods, 2022; Graham et al., 2016; Powell et al., 2018). Even after 20 years of wellbeing education, students’ perspectives are often overlooked in the process of developing whole-school strategies, programs and approaches that claim to support wellbeing (Aldridge et al., 2016; Halliday et al., 2019; White & McCallum, 2022). The study aims to investigate the perspectives of secondary school students about wellbeing and addresses the question: ‘How do secondary school students define wellbeing?’ It examines students’ perspectives before a school leadership team implemented a whole-school wellbeing intervention at an independent non-denominational Canadian all-boys school and draws on the responses of participants from Years 6–12. This chapter argues that, at one level, before a universal wellbeing program is introduced in secondary schools, students will have an intuitive understanding of wellbeing drawn from personal experience that offers school leaders numerous opportunities to develop engaging wellbeing programs. The perspectives of students provide important data for wellbeing teams to understand the degree to which students are aware of different dimensions of wellbeing (Halliday et al., 2019; Waters et al., 2017). Second, the chapter argues that analysing collective student perceptions of wellbeing before an intervention can act as a process to track the growth in student sophistication and understanding of their wellbeing and help teachers integrate theory into practice more effectively.

M. A. White (B) School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_4

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This study is of international importance as there is a lack of qualitative studies of student definitions of wellbeing before a universal intervention and whole-school strategy is developed (Jessiman et al., 2022; Rodgers, 2002). In part, it responds to Halliday et al.’s (2019) calls for ‘involving students through their participation in action research … for an accessible, evidence-based, and developmentally beneficial approach to better understand student wellbeing’ (p. 193). In the context of this gap in wellbeing education research, this chapter aims to critique students’ wellbeing perceptions. The study focuses on the context of a broader survey of teacher wellbeing at the same school. Next, the chapter discusses the literature of studies examining students’ perceptions of wellbeing. The methods of the analysis are then presented as the findings, followed by a discussion of implications for wellbeing education research and practice.

4.2 Defining Wellbeing It is well recognised in education literature that wellbeing has been defined in a multitude of ways, resulting in almost as many approaches to wellbeing definitions in schools as there are theories (Wood, 2020). A criticism of the field of wellbeing education research is the diversity of wellbeing theories and models, as noted by Diener et al. (2009). There is no universal agreement on these approaches and models. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2013) has recommended how to measure wellbeing and identified best practice. They note that ‘subjective wellbeing is conflated with measuring “happiness”; however, this is both technically incorrect (there is more to subjective wellbeing than happiness) and misleading, and thus lends support to sceptics who characterise the measurement of subjective wellbeing in general as little more than “happiology”’ (pp. 27–28). In the context of education, no single definition has been adopted. At present, wellbeing research touches on almost every domain of subject experience. As Oades et al. (2019) assert, ‘an ongoing challenge for wellbeing researchers and practitioners … is that wellbeing is a contested and capacious concept’ (p. 696). Researchers have established that the comprehensive nature of the wellbeing research field has yielded many different theories. Over the past 20 years, psychological theories and models have been adopted in clinical, social and educational psychology. Diener et al. (2009) developed one of the most widely adopted models of wellbeing when they proposed the tripartite model of subjective wellbeing, asserting that subjective wellbeing comprises frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations such as life satisfaction. Pollard and Lee (2003) claim there are five domains of wellbeing: physical, psychological, cognitive, social and economic. Ryff and Keyes (1995) assert that six factors make up a multidimensional model of psychological wellbeing: self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy and positive relations.

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Conversely, Keyes (2002) proposes that wellbeing is made up of three domains: subjective wellbeing, psychological wellbeing and social wellbeing. Seligman (2011) advanced the PERMA theory, arguing that wellbeing education programs should focus on studying positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment. The OCED (2013) argues that a clear understanding of the concept being investigated is needed to investigate wellbeing. Given the vast nature of the term, clarity is required so that when wellbeing is examined it is not mixed with other terms, including happiness. Research claims that wellbeing represents a wide range of different subjective states. For this study, a broad multidimensional view of wellbeing is adopted and defined across five domains: social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual (Hettler, 1976). This framework is employed to explore how the secondary students in the study shape and describe their definition of wellbeing as an umbrella term.

4.3 Literature on Wellbeing Education From the earliest stages of wellbeing research in the 2000s following Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) foundational article on positive psychology, education has applied many of the theories of wellbeing (White, 2021). Early approaches to wellbeing education focused on programs joining psychological research that highlighted cognitive skills to support students in being able to monitor their own mental health and wellbeing (Seligman et al., 2009). For example, in many of these programs, students were encouraged to reflect upon their character strengths (Lavy, 2020; Mansfield et al., 2021; Park & Peterson, 2009; Peterson & Park, 2011), discuss resilience concepts (Gillham et al., 2007), explore cognitive behavioural therapy approaches (Park & Peterson, 2008) and other elements of wellbeing research. Education research is increasingly used in schools to describe education programs or processes to support young people’s social, emotional and psychological development (Gleeson et al., 2022). Schools interchangeably use the models and theories from wellbeing, where they may have represented the approach as pastoral care in the past. This is seen on school websites, particularly schools that claim to foster their students’ character and academic development (Allen et al., 2022; Rolfe et al., 2022). Many claim to adopt evidence-informed practices as more schools and systems seek to introduce student wellbeing programs to promote a greater understanding of mental health (Allen et al., 2022; Graham et al., 2022; Rolfe et al., 2022). The diversity of wellbeing research can sometimes be difficult for school leaders to navigate and determine which theory or approach best suits an individual school’s culture and context (Lomas, 2022; Simmons et al., 2015; Waters et al., 2021). For example, this section’s review of the literature provides an overview of wellbeing definitions, focusing on research from past years. From a philosophical perspective, wellbeing may be described as good for a person. From a philosophical viewpoint, the negative

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aspect of wellbeing is also integrated. For example, philosophers describe a person’s negative wellbeing if they are experiencing pain or sorrow (Curren, 2023). With the rise of the positive psychology movement launched by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000), greater emphasis has been placed on the psychological measures of wellbeing. Today, this has been widely adopted in public policy to measure the wellbeing of economies (e.g., De Neve et al., 2020; Helliwell et al., 2022; Layard, 2022). Both hedonic and eudaimonic theories are drawn on in wellbeing education; nevertheless, many wellbeing education approaches claim to adopt a eudaimonic approach. Kahneman and Krueger (2006) note that hedonic wellbeing pursues pleasure over pain, whereas eudemonic theories claim to draw on Aristotelian theories of eudaimonia, asserted as the highest form of human good a person could experience for its own sake or a life well lived—eudaimonia is often translated as ‘happiness’ or ‘flourishing’. Many contemporary wellbeing education approaches draw on psychological approaches to eudaimonia, which focus on assessing a person’s life, affect or emotional state, and eudaimonia describes a positive psychological functioning (OECD, 2013, pp. 28–29, 33). Internationally, most wellbeing education programs draw on Seligman’s (2011) PERMA theory—which argues that wellbeing education programs should focus on the study of positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment—or variations of the theory, including the PERMA+ assessment tool developed in South Australia by Iasiello et al. (2017) and Bartholomaeus et al. (2020). PERMA+ includes optimism, physical activity, nutrition and sleep.

4.4 Why Do Schools Adopt Wellbeing Education? There are many reasons why schools have introduced wellbeing education into their offering (Kern, 2022; Kern & Wehmeyer, 2021; Tudball, 2010). Many schools either adopt wellbeing education as a response to the perceived increase in mental health challenges for the current generation and concerns around increased rates of depression and anxiety, or for philosophical reasons (Hards et al., 2022; Houghton et al., 2022). The philosophical motivations for why many schools adopt wellbeing education have not been clearly documented. In many instances, wellbeing education appears to be closely aligned with the core values schools espouse (Allen et al., 2022). However, there are tensions here for schools that claim to be faith-based, where wellbeing education could be seen as competing or replacing traditional religious education classes. Internationally, there has been increased interest in wellbeing education because of the impact of COVID-19 on a generation of young people’s mental health (Owens et al., 2022). The rapid displacement of students from schools in response to the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic saw increased attention to wellbeing education and the possibilities to support students in their early and secondary years of schooling (Meinck et al., 2022). Nevertheless, many examples

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of schools with a top education are primarily independent schools rather than whole systems or departments for education. This may be because independent schools have far more flexibility and autonomy in the curriculum they teach and the external offerings beyond the core curriculum they can provide their students. Therefore, many of the examples of wellbeing education integrated into programs come from independent schools across the world.

4.5 The Wellbeing of Secondary School Students Much of the wellbeing research in secondary schools tends to be quantitative (Mendes de Oliveira et al., 2022). This literature has established important approaches to wellbeing interventions and measuring their efficacy. However, wellbeing interventions in quantitative circumstances do not necessarily reveal the inner thoughts and perspectives of young people and their attitudes towards wellbeing. There are very few qualitative studies of secondary school students’ perspectives and attitudes towards wellbeing (Fielding, 2001; Flynn & Haynes, 2021; Halliday et al., 2019). Some studies of young people’s perspectives of wellbeing have been undertaken more recently, although it is unclear whether these studies also align with the development of wellbeing programs specifically in response to their perspectives. The advantage of including students in the study of wellbeing in schools is that it aligns strongly with the opportunity to involve them in issues that are directly related to their education.

4.6 Theoretical Framework The study adopts Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory to interpret the participants’ responses in the context of wellbeing in their school culture. This theoretical framework is particularly relevant for the study as it enables researchers to understand that students are at the centre of school culture and climate. Broader connections with society, family and colleagues are also found to interpret the participants’ responses in the context of wellbeing in their school culture. As shown in Fig. 4.1, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) systems theory places the student at the centre of the theoretical framework. The assumption is that individual students will interact within and against change over time, which is characterised as the chrono-system. The micro-system describes relations between children that impact their development, the home, school, friendships and teachers. The meso-system involves interactions between the child, parents, teachers or peers and siblings. The exo-system includes their neighbourhood, parents’ employment, parents, friends and mass media, and the macro-system relates to elements of a child’s development, socio-economic status and cultural background.

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Macro-system: cultural elements of a child’s development, socio-economic status, poverty, cultural background Exo-system: neighbourhood, parents employment, parents friends, mass media Meso-system: interacƟon between the child, parents, teachers, or peers and siblings Micro-system: I relaƟons between children that impact their development, the home, school, friendships, teachers

Student

Chrono-system: change over time

Fig. 4.1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

4.7 Methods The study aimed to investigate how secondary students find wellbeing. The method for the analysis adopted an appreciative approach based on the work of Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987) and Cooperrider and Whitney (2005). The researcher chose the appreciative inquiry method for the overall study because it is a strength-based orientation and process to gather the understanding of individuals, groups and systems responses to phenomena and therefore aligned to a wellbeing approach that focuses on positive orientations. Appreciate inquiry is a holistic methodology and considers the whole system. It was a mixed-methods approach whereby the first part of the survey measured wellbeing and demographic data. The qualitative data presented in this chapter are based on the qualitative section of the more extensive study. The study was carried out in 2019. Although the study collected quantitative and qualitative data, only qualitative data is examined in this chapter.

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4.8 Ethics Ethics approval was granted by the University of Adelaide Office of Research Ethics, Compliance, and Integrity (Approval No. H-2018-275).

4.9 Participants The study sample was 797 students from Years 6–12, aged 12–18, in a nondenominational secular Canadian independent all-boys school.

4.10 Procedure: Data Collection The school approached the author to undertake the study as contract research in 2018. Participants were recruited from Years 6–12. Once ethics approval was secured from the University of Adelaide’s Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity, the school contacted parents and guardians of students from Years 6–12 through an ethics-approved letter written by the principal. The principal highlighted the school’s leadership team and board of governors’ support for the research project and its alignment with the school’s vision and mission. The school also provided further information about the project in the participant information sheet. The letter emphasised that participants in the survey could withdraw from the project at any time without explanation. The participation information sheet also provided details about the overall aim of the project’s lead methods. Further, the letter provided the types of questions participants would be asked during the survey so parents could decide if they wished their son to participate. The online survey was distributed to the participants on behalf of the researchers via the school’s Director of Wellbeing. Participation in the survey was voluntary and took around 15 min. Data collection was carried out between 7–10 January 2019. The survey instrument included a combination of a Likert scale and open-ended questions. Participants were free to withdraw from the study without explanation or prejudice. All data were treated confidentially, with no individual reports generated. The distribution of the survey had no impact on academic time. At the time of data collection, the school had launched a strategic planning document claiming ‘wellbeing’ as one of the school’s five values (the others were learning, pluralism, service, community and wellbeing). Further, the school asserted that it aimed ‘to foster individual and institutional wellbeing … [and] equip each boy with the ability to develop knowledge, selfawareness, and character strengths that enable lifelong resilience and allow him to flourish.’ While the school launched the document at the time of data collection, the school leadership did not widely circulate it among the student population. The data

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was collected through the online platform and stored in a secure portal to complete the data analysis. The researchers kept de-identified data for five years from the day data were reported.

4.11 Data Analysis The study adopted a thematic method in that repeated patterns were identified as part of the analysis of qualitative responses. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-stage process was adopted to carry out the analysis. This method was selected because it is well suited to constructivist approaches to understanding social phenomena and exploring the underlying meaning of the subject matter being investigated. This is achieved by examining themes in the data, as follows: Step 1—familiarise yourself with the data, Step 2—generate initial codes, Step 3— search for themes, Step 4—review themes, Step 5—define and name themes, and Step 6—produce the report/manuscript.

4.12 Findings and Discussion Participants were invited to respond to the open-ended question: ‘In your own words, what is wellbeing?’. Figure 4.2 is a word cloud of the key terms participants used to define wellbeing, generated from all 797 responses to the question, including the frequency of keyword responses. There was a diverse range of responses to this question, including candid answers where participants stated that they did not know any definition of wellbeing or had an intuitive understanding. For example, one student said: • Honestly, I have no clue it’s a term that’s been thrown around a lot. I think it has something to do with being healthy and happy. This open-ended question elicited 797 responses. Many of the key terms participants used to define wellbeing (as highlighted in Fig. 4.2) can be classified in the context of the definition of wellbeing adopted for this chapter. Table 4.1 outlines some of the other participants’ definitions of wellbeing. Nevertheless, some participants’ observations demonstrated an intuitive understanding that wellbeing was multidimensional. For instance, participants’ multidimensional responses demonstrated knowledge of the link between physical activity health, mental wellbeing and emotional wellbeing: • Being confident in myself, what I’m doing, and how I’m doing it. Feeling comfortable in my own body. Feeling like I have options. Not feeling overwhelmed constantly. Feeling like I have freedom to allocate my time the way I want and

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Fig. 4.2 Participants’ key terms used to define wellbeing

still be able to get things done right. Fully understanding what is expected of me and knowing how to do what is expected of me. • Being healthy, mentally and physically, being happy, having friends and family that care for you and knowing that you have people that care about you. • Generally, wellbeing is your health, in all aspects (physical, mental and social). As illustrated by these responses, participants could articulate that wellbeing was linked to physical and psychological elements. Nevertheless, even these multidimensional responses could not explicitly tie their responses to existing research-informed theories or indicate a connection. Other multidimensional responses illustrated a level of sophistication, suggesting participants are well-placed to engage in conversations around their wellbeing: • I’ve heard on many occasions that wellbeing refers to physical and mental healthiness. I feel that it is more related towards mental healthiness as mental stability leads towards motivation for physical healthiness. I think wellbeing refers to the ability to make good decisions to make yourself feel better. • The state that one can maintain their goals in life and can stick with it even though in the face of adversities. Also, one can always feel supported/needed and is willing to do the same thing to others around him/her. • Wellbeing is a satisfaction with who you are, what you are doing, and how you’ve been doing it. I believe this is extremely difficult, especially with the boys … who expect so much out of themselves and are all extremely ambitious. I have learnt that I will never be ‘eternally satisfied’ with myself, but I feel extremely grateful to have access to the wide-breadth opportunities at the college and my health physical being.

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Table 4.1 Participants’ definitions of wellbeing Wellbeing domain

Participants’ responses

Social

• Having friends and family to share something good with. Having a good time at school, home or anywhere • I think that wellbeing means someone who is happy and has very little things in his life that he must worry about • Wellbeing is also how comfortable you fell at certain place in life • Being healthy, mentally and physically, being happy, having friends and family that care for you and knowing that you have people that care about you • Wellbeing is not only the physical state you’re in but considers all the states in which you’re in including mental health social life work etc. • Being able to talk comfortably with people you trust, not feeling alone or self-conscious • Having a supportive environment where you know you are appreciated and cared about and feel loved by the people around you

Physical

• Wellbeing is being mentally and physically happy and healthy • Having good physical and mental health • Staying healthy (both physically and mentally), doing well in school and sports, and having fun • Wellbeing is being mentally and physically happy and healthy • The level of which how ones physical, mental and emotional happiness • Wellbeing is being a good healthy person. This includes eating properly, sleeping properly, and having lots of physical activity • Wellbeing is you mental and physical health • Wellbeing is feeling healthy mentally and physically and feeling happy with who you are and in life in general • Wellbeing is to be physically, mentally and emotional well at something • Wellbeing is the state that somebody is in depending on their physical and mental condition • Mental and physical happiness and security • Wellbeing is living a healthy and energetic life. You do physical activities like sports and mentally challenge yourself throughout your life in school and outside of school • Good hygiene, social behaviour physical and mental traits

Cognitive

• Wellbeing to me is your mental and personal health • Wellbeing is you mental and physical health (continued)

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Table 4.1 (continued) Wellbeing domain

Participants’ responses

Emotional

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Spiritual

You should always be happy and enjoying yourself while working hard Wellbeing is being happy about you’re life consistently It is feeling happy and good about things, both physically and mentally Happiness Wellbeing is to be physically, mentally and emotional well at something How emotionally and physically fit someone is Wellbeing is a state where you feel positive and happy Being happy or enjoying life Feeling good about yourself, the people you interact with and actions you perform In my opinion wellbeing is living a happy healthy life with many people supporting Enjoying life Wellbeing is a mental state of peace, it encompasses physical aspects yet does not need one to be physically well Having a positive state of mind

• Wellbeing is being in the most optimal state that you can achieve. This includes mentally, physically, and spiritually • Wellbeing is a state of good emotions spiritually • Wellbeing is being spiritually, physically, and mentally happy and healthy

Some responses extended the physical health observation to argue that wellbeing was linked to the state of the physical body and general fitness. For instance, one student noted: • Wellbeing is being comfortable is the state of your body and mental health. Wellbeing is knowing that even though you may feel sad or angry at times, it will get better and your situation will eventually change. Even if it doesn’t, wellbeing is having the strength to push forward, and this strength is both mental and physical. • Wellbeing is being comfortable is the state of your body and mental health. Wellbeing is knowing that even though you may feel sad or angry at times, it will get better and your situation will eventually change. Even if it doesn’t, wellbeing is having the strength to push forward, and this strength is both mental and physical. Only a handful of responses suggest a spiritual dimension to wellbeing. This was not necessarily surprising given the school investigated was a non-denominational secular school. For instance, one student loosely referred to a spiritual element of wellbeing, stating: • Wellbeing is having a healthy soul as well as a healthy body. • Wellbeing is the physical, mental, and psychological state of mind that a person is experiencing, how they feel physically, are they mentally healthy, and their outlook on life.

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• Wellbeing refers to the amount of joy and happiness you have in life, but also taking it upon yourself and receiving help from others to enhance your personal strength. Meanwhile, a handful of participants responded with their specific tripartite theories of wellbeing. For example, the student below illustrated their theoretical understanding of wellbeing through three distinct strands: • I believe there are 3 aspects to wellbeing. One part is your mental wellbeing that compiles your emotions. There is also your social wellbeing that is how you interact and how others interact with you. Lastly, there is your physical wellbeing which consists of your eating habits and working out habits alongside genetics. Of the 797 responses, only a handful did not answer this question. Consequently, there were a rich diversity of responses that enabled the researcher to classify that each of the definitions aligned to the definition of wellbeing having social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual dimensions. The next part of the chapter presents the results that have been sorted against each of the sections. It is evident that some responses overlap into multiple areas, which are a mixture of multidimensional responses and perspectives. In some of the examples provided, participants offered a further hypothetical explanation to illustrate the claim they were making about wellbeing. Each of the subsections of the dimensions of wellbeing is now presented, and the potential implications for the structure of the first units of a wellbeing program are discussed.

4.13 Social Wellbeing Participants’ responses could be classified as engaging with topics of social wellbeing; that is, how they interact with their immediate peers, teachers and family. As illustrated by the three responses below, it is evident that participants recognised that interactions in social circumstances are beneficial to wellbeing overall—that individual wellbeing was one thing that also presented significant opportunities for collective wellbeing: • Wellbeing to me is being the person I want to be. For example, I want to be healthy and be fit, and I would like to be funny and make other people laugh. I have a secret talent of singing and I love doing it. All these things help boost my wellbeing and make me feel happy. • Feeling good about yourself, the people you interact with and actions you perform. • Wellbeing is being balanced and pursuing the things you love. You just have to make life good for yourself and others.

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4.14 Physical Wellbeing Sport was a key offering at the research school. Therefore, many students commented on physical wellbeing as a fundamental element of the relationship with psychological wellbeing. For instance, many students’ responses argued that wellbeing was the relationship between physical and psychological wellbeing. Many commented on physical fitness being acquainted with mental or psychological fitness. Some participants’ responses also referred to physical wellbeing as energy or engagement with physical activities outside the classroom to boost mood: • Wellbeing is being in the most optimal state that you can achieve. This includes mentally, physically, and spiritually. Wellbeing to me is being the person I want to be. For example, I want to be healthy and be fit, and I would like to be funny and make other people laugh. I have a secret talent of singing and I love doing it. All these things help boost my wellbeing and make me feel happy. • In my words, wellbeing is how well you are feeling both mentally and physically. • Have a lot of energy. • Wellbeing is the status of a person who is physically and emotionally happy. • Being healthy and feeling good. • Wellbeing to me is your mental and personal health.

4.15 Cognitive Wellbeing Only a handful of participants recognised the importance of cognitive wellbeing. This was characterised primarily as wellbeing for mental health. However, these respondents did not identify emotional wellbeing. Below are examples of responses that have been classified as cognitive wellbeing: • Wellbeing to me is your mental and personal health. • Being satisfied about your mental state and health within your subconscious, not having to think about it to know the answer. • In my words, wellbeing is how well you are feeling both mentally and physically.

4.16 Emotional Wellbeing Many of the respondents recognised that wellbeing had an emotional dimension. As illustrated by the examples below, it is evident that many of the students saw the emotional wellbeing aspect as binary; that is, they are either happy or sad, or happy or unhappy. There was very little recognition among all the respondents of the kaleidoscope of emotions that participants could describe within wellbeing. Further, it was evident that wellbeing was seen as oriented towards the positive end of the

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emotional spectrum. Again, the responses highlight that the school was at the beginning of their wellbeing program journey and developing a comprehensive strategic plan: • I think that wellbeing has to do with how happy you are with your current life. Whether you are trying to improve yourself on a daily basis and if you can reflect on your past diligently. • Wellbeing is happiness. • I would define wellbeing as your level of content within the institutions you participate in. • Wellbeing is also how comfortable you feel. Participants linked the level of wellbeing someone experienced with anxiety or concerns that they may have generally in life, noting: • I think that wellbeing means someone who is happy and has very little things in his life that he has to worry about. • Wellbeing is the status of a person who is physically and emotionally happy. • Being healthy and feeling good. • Wellbeing means that you are in a happy state and you are positive and openminded about new things. These observations were extended further by one participant who felt that wellbeing helped to situate them within the broader context of the school and society as well. There was also a clear reference to feeling autonomy and their role within society: • Being confident in myself, what I’m doing, and how I’m doing it. Feeling comfortable in my own body. Feeling like I have options. Not feeling overwhelmed constantly. Feeling like I have freedom to allocate my time the way I want and still be able to get things done right. Fully understanding what is expected of me and knowing how to do what is expected of me. Some of these responses also equated wellbeing with being just okay on the broad spectrum of irrational responses. For instance: • • • •

I feel wellbeing is a way of checking if you are okay. Wellbeing is what allows you to enjoy life, and allows you to push through. Wellbeing is when you are happy, comfortable, and at home with yourself. I think that wellbeing is being happy with yourself and with your life while being on track with life. • Wellbeing to me is when you feel good and happy. When you feel like nothing can hold you back. • In my opinion, wellbeing is the feeling of being happy, cheerful and confident in yourself. • Wellbeing is how you feel about your current state or existence. I have a lot of things in my life I want to improve with the new year, like getting more active but I am still happy.

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• Wellbeing is a mental state of peace, it encompasses physical aspects yet does not need one to be physically well. • The state of being happy and healthy.

4.17 Spiritual Wellbeing The research school was a secular non-domination independent school, so religious instruction was not part of the curriculum offering, and there was not a chapel on site either. Consequently, only a handful of participants acknowledged that spiritual wellbeing may be a dimension from their own lives. This was highlighted by one particular response who wrote: • Wellbeing is being in the most optimal state that you can achieve. This includes mentally, physically, and spiritually.

4.18 Significance of the Study The chrono-system of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory emphasises change over time, and the unresolved question, and one that will yield interesting data, is how students now define wellbeing. This is relevant for this study as these responses document the initial understanding of participants’ definition of wellbeing before the school implemented a comprehensive whole-school wellbeing intervention from the students’ perspective. As established in the literature review, few studies of wholeschool wellbeing interventions have asked students how they define wellbeing before wide-scale activities, programs and policies are implemented. In addition, this study was undertaken before the pandemic commenced, so it offers a unique perspective of the students’ perceptions well before society could imagine the level of disruption to schooling that took place during 2020–2022 due to rolling government-informed lockdowns and remote learning due to COVID-19. Further, these data were collected before the COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020. These data provide an essential tool for researchers to map the impact of general school wellbeing strategies. Additionally, it highlights the level of opportunity provided to school leaders and wellbeing leaders to engage students in wellbeing discussions. Intuitively, many of the students understand wellbeing from both a health and mental health perspective. This study provides evidence of a rich opportunity to expand students’ understanding aligned with the strategic intent of the school overall. The research site claims that their ‘education equips each boy with the capabilities to develop the knowledge, selfawareness and strengths of character that enable lifelong resilience and allow him to flourish’.

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4.19 Conclusions This chapter has reported on a mixed-method appreciative study of how secondary students define wellbeing. The chapter focused on the qualitative responses to an open-ended question on the definition of wellbeing, inviting participants to respond in their own words. This chapter responds to a gap in the literature, highlighting that students are often overlooked at the beginning of the creation of wellbeing programs and whole-school strategies. The study was conducted in a Canadian independent school in 2019. Participants’ responses have established that students intuitively understand wellbeing as being linked with physical, mental or psychological wellbeing. This finding confirmed solid grounds for introducing wellbeing interventions and engaging students with their voices from the outset of programs, policy development and wellbeing lessons that the school could create (Halliday et al., 2019; Waters & White, 2015). The responses of students indicate that the majority have a binary perspective of wellbeing before the opportunity to learn more about the phenomena through wellbeing programs and initiatives. For example, this was seen in responses that characterised wellbeing as either being happy or sad. However, a handful of responses highlighted the multidimensional elements of wellbeing. This is intuitive and the ground for rich potential discussion in wellbeing education programs that the school may implement in the future. The opportunity for the research school lies in the alignment between evidence-informed approaches to wellbeing and how these may be introduced to students at different levels. This opportunity for the school linked with evidence of robust engagement from the student population, suggests a wellbeing initiative would be well received at the school overall (Oades et al., 2019). Only a handful of students needed to learn what wellbeing was, even in their own words. Future research could compare the qualitative responses to this open-ended question with the research school in the future to illustrate the growth in depth of understanding of theoretical approaches to wellbeing. A further research project could also investigate the degree to which students adopt some wellbeing initiatives in their own lives to improve their wellbeing. Ethics This study was approved by the University of Adelaide Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity (Approval No. H-2018-275). Acknowledgements The author acknowledges the participants who completed the study and the senior leadership team and board of the research school who supported the study.

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Owens, M., Townsend, E., Hall, E., Bhatia, T., Fitzgibbon, R., & Miller-Lakin, F. (2022). Mental health and well-being in young people in the UK during lockdown (COVID-19). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1132. Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2008). Positive psychology and character strengths: Application to strengths-based school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 12(2), 2156759X0801200214. Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Character strengths: Research and practice. Journal of College and Character, 10(4), 1–10. Peterson, C., & Park, N. (2011). Character strengths and virtues: Their role in well-being. In S. I. Donaldson, M. Csikszentmihalyi, & J. Nakamura (Eds.), Applied positive psychology: Improving everyday life, health, schools, work, and society (pp. 49–62). Routledge. Pollard, E. L., & Lee, P. D. (2003). Child well-being: A systematic review of the literature. Social Indicators Research, 61(1), 59–78. Powell, M. A., Graham, A., Fitzgerald, R., Thomas, N., & White, N. E. (2018). Well-being in schools: What do students tell us? Australian Educational Researcher, 45(4), 515–531. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13384-018-0273-z Rodgers, C. R. (2002). Voices inside schools—Seeing student learning: Teacher change and the role of reflection. Harvard Educational Review, 72(2), 230–253. http://doi.org/10.17763/haer. 74.3.wkjg76471j313h25 Rolfe, A., Franz, J., & Bridge, A. (2022). The combined impact of school design and procurement on student well-being and educational outcomes. Facilities, 40(7–8), 533–550. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/F-08-2021-0071 Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719. Seligman, M. E. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Simon and Schuster. Seligman, M. E., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 Simmons, C., Graham, A., & Thomas, N. (2015). Imagining an ideal school for well-being: Locating student voice. Journal of Educational Change, 16(2), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10833014-9239-8 Tudball, L. (2010). Developing student well-being through education for sustainability: Learning from school experience. In T. Lovat, R. Toomey, & N. Clement (Eds.), International research handbook on values education and student well-being (pp. 779–794). Springer. http://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-90-481-8675-4_44 Waters, L., Dussert, D., & Loton, D. (2022). How do young children understand and action their own well-being? Positive psychology, student voice, and well-being literacy in early childhood. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 7(1), 91–117. Waters, L., Sun, J., Rusk, R., Cotton, A., & Arch, A. (2017). Visible well-being and positive functioning in students. In M. Slade, L. Oades, & A. Jarden (Eds.), Well-being, recovery and mental health (pp. 245–264). Cambridge University Press. Waters, L., & White, M. (2015). Case study of a school well-being initiative: Using appreciative inquiry to support positive change. International Journal of Well-being, 5(1), 19–32. https://doi. org/10.5502/ijw.v5i1.2 White, M., & McCallum, F. (2022). Transforming teaching: Well-being and professional practice. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4945-6 White, M. A. (2021). A decade of positive education and implications for initial teacher education: A narrative review. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 46(3). http://doi.org/10.14221/ ajte.2021v46n3.5 Wood, G. W. (2020). Introduction: Defining well-being, psychology, and the self. In The psychology of well-being (pp. 1–8). Routledge.

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Associate Professor Mathew A. White, Ph.D., is Deputy Dean, International, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics at the University of Adelaide in Australia, where he is an Associate Professor and Deputy Head of the School of Education. Mathew has taught and researched curriculum, pedagogy, wellbeing education, and teacher education. He has supervised higher-degree research students in these areas. Mathew previously served as Acting Deputy Dean, Learning and Teaching, for the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics and Interim Head of the School of Education at the University of Adelaide in 2020–21. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Oxford’s Department of Education in 2022. He is also a principal fellow at the University of Melbourne’s Melbourne Graduate School of Education. Mathew was awarded his Ph.D. in education from the University of Adelaide, Australia, in 2004. Mathew has researched curriculum and pedagogy, wellbeing, and teacher education; he is the author, co-author and co-editor of seven books and over 54 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters on wellbeing and education, including Integrating Wellbeing and Learning in Schools: Evidenceinformed Approaches for Leaders and Teachers (in-press), Transforming Teaching: Wellbeing and Professional Practise (2022, with Faye McCallum), Wellbeing and Resilience Education COVID-19 and Its Impact on Education (2021, with Faye McCallum), Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, and Leadership: Enhancing Educational Outcomes (2020, with Faye McCallum), Future Directions in Wellbeing: Education, Organisations, and Policy (2017, with Gavin Slemp and Simon Murray), Theology Encountering Positive Psychology (2017, with Gillies Ambler, Matthew Anstey, and Theo McCall), and Evidence-Based Approaches in Positive Education: Implementing a Strategic Framework for Wellbeing in Schools (2015, with Simon Murray). He was appointed Fellow in 2021 after serving as President of the Education Division of the International Positive Psychology Association (2019–2022). Mathew has received international and national education leadership awards. In 2022, he was highly commended in the Stephen Cole the Elder Awards for Excellence, the University of Adelaide’s most prestigious awards for learning and teaching. Mathew was an award-winning secondary school English and French teacher for 20 years before joining academia in 2018. He also has a decade of senior leadership experience in schools.

Part II

New Developments in Arts Curriculum and Wellbeing

Chapter 5

Wellbeing for Student Actors: #MeToo and New Initiatives in the Australian Tertiary Drama Curriculum Anne Pender , Tiffany Knight , Sarah Peters , and Mark Seton

5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Background: The Crisis The economic and psychological wellbeing of actors, musicians and others who work in the entertainment industries in Australia is precarious. Even before the ravages of COVID 19, researchers reported mental health issues, excessive drug and alcohol use and suicidality amongst performers. A study published in 2015 that focussed on the wellbeing of actors in Australia found a raft of problems related to economic and psychological stress amongst those surveyed (Maxwell et al., 2015). The last two years have been extremely challenging for the sector because of the high job losses and lack of income protection for workers during the pandemic. Deteriorating states of mental health have been reported in several studies. One recent survey conducted by Support Act in 2022 found high levels of distress amongst those working in music and ‘live performing arts’, with anxiety and depression reported at more than twice the prevalence of the general population, higher levels of suicidal thoughts as well as higher states of financial stress (p. 5). This study confirmed what A. Pender (B) The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] T. Knight · S. Peters Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] S. Peters e-mail: [email protected] M. Seton Institute of Higher Education, Excelsia College, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_5

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the earlier studies had found: that many arts workers lived on meagre incomes that were below or at the poverty line in Australia (p. 5 Support Act and Maxwell et al., 2015). The links between mental health and income security are demonstrated by recent research as well (Isaccs et al., 2018; Thomson et al., 2022). Preparing student actors for a career in an industry in which stress is high and income insecurity the norm, presents a number of specific problems for educators. In addition to the effects of the closures and restrictions of the last two years, the industry has also been rocked by allegations of sexual harassment and other abuses both in Australia and overseas. In 2017 the actor Alyssa Milano invited women who have been sexually harassed or assaulted to reply ‘Me too’ to a tweet. This new movement that swept across the globe is now known as the #MeToo movement. This built on the wider ‘Me Too’ movement that began in 2006 in order to raise awareness about sexual abuse of women. The vulnerability of women working in the performing arts was revealed in the starkest manner during the high-profile case of the Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein in 2020. Weinstein was convicted of rape and sexual assault of two women (production assistant Mimi Haleyi in 2006 and former actor Jessica Mann in 2013) and is facing 11 charges of sexual assault in a second trial underway at the time of writing. In Australia the celebrated actor Geoffrey Rush won a defamation case against a news organisation that had published material conveying the imputation he was a sexual predator and that he had engaged in inappropriate behaviour in the theatre. Rush was awarded $2.9 million by the court. Although the case was about defamation rather than harassment, one of the witnesses for the news organisation, Eryn Jean Norvill, was criticised by the judge as being ‘prone to exaggeration and embellishment’ (quoted by McKinnell, 2019, online). For many observers the case raised sensitive issues about sexual harassment in the workplace, particularly in the theatre. It also shed new light on one of the most difficult and enduring elements of working as an actor: how to engage in intimate scenes so that each actor feels safe and is safe. The #MeToo movement in its broadest manifestations has led to a renewed focus on intimacy training in the industry that has sparked some changes to the drama curriculum in higher education institutions in Australia. Of course, intimacy training existed before the #MeToo movement. For university students, the type of training and guidance offered may be seen as part of a bigger educational challenge around consent, safety, responsibility and care, given the prevalence of sexual harassment and assault on campus. In 2017 the Australian Human Rights Commission published the results of a survey of 30,000 students conducted in 2015–16 at the request of the 39 universities to find out about the experiences of students. The survey found that 26% of students experienced sexual harassment and 1.6% of students experienced sexual assault in a university setting. Some 25% of students had witnessed another student being sexually harassed in the year 2016 and 1.1% of students had witnessed the sexual assault of another student in a university setting. Another disturbing survey of university students conducted in 2021 found 16.1% had experienced sexual harassment since commencing university study and 4.5% had experienced sexual assault (Heywood et al., 2022, p. 2). The prevalence of both harassment and assault was

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greater amongst female students than their male counterparts. Assault by male perpetrators—often by fellow students and by staff—was reported in the study. In another alarming statistic, very few students had reported the harassment and assault they experienced to authorities (3% and 5.6% respectively) (Heywood et al., 2022, p. 3). Avenues for student complaints and accessible, visible support are further discussed below. The survey results demonstrate the acute challenges for educators in the higher education environment in seeking to educate students about how to prevent harassment and assault as well as how to respond to it. The success of Chantal Contos’ ‘Teach Us Consent’ campaign, which is due to be implemented within the Australian National Curriculum in 2023 following tens of thousands of student supporters, adds further weight to this need. Many universities introduced an online course for students and staff called Consent Matters developed by Epigeum. The course takes about one hour to complete. Some universities also introduced a number of face to face workshops during Orientation week to address the issues. It is difficult to imagine that these one-off courses could be expected to solve the problems in the absence of more holistic and sustained education that reinforces such education at high school. The particular challenges for drama teachers in this context are complex given the additional imperative for intimacy training within a broader context of education about consent, respect, safety and inclusivity. The need to prepare students for their work in the industry, and to equip them with knowledge, capacity, resilience and principled awareness of the issues that affect them has never been more obvious than at the present time. The backdrop to our discussion is of course the large and burgeoning literature on student and adult wellbeing and its relationship with the arts. Our research links to it, focussing on specific challenges for drama students in higher education. We also recognise that in Australia there has been an increase in mental illness amongst young people between the ages of 15–19 (Svane et al., 2019 online). Educating young people within a wellbeing framework as they approach adulthood is not straight forward. Even the definition of wellbeing is not clear or singular. In Australia various education departments across the states define wellbeing in a range of ways as set out by Svane Evans and Carter. For example, in South Australia the Department of Education defines wellbeing as ‘having good or satisfactory conditions of existence— in health, happiness and prosperity’ (2016). In their work on teaching, wellbeing and professional practice, White and McCallum identify five dimensions of wellbeing: social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual (2022 online). At the same time there is a wealth of research that offers a platform of evidence for the ways in which the arts can enhance wellbeing. Educating arts practitioners with the wellbeing dimensions in mind is therefore important for the students themselves and also because of the contributions those practitioners will make to others in the industry or in educational settings. A research group at University College London reviewed significant evidence for how engagement in the arts can impact on social outcomes, youth development and the prevention of mental and physical illness. Their findings showed strong evidence for a number of outcomes including the experience of the arts in improving wellbeing in adults. They describe wellbeing as ‘positive

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psychological factors’ including ‘flourishing and meaning in life’ (Fancourt et al., 2020, 3–4). This study looked at more than 3500 reports of studies across mainly OECD countries. In summary, the crisis in the entertainment industry is demonstrated by complaints by actors about inappropriate behaviour in surveys, at least two high-profile Australian legal cases relating to defamation, and the impetus of the #MeToo movement in highlighting the need for initiatives that address student wellbeing during training and adequately prepare actors for the challenges of working in the industry. The added vulnerability of working in close proximity to one another during COVID has also required considerable attention to detail in rehearsing and playing intimate scenes. While there is consensus about the need for intimacy training, approaches to such training in both undergraduate teaching and the industry setting are evolving. In the discussion that follows, we reflect on new initiatives for intimacy training and examine resilience building and holistic student wellbeing in two Australian tertiary drama programs, in which the traditional methods of actor training already in use are combined with a range of new protocols for staff and students relating to the choreography of intimacy, education around consent and working within an ethic of care. We explore two programs that have explicitly addressed the challenges they face through changes to their curriculum: the Academy of Film Theatre and Television (Sydney, New South Wales)/JMC Academy (Melbourne, Victoria and Brisbane, Queensland), under a common private higher education provider, JMC Pty Ltd, and Flinders University, a public provider of drama education for undergraduates in South Australia.

5.2 The Response The responses to the range of challenges outlined above are varied amongst Australian providers of tertiary drama teaching, and in many ways take their lead from industry. In November 2020 the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance Equity section published a document entitled ‘Equity Intimacy Guidelines for Stage and Screen’. They drew on a number of international recommendations and what are known as ‘The Pillars’ for rehearsal and performance practice as advocated by Intimacy Directors and Coordinators. These comprise context, consent, communication, choreography and closure (IDI, 2016, p. 1). The Australian Equity guidelines are informative and practical, but they do not include any specific information or recommendations for student actors or educational settings. As they are designed for workplace settings, the guideline for presenting a production in which there is nudity, or semi-nudity, sexual activity on stage, on camera or in audio or ‘any other sensitive or exposing factors … graphic or violent in nature …’ is that an intimacy coordinator/director would be engaged in the pre-production period (p. 5). One of the salient questions to arise in the response to the guideline described above is how should and how can tertiary drama instructors approach intimacy training. The provision of a ‘qualified’ trainer to be present for every situation in which students work on a scene or rehearse

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a play is impossible. The question of opportunities for drama lecturers to undergo training in this field arises for drama programs, and the question of cost and appropriate levels of training enters the equation. Intimacy work is an emerging field, and at the time of writing there are no registered training organisations certifying intimacy coordinators or directors in Australia.1 While there are a number of Australian individuals currently marketing themselves as intimacy ‘consultants’ or ‘coaches’, certification is expensive, time-consuming, and can only be fully completed overseas. The American entertainers’ union (SAG-AFTRA), has endorsed seven accredited training programs, all located in North America or the United Kingdom. Some theatre companies engage an intimacy director to work alongside the artistic director of a production from the very beginning of the rehearsal period. Indeed ‘Intimacy Coordinators’ are being engaged regularly in Australia and overseas (Moor, 2021). An intimacy director such as Ayshia Mackie-Stephenson states that she would normally conduct a ‘consent workshop’ at the outset to immerse the cast in a set of practices and equip them with a language of safety before they embark on rehearsing specific scenes (Mackie-Stephenson, 2021, p. 265). She says for example that intimacy directors who train with Intimacy Directors and Coordinators (IDC) work to choreograph the ‘safe and authentic simulation of a sex act’ (p. 266). The Australian company, Key Intimate Scenes (KIS), offers specialist intimacy choreography for those working on stage and in screen settings. They also offer training for prospective intimacy coordinators that covers some 15 subjects and at least 50 hours of practical experience. An independent provider, Michala Banas, offers short weekend courses on intimacy training for Australian practitioners. Broad considerations of tertiary student wellbeing in the performing arts, both in the context of training and in preparing students for sustainable careers, have been present in the context of conservatoire dance training as evident in the critical interrogation of dance pedagogy by Julia Buckroyd in The Student Dancer: Emotional aspects of the teaching and learning of dance (2000) and in the accounts of exploitative power relationships in the dance studio (Green, 1999; Smith, 1998). However, considerations of tertiary student actor wellbeing have only emerged as a matter of significant concern over the past 20 years or so. Even in the field of performing arts medicine, the category of actors, as a cohort who experienced health challenges, has been until recently identified as ‘[t]he forgotten patients’ (Brandfonbrener, 1992). The need to address the wellbeing of actors has emerged most prominently from direct encounters with students who find themselves unexpectedly traumatised by

1

While the terms intimacy coordinator, consultant, choreographer, coach and director are often used interchangeably, these distinctions are important. According to Intimacy Directors and Coordinators, “Intimacy director or choreographer is the designation typically used for theatre and live performance. Intimacy coordinator is the title appropriate for use in film and television” IDC (2022). FAQs. Retrieved 14/08/2022 from https://www.idcprofessionals.com/faqs. This reflects the fact that intimacy coordinators are frequently involved in the screen audition process, developing contractual riders, as well as liaising with multiple departments during production. In theatre, the intimacy director works primarily in the rehearsal room with the performers on the safe, repeatable choreography of actions.

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the presumed normative approaches of professional actor training (see Burgoyne et al., 1999; McFarren, 2003). Yale University has published a document on their website that specifically addresses the issues for their programs. The ‘Guidelines for Rehearsing material with Sexual Content’ specify that ‘the stage manager and/or director will be the facilitator for all protocols relating to scenes with sexual content’. Under these guidelines there is no specified requirement for an intimacy coach or combat coach (in the case of fight scenes) but their potential presence and input is included in the guidelines (Yale University, 2022). This means that responsibility is in the hands of instructors who are often the directors or the student directors themselves. Many instructors draw on their own broader knowledge of working as an actor and the way they have been trained to trust, to work with openness and to acknowledge vulnerability. Their training in movement or dance informs the way they teach students to navigate intimacy. The textbook Staging Sex: Best Practices, Tools and Techniques for Theatrical Intimacy (2020) offers a practical framework based on movement that desexualises contact and provides ‘de-roling’ exercises to sustain professional distancing between actor and character. Instructors at some Australian institutions now take short intimacy training courses. Others have returned to trusted methods of training students to work together on scenes involving what Adam Noble calls Extreme Stage Physicality (E.S.P) (2011). Noble’s technique assumes that actors often need to work without a movement coach and offers actors and directors a practical framework with which to approach staged intimacy and staged violence. It focuses on both physical and emotional safety. This technique is discussed below in the context of sustaining student actor wellbeing in the new Bachelor of Creative Arts (Acting) offered by the Academy of Film, Theatre and Television (AFTT) in Sydney and JMC Academy in Melbourne and Brisbane. Andrea Moor notes that students enrolled in the Bachelor of Fine Arts Acting course at the Queensland University of Technology are engaged in formal discussions and workshops during Orientation week regarding consent and a workshop in each year of study. The workshops take place under a general University code of conduct regarding acceptable behaviour at the University. For example, in first year a workshop about consent to physicalising intimacy is conducted. In second year, students are instructed on managing consent and agreement to intimacy in their work and in third year they undertake extensive training on working with intimacy and violence on screen and on the stage (Moor, 2021). This staged and sequential approach to inducting students to intimacy protocols is in some ways reflective of the approach outlined in the Flinders University case study. There is no doubt that the rigours of training actors and the discipline of practice that training entails, regardless of the training style, provides a language for behaviour that in many ways aids and mirrors the discourse of respect, care and consent. For example, the sustained and careful preparation of actors through rehearsal taught by Stanislavski and the practical strategies for creating objectives and actions, with the overall need for control on the part of each actor or what Tait calls the selective acting of emotions as well as sustained experimentation (2021, p. 51, p. 56) cannot work effectively without attention to communication, consent and choreography. The

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discussion below reflects on the ways in which drama lecturers and trainers draw on existing actor training techniques and experiment with new protocols to achieve best practice around safety, consent and intimacy in their specific tertiary settings.

5.3 The Wellbeing of Students in Tertiary Settings and Actor Training Context: More Than Intimacy Training Alone Margrit Shildrick argues that the issue with regard to human vulnerability is how to negotiate appropriate degrees of vulnerability and intimacy so that individuals do not develop the potential to violate themselves or others (Shildrick, 2002, p. 118). Villarreal (2022) observes in her literature review about what she identifies as ‘consentbased performance’, that there are no simple, ideologically neutral or pure lines through which notions of intimacy safety have emerged. Rather, at a local and often personal level, performers and educators have identified gaps in the field where performers either in training or in the workplace experience varying degrees of vulnerability, disempowerment, and often injury and trauma. The impetus for change emerges as a response to what has been identified as lacking or harmful or unsustainable. Furthermore, while much public attention has been drawn to the emergence of intimacy direction and co-ordination over the past 16 years, there are broader matters of vulnerability, consent and ethics in performance training that have required fresh interrogation prior to any formalised empirical research on actor wellbeing. This is critical because there may be a temptation to consider that once we ‘know’ how to negotiate training initiatives with specific regard to student matters of touch, consent, enacted intimacy and addressing the disturbing trends in sexual harassment and abuse, our job is done. There are broader considerations that have circulated ever since the institutionalisation of actor training in conservatoire-like entities. A Churchill Fellowship by Seton2 (2010b) investigating actor wellbeing in training and in the workplace in the UK and Northern Ireland inspired the Equity Foundation of the Australian Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA) to partner with scholars in 2011 to conduct, the first national quantitative and qualitative study of actor wellbeing in the world (Maxwell et al., 2015). Up to that time, Equity was conscious of anecdotal information about problems with actor wellbeing including anxiety, depression, bullying and sexual harassment but had no documented data or measurement of the extent and impact of these issues. Furthermore, there could be a tendency to burden the individual actor with a requirement to change personal behaviours when many of the stressors could be located in the unquestioned ‘norms’ of the entertainment sector. The presumed equitable access to power to make ‘healthy 2 Subsequently, Seton expanded his research into aspects of the ethics of actor training (Seton, 2010a, b) and partnered with other actor training stakeholders to advocate for more ethical accountability in the conservatoire and other educational models of actor training in the nurturing of the next generation of student actors (Prior et al., 2015).

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choices’ within specific socio-economic and cultural conditions is a dynamic that Baxter (2017) argues can lead to individual blame for a failure to change. Therefore, with the subsequent analysis and published report leading to the formation of the Entertainment Wellness Committee in 2017 within MEAA, accountability for needed change was apportioned among all stakeholders.3 The year 2018 proved to be a significant one for Australia as the first presentations and workshops of intimacy direction and co-ordination arrived through the sponsorship of the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA). Ita O’Brien introduced her particular mode of intimacy direction known as Intimacy on Set, which was taken up by acting teachers at Queensland University of Technology (QUT) and Griffith University. Concurrently, the practice of Intimacy Directors and Coordinators has been incorporated within the theatre program at Victorian College for the Arts—University of Melbourne. At the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts (WAAPA) one lecturer has integrated training received across the three known accrediting programs—Intimacy on Set, Intimacy Directors and Coordinators (IDC) and Theatrical Intimacy Education. At a professional level, MEAA (2020) has also partnered with both Live Performance Australia (LPA) and Screen Producers Australia (SPA) to establish industry practice guidelines for dealing with intimate scenes (stage and screen) as well as formalising responses to bullying and sexual harassment, which were already documented by the Australian Actors Wellbeing Study (2015). Meanwhile, Australian acting teachers (under the supervision of O’Brien) have introduced some of the foundation practices to other tertiary level acting teachers at the second AusAct: The Australian Actor Training Conference, hosted by QUT in 2019. Subsequently, MEAA has also welcomed the IDC to present their approach via Zoom workshops during the COVID pandemic. As Villarreal sets out (and has been found evident in the case study of initiatives at the Academy of Theatre Film and Television presented below), notions of intimacy and consent intersect with race and gender diversity and affect feelings of vulnerability and disempowerment caused by prevailing sector traditions and performance industry conventions (Villarreal, 2022, pp. 13–21). Therefore, topics that might be included under the categories of intimacy and consent are constantly expanding and may eventually require a broader taxonomy to honour and attend to every aspect of the performing arts student’s training experience as preparation for their career.

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The Equity Wellness Committee’s name was changed to the Entertainment Wellness Committee to reflect the fact that wellness is an issue affecting all branches of the Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance, an amalgamated union representing performers, journalists, musicians and crew. Equity, the actors’ branch, spearheaded wellness along with a number of issues, particularly indigenous representation, that have since been embraced by other sections.

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5.4 Case Study 1: The Evolution of Actor Wellbeing at the Academy of Theatre, Film and Television (AFTT)4 In response to some challenging staff-student interactions Seton was approached by the Academy of Film, Theatre and Television to provide training for students that addressed physical, psychological, emotional and social dimensions of acting. He established a trimester-long program framed as The Working Actor as one unit of study within the existing Diploma of Acting course. This unit title was deliberately chosen to encourage the students to regard wellbeing as an essential aspect of preparing for a career as a professional actor. As JMC planned its Bachelor of Creative Arts (Acting), Seton and Maxwell were both invited to contribute to the design of the degree and some of the relevant units that would even more effectively equip students for both a rich learning experience and career preparation. Two more units of study were introduced: Professional Practice and Career Sustainability. Introduction to Professional Practice offers foundational skills and understanding of maintaining a healthy lifestyle: diet, sleep, time management, leisure, safe work practices, professional and personal boundaries and conduct, performance anxiety, high performance skills, as well as warm-up, cool down and preparation processes for actors. It also introduces processes of reflective journaling, independent reading, research protocols and expressing a personal opinion. In providing this initial, first year unit, JMC identifies that the nature of the acting process, the challenges of working in an ensemble and the demands of an acting career, create unique stresses on the professional actor. These require systematic processes and practices to ensure wellbeing is maintained and that the actor is able to develop resilience in relation to a range of stresses. The other unit of study, Career Sustainability, is offered to students in their final Semester. This unit develops a self-aware, responsible and sustainable approach to long term participation in the performing arts sector. It examines established research on acting career longevity and wellbeing, offering a reliable and authentic exploration of the experiences of working actors in the contemporary industry. The nature of portfolio careers rather than permanent employment opportunities demands a thorough understanding of industry structure and operation, business and financial skills as well as the ability to plan, forecast and examine self as a working professional. We therefore enable students not only to evaluate research outcomes of practices that may impact the professional actor’s wellbeing, but we also develop their skills in professional analysis, planning and business acumen, to assist them in constructing a logical and achievable plan for artistic and professional career longevity.

4

Formerly known as the Actors College of Theatre and Television, and now the Sydney-based brand for JMC Pty Ltd.

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Students engage well with these units of study. They are increasingly more aware that the acting profession is full of both personal and professional challenges around aspects of wellbeing, self-respect and career longevity. And, probably due to the nation-wide impact of COVID over the past two years (during which this degree program was launched), there is a far wider respect for students experiencing and seeking mental health support. However, there have also been unforeseen consequences of introducing these two units into the new degree. For example, students are questioning some of the exercises and activities of the specific acting craft units of the degree that, in their experience, appear to function in contradiction to the advice given in our wellbeing-oriented units. Some AFTT lecturers advise students to claim their autonomy and know that they can express concerns if they feel that they are being pushed into actions that make them feel unsafe or vulnerable. Yet other lecturers are calling upon students to ‘trust the process’ and submit to their directives in order to deliver recognisably more powerful performances, even if it sometimes leaves students in a state of distress and potential traumatisation. Stephen Wangh identifies some of the often unspoken practical concerns of teachers as they encounter challenges such as student resistance, appropriate touch and student–teacher transference issues (2013). He suggests that the angry or erotic impulses that a teacher may feel toward a student are not necessarily problems in themselves but it is rather the inescapable inequity in power between teacher and student that is overlaid on such feelings, especially when the teacher (as actor, director or casting agent) is an active professional and potential gate-keeper to the industry that the student aspires to enter (Wangh, 2013, pp. 94, 95). Theatrical Intimacy Education has expanded the definition of intimacy in order to interrogate such pre-existing practices of actor training where varieties of vulnerability emerge from unequal power dynamics in a workshop or performance (Villarreal, 2022, p. 15). In addition, it has proved challenging to find lecturers who are familiar with the emerging research, who have sufficient critical awareness of how the industry has previously neglected actor wellbeing and who have an empathetic skill set that may include Mental Health First Aid training. All this requires more professional development for lecturers and tutors so that they know how to monitor and support student wellbeing, but that can be a big ask when many educators are only engaged on a sessional basis by tertiary institutions. The power imbalance in the student/teacher context of the classroom is in some ways mirrored by the power imbalance in the teacher/employer context as well (or sessional staff member/university employer). The benefits of having industry relevant professions in our tertiary training programs also means that they are sessional and not given time to upskill or engage in professional development training, and this is a part of the system that needs reworking in order to make further progress.

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5.5 Case Study 2: Navigating Intimacy Work in Tertiary-Level Actor Training at Flinders University, South Australia This section offers a case study of how wellbeing principles are currently being implemented in an actor-training program at Flinders University, a South Australian public higher education provider. In particular, we explore the tension between industry best-practice and the realities of operating within the constraints of the university sector. As noted above, a distinguishing feature of conservatoire-style actor training is the employment of professional actors and directors as ‘guest artist’ teachers. This practice enables student actors to learn from professionals about industry standards, as well as to establish valuable contacts prior to graduation. While there is growing research into the value of implementing wellbeing and resilience techniques in tertiary education (Rashid et al., 2021; Watson & Barton, 2020; Whiteside et al., 2017), particularly following COVID, the principles should, in theory, be baked into actor training. The foundational elements of Stanislavski-based training—relaxation, concentration and imagination (Gillett, 2014)—are closely aligned with mindfulness meditation, which is widely recognised as an effective wellbeing practice. Stanislavski was an early adopter of yoga, and in his later years as a teacher-researcher he incorporated yoga postures, breathing and meditation as foundational training techniques (Carnicke, 2009). In principle, the notion of beginning a class or rehearsal with progressive, full-body relaxation, observation of the breath and quieting of the mind can—and often does—establish an environment of readiness and trust which is vital for an embodied creative process centred on emotional availability and connection. However, coincident with Stanislavski’s teaching system is the notion of the ‘guru’ teacher: a charismatic individual, commonly an exactor or director, who may be an experienced industry professional but lack formal teacher training (Alexandrowicz, 2012). Accounts of sexist, bullying behaviour in the rehearsal studio and classroom are bound up in the very roots of Stanislavski-derived training techniques, particularly the American-based “Method” that has permeated Western conservatoire training (Malague, 2012). Concerns about the physical and mental health of professional performers (Maxwell et al., 2015) and student-actors (Robb & Due, 2017; Taylor, 2016) were heightened during the rise of the #MeToo movement as discussed above. This has prompted widespread reflection and a review of the principles guiding the training of young performers (Innes, 2021; Moor, 2019; Robinson, 2017). Established in 1967 by theatre director and producer Wal Cherry, the Drama degree at Flinders University was the first of its kind in an Australian university. Cherry envisioned a course that taught performance skills for both stage and screen, paired with the intellectual rigour of a university degree. Today, the Bachelor of Creative Arts (Drama) is a three-year degree capped with an Honours year that comprises industry preparation and a practice-based exegesis. Students engage in conservatoire-style studio classes in acting, movement, voice, dance, singing and devising, as well as critical and theoretical studies. As discussed in more detail below, the Bachelor of

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Creative Arts (Drama) was subject to a course review in 2021. One element of this review concerned student wellbeing. Comprehensive, Drama-specific welfare and wellbeing protocols were developed in consultation with students, industry, and staff during the review process. The resultant recommendations include the requirement that an intimacy coordinator be called in to choreograph intimate scenes and a stunt coordinator/fight director be engaged for physical violence. The intention of this policy is to keep students safe by modelling industry-best practice. The challenge is how to effectively implement it with limited resources. In 2021, the Equity Foundation,5 with the support of Screen Australia and the Australia Council for the Arts, sponsored a scholarship program to certify eight intimacy coordinators located across Australia. Participants engaged in a 15-week online program with one of the United States’ most established training organisations, Intimacy Directors and Coordinators (IDC). This training was valued at approximately $10,000 AUD per person. Meanwhile, demand is outstripping supply. South Australia, where Flinders University is based, has one intimacy coordinator/ director who was certified through the Equity Foundation scholarship project. She is keenly pressed for time, as the South Australian screen industry has rebounded following COVID lockdowns and productions are frequently set in remote locations. Meanwhile, although she offers a sliding scale of fees for educational and community organisations, the preparation and choreography of an intimate scene for theatre or screen can cost anything between $300–$800 depending on the nature of the project. With tertiary creative arts and humanities departments experiencing significant financial cuts across the nation, budgets are extremely tight. In short, while Flinders University’s newly implemented wellbeing protocols recommend the engagement of an intimacy coordinator/director to choreograph intimate scenes, in practice, employing a certified individual in the current Australian educational landscape is often not practicable. This is not an issue that is exclusive to Flinders University. The explosion of media interest in intimacy choreography following #MeToo has seen significant demand for workshops led by instructors across the tertiary, secondary and extra-curricular sectors. And yet, the notion of certification in this nascent field is contested. Chelsea Pace, one of the founders of the US-based organisation Theatrical Intimacy Education (TIE), points out that ‘while the work (of intimacy direction) is old, the field is young’ (Pace, 2021: 88). Theatre educators and professionals have been developing policies and practices around consent, boundaries, and structured intimacy choreography for years (Noble, 2011). Pace argues that: The existence of “certification” leverages systems of power that promote inequality, exclusion, and the dynamics of deeply problematic master-teacher models to capitalize, financially or otherwise, on gatekeeping access to knowledge and opportunity. Intimacy work–or more broadly, consent work–should shine a light on the long-established hierarchies of power in our industries - not perpetuate them. Intimacy specialists, their organizations, and other powerful players in the field should be a levelling force. Intimacy work evolved out of communal efforts, and was established by the work of many. It should be both open to 5

Equity’s professional development arm.

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everyone and everyone’s responsibility because if consent is someone else’s job, it becomes no one’s job. (Pace, 2021, p. 83)

Pace’s emphasis on qualification as opposed to certification (Pace, 2020, p. 106) manifests in TIE’s digital and in-person workshops, as well the open-source Journal of Consent-Based Performance. The TIE mission statement clarifies that participants are free to use the techniques learned in workshops ‘in rehearsal, on set, or in the classroom’; however, only TIE faculty are permitted to benefit financially by teaching the pedagogy in workshops (TIE, 2020). Online classes are offered on a sliding scale, ranging from $US35-85, and scholarships are offered to people of the Global Majority and other self-identifying members of underrepresented groups. Workshops cover intimacy practices for stage and screen, including audition policies, the use of modesty garments, and the stage manager’s role, but also extend to issues around race, trauma and working with trans and non-binary performers. This recognition that intimacy intersects with other wellbeing-related issues is also evident in the work of the Canadian-based Association of Acting Coaches and Educators (AACE, 2022). The organisation emerged in response to a nation-wide survey of over 500 current and graduate student actors, conducted by the grassroots organisation Got Your Back Canada (GYB, 2022). The results revealed significant concerns regarding not only a lack of intimacy protocols in training institutes, but also issues around assessment, student workload, harassment, diversity and inclusivity (Robbins et al., 2019). The AACE has developed a Code of Conduct articulating standards and practices, as well as an open-source Member Guide to support acting coaches and educators in creating respectful learning environments. While membership is free, applicants are vetted by a steering committee and must provide references and evidence of sector-specific training in at least two designated areas, which include ‘Anti-harassment, Anti-bullying, Anti-oppression/Inclusion, Mental Health, Respect/Consent based training and Intimacy Basics for the Educator’ (AACE, 2022). The AACE has partnered with peak industry bodies including Canadian Actors Equity Association, the Alliance of Canadian Cinema, Television and Radio Artists and the Talent Agents and Managers Association of Canada. While a formalised industry-training partnership of this sort has yet to emerge in Australia, MEAA has developed a number of initiatives to support the next generation of performers. Reduced-rate student membership allows actors-in-training to participate in professional development workshops and initiatives like the Entertainment Wellness Challenge, while the Equity Foundation hosts an annual online Graduate Day to introduce students to the realities of the industry. In 2022, Equity Foundation extended an invitation to acting institutions across Australia and New Zealand to a free, livestreamed workshop with IDC founders Alicia Rodis and Claire Warden to educate both staff and students about current best practice in stage and screen intimacy. In the meantime, while education around the importance of intimacy coordination increases, the availability of certified Australian instructors remains problematic.

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5.6 Wellbeing Working Group at Flinders University and the Drama Program In relation to drama education, a productive and creative environment built on an ethic of care does not mean that there will be agreement between participants; on the contrary, a political theory of trust acknowledges that a caring environment may create a robust environment in which debate, dissent, generosity and artistic experimentation might be encouraged and valued. (Nicholson, 2002, p. 90)

As part of a wider creative arts curriculum review at Flinders University in 2021, a wellbeing working group was established to review the procedures and policies available to students and staff in the Drama Program. The mission statement for the working group was to review the current wellbeing support mechanisms in place at Flinders and to design a transparent, structured and informed framework of recommendations tailored specifically to meet the needs of a Drama training program. The working group comprised staff, students, alumni from the drama program, and industry representatives and met across a three-month period to develop these recommendations. These recommendations were designed within an ethic of care which prioritises relationality, transparency and responding to individual needs within the space of the collective. Marian Barnes describes an ethic of care as highlighting ‘the relational nature of what is it to be human’ (2012, p. 85), emphasising connectedness between people and an active consideration of the relationship between values, actions and systems. An ethic of care contextualises people within their diverse circumstances and seeks to respond sensitively to individual differences whilst simultaneously balancing this individual orientation of care with a responsibility to the needs of a group or ensemble (Simola et al., 2010, p. 181). The unique nature of drama training in an academic context means that individual students rely on peers in their cohort to support their individual and collective learning outcomes. The collaborative nature of drama and performance means that any framework seeking to support the wellbeing of students needs to embed this quality of balancing both individual and collective needs simultaneously. Amanda Stuart Fisher describes the process of making performance as ‘determined by relationships of interdependence and, therefore, performance making can become a means of recognising the value and necessity of interdependent relationships as a critical component of creative endeavour’ (2020, p. 10). Embedding relationality into the recommendations for supporting wellbeing is both central to an ethic of care and central to the discipline and training of drama and performance, as ‘individual wellbeing impacts community wellbeing’ (Hoyser, 2022, p. 76). This does not come without challenges and can serve to highlight the differences between the individual and the group, breeding a sense of ‘division of the self [which] is debilitating to wellbeing’ (Hoyser, 2022, p. 75). Herein lies the challenge. The working group began with broad discussions around what they understood ‘best practice’ to be in the context of wellbeing support for training programs and industry contexts. This was informed by the working group’s engagement with MEAA’s intimacy guidelines, and drew on the experiences of the alumni and industry

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representatives in the group who shared practices and approaches to supporting wellbeing that they had experienced in their professional working contexts. The complexities of drama training within an academic institution, where there is an expectation that policies are required to be similar across all degrees and disciplines, such as guidelines directing student and staff behaviour, institutional parameters around ways of working (particularly in relation to the number of hours students are required to commit to their studies), and University protocols for mitigating risk, also informed these discussions around best practice. It soon became clear that there were many informal practices and strategies in place, and that part of the recommendations the group could make would be to formalise these sporadic and sometimes ad hoc approaches into an intentional and structured framework. Flinders University has support mechanisms in place for both student and staff wellbeing and physical safety, however it was clear that much more could be done to communicate these in a meaningful way to students in the Drama Program and to educate both students and staff around the standard guidelines and supports available to everyone in the University community. The recommendations put forward by the working group sought to reinforce and normalise a wellbeing-focused culture in Drama training through four complementary and porous strategies. Firstly, they included workshops and information sessions in orientation week for each cohort of students, with the recommendation that these workshops cover working with sensitive material (with an explicit focus on intimacy work), information sessions on mental health awareness and support services within the University, and a workshop to develop a cohort agreement. Secondly, ongoing support mechanisms were recommended, including identifying a faculty-specific counsellor who would spend time with staff and students in the Drama Program in order to better understand the curriculum and course content in the creative arts. Building on the already established practice of inviting industry guest speakers to talk with students, the group recommended that these guests also be invited to share the strategies they have put in place to take care of their mental health and wellbeing, alongside the regular questions around career trajectory and production experience. The third recommendation centred on training for staff and guest artists, mandating that all full-time staff undertake a two-day Mental Health First Aid Training course offered by the University. It was also recommended that the University explore opportunities to provide formal intimacy training for staff, to encourage informal training and upskilling where possible and to include an induction for guest artists around the recommended production block policies (and importantly, that this time be added to the guest artists’ contracts). The recommendations proposed by the working group sought to embed transparency into the program’s approach for supporting wellbeing and reporting conflict/ concern as one of the steps towards building trust. Just as an ethic of care is relational and contextual, a ‘way of thinking about politics, social practices and the everydaylife considerations of people in diverse circumstances’ (Barnes et al., 2015, p. 233), trust is also a dynamically contextual concept. Helen Nicholson describes trust as ‘dependent on context and is continually negotiated and re-negotiated in action, as

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a performative act’ (2002, p. 81). Understanding trust as a phenomena that is amorphous, porous, and needing to be negotiated moment to moment can usefully inform recommendations for supporting wellbeing. It means that trust is not something you ‘set and forget’; rather, it is iterative and evolving. Strategies for maintaining trust (and by extension, wellbeing) also need to be iterative and evolving. An example of this on a micro level would be that even if some blocking (the choreographed sequence of movement and action in a scene) has already taken place on a scene involving physical touch and intimacy, in the early stages of rehearsal it can be valuable to confirm consent for touch each day until the blocking is set. It takes little time to ask ‘are you comfortable with us performing yesterday’s blocking?’. If the answer is ‘no’ then the group can address that before progressing. Establishing this practice of checking in with each other embeds care within the rehearsal room, values individual circumstances and provides valid junctures for student actors to express concerns. In a context where the director might also be the person assessing your performance (or indeed a guest director from industry who may be in the position to employ graduate actors in the future) normalising this simple act of confirming consent for touch helps balance the uneven power/authority dynamics in a rehearsal room. On a macro level (and included in the production block recommendations made by the working group), normalising a cohort agreement for a production, facilitating check ins/outs each day, compulsory intimacy calls or stage combat calls during a performance season, and scheduling production debriefs at the end of the performance season are all mechanisms for embedding the negotiation and re-negotiation of safety and trust in performance. Nicholson states that ‘trust is a response to moments of uncertainty and risk’ (2002, p. 84). Creating safe and trusting spaces for drama training does not mean eliminating risk. While some risks can make us vulnerable, Nicholson argues that ‘it is only through successfully negotiating the circularity of risk and action that students might extend their dramatic repertoires, and become active participants in new learning experiences in their drama education’ (2002, p. 85). Transparency around why we choose to engage with particular plays or creative activities, and sharing this understanding of the potential risk or emotional implications of a task can help to develop trust within a cohort, and between a cohort of students and staff or guest artists. As Nicholson sets out, by ‘explaining the rationale for the work, and by providing appropriate support and intervention, students often learn to build up trust gradually’ (2002, p. 85). Nicholson’s emphasis here on transparency around the rationale for particular work in a drama training program aligns with the fourth recommendation made by the working group, which focuses on educating staff, students and guest artists on the University policies and procedures in relation to the following: (a) Support Services (how to access informal and formal support from the Equal Opportunity office and Health and Counselling services), (b) Reporting Procedures (how to informally and formally report concerns and complaints), (c) Working with sensitive material (a guide for working with sensitive material in class) and (d) Production Block policies (specific requirements for working in production blocks). Drama training engages students with the experiences of life and the broadest spectrum of emotional and physical complexity. Sometimes this means telling stories

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that are confronting, risky and difficult. Learning to take supported creative risks can have a positive impact on wellbeing (Hoyser, 2022, p. 78). It would be irresponsible of an actor- training provider to be risk averse in their selection of plays or training activities, just as it would be irresponsible to engage with the same without implementing strategies for care, the incremental building of challenge and complexity in the work we do with students, and opportunities for conversation, negotiation, and choice. Ironically, the implementation of the Welfare and Wellbeing protocols coincided with University-wide social distancing measures established in response to COVID 19. These restrictions have meant that the issue of any sort of physical touch, much less intimate contact, has been moot for over two years. Both the Lecturer in Movement and Knight have undertaken TIE’s ‘Best Practices’ workshop, a six-hour digital course that introduces directors and instructors to techniques for developing a consent process, establishing boundaries, choreographing intimacy, and documentation. As we cautiously return to staging physical contact we have incorporated recommendations around stage kissing, such as ensuring actors gargle with a hydrogen peroxidebased mouthwash immediately before a scene (Rikard, 2022), and adopted staging techniques to minimise physical contact. During classes, students are introduced to practices around consent, boundaries, content warnings and de-sexualised language. They also establish an agreed upon ‘self-care’ word that allows an individual to exit a scene or situation if they feel unsafe. Flinders instructors strive to incorporate wellbeing principles during classes by critically reflecting on the techniques explored in actor training. They actively destabilise the tradition of the guru-teacher who imparts knowledge and experience to the naïve student and endeavour to create a learning environment in which students are encouraged to share their knowledge, insights and reflections. They operate under the principle that teachers have as much to learn from students as students do from teachers, and take advantage of the fact that the conservatoire-style training is embedded in a university undergraduate degree program that includes required critical readings and discussion. Assessment is based not only on participation and performance, but also written critical reflection that encourages students to articulate their own developing creative process in response to their training, reading and experiences both in the classroom and during productions. As actor-trainers in the twenty-first century, we believe that our role is not only to impart performance skills, but also to educate students about the historical context from which their training emerges, actively engage them in discussion and critique of its patriarchal origins, provide them with foundational tools around consent, boundaries and choreography, and alert them to industry-specific resources concerning mental health and wellbeing. In the future, if a script is selected for production that involves a complex intimate scene, we are confident that we will find the resources to employ a qualified intimacy director. However, at this point in time that situation has not eventuated. The new wellbeing protocols stipulate that complete nudity will not occur in any production; while nudity is by no means the only circumstance in which intimacy occurs, this policy demonstrates a pivot in actor training perhaps best explained

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through an example drawn from Knight’s own actor training in the 1990s. The graduate production—directed by a guest artist—of Lanford Wilson’s Balm in Gilead featured a young woman who performed nude throughout an entire scene. Staff and students marvelled at the actor’s fearlessness and artistic vulnerability. On reflection, however, one cannot deny that her participation in that directorial choice was very likely compromised by her subordinate position in the school’s power structure. There is a fundamental difference between a professional actor who has the right to choose to audition for a role involving nudity, and a student actor operating within a university or training school environment. While universities may not have the resources to replicate industry best-practice in its entirety, steps have been taken to provide student actors with tools that enable them to make an informed and empowered decision about the work they choose to undertake after graduation.

5.7 Conclusion Given the physical, psychological and economic stresses of working in the performing arts, there is a demonstrated need for initiatives during performance training that prepare students holistically for a successful career. To be effective these initiatives should be iterative, supported ideologically and financially by education institutions, and approach wellbeing from a variety of vantage points, including mental health awareness, intimacy training, accessible and transparent pathways for accessing support, and with an informed understanding of the rigours and complexity of the contemporary arts industry. As demonstrated across the two case studies discussed in this chapter, these initiatives can range from small changes to rehearsal room policies and the expectations that staff will undertake appropriate Mental Health First Aid Training, through to the integration of entire units of study dedicated to preparing students for sustainable careers as professional artists. Regardless of their scope, we advocate that these initiatives be scheduled at key junctures across multiyear training programs, be grounded in an ethic of care which balances both individual and collective wellbeing, have a commitment to transparency, include integrated opportunities for negotiation and agency, and take into consideration the holistic wellbeing of the student. While further research and evaluation are required to better understand the impact in both the short and long term of the policies and protocols outlined across the two case studies in this chapter, the first step towards improved outcomes for artists is for performer trainers and educators to share their practices and normalise embedding these into actor training. Through sharing, testing and evaluating these initiatives we ensure that our students are prepared not only to survive in their chosen industry and careers, but to flourish. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the research assistance of Dr. Alys Daroy in the preparation of this chapter.

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Seton, M. (2010b). The Gilbert Spottiswood Churchill fellowship to study holistic healthcare of actors in training and in the workplace. https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/fellows/detail/3387/ Mark+SETON%20PhD Shildrick, M. (2002). Embodying the monster: Encounters with the vulnerable self . Sage Publications. Simola, S., Barling, J., & Turner, N. (2010). Transformational leadership and leader moral orientation: Contrasting an ethic of justice and an ethic of care. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 179–188. Smith, C. (1998). On authoritarianism in the dance classroom. In S. B. Shapiro (Ed.), Dance, power, and difference: Critical and feminist perspectives on dance education (pp. 122–146). Human Kinetics. Stuart Fisher, A. (2020). Introduction: Caring performance, performing care. In A. Stuart Fisher & J. Thompson (Eds.), Performing care. Manchester University Press. Svane, D., Evans, N. S., & Carter, M. (2019). Wicked wellbeing: Examining the disconnect between the rhetoric and reality of wellbeing interventions in schools. Australian Journal of Education, 63(2), 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004944119843144 Tait, P. (2021). Theory for theatre studies: Emotion. Methuen. Taylor, S. L. (2016). Actor training and emotions: Find a balance. Edith Cowan University. Thomson, R. M., et al. (2022). How do income changes impact on mental health and wellbeing for working-age adults? A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 7(6), 515–528. http:// doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(22)00058-5 TIE. (2020). Mission statement. Retrieved 14/08/2022 from https://www.theatricalintimacyed.com/ mission Villarreal, A. R. (2022). The evolution of consent-based performance: A literature review. Journal of Consent Based Performance, 1(1), 5–25. Wangh, S. (2013). The heart of teaching: Empowering students in the performing arts. Routledge. Watson, M., & Barton, G. (2020). Using arts-based methods and reflection to support postgraduate international students’ wellbeing and employability through challenging times. Reflection and Reflective Thinking, 10(S2), 101–118. Retrieved from: Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A652352739/AONE?u=monash&sid=bookmarkAONE&xid=a17fb35b. Accessed November 1, 2022. White, M. A., & McCallum, F. (2022). Wellbeing and professional practice: A turning point. In M. A. White & F. McCallum (Eds.), Transforming teaching: Wellbeing and professional practice. Springer. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4945-6_1 Whiteside, M., Bould, E., Tsey, K., Venville, A., Cadet-James, Y., & Morris, M. (2017). Promoting twenty-first-century student competencies: A wellbeing approach. Australian Social Work, 17(3), 324–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2016.1263351 Yale University. (2022). Guidelines for rehearsing material with sexual content. https://up.yaleco llege.yale.edu/policies/guidelines-rehearsing-material-sexual-content

Professor Anne Pender, Ph.D., holds the Kidman Chair in Australian Studies in the School of Humanities and directs the JM Coetzee Centre for Creative Practice at the University of Adelaide. Anne is a National Library of Australia Fellow 2021, was Fulbright Senior Fellow at Harvard University in 2018, and is a former Australian Research Council Future Fellow 2012–2016. A Menzies Scholar to Harvard and graduate of the Australian National University, the University of New South Wales and Harvard University, Anne was Visiting Distinguished Professor in Australian Studies at the University of Copenhagen from 2011–2012 and taught Australian Literature at King’s College London in 2002–2003. Anne’s books include Seven Big Australians: Adventures with Comic Actors (2019), Players: Australian Actors on Stage, Television and Film (2016), From a Distant Shore: Australian Writers in Britain 1820–2012 (2013), One Man Show: The Stages of Barry Humphries (2010), Nick Enright: An Actor’s Playwright (2008) and Christina Stead: Satirist (2002).

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Dr. Tiffany Knight, Ph.D., is an actor, director and Lecturer in Drama at Flinders University. She has performed with theatre companies across Australia and Canada, including State Theatre Company South Australia, Queensland Theatre, Manitoba Theatre Centre and eight seasons with Bard on the Beach Shakespeare Festival. She originated the role of Emily in the multiaward-winning solo show 19 weeks by Emily Steel and has been nominated for four Jessie Richardson Theatre awards for her work on Vancouver stages. On-screen, Tiffany, has appeared in many featured and recurring roles, including Battlestar Galactica, Stargate SG-1, Smallville, Wanted, ANZAC Girls, Red Dog and The Babadook. Throughout her career, she has taught acting, including Adelaide University’s Elder Conservatorium Musical Theatre program, Flinders University Drama Centre, Adelaide College of the Arts, and the University of British Columbia. Tiffany was awarded a Ph.D. in Drama from Flinders University in 2018 and received the Vice Chancellor’s Prize for Doctoral Thesis Excellence. She co-authored The Creative Ph.D.: Challenges, Opportunities, Reflection with Tara Brabazon and Natalie Hills (Emerald Press). Tiffany is currently National Vice President of the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (Equity Section). Dr. Sarah Peters, Ph.D., (she/her) is Senior Lecturer in Drama at Flinders University and book reviews editor for Australasian Drama Studies. Sarah is a playwright and theatre practitioner specialising in verbatim theatre and community-engaged theatre-making, most recently with youth arts organisations in South Australia such as D’faces of Youth Arts, Expressway Arts (Carclew) and Prospect Theatre for Young People. Her verbatim plays (published online with Australian Plays Transform) engage with communities to tell the shared stories of experience, such as women living with Alopecia in bald heads and blue stars (2014), young people navigating mental health and wellbeing in twelve2twentyfive (2015) growing up in rural communities in Eternity (2017) and pilgrims on the Camino de Santiago looking for belonging in Blister (2019). Her research investigates collaborative theatre-making processes within an ethic of care, dramaturgies of theatre based on lived experiences, and the sociopolitical and interpersonal outcomes of arts engagement for community participants. Dr. Mark Seton, Ph.D., is Program Director, Drama at Excelsia College, Sydney and Honorary Research Associate in the Department of Theatre and Performance Studies at The University of Sydney, Australia. He teaches actor well being in several drama schools and coaches actors, dealing with highly vulnerable and potentially traumatising roles, through the Actors’ Wellbeing Academy that he has established online. He was awarded a Churchill Fellowship in 2009 to conduct a study tour of actor training healthcare practices in the U.K. Arising from this study, the Equity Foundation, in collaboration with the University of Sydney, initiated an internationally ground-breaking Actors’ Wellbeing Study (A.W.S.) in 2013. Mark is also a founding member of the Australian Society for Performing Arts Healthcare.

Chapter 6

Positive Museums, Community Intervention in Wellbeing Through the Arts Rosalinda Ballesteros , Iván Guerrero , and Mario Toledo

6.1 Introduction Cultural expression has accompanied human beings ever since human beings existed. We are creative beings who need to connect with our environment and with each other through this type of expression. Our cities especially offer a wide variety of cultural products, and some social groups continuously consume this type of expression. It has been a challenge for universities like ours, Tecmilenio, to include Art and Culture topics oriented towards Positive Humanities in the curriculum of high school students. We achieved it by designing learning units based on the relationship between art and emotions and by including a music subject in the curriculum. However, there is much more to do. The Institute for Integral Wellbeing at Tecmilenio University, formerly the Institute for Wellbeing and Happiness, emerged in 2013 with the mission of raising the importance of wellbeing in the educational, organizational, and community contexts. Two principles guide our actions in developing this mission. First, it must align with the ideals presented by the Positive Humanities Project led by Pawelski (2022) from the University of Pennsylvania. Second, our understanding of historical, cultural, and artistic productions from different perspectives is essential to cultivate who we are as human beings and for the Human Flourishing strategy that encompasses the vision of our institution towards 2030.

R. Ballesteros (B) · I. Guerrero · M. Toledo Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C., Universidad Tecmilenio, Monterrey, N.L., México e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_6

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6.2 Cultural Expression and Positive Humanities In Tay et al.’s (2018) proposal, the RAISE model operates with five psychological mechanisms for approaching the humanities: reflection, acquisition, immersion, socialization, and expression. The Positive Museums Project was proposed in 2017, before the presentation of this model in 2018; however, it meets these objectives. Based on the work of De Botton and Armstrong (2016), the project offers visitors an opportunity to reflect on their experience in a museum and the chance to acquire knowledge about cultural expression and oneself, including learning through (usually) a visual or written expression about the museum or cultural space. The project aims to impact three specific dimensions. First, it creates new experiences for regular museum visitors. Second, it reaches new audiences interested in learning about themselves and their wellbeing through cultural expression. We seek not only to make new experiences but also to encourage new consumers into cultural expressions that foster human flourishing. Third, it builds on the necessity for new contexts and innovative applications of positive psychology. We are convinced that people can learn skills that can help them live a happier life and that a new way to do this is through cultural spaces. The discipline of positive psychology continues to evolve and, along the way, discovers new opportunities for people to learn to be happy and flourish. Among its most recent adherents are researchers and science practitioners who recommend the arts as a strategy for favoring people’s wellbeing and mitigating the impact of negativity (Darewych & Riedel Bowers, 2018). Indeed, previous studies have shown that creating art and engaging in artistic activities increase our wellbeing and reduce stress (Devlin, 2010; Windsor, 2005). Museums play an important role in society beyond transmitting cultural, artistic, scientific, and historical knowledge. They also function as therapeutic spaces (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016) for people with physical disabilities, mental disorders (e.g., depression or anxiety), and terminal illnesses (e.g., cancer) and for people seeking personal growth and development. Matarasso (1997) shows that participating in artistic activities (including cultural festivals, programs provided by museums, and community art projects) can have a positive impact on different aspects of our lives (Table 6.1). Although the methodology adopted by Matarasso (1997) has received criticism over time, similar results have been found in later research, which shows that involvement in cultural encounters through museums does help increase people’s health and wellbeing (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016), given that museums: • • • • • •

provide a positive social experience provide opportunities to learn and acquire new skills promote a state of calm and reduce anxiety provoke emotional responses such as optimism, hope and fun promote self-esteem, a sense of identity, and connection to the community provide experiences that can be novel, inspiring, and meaningful.

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Personal development • 84% felt more confident about what they could do • 80% learned new skills • 37% decided to take a course or training Social cohesion • 91% made new friends • 84% were interested in something new • 54% learned about other cultures Community empowerment and self-determination • 86% wanted to get involved in future activities • 21% generated greater awareness or sense of their rights Local image and identity • 86% wanted to get involved in future activities • 21% generated greater awareness or sense of their rights Imagination and vision • 86% tried things they hadn’t done before • 81% mentioned that creativity was important to them • 49% thought participating changed their minds Health and wellbeing • 73% felt happier since participating • 52% felt better or healthier Source Adapted from own elaboration in Tecmilenio and Matarasso (1997)

In this way, cultural spaces provide a space to integrate different groups in the population. They have a twofold purpose: to prevent the appearance of negative states and to promote the conditions for positive states to flourish, mainly through pleasant experiences that generate greater satisfaction with life. An extensive list of initiatives, including case studies on the impact of museum activities on people’s health and wellbeing, can be found in Museums, health and wellbeing (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016). Also, to explore innovative strategies on wellbeing activities in museums, the following resources may be useful: Museums for health and wellbeing (Lackoi et al., 2016), Museums as spaces for wellbeing (Desmarais et al., 2018), Museums out of the box! (Briguglio et al., 2018), and Mind, body, spirit: How museums impact health and wellbeing (Dodd & Jones, 2014). Consistent with this literature, some museums have promoted new connections with the community, expanding their scope of action. Such is the case with the Happy Museum Project (2016), a project in the United Kingdom that operates under the premise of connecting wellbeing and sustainability to develop prosperous communities through museums and the training of their staff on how to promote people’s wellbeing. Their model consists of six guiding principles: (1) create conditions for wellbeing, (2) value the environment and be a guardian of the future and the past, (3) be an active citizen, (4) pursue reciprocal relationships, (5) learn to be resilient, and (6) measure what matters. Under these principles, the project seeks to

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raise awareness about the use of resources, climate change, the loss of biodiversity, inequality, and social injustice, and how these can affect people’s and communities’ wellbeing. Positive Humanities postulates that cultural expressions in humanities bring us closer to human flourishing by how they are created, observed, and experienced. Yet recently, we have faced a pandemic of global proportions, and the expression of the humanities has undoubtedly suffered. Therefore, a social function the project has fulfilled recently has been to keep those interested connected with artistic expression while helping museum spaces recover to pre-pandemic levels of visitors.

6.3 Positive Museums The Positive Museums Project formally began in 2017 from a collaboration between Tecmilenio University and the International Festival of Santa Lucía, held annually in the city of Monterrey, Mexico. The festival presents national and international artistic shows, as well as free exhibitions and dialogues for the whole family, under the vision of “bringing the arts closer to people, inspiring, transforming and connecting communities” (Festival Internacional de Santa Lucía, 2019). This vision goes hand in hand with the 2030 vision declared by Tecmilenio University, which is to help people to find a life purpose and acquire the competencies to achieve it (Universidad Tecmilenio, 2020). Building on this set of visions, a Positive Museums tour aims for visitors to identify and experience positive emotions through workshops, guided tours, and various activities that allow them to generate a commitment with themselves and others to build positive environments. In other words, these experiences contribute to the positive transformation of a community through socioemotional education and the teaching of skills that promote individual and collective wellbeing. The experiences designed for the Positive Museums Project have a scientific foundation based on a framework that integrates elements from Positive psychology (Seligman, 2011) and the art-as-therapy approach (De Botton & Armstrong, 2016). Positive psychology is defined as the scientific study of optimal human functioning, focused on discovering and promoting factors that allow individuals and communities to flourish (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). More specifically, Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model proposes that experiencing positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement represents different ways people can reach a state of wellbeing. These elements can generate interesting learning and growth opportunities for people, mainly because museums, through their spaces and their artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific approaches: • stimulate the experience of a wide variety of positive emotions, which exposes visitors to multiple development opportunities that lead them to learn new things about themselves and their environment

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• offer activities, such as workshops, guided tours, and reflective exercises, that generate greater engagement in the experience—this facilitates the development of capacities such as character strengths, which can be defined as aspects of personality that are morally valued and form the foundation of optimal development and progress throughout life (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) • connect people (relationships) through sharing a love for art or learning something new, which strengthens groups and leads people to get to know each other and relate better, even generating altruistic behaviors • cultivate interest through experiences that link them with their environment, which favors a greater understanding of oneself, the place one occupies in the world, and how one can contribute to it—this has the potential to generate greater meaning in life • increase a sense of achievement in the visitors through their efforts to use their skills to achieve a specific objective in the proposed activities. From the perspective of art as therapy (De Botton & Armstrong, 2016), art favors the development of seven psychological functions that can help people build a greater state of wellbeing. These are: 1. Helping us remember the episodes that have given us direction in the world as we know it today. Memory leads us to cultivate emotions such as pride and inspiration. 2. Encouraging hope in the face of adversity. Artistic beauty connects a person with a vision that promotes the positive emotion of hope for a bright future. 3. Teaching us that sadness and pain are inherent in human nature, but joy and wellbeing can also be signified; both dimensions are necessary to understand what it means to be human. 4. Helping us achieve an emotional balance in life, putting the intensity of the daily routine into perspective, re-establishing contact with oneself, and acquiring a greater moral conscience toward people and the environment. 5. Facilitating the identification of values and what is fundamental for people, which increases self-knowledge, favors self-understanding, and provides greater clarity in how one shows oneself to others. 6. Opening a window to personal growth through exposure to a vast artistic and cultural experience. 7. Providing a lens to appreciate what surrounds us with a renewed vision, connecting us with new experiences and ways of seeing life. Finally, Chilton and Wilkinson (Chilton & Wilkinson, 2009; Wilkinson & Chilton, 2013) coined the term “Positive Art Therapy” to describe the intersection between art therapy and positive psychology. This new approach, encompassing emotions, character, and communities, suggests that positive interventions based on creating or experiencing art generate benefits for people’s state of mind—for example, creating a work of art from the good things that happened in the day or designing an artistic piece and giving it to a person (Chilton et al., 2015). It prompts a better management of negative emotions such as stress and even a better way to cope with adversity.

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Fig. 6.1 Road to happiness game. Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

Positive practices can be used effectively to develop wellbeing habits and skills through participating and engaging in artistic and cultural activities.

6.4 Positive Museums Selected Experiences The Positive Museums Project has gone one step further to bring wellbeing experiences closer to people, since various types of museums (cultural, industrial, historical, scientific, etc.) participate in the project. It aims to convene other spaces for cultural expression to join the project under the premise that wellbeing can be taught and is available to everyone. A series of activities are presented below to provide a broad perspective on the different interventions carried out in museums, each with a different focus. “Papalote Museo del Niño, Monterrey: The Road to Happiness”1 Figure 6.1 shows an adaptation of the classic game of snakes and ladders, designed to build moments of fun and strengthen relationships using positive emotions as enablers of happiness. 1

https://papalotemty.org.mx/.

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Positive emotions can be defined as pleasant multicomponent response tendencies. They are multicomponent because they involve more than just our internal feelings; they include changes in our nervous system, hormones, facial expressions, thoughts, and more (Fredrickson & Cohn, 2008). Fredrickson (2009) proposes a set of 10 positive emotions people commonly manifest. According to Hanson (2013), our brains are wired to pay more attention to negative emotions like anger or sadness. Positive emotions are less strong and more subtle than negative ones. As a result, even when more positive emotions are experienced, the brain easily captures the negative ones. This phenomenon is known as the negativity bias: the propensity to pay attention, learn, and use negative information much more than positive information (Vaish et al., 2008). The brain is built to focus more on the negative. Unconsciously, we pay more attention and give greater weight to those experiences. Because of this, people tend to focus more on negative than positive affirmations and on what needs to be corrected over what needs to be strengthened. Fredrickson (2003) proposes that a positivity approach does not mean ignoring negative experiences; it refers to paying more attention to positive experiences than we usually do. Based on the difference in intensity and duration of positive and negative emotions, Fredrickson (2003) suggested that for a proper emotional balance, there must be a positivity ratio of three positive emotions to one negative. In the game, players experience positive emotions when they achieve a set of challenges for each of the 10 positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2009) distributed on the board. For each challenge achieved, players will receive a card showing the corresponding emotion, which they can collect during the game. Later, if a player reaches a square that contains a ladder, the player can exchange three cards to go up. If they don’t have all three cards, they continue on the normal path. If a player reaches a gray box (corresponding to a negative emotion), they can exchange three cards to keep their place and not go down; if the player does not have the three cards, they go down the slide. This dynamic teaches participants that maintaining an adequate emotional balance requires at least three negative emotions for each negative one (Fredrickson, 2003). The player who reaches the “Happiness” box first wins. At the end of the game, participants answer these questions: How many positive cards did you finish the game with? Do you consider it easy or difficult to maintain an optimal emotional balance (3–1 ratio)? How did you feel playing the game? The intention is to make people aware that they can create wellbeing in their lives with small daily actions to generate a high emotional capital (which allows them to feel good). Also, when they face adverse situations, the impact is less, and they can deal with it better. Museum of Contemporary Art: Postcards2 This activity consists of inviting visitors to take a tour of the exhibition “Unstable Presence” by Rafael Lozano Hemmer, as well as works from the exhibition “Record 05, Focus the Look”. Participants are invited to a workshop inside the museum in which, with recycled materials and printed postcards provided by the museum 2

http://www.marco.org.mx/index.pl?i=235.

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Fig. 6.2 Postcards made by participants in the activity (courtesy of MARCO Museum). Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

staff, they place the postcard with a visual composition (the front of the postcard is blank, and the visitors use the space to make a collage, a drawing or other means of expression; while the reverse side has phrase suggestions that the visitor can use to write a positive message). Finally, once the participant has made the postcard, they deposit it in a mailbox in the museum lobby and have the option of taking another postcard. In this way, the participants in the activity send each other positive messages from an artistic work (Fig. 6.2). Alfa Planetarium and Dialogue in the Dark: Bring Your Emotions to Light3 In 2018, the Alfa Planetarium, with “Diálogo en la Oscuridad”, an organization dedicated to the development of capacities, abilities, and values through experiential learning experiences in total darkness (Diálogo en la Oscuridad, 2014) created the experience “Bring your emotions to light” (Fig. 6.3). The activity consists of a sensory tour in total darkness accompanied by guides who have a visual disability through spaces that simulate everyday environments, such as a supermarket. Given that, for many visitors, the tour can cause tension, frustration, and even anxiety, the facilitators used their dialogue in the dark to transform the experience of fear into hope or anguish into gratitude. At the end of the tour, visitors arrive at a dark cabin, lit only by white light, and are invited to reflect on what they have learned in the activity and to write down a positive message on a wall. White light makes the message glow in the dark. Under this concept, the emotions they experienced in the dark now glow. The purpose of the tour is to sensitize the visitor to what it is like to live with a visual disability; at the same time, they learn to deal with situations that cause discomfort, using positive emotions as a coping mechanism. 3

http://www.planetarioalfa.org.mx/.

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Fig. 6.3 Booth with positive messages (courtesy of Alpha Planetarium). Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

Wax Museum of Monterrey4 : Strengths in Wax Character strengths are universal virtues shared by all people in all cultures. The study of human behavior has focused on classifying, studying, and modifying behaviors to do with deficits. Psychology has focused on what should be corrected and not on virtues (Park & Peterson, 2009). Peterson and Seligman (2004) propose expanding this paradigm and complementing it by identifying and classifying those virtues that bring us closer not to pathology but to flourishing. This proposal revolves around preventing pathologies while promoting virtues. Thanks to this, organizations such as VIA (Values in Action)5 have made efforts to study a series of universal virtues and qualities (shared by all people regardless of creed, race, culture, or country) associated with the flourishing of the person. Niemiec (2018) proposed the Aware-Explore-Apply model (AEA) as a typical process by which practitioners and clients work with character strengths. The first phase is to cultivate awareness to break people’s blindness to their strengths and help them see their own positive qualities. Next, is the exploration of these strengths, how they have been used in the past and how they can be used in the present and future, as well as how to use them in times of adversity. The third phase involves gathering one’s learnings and insights from the earlier phases and planning by setting goals and actions.

4 5

http://museodeceramonterrey.com/. https://www.viacharacter.org/.

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Fig. 6.4 Wax figure of Mahatma Gandhi (courtesy Museo de Cera Monterrey). Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

In 2019, the Monterrey Wax Museum participated for the first time in the program with a unique activity: identifying the character strengths of historical figures. For this, some historical characters were selected, and a card was added to their biographical file on which visitors could indicate what their character strengths would be. Visitors could then place a magnet signifying the strength on the descriptive file (Fig. 6.4). At the end of the museum tour, visitors go to a workshop where they complete a self-exploration assessment of their own strengths, then produce a figure using clay. This exercise is based on the AEA model, a useful approach to developing character strengths (Niemiec, 2018). From the tour, visitors develop an awareness of character strengths, and they explore how historical figures put them to use in their lives, leading them to contribute to the world. They then apply their own strengths in a model that represents their personality. Horno36 : An Amazing World This presentation at the exhibition of the Horno3 Museum, called “Planet Earth”, uses the SOS® system with projections of the planet, as well as audiovisual material on four screens to show how wonderful and unique the planet is. The presentation is designed to stimulate positive emotions. At the end of the exhibition, the visitor selects a face that represents a positive emotion and writes down a message identifying the 6

https://www.horno3.org/.

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Fig. 6.5 “An amazing world” exhibition inside the Old Blast Furnace No. 3 (courtesy Horno3 Museum). Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio. For more information on the different activities that we have designed in the project, visit the Positive Museums page7

emotion experienced during the presentation. Later, the visitor places the face with the message on the protection railing in the center of the room, seeking to inspire other visitors about the amazingness of the planet and the importance of taking care of it (Fig. 6.5).

6.5 Results The Positive Museums Project has had a great impact on Monterrey. In the project’s first three years, more than 43,000 people have participated in the activities inside the museums, and we have received more than 5000 visits to the virtual tours. At some of the positive experiences in the museums, participants were surveyed, and interesting results were obtained. For example, in the activity “The Road to Happiness” at the Papalote Museo del Niño, the participants were asked what they had learned from the experience. Forty percent said they had learned about the 3–1 positivity ratio to maintain an optimal balance, and 37.5% said they could now identify and practice different positive emotions. Even more important, 22% of the participants established a commitment with themselves and their companions 7

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Fig. 6.6 Results of a survey applied to 48 participants in the activity “The Way to Happiness”. Source Own elaboration in Tecmilenio

to improve their state of wellbeing, which indicates that, at least anecdotally, the activity generated the expected results (Fig. 6.6).

6.6 Positive Museums and Prosocial Behavior Additionally, from prompting positivity among individuals, one of the main goals of the project is to strengthen social relationships between the community and cities. Social interaction has a psychological impact on people. Humans need to interact with others, and one of the things closely related to the interaction is prosocial behavior (Baron & Branscombe, 2012). When people interact constructively with others through helping behavior, they report higher levels of happiness and satisfaction (Burns, 2010). Prosocial behavior is the willingness of a person to help others voluntarily without the desire or need for reciprocity (Baron & Byrne, 2005). It is a form of positive behavior that provides benefits for harmonious human relationships and helps reduce antisocial behavior (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989). Recent studies have shown that positive emotions (e.g., gratitude) and prosocial behavior are significantly related (Yunanto, 2020). This leads us to question whether the experiences at Positive Museums, besides helping people experience positive emotions, could generate prosocial behaviors in them. In 2019, a research team from the Institute for Integral Wellbeing at Tecmilenio University conducted an experiment on 105 participants in the activity “An amazing world”. The aim was to determine if the participants reported a high level of positive emotions after each activity and if these emotions could predict prosocial behavior. After the activity, participants were given a list of positive emotions and asked to rate their level of emotional intensity, using a 1-to-5-point Likert scale. Then at the exit, they were presented with the opportunity to donate to an altruistic cause. As seen

6 Positive Museums, Community Intervention in Wellbeing Through the Arts Table 6.2 Frequencies of emotional intensity and donations

Emotional intensity

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Donation

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Fig. 6.7 Prosocial behavior and high emotional intensity

in Table 6.2, the results showed that 77% reported high levels of positive emotions, and only 23% reported low levels of positive emotions (answers from 1 to 3). This means that visitors who participated in the activity reported, in general, high levels of positive emotions. Figure 6.7 shows that when people experience positive emotions with more intensity, there is a bigger chance that they will donate to an altruistic cause. In contrast, after experiencing negative emotions, they prefer not to donate. In this case, 80% of people who experienced high levels of positive emotions donated, while only 5% of people who experienced low levels of positive emotions did so. As the intensity of the emotion diminished, the action of donating also diminished.

6.7 Discussion These results are consistent with other scientific findings that indicate positive emotions allow the development of adequate social skills to generate connections between people and the learning of helpful behaviors mainly through what is known

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Table 6.3 Curriculum Art and wellbeing

Self-management of wellbeing

Design of learning experiences and wellbeing

Relationship between art, health, The body, the first space of Positive museums, spaces for and wellbeing wellbeing learning and wellbeing Positive emotions and wellbeing Social skills

Learn to listen and ask to build meaningful dialogues

Curiosity and creativity, vital impulses of the human being

Identify your needs and communicate from the connection

Applied neuroplasticity in the design of learning and wellbeing experiences

Positive emotions as a basis for the design of learning and wellbeing experiences

Know your character strengths

The importance of play in the design of learning and wellbeing experiences

as “positive empathy” (Richaud & Mesurado, 2016). In this way, experiencing positive emotions could help people not only improve their happiness and wellbeing but also foster positive behavior such as empathy and prosocial behavior. Although much work still needs to be done in terms of research and evaluating the project’s impact, these results suggest that Positive Museums is a promising area of study. It appears to promote strategies to help people, at an individual and community level, learn skills that lead them to wellbeing. Positive Museums can mean transforming people and community life through experiences that increase people’s ability to provide greater wellbeing and generate compassionate environments. This is the purpose that guides the program and the inspiration that leads participants to a better future. Finally, as of 2022, more than 40 museums of Mexico and Spain have participated in the project, with more than 300 thousand participants in online and on-site activities. For more information about participating museums, please visit Positive Museums.8

6.8 Conclusions In 2022, the Positive Museums Project became a curriculum, consisting of a series of courses to train staff and educational service teams, public relations, and curators of cultural spaces. This will allow museums from all over Latin America to be incorporated. The curriculum consists of courses that develop the necessary skills for museum professionals to design an experience based on positive emotions and character strengths (Table 6.3). Additionally, the project has been presented in Mexico to the ICOM (International Council of Museums) and has been presented in nine community museums in the state of Yucatán. 8

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To date, 72 museums in Mexico and one in Spain have participated in the training program, and 24 activities aligned with the wellbeing experience have been created in a museum. The activities have had a wide range of applications, from creating virtual tours to completely transforming a museum space. For more details about the program, please visit Positive Museums Course.9 Virtual reality interventions and museum metaverses are proposed as the next steps for the younger consumers of cultural products. For us, it will be essential to generate more research demonstrating the positive effect of learning about wellbeing through practices in cultural spaces, especially in museum spaces. Over the next few years, we will obtain valuable data to validate the interventions and thus share the model with more museums to cover Latin America. Acknowledgements We appreciate the support of Tecmilenio and the members of the council to promote the Positive Museums initiative. To the International Festival of Santa Lucia, for being a key ally to bring the program to the museums of Nuevo León and to the different cultural associations and members of the educational services of the museums, who have approached us and have had confidence in our method to continue creating memorable experiences in visitors. Ethics This study was approved by the University of Tecmilenio Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity (Approval No. 002).

References Ballesteros-Valdés, R., & Charles-Leija, H. (2021). A comparative study of wellbeing in students: Tecmilenio case. In M. White & F. McCallum (Eds.), Wellbeing and resilience education (pp. 33– 50). Routledge. Baron, R. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2012). Social psychology (13th ed.). Pearson. Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. (2005). Psilologi sosial. Penerbit Erlangga. Briguglio, M., Broekgarden, A., Cousins, J., DeBono, S., Myllykoski, M., Siil, R., Simansons, R., Tsekou, M., & Zipsane, H. (2018). Museums out of the box! The crossover impact of museums. https://www.ne-mo.org/news/article/nemo/museums-positive-impact-across-sectors.html Burns, G. W. (2010). Happiness, healing, enhancement: Your casebook collection for using positive psychotherapy. Wiley. Chatterjee, H., & Noble, G. (2016). Museums, health and wellbeing. Routledge. Chilton, G., Gerber, N., Bechtel, A., Councill, T., Dreyer, M., & Yingling, E. (2015). The art of positive emotions: Expressing positive emotions within the intersubjective art making process. Canadian Art Therapy Association Journal, 28(1–2), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/08322473. 2015.1100580 Chilton, G., & Wilkinson, R. (2009). Positive art therapy: Envisioning the intersection of art therapy and positive psychology. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Art Therapy, 4(1), 27–35. Darewych, O. H., & Riedel Bowers, N. (2018). Positive arts interventions: Creative clinical tools promoting psychological wellbeing. International Journal of Art Therapy, 23(2), 62–69. https:// doi.org/10.1080/17454832.2017.1378241 De Botton, A., & Armstrong, J. (2016). Art as therapy. Phaidon. Desmarais, S., Bedford, L., & Chatterjee, H. J. (2018). Museums as spaces for wellbeing: A second report from the national alliance for museums, health and wellbeing. https://museumsandwellb eingalliance.wordpress.com/ 9

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Devlin, P. (2010). Restoring the balance: The effects of arts participation on wellbeing and health. Voluntary Arts England. Diálogo en la Oscuridad. (2014). Diálogo en la Oscuridad® Monterrey. http://dialogoenlaoscu ridad.com.mx/ Dodd, J., & Jones, J. (2014). Mind, body, spirit: How museums impact health and wellbeing. https://leicester.figshare.com/articles/Mind_Body_Spirit_How_museums_impact_ health_and_wellbeing/10137716/1 Eisenberg, N., & Mussen, P. H. (1989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511571121 Festival Internacional de Santa Lucía. (2019). Acerca del Festival Internacional de Santa Lucía. https://festivalsantalucia.gob.mx/ Fredrickson, B. (2009). Positivity: Groundbreaking research reveals how to embrace the hidden strength of positive emotions, overcome negativity, and thrive. Crown Publishers/Random House. Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). The value of positive emotions: The emerging science of positive psychology is coming to understand why it’s good to feel good. American Scientist, 91, 330–335. https://doi.org/10.1511/2003.4.330 Fredrickson, B. L., & Cohn, M. A. (2008). Positive emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 777–796). The Guilford Press. Hanson, R. (2013). Hardwiring happiness: The new brain science of contentment, calm, and confidence. Harmony. Happy Museum Project. (2016). Home. http://happymuseumproject.org/ Lackoi, K., Patsou, M., & Chatterjee, H. J. (2016). Museums for health and wellbeing: A preliminary report. National Alliance for Museums, Health and Wellbeing. https://museumsandwellbeingal liance.wordpress.com Matarasso, F. (1997). Use or ornament? The social impact of participation in the arts. Comedia. Niemiec, R. M. (2018). Character strengths interventions: A field guide for practitioners. Hogrefe Publishing. Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Strengths of character in schools. In R. Gilman, E. S. Huebner, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in schools (pp. 65–76). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. Pawelski, J. (2022). The positive humanities: A focus on human flourishing. Daedalus, 151(3), 206–221. https://direct.mit.edu/daed/article/151/3/206/112679/The-Positive-Humani ties-A-Focus-on-Human Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. American Psychological Association, Oxford University Press. Richaud, M. C., & Mesurado, B. (2016). Positive emotions and empathy as promotors of prosocial behavior and inhibitors of aggressive behavior. Acción Psicológica, 13(2), 31–42. http://revistas. uned.es/index.php/accionpsicologica/article/view/17808 Seligman, M. (2011). Flourish. Free Press. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 Tay, L., Pawelski, J. O., & Keith, M. G. (2018). The role of the arts and humanities in human flourishing: A conceptual model. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(3), 215–225. https:// doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1279207 Universidad Tecmilenio. (2020). 1ª Universidad Positiva en el mundo. https://tecmilenio.mx/es/1rauniversidad-positiva-del-mundo Vaish, A., Grossmann, T., & Woodward, A. (2008). Not all emotions are created equal: The negativity bias in social-emotional development. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 383–403. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.383 Wilkinson, R. A., & Chilton, G. (2013). Positive art therapy: Linking positive psychology to art therapy theory, practice, and research. Art Therapy, 30(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/074 21656.2013.757513

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Windsor, J. (2005). Your health and the arts: A study of the association between arts engagement and health. Arts Council England. Yunanto, T. A. R. (2020). The power of positivity: The roles of prosocial behavior and social support toward gratitude. Jurnal Psikologi Ulayat, 7(1), 57–68. https://publication.k-pin.org/index.php/ jpu/article/view/100

Dr Rosalinda Ballesteros, Ph.D. is currently Director of the Institute for Wellbeing and Happiness at Universidad Tecmilenio. She also held the position of Vice-president for High School Education. She has a Ph.D. in Humanistic Studies at Tecnológico de Monterrey and a Master’s in Applied Positive Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. She has 25 years of experience in leadership roles at Tecnológico de Monterrey in Mexico. Currently part of the teaching staff of the Master’s of Positive Leadership at Universidad Tecmilenio in Mexico and Ph.D. in Humanistic Studies at Tecnológico de Monterrey in Mexico. Global chair for Latin America of the International Positive Education Network. Member of the World Happiness Foundation board, Pace begins with Children in Mexico, and “Education for Peace International” in Canada. She currently writes opinion columns on wellbeing and happiness for Business Insider Mexico and Forbes Mexico. Her most recent academic publication: Ballesteros-Valdés, R., and CharlesLeija, H. (2021). A comparative study of wellbeing in students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tecmilenio Case. In M. White and F. McCallum (Eds.), Wellbeing and Resilience Education: COVID-19 and Its Impact on Education Systems. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Iván Guerrero is a leader for Corporate Wellbeing Solutions at Tecmilenio´s Wellbeing Institute. He has a bachelor degree in psychology at Universidad Regiomontana and a master degree in education at Tecmilenio. 10 years of experience in different academic roles at Tecmilenio including teaching, mentoring, academic design, the coordination of the national Wellbeing and Development program for students and the coordination of the Positive Museums program in its first four years, in which currently participates as a consultant. He has participated in different academic setting to share his experience in the application of positive practices in educational settings, such as the International Conference on Educational Innovation (Tecnológico de Monterrey), Wellbeing360 (Universidad Tecmilenio), International Society for Quality of Life Studies, International Positive Education Network and International Positive Psychology Association. Co-author of the book Factor Wellbeing. Mario Toledo is a research specialist at the Institute for Integral Wellbeing (IIWB) at Tecmilenio University. He has master’s degrees in social psychology, applications of positive psychology and organizational psychology. He worked for the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM) as a life and career advisor and as an academic tutor. At the IIWB he has focused on designing programs and academic solutions for educational institutions and organizations. As for today, his main research interest is measuring positive psychology practices’ effects on education, organizations, and communities. He has also studied museums as spaces oriented to generate wellbeing through the arts. He’s currently a member of the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA) positive and organizational division and the International Society for Quality-of-life Studies (ISQOLS). He is an author of articles in academic journals and book chapters. He has also presented his work on national and international forums like congresses and summits, always pursuing to share knowledge to help people improve their quality of life.

Chapter 7

The Value of Music Education for Child Development and Wellbeing in the Post COVID-19 Landscape Emily Dollman

7.1 Introduction This chapter explores the benefits of music education for child development and wellbeing, with a particular focus on how music can assist children to adjust and recover from the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic period. Key areas of research activity in this area are canvassed, including important findings in the neuro-musical field of research, research on music education programs aiming to improve social equity, research on the benefits of ensemble participation and research on the benefits of singing. The chapter explores how research has moved to a new level of collaboration and synthesis across previous distinct areas of activity. An example of this are research projects combining expertise in neuro-science with music education programs designed with the aims of benefitting low socio-economic communities. From two previously separate areas of research, the shift towards collaboration here is a welcome development, strengthening design and assessment of such programs. There is also a shift towards publications collecting and synthesising key findings and calling for Government and Education Department action in response to the research. The chapter charts this progression, examining the founding of the South Australian ‘Music Education Strategy’ as a case study of government support for music education in response to research findings. The particular benefits of participatory music education are discussed in this chapter, including the specific benefits of participation in instrumental ensembles, choirs and school bands. Given the dislocation of social distancing and school closures over the past three years, it is important to explore the capacity of music ensemble participation to improve social cohesion and rebuild strong communities within schools. International case studies are examined of music education programs E. Dollman (B) Elder Conservatorium of Music, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_7

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that have been designed to deliver wellbeing, cohesion and health outcomes alongside musical development. The chapter also looks at studies exploring the application of theories of flow, growth mindset and resilience to participatory music education and music ensemble training. These studies are exploring the extent to which these qualities, universally agreed to be key to a successful and well-balanced approach to life and learning, are developed through music education. Over the course of the past twenty years, developments in neuroscience have allowed scientists and music educators a much deeper level of insight into the impact of musical activity on the brain and nervous system. While this is still a developing and adapting field of research, key findings are now established regarding the neural activity involved in listening to and playing music, as well as the impact of sustained, participatory music education. FMRI technology is allowing neuroscientists to explore the extent of brain activity used in processing music, with findings that musical activity uses the brain in a unique way for human activity, simultaneously activating motor cortices, memory, visual processing and aural processing. This chapter discusses the ways in which these findings have influenced investment in school music education and design of sponsored music ensemble programs. The chapter also discusses landmark longitudinal research studies which explore to what extent this intense brain activity translates to improved performance throughout schooling and beyond. This chapter also looks in depth at research conducted on ensemble music programs delivered in low socio-economic areas, modelled on Venezuela’s El Sistema. From Los Angeles to Glasgow, Melbourne to Caracas, programs have been designed over the past decade aiming to deliver improvements to student wellbeing, learning and quality of life through intensive music education. It must be noted here that following initial highly positive studies on Sistema (Tunstall, 2013; Tunstall & Booth, 2016) significant issues have emerged regarding the Venezuelan El Sistema (Baker, 2014) that require full diligence and exploration. However, El Sistema’s impact upon music education globally means that it remains an essential component to consider with any analysis of music education with a wellbeing or social agenda. Given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of interruption to schooling, social cohesion and negative impacts upon paediatric health, the benefits outlined through this chapter are of key consideration as we move to consider how best to support children in the post COVID-19 landscape (Hansen et al., 2022; Listernick & Badawy, 2021; Loades et al., 2020). The following discussion of key areas of the value of music education highlights its potential to offer children a route to greater confidence, a stronger growth mindset, and accelerated cognitive development. The sources and case studies discussed here also offer examples of music education programs with proven results in increasing social cohesion and creating stronger communities. Interestingly, there was an organic response by social groups internationally to move towards music making as a form of expression, bonding and catharsis during lockdowns (Chiu, 2020). This points to the value of a more formalised, curricula based approach to incorporating musical activity more strongly into schooling.

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7.2 Discussion of Literature 7.2.1 Music Education Reports Previous Australian research underpins advocacy arguments for the value of music education. Key amongst these publications are: the National Review of School Music Education: Augmenting the Diminished (Pascoe et al., 2005), Education and the Arts: Research Overview (Hunter & Australia Council, 2005), Transforming Education Through the Arts (Caldwell & Vaughan, 2012), Bridging the Gap in School Achievement Through the Arts (Vaughan et al., 2011), the Victorian Parliamentary Inquiry into School Music Education Provision (Kronberg, 2013) and an Australian Ph.D. thesis ‘What makes good music programs in schools?’ (Petrova, 2012). Each of these reports analyse and synthesise substantial quantitative data to illustrate the value of music and arts education. The Reports also call for further investment into music education at the Government and Curricula level, highlighting the precarity of the provision of quality, sequential music education through school-based curricula. Petrova’s Doctoral Research, for example, revealed that 63% of Australian schools had no classroom music and that in total only 37.26% of schools (both primary and secondary) do offer music (Petrova, 2012, p. 422). The National Review of Music Education, from a national sample of close to 6000 schools, found that only two thirds of students were receiving music education and made a number of calls for improvement and expansion (Pascoe et al., 2005). These were however not adequately acted on, as evident in the data in Petrova’s (2012) thesis and in the survey of activity provided in the recent report A Sound Investment which states that access to music education remains systematically inequitable, with lower rates of provision to students at State operated public schools in comparison to Catholic and Private Independent Schools (Collins et al., 2019, p. 42). International reports have made similar synthesis of data and activity in music education and its impact on child development. Key amongst these from respectively the United Kingdom and the United States are: The Power of Music: An Exploration of the Evidence (Hallam & Himonides, 2022) and Champions of Change: the impact of the arts on learning (Fiske, 1999). Champions of Change, for example, includes research by Cotterall on data collected from 25,000 students. Cotterall stated that: ‘Students with high levels of arts participation outperform ‘arts-poor’ students by virtually every measure’ (Fiske, 1999, p. viii). This point was emphasised through the report, with Fiske noting that ‘if we now know that arts experiences help level the educational playing field for disadvantaged students, as revealed by Cotterall, then we need to bring more proven arts learning resources to these students’ (Fiske, 1999, p. xi). The Power of Music: An Exploration of the Evidence (Hallam & Himonides, 2022) follows on earlier research by Hallam, The Power of Music: A Research Synthesis of the Impact of Activity on the Intellectual, Social and Personal Development of Children and Young People (Hallam, 2010). These publications have both been of particular interest to the music education community given the professional and

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academic standing of Professor Susan Hallam across music performance, music education and psychology. These varied strands of expertise lend a unique perspective to Hallam’s academic publications exploring the wellbeing and health impact of music. The recent synthesis of information (Hallam & Himonides, 2022) covers many of the most prominent strands of research explored over the past twenty years. Chapters range across subjects including Music and Neuroscience, Aural Perception and Language Skills, Literacy and Related Language Skills, Music, Spatial Reasoning and Mathematical Performance, Executive Function and Self-Regulation, Psychological Wellbeing, Music, Physical and Mental Health and Music, Inclusion and Social Cohesion (Hallam & Himonides, 2022). Collectively, these Reports provide both a clear analysis of the benefits of music education to child development and a call to action for Governments internationally to strengthen and support the delivery of this education through school-based learning. At present, delivery of music education remains patchy and inequitable through school curricula, a situation which is not aligned with the growing body of research indicating its value for learning and development. The following sections address key areas of this research in further detail, highlighting leading case studies.

7.2.2 Music Education and Cognitive Benefits Over the past thirty years advancements in neuro-musical research has significantly increased our understanding of how learning music impacts brain development, as well as developing our understanding of brain plasticity. With the advent of technologies including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and voxel-based morphometry (VBM), scientists have been able to map how the brain processes musical sound and the actions involved in musical performance, as well as investigating both short- and long-term effects of music training upon brain development. While the field of study is still evolving and further studies are required to gain a full and definitive assessment of the benefits of music for the brain, clear areas of interest have emerged. The work of Dr Gottfried Schlaug, for example, has established a pattern of findings in several studies carried out across the past twenty years (Schlaug, 1995; Schlaug, 2001; Schlaug, 2005; Schlaug, 2009). Chief amongst these findings is that there are permanent changes to the way the brain processes information as a result of extensive music training, and that trained musicians have a larger corpus callosum (CC) than non-musicians (Schlaug et al., 1995, 2009). Schlaug et al.’s (2009) study explored the development of the CC in a sample of 31 children aged between five to seven years, following on previous research that had determined that professional trained musicians who began learning their instrument before the age of seven had a larger CC. This key study tested the hypothesis that this increase to the CC was due to the training in music at a young age. From a base line measurement at which there was no difference in the CC, after 29 months the highest practising group demonstrated differences in the midbody of the CC in comparison to the lower

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practising group. The study demonstrates that change occurs at this young age, and that more intense practice leads to a greater impact on brain development. Another key area of research has been the links between the learning of music and language processing, which has also been extensively covered by researchers including Patel (2007) with his landmark publication Music, Language and the Brain, and Koelsch (2011). Koelsch has notably stated: The assumption of an intimate connection between music and speech is corroborated by the reviewed findings of overlapping and shared neural resources for music and language processing in both adults and children. These findings suggest that the human brain, particularly at an early age, does not treat language and music as strictly separate domains, but rather treats language as a special case of music. (Koelsch, 2011)

This statement echoes the theories of music education promoted by key music education leaders including Zoltan Kodaly, Shinichi Suzuki and Edwin E. Gordon, each of whom wrote and spoke extensively on the links between the learning of language and music, exploring the concept of the ‘musical mother tongue’. The ability to translate symbol to sound is a key focus of music education and with developments in cognitive neuroscience fresh perspectives on how this important skill is developed through music education, and the extent to which it transfers to verbal literacy, are emerging. Further research is required to establish the extent to which development of musical literacy strengthens verbal literacy, although studies are indicating a degree of transfer (Gordon et al., 2015; Rickard et al., 2010). Dr Anita Collins has developed a leading voice in the neuro-musical field, with her research and professional activities focusing on synthesising research studies and distilling key findings from neuroscience for educators and school leaders. Key points identified by Collins include: • a minimum of two years instrumental learning is required to make positive changes on brain structure and function • tuition should start as early as is appropriate for that instrument (Collins, 2014, p. 5). In addition to links to brain plasticity and improved language processing, Collins also emphasises the ability of music education to develop Executive Function (the ability to plan, pay attention, strategies, and pay attention to detail). The link between music education and the development of Executive Function has been explored by Jaschke et al. (2018) and Zuk et al. (2014). In a longitudinal 2.5 year study, Jaschke et al. explored the impact of music education, visual arts education and a control group with no arts/music education on the development of executive function of 147 primary school aged children. Testing showed that inhibition, planning and verbal intelligence increased in the music groups compared with the visual arts and no arts groups. Zuk et al. (2014) used fMRI to determine executive function abilities in both adult and children with musical training, against control groups with no musical training. The conclusion from the research showed that ‘children and adults with extensive musical training show enhanced performance on a number of EF constructs compared to non-musicians, especially for cognitive flexibility, working memory, and processing speed’ (Zuk et al., 2014).

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While research is ongoing in the neuro-musical space, there is now an established consensus that music education delivers cognitive impact to children through their formative years and on to later life. In the post COVID-19 landscape, it will be of key importance to continue to explore these lines of research and to determine the manner in which music education can best be harnessed to allow children every opportunity to maximise their development and progress.

7.2.3 Research on the Benefits of Choirs and Singing Research into the health and wellbeing benefits of singing in choirs has emerged as a growth area over the past decade (Clift, 2012; Clift & Hancox, 2010; Clift et al., 2008; Clift et al., 2017). While studies have focused primarily on adult populations, it is to be hoped that future studies will consider benefits of choral singing to the health and wellbeing of children, as it is reasonable to hypothesise that the benefits noted for adult choral singing may well be replicated in choirs for children. Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that singing in choirs leads to the release of oxytocin and dopamine. A psychobiological study by Kreutz (2014) for example determined that amateur choral singing was more conducive to psychological wellbeing than a social gathering with talking. This was established through saliva testing to measure salivary oxytocin, cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone before and after choral rehearsals, against a control group that talked to each other about recent positive life experiences. This finding was further explored by Schladt et al. (2017) in a study that tested participants’ mood and salivary oxytocin cortisol concentrations before, during and after both choral singing and solo singing. Their findings showed that 20 min of both choral and solo singing were sufficient to increase happiness and lower worry and sadness, however they also were able to isolate the finding that all positive effects of singing were more pronounced after choral rather than solo singing. A further study (Bowling et al., 2022) supported these findings, again testing levels of oxytocin, cortisol and testosterone in response to group singing in a study of a young adult choir (n = 71). The study included testing saliva samples alongside a test for self-perceived social connectedness, which was assessed using a modified version of the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) scale. The social connectedness test demonstrated that ‘singing together can have biological and psychological effects that are associated with an increased capacity for affiliation and social bonding’ (Bowling et al., 2022, p. 105105). In response to the pandemic new choral programs with a health and wellbeing focus have been established, including several with the specific goal of reducing effects of long COVID-19 symptoms. Of key prominence are the English National Opera (ENO)’s ‘Breathe’ Program, the Scottish National Opera ‘Breath Cycle’ and Los Angeles Opera’s ‘Connect’ program, which is running a program modelled on the ENO’s ‘Breathe’ in collaboration with University of California, Los Angeles. ENO’s ‘Breathe’ program pioneered the approach, designing online activities in collaboration with Imperial College Healthcare that aim to re-train breathing through singing

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for patients diagnosed with long COVID-19. Over a six-week program, participants are guided through exercises designed to develop breath control by a professional singer from the ENO. Singing content focuses on the use of lullabies, both as a pragmatic source of music that is simple and memorable, as well as leveraging the calming, soothing nature of the musical material. Participants receive access to online singing materials, both print and audio-visual, as well as access to post-program weekly sessions. Access to the program is through post-COVID-19 clinics, with the program available through the UK’s ground-breaking social prescribing system (English National Opera, n.d.). The first randomised control study on the ‘Breathe’ program has been released (Philip et al., 2022) based upon a study of 150 participants, with findings that the program can reduce symptoms of breathlessness and improve the mental component to Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL). The study compared results at the end of a six-week period of improvements in 74 participants in the ENO ‘Breathe’ compared to a control group of 76. A 10.48 point reduction in breathlessness (out of 100) was reported for the ‘Breathe’ participants in comparison to the control group, and a 2.42 improvement in mental HRQoL (Philip et al., 2022). Further studies on ENO Breathe, and other similar programs, will be of key interest to both music and health researchers as we collectively move to address the long-term impacts of COVID-19. It is to be hoped that future trials will also assess benefits for children, who may also suffer from anxiety and breathlessness following COVID-19. Although studies of choral music’s benefits for children and adolescents are, as addressed above, rare, there has been a significant study made post pandemic on the benefits of both in person and virtual singing for these age demographics (GreboszHaring et al., 2022). This study, run between March 5, 2020 to July 9, 2020, assessed the impact of in person choir rehearsals before a lockdown for COVID-19, followed by assessing the relative impact of virtual choir rehearsals during the lockdown. Salivary samples were tested for cortisol and alpha-amylase and measures of psychological stability, self-esteem and chronic stress levels were taken. Importantly for any future occasions on which choir rehearsals may need to be run online, the study did find that there was positive impact on mood after both in person and virtual sessions. However, there were both a greater reduction in stress and a higher values measurement for social contacts from the face-to-face sessions, suggesting that the in person social dynamic is a key part of establishing wellbeing through choir (Grebosz-Haring et al., 2022).

7.2.4 New Developments: Studies on Benefits of Orchestral and Ensemble Participation The particular activities involved in rehearsing and performing with a large ensemble or a symphony orchestra bring with them their own distinct set of benefits for students. Of particular interest here is a significant new study conducted by the Tasmanian

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Youth Orchestra in collaboration with the University of Tasmania, the ‘Music and Resilience Research Project’ (University of Tasmania, n.d.). This project, led by researchers William J Baker (Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania), AnneMarie Forbes (School of Creative Arts and Media, University of Tasmania) and Jennifer Earle (Ph.D. Candidate, University of Tasmania) collected data from the musicians of the Tasmanian Youth Orchestra across 2021 and 2022. Findings have been published on the project’s website in the form of resources intended for use by other music educators and ensemble leaders. Findings have also been published in the form of journal articles and opinion pieces, gaining significant attention throughout Australia and beyond. The intention of the project is to be relevant to a broad crosssection of music educators, stating that it is for ensemble music directors of school and community groups, of all ages and levels. There is a focus on developing resilience in the students: The purpose of this resource is to provide you with practice-led supports to help you to ensure that your ensemble leadership is focused on and generative of resilience amongst your players. This resource will be useful to any ensemble context regardless of makeup or location. (University of Tasmania, n.d.)

The website resources divide the areas of impact of ensemble activity upon the participants into three key domains following the Learning Disposition Wheel (Jefferson & Anderson, 2017). Within the Cognitive Domain impact is observed across the ability to ‘Make and Express’, ‘Think Why and How’ and ‘Build New Ideas’. Within the Interpersonal Domain the qualities of ‘Empathy’, ‘Influence’ and ‘Teamwork’ are examined, while within the Intrapersonal Domain the qualities of ‘Curiosity’, ‘Focus’ and ‘Grit’ are the focus. The resource and the journal articles feature case studies drawing on the reflection of participants and observation of their interaction with each other and with their conductor. From an initial pilot program in 2018, findings showed ‘that participants perceived four main areas of benefit through their musical engagement: (1) an embodied and emotional experience, (2) orchestral/ musical skill development, (3) friendship, and (4) non-musical skill development’ (Baker et al., 2020). The data gathered demonstrated that 76% of the students found that their participation in the orchestra increased their sense of self-esteem, with their experiences developing their sense of productivity and capability (Baker et al., 2020, p. 14). The study also demonstrated that students demonstrated growth mindset behaviours and resilience (Baker et al., 2020, p. 14), essential traits for responding to the challenges of the post COVID-19 era with positivity and flexibility. In the words of one player, “Every week I go home feeling like I’ve learned something new, and learning makes me feel successful and happy” (Baker et al., 2020, pp. 5–6). This study is not alone in exploring the manner in which group music making develops the characteristics of resilience, grit, focus and growth mindset. Following the work of Dweck (2007) on the importance of growth mindset for a positive and successful response to challenges and setbacks, researchers have explored the implications for student wellbeing and achievement, including studies investigating links to music education. In a recent study, school teachers were interviewed in regard to their sense of the benefits for students in undertaking music education. The findings

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were clear regarding the value of music education in developing growth mindset, with teachers noting that music provided an ideal environment in which to experiment and learn from mistakes (Phillipson, 2018). In 2020 findings from the first rigorous study exploring the links between growth mindset and orchestral music education were published (Holochwost et al., 2020). This study created data on development of growth mindset from a sample of 497 students over a 2-year period, assessing the impact upon growth mindset of students participating in 12 El Sistema inspired programs operating in the United States of America. The hypothesis behind the study is that the nature of the activities explored through orchestral music education are connected to the conditions in which growth mindset can be best developed: orchestral activities are challenging, open ended, and collaborative. The students in the study were demographically diverse, with 90% non-white children. The sample included 307 students enrolled in the Sistema programs against a control group of their peers (n = 109). Using a variant of the six-step growth mindset measure developed by Dweck, students were assessed at the beginning of the year at the start of the study, and at the conclusion of the year for two consecutive years. Key findings from the study were that statistically significant higher levels of overall growth mindset were reported by participants in the orchestral programs at the conclusion of two or more years of training, in comparison to their peers (Holochwost et al., 2020, p. 6). The authors noted that this development in growth mindset is of particular importance to children facing higher levels of challenges and disadvantage. It is these sectors of society that Sistema inspired programs connect with; these findings are therefore of key importance to any music education body establishing a similar program with extra musical socio-cohesion aims. However, it is also of importance to all educators looking to establish growth mindset in their student cohort, regardless of socio-economic context. Further independent research has been conducted on the impact of Sistema inspired programs internationally. Significant among these publications are the findings from Scotland on the ‘Big Noise’ orchestral education program, inspired by Venezuela’s El Sistema, which provide key data on the benefits of group ensemble music making both in terms of the impact on student participant wellbeing and upon social cohesion. The Big Noise program was founded in 2008 in Raploch, Scotland, with 35 children receiving music education in the pilot phase which was delivered by Sistema Scotland in collaboration with the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra. This initiative was based on the impact of Venezuela’s El Sistema program and the two programs have close ties—Gustavo Dudamel, the leading conductor and star graduate from Venezuela’s El Sistema, is a patron of Sistema Scotland. Key staff have travelled from Scotland to Venezuela to gain first person insight into the program and Sistema Scotland also hosted the flagship orchestra of Venezuelan El Sistema, the Simon Bolivar Symphony Orchestra in 2011 (Dollman, 2015). From the early stages of the program, Big Noise has now developed to encompass six sites across Scotland and works with 3500 children and young people (Big Noise, n.d.). The activities of ‘Big Noise Scotland’ are closely linked to those of both the American Sistema programs discussed above, and the original Venezuelan Sistema model. Through intensive orchestral music education, the aim is to create healthy

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learning behaviours, social cohesion and improve overall wellbeing in participants. The Big Noise programs have been independently researched on five occasions, including three studies by the Glasgow Centre for Population Health (GCPH, 2015, 2017; Harkins & Moore 2019), the University of Dundee (Jindal-Snape et al., 2021), Education Scotland (2017) and the Scottish Government (GEN, 2011). Promising initial findings were noted in the early report commissioned by the Scottish Government (GEN, 2011), three years into the delivery of the program to the community of Raploch, a low socio-economic region in central Scotland. It was already clear that the program promised to deliver long term benefits to health, wellbeing, study outcomes and community cohesion to the participants and their families. The Report assessed impact on ‘health and wellbeing, education and learning, community safety, community cohesion, aspirations and personal and social skills’ (GEN, 2011, p. 6). The assessment was that ‘… there is strong evidence that it is benefitting the children it works with. These are primarily around social and personal development for example improving confidence, self-esteem, social skills and the ability to concentrate’ (GEN, 2011, p. 6). The partnership delivery of the program was noted as a key strength of Big Noise at this early stage. It should be noted that partnership delivery of music education programs is often optimal, in particular when designing programs with extra-musical social aims. Effective partnership working allows for the harnessing collective strengths in education, the arts, psychology and health. In the case of Big Noise, partners included Sistema Scotland, Stirling Council, BBC Scottish Symphony, schools, social workers, health services, FESNOJIV (El Sistema Venezuela), Scottish Arts Council, and Drake Music Scotland (GEN, 2011, pp. 25–30). Although this Report took care to note that long term impact from the program would of necessity reveal itself only through further longitudinal study, the findings from surveys and questionnaires at this point, three years in to the program, were highly positive. 100% of parents reported that their child was more confident since taking part in the program, while over 90% reported that their child was happier. Close to 80% of parents reported that participation in Big Noise was developing discipline, concentration and focus in their child (GEN, 2011, p. 41). Each of these findings is of key significance in terms of harnessing the impact of immersive ensemble music education to improve a child’s immediate wellbeing as well as future prospects. Improvement in confidence and happiness levels results immediately in higher wellbeing levels, as well as suggesting that the child will be more open to new experiences and respond better to challenges and setbacks. Improvements in discipline, concentration and focus improve the outcome of a music rehearsal, however these are also transferable skills that the child can carry with them into other educational settings. Future reports into Big Noise continued to find positive outcomes for the participants. Of particular interest are the three reports commissioned by the Glasgow Centre for Population Health at seven, nine and eleven years into the delivery of the program respectively (GCPH, 2015, 2017; Harkins & Moore 2019; Harkins et al., 2016). In the 2015 GCPH Report, Big Noise had expanded delivery across two sites and was aiming to expand across Scotland. The report drew qualitative and quantitative data from 250 individuals involved in the program, as well as evidence

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reviews and triangulation to produce logic models presenting pathways to longerterm impacts (GCPH, 2015, p. 6). The Report included educational assessment from Education Scotland and a Health Economic-cost benefit analysis of the Big Noise Govanhill site delivered by Glasgow Caledonian University. The Report assessed seven key impact pathways (GCPH, 2015, p. 8): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Boosting engagement with learning and education Developing and building life skills Securing emotional wellbeing Building social skills and networks Respite and protection Developing as a musician Encouraging healthy behaviours.

Strong evidence was found in each of these areas. In addition to developing high musical skills that enabled them to perform at events such as the Commonwealth Games, children were demonstrably happier, showed higher confidence, self-esteem, raised aspirations, self-discipline, time management, organisation skills (GCPH, 2015, p. 13). Attendance levels at school were also higher for children participating in the Big Noise program. The cost–benefit analysis by the Glasgow Caledonian University was also highly positive. The cost benefit on health gains for the participants through the years of the program and projected into their future life spans showed significant savings compared to the outlay into the costs of the program. The cost benefit analysed the impact of the Big Noise program throughout the participants’ development from childhood to early adulthood, with an additional life-long projection: • • • •

9.18 million pounds for years 0–6 15.57 million pounds for years 0–9 28.91 million pounds for years 0–15 89.37 million pounds for years 0–70 (GCPH, 2015, p. 12).

This significant finding on the economic value of an immersive music education program was supported by the subsequent 2019 report by the Glasgow Centre for Population Health, ‘People Change Lives’ (Harkins & Moore 2019). This found that: In weighing up the impacts, the result was that for every £1 spent; around £9 of social benefit was generated. Positive impacts within the analysis included improved post-school destinations and enhanced wellbeing, reduced antisocial behaviour, reduced demand on Police, and more efficient use of Social Services. The cost-benefit analysis was predicated on the assumption that claims for achievable outcomes were probable. Longitudinal data about actual outcomes for participants (such as those that will be generated in phase 2 of this evaluation) will be important for future economic analysis and research. (GCPH, 2019, pp. 18–19)

Findings from the Final Report by the University of Dundee corroborated the positive previous impact findings (Jindal-Snape et al., 2021). The Report noted:

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The role of BND [Big Noise Douglas] in providing a sense of security, trusting relationships and happiness has been noted across the entire dataset. This improvement is also significant in the context of the children that BND are working with … and might provide some indication on why there were fewer unauthorised absences in the BND program as compared to the school. (Jindal-Snape et al., 2021, p. 36)

A majority of the adult participants in the study agreed that the program delivered positive impact to engagement with learning and education, listening and oral skills and concentration in class. Additionally, all participants reported that participation in the program had positively impacted upon the children’s emotional wellbeing (Jindal-Snape et al., 2021, p. 40). Importantly, this data was collected throughout the impact of COVID-19, providing key evidence on the value of music education in providing wellbeing support and enhancing educational engagement in school aged communities throughout the disruptions and challenges of the pandemic. Further research is ongoing on this significant program, with statistical data being collected on the educational outcomes for the participants as they progress to high school and beyond. Programs with similar aims and intent have been developed and delivered in Australia. In Melbourne, the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra (MSO) Education and Community Engagement Department launched the El Sistema inspired ‘Pizzicato Effect’ program in the multicultural suburb of Broadmeadows in 2009. This is one of the lowest socio-economic areas of Melbourne, with high levels of refugee families and new migrants in the community. The students in the program have had access to intensive training and have participated in high profile events, including performing for King Charles III and the Queen Consort on their Australian tour in 2012 (Melbourne Symphony Orchestra, n.d.). Research conducted into this program found wellbeing benefits for students in the program, compared to a control group of their peers: [They] reported significantly greater wellbeing: they felt happier, had more purpose in life, a greater sense of belonging, and got along better with others. They seemed to have better self-control over impulsive behaviour. These characteristics tended to remain the same or slightly increase over time. They also reported greater attachment to school and motivation to achieve, had a more positive identity and self-esteem, and were more likely to view school as a source of positive feelings. (Osborne et al., 2015)

The research study utilised tests with the Interactive Computerised Assessment System (InCAS) and ‘Clowning Around’ to assess Non-Verbal skills, Reading skills, Mental Arithmetic, General Maths and wellbeing and adjustment (Osborne et al., 2015, pp. 10–11). Overall, the results indicated a positive relationship between instrumental learning and improvement in the tests over a period of time. In particular, students at Meadows Primary School improved by one full age-equivalent year in the non-verbal reasoning test, compared to the control group of their peers who deteriorated by 0.2 of an age-equivalent year over the same period of time (Osborne et al., 2015, p. 17). The hypothesis for this result is that a near transfer of pattern recognition skills occurred after the development of the skill of decoding written staff notation through the instrumental tuition. While Osborne et al. emphasised the limitations and ambiguities in this study, they were encouraged to note that findings

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indicated the value of El Sistema style instrumental music programs for students in ‘at risk’ low socio-economic schools (Osborne et al., 2015, p. 19). A similar program was delivered in the outer suburbs of Perth, Western Australia, by the West Australian Symphony Orchestra. Working with children at the low socioeconomic schools Medina Primary School and North Parmelia Primary School, music tuition is delivered inspired by the El Sistema philosophy. In 2021 a Case Study was released based on six years of data collection on the program’s impact (Gibbs et al., 2021). Findings from the Case Study report included that 84% of parents agreed that the program inspired confidence (Gibbs et al., 2021, p. 6), and that NAPLAN results have improved at both schools over the period of time, anecdotally connected with the introduction of the music education program (Gibbs et al., 2021, p. 9). Statements by the Principals at the schools indicate their appreciation of the impact of the program on their students. The Principal at Medina Primary School gave a statement on the most significant socioemotional change they had observed through the program: The biggest impact I have seen has been on the students. It really is the development of their confidence. Their ability to take risks with their learning, to try new things, to just have a go, confidence in their own ability and even their resilience, that if they get it wrong or if it doesn’t quite work, it’s okay … then that confidence has transferred over into other learning areas, where they give things a go and they take risks. (Gibbs et al., 2021, pp. 25–26)

This statement emphasising the development of student confidence echoes that of the teachers and parents in the Big Noise program previously discussed. This is a quality that is of key significance in terms of overall student engagement with learning and the development of growth mindset. In America, one of the highest profile music education ensemble programs is delivered by the Los Angeles Philharmonic—their Youth Orchestra of Los Angeles (YOLA). This program has been in operation since 2010 and currently delivers high intensity orchestral based music education to 1700 students across five sites (Los Angeles Philharmonic, n.d.). The program’s impact upon the social and academic development of students has been externally assessed through Stanford University. Key findings have included that the YOLA music education training develops prosocial behaviours at a higher level than for students taking part in sports programs or in a control group with no group activity (Ilari et al., 2018). In a longitudinal study, led through the Brain and Creativity Institute at the University of Southern California, findings are being released on tests exploring the impact of the training upon cognitive development. One key publication explored the extent to which the YOLA music education developed Executive Function, using fMRI and behavioural tools (Sachs et al., 2017). This focus was selected as previous studies have shown impact on this area of cognitive function by music education, however research is ongoing in determining the extent of the impact and the process by which it is developed. Executive Function was defined for this study as: ‘three inter-related cognitive processes; inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, that, together, allow for goal-directed behavior [sic] and cognitive control’ (Sachs et al., 2017, p. 2). The development of executive function is a predictor of wellbeing later in life, through

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greater cognitive control (Sachs et al., 2017, p. 2). Impact upon executive function was demonstrated through this study, with a key finding that: … after two years of community, group-based music training, children showed significantly greater differences in the cognitive control network during the Color-Word Stroop task as compared to a control group that was not involved in any systematic afterschool activities. (Sachs et al., 2017, p. 23)

A further publication showed that the children receiving the music training developed a larger Corpus Callosum (CC), specifically in regard to the development of connecting fibres in frontal, sensory and motor segments of the CC, in comparison with the two control groups. These findings confirm previous reports in which musicians, compared with nonmusicians, have a larger CC and higher callosal connectivity, specifically at the anterior portion of the CC. Given that playing a musical instrument requires bilateral cortical processing of sound, coordination of both hands, and integration of actions of auditory and motor systems, it is possible that these demands lead to a higher interhemispheric interaction between sensorimotor regions, which, in turn, would promote accelerated maturation of the connections that join them. (Habibi et al., 2018)

This ongoing longitudinal study is particularly pivotal to future research in music’s benefits for child wellbeing and development as it draws together two key strands of research, namely, research into cognitive benefits of music education, and research on Sistema inspired music education for social benefit. As these two areas are interrelated—i.e. the cognitive development of children is a key factor in determining their future connections with others and contribution to society—the future findings of this research project will be of key interest to the field. A 2020 British Columbia study on the impact of music education upon school academic results is, similarly, of great interest to music educators and researchers. This study has released findings based upon a sample of 112,916 students in a longitudinal study tracking progress from Grades 7–12 (Guhn et al., 2020). The results revealed that music education, particularly instrumental education, was linked to higher performance in Grades 10–12 in mathematics, science and English exams (Guhn et al., 2020). The researchers draw links between these findings and the impact of music education upon the development of Executive Function, in a similar manner to the study on the Los Angeles YOLA program (Sachs et al., 2017). The researchers also explored the self-motivation developed through intensive music education and the transferable benefit to other areas of education and learning, as well as the social-personal development element of playing music in groups (Guhn et al., 2020). The study draws attention to the less competitive and more collaborative nature of music group ensemble activities in comparison to sports activities, a point also made by other researchers (Gouzouasis & Henderson, 2012). Importantly, this report also delves deeper into the impact of various types of musical education— comparing instrumental tuition and ensemble participation against choir participation for example (Guhn et al., 2020). This is a vital next step in fully considering the impact of music education activities upon school aged students and one which will hopefully be explored in future population wide studies. The researchers conclude their

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report with a correlation between the impact demonstrated in their data to the need to include further music education within school systems. This research builds upon the findings by Hille and Schupp (2015) which established a similar link between instrumental music studies and higher school grades from a study of 3941 German adolescents.

7.2.5 New Directions: Music Education Research Impacting Government Policy Advocacy based upon research into the value of music education for children throughout their school years has had a tangible impact in Australia in recent years. Dr Anita Collins is of key importance in this respect. Collins’ research is within the field of music-neuroscience; following from her Ph.D. Bigger, better brains: Neuroscience, music education and the pre-service early childhood and primary (elementary) generalist teacher (Collins, 2012) Collins distilled her learnings into a high-profile TED talk ‘How Playing an Instrument Benefits Your Brain’ (Collins, 2014), which has at the time of writing been viewed over 13 million times. Collins has continued to establish a high public profile, speaking on the value of music education to the development of children throughout their development years. Collins’ views on this topic have found a public platform through a nationally broadcast TV show (Don’t Stop the Music), the publication of a book aimed at the general public, The Music Advantage (Collins, 2020) and regular radio broadcasts. Collins has also established a company, ‘Bigger Better Brains’, which delivers Professional Development to educators on the topic of music neuroscience. Collins’ expertise in this area has seen her engage with Advisory panels for Government Education and Social Policy decisions. In Australia, the South Australian ‘Music Education Strategy’ is a current highprofile example of advocacy for music education leading to sustained and significant Government investment into the improvement of delivery and standards of music education. Collins is a member of the Advisory Panel to the Education Department of the State Government, authoring the Report into Best Practice that was a key foundation to the establishment of a ten year (2019–2029) multi-million dollar music education investment, the ‘Music Education Strategy’ (SA Government, 2019). In a statement delivered on the launch of the Strategy, it was noted: Music learning supports and reinforces the development of literacy, language and other academic skills. Research shows that musically trained children perform better in standardised tests on language, and they acquire and use language more effectively, and earlier. Music education is also a critical driver of a child’s social development and emotional wellbeing; it can build confidence, promote creativity and help students develop emotional and behavioural awareness and skills. (SA Government, 2019, p. 10)

The Strategy acknowledged that there were pockets of excellence in the delivery of music education across the State, however it also noted that delivery and quality

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was uneven, and that there were concerns over the lack of consistent and clear pathways for advancement and sequential learning. Indeed, the Strategy was motivated by ‘a shared sense of crisis’ regarding the state of music education in South Australia (Collins et al., 2019, p. 9). The Strategy focuses on five key pillars: Value, Access, Connections, Continuum and Achievement. The ‘Value’ pillar aims to raise awareness of the value of music education across the whole school community and the broader community. The ‘Access’ pillar aims to offer every South Australian student access to inclusive music education opportunities. ‘Connections’ refers to the importance of ensuring that music education opportunities are aligned with strong partnerships between schools, families, organisations and communities. The ‘Continuum’ pillar aims to ensure that a continuous, sequential music education is available to students from early years throughout their schooling. This has a particular goal of increasing continuity across hurdles such as a child moving from Primary to Secondary school. Finally, the ‘Achievement’ pillar looks to extend each child and young person, making sure that there is access to opportunities that develop and celebrate their musical interests to fulfil their musical potential (South Australian Government Department for Education, n.d.). From 2019 to 2022, the first stage of the Music Education Strategy has had an initial focus on improving music education to early years and primary school students. Schools and music education providers have been offered the opportunity to bid for grants from a ‘Music Innovation Fund’, which has been offered in 4 Rounds for projects that will match with the goals of the Strategy. In total, $1,013,719 has been delivered from the Music Innovation Fund to projects across the breadth of the State, including 89 Metropolitan and 64 Regional projects. The regional funding grants have included support for projects at Mt Gambier, Roxby Downs, the Eyre Peninsula, the Riverland and the Mid North. The Third Round awarded the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra program ‘Silos and Symphonies’ a $35,000 grant. The ‘Silos and Symphonies’ program is a highly innovative program in which regional school children and community groups are offered the opportunity to create new music in creative workshops, led by professional composers, song writers and performers. These new collaborative compositions are then arranged by the professional artists, with continued input by the regional students and communities, leading to rehearsals and a performance of the work shared either live or over zoom with the students. This program is ground-breaking in many ways— in the level of access offered to students to music composition and performance and the elite professional level—and in the exploration of co-creation. The future activity and impact of this program will be of interest in shaping ways forward for partnership delivery of music education between professional organisations and school communities (Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, n.d.). Collectively, the Music Education Strategy investment has laid in place increased access to musical instruments, training for teaching staff, and opportunities to trial new programs—all outcomes that will have a positive impact on the music education activities of students across the State into the future. In addition to the Music Innovation Fund, the Strategy has also been focused on upskilling Primary General

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Teachers to increase their confidence in delivering music education in their classrooms. This has been delivered through a series of mentoring and Professional Development Packages delivered by the Australian Society of Music Education South Australian Chapter (ASME SA), the Kodaly Association of South Australia and the Orff-Schulwerk Association of South Australia (OSASA). Next steps for the Strategy must include research into the outcomes, both musical and for development in health and wellbeing, of students in schools benefitting from the Strategy’s activities. While the South Australian Government is currently leading the way with a focus on increasing investment into music education, there are calls for other Australian States to follow this example. Collins has recently co-authored a report commissioned by the philanthropic arm of the Albert Music Company, ‘The Tony Foundation’. Titled ‘Music Education: A Sound Investment’ (Collins et al., 2019), this is a comprehensive analysis of current delivery of music education across the various States and Territories of Australia, identifying both best practice and gaps and issues in provision and quality. The report synthesises research into the value of music education to advocate for strengthening and increasing delivery of music education to all Australian schools. As the Report has only been in issue for one year, its impact is yet to fully become evident in terms of its impact upon Government resourcing, philanthropic activity and education reform. It is, however, evident that the intention is for other States of Australia to observe the outcomes of the SA Music Education Strategy and for ‘A Sound Investment’ to provide a research basis for further development of Government Education policy. Key points made in ‘A Sound Investment’ include that: ‘Music learning promotes social cohesion through the experience of physiological synchronicity, tolerance of diversity and desire to seek out and value novelty and difference’ (Collins et al., 2019, p. 19) and that students who have experienced music education have been shown to demonstrate better health, including both physical and mental wellbeing (Collins et al., 2019, p. 18). A further key Australian piece of research linked to advocacy for music education is a synthesis (Lee et al., 2017) of seventeen case studies of quality music education programs, examining their alignment with the PERMA wellbeing model. The PERMA wellbeing model was established by Seligman (2011) and considers wellbeing through the framework of Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment. Lee et al. found that the PERMA framework provides for clarity in investigating music’s role in fostering wellbeing in schools. Their synthesis of findings from the seventeen case studies highlighted that music has a strong ability to connect people, including students, families and communities (Lee et al., 2017, p. 22). They also found that music participation has the ability to build self-confidence, a quality which is highly transferable to both general wellbeing and success within schooling (Lee et al., 2017, p. 21). This study examined music education’s link to the state of ‘flow’, first identified by Czikszentmihalyi (1990) and further explored by Custodero (2002). The links between PERMA, flow, and music participation would benefit from further research in coming years.

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7.3 Conclusions As we emerge from the pandemic to the endemic phase of COVID-19 we now have the perspective with which to assess the events of the previous three years, the impact of the pandemic upon school education and our collective response as a society to this impact. While research into the pandemic’s impact is ongoing it does undeniably show heightened levels of anxiety, isolation, and lack of social cohesion as a result of the lockdowns and disruption to usual bonding behaviours in the school education system (Hansen et al., 2022; Listernick & Badawy, 2021; Loades et al., 2020). It is my view, supported by the research canvassed through this chapter, that music education offers a cost-effective and practical means of addressing these areas of concern. Studies have been released investigating the particular ways in which the social bonding role of music was utilised during the pandemic. For example, Chiu (2020) drew very interesting parallels between music-making during the Italian plague of 1567 and the spontaneous ‘balcony’ music making caught on social media in Italy during 2020. In both scenarios, music naturally emerged as a means by which to demonstrate and build social bonding and cohesion. Similar studies have been published of music making in the pandemic in Spain (Calvo & Bejarano, 2020) and of the impact of taking part in virtual choirs (Daffern et al., 2021). In times of social upheaval, these studies reveal the natural way in which people turn to music for support and connection. There are clear learnings here for the value of ensemble music making in school communities to reinforce and strengthen social bonding between both the student cohort and the teaching and administrative staff. Through this chapter the development of the field of research into the benefits of music education has been charted. There has been an evolution from research into separate areas of benefits of music education, including studies into cognitive benefits, wellbeing benefits, and benefits of music education to social cohesion in low socio-economic populations. From these distinct areas of research, there has been a shift towards more unified and synthesised research with crossover and collaboration across these areas. This is evident, for example, in the cutting-edge research examining the cognitive impact of music education delivered to students from low socio-economic populations in a Sistema inspired program (Habibi et al., 2018; Sachs et al., 2017). There has also been a growing connection between Government policy and research into the benefits of music education, both in terms of research reports lobbying for increased funding into music education programs (Collins et al., 2019) and in terms of research reports commissioned by Governments into the impact of music education. Research generated by the Scottish Government into the impact of ‘Big Noise’ is a key example of this development, as is the South Australian Government’s research report delivered by Dr Anita Collins prior to the commitment to the South Australian Music Education Strategy. The next stage of this development must be further longitudinal research into the impact of music education activities upon the wellbeing, development and social cohesion of schools and communities.

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Further developments in research should also include a deeper exploration of the particular impact of varying music activities—of singing, learning particular instruments, playing in ensembles, learning to read staff notation and of learning by ear for example. There is scope to further explore both the cognitive impact of these various music activities and to investigate their impact upon general development and wellbeing. There is also scope for future research exploring connections between music education and flow, growth mindset and resilience. The findings of the impact of choral singing such as the ENO ‘Breathe’ program are of key interest internationally, breaking new ground in the application of music to the treatment of long COVID-19 symptoms. It is important for these activities to be further monitored and for an expansion of such programs to other sectors of society, including children. The value of singing as a minimally invasive treatment for anxiety and breathlessness is clearly evident. It appears, encouragingly to music educators, that the level of activity in rigorous research into the benefits of music education is increasing over time, and that the impact of this research is also consequently growing. It is certainly the view of the author that, collectively, the research presented and discussed in this chapter provides a compelling argument for the value of music in the post COVID-19 pandemic period. Through quality, sequential music education, evidence shows that the cognitive development of children will be accelerated, that social cohesion will be strengthened and that positive learning behaviours and general confidence will be fostered. Given the challenges posed by the disruption to learning throughout the pandemic, these qualities are of vital importance in re-establishing a positive and level education playing field across school education through the coming years. In the post-pandemic landscape music’s ability to build social cohesion, to allow for emotional release, and to provide proven cognitive development will be pivotal in assisting students to rebuild connections and to counteract developmental delay caused by interrupted learning and social distancing. Acknowledgements With thanks to Associate Professor Mathew White and Professor Faye McCallum for your leadership and vision on this project. Deep thanks also to the music educators, researchers, performers and students whose activities are explored in this chapter; collectively your efforts are renewing and strengthening music education.

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Dr Emily Dollman, Ph.D. is the Head of Music Education and Pedagogy at the Elder Conservatorium of Music, University of Adelaide, founding Artistic Director of the Open Music Academy, a TEQSA Expert Adviser, a Council Member for ASME SA and a Board Member for AMEB SA and N.T. Emily’s background combines international experience as a professional violinist with a long-standing commitment to music education and instrumental pedagogy. Emily’s key research areas include connections between professional music organisations and education providers, music and wellbeing, and music’s value for social cohesion. Emily is committed to strengthening the role of participatory music-making in society. She has worked with students ranging in age from primary school to tertiary level as an instrumental teacher, examiner, conductor, and lecturer. Emily has published a Research Monograph, ‘Opening Doors: Orchestras, Opera Companies and Community Engagement’ with Routledge in 2023.

Part III

New Developments in Whole School Wellbeing Issues

Chapter 8

The Toolbox Approach: Towards a Novel Flexible Way of Implementing and Testing Positive Education Elena Lucciarini

and Ilona Boniwell

8.1 Introduction Teenagers are in dire need of enhancing or reinforcing their wellbeing skills. Posttraumatic stress, depression, anxiety, loneliness, inattention, fatigue, worry, low mood, insomnia, irritability, psychological stress: adolescence has been significantly impacted by the COVID-19 (Berger et al., 2021; Del Ciampo & Del Ciampo, 2021; Jones et al., 2021; World Health Organization (WHO), 2023). McCarthy (2019) and Ravens-Sieberer and colleagues (2020) also emphasise that teenagers’ mental health is alarmingly poor: worldwide, nearly one in three adolescent experiences anxiety and the situation worsened through the first year of the pandemic. Gotlib and colleagues studied the effects of the pandemic on 80 teenagers’ brains (2022). Their longitudinal research revealed that after one year of pandemic, the cortical thickness was reduced, the hippocampal and amygdala volumes were larger, and the brain aged more quickly suggesting that “adolescents assessed during the pandemic have neuroanatomical features that are more typical of individuals who are older or who experienced significant adversity in childhood” (p. 10). In a literature review, Del Ciampo and Del Ciampo (2021) suggest that teenagers showed worsening cognitive performance and exaggerated fear during the pandemic. Another very important element detrimental to mental health were the COVID-19-related social restrictions, especially given that social contacts are crucial for teenagers’ development (RavensSieberer et al., 2020). In a narrative review of 22 articles, Singh and colleagues (2020), E. Lucciarini (B) · I. Boniwell University of East London, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] I. Boniwell e-mail: [email protected] E. Lucciarini Valais University of Teacher Education (HEP-VS), Saint-Maurice, Switzerland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_8

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explain that 91% of the world’s student population had their school closed. Home confinement led to panic, anxiety, lower levels of affect, attention seeking, parents dependence. Children and adolescents having special needs and underprivileged children were impacted even further. World Health Organization (2023) warned about long-term consequences: recession, unrest and poverty are concerning, especially for adolescents. Even in Switzerland, one of the happiest countries in the world, many psychological centres for adolescents are full and suicides rates are rising (Abbet & Dubuis, 2021). The 2022 Swiss statistics (OFS, 2022) showed that the first cause of hospitalisation is, for the first time, mental health issues. Implementing wellbeing skills, along with other interventions may buffer against these issues. Good socio-emotional skills in pupils are linked to higher wellbeing (e.g., Norrish et al., 2013; Pilar et al., 2020; Roberts & Wright, 2018), and from the younger age and in the long run. Seligman et al. (2009) report that happy teenagers earn more income 15 years later than others, pessimistic people are more likely to die from heart attacks than optimistic ones, 18-year-old-women showing real smiles on photos are less likely to divorce, looking for meaning and engagement predicts life satisfaction and positive emotions reduce some racial biases. Likewise, Goodman et al. (2015) followed more than 17 thousand people aged 0–50. Their results suggest that trusting, motivated, emotionally stable, social, and resilient children become adults with a better salary, more satisfied with their jobs, happier, healthier, and less keen to commit criminal deeds. Working on teenagers’ wellbeing seems especially important, since adolescence is correlated with riskier behaviours, substance abuse or violence. Psychological distress often appears during adolescence (Paus et al., 2008). Thus, a large body of research advocates for prevention and promotion of mental health in childhood and adolescence. The next question is where to implement them. Many scholars (e.g., Boniwell & Ryan, 2012; Waters, 2011) along with WHO (2020b) argue in favour of a systematic implementation of universally delivered psychosocial interventions1 in schools. Adolescents spend more time at school than in other institution (Platt et al., 2020; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020; Waters, 2011) and a very large number of children go to school in the world. It is therefore a great platform to impact everyone and improve young people’s health (Platt et al., 2020; Skeen et al., 2019). There is more to implementing wellbeing skills in the classroom than prevention and promotion. A large body of research supports that wellbeing and cognition go hand in hand (e.g., Andermo et al., 2020; Chaves et al., 2016; Corcoran et al., 2018; Durlak et al., 2011; Hodzic et al., 2018; Lamboy et al., 2022; Piece, 2012; Taylor et al., 2017; WHO, 2020a). It can be argued that a happier student is a better learner (Shankland & Rosset, 2017) and a happier teacher is a better teacher (Kuyken et al., 2022). The WHO (2020b) strongly suggests to universally deliver interventions in schools around emotional regulation, problem-solving, interpersonal skills, mindfulness, and stress management. In many countries, it is not a suggestion: developing 1

To simplify the reading of this chapter, wellbeing, psychosocial and socio-emotional competences or skills will be used as synonyms.

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socio-emotional and wellbeing skills is a must do (CIIP, 2010a, 2010b). However, the fact that secondary-school teachers have to give 45 or 50-min lessons makes it complicated. In many countries, there is no political will to give curriculum time for wellbeing skills (Platt et al., 2020), further, there sometimes is no official material to do so (Da Cruz Carvalheiro & Lucciarini, in prep), and the teacher training is uneven throughout the regions (Bressoud, 2023). Alarming mental health, school being the best place, wellbeing skills enhancing academic achievement, and policies: the rationale is quite clear: teaching wellbeing is a priority. But how? And what is the best way to do it?

8.2 Teaching and Learning Wellbeing Skills It can be argued that there are different ways to teach wellbeing skills: implicitly, explicitly, or both. The most complete models are whole school approaches (e.g., Norrish et al., 2013; Roberts & Wright, 2018). They encompass explicit and implicit teaching of wellbeing skills and even more: school environment, curricula, metacognitive skills, extracurricular activities, architecture, furniture, food, class spatial organisation, students, parents, teachers, carers … Scholars developed different evidence-based models amongst which the Geelong Grammar School’s PERMAH (Norrish et al., 2013), the PROSPER (Noble & McGrath, 2015), the LeAF (Roberts, 2020), and the SEARCH (Waters et al., 2017). However, instilling a whole school approach can be complicated: it costs a lot of money to think wellbeing everywhere and there is a lack of expertise. Indeed, nothing is to be forgotten: from the food, to the walls, the teacher training, the pedagogy, external stakeholders, etc. … Moreover, a greater expertise in whole school approaches is a must in order to implement them. Implicitly teaching wellbeing is another possibility. To the question “when are students happy?” Morris’ (2013) answer is the following: when their needs are met, when they have a good relationship with their teachers and peers, when they feel safe, when they have a sense of meaning and purpose. Most teachers, even if they do not teach the “how to” of wellbeing science, embody happiness in their work (Gilyazova et al., 2021). The key idea of implicit wellbeing skills teaching is that just by being emotionally intelligent, teachers can impact psychosocial skills in their students. This relationship between observation and learning can be linked to the ground-breaking discovery made in Parma in the 90s: the mirror neurons. Indeed, this theory explains that watching someone do something or feel something, lights the same brain aeras than if we were doing or feeling it ourselves (Keysers, 2011). Claxton and Carlzon (2018) imagine that teachers’ pedagogy is the way to implement wellbeing skills. They propose the Learning Power Approach: “teaching for teachers who want to see children do as well as they can on the tests (…) but— more than that—they also want them to grow their independence, resourcefulness, creativity, curiosity and capacity for thinking about and exploring important matters deeply” (p. 9). In other words, the authors claim that a child-centered-education is sufficient to impact academic achievement and socio-emotional skill development.

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Bandura’s vicarious learning theory may help synthetise implicit learning (1965): pupils learn by observing teachers’ actions, by understanding the why they succeed or fail, for example in regulating their emotions, and imagining themselves doing the action, without actually doing it themselves. In his book, Morris (2015) offers a more nuanced perspective and explains that implicit wellbeing skills teaching is not sufficient: “every opportunity must be given to young people to learn how to bring about their flourishing” (p. 630). He pleads in favour of explicit teaching wellbeing skills by didactising them. Wellbeing skills would be taught through subjects, like geography, math, or philosophy. One of the most notable examples are the learning resources teachers can access via the Jubilee Centre. Art and Design, English, History, Geography lessons; all of these subjects benefit from free teaching-character-strengths-through-subjects documents. On their website, we can read that this material aims at developing approaches for building character strengths, increasing school understanding of strengths and encouraging individual initiatives (The Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, n.d.). The underlying premise is that character strengths recognition and use, generate wellbeing (e.g., Harzer, 2016). One element that may render the use of teaching wellbeing through subject complex for teachers, is that some professionals, in certain schools, have to stick to their own books and methods. They must use the books the pupils bought accordingly to school policies and complete these only. However, some of the activities introduced by certain “ready-to-use” pedagogical resources designed for a particular subject are long and demand an adaptation effort that some teachers are not ready to invest or that they cannot insert in the curricula. The activities are highly scripted and follow a certain order which does not fit with a need for flexibility. Moreover, to deliver the material correctly, teachers need to be well informed about strengths and have thus to read a lot or get some training on the subject. Another way of teaching explicit wellbeing skills is through dedicated programmes. An increasing number of PosEd programmes can be found in the literature (e.g., Celebrating strengths (Eades, 2008), Mindfulness in Schools Project (2020), Zippy’s Friends; Al’s friends; PATHS, Facing History and Ourselves, Wyman’s Teen Outreach Program (Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning, 2013, 2015, 2020), SPARK Resilience, Personal Wellbeing Lessons for Secondary Schools (Boniwell & Ryan, 2009, 2012)). Socio-emotional learning programmes have been subject to evaluation, and several meta-analyses and systematic reviews have established their impacts on learning, disruptive behaviours, socioemotional competences, etc. (e.g., Corcoran et al., 2018; Durlak et al., 2011; Hodzic et al., 2018; Kotsou et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2017). Programmes can be successful approaches to helping students flourish and preventing mental health, but effect sizes are relatively low (WHO, 2020b). Moreover, these programmes require investment, a lot of support, teacher training, often by external professionals (Platt et al., 2020), but also flexible school systems, governments, and curricula. And as Seligman et al. (2009) emphasises, ‘Any program that teaches wellbeing to school children must replace some useful program that already exists. There are only so many hours in the school day and not enough money to support what already exists’ (p. 17).

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If whole school approaches, implicit wellbeing skills teaching and explicit wellbeing skills teaching we know today are not the panacea, what could be the best fit in schools in theory and practice? According to research, theory, the evolution of fields close to PP, and to the actual teaching conditions, a novel approach to PosEd is presented: The Positive Education Toolbox Approach (PoETA).

8.3 Theoretically Building the Positive Education Toolbox Approach The PoETA is built with both evidence-based literature and teaching reality. Firstly, research on coaching offers perspectives on the kind of PPIs that work best in the workplace, and potentially, in the classroom. Grant (2017) also underlines the changes in terms of hierarchy, communication and flexibility happening in the coaching field and bound to influence PP. Secondly, the self-determination theory along with new research suggests that self-chosen interventions impact motivation and therefore has stronger effects. Since there seems to be no consensus yet in the research on self-guided or guided interventions, we decided to integrate both visions in the PoETA. Finally, some teachers’ reality suggest that short interventions would be easier to integrate in schools than programmes or teaching resources. Third Generation Coaching Practice It can be argued that PP and coaching work hand in hand (e.g. Green et al., 2020). Some scholars see coaching as a branch of PP because they share the same goals. Some others conceptualise coaching as a PPI (Boniwell, 2017). Because they both enhance adolescents’ wellbeing as well as improve their learning and achievement, coaching, along with PP, are useful in educational contexts (Green & Norrish, 2013). Theory on coaching practices evolution can give hints on to how PPIs may evolve. In his 2017 paper, Grant depicts coaching practices from second (2000–2010) to third generation (2010–?) shifting from prescriptive to flexible and agile, to authority and hierarchy driven to horizontal, to highly jargonized material to language integrated in culture and value. Of course, pedagogues are still arguing on the question of the “how to” teach in the best way. Bucheton and Soulé (2009) studied five different teaching modes and only the coaching mode “accompagnement” led to a collaborative and relaxed climate. Flexibility, agility, horizontal relationships, integrated language: amongst others, these concepts may shape the third wave of PosEd and are part of the toolbox approach. Spoon-Fed Versus Self-chosen Interventions Another avenue is to encourage autonomous choice of interventions within positive education. Following Ryan and Deci’s self-determination theory (2020) and the importance of meaning in educational settings (Norrish et al., 2013), research

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suggests that the most effective and motivating interventions tend to be varied, integrated, and personalised to foster autonomy and higher efficacy (e.g., Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). The fact that self-selection affects motivation and thus higher efficacy was also observed by Kalisch and colleagues (2022). In their study, 133 people with Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome were randomly assigned to waiting list (N = 85) prescribed PPIs (N = 22) or self-selected PPIs (N = 26). The group that chose their PPIs showed reduced fatigue, increasing positive affect and life satisfaction. In contrast, the group with a pre-determined programme and the waiting list control group showed none of these effects. Another study, on 792 participants (Schueller, 2010) suggests that individuals who showed a strong preference for a PPI were more engaged in it and more likely to complete it. Schueller reported that the correlations between preference and adherence were all statistically significant showing medium-to-large effect from r = 0.27 to r = 0.60. As for preference and efficacy, he found small significant correlations for almost every proposed PPI (from r = 0.18 to r = 0.26). Guided Versus Self-guided Interventions There is no clear consensus yet on the efficacy of self-guided versus guided interventions. In 2015, a meta-analysis from Conley et al. (2015) showed that guided and supervised interventions in higher education were more effective on depression, stress, anxiety, and physiological stress than unsupervised ones (mean effect size = 0.45; mean effect size = 0.11). For some time, guided interventions were believed to be more effective than self-guided ones. However, in a systematic review, Baumeister and colleagues (2014) showed that the difference between guided and self-guided interventions is less pronounced than previously reported. A meta-analysis on selfguided interventions also shows good results on stress, anxiety, subjective wellbeing, and depression (Fischer et al., 2020). Researchers like Karyotaki and colleagues (2019), are currently working on these questions. As a result, the toolbox approach encompasses both guided and self-guided exercises. The Reality of Teaching Practices Finally, the teaching field reality shows the need for new resources. Several schools need ready-to-use flexible, low-cost material to begin their PosEd journey. Many schools around the world working with disadvantaged children in poor environments do not have access to wellbeing skill teaching (Skeen et al., 2019). However, even more economically advantaged teenagers do not always have access to PosEd either, even if it is changing for the better (Bressoud, 2023). It is the case for Switzerland: the actual curriculum does not leave much room for psychosocial learning with teenagers (cf. Conférence Intercantonale de l’Instruction Publique et du Tessin, 2010a, 2010b).

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The PoETA is not new per se: this approach can also be found in books or websites that give activities ideas to enhance wellbeing in teaching contexts in a non-programme vision (e.g., Philibert, 2016; Roberts & Wright, 2018; TurnerBumberry & Grant, 2019). However, to our knowledge, it has never been operationalised. Table 8.1 clarifies the differences and similarities between teaching resources through subjects, programmes and the PoETA. Self-selected, Tailored, Evidence-Based and Measurable PPIs PPIs are the key ingredients to the PoETA. But what kind of PPIs? And what are PPIs? Scholars are still arguing on their definition (Layous et al., 2017; Schueller & Parks, 2014) and on how many PPIs there are (e.g., Bolier et al., 2013; Seligman et al., 2005; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). For the reader to be clear on how the literature was selected for the present work, it is important to give a third wave-compatible definition and an overview of the different perspectives on PPIs. One way of defining PPIs is the following: PP evidence-based “treatments methods, intentional activities primarily aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviours or positive cognition” (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009, p. 467), showing outcomes on “positive feelings, behaviours and/or cognitions” (Parks & BiswasDiener, 2013, p. 146) that can be easily implemented in daily routines (TejadaGallardo et al., 2020), Sin and Lyubomirsky also clearly state that PPIs do not aim at: “ameliorating pathology or fixing negative thoughts of maladaptive behaviour patterns” (2009, p. 469). However, their perspective seems to have evolved. In 2011, they explained how useful it was to use PPIs to treat depression. This might have been influenced by the idea that positive mental health and psychopathology can be seen as the sides of the same coin: mental health. Yes, negative and positive affects are Table 8.1 Teaching resources through subjects, programmes and toolbox approach: characteristics Teaching resources through

Programme approach

PoETA

–

PPIs

Short PPIs

Prescribed

Prescribed

Self-selected

One-size-fits-all

One-size-fits-all

Tailored

Guided

Guided PPIs

Guided or self-guided PPIs

Partly based on PP research

Based on PP research

Based on PP research

Measurable

Measurable

Measurable

No obligation

Several compulsory sessions

No obligation

Certain order

Sessions in a certain order

No order, flexible, agile

Does not fit any curricula

Does not fit any curricula

Fits any curricula

Often necessitates training

Often necessitates training or external professionals

Ready-to-use. Necessitates none or little teacher training

May use jargon

May use jargon

Teacher and student friendly vocabulary

Top-down relationship

Top-down relationship

Horizontal relationship

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different and independent: the absence of negative feelings does not equal the presence of positive ones (e.g., Huppert & Whittington, 2003; Keyes, 2005; Lamers et al., 2015; Westerhof & Keyes, 2010). However, fostering positive emotions impacts and protects in the long run from many negatively-valenced outcomes such as depression and psychopathologies in general (e.g., Chakhssi et al., 2018; Geerling et al., 2020). Positive psychotherapy (Rashid & Seligman, 2018); positive psychoanalysis (Leffert, 2017) and positive cognitive behaviour therapy (Bannink, 2012) are examples of how PPIs are being used to alleviate negatively-valenced symptoms. Another consideration for our literature review on the PPI definitions was to have a closer look at what other scholars used in their work. Boniwell (2017), Donaldson et al., (2019), Carr et al., (2020), van Agteren and colleagues (2021), and White and colleagues (2016); all include many types of interventions that were not linked to the traditional PPIs. Here are some examples: writing about optimistic perceptions, forgiveness, hope, mindfulness, music, positive psychotherapy, savouring, self-compassion, psychological capital, job crafting, coaching, dialectical behaviour therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, goal setting, humour, meaning making, massage, kindness, movement. With the third wave, it is normal that perspectives on PPIs change, since the fields of PP and Posed are evolving. Multicomponent positive psychology interventions (MPPIs) have appeared in the literature along the second wave (e.g., Taylor et al., 2017). If traditional, or singular, PPIs are usually one or more PP evidence-based activity aiming at developing one component of wellbeing, MPPIs bring together several exercises and target two or more wellbeing components (Hendriks et al., 2020). In a 2021 meta-analysis of 419 studies on psychological interventions, van Agteren and colleagues pointed out that MPPIs are more impactful (g = 0.280) than singular PPIs (g = 0.200). Their findings also show that MPPIs and PPIs are more efficient with mentally ill (g = 0.365; g = 0.392) or physically ill people (g = 0.521) than with general population. This emphasises the efficacy of PPIs as treatments. Parks and Titova (2016) point out that “PPIs are fairly new, so there is some inconsistency in the way they are defined by different researchers” (p. 2). These inconsistencies remain, especially with the moving field that is PP. Within the third wave PP, we can argue that PPIs are multi-component or system implemented evidence-based interventions aiming at ameliorating all aspects of mental health. PPIs outcomes may vary from fostering wellbeing to moderating negatively-valenced pathologies involving the subjective persona and the environment. Thus, PPIs can show effects on positive cognition, positive behaviours, positive relationships, positive physical health, positive feelings but also on various pathologies, maladaptive behaviours, or cognition. PPIs can, for example, enhance cognitive skills, positive emotions, quality of life, and at the same time, diminish hyperactivity, inattention, internalisation, anxiety, fatigue, and stress (e.g., Carr et al., 2020; Koydemir et al., 2020; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). PPIs today are now closely related to psychosocial interventions: non-pharmacological interventions that can improve mental health, ameliorate symptoms, functioning, quality of life and social inclusion (MacInnes &

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Masino, 2019). We are therefore using these notions interchangeably in this text. In summary, (M)PPIs could be defined as evidence-based, scientifically informed, measurable (psycho-social) interventions aiming at enhancing flourishing and/or decreasing languishing.

8.4 Building the Toolbox: Choosing the PPIs To select the best PPIs for the toolbox, we suggest that teachers only use interventions identified as impactful in meta-analyses. Indeed, scholars argue that meta-analyses show the highest evidence quality (McKenzie et al., 2016). There are multiple metaanalyses on the subject: it is relatively easy to find meta-analyses showing effects of single PPIs (e.g., Carr et al., 2021; Koydemir et al., 2020; Perach et al., 2019; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), MPPIs (Hendricks et al., 2019; van Agteren, 2021), and short PPIs (e.g., Calma-Birling & Gurung, 2017; McKeering & Hwang, 2019). It is further important to conduct a comprehensive review that would allow to identify as many toolbox-friendly PPIs as possible. Indeed, with the toolbox approach, the idea is to offer teachers and students informed PPIs in school context, identifying novel PPIs and offer a large variety and flexibility. To find the best PPIs, we went through a thorough literature search. We used ProQuest and Google Scholar. “Meta-analysis” was firstly entered, and themes commonly used around PP were searched for. We chose to look for other interventions, not yet labelled or traditionally identified in literature as PPIs. This led to search for many words potentially related to the type of interventions. This research was performed in English, French and Italian, since it is possible for us to read academic literature in these three languages. We found 68 meta-analyses to which we added thirteen more. Some were about interventions not yet identified by the literature as PPIs but corresponding to the proposed definition, like solution focused therapy (Kim, 2008), behavioural activation interventions (Mazzuccheli et al., 2010), art therapy (Boehm et al., 2014). Some others enquired on themes close to PP: loving kindness meditation (Galante et al., 2014), music (Kämpfe et al., 2011; Pelletier, 2004; Silverman, 2003), body positive programmes (Stice et al., 2009), drawing (Driessnack, 2005) and nature connection (Capaldi et al., 2014). We selected 81 meta-analyses that gave access to the original instructions so that we could stay as close as possible to what was tested.

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8.5 From Theory to Practice: Adapting the Interventions for School Contexts Once the interventions are identified, they need to be adapted pedagogically and didactically. They also need to fit the targeted audience. This proposal section elaborates on these three steps. Pedagogical Adaptation The self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020) suggests that motivation is triggered when as much flexibility as possible is left to both students and teachers. Firstly, teachers need flexibility to think about what is happening in their classroom: what the classroom climate tells them and how it can be enhanced to optimise learning. This also relates to Swiss pedagogue Cifali (2019) who, along with Malherbe (2001), advocates for overcoming the ban on thinking amongst teachers. With the toolbox, teachers can really step back and consider the best intervention for the students. In a similar way, students may also benefit from this flexibility. To engage more into the activities, and for the exercises to potentially be more powerful, they may select what PPI they will undertake. For example, teachers could imagine that with a very quiet class, in the middle of rainy afternoon, they could take a five-minute break and ask students to choose an exercise related to a physical activity. Each student might do something different and individually for the next minutes, but still related to movement. However, and because pedagogues are still arguing on this, working on personal fit and adopting a coaching position is not sufficient. Teachers also need to offer exercises targeting the class as a whole and use explicit pedagogy and guided activities (e.g., Gauthier & Bissonnette, 2017). This aims at fostering a sense of belonging, cooperation, and positive relationships in the classroom. It also allows students to discover interventions they would not have chosen but still be effective and found pleasurable. These elements, by ricochet, also enhance academic achievement (e.g., Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020). Thus, we argue that interventions are not only for teachers to use with the whole class, but they also target students. This way, and accordingly to both the selfdetermination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020) and research (e.g., Kailish, 2021), teachers as well as students can feel a sense of autonomy in choosing what fits the best. As a result, a balanced proposal between individual psychosocial interventions chosen by the teacher for the whole class and chosen by pupils themselves seem to be the promising. Once the toolbox is built, it is important to get guidelines on how to use it in the classroom. We suggest, in the next section, a classroom management model (Gaudreau, in press) to navigate through the PoETA practical aspects. Using the Toolbox Through Classroom Management Classroom management is the sum of the actions done by a teacher for and with students to provide support, engagement, guidance and progress through their

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learning and development (Gaudreau, 2019). Classroom management is linked to psychosocial skills (e.g., cooperation, emotional regulation, stress management, communication …) and research shows that it has many effects, amongst which an increase of academic engagement (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015). Everston and Weinstein, Marzano and colleagues pointed out in their meta-analysis (2003) that classroom management has “twice the impact on student achievement as do school policies regarding curriculum, assessment, staff collegiality, and community involvement” (p. 6). Using classroom management strategies to implement the PoETA in the classroom seems an idea worth looking at from a theoretical, research but mostly practical perspective. The framework we first chose was Gaudreau (2019). However, when proofreading this chapter, Nancy Gaudreau released an updated model. This is the one we would like to present. She went from five, to six elements, adding the teacher in her model. Her model is built upon a dense scientific literature as well as important classroom management models such as Jones, Dreikurs or Skinner. With her literature review, she found six evidence-based elements overarching classroom management, as depicted in Fig. 8.1: resources, setting expectations, developing positive relationships, maintaining engagement, and dealing with disruptive behaviours. This next section is a “how-to-use” the toolbox approach considering these six key elements. Resources. Resources encompass many elements including time and pedagogical resources. Using short exercises allow teachers to follow the prescribed curriculum

Fig. 8.1 Gaudreau’s classroom management model (Gaudreau, 2019)

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and implementing wellbeing skills. Practical arguments are not the only ones: the fact that research is growing on short interventions and that more and more scientists are interested in the micro-dosing of happiness (e.g., Davidson, 2022), underlines the potential beneficial use of short interventions. These short exercises are usable at any time, for example, at beginning of the class to foster optimal classroom management since routines have shown beneficial effects (Kern & Clemens, 2007). Another way to stimulate children through resources is by presenting them with engaging, attractive, and stimulating worksheets. Expectations. Introducing wellbeing skills to children requires communicating with them, explaining what is going to happen and building, together with them, a set of appropriate rules. Gaudreau suggests four to six rules maximum. She also suggests that those rules are visible somewhere in the classroom. Finally, most effective rules focus on behaviours. For example, “making effort” is a judgement, as for “being silent when instructions are given” is a behaviour. Gaudreau also writes about Bissonnette and colleagues’ work on explicit teaching of expected behaviours (2017). The idea here is to notice, communicate optimal behaviour and tell students what behaviour is expected, and not what is not expected. Setting expectations is also communicating instructions. When teachers chose a PPI from a meta-analysis, there often is a didactical change that needs to be performed. One of the most important may be on how to give clear instructions. It is therefore interesting to adapt or invent titles or instructions in order not to have jargon that students would not understand (Walker & Walker, 1990). If titles are catchy and conveying hints about the activity, it enhances a sense of curiosity and potentially of engagement. For example, “Shhhhhhh!” for an intervention implying complete silence, or “Out” for an exercise about writing emotional disclosure. In order to give instructions, pedagogues advise to use alpha, and not beta, instructions. Alpha instructions talk about the objectives (Leblanc & Guillemette, 2014). This will induce meaning to the task (e.g., Meirieu, 1997; Perrenoud, 2000). Therefore, it is also important to clearly communicate the PPIs’ impacts, for example: “by working on the best possible self, you can foster subjective wellbeing, hope and optimism”. Positive relationships. Doing a psychosocial intervention with students or giving them the possibility to do so, has the potential to foster positive relationships. By working on their wellbeing skills and showing how much they are enjoying it, teachers communicate positive emotions and implicit wellbeing skills (Sabornie & Espelage, 2022). Finally, when doing PPIs in teams, positive relationships between pupils can be fostered and have a multitude of positive effects like enhanced self-image and a sense of belonging in the classroom (e.g., Doyle & Bramwell, 2006). In her book, Gaudreau also proposes the use of icebreakers: PPIs can play this role. Finally, feedback has a massive impact on academic achievement (Wisinewski et al., 2022); thus, by providing and asking for feedback on the interventions, teachers show their interest in the students’ wellbeing development and enhances their cognition around wellbeing skills.

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Engagement. One element given by Gaudreau is differentiation. For the same interventions, teachers can ask students to write, draw or simply visualise. For example, in a PPI on positive reminiscence, students are asked to remember something from their early childhood and welcome their positively-valenced emotions. To do so, they could either write, draw, or visualise their answers. When working on the vocabulary of emotions students might need help and use a list of emotions provided by the teacher. Differentiation is maybe the most important component in terms of how to use the best intervention for each student. Research may lead practitioners to be very careful as to what exercise to do with what audience. Recently, a meta-analysis on biofeedback, which seemed to show very promising impacts in previous ones (e.g., Goessl et al., 2017; Laborde et al., 2022; Thabrew et al., 2018), indicated that it was contraindicated with ADHD students (Rahmani et al., 2022). Another interesting study on the introduction of the dot.be mindfulness programme in 43 UK school with 8376 11- to 13-year-old students, suggests that it should not be considered as a universally psychosocial intervention and is even contraindicated for students with existing or emerging mental health problems (Montero-Marin et al., 2022). This suggests that spoon-fed programmes may not be the best fit in certain contexts. And even if the WHO (2020b) and scholars (e.g., Fischer et al., 2020) plead in favour of universally delivered PPIs in school contexts, we recommend to always give a choice to students as if they want or not to do an activity that teachers are planning to do with the whole class. Further, and even more when working on negatively-valenced emotions is important in socio-emotional learning (Ivtzan et al., 2015), we recommend choosing PPIs linked to positively-valenced emotions in order to manage the classroom optimally. It may be difficult to use negative-emotions-triggering PPIs in school contexts, or with certain students, because teachers would need to be ready for students’ emotional responses such as bursting into tears or showing great discomfort (Riddle et al., 2016). Not all professionals may feel comfortable in doing so and not all teachers have the adequate training. Managing Challenging behaviour. Teaching wellbeing skills, as teaching any other subject, can lead to dealing with disruptive behaviour. Gaudreau reminds teachers that proactive measures are more effective than reactive ones (Marzano & Marzano, 2003). Literature on the subject is very rich and we invite here our readers to dive into it since it does not fit specifically the toolbox implementation The person beyond the teacher. In her book to come, Gaudreau (in press) is going to develop how teachers make a difference and are a key ingredient to classroom management. She will talk about their authority teaching style, their feeling of self-efficacy, their past experiences, their socio-emotional skills and their attitudes towards students. Self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1999) is a concept used in positive psychology and the teaching field. Many studies indicate a correlation between a sense of teaching efficacy and classroom management. In a meta-analysis, Klassen and Tze (2014) found a correlation between teaching efficacy and performance. Many short interventions that can boost self-efficacy for teachers are to be found in the literature (e.g, Hendricks et al., 2019; Van Agteren et al., 2021). As for socio-emotional skills, the recent meta-analysis from Oliveira (2021) showed that socio-emotional

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interventions had an effect on socio-emotional skills, [g = 0.59, 95% CI (0.29, 0.90)], but also on teachers’ wellbeing [g = 0.35, 95% CI (0.16, 0.54)], and their psychological distress [g = −0.34, 95% CI (−0.57, −0.10)].

8.5.1 Toolbox interventions: some examples Numerous PPIs can be identified and adapted for a toolbox approach. We chose to present seven of them, detailed in Table 8.2: Photo, Sneaky Squats, Highest Tower, Brain Quiz, Mind Games, 360 degrees, and Happy 80th birthday to me! The interventions target adolescents from age 15 to age 18. Interventions one, two, three and four are for teachers to use with the whole class. Interventions five, six and seven are for students to choose from. They all come from the review Lucciarini and Boniwell performed in 2021.

8.6 Limitations Limitations exist in the positive education toolbox approach. The next paragraphs go through several of them: from the operationalisation of wellbeing to research that is mainly focused on Western Educated Industrialised Rich Democratic (WEIRD) countries, the use of meta-analyses, and the role of teachers and students. The aim of this section is not to answer each and every critique but to draw the attention of the reader that PP is not being exempt from criticism. Let us just repeat that PP is constantly evolving, opening to multiculturalism, to more qualitative methods, and engaging in more and more sound research (Hendricks et al., 2020; Lomas et al., 2020). Moreover, the whole point of the PoETA is to adapt to teacher’s reality and be close to their needs. The Wellbeing Effect The first limitation is about core concepts that are pillars of Positive Psychology. In this chapter, we worked on implementing wellbeing in the classrooms. However, our vision of what constitutes wellbeing is subject to critique. Philosophy, sociology, positive psychology, economy: they all have a different vision of the constructs of mental health, welfare, wellness, wellbeing, happiness, quality of life, and flourishing. The constructs we used come from the Seligman’s flourishing theory (2012) and Diener’s subjective wellbeing (2009). But there are many other visions of what happiness is. For example, Kneer and Haybron (2020) wanted to know if happiness was solely a subjective construct. They found out that the close constructs of doing well, enviable life and good life, three traditionally philosophical constructs, were mostly related to external cause. On the other hand, 67% of the participants associated happiness to a state of mind suggesting that it is mostly perceived as internal. Delle

Teacher’s set

Teacher’s set

Teacher’s set

1.

2.

3.

Highest tower

(Sneaky) squats

Photo

Title

Instructions Take everything you have in your pencil case and stand up. With your neighbour, build the highest possible tower. (You may use the pencil case too!) You have two minutes!

Note for the teacher: do not tell the students what is going to happen. Ask the students to get up … and sit down. Do this as many times as you want! This way, they’ll do sneaky squats … Option 2: let them know what is going to happen. Set your stopwatch and do as many as possible in 1 2 or 3 min! Each pupil can compete on its own or they can team up and add their squats

Instructions Find beautiful things, people, shapes around you and take three pictures Try to think about these different aspects: – Which angle is the best? – Shall I stay closer? – How can I ameliorate the background? – How can I handle the lights? – What do I feel like when I look carefully at want to photograph? – What do I want people to feel when they see my photo? Note for the teacher: if possible, go outside for this exercise. You can ask your students to use share these pictures with the whole class, print some …

Instructions

Pencil case

Optional stopwatch

Smartphone, camera or an A4 paper with a neat rectangle cut in the middle (as if it was a frame)

Material needed

Ray et al. (2015)

Buecker et al. (2020), Haverkamp et al. (2020) and Sakuraya et al. (2020)

Capaldi et al. (2014) and Pritchard et al. (2020)

Meta-analyses

Table 8.2 Seven meta-analytically based PPIs adapted to the toolbox approach for teenagers aged 15–18 (Lucciarini & Boniwell, 2021)

(continued)

+ Self-efficacy + Academic achievement − Externalising problems − Internalising problems

+ Subjective wellbeing + Positive emotions + Academic achievement

+ Eudaimonic wellbeing + Vitality + Positive affect + Life satisfaction + Happiness

Effects

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4.

Teacher’s set

Brain quiz

Title

Table 8.2 (continued)

Instructions

Instructions This is not so much of an activity but a little explanation about the brain … research shows that if you know this about your brain, then you can achieve better, feel more motivated and bounce back better when something bad happens Find out if these brain facts are true of false Brain facts: 1. The brain continues to change, even into old age. (T) 2. The brain is like a muscle: the more you use it, the stronger it gets. (T) 3. There are as many neurons in our brain than stars in the milky way: 100 billion! (T) 4. When we make mistakes, our brain loses cells. (F: mistakes make our brains grow) 5. We cannot develop intelligence, talents or abilities. (F) 6. Multitasking is good for your brain. (F: research shows that you make more mistakes and that it takes you longer to do things!) 7. We only use 10% of your brain. (F: this is a myth! Even when we sleep, we use more than 10%!) 8. We have between 12,000 and 60,000 thoughts per day. It’s often the same thought coming back. (T) 9. About 80% of our thoughts are negative but it is possible to change it! (T) 10. Sleep is not so important for your brain. (F: it is imperative!) Option 2: to help memorise this new knowledge, try and tell it to your neighbour or write what you remember on a piece of paper! Note to the teacher: you can also imagine a course with the brain hand model from Daniel Siegel. Easy to find on YouTube and very easy to teach!

Pen and paper A drawing of a brain or do the brain model (see Siegel)

Material needed Sarrasin et al. (2018)

Meta-analyses

(continued)

+ Motivation + Achievement + Reading + Maths + Brain activity

Effects

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Student’s set

Student’s set

Student’s set

5.

6.

7.

Happy 80th birthday to me

360 degrees

Mind games

Title

Table 8.2 (continued)

Instructions

Material needed

Pen and paper Optional: list of emotions

Instructions Pen and paper Imagine you’re turning 80 today and people around you are throwing a big party. It’s now time for a toast and the person who knows you the best and deeply accepts and loves you as you are, is reading a text on you. What would you like to be said about you? Example: Elisa is a devoted friend and is always there when I need her. She has the right words and never judges. She loves creating and draws Mangas. Elisa is amazingly kind. When I am sick, she comes and makes me dinner to make sure I would eat. Elisa is also committed to her city and volunteers in the winter to serve soups to the elderly (…)

Instructions Think about all the nice things people have told you. It can be from your parents, your friends, your family. It can be about what you did for them, something you’ve achieved Option 2: write down positive actions about you have done or achieved Option 3: list all the positive things about yourself for the next minutes

Instructions Pen and paper Here is a list of mind games you can use whenever you feel anxious. Choose one or two and try them now! 1. Counting backwords from 144 as quickly as possible 2. Naming the records of your favourite band, or the players of your favourite sports team 3. Listing 5 things you see, 5 things you hear, 5 things you touch. Then 4, then 3, then 2 than 1 4. The 4–5–6: inhale: count to four Stop: count to 5 Exhale: count to 6 Do it as many times as necessary

Bolier et al. (2013), Fischer et al. (2020), Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) and van Agteren et al. (2021)

Bennett et al. (2019) and van Agteren et al. (2021)

Bennett et al. (2019), McKeering et al. (2019), Perach et al. (2019), Shields et al. (2020) and Sakuraya et al. (2020)

Meta-analyses

+ Wellbeing + Subjective wellbeing − Anxiety − Stress − Depression

*This exercise was tested as a part of Feel-Good Act Good programme (Stallard, 2019) + Wellbeing

+ Attention + Wellbeing + Immune stress + Subjective wellbeing − Fatigue − Stress

Effects

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Fave and colleagues (2016) interviewed 2799 adults from very different cultures and nationalities. Their definition englobed mostly interconnectedness and inner harmony. New perspectives on wellbeing influences literature reviews, research, and practices. The WEIRD Effect Psychology, and especially PP, is mostly researched and applied in WEIRD countries. Thus, the potential effects of these PPIs may be validated and working for a part of the population only (Hendricks et al., 2019; van Zyl et al., 2021). However, research on PPIs is emerging in Non-WEIRD countries, especially around life review, positive reminiscence, and spiritual interventions (Hendricks et al., 2019; Lambert et al., 2019). In 2022, Duan and colleagues (2014) dived into PPIs and analysed what, when and how they work in non-WEIRD countries. Operating in the Western individualistic neoliberal atmosphere, over-reliance on quantitative methods, and unjustified correlations are amongst the criticisms addressed to positive psychology (Schein, 2018; Yakushko & Blodgett, 2021). Indeed, Positive Psychology is built around “positive” individualism according to Hendricks et al. (2019, p. 9). However, we would like to address some nuance to this critique because PP aims at collectivism and altruism through positive relationships. Many PPIs are constructed around self-compassion (e.g. Marsh et al., 2018) and generosity like gratitude letter (e.g., Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006), acts of kindness (e.g., Curry et al., 2018), etc. Finally, let us not forget that PP is “the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions” (Gable & Haidt, 2005). The whole field of positive psychology aims at making people happier, by, for example, fostering authentic relationships. It does not seem to advocate egoism. The PosEd Effect PosEd promises are worrying according to Peters and Tesar (2020) because of the lack of research in education, its reified, limited definition of happiness, but also because PosEd programmes “are often associated with for-profit ventures based on little or no research, but by an impressive and promising selling pitch” (p. 925). It is important to answer this argument by reminding that many scholars and practitioners in the field do not aim at any profit. They develop free-to-use material and programmes. For example, Covidailles (Shankland et al., 2022) proposed PPIs for anyone during lockdown. Another one, Strengths for the Journey (Fosca et al., 2022) was developed and translated into many languages on a voluntary basis. It targets displaced young people in late childhood and early adolescence living in refugee camps. The fact the field of education is described as laconic can also be questioned: ERIC; the research platform yields 1347 meta-analysis when the words “meta-analysis, education and school” are searched for. The Meta-Analyses Effect We suggest that the PoETA is based on meta-analytic content only which might be a first step towards its validation. Indeed, most of the meta-analyses selected and

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summarised use RCTs studies. The fact that scientists pick out the best studies aims at guaranteeing more objectivity. This quantitative synthesis, first introduced in the 1970s, has revolutionised science. Using formal statistics, meta-analyses strengthen evidence-based practice and often resolve contradictory results. It is also known that today, statistical methodologies including open and big data are developing and aiming at more objectivity (Gurevitch et al., 2018). However, meta-analyses are also subject to criticism. Firstly, they are influenced by the quality of the studies they include (Bücker et al., 2018). Secondly, authors are also subject to many biases which may influence their choices, literature review and interpretation. Thirdly, the quality of the meta-analyses does not only depend on authors: it also depends on reviewers and editors’ work. Publication bias, research bias and biased statistical methods appear when it comes to this (Gurevitch et al., 2018). And even though the third wave of PP announces a methodological change in research, most of it is done through self-report questionnaires, which is problematic (Frawley, 2015). Research on PPIs Effect Some researchers nuance the effectiveness of PPIs. White and colleagues (2019) question the results found in PPIs meta-analyses. According to them, the effects are a lot smaller than previously reported. In fact, these authors critique the two best known meta-analyses on PPIs: Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) and Bolier and colleagues (2013). Another example: Cregg and Cheavens (2021) analysed 27 metaanalyses (N = 3675) and concluded that gratitude PPIs had a very small effect on depression and anxiety at post-test and follow-up. They do not recommend gratitude PPIs for depressive or anxious people. However, the 81 meta-analyses found for the PoETA might edulcorate critiques around PPIs with two million participants and nearly 5000 studies. One of them, (Fischer et al., 2020) is a meta-review on self-guided interventions to address anxiety and depression. Their results show significant effects of many interventions like mindfulness, yoga, music, optimism, gratitude, and kindness. Finally, an umbrella review on PPIs on general population suggest small decrease of negative affect, moderate increase of positive affect. Solanes and colleagues (2021) found some evidence that conducting acts of kindness on others may have the greatest effects. The PPIs Selection Some PPIs have to be shortened to be adapted to the target audience and context. More research is to be undertaken to clarify the impact of shortened PPIs, although judging by the outcomes of short mindfulness sessions and the new science of microdosing of happiness (e.g., Broderick, 2005; DeSteno et al., 2018; Gorman & Green, 2016; Lim et al., 2015; Davidson, 2023; Zeidan et al., 2011), there is room for hope. The Teacher Effect Teachers are a keystone in students’ learning process. Logically, the PoETA may not optimally stick if teachers are not, themselves, emotionally intelligent. Research suggests a positive significant link between teachers’ emotional intelligence and

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their perception of the quality of the relationship they have with students (e.g., Guidry, 2022). Emotionally intelligent teachers are also more open to change (Koç & Inandi, 2022), more prone to problem-solving (Bayraktar et al., 2021), less subjects to burnout (Gay et al., 2022) and more efficient in implementing wellbeing skills Genoud & Gay, 2020; Schonert-Reichl, 2017). Literature suggests that SEL programmes taught by teachers are more effective than the ones taught by researchers or experts (e.g., Durlak et al., 2011; van de Sande et al., 2019). Teachers are not often taught to focus on other aspects than student achievement (Urhahne, 2011). In order to get the best outcome from the PoETA, a solution would be to train teachers and future teachers wellbeing skills didactics (e.g., Bressoud, 2023; Gay et al., 2019, 2020; Gay & Shankland, 2019). The Classroom Effect There are certain exercises that may not fully unfold their potential because they take place in the classroom. For example, most PPIs in the PoETA do not involve nature. In a 2020 meta-analysis, van Loon and colleagues (2020) showed that horticulture activities had a beneficial impact on stress. Other researchers suggest that the role of nature is beneficial to learning (e.g., Bolay & Reichle, 2016; Capaldi et al., 2014) but the PoETA is mainly designed for indoor education. And indoor education is often synonym to little movement: it is quite complicated to move around in certain classrooms. However, sports have a great impact on wellbeing and academic achievement too (e.g., Andermo et al., 2020; Buecker et al., 2020; Dillon et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2015; Owen et al., 2022). The Student Effect Finally, at the very individual level, students’ traits, mood, personal history, socioeconomical background, mental of physical health may influence the potential outcomes of the toolbox (e.g., Gough & Madill, 2012). Further Development Work is currently in progress to construct a toolbox consisting of short metaanalytically based PPIs. When it is finished, it will be tested in school contexts. Then, the PoETA and its effects could be measured in other contexts: with parents, in coaching or therapeutic sessions. More generally, PPIs are more and more tested on specific groups in specific contexts. Therefore, researchers could carry on studies to determine what PPI works best for whom. It would be interesting to work on special needs children and see what PPIs show the best results, as they are particularly vulnerable to poorer wellbeing (e.g., Gaspar et al., 2016). The psychosocial interventions also need to be translated in order not to solely impact English speakers and extend research. Finally, many researchers (e.g., van Agteren, 2020), including WHO (2020b) are enthusiastic about implementing PPIs in schools. However, they question the quality of evidence, considered to be low to moderate. To optimise our knowledge on the interventions and to provide new insight on how to best design and deliver PPIs, it

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is now crucial that scholars enhance their research by, for example, using PP third wave research proposals. According to Donohoo et al. (2018), collective teacher efficacy is the most influential predictor of student achievement. Collective efficacy in teaching wellbeing skills is promising and can be linked to some aspects of Whole-School Approaches. Within Whole-School Approaches (e.g., Roberts & Wright, 2018), teachers work hand in hand with students, colleagues, parents, caregivers, school psychologists, etc. Research suggests that if everyone plays a role in PosEd, it enhances PPIs effects (Lederman et al., 2014; Mason et al., 2016). In their review, Berger and colleagues (2021) pointed out that teenager psychological response during the pandemic outbreak was closely linked to their parents’ mental health. The concept of emotional contagion is supported by a large body of research (e.g., Lamm & Silani, 2014; Lucciarini et al., 2019). If the PoETA is mainly to be used in the classrooms, between students and teachers, it would be interesting to extend it so that all partners use it hand in hand and work on their emotional competences so that children benefit from it.

8.7 Conclusion Mental health issues amongst adolescents resemble a pandemic: it affects whole countries and preoccupies authorities and governments. It is not surprising that several meta-analyses (e.g., Fischer et al., 2020) and WHO (2020b) advocate universally delivered PPIs in schools to all population, irrespective of their clinical diagnosis. However, even though schools are amongst the best places to impact children from all socio-economical background, many governments and schools leave no or little room to positive education. The toolbox approach is a way to contribute to developing educational environments cultivating simultaneously cognitive, psychosocial and wellbeing skills (Lucciarini & Boniwell, 2021) in any classroom. Many arguments plead in favour of the toolbox approach implementations in schools. Firstly, this type of explicit teaching of wellbeing skills would complete other kinds of explicit and the implicit ones. Secondly, they are developed within a novel positive education toolbox approach, which is in line with PP third wave. Thirdly, the chosen PPIs are more effective if they are adapted and based on a rich metaanalytic review analysis and coaching third generation (Grant, 2017). Moreover, the exercises also respond to a need in certain schools, where no space is given to develop socio-emotional skills: they are short, self-prescribed, tailored, evidencebased and measurable. All these qualities are based on research findings (e.g., Kalisch et al., 2022; Schueller, 2010). Finally, they meet the teaching field needs: they are inexpensive compared to programmes, can be given by any interested teacher with no or very little training. PosEd interventions have been implemented in few and isolated schools (TejadaGallardo et al., 2020). Most of the time, they are not part of the curriculum, and they

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often do not stick to policies (White, 2016). To reach every child and have a protective effect on their health, it seems important that they benefit from PosEd throughout their curriculum (e.g., Goodman et al., 2015). It is not easy for certain schools and teachers to switch from a classical hierarchical perspective and go towards more innovative and horizontal practice. How can we help PosEd stick? Governments, school heads, and teacher training play a crucial part in this evolution. White (2016) suggests that researchers and practitioners in the PP and PosEd collaborate to help the field stick to policies. In his narrative review (2021), White advocates for the development of teaching education of wellbeing. Instead of waiting for political decisions, the change can also come from practice. Teachers can work in their own classroom as a PP practitioner to optimise their students’ success. The toolbox approach may be a way to begin this revolution and bring new research and possibilities in wellbeing education. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Swiss chocolate, Nicolas Bressoud, Philippe Gay, Fabrice Massy, and Marie Giovanola for their support whilst writing this chapter.

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Elena Lucciarini is the first Ph.D. student in Applied Positive Psychology and Coaching at the University of East London. She holds an M.Sc. with Distinction in Applied Positive Psychology (Anglia Ruskin University). She also has an M.A. in English and Philosophy (University of Geneva) and is a journalist. Elena teaches communication as well as classroom management to future and experienced teachers (HEP-VS: University of Teacher Education Wallis). She also teaches philosophy to 15–20-year-old students (ECCG Martigny). In the school she works, there is no time for wellbeing lessons in the curriculum, especially when it comes to 45-min lessons. Therefore, Elena practises short PPIs (Positive Psychology Interventions and mindfulness interventions) in her classes. She explores this data as part of the “Emotions, Wellbeing and Learning Skills” project. For her Ph.D., she focuses on the impact of both self-chosen and prescribed short PPIs on teenagers’ wellbeing. She also co-produced and broadcaste “Apprendre Ensemble” (Learning Together) a monthly TV show on Canal 9, where she invites teachers and teachers’ trainers to give insights, tips, and novel ideas to pupils’ parents around school and learning. Professor Ilona Boniwell, Ph.D. is a professor of positive psychology at the University of East London and the original founder of the UEL’s M.Sc. in Applied Positive Psychology, the first degree of this type in Europe. She is one of the world leaders in positive psychology, working in the field for more than 20 years, originally mentored by Martin Seligman. Professor Boniwell wrote or edited twelve books, delivered over 200 keynotes and a TEDx, founded the European Network of Positive Psychology, organised the first European Congress of Positive Psychology, and was the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA). Her main teaching expertise lies in the areas of positive psychology and positive psychology applications, with research interests around: resilience, subjective time use, time perspective, eudemonic wellbeing, tangible tools and applications of positive psychology to business, executive coaching and education. She is also a passionate positive psychology practitioner, having developed and implemented multiple positive education programmes. As a Chief Executive Officer of Positron, she consulted with the Governments of United Arab Emirates and Bhutan and many major international companies, including ClubMed, L’Oréal, Unilever, Nestle, EY, Microsoft and BNP Paribas.

Chapter 9

Flourishing SD—A Positive School Development Approach Ulrike Lichtinger

9.1 Introduction Despite a growing Positive Education worldwide many school authorities, principals and teachers in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Luxemburg still assume that feeling good and functioning well in school are irreconcilable opposites. Nevertheless things are in motion with growing speed. Over the past five years Positive Education and Positive School Development with Flourishing SD (Lichtinger, 2022; Lichtinger & Rigger, 2022) has outreached many schools, several 1000 teachers, principals, school supervisors, academic staff in universities and pedagogical affiliated institutes of education ministries. This can be mainly attributed to its message that wellbeing supports academic performance supported by empirical proof. Essential to the change was and is the existence of not only descriptions in science-theoretical books but also of empirical studies that learning processes should be triggered, which enable joyful learning according to broaden-and-build (Fredrickson, 2003, 2006). Of course, joyful learning adapted to the ages and developmental stages of students, alone and with others, and at best—according to the claim of Positive Education— evoking flow, high concentration up to self-forgetfulness (Brohm & Endres, 2017; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009; Wagner et al., 2020). Referring to Seligman’s flourishing of each person (Seligman, 2011) postulated as the goal of positive education in the Geelong Grammar School approach (Norrish, 2015; Norrish et al., 2013) positive school development pursues the goal of feeling good and doing good. Therefore it uses an adaption of Creemers and Kyriakides (2010) model of school effectiveness pointing at the fact that school development takes place on several level of schools, the organisation as a whole, the team of teachers and staff, the teaching-and learning process and the learners. When it comes to its outcome it makes clear that U. Lichtinger (B) University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Eichstätt, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] International University (IU), Erfurt, Germany © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_9

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according to positive education results academic performance can be regarded as being embedded in wellbeing as main outcome. Based on the schools’ needs and the commitment to the synthesis of wellbeing and academic performances as goal and mission of schools the positive school development approach was created. A first rollout was started in and for the westernmost state of Austria, Vorarlberg, in 2017. From there it has been spreading ever since. It has been integrated in existing school development as well as having been adapted for specific contexts. Among them were and are digitalization with PERMAdigi especially during and after COVID-19 (Lichtinger, 2020) or the so-called PERMAinpose Bavarian BiUSE’s school development counseling to expand inclusive schools (Lichtinger, 2022). The positive school development approach is dedicated to Positive Education and flourishing schools. Therefore it is called Flourishing SD, SD used as abbreviation for school development. Flourishing SD is meant to create thriving learning communities and working environments for students and teachers. It pursues the goal of developing, deploying and evaluating interventions that serve to promote positive, strength-focused schools and enable students, teachers, staff and principals to flourish. Flourishing SD can be understood as hybrid combination using the best of all worlds: it synthesizes insights from (mainly German) research in school development (SD) (Kiel & Weiß, 2016; Rolff, 2016; Steffens et al., 2017) and school effectiveness (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2010) with results from positive psychology (Seligman, 2011), Positive Organizational Scholarship (Cameron & Spreitzer, 2012; Cameron et al., 2003) and Positive Education along the Geelong Grammar School approach (Norrish, 2015; Norrish et al., 2013). Flourishing SD proposes a structured process that takes place in a growth mindset (Yeager et al., 2019), primarily focusing the schools and its people’s strengths and potentials and aims at wellbeing with PERMA (Seligman, 2018), self-efficacy (Ryan & Deci, 2018) and satisfaction with school life (Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2018), as well as high academic performance as outcomes on student level.

9.2 Multilevel Model of Flourishing SD School development is understood as a dynamic, fluid process of individual schools from bureaucratic organisations to schools which—within the framework of semi-autonomous decision-making fields—give some freedom for organizational, personal and teaching developments (Saalfrank, 2016). School Development mainly refers to three fields of action as well-known by Germans from Rolff’s three-way model (Rolff, 2019) identifying three ways or rather areas of development in schools, the organizational development, the human resource development and the developments in teaching–learning environments. Despite being split into three fields, the model takes account of the fact that these are interlinked. Positive School Development takes these fields of action into account by assigning them to the multi-level model of school effectiveness (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2010), looking at it through

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Fig. 9.1 Multilevel model of positive school development (Lichtinger & Rigger, 2022)

the lens of positive education and providing appropriate intervention packages to support the change, the so-called PERMApackages (Fig. 9.1). Four levels provide information about the various fields of school development at the individual school: • Organizational development at school level with setting up a structured, systematic process and, if necessary, support the school leaders through coaching. • Human resource and team development at team level with the initiation of systematic teacher training as well as team development towards a professional learning community and a multi-professional team. • Teaching development and creation of learning environments on teaching level, individual coaching and the development of learning systems such as PERMAlis . • Life skills trainings at student level to promote strength-based learning and address wellbeing literacy in students of all ages. The developments in individual schools are understood as bottom-up processes, but are subject to clear guidelines from politics and school supervisory authorities. The top hierarchy level of the original model is adapted, the hierarchy dissolved and therefore visualized in the adaptation for Flourishing SD as a frame that is set by politics and school supervisory authorities. It marks the orientation lines and limits for the development of the individual school. This picture is important as it makes visible that innovation is always carried out in a clearly limited frame—sometimes even with a top-down mandate—that does not allow any dream to be dreamt. A frame did not exist in Rolff’s model. Having the frame as part of the model proved of importance in German-speaking schools of Austria and Germany as without teachers tend to assume unlimited school change possibilities and feel disappointed when sensing the systemic limits. At the same time it has proven to be important to make the teams aware that there is also a lot of creative freedom within the framework and that it is a matter of interpretating the frame. It can give partial autonomy and leaves quite an amount of encouraging design options. Within the frame each individual school is embedded and shows itself as a multi-level system as sketched above. Here team level, teaching level and learning level are emphasized, a representation that

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recognizable integrates Rolff’s three-way model adding the additional level of the students taking into account that participative school development includes the entire school family. Different from the original model is its outcome: All developments are aimed not only at academic performance but at wellbeing with an embedded performance orientation.

9.3 Key Factors of Success Flourishing SD does not fundamentally rethink school development. Rather, it takes up existing initiatives by schools and is based on the empirically ascertained success conditions of successful education systems (Rolff, 2016). Since the beginnings of school development research in the mid-1970s, a whole series of factors for the success of school development has been identified and partially been widely reconfirmed. For positive school development, which sees itself as an applied science made for usage by practitioners, it was necessary to reduce the abundance and focus on key factors. Their selection results from a meta-analysis of relevant studies as well as from the subjective experiences of going native through 20 years of school development moderation. The key factors of success collected beginning with the early RAND study (Berman & McLaughlin, 1975) for the implementation of change projects in schools until latest findings in research (Haenisch & Steffens, 2017; Holtappels, 2010; Huber et al., 2020; Saalfrank, 2016) done with especially challenged schools. They are condensed to focus its main and most effective factors to a list of five including wellbeing during the process of school development and as key outcome: (1) Autonomies of the actors and support by experts: Research clearly shows that people become involved, experience meaning in their actions and self-efficacy when they feel autonomous (Berman & McLaughlin, 1975; Deci, 2014; Saalfrank, 2016). Absolute freedom is not necessary and often not helpful for this. It is rather decisive that autonomy is noticeable, which can be partial or offered as freedom of choice. The experience of autonomy opens up ownership, the feeling of being able to contribute and be effective in something and to participate in something that is bigger than oneself. For this reason, it is important to give teachers and school management these autonomies, if necessary, via the multidimensional model of school development to make it clear and to offer the frequently felt limitations as a design framework. External support makes the need for school development support obvious. School management and teachers are not comprehensively trained in school development, and there is often a lack of conceptual knowledge and expertise in process management. External coaches must also have the opportunity to decide freely whether they want to take on the role.

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(2) Positive leadership of principals, supervisors and management: Schools need strong, visionary leaders as clear gatekeepers of a clearly defined development space. The central role of school leadership in the school development process was already recognized in the RAND studies of 1975 (Berman & McLaughlin, 1975). Their attitude and vision is instrumental in the developments (Berkowitz et al., 2017) as they provide emotional contagion and model both positively and negatively (Rozin & Royzman, 2001). If a school principal has an open and positive attitude towards innovation, there is a chance to infect the school community with it and to sponsor renewal (Mahfouz et al., 2019). Successful school development is ideally one that everyone supports. A participatory management style in the sense of positive leadership is recommended. Positive leadership (Cameron, 2013; Luthans et al., 2001) is the leadership approach that has grown out of positive psychology and aims to ensure the wellbeing of all employees, which in turn enables productivity and high performance in an organization (Ebner, 2019). (3) Piloting educational practice: Schools need development that allows trial and error and leads to concrete teaching practice and school culture. Piloting educational practice is a key factor that has not been evaluated much so far, but has been experienced as essential in practical work. When supporting schools, the urge in the teaching staff to get down to business immediately when it comes to innovation is often noticeable. Setting up a systematic process is initially perceived as a deterrent and unnecessary. At the same time, there is a fear of having to establish sustainable developments for better or for worse. The key factor piloting educational practice (Haenisch & Steffens, 2017) liberates from this pre-determination and leaves room for maneuvering. Being able to try things out, experience ‘failure’ and turn them around helps establishing lightness through a trial-and-error culture at team level which is still fairly uncommon in German schools. (4) Visionary processes with everest goals and SMART goals and evaluation: Schools need processes based on visions and everest goals for their development as well as a structured process along SMART goals including reviews as orientation. A team sense of coherence is essential for the success of school development. In order for school development to make sense, teachers must be able to recognize themselves in the schools vision and be able to pursue it through common everest goals. This requires not only a conversation, but shared images that can be gradually broken down into concrete, small, feasible goals and achieved within a reasonable period of time (Haenisch & Steffens, 2017; Saalfrank, 2016). Goals and indicators set in advance, in combination with a fixed time for goal achievement, also enable goal evaluation and accomplishment, which ultimately makes success visible, triggers joy among those involved and can create engagement in further developments.

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(5) Wellbeing with PERMA (Seligman, 2011): Schools need strengths-based developments in and towards wellbeing and growth at all levels to reach further organizational and human flourishing. Thus wellbeing with PERMA is inherent in all process steps of Flourishing SD. This is supported by the finding that wellbeing enables productivity and performance via the five PERMA pillars (Brohm & Endres, 2017) increasing the probability of a successful innovation process. If the actors enjoy what they are doing (P), then they are open and creative in the development work. If they perceive the development as added value, this meaning (M) supports their motivation—especially if the vision, goals and process (A) are clear. And if they can contribute their strengths in the clearly defined working groups (R), this holds the chance of a high level of commitment (E) with individual flow and flow in the community.

9.4 PERMA Packages for Positive Processes with Flourishing SD With PERMAlead , his approach to positive leadership (Ebner, 2019), Austrian positive leadership expert Marcus Ebner provided the conceptual impulse to name the intervention packages of positive school development PERMApackages . PERMAchange is the intervention to set up a structured and systematic school development process in terms of organizational development of the individual school. Positive school development always begins at this point and with this package. It is sometimes flanked by PERMAcoach , a package that is assigned to the school level in the multidimensional model, but focuses on the school principal or management and is intended to offer support coaching on school development agendas. PERMAlis represents the development of a positive learning system, which breaks down subject curricula into subject learning plans and thus offers children and young people individual and joint learning at their own pace and keeps an eye on the learning progress through closemeshed diagnostics in order to be able to close gaps immediately with support offers. PERMAlearn offers positive education training for students such as learning to see life through a positive lens with Positive Detective or learning how to identify and work with character strengths. PERMAinpose represents a variation of PERMAchange for the coaches for inclusive teaching and school development (BiUSE) in Bavaria and thus provides an intervention package for schools to start into inclusive school development. Each intervention package has a clear objective and a suitable process structure, which should not be understood as a rigid framework, but rather as a point of reference. The principle of ownership applies here too—every school development coach who wants to use PERMAchange is prompted to make the package their own and use it suitably. However, the experience of the last few years clearly shows that omitting individual steps or varying the method too much has not proven successful.

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9.5 PERMAchange —Seven Steps to Success Research shows that school development processes with initiation, implementation and incorporation often have a three-phase form, not linear but spiral (Rolff, 2016), generally following the Deming cycle of PDCA (Deming, 1950; Patel & Deshpande, 2015). Flourishing SD with its PERMA packages has further differentiated these three phases and backed them up with the elements of traditional project management necessary for the school development process. It is regarded as a means of enhancing the quality in the school through successful systematic management of innovation and change. Specifically, a structured process flow was designed consisting of seven steps and each of them being sensitively combined with positive psychology/positive education. Each measure in the individual steps is processed in the associated attitude and specified methods. For the selection of the methods, their effects with regard to the PERMA factors were particularly taken into account. The smart art illustration shows the SD phases and steps of the intervention package PERMAchange . It is not to be understood as a fixed set of rules and method to be performed blindly but a framework meant as orientation. Each school must adapt the framework to suit its own particular needs to integrate piecemeal planning activities into a coherent structure of an overall development plan supporting schools in professional development and empowering the team to systematic innovation and to enable success (Fig. 9.2). Step 1—Unfreezing and Audit With the head of school being the Gatekeeper of development (Berman & McLaughlin, 1975; Lumby, 2007; Nathan, 1996) Flourishing SD starts with an interview with the principal to elicit detailed information about his or her personal view. Her or his ideas and wishes must first be obtained. The first ‘face-to-face’ encounter (Ribbins, 2007) serves as to build relationship and trust as well as a means of getting the real feelings, ideas, visions and challenges regarding the content, the process and the implementation of a structured school development process. It results in an audit, an initial analysis of the current situation through a positive lens. If possible, it takes place at the school, so that the discussion can be followed by a tour of the school

Fig. 9.2 Seven step process of positive school development (Lichtinger & Rigger, 2022)

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building. The school’s principal is asked in advance to have key figures, concept papers and results from school performance reviews etc. ready. The initial interview is based on the GROW structure (Grant et al., 2009). GROW is an acronym for a process that is made up of four elements: First, the goal (G for Goal and here interpreted as everest goal) of the desired development is formulated, then the current status (R for Reality) is examined in order to recognize what is already going well and where strengths lie in this school. This is followed by the recollection of options for action (O for Options), before it is finally determined whether the person interviewed seriously wants (W for Will) to actually tackle this school development. Essential for this start is the active-constructive form of communication (ACR) known from positive psychology, which reinforces positive statements and, in addition to the interest in the content, is deliberately designed to generate or remember positive emotions in the interviewee. Coupled with elements of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider, 2000), an appreciative atmosphere is created and positive emotions are evoked such as hope for improvements through targeted development, gratitude for existing potential and inspiration for new ideas. These proceedings confirm Sergiovanni’s rules of planning to emphasize first the ‘means’—appraising the team with their strengths involved, then the ‘ways’—allowing them to develop the measures needed to be undertaken, and finally the ‘ends’ in that they themselves will decide on their goals (2009). A similar interview is held with the steering group or a randomly assigned fiveperson school team put together. This team serves to describe the situation from their point of view of. At the same time, emotions of gratitude and a sense of school development and support are evoked. The conversation provides information about the extent to which the school leader and the teaching staff—the group is assumed to represent—are in harmony in their visions and dreams and hopes. This multi-perspectivity is helpful for the school development support, as it allows a first impression of the interaction at team level. In a third interview, the school management and the school team are shown the knowledge using a picture. It is essential in this step to show the intersections of what has been heard and, if necessary, to work out differences. If there is a high degree of overlap, it can be assumed that the intention in the context of school development was well communicated to one another. Experience, however, vary widely. Central to the third discussion is also to make clear the perspective of school development support and to underline that in its role it can only make a contribution to the process that supplements or expands the contributions of the team. In this way, the principal’s of ownership and the team cooperation at eye level that apply to positive school development can be experienced in practice. Step 2—Team Information and Process Initiation In order to initiate a whole school development process a commitment to it among staff and principal is necessary. Step 2 aims towards this official embarkment of all taking place as an educational half-day with the entire staff (Rigger, 2019). It is used to familiarize the school community with key concepts of positive school development as well as its process and a first timeline. A phase of unfreezing brings staff and external advisors together in a humours, vivid atmosphere.

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Tools like positive storytelling or positive interviews give teachers the ability to a good exit from their school morning and a positive entry into the possible school development. A reasonable choice of environment as well as catering is suggested to allow the staff to feel appreciated. Creating as many positive emotions as possible in order, according to Broaden-and-Build (Fredrickson, 2001), to expand perception, thinking and acting (broaden) and in the second step, to initiate the build-up of resources (build) and the willingness to go with the school development process. As one result, the following clarifications of central terminology as well as the concept and the process can be better absorbed and processed. The school development coaches themselves always endeavor to maintain an attitude in accordance with PERMA (Lichtinger, 2018) in their work and provide emotional contagion. It becomes noticeable for the schools when the accompaniment is on an equal footing, appreciative and seeing needs, responding to them. Finally staff and principal are requested to decide on their commitment to start into the process and prepare for their preparation. Step 3—Vision and Goals In order to reach and celebrate success, schools require a clear sense of direction. Thus, a vision of where they hope to go and of everest goals they are optimistic to achieve are mandatory. A whole school vision essentially outlines where the school is planning to head (Broadhead et al., 1996). together, holistically. The shared vision represents a dream, a hope, an aspiration. Step 3 is devoted to setting goals through vision work taking into account that this phase can generate feelings of hope directed to a possibly positive future. It this follows Seligman’s prospective alignment, creating an atmosphere of optimism and positivity. Divided into random groups, the teachers are assigned to draw a vision of their “ideal” school in five years. These images are visualized on flipcharts, given a motto or vision statement and then presented to the entire school team in a gallery walk. The school management appreciates the results and values the ideas through active constructive responding. In this way, joy can be generated and the motivation and commitment of colleagues can be increased. In the following phase, the teacher groups develop the first three target ideas that are meaningful from their point of view based on their drafts and the feedback from the previous gallery walk presentation. These are presented, discussed and finalized together. The afternoon’s vision process create positive emotions such as pleasure, interest, hope, satisfaction, as everyone involved can deal with the topics of their school, communicate their wishes and exchange with one another. Form vision and Everest goals a transition to pragmatic process has to be initiated. Flourishing SD puts on shared responsibility. Thus, for the team this workshop ends with their vision, vision statements and realization ideas whereas the coaches take them to prepare a first draft of key objectives from it. They then introduce the OKRs to the team and ask them to check the wording and correct where necessary so that they can be adopted as shared OKR and basis for step 4 in the process.

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Step 4—Planning After establishing targets planning to attain them and designing a pathway to success are main contents of step 4. Basically the transition from target setting to planning is quite fluid, as the latter is understood on the basis of a clear target architecture. Based on the realization ideas and all other perceived statements of the teachers, the coaches develop the most suitable, coherent and positively formulated key objectives for this school. It has proven useful to send these to all school team members before the next workshop in order to give them enough time to reflect on their coherence. Afterwards, each individual key objective is discussed, adapted or reformulated with the entire school team until a commitment is achieved in the teaching staff. Obtaining this is again the responsibility of the school management, strengthening the school team in their process responsibility. A working group is set up for each key goal, which then defines a first work area and a first SMART goal. SMART as well-known acronym stands for specific, measurable, acceptable and attractive, realistic and timed and allows the initiation of a strategic effective work process. The final common set of goals, a clear timeline of actions and measures can be developed having a clear finish line in mind that allows possibilities of accomplishment and success at a certain date. The creating of a sense of joint ownership strengthens the community and motivates for the actual implementation phase. Key factor of success 4 ‘Visionary processes with everest goals and SMART goals and evaluation’ is thereby fulfilled and enables coherent target-oriented process management. For this purpose, the objectives are backed up with indicators in the working groups, on the basis of which a later evaluation is possible. Necessary measures are defined and put in a meaningful sequence on a timeline. To keep the workload manageable the timeline for all goals and groups is printed and enriched by the school dates and projects. To start the work packages effectively the staff is also made familiar with the concept of character strengths (Niemiec, 2018; Peterson & Seligman, 2004) as well as group roles. Ruch’s research proves that successful groups are based on the strength of zest, teamwork, leadership and hope and recommends to train them (Ruch et al., 2018). Besides, seven group roles are defined each of them characterized by a specific set of strength. Assigning group roles according to strengths helps overcome a group’s storming phase and makes performing more quickly possible. Step 5—Implementation Implementation on Flourishing SD does not necessarily refer to putting interventions into practice. Step 5 is rather defined as a phase of bringing a promising idea or vision into life by designing an intervention or realizing a planned innovation. The actual content-related work on the selected topics begins understood as start of realizing planned measures. It takes place on working group level. Each group of teachers is responsible for a content or the achievement of a SMART goal. For this purpose, the working group ideally sees itself as a multi-professional team, within which members of different character strengths and potentials (Niemiec, 2018) come together and merge them into the team roles necessary for promising group work.

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Particular challenges lie in recognizing the individual strengths of character of each team member (Ruch et al., 2018). This not only requires a look at the inherent potential, but at the same time the acceptance of associated, possible weaknesses, which can be compensated by the strengths of other group members. This work phase, which is not always conflict-free, can pose a great challenge to the individual participants and how they shape relationships in the team. The linchpin for a successful Flourishing SD process is the team culture, which manifests itself in a willingness to communicate and cooperate and which should be constantly re-considered. This requires the willingness to reflect on oneself and one’s own work in the context of character strengths, team roles and assignments of tasks (Ebner, 2019). To support the development’s success and help groups keep engaged and grow, group speakers are identified and sent to regular speakers’ rounds. They are defined fixed points within the timeline and serve in this phase to exchange intermediate results, to clarify questions or to feed back assignments. This monitoring is designed to the school’s needs for formative reasons based on participative responsibility. Each speaker contributes to the exchange as representative of the group and its agenda, addressing needs and challenges to the principal or other groups. If necessary school development coaches also come in to support synthesis of results from an outside perspective. Step 6—Evaluation The implementation phase ends with step 6, the evaluation. The evaluation of the school development process is meant as internal periodic procedure and important tool for recognizing the process’ success and ongoing efficiency. This self-evaluation has the merit of being quick, responsive to the school’s specific needs, its circumstances and results. It is meant as a tool for managing development and contributes to the school’s ownership of Flourishing SD. The evaluation is mainly intended to show achievement and therefore contribute to the staff’s and school’s wellbeing as well as encourage further engagement in development activities. The evaluation activities undertaken are based on the assessment framework set up by defining SMART goals and indicators. Thus, conducting the evaluation process can be kept small flanked by school development coaches who usually are familiar with evaluation strategies, processes and instruments. If wished, they can suggest various further evaluation tools, encourage appropriate adaptation to the school’s particular needs. Key question interviews, a variety of quantitative assessments or questionnaires may add supplementary information on certain process, group activities or secure links with classroom practice. Central and sufficient is the determination of the achievement of goals or the question of the steps still necessary to achieve success—completion— and thereby increase wellbeing. The achievement of the SMART goal ideally refers to the self-efficacy of the teachers in the change process, in the ideal case increases their self-worth, their satisfaction individually as well as in and with the team of the working group and motivates to further commitment in the next innovation process. Step 7—Conclusion If goals have been achieved, then at the end of step 7 being proud and celebrating the success are in focus. If some goals could not be achieved, it is now necessary

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to take a closer look at them and incorporate them possibly modified, into the new development process. Empowerment of the teams in schools to steer and design further processes is targeted. Ideally, they will be able to take over responsibility for their own positive development processes in the future and to live this joint work as a matter of course, meeting their very own interests, successfully and strengthening their wellbeing.

9.6 Voices from Schools To determine Flourishing SD’s effectiveness a quantitative research on the question of an increase in the wellbeing and self-efficacy of teachers in school development processes was set up. COVID brought school development as originally planned together with the research to a standstill. Instead, four interviews were conducted with school principals in 2020/21 who had completed the process together with their team in order to be able to get a first picture of Flourishing SD’s effectiveness. All of the three appreciated several aspects of Flourishing SD with PERMAchange . One principal pointed at the fact that she was confident that, with the help of Flourishing SD, she would be able to raise awareness among her teaching colleagues that now everyone is aware again that we all have a bit of responsibility for the whole system and that it’s not just me who always unloads everything, but everyone in their small area thinks the whole thing along (Interview I, lines 99–101).

The second stated that Flourishing SD was characterized by its coherence, which is expressed, among other things, in the formulation of the SMART goals. Yes, I think there’s a clarity to it and it’s not artificial, it’s actually, yes, quite logical. (…) Logically understandable (Interview II, lines 139–141).

She also preferred her new role in PERMAchange . You really have to, it’s a big team, 31 teachers, so you have to pay a lot of attention to that. And I think that if someone from outside now lays out the plan, the concept, it will be much easier and more effective that the work will not come to nothing (Interview II, lines 26–28).

Principal three understands Flourishing SD to be a well thought-out concept that helps bring the teaching up to date. He expects this to improve student performance in the long term. To him the concept appears very structured, well thought out and straightforward. Despite this conclusiveness, his role was not always clear to him at all times. When should I step in as a principal, when should I step back? Which topics is important for me to get involved with? Where is it important that the teachers can get involved or the steering group? (Interview III, lines 246–248).

Apart from that, he is very satisfied with their work. They are committed and know how to motivate the teaching staff, which has meant that the teachers have started well.

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Everyone gets involved. It’s everyone in a workgroup. The working groups meet regularly. Well, I really have the feeling, yes, it gave the whole thing a new impetus (Interview III, pp. 68–70).

Principal four likes the fact that PERMAchange has a clear structure and that the process is carried out together. Work steps are clearly defined and fairly fixed. Well, if individual teams had skipped steps or if I too hadn’t seen the need for a step, it was always very clear, the steps are required and that’s positive (Interview IV, lines 90–92).

When asked what hopes she had in Flourishing SD, she replied: [T]he sense of togetherness is strengthened. Also this participation, I am a part of it and also that […] will continue to do things right (Interview IV, lines 210–212).

Here, too, the school was, in her view, on the right track. She noticed, for example, that the sense of community in the college had increased and that a positive mood was spreading. This was a positive development, which she attributed to the jointly supported school development. If one compared the statements of the interviewed headmasters with one another, it was noticeable that there were no major differences between the main statements. So everyone spoke of a relief and support that was ranging from moderating the joint meetings to the systematic setting up of the school development process. In addition, an unconscious emotional contagion of the school principals by the school development supervisors could be determined, which obviously had positive influence on the course of the school development work. Time management turned out to be difficult. However, this was presumably not because of the Flourishing SD concept, but rather a general problem of school developments. The concept was supposed to reach its limits if the staff did not accept it and refused to actively participate. The respondents agreed on this point as well, but did not have any of these experiences. All in all, they were in favor of Flourishing SD as a systematic structured process having a clear concept and fairly recognizable theoretical foundation.

9.7 Conclusions Research show and everyday experience confirms that a systematic and positive school development approach can be helpful for schools to thrive (White et al., 2015). But as we know from the concept of balance there are always to sides to a medal and we do well to consider both: A structured process as described above gives orientation and—based on the concept of positive education—turns out to support wellbeing and academic excellence in schools. However, structures and strict goal orientation can turn out to be rigid and incongruous to emerging needs. Dewey (1916) stated that outcome-oriented education particularly with a narrow focus on academic excellence hinders learners to grow and flourish as this needs time and autonomy, is based on experience based on trial and error. Besides, as knowledge is constantly changing with the change of reality everyone is prompted to continuously change and

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develop. This means any development—coincidentally or intentionally and systematic—has to adapt to changing conditions. What is known from research, what has come from evidence and standardized test scores may hinder schools to thrive and grow beyond plans and measures. “Evidence-based programs value replication while Dewey values choice based on context and perspectives of the collective. Dewey values the process of growth (being and becoming) while evidence-based traditions value the outcomes” (Ylimaki & Brunderman, 2022). To combine the best of two worlds we might do good to have an eye on both: systematic development based on clear goal oriented processes as well as the opportunity to grow within an atmosphere of abundance.

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Professor Ulrike Lichtinger, Ph.D. is a full professor at school development at the International University, Germany and an expert in the field of Positive Education. Together with her team, she has developed the concept of positive school development—a synthesis based on school development research and positive psychology/positive education. The German book on Flourishing SD, the positive school development approach, was published in Dec 2021, introducing the multidimensional model of positive school development and its key factors and practical work along the intervention packages PERMAchange and PERMAlis . A German Springer essential is due in April 2022. As an expert, she is invited as a speaker on positive education, positive (school) leadership, and positive school development by ministries, school supervision boards, schools, and congresses in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Luxembourg, bringing the ideas of positive education to the German-speaking world. During the pandemic, she has started a series for teachers to support them with learning nuggets of resilience and optimism and teaching materials. The research project PERMAlis offers a learning system that turns curricula into teaching plans and enables students to take over responsibility for and engage in their learning processes. PERMAlis aims to embed positive education in subject lessons that support academic performance and PERMA at the same time.

Chapter 10

Using Metaphors to Shine a Light on Wellbeing Education Duyen T. Vo , Kelly-Ann Allen , Andrea Reupert , and Lea Waters

10.1 Introduction Despite growing interest, wellbeing remains a somewhat elusive concept, with scholars using and debating various definitions (Dodge et al., 2012; Huppert, 2017). The result of ongoing debates is that teachers, students, and other key stakeholders in schools (e.g., parents, school counsellors, learning support aides, school Boards et cetera) may find it difficult to reach an agreed understanding of what wellbeing is, and thus, a shared understanding about how to increase it. This chapter begins by briefly examining the academic attempts to define wellbeing. The benefits of using metaphors to broaden understanding of wellbeing and related concepts are then explored, followed by descriptions of four wellbeing metaphors found in the wellbeing literature. The chapter concludes with suggestions for applying metaphors to inspire new directions and possibilities in wellbeing education in schools.

10.2 Understanding Wellbeing The question of how to define wellbeing remains a challenge (Halliday et al., 2019; Kern et al., 2020; McCallum et al., 2020). The literature shows fine-tuned debates about the differences between flourishing, happiness, and wellbeing while some scholars use the terms interchangeably (Huppert & So, 2013; Lyubomirsky, 2007; D. T. Vo · K.-A. Allen (B) · A. Reupert Faculty of Education, School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia e-mail: [email protected] K.-A. Allen · L. Waters Melbourne Graduate School of Education, Centre for Wellbeing Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_10

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Seligman, 2011). Some researchers have argued that definitions of wellbeing are context-specific and vary depending on the context of where wellbeing is being considered (Hamling et al., 2020; La Placa et al., 2013; Lomas et al., 2020). Still, others have suggested that wellbeing is individual and personal, highly dynamic and temporal, and varies depending on whose wellbeing is being considered and when (Hone et al., 2015; Kern & Taylor, 2021; Vella-Brodrick et al., 2018). Despite the lack of agreement, some prominent themes emerge in the existing literature, and we will turn to these now. Scholars interested in investigating wellbeing often describe two broad categories, namely objective and subjective wellbeing (Diener, 1984; Goodman et al., 2018; Western & Tomaszewski, 2016). The objective approach defines wellbeing in terms of external quality-of-life factors, including material resources (e.g., housing, income, and work quality) and social attributes (e.g., education, civic engagement, and social connections) (Western & Tomaszewski, 2016). Conversely, subjective wellbeing (SW) is defined as an individual’s own perception of their life. This latter approach describes how people experience the quality of their lives through their emotions and cognitions to evaluate life satisfaction (Diener, 1984). Diener (1984) proposed that SW has three components: life satisfaction (global assessment of a person’s life), positive affect, and negative affect. Thus, individuals who perceive themselves as experiencing life satisfaction, high levels of positive emotions (such as joy and optimism) and low levels of negative emotions (such as anger and sadness), are thought to have high subjective wellbeing. Diener’s (1984) SW model has been regularly used by researchers, psychologists, and social scientists when investigating those factors that lead people to perceive their lives in positive ways (Forgeard et al., 2011; Goodman et al., 2018; Huppert & So, 2013). To add to the difficulty of defining wellbeing, SW has been used interchangeably with “happiness” in the literature. Happiness has been referred to as a combination of positive experiences, such as joy and contentment, and a sense that one’s life is meaningful and worthwhile (Lyubomirsky, 2007). Researchers sometimes utilise happiness as a single construct to measure wellbeing, in many cases simply asking participants to rate how happy they are on a Likert scale (e.g., Fordyce, 1988; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). Although happiness presents one accessible measurement of wellbeing, some researchers contend that wellbeing is more than happiness (Marks & Shah, 2004; Seligman, 2011). Instead, it has been argued that wellbeing is best understood as a multifaceted concept (e.g., Huppert & So, 2013; Ryff, 1989; Seligman, 2011), where wellbeing is a dynamic construct with several components combining to make up the whole of wellbeing. In conceptualising wellbeing as a multifaceted construct, four models in the literature feature a profile of wellbeing elements or factors. These include Ryff’s (1989) six-factor model of psychological wellbeing, Huppert and So’s (2013) 10 flourishing items, Kern’s (2022) PERMAH model, and Waters and Loton’s (2019) SEARCH framework. Ryff’s (1989) Psychological Wellbeing model built on Diener’s (1984) model of subjective wellbeing, on the basis that Diener’s model lacked a theoretical rationale. In addition, Ryff (1989) argued that previous attempts to define wellbeing failed to acknowledge important theories of positive psychological functioning;

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namely, theories of personal growth (e.g., Jung, 1933; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1963), life span development (e.g., Buhler, 1935; Erikson, 1959; Neugarten, 1968), and positive mental health (e.g., Jahoda, 1958). Considering that these theories identify similar psychological functioning features, Ryff (1989) integrated these to propose a summary of six wellbeing factors, outlined below. Self-acceptance recognises that a positive attitude towards oneself is central to wellbeing, while positive relations with others emphasises the ability to love, and to create and maintain warm, deep, and trustful relationships. Autonomy includes qualities such as self-determination (the ability to make decisions without external influence), independence and the ability to regulate one’s emotions (Ryff, 1989). Environmental mastery (individuals’ ability to actively contribute to and change their world) and purpose in life (a sense of meaning through direction and working towards one’s goals) are also recognised. According to Ryff (1989), a person’s continued drive to reach their own potential, known as personal growth, also contributes to positive wellbeing. Huppert and So (2013) proposed another multidimensional perspective of wellbeing. Identifying that most of the previous research and practice was based on a deficit approach, where wellbeing was defined as the absence of mental disorder (e.g., depression and anxiety), their model aimed to recognise wellbeing in its own right. Accordingly, Huppert and So (2013) defined wellbeing as the opposite end of the mental disorder spectrum. They first examined internationally agreed upon criteria for common mental disorders—the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1994) and the International Classification of Diseases and Related Mental Health Problems (1993)—and then listed the opposing characteristic for each criterion to develop a “flourishing” model. The 10 items include competence, emotional stability, engagement, meaning, optimism, positive emotions, positive relationships, resilience, self-esteem, and vitality (high level of energy). In this way, they argued that wellbeing does not refer to the absence of illbeing, but rather the opposite (Huppert & So, 2013). Similarly advocating for a strengths-based approach, a large body of work in recent literature comes from the field of positive psychology. Scientifically grounded, positive psychology (PP) investigates the optimal functioning of individuals, groups, and institutions (Gable & Haidt, 2005). It aims to complement a focus on negative factors in life (e.g., stress and burnout) with positive factors, supporting a holistic view of wellbeing. One prominent example of a PP model, PERMAH, is proposed by Kern (2022). Based on Seligman’s original model (2011), which incorporates positive emotions (subjective wellbeing emotions such as pleasure, comfort, and warmth); engagement (an experience of ‘flow’ whereby someone fully uses their skills and attention for a challenging task); relationships (support from and connections with others); meaning (a sense of purpose); and accomplishment (pursuing achievement and competence for its own sake), Kern’s model specifically includes the element of physical health. Health has been defined broadly to include objective and subjective factors, involving an individual’s engagement in a range of daily activities, together with their own perceptions of their health (Kern, 2022).

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A second PP model that is gaining popularity is SEARCH (Waters, 2015; Waters, 2017; Waters, 2019). This framework encapsulates six pathways: strengths (preexisting qualities that arise naturally, feel authentic, are intrinsically motivating to use and energising); emotional management (ability to identify, understand and manage one’s emotions), attention and awareness (ability to focus on inner aspects of self and external stimuli), relationships (supportive social connections and feelings of belonging), coping (constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage one’s demands) and habits and goals (persistent patterns in decision making and action). Goals are formal aspirations that people aim for and are willing to invest effort into. The SEARCH framework is the result of three key stages of science. The first stage involved a large-scale published bibliometric review and cluster analysis of the field of positive psychology that analysed 18 years of research from 18,401 studies to establish what the science reveals about the elements of, or pathways to, wellbeing (Rusk & Waters, 2015). In the second stage, an action research project, which involved ten schools, road tested the data-driven meta-framework (Waters et al., 2017). Finally, a systematic review of school intervention studies in both psychology and education databases that involved 35,888 students from Australia, New Zealand, Europe, the United Kingdom, Asia and North America demonstrated the effectiveness of the framework and each individual pathway on student illbeing, wellbeing, and learning outcomes (Waters & Loton, 2019). More recently, the SEARCH model was found to significantly predict coping skills and stress-related growth in students during COVID-19 school lockdowns (Waters et al., 2021). Although academic models and frameworks, such as the ones described above, are important in exploring wellbeing, particularly in identifying specific target areas (Kern et al., 2020), arguably, it is also important to investigate alternative ways of conceptualising wellbeing beyond literal meanings. If the aim of wellbeing education in schools is to improve the wellbeing of students and teachers (Oades, 2017; Shankland & Rosset, 2017), then there is a need to explore different methods of helping schools understand a complex construct. The use of metaphors provides a potentially powerful tool, bridging the gap between scholarly descriptions and common everyday understandings. Further reasons for the utility of metaphors are described in the next section.

10.3 Broadening Understanding of Wellbeing Through Metaphors Originating from the Greek word “metapherein” which means to transfer, metaphors are used in everyday language to transfer meaning, often by comparing the unknown to the known, and from abstract ideas and concepts to more concrete ones (Clarken, 1997). Metaphors are effective language devices because they can create vivid images and can be brief and concise while illuminating deep understanding. Psychologically,

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metaphors have the power to change the way individuals think (Burnette et al., 2022; Mould et al., 2010). In this section, the reasons described above are further explored to illustrate the great potential in using metaphors in wellbeing education. The use of metaphors aligns with the call to develop wellbeing literacy in positive education (Oades, 2017). Wellbeing literacy (WL) has been described as the use of language to contextualise the process of positive education (Oades et al., 2022) and to foster the understanding, communication, and actions that build wellbeing in schools (Waters & Higgins, 2022). In other words, WL is concerned with the ability to “communicate about and for wellbeing” (Oades et al., 2022, p. 91). Given that the ability to describe and understand one’s wellbeing is an important factor that shapes student mental health outcomes (Constantinou et al., 2014; Jager et al., 2021), language strategies that help foster wellbeing literacy, such as metaphors, are of high value. According to Oades and colleagues (2022), WL consists of five components. The first, vocabulary and knowledge, includes the words and content used to communicate about wellbeing. The second component focuses on the language modes of reading, listening, and viewing in the comprehension of multimodal texts related to wellbeing, while the third focuses on the composition of multimodal texts through speaking, writing, and creating. Context awareness and adaptability are the recognition that the meaning of language varies according to context and, therefore, must be considered and modified accordingly (Oades et al., 2022). Finally, intentionality for wellbeing is understanding why language is used and the conscious awareness of using language to maintain or improve wellbeing (Oades et al., 2022). We argue that the use of metaphors has the potential to draw on all WL components. First, metaphors generate discussion, which means that students are building their vocabulary and knowledge of subjective wellbeing (component one of WL). Furthermore, given that some metaphors are verbal and others are visual, they tap into the multimodal component of WL and encourage students to expand their schemas of wellbeing (components two and three). For example, by drawing on Seligman’s (2011) weather metaphor and using a visual to show the different elements that make up that construct (e.g., temperature, humidity, wind speed, among others), teachers could help students understand wellbeing as a dynamic and multidimensional construct. Moreover, using the same metaphor, teachers could provide students with a scaffold for learning the associated vocabulary about the different dimensions or pathways of wellbeing, such as the ones found in PERMAH (Kern, 2022) or SEARCH (Waters & Loton, 2019). Second, metaphors can be used as a language and visual tool for understanding and creating wellbeing (components one, two and three). Within the school context, for instance, metaphors can be used to discuss, reflect on, and express ideas, feelings, and observations about wellbeing as a concept (VCAA, 2022). These capabilities also support students and teachers to be intentional about wellbeing (component 5). For example, using weather conditions as a metaphor for emotions (e.g., sunny, cloudy, stormy) can be an accessible way for primary school-aged children to become aware of their state of subjective wellbeing and to become confident and intentional about wellbeing conversations. Regarding the importance of context for

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WL, metaphors can help create meaning in and for different contexts (component 4). That is, metaphors can be adapted and changed according to different contexts. For instance, in discussing the concept of mindfulness with children, a monkey metaphor may help explain the notion of a restless mind (i.e., the wandering mind is like a monkey swinging from branch to branch and the goal of mindfulness is to train the monkey to be present and stay in one tree). In essence, metaphors are helpful as language and communication strategies related to wellbeing literacy, both for relating to the self and interacting with others (Oades, 2017). There are several other benefits of utilising metaphors in wellbeing education and promoting wellbeing literacy. For one, metaphors can explain complex concepts simply and memorably, often highlighting several aspects (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). This feature is especially important in wellbeing education in schools where children and young learners may understand the metaphor (e.g., monkey) more easily than a formal description (e.g., mindfulness). Research suggests visual images in education can aid memory in learning and provide associations with other instructional approaches (e.g., verbal or written), leading to positive learning outcomes (Clarke et al., 2006; Graber, 1990), thus making metaphors a powerful tool to teach wellbeing education. Although metaphors can briefly frame information, their most compelling feature is the ability to illuminate deep understanding (Clarken, 1997). Indeed, metaphors are often used to create stories for personal reflection and understanding (Bullough, 1991; Nuttall, 2009), explore the nature of complex phenomena (Clarken, 1997; Steuter & Wills, 2008), and develop stories for therapeutic change (Mason, 2011; Mould et al., 2010). Hence, metaphors are recognised as not only a matter of language, but also a matter of thoughts and actions (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Metaphors could provide a valuable tool in wellbeing education because of their power to change how individuals think, often with profound consequences (Hendricks et al., 2018; Lule, 2004; Mould et al., 2010). In particular, the framing of words and images used in metaphors is known to establish and influence a particular way of thinking (Ritchie, 2013). It is for this reason that scholars across diverse fields have investigated how metaphors have been used as essential tools for changing mindsets (e.g., Burnette et al., 2022; Landau et al., 2018; Mayer-Schoenberger & Oberlechner, 2005; Steuter & Wills, 2008; Wallis & Nerlich, 2005). One study by Burnette and colleagues (2022) aimed to investigate if health messages portrayed early in the COVID-19 pandemic impacted individuals’ wellbeing. The authors found that ‘change’ metaphors, compared to war metaphors, resulted in greater overall individual wellbeing. While change metaphors focused on the possibility of change through an individual’s own actions to directly help “flatten the curve” and “break the chain of transmission”, war metaphors depicted COVID-19 as an “enemy” to “battle” (Burnette et al., 2022, p. 88). Interestingly, participants who were given information through change metaphors also reported stronger growth mindsets (the belief that human abilities can grow and develop) and greater self-efficacy (an individual’s belief in their own control and capacity to progress towards the desired outcome) (Burnette et al., 2022).

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Similarly, another study found that metaphors shape individuals’ perceptions of coping in times of adversity (Hendricks et al., 2018). Respondents who read a vignette about a hypothetical cancer patient’s experience, which was framed as a ‘journey’ (as opposed to a ‘battle’), believed that the patient was more likely to make peace with the situation, relative to the alternative scenario. Furthermore, the study showed that individual’s exposure to a particular metaphor subconsciously influenced the language they used afterwards (Hendricks et al., 2018). Thus, even though the framing of metaphors may not give a whole impression of certain concepts or issues (McMahon, 2021), there is scope and potential for metaphors to foster mindsets and change individuals’ outlooks. In the case of wellbeing education, the careful and purposeful use of metaphors could potentially support positive mindsets in students and teachers, thereby increasing their overall wellbeing. Furthermore, exposure to certain metaphors may subsequently influence how wellbeing language is used in schools, consciously or unconsciously. Having discussed the benefits of metaphors in the previous section, we now turn to metaphors found in the wellbeing literature.

10.3.1 Wellbeing Metaphors Four metaphors in wellbeing literature demonstrate how they can transfer meaning of abstract notions into concise and relatable explanations. The first two, Kaufman’s (2022) sailboat and Durie’s (2004) house metaphors, both explicitly and vividly capture the multidimensional and dynamic nature of wellbeing; the latter also draws on context-specific elements. Waves (Lomas et al., 2020) capture developments in the field of positive psychology, while the metaphor of upstream (Allen et al., 2022) focuses on the prevention and promotion-based application of positive psychology in schools to improve mental health outcomes. In this section, we describe the four metaphors, and later we show how these four general wellbeing metaphors could be directly applied in schools to increase wellbeing literacy, student voice and wholeschool wellbeing approaches. Sailboat Metaphor. With the core idea that the human condition is a dynamic (not linear) experience, Kaufman (2022) proposed a sailboat metaphor of wellbeing. He argued Maslow’s (1968) widely-recognised human motivation theory is often misrepresented as a rigid pyramid where “being” is achieved by climbing various levels (Kaufman, 2022). In clarifying that Maslow’s original intent was indeed to emphasise the idea of “becoming” (i.e., human growth), Kaufman suggested a “functional” model, as summarised in Fig. 10.1 (p. xxxii). According to Kaufman (2022), the human condition is a vast ocean of possibilities and discovery. However, in this expansive space, there are also dangers and instability. To help navigate the sometimes-rough conditions, the harmonious integration of several needs is required, broadly grouped into security and growth needs.

214 Fig. 10.1 Sailboat metaphor. Note “Sailboat” from Transcend: the new science of self-actualization by Scott Barry Kaufman, copyright © 2020 by Scott Barry Kaufman. Used by permission of TarcherPerigee, an imprint of the Penguin Publishing Group, a division of Penguin Random House LLC. All rights reserved

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TRANSCENDENCE

PURPOSE

GROWTH

LOVE EXPLORATION

SELF-ESTEEM

SECURITY

CONNECTION SAFETY

Security needs (e.g., safety, connection, and self-esteem) must be met before pursuing growth needs. Kaufman explained that when there is a hole in the sailboat itself, all motivation is directed towards filling that hole before the boat even begins to sail. Thus, security needs, found at the hull, are required as a stabilising base. With this secure foundation, the sailboat has a chance to pursue its journey. Kaufman (2022) clarifies in his model; human existence is fundamentally about growth. Although security needs are passive and reactive, growth needs (e.g., exploration, love, and purpose) emphasise individuals’ innate quest to reach their full potential. At its core, growth needs are motivated by curiosity, discovery and openness to create new opportunities for development (Kaufman, 2022). The metaphorical sail representing growth supports the boat’s navigation in different directions rather than a particular destination. Kaufman contended that a sailboat is a better metaphor for life than a pyramid because of its dynamic nature. The integration of security and growth needs within an individual (sailboat) and their interaction with the world (ocean) is important to wellbeing, not which level is reached. As Kaufman’s (2022) sailboat metaphor highlights, even though the ocean of life can present dangers and upheaval, ultimately, with a solid base and open sails, humans have the potential to glide harmoniously. House Metaphor. Also drawing on the interconnection of different aspects of health and wellbeing, however with a culturally sensitive lens, Durie (1984) proposed a house of health and wellbeing. Grounded in indigenous M¯aori values, the Te Whare Tapa Wha (or ‘the house with four walls’) framework approaches wellbeing holistically. As the concise image suggests in Fig. 10.2, four pillars collectively contribute

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to the building of a sturdy and balanced whole, including mental and emotional wellbeing (taha hinengaro), physical health (taha tinana), family and social relationships (taha wh¯anau) and spiritual connection (taha wairua). All these four dimensions are built on the foundation of taha whenua, the connection to the land and environment. Although Durie’s (1984) metaphor includes elements of wellbeing that are the building blocks of other models, such as emotional and physical wellbeing, and relationships (Huppert & So, 2013; Kern, 2022; Ryff, 1989), the explicit focus on family, spiritual connection and connection to the environment are emphasised. In M¯aori indigenous beliefs, the family is fundamental to understanding health and wellbeing issues, providing identity through a link with the past, present, and future (New Zealand Government, 2022). Spirituality is also accentuated, which includes transcendence, a life energy that moves beyond the self and others (Tse et al., 2005). Concerning the environment, it is believed that a harmonious connection between people and their natural land and environment is required for both individual and collective wellbeing (Durie, 2004). Waves in Positive Psychology. The metaphor of waves has been chosen to illustrate developments in the field of positive psychology (PP), as summarised in Fig. 10.3 (Lomas et al., 2020). Lomas and colleagues (2020) argued that the idea of waves

Fig. 10.2 House metaphor. Note This image is adapted from Te Whare Tapa Wh¯a, developed by Sir Mason Durie in 1984. Courtesy of The Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand, www.men talhealth.org.nz

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Fig. 10.3 The three main waves of positive psychology. Note This image was originally published in The Journal of Positive Psychology, Taylor & Francis Ltd., www.tandfonline.com

in an ocean provided a more fitting depiction of the evolution of PP, compared to notions describing clearly defined stages (e.g., Wong, 2011). Recognising that at that time, the dominant focus of psychology was on pathology (i.e., understanding the causes and effects of disorder and dysfunction), the first wave of PP shifted that focus to the “positive features that make life worth living” (Seligman & Csikszentmihayl, 2000, p. 5). Thus, scholars began working on the positivity in emotions, behaviours, and cognitions. However, as critics began to argue and show that positive and negative factors in life are not mutually exclusive, the second wave surged with a more nuanced appreciation of the dynamic interplay between both aspects (Lomas et al., 2020). In the current wave (i.e., third wave), the field of PP begins to broaden towards complexity, moving beyond the individual to groups, organisations, cultures, multidiscipline, and systems (Kern & Taylor, 2021; Lomas et al., 2020). Despite the notions that distinguish the three waves of PP, Lomas and colleagues (2020) draw attention to the overlapping of these waves. The authors explain that as the field progresses, now in its third decade, previous waves do not necessarily cease. Instead, they highlighted the idea that the “culmination of energy pulses” from past waves continuously carries on to the next (p. 2). To put it differently, as each new wave forms its own crest, it is inspired by the insights of previous ones that do not necessarily cease. For example, the inception and first wave of positive psychology, with its focus on positivity, continues to enthuse and influence scholars in the field and afar (Rusk & Waters, 2013). Going Upstream in Schools. In recognising the growing and prevalent mental health concerns in children and teens in Australia, Allen and colleagues (2022) argued that the application of positive psychology in schools could improve wellbeing outcomes in young people. The authors used the metaphor of going upstream to convey the preventative nature of positive education. Rather than solely focusing on treatment (i.e., what is happening ‘downstream’ of a river), positive psychology draws attention to prevention by adopting a strengths-based approach and highlighting the virtues and elements that lead to optimal experiences.

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Arguably, the upstream (Allen et al., 2022) and waves (Lomas et al., 2020) metaphors could enhance our understanding of prevention-oriented perspectives in schools and help key stakeholders see the dynamic nature of developments in wellbeing education. Entman (1993) states that framing involves highlighting certain parts of information to increase their salience. In other words, through the process of selecting and emphasising pieces of information (e.g., the focus on upstream action and overlapping of waves), metaphors can help make information more “noticeable, meaningful and memorable” (p. 53). Furthermore, in the case of the upstream metaphor, it could be posited that ‘up’, as an orientational metaphor, is associated with positive concepts such as happy (e.g., ‘I’m feeling up’), health and life (e.g., ‘They are in top shape’), and having control (e.g., ‘I am on top of this information’) (see Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lomas, 2019). It is possible, then, that the use of upstream as a metaphor also subconsciously primes teachers and students to be more attuned to the positive end of the mental health continuum.

10.4 Research on the Use of Metaphors in Wellbeing Education In the section above, we presented four metaphors used in positive psychology or wellbeing science. In this section, we describe three empirical studies that have used a metaphor-based intervention to build wellbeing. Specifically, we outline two studies that used metaphors with teachers (e.g., personal metaphors and journey) and one which includes youth (e.g., football). The intervention This is Your Life! incorporated gaming techniques and positive psychology in an online training program for primary school teachers (Ludden et al., 2022). The outcomes of the first focus group session showed that while teachers appeared to make a reasonable start with the exercises, they found it challenging to stay motivated to complete the program. Thus, a group of gaming designers and psychologists began to identify and build persuasive techniques in digital designs (Ludden et al., 2022). Among those techniques was the use of metaphorical designs, which had the potential to make the intervention easier to understand and fun to engage in. Exploring and testing three different metaphors with the target group (i.e., primary school teachers under the age of 30), the designers discovered the concept of a ‘journey’ was the most effective, compared to a ‘tree’ or ‘library’. As a result, the entire design of the intervention was developed based on the metaphor of a journey. The intervention included the main storyline of users taking a journey of personal growth, guided by two professors, and stopping at different locations to unlock secrets. Indeed, all the visuals and terminology chosen featured the metaphor of life’s journey (Ludden et al., 2022). As suggested by Ludden et al. (2022) work, even though not necessarily known as a motivational technique, the use of metaphors was an effective tool in creating a meaningful online intervention for teacher wellbeing.

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Nuttall’s (2009) study explored metaphors as potential frameworks for pre-service teachers’ wellbeing. Drawing on readings of relevant literature, group discussions, and activities for reflection in class, a group of pre-service teachers created their own personal metaphors to represent their understanding of ‘self’ on a learning journey towards wellbeing. These understandings were then portrayed in a travel brochure and used as a tool for self-reflection throughout the one-year teacher education course, providing the opportunity to contemplate positive experiences and address challenging ones. Through content analyses of the learning journey brochures, study findings suggested that metaphors not only provided an effective tool for exploring personal wellbeing but also enhanced pre-service teachers’ understanding of teaching. That is, metaphors were used as a tool for both personal wellbeing and for professional practice (Nuttall, 2009). It was interesting to note the context specificity of the metaphors developed. That is, each student’s metaphor was tailored to their own individual needs and developed at the student’s own pace (Nuttall, 2009). Nuttall’s (2009) study illustrates how the adaptability and flexibility of metaphors has the power to connect with different stakeholders in different circumstances. Moreover, the opportunity to connect and collaborate with others on their learning journey contributed to pre-service teachers’ wellbeing (Nuttall, 2009). Beyond the effectiveness of metaphors as a tool for teachers outlined above, Spandler et al. (2013) used a football metaphor to support mental wellbeing in men, including youth. Recognising some men’s reluctance to seek support for mental health problems such as depression, self-esteem, and inclusion, the It’s a Goal! program was developed as both a “motive and method” for connecting with this group (Pringle & Sayers, 2004, p. 238). The motivation was provided by the chosen venue for an intervention, a football stadium, home to a team in the English Football League. The initial intervention, which comprised six sessions, aimed to use football terminology and metaphors wherever possible. For example, the community psychiatric nurse who led the program became known as the ‘manager’ of the ‘team’ (group). Moreover, in one session exploring the concept of self-awareness, the ‘players’ (participants in the group) were asked to first identify the attributes associated with key positions on the field (e.g., goalkeepers, strikers, and midfielders). They then explored which attributes (e.g., ‘brave’, ‘seeing the big picture’ and ‘link well with others’) applied to them (Spandler et al., 2013). This method aimed to present a more accessible and understandable approach than commonly used words to explain the concept of self-awareness, such as personality styles or emotional intelligences. Through focus group interviews and analysis of data collected from a mental wellbeing scale, evaluation of the program found the deliberate use of football framing was effective in reaching young men (Spandler et al., 2013). The metaphors centred around football allowed program organisers to translate the meaning of often complex and confronting issues into memorable and impactful messages. This, in turn, guided the men to reframe their own lived experiences, facilitating change and new insights. Although the three studies described above (Ludden et al., 2022; Nuttall, 2009; Spandler et al., 2013) may not serve as an exhaustive list of empirical evidence

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of the use of metaphors in schools, to the authors’ knowledge, they are the only published works that have applied metaphors to wellbeing interventions for student and teacher populations. This gap in the research may point to the underutilised tool of metaphors in wellbeing education in schools. Thus, further research is needed in schools to understand metaphor use and its efficacy as a wellbeing intervention.

10.5 Application: How Schools Can Incorporate Metaphors in Wellbeing Education Despite scholars’ and practitioners’ focus on metaphors in wellbeing education, particularly with adult populations (Ludden et al., 2022; Nuttall, 2009; Pringle & Sayers, 2004), further work is needed to explore new possibilities of the use of metaphors in schools. Drawing on the studies and notions discussed in this chapter, we suggest some ideas for the application of metaphors in schools. Given metaphors have the potential to connect children and young people to wellbeing through relatable comparisons (e.g., football with young men; journey with teachers), schools could further identify age-appropriate metaphors to engage students in a meaningful way. For example, metaphors could be identified to explain wellbeing concepts or experiences such as empathy (e.g., putting yourself in other’s shoes), self-awareness (e.g., mirror) and hope (e.g., springtime) as a character strength. Building on from Nuttall’s (2009) findings, students and teachers could demonstrate their wellbeing literacy by creating individual metaphors for wellbeing, incorporating the use of learned and new vocabulary, and discussing and reflecting on their own wellbeing. This has the advantage of promoting participant voice, which is known to increase ‘buy-in’ and empower learners (Halliday et al., 2019; Waters & White, 2015). Furthermore, creating individual metaphors has the flexibility to be tailored to different circumstances. Students and teachers could incorporate their unique situations, interests, and preferences in exploring their own metaphors. Taking this idea further and using the finding of Ludden et al. (2022), it may prove beneficial for school leaders to run a professional development or staff planning session at the start of the year that invites teachers to design a journey metaphor that helps them plan what they will do to support their wellbeing throughout the school year. Given that there are certain times of the academic calendar that can stretch teachers’ personal resources (and where they are likely to experience low levels of wellbeing), school leaders could support teachers by allowing them to map this journey out in advance, pre-planning strategies to support their wellbeing during these times. Planning an all-staff development session would provide collaboration and support from colleagues, which is known to foster teachers’ wellbeing (Nuttall, 2009; Vo & Allen, 2022), normalise conversations about mental health amongst staff, as well as increase wellbeing literacy. Indeed, this exercise is likely to be valuable

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not only for teachers, but also for others in the school community, such as senior students, who could set their own journey metaphor. Kaufman’s sailboat (2022) metaphor could be used by school counsellors to help teachers and students gain perspective when they are struggling. For example, the metaphor might help explain that life is like riding waves in an ocean, and when we are struggling it may be enough to simply keep afloat. Moreover, school counsellors could also provide hope by using the sailboat metaphor to explain that when this period is over and the hull is stabilised, teachers and students will have the opportunity to open their sails again to steer towards creativity and growth. Durie’s (1984) house metaphor may be useful as a whole-school metaphor for wellbeing—the multidimensional aspects and the holistic nature of wellbeing fit well with the many elements of a school. This means that in order to build a strong house (i.e., to feel and function well), school culture, policies, and practices should be designed to maintain each of the walls (e.g., physical health, social and family, and spiritual dimensions). To go further, the house metaphor may be adapted to explore individual preferences and needs. For example, students could create their own house, drawing on their unique situations and considering aspects such as culture, religion, and personal preferences for relaxation. The waves (Lomas et al., 2020) metaphor could be applied to wellbeing curricula and approaches developed and evolved over the years. Developing a strategy and goals for a whole-school approach, school leaders, educational psychologists, and the wellbeing team might focus on interventions that build positive factors (e.g., gratitude, kindness, empathy, and resilience) in students and teachers while also acknowledging the negatives (e.g., stress and anxiety). Schools that have well-established wellbeing interventions might broaden wellbeing approaches (i.e., third wave) to consider their unique context and system-wide changes (e.g., moving from individual wellbeing to collective wellbeing). Finally, drawing on the wellbeing literacy component of intentionality (Oades et al., 2022), school leaders, educational psychologists and wellbeing teams could assess (and be mindful of) the way metaphors and language are used to communicate wellbeing messages to students and teachers. Given that some have argued that metaphors have the power to foster mindsets, for better or for worse (Burnette et al., 2022; Lule, 2004; Mould et al., 2010), metaphors are an important tool to promote and support wellbeing.

10.6 Conclusion This chapter highlighted the potential use of metaphors to support the aims of wellbeing education in schools. Metaphors have the potential to bridge the gap between complex scholarly concepts and everyday understandings. They can be used to foster wellbeing literacy, build student voice, and design whole-school wellbeing approaches. It is hoped that future explorations in research and the practice

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of metaphors in wellbeing education will shine a light on this valuable, but often overlooked tool for schools to use.

Acronyms COVID-19 PERMAH SEARCH VCAA

Coronavirus Disease Positive emotion; Engagement; Relationships; Meaning; Accomplishment; Health Strengths; Emotional management; Attention and awareness; Relationships; Coping; Habits and goals Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority

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Duyen T. Vo is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, at Monash University, Australia. Her research interests include teacher wellbeing, positive and educational psychology, and trust in schools. She is also a secondary school teacher. Dr Kelly-Ann Allen, Ph.D. FAPS is an Associate Professor and Educational and Developmental Psychologist in the School of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Monash University, and an Honorary Principal Fellow at the Centre for Wellbeing Science, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne. She is the Editor of the Educational and Developmental Psychologist, Co-Editor of the Journal of Belonging and Human Connection, and Lead Director of the Global Belonging Collaborative. Her research underscores the importance of a sense of belonging as a universal human need which motivates her to produce work that is accessible, practical, and socially beneficial. Professor Andrea Reupert, Ph.D. is Professor and Head of the School of Educational Psychology and Counselling in the Faculty of Education, at Monash University, Australia. She is an internationally renowned expert in school-based mental health initiatives with methodological experience in engaging with a variety of stakeholders to promote sustainable system change. Professor Lea Waters, A.M., Ph.D. Order of Australia recipient, Professor Lea Waters is an Australian academic, psychologist, author and speaker who holds a Ph.D. in Organisational Psychology and is a world expert in School Psychology and Parenting. She is the Director of Visible Wellbeing, the Founding Director of the Centre for Positive Psychology (now the Centre for Wellbeing Science), University of Melbourne, and holds a position on the Science Board of the Greater Good Science Centre of UC Berkeley. Lea’s online family program the Strength Switch is based upon her acclaimed parenting book, ‘The Strength Switch’, which was the top release on Amazon in the parenting category, listed among the Top Reads by UC Berkeley’s Greater Good Science Center and one of the Top Five Books for Parents and Children in the UK’s Top Five site. It has been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Taiwanese, Hungarian, Arabic, Spanish, French, and Russian. Lea has written for The Wall Street Journal, TIME.com, The Atlantic, and The Guardian and her work is featured in The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Toronto Globe, Huffington Post, The Sydney Morning Herald, The Age, Vogue, ELLE Magazine and more. Her TEDx talk, Warning: Being positive is not for the faint hearted! explores how we can use social media to have a positive impact on others’ wellbeing and has been viewed more than 190,000 times. Lea has published 110+ scientific publications and has been awarded academic prizes for research excellence by the American Academy of Management and the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management. In 2015, Professor Waters was listed as one of Australia’s Top 100 Women of Influence by the Financial Review. In 2017 she was listed in the Who’s Who of Australian Women. In 2020, Lea was honoured by the Governor General of Australia and named a Member of the Order of Australia (AM), which is one of the highest civilian honours in Australia. She was made a member based on her leadership in psychology, education, and the mental health sector in Australia. Lea is a Past President of the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA) (2017–2019) and is the Patron for Flourishing Education Japan and the Ambassador for

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the Positive Education Schools Association. For over a decade, Lea has worked with hundreds of schools across Australia, New Zealand, Canada, USA, Hong Kong, UAE, Taiwan, Singapore, The Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium and India. She has worked with Public/Government Schools, Independent Schools, Anglican Schools, Catholic Schools, Lutheran Schools, Christian Schools and International Schools.

Chapter 11

Well Leaders, Well Teachers, Well Children Faye McCallum

11.1 Introduction In one of my first papers on wellbeing (McCallum & Price, 2010) it was argued that teacher retention and attrition was a problem and the paper alerted us to the need to consider teachers’ wellbeing seriously, especially for early career teachers. The paper argued that teachers’ wellbeing was an issue facing many factors e.g.—challenging and changing student behaviours, workload stress, perceived low status of the profession, poor pay and conditions compared to other professions, the changing nature of teachers’ work, emotional demands of the job, and deficit media reports. The role of leaders in the school setting were also identified as pivotal to the overall wellbeing of teachers and students (McCallum, 2022c). It was subsequently mooted that unless these factors were addressed, students’ academic achievement and wellbeing would be adversely affected. Over a decade later there continues to be plentiful papers reporting similar issues with serious consequences for teachers and students (see Admiraal, 2022; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; OECD, 2020; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011; Wyatt & O’Neill, 2021). During the present times, schools have experienced massive disruption as explained by McCallum (2021b) and others (see Brunzell et al., 2021; Eloff & Dittrich, 2021; Falk et al., 2022; Harris, 2020; Kupers et al., 2022) due to the global pandemic. This has contributed to increased workload for teachers, significant pedagogical changes, and rapid developments in technology. Teachers continue to leave the profession prematurely (see Dupriez et al., 2016; Ingersoll & Merrill, 2013; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011, 2017). The role of leaders in teacher wellbeing, and indeed the status of their own wellbeing is a growing concern (McCallum, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). A school curriculum that incorporates wellbeing will ideally prevent depression, increase life satisfaction, encourage social responsibility, promote creativity, foster learning, and even enhance academic achievement F. McCallum (B) School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_11

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(Waters, 2019). This chapter purports to re-ignite discussions on these pressing issues for school communities and wellbeing and argues that for children to be well and to achieve their life’s pursuits, their teachers must also be well and productive in their workplace and their leaders must establish a safe, well and sustainable school community where all can thrive. Defining wellbeing has been fraught with controversy over many decades, initially taking a health perspective with the reference to ‘absence of disease’. McCallum et al. (2017) provides an overview of wellbeing definitions from the last 40 years. However, in this chapter McCallum is most strongly influenced by three former definitions: Huppert and So (2013) who simply refer to wellbeing as ‘feeling good and functioning well’; McCallum and Price (2016a) who consider wellbeing as being fluid and influenced by individual and collective factors over time; and Waters and Higgins (2022) who advocate for education as academic growth and flourishing. However, this chapter is guided by White and McCallum’s (2022) definition of wellbeing as …an evidence-based phenomenon that aims to narrow the theory–practice divide and transform professional practice for holistic student academic and personal growth.

11.2 Literature This chapter aims to make connections between the theory and practice of wellbeing for children, their teachers and those in leadership, for improved teaching and learning outcomes (see Fig. 11.1). The literature will therefore focus on works that support this hypothesis rather than repeating studies that focus separately on the importance of well children (see Allison et al., 2022; Graham et al., 2011; Kaya & Erdem, 2021; Kern & Wehmeyer, 2021; White & Kern, 2018; Waters, 2019), well teachers (see Beltman et al., 2011; Falk et al., 2022; McCallum, 2020, 2021a, 2021b; McCallum et al., 2017; McCallum & Price, 2010, 2012, 2016b; McCallum & Hazel, 2016; Viac & Fraser, 2020) and well leaders (see Leithwood et al., 2019; McCallum, 2022c). It can be argued that when teachers (or leaders) are ‘not well’ there are implications at the individual, school, and system-level (Falk et al., 2022). The teacher is integral in supporting student wellbeing and academic outcomes (Beltman et al., 2011; Graham et al., 2011; Kaya & Erdem, 2021) as is the school leader in supporting the wellbeing of teachers (Alfayez et al., 2021; Leithwood et al., 2019; MacLeod, 2020; McCallum, 2022c). Teachers have a role to be ‘well’ and to role model and practice wellbeing, as do school leaders (Conley et al., 2015; Schonert-Reicht, 2017). The demands of leadership almost invariably exceed the capacity of a single person to meet the needs at hand. Studies undertaken during the COVID-19 pandemic have revealed the importance of leadership taking on a team approach for school communities during challenging times. Many point to the need for an increased sense of community to meet wellbeing outcomes and this invariably questions the leadership style of those school leaders who apply a hierarchical approach. McCallum (2022c) reported on three case studies that highlight effective leaders for early career teachers, for expert teachers in one Australian state, and during a crisis using the

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Wellbeing for all

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Children

Teachers

Improved teaching & learning outcomes

Leaders

Fig. 11.1 Chapter outline and aim

global pandemic as an example. The conclusion from the three studies show that wellbeing is only partially reliant on school leaders. Wharton-Beck et al. (2022) collected data from a survey and interviews during the pandemic to investigate how school leaders rose to the occasion while working through unprecedented challenges. The findings reveal several new opportunities: visionary leadership, resources to address disparities, increased community partnerships, and innovative instructional models. This study suggests that there is a need for increased school community partnerships where leaders are considered integral members. McCallum (2022b) has also explored the value of developing school communities to advance the wellbeing of all members of the school community and deeply explores the theory of belonging to suggest that teachers’ wellbeing is strongly connected to community and partnership (McCallum, 2022a). Allen and Boyle (2022) advocate for belonging as central to student engagement although they acknowledge differences, despite both being essential for positive development and wellbeing in children. Some could argue that in fact theories of belonging and connection don’t lead to improved outcomes and wellbeing. One such study by Vella-Brodrick et al. (2022) tested the longitudinal effects of social connection, agency, and emotional wellbeing over 13 years. Results suggest that building emotional wellbeing may lead to the best social, emotional and cognitive wellbeing outcomes. Drawing on a recent study of senior leadership teams in an Australian context, Salt (2022) argues that both theory and practice are important to understandings of organisational life. Leadership has been shown to be beneficial for school teams, especially when they are new, with the leader’s role often being one of coordination, allocating personnel, and setting direction and purpose (Kezar et al., 2019; Lord et al., 2017). D’Innocenzo et al. (2021) extend these functions to suggest that leaders can foster synergy and school team development. Nicolaides et al. (2014) and McCauley and Palus (2021) claim that leadership is more about alignment with people factors

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which results in positive contributions that lead to satisfaction, increased motivation, trust and autonomy. Salt’s study has provided a contemporary exploration of functioning leadership teams, which point to organisational growth. School context plays an important role in wellbeing and organisational factors can lead to better outcomes for teachers and learning (McCallum & Price, 2016c; McCallum & White, 2022). It is on this understanding that this chapter also explores the roles and actions taken by school leadership to create social and academic environments for teachers and children to thrive.

11.3 Theoretical Framework In this chapter four studies are cited and all are based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theoretical framework used to situate teachers’ wellbeing. This is a highly relevant model for analysing teachers’ wellbeing (McCallum et al., 2017; McCallum, 2020, 2021a; Price & McCallum, 2016). Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) framework provides layers that impact on teachers’ and leaders’ wellbeing: one, the (individual) layer involves specific individual traits related to a leader or teacher, i.e. gender, age, health etc.; two, the factors central to the immediate classroom/school environment (microsystem) which includes relationships with other students/teachers; three, connections with family, friends and the wider community (mesosystem); four, the influences of the industry, social services, media, politics and the community (the exosystem); five, the macrosystem considers the beliefs, attitudes, values and ideology. Finally, the (chronosystem) refers to the timing of events, decisions, actions and changes over time. These levels can have both positive and challenging influences making this theoretical framework highly relevant to the studies in this chapter.

11.4 Methodology Extensive research (Darling-Hammond, 2012; Hattie, 2009, 2015; Rubie-Davies, 2014; Wyn, 2009) has identified that teachers are the most critical factor in student achievement and McCallum and Price (2010), McCallum et al. (2017) advocate that for children and young people to be well, teachers must also be well. Furthermore, they go on to state that teacher quality, retention, and satisfaction are all key elements that will sustain the profession, maintain motivation, and prepare teachers to fulfil aspirational outcomes as leaders (see Chap. 6, McCallum & Price, 2016a). This chapter draws on research conducted over the last 5 years, in four schooling settings where all participants completed the same online survey: (1) An international College where teachers and leaders completed an online survey via Survey Money software. In 2018 183 school employees responded to the

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survey. Responses were in three main types of employment: 48% teaching staff; 21% in a leadership role; and 31% non-teaching staff. (2) During the COVID-19 pandemic teachers and leaders were invited to complete an online survey via Qualtrics software. In 2020 307 school employees responded to the survey. Responses were in three main categories of employment: 49% teaching staff; 48% in a leadership role; and 3% non-teaching staff. (3) An Australian College where teachers and leaders completed an online survey via Survey Money software. In 2019 144 school employees responded to the survey. Responses were in three main types of employment: 50% teaching staff; 24% in a leadership role; and 26% non-teaching staff. (4) The same Australian College as (3) where the online survey was repeated with teachers and leaders via Qualtrics software. In 2021 151 school employees responded to the survey. Responses were in three main types of employment: 50% teaching staff; 23% in a leadership role; and 27% non-teaching staff. In total, 785 participants were involved across the four studies reported in this chapter. Categorical questions (e.g., years of teaching experience, year level taught) were answered via multiple choice and items related to perception of wellbeing were responded via n-point Likert scales. Some questions required open-ended answers (e.g., ‘how would you define wellbeing?’). The wellbeing survey consisted of three sections: (1) 13 questions requiring basic demographic information relating to years of teaching experience, type of current employment, main role at school, etc. Three questions in this section asked whether the employee had received any professional learning or training on wellbeing (question 9); if so, how valuable it was (question 10) and, if the learning was deemed valuable, the employee could elaborate (question 11); (2) 12 items asking the employees’ current wellbeing via 6-point Likert scales with the categories, from left to right, ‘at no time’, ‘some of the time’, ‘less than half the time’, ‘more than half the time’, ‘most of the time’, and ‘all of the time’; (3) nine questions; one binary-choice question, one 5-point Likert rating question, and remaining questions being open-ended which aimed at further exploring employee’s sense of wellbeing. Distributions of numeric data and averages are displayed via boxplots. All graphics and calculations were performed in Excel.

11.5 Ethics The studies were deemed low risks defined by the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. These studies abided by the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research and National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. These studies adopted a ‘two-way’ approach in that both students’ and employees’ wellbeing are paramount to a positive learning experience. This aspect was unique to these study’s which employed a mixed methods approach to

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identify the current state of wellbeing with employees and students. However, in this chapter only the employee data for leaders and teachers is reported. Employees were invited to volunteer for the study via the school email and consent was implied when participants submitted the survey. If employees did not wish to participate, they closed the survey window and were automatically led out of the survey. Employees were free to withdraw from the project within a week of submitting responses without explanation or prejudice and to withdraw any unprocessed data previously supplied. All data was treated confidentially. There were no individual reports generated, and the researchers were not able to identify individual employees; the research focused on group trends. Data was stored in password-protected folders, and only the researchers had access. The confidentiality and anonymity of individual participants were ensured using either pseudonyms and/or research codes. Ethics approval was given by the University of Adelaide’s Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity separately for each study: (1) (2) (3) (4)

No. H-2018-275 No. H-2020-065 No. H-2020-120 No. H-2020-120 (An ethics approval was granted by an extension of the 2019 study).

11.6 Results and Discussion Participants sense of wellbeing at the time of completing the survey using a 5-point Likert scale was measured and is shown in Table 11.1. This group of participants (n = 785 school leaders and teachers) represent a positive sense of wellbeing according to the scale used in the studies (Table 11.1). Similarly, participants were asked to identify key terms about wellbeing, represented in a word cloud (Fig. 11.2) which identifies the most recorded responses in larger font. It is evident that the following key terms dominant wellbeing definitions for leaders and teachers in these studies: mental health; physical health; and feeling happy. Asked if wellbeing felt like a school priority, participants recorded affirmatively with an average overall score of 64%. Teachers’ wellbeing is increasingly affected by feelings of being overwhelmed, low in confidence, and oscillating levels of motivation and energy. Teachers identify Table 11.1 Teacher and leader wellbeing Study

Measure of wellbeing for leaders and teachers combined

1

3

2

3.4

3

3

4

3.5

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Fig. 11.2 Key wellbeing terms

leaders as enablers to their wellbeing and resilience. Teachers are considered the single most important in-school factor influencing student learning outcomes and satisfaction so there are obvious connections that school leadership is an important in-school factor influencing early, mid and late career teachers’ effectiveness, overall wellbeing and productivity. Ultimately, effective leaders can influence the whole organisation by strengthening the school culture; building collaborative processes; and managing the entire educational community. School leaderships are duty-bound to be involved in the wellbeing of the teaching profession because it ultimately results in improved student learning outcomes, academic achievement, student satisfaction and wellness. School leaders must have high aspirations that inspire staff to help establish an environment that enables staff to learn and improve. An effective school leader has two main functions: (1) Providing direction and exercising influence; and, (2) Helping the school become a professional learning community to support the performance of all staff. Effective school leaders and teachers can work together to: improve teaching and learning indirectly and most powerfully through their influence on staff motivation, commitment and working conditions—this then influences student learning outcomes. Several factors measuring employee perceptions of their wellbeing that are relevant to leader and teacher interactions in the workplace were sought. Relevant to this chapter are four perceptions measured on a 5-point Likert scale as shown in Table 11.2.

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Table 11.2 Leader and teacher perceptions Perceptions

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

I get guidance from the school leadership without feeling pressured

4.35

4.25

4.35

4.3

The school leadership team and I work together to solve problems

4.3

4.21

4.3

4.3

The school leadership team values my work at school

4.38

4.47

4.38

4.25

The school leadership team encourages my achievements at school

4.12

4.35

4.12

4.25

11.7 Challenges to Leaders and Teachers’ Wellbeing As represented in Table 11.2, the participants in all studies reported here experienced strong positive leader-teacher interactions. Teachers generally sought and received guidance from their leaders, leaders and teachers worked collaboratively, leaders valued the work of teachers and encouraged and rewarded staff achievements. MacLeod (2020) states that leadership directly impacts student learning, and therefore their wellbeing. Alfayez et al. (2021) agrees that leaders are responsible for ensuring teachers are in good psychological health, so they can be the best teachers to influence student success. However, the teacher wellbeing literature has reported that leaders can be an enabler or inhibitor to teachers’ wellbeing (McCallum, 2021a), and this was also evident during the global pandemic as reported by McCallum (2021a 2021b, 197). All participants in the four studies cited here reported challenges to their work. These were clustered into common themes and the top three concerns were: Administrative work, Relational aspects of the job, and workload related issues. Examples for each study are reported in Table 11.3.

11.8 Strategies to Address Challenges The greatest investment effective leaders can make for improved student learning outcomes is a focus on teacher wellbeing and their sustained employment. They can do this by: • • • •

Properly inducting new teachers, supporting them and checking in on them Challenging teachers’ motivation, energy levels and productivity Sharing responsibility for leadership with a distributed school team Instil wellbeing strategies for early career, experienced and expert teachers, those aspiring for promotion, and late-career teachers • Ensure professionals in the workplace feel fulfilled, part of an organisational culture A learning-centred leader can also help to fulfil teachers’ needs by providing an environment in which teachers feel empowered to make decisions related to teaching and learning and in improving their skills through open, transparent, caring, formal

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Table 11.3 Challenges to leader’s and teacher’s work Challenges

(2)

(3)

(4)

Administrative Marking; meeting unreal demands; increase in admin tasks for others

(1)

Focus on small detail, not the bigger picture; data driven

Short deadlines; administrative tasks and compliance; decisions determined by data; draft marking

Stricter and changed rules and regulations at short notice

Relational

Lack of trust from colleagues; loss of empowerment; pressure from leaders to change

Stressful classes; not feeling safe at work

Staffing issues; feeling under-valued;

Not being able to teach and work face to face with colleagues

Workload

Emotional nature of the work; unclear expectations

Not enough time; pressure to complete tasks; managing changing expectations

Life/work balance; time pressures; forced tom participate in irrelevant professional development

Changing of routines and processes (during COVID-19) at short notice; re-defining workload; teaching online

and informal learning. These advances have a direct impact on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and skills with a direct influence on teaching quality and student outcomes. If teachers can experience the satisfaction of their basic psychological needs, they experience positive wellbeing—they feel autonomous, positively disposed and have increased self-perception of their wellbeing. Schools are reliant on its school leaders who have a role to support and nurture teachers to achieve the aims of preparing children/young people for an ever-changing world. Participants in the four studies cited here were asked to provide examples of strategies that enhanced individual and collective wellbeing at their schools, and these are given in Table 11.4. The examples provided in the three clusters of wellbeing domains (i.e. physical, social, emotional, spiritual or cognitive), relational, and workload, show that individual and collective strategies were put in place in these sites. The examples provided here also represent the importance of leaders working with teachers and acknowledging work that augers well for teaching quality and better outcomes for children and young people. The fourth site represented here was the study undertaken during 2020 when COVID-19 disrupted schooling across the world. There was awareness by leaders and teachers that leaders themselves needed to acknowledge their own wellbeing and to also have strategies in place.

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Table 11.4 Leader and teacher wellbeing strategies Strategies

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Wellbeing domains

Meditation, yoga, exercise; time for self and family

5 dimensions of health; exercise; get enough sleep; Catch up with friends and family

Lots of physical activity outside work; positive communication

Regular wellbeing activities in all dimensions with all levels of staff; leaders need wellbeing too

Relational

Creating a culture of togetherness and positive relationships; building meaningful relationships

Chat to leader; be transparent with issues and talk them through

Talk with trusted people; connect with others; support network; regular meetings with leadership

Approachable leadership; respected by others; gratitude

Workload

Collaborating with Put load in colleagues; perspective; sharing the load balanced work/ life

Acknowledge what’s working well; sharing tips, ideas, strategies with staff

Acknowledge load and make allowances; time off for after-hours work

11.9 Teacher’s Views on the Role of Leadership in their Wellbeing This chapter is focussed on the alignment between leaders, teachers and children/ young people, in their schooling outcomes and wellbeing. It is argued that leaders have a responsibility to create a culture in their school/workplace that enables teachers to feel well at work and able to function effectively and to feel good. If leaders and teachers are well, it surmises that children/young people are suitably placed to perform well at school and to also display wellbeing. Therefore, participants were asked to focus on the role taken by leaders at their school towards achieving overall wellbeing. Top responses from the four sites are represented in Table 11.5, clustered into three areas: wellbeing domains (i.e., physical, social, emotional, spiritual or cognitive); people and culture which includes staffing, work culture and working conditions; and workload related issues. Examples in Table 11.5 provide realistic ideas, processes, projects, and strategies that can be implemented across schools if appropriate policy frameworks are in place. Policy frameworks can prioritise wellbeing as a whole school priority, enabling practical and sustainable ways to demonstrate commitment to leader and teacher wellbeing. This infusion of wellbeing practices within teaching and learning and whole school endeavours contributes to the development of positive and well leaders, teachers and children/young people.

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Table 11.5 Role taken by leaders to establish wellbeing (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Wellbeing domains

Explicitly valuing our wellbeing; acknowledgement; school-based resources i.e., health, fitness, counselling

Communicate regularly about wellbeing strategies to use

Actively encourage a work/ life balance; wellbeing activities at the start of meetings

Regular wellbeing activities led by leaders; allowing time for exercise; social activities with staff

People and culture

Being supported in principle; leadership involved with our strategic direction; dedicated senior leader in wellbeing; leaders that follow through on actions and promises

Wellbeing leader on school executive; keep us informed

‘Checking in’ with staff; supporting wellbeing across the whole school, with people and resources; leaders to lead by example

Open door policy—leaders that are approachable and listen; set up a school culture where we feel we belong

Workload

Holistic wellbeing curriculum for students and staff; time out of classroom so staff can be together

Wellbeing coordinator that gives us ideas, strategies, support; time off for marking, reports

Support of our programs, initiatives, insights and pedagogy; balancing out all the required changes and demands

Support of our programs, initiatives, and pedagogy; clear communications; realistic timelines for deadlines

11.10 Conclusions McCallum and Price (2010) concluded in their seminal paper that wellbeing should include the … promotion of positive personal and physical identities as well as a sense of belonging, it provides teachers with a sense of empowerment. The community, school leaders and employers are instrumental in helping to raise awareness, and to establish and maintain positive workplace practices that foster working and learning conditions appropriate for the development of wellbeing for future teachers and leaders. This holistic approach emphasises how social and cultural forces shape individual and group identities, an important characteristic of long-term happiness, growth, sustainability and satisfaction in the teaching profession (32).

This chapter has upheld the findings first presented by McCallum and Price (2010) and has also been guided by White and McCallum’s (2022) definition of wellbeing, ...an evidence-based phenomenon that aims to narrow the theory-practice divide and transform professional practice for holistic student academic and personal growth.

The evidence provided in the four schooling sites serves to connect theory with practice so that leaders’ and teachers’ professional practice advances quality teaching to ensure academic and personal growth for children and young people.

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Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the participants who took part in the studies in this chapter, especially teachers and leaders who completed the research survey during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ethics Statement Ethics approval was given by the University of Adelaide’s Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity separately for each study: (1) No. H-2018-275; (2) No. H-2020065; (3) No. H-2020-120; (4) No. H-2020-120 (An ethics approval was granted by an extension of the 2019 study and allocated to the University of Adelaide, H-2019-120).

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Professor Faye McCallum, Ph.D. is an Adjunct Professor of Education at the University of Adelaide where she was Head of the School of Education. She has published more than 100 scientific journal articles, books and book chapters. Her research books include Wellbeing and Resilience Education: COVID-19 and its impact on education, published through Routledge in 2021 (with Mathew A. White), Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, and Leadership: Enhancing Educational Outcomes (with Mathew A. White) published by Springer in 2020, in 2022 Transforming Teaching Wellbeing Education and Professional Practice: (with Mathew A. White) published by Springer and Nurturing Wellbeing Development in Education: From Little Things, Big Things Grow (with Deboral Price) published by Routledge in 2015. She was awarded the 2019 Australian Council for Educational Leaders South Australian Branch Dr Alby Jones AO Gold Medal ‘for her contribution to the study and practice of educational leadership’. She was a finalist for the Telstra Business Women’s Awards 2020. Her next co-authored research book with Associate Professor Mathew White on Wellbeing Education and Professional Practice: Transforming Teaching will be published by Springer (forthcoming 2022).

Part IV

New Research on Persistent Global Education Wellbeing Challenges

Chapter 12

Wellbeing and Online Learning: Perspectives of Refugee-Background Students Nina Maadad

and Marizon Yu

12.1 Introduction Almost unexpectedly, the world woke up early in the year to the news that Russia invaded Ukraine and this war is far from over. Barely recovering from the pandemic, the onslaught of natural disasters such as earthquakes, bushfires, floods and droughts continue to wreak widespread damage to people’s lives and property. Moreover, existing and long-running wars in Yemen, Ethiopia and other African nations have exacerbated hunger, and strife among their people, not to mention other crises experienced by displaced peoples fleeing violence, wars, and poverty, such as those from Syria, Palestine, Afghanistan, Venezuela, and Myanmar. In the middle of these crises, are children, whose present lives have been disrupted and their future is at great risk. The extent of the spread of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic and its consequences, particularly on school closures have severely affected most students around the world, most especially, those from refugee backgrounds. It should be kept in mind that to date, 41% of the 89.3 million forcibly displaced people in the world are children (The UN Refugee Agency, 2022). This accounts for 36.5 million children, who have been uprooted from their homes and most of them live in difficult conditions at home, in camps or reception centres, where basic prevention measures against COVID-19 such as frequent handwashing and social distancing may be impossible to undertake (Cerna, 2019). As aptly stated by the current United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Filippo Grandi: Education is a lifeline for all children, and especially those who have been forced to flee violence and persecution. The COVID-19 pandemic is regrettably making receiving an education even more difficult, especially for refugee children, who were already twice as likely to be out of school as non-refugee children. (in Schafer, 2020, np). N. Maadad (B) · M. Yu The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_12

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In the last 12 months, the persistence of COVID-19 has worsened the depth of hardship of displaced peoples, destroyed livelihoods, created less economic flexibility, and led to additional barriers that have impeded support that is usually provided to refugees. The UNHCR Assistant High Commissioner for Protection, Gillian Triggs (UNHCR, 2020, n.p.), highlighted at the Annual Executive Committee Meeting held in Geneva on the 7th of October 2020 that, “the pandemic did set back the situation of refugees especially with 168 countries shutting their borders with majority of them not making exceptions for refugees or asylums”. She appealed for countries, governments and civil society leaders to work together and share the responsibilities of looking after the health and social services of refugees (UNHCR, 2020). As part of urgent need to solve this problem, Triggs advocates support for refugees, and subsequently encourages the world community to demonstrate the importance of working together, sharing responsibilities, and ensuring that health and other social services can respond to the needs of all, not just a few. She stresses that “the virus does not discriminate between legal status or nationality’ and ‘access to health services does not depend on citizenship or visa conditions” (UNHCR, 2020, n.p.). In a world where nearly half of refugees are children, governments, people with economic and political power, non-government organisations and communities have the responsibility to safeguard at the very least, refugees’ access to basic needs, i.e., food and shelter, safety and security, as well children’s access to education. Social policies, political views and community advocacy influence the education system, which suggests that the learning of refugee-background students must be supported and updated information on their academic progress should fully reflect what they need (Maadad, 2020; Thomas, 2016). Recent research demonstrates that policies and the education curriculum do not cater well to refugee-background students (RBS) but migrants more generally (Maadad, 2020; Roads to Refuge, 2019). In support of more inclusive community models for the integration of refugee families, a blanket approach may not be suitable and as such, case-to-case, family-to-family considerations for refugee support are necessary to ensure meaningful education outcomes for disadvantaged refugee children. As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to wreak havoc in countries across the globe, most governments find closing schools was a necessary precaution to contain the spread of the virus. In Australia, excluding the non-compulsory part of the curriculum, each week of school closures represents about 25 h of face-toface compulsory instruction time at school, 2.5% of annual compulsory instruction time. Schools are forced to replace this time in class with online learning and home schooling, in most cases facilitated by teachers and parents. The already disadvantaged refugee children, even when resettled in refugeereceiving countries such as Australia, still face a whole range of challenges and further disadvantages made worse by the pandemic. This hardship may have the potential to aggravate gaps in academic and wellbeing outcomes for the refugeebackground students, making them at risk for dropping out of school, with some entering the labour force (Save the Children, 2020). However, Cerna (2020, n.p.) argues that there are many things that countries and schools can do to support refugee-background students, both amid the pandemic

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and in the aftermath, in which an inclusive approach to education that “responds to the learning, social and emotional needs’ of refugee children, will be critical to guaranteeing that refugee children complete school and thrive in learning and in life”. Thriving in school and life is exactly what wellbeing should be about. Wellbeing is defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2021, n.p.) as a “positive state experienced by individuals and societies” and is considered as a resource for daily life in the same fashion as health. Social, economic and environmental factors determine wellbeing, and it encompasses people’s quality of life and ability to meaningfully contribute to communities and the world. The WHO (2021, n.p.) outlined the five key action areas for the Geneva Charter for Wellbeing endorsed by Member States in the 10th Global Conference on Health Promotion in December 2021. These include: • Design an equitable economy that serves human development within planetary boundaries; • Create public policy for the common good; • Achieve universal health coverage; • Address the digital transformation to counteract harm and disempowerment; and to strengthen the benefits; and • Value and preserve the planet (WHO, 2021). All these key areas are significant in promoting children’s wellbeing. This present study relates primarily to the area pertaining to “addressing digital transformation to counteract harm and disempowerment” (WHO, 2021, n.p.), particularly regarding the massive, and sudden adoption of online learning as a result of school lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. The substantive aim of the paper is to examine from the perspective of RBS how online schooling affects their learning and wellbeing. This presentation will discuss some findings in line with the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

How was online learning implemented in South Australian schools? How did RBS perceive online learning? What challenges did RBS experience with online learning? How did online learning affect the RBS’ wellbeing?

Relevant information included in this present paper was drawn from the 5-year study of children from refugee backgrounds conducted by researchers from Spencer Foundation. The insights drawn from these kinds of students have the potential to inform current teaching and learning practice, particularly concerning how refugee children can be helped ensure engagement and positive learning outcomes.

12.2 Disadvantage and Readiness for Online Learning Data from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reveals that the 194 countries that closed schools nationwide affected 1.6 billion learners. By August 2020, in the depths of the coronavirus pandemic,105 countries closed their schools and online learning was implemented. While readiness for this

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scenario was reported by participating schools in the PISA Report (Ikeda, 2020), only half of 15-year-old students enrolled in schools that year had effective online learning systems. It is not surprising to hear that on average in the OECD data, students in disadvantaged schools had less access to computers and the internet compared to students in advantaged schools. While education systems in most developed and some developing countries, in partnership with media and other agencies have provided access to printed, broadcast and online learning content and perhaps devices to many learners, it begs the question, how many learners do not have access to these and how are they faring? A useful and relevant survey, albeit logistically challenging is the School Barometer launched in Germany, Australia, and Switzerland (Huber & Helm, 2020). It aimed to provide and analyse data from multiple stakeholders, most importantly students and schools. It monitored in the short-term the current schooling situations in the previous mentioned countries by exploring and evaluating the evidence for development of policies or education support and longer-term monitoring of schools during lockdown. Some important findings of the School Barometer study pertain to perceived challenges of students, such as not being able to plan their day, difficulty of learning at home and having other things to do that keep them from studying at home. These perceived challenges were presented with only 13% of students not having access to devices for learning at home. In Australia, key recent statistics (ABS, 2018, 2020; Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2021) report that more than 4 million students were enrolled in 9581 schools. Government schools held the greatest share of enrolments (65.1%), followed by Catholic schools (19.5%) and independent schools (15.4%). The average student to teaching staff ratio for all schools was 12.3 students to one teacher. According to a nationwide survey conducted by Monash University (Heffernan et al., 2021), public perception of teachers’ work improved as a direct result of the pandemic, which represents 42% of the respondents. However, 48% felt that nothing has changed. Australia has two million low-income household (ABS, 2018) and 24% of these have children aged 0–15. Ninety-seven percent (97%) of households with children aged 15 and under, have access to the internet (some being non-owners of resources). They can access the internet either via computer, mobile phone, or another device. Eighty-eight percent (88%) of city households do have home internet and 77% in remote or very remote areas. Meanwhile, seventy-six percent (76%) of Australians with children in the household kept their children home from school or childcare due to COVID-19. Seventysix percent (76%) of adults in households with school-aged children in primary or secondary schools, stated that their children were doing online learning during the school lockdowns. Almost a quarter (23%) of adults who kept their children at home due to COVID-19 purchased additional equipment, such as computers or desks to support their children’s learning. The following are the most common challenges reported by adults in the survey conducted by the ABS (2020): difficulty concentrating (59%); feeling lonely (49%); anxiety issues (33%); and having no access to stable internet connection (15%) (ABS, 2020). Surveys of parents conducted in 2020 in Melbourne’s Royal Children Hospital (RCH) validates the above-mentioned

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studies, in that the loss of 200 days of face-to-face learning contributed to negative mental health for 57% of teenagers in Victoria, and 36% in New South Wales (RCH, 2020). Nearly a quarter of Australia’s low-income households have children aged 15 and below (Australian Institute of Health & Welfare [AIHW], 2022). A number of studies of disadvantaged students learning from home (AIHW, 2022; Brown et al., 2020; Drane et al, 2020; Fahey & Joseph, 2020; Heffernan et al., 2021; Lamb et al., 2020) reported that most of these families experienced housing stress and insecurity, as well as loss of employment due to COVID-19. The loss of employment further exacerbates the provision of basic needs, let alone access to online education. The Monash survey (Heffernan et al., 2021) reveals that a substantial majority of the Australian public (91% of respondents) recognises the importance of providing free access to technology for remote learning (e.g., laptops, internet). Disadvantage is defined by the following factors according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2022, n.p.): • • • • •

Low socioeconomic status (SES) and living in poverty At-risk children due to disability and additional learning needs Vulnerability due to location, e.g., rural and remote learners At risk due to living in out-of-homecare or involved in youth justice Background, e.g., Indigenous students and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) children.

While refugee-background children come from CALD backgrounds, it has to be considered that there are other intersecting forms of disadvantage that increase RBS’ learning risks (Crenshaw, 1989; Maadad & Yu, 2021). The RBS may also come from a low socio-economic environment, have learning difficulties or disabilities, or any combination of such disadvantages. On top of these, it has to be considered that children from refugee backgrounds and their families often have poor mental health and face psychosocial problems that seriously diminish their general wellbeing (Tomasi et al., 2022). For this reason, the pandemic has worsened children’s disadvantages, not only here in Australia but throughout the world.

12.3 Methodology This present study examined how refugee-background students (RBS) in Australia perceive schooling during the COVID-19 pandemic. The substantive aim of this chapter is to identify from the perspective of a cohort of RBS enrolled in South Australian schools, what worked and did not work in online schooling during lockdowns, and as such how learning from home impacted their general wellbeing. The data for this study was drawn from surveys and interviews from 100 refugeebackground students living in South Australia. The selected include those from Syria, Afganistan and Iraqi backgrounds who have arrived in Australia between 2016 and

250 Table 12.1 Refugee-background student respondents (n = 100)

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Year level

Female

Male

Total

8

9

17

26

9

11

5

16

10

3

9

12

11

5

6

11

12

25

10

35

Total

53

47

100

2018. Some of them have lived in countries like Lebanon and Jordan, while awaiting humanitarian settlement in Australia (Table 12.1). Sixty-three percent (63%) of the RBS come from government schools, 37% from non-government schools. They were interviewed between August and November 2021, and by this time, most schools had returned to face-to-face mode of teaching and learning. Seventy-four (74%) of students have access to the internet and the remainders did not have any internet access. Eighty-three percent (83%) owned a laptop and the rest either borrowed from a sibling or parent’s device or used a smartphone. Qualitative data analysis in line with grounded theory (GT) of Glaser and Strauss (1967) and informed grounded theory (IGT) by Thornberg (2012) was utilised to analyse the interviews. While theory guides how data will be collected and analysed, with grounded theory, it is data that supports theory. This is by no means a claim that grounded theory commences with a blank slate, on the contrary, there may be existing theories that can inspire the understanding of a phenomenon. However, a GT can allow new or reimagined theory to emerge out of the data. Thornberg (2012), referred to informed grounded theory as the outcome of a research process as well and involves the research process itself. This suggests that the research process and product has been thoroughly grounded in data, while being informed by the existing research literature, and theoretical framework, in this case applying a critical lens of recognising the intersection of refugee disadvantage (Crenshaw, 1989; Maadad & Yu, 2021). This helps provide generative themes that recognised each respondent’s unique situations and at the same time, presentation of common or generalised circumstances. The IGT as devised by Thornberg (2012) was implemented to explore emerging patterns (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) in the interviews with refugee-background students. The use of IGT was not about forcing data into pre-existing concepts and theories in order to replacing constant comparisons and including systematic coding with prejudices and insensitive theoretical interpretations of data. It entertained different explanations as “a way of keeping an open mind” (Dey, cited in Thornberg, 2012, p. 10). According to Thornberg (2012, p. 254): While I directly address GT here, these principles address more broadly the analytical relationship between literature and data in an array of qualitative research approaches.

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When conducting a study, the principles above help the researchers to (a) be aware of their theoretical knowledge and assumptions, (b) take advantage of pre-existing research and theories to enhance their theoretical sensitivity, (c) remain free, open and data sensitive, and (d) avoid forcing pre-existing theories, concepts, or assumptions as “pet codes” or non-fitting irrelevant codes into their analysis. By being informed, the researcher not only situates his or her study and its product in the current knowledge base of the field but will also contribute to it by extending, challenging, refining, or revising it.

The IGT adapted for the purpose of this study reiterates the iterative process of cycling through interviewing, coding, categorising codes, conceptualising emerging patterns as they align to existing theories, deriving theories or generating new ones, all from the data. The main foci of this paper, i.e., RBS perspective of online learning, its challenges, and impact on wellbeing, served as initial organising concepts for the data analysis, hence, utilising IGT (Fig. 12.1).

12.4 How Was Online Learning Implemented in South Australian Schools? In the report by Drane et al. (2020), some 17.4% of households in South Australia lack internet access and this is the highest rate compared to other states and territories. On the 25th of March 2020, then Minister for Education, John Gardner, announced the launch of Our Learning SA website (Department for Education [DfE], 2020) to support students learning from home through access to curriculum resources designated for all subjects. The SA Government launched a flexible learning platform which complemented the Our Learning SA website and enabled teachers to create their own individual online learning spaces to deliver lessons and content to students in the classroom and at home. A myriad of resources for learning are available to teachers not only through the Department for Education website (Australian Curriculum units of work) but also through learning platforms from general media and other education websites, such as ABC Education, Australian Children’s Television Foundation, TEDEd, BBC Bitesize, The National Geographic, Scootle, South Australian Space School, among others. There are even podcasts (Crnic & DfE, 2022) and online professional development opportunities provided to teachers. This means that teachers are well-resourced for online teaching and learning. On the 23rd of April 2020, the SA Education Minister urged parents to send their children to school or preschool from the start of Term 2 the following week, based on the advice of SA Health that schools, preschools and early childhood facilities were low-risk and should remain open. This was supported by a $32 million economic stimulus package to help with maintenance works in schools and preschools. Months later, on the 18th of November 2020, a 6-day lockdown was announced by the government as a circuit breaker (Siebert & Brice, 2020). However, children of essential workers were allowed to be in school sites with a skeletal force of school leaders, and teachers who were delivering online classes. Along with DfE directives, most schools had their own policy for online delivery of lessons. Parents were also provided

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Fig. 12.1 Informed grounded theory as applied in this study

with communication from schools and the Department had provided resources for parents as to how they can support their children. This goes to show that not only were teachers well-resourced, but similar resources were also extended to parents. On the 20th of July 2021, a 7-day lockdown took effect after clusters of COVID-19 cases once again arose. This was a gruelling experience for many South Australians for a wide range of reasons, including stresses on employment, elective surgery

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procedures; home care needs; and many more. School-aged children, once again had to go online and learn from home. Technologically speaking, most students in South Australia own devices that can facilitate online learning from home. These laptops were equipped with free learning programs, a learning and student management system (e.g., DayMap) and licensed software (Microsoft Office). A few disadvantaged students were loaned laptops that came with dongles for internet access. It is evident that RBS are among the most disadvantaged students in the world. So how did online learning work out for these students during the COVID-19 lockdowns? A substantial majority of the RBS claimed that they received support from teachers through provision of worksheets, help with accessing the Learning and Student Management (LMS) System of the school, called DayMap. This is one LMS platform that students use to communicate with teachers, access tasks and other resources given by teachers. This is the predominantly used system in most government schools. Through this system, tasks and homework are set and may be uploaded for submission. Other LMS systems that schools offer include Canvas, COOLSIS, Connect, SEQTA, and others.

12.5 Results and Discussion The subsequent discussion presents the challenges of RBS in regard to online learning during the lockdowns, their perception of online learning and wellbeing. Online learning, challenges and wellbeing have been used as initial organising themes in the discussion and under each of these are the identified codes as the RBS described. How Did the RBS Perceive Online Learning? The perceptions of online learning by RB students have been organised into two main categories: positive perceptions and negative perceptions. Within each broad category were emergent codes that could be further organised into categories and concepts. Likewise, conceptualisations may be further accomplished as expected in the iterative process of GT/IGT, however, for the purpose of this section, the two main categorisations presented may be taken as initial discussion points.

12.6 Positive Perceptions From the perspective of some RBS, online learning was preferrable over in-classroom face-to-face learning. Claiming that they have adapted or adjusted to online learning, they cited having control over their schedule and due dates for tasks and assignments, as well as studying in their own time and space as desirable. They did not have to be such with the time-sensitive routine of preparing to go to school. The following responses captured what these RBS perceive as positive experience of online learning.

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I adapted to home study very well, because I prefer studying in my own space with free will and more time to do what I need to do without worrying so much about due dates and time management as much as it is much easier to manipulate my day when I have complete control over my schedule. (Year 8) Online classes, I actually enjoyed online classes themes, because coming to school, you know, everything like that waking up, getting dressed too much of a hustle for online learning is, you know, just in the comfort of your home, or your desk, simple, you get the heater on, everything’s under your control, you know, learning, as I really enjoyed it, I really enjoy the difficulty. (Year 9) I would prefer to learn online as I find it fits my way of learning a lot more. When other people are there, they can distract or take away from learning. When you are at home, you are in complete control of what you do and when you do things. You can take breaks whenever you need or want, and you can listen to music or use other resources that help you with learning without having to deal with ‘this website is blocked’ etc., which is annoying, but I understand why these measurements are in place. (Year 8) I could do my work when I wanted to. No restriction. (Year 11) My room has a bed, couch, desk, leather chair, and gaming equipment (keyboard, mouse, headset) which I am used to, and feel more comfortable using than cheaper or less personalised equipment. (Year 8)

These RBS perceived that online schooling during the lockdowns gave them some sense of control over their time and space. They mentioned “free will”, “ease of manipulating the day”, scheduling study times whenever they want and on-demand break times. All these were done in the comfort of what they perceive as their own space and being able to manipulate such time and space for their comfort. These factors of positive online learning, from their perspective may be categorised as timeand-space related factors. While it is true that students learn best when they are in a comfortable environment, a conducive learning environment has been defined along the principles of a clear understanding of educational needs and vision (DEECD, 2008). Pedagogically, learning spaces must consider five core activities of delivery (where students have access to teachers), application (breakout spaces to allow individual or small group work), creation (access to resources and ICT), communication (quiet spaces for provision of one-to-one or small group support), and decisionmaking (facilities should allow for community connections and curriculum links) (DEECD, 2008). Online learning is limited in these areas, even though with online break-out rooms in place, and thus, students are left to define a learning space that suit their comfort. What may be positive from their perspective, may not be beneficial for them in the long run in that learning spaces, i.e., classrooms have been designed intentionally to support and promote social and active learning, and for this reason, physical spaces for learning in the home must be considered by schools and families.

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12.7 Negative Perceptions The RBS’ negative perception of online learning, and thus, preference for face-toface, in- classroom learning covers identified factors (codes) pertaining to interaction with teachers and classmates, including support workers, interest and motivation, home distraction. We had the computer and the lessons, but we did not have the teachers like we do in class. It was difficult to keep interested. You get the teacher to explain but you could not see how the problem was dealt with if maths or science and you miss half the lesson because you lose interest. We needed the face to face. We learn from each other at school not just the teacher and that was not available for us. (Female, Year 12) I also prefer online learning to face-to-face because I can be in my own space, in my own chair, with my own tools and workspace. (Year 8) I would prefer learning face-to-face as I am able to ask questions and be supported easier. Communicating online is difficult, there might [be] misunderstandings and not everyone has access to internet. We had the computer and the lessons, but we did not have the teachers like we do in class. It was difficult to keep interested. You get the teacher to explain but you could not see how the problem was dealt with if maths or science and you miss half the lesson because you lose interest. We needed the face-to-face. We learn from each other at school not just the teacher and that was not available for us. (Year 12) There were no advantages. Like there were only disadvantages. Besides, we couldn’t really contribute to the discussion. Because you know, of course, you put your hand up. And some teachers were like, you have to put your camera on, which was even harder. And you get distracted a lot at home like family and siblings and our baby. It’s too noisy and sometimes I cannot understand what’s going on the class. It was terrible. (Year 10) We all had laptops given to us and the teachers tried so hard to get us involved. We use to login and play games on the side instead of watching the lesson or listening to the teacher. It was hard to follow and understand and this is why we lost interest. Face-to-face in school [is better]100%. (Year 11)

One student mentioned a reference group interstate and claimed that these RB students too were not coping well with online schooling, citing losing interest in learning and boredom that eventually led to these students to leave school altogether. It was so difficult to sit all day in front of the computer and try to listen to teachers or do work. It was so hard and so, so, so, boring. I hope will never have to do this again. My learning dropped and I lost interest. If I lived in Sydney or Victoria like the others I would have left school I am sure. They took for ever to get back to schools and the learning online made them all suffer. My friends over there did not enjoy it at all. Those who are my age or older also a number of them left school. (Year 11)

The identified negative perceptions of online schooling may be conceptualised into lack of social interaction, unsustained personal interest and motivation, and influence of a reference group. For the RBS, they preferred face-to-face in-classroom learning due to interaction with teachers, classmates and other support workers in the school. Access and availability of support was difficult for RBS during the lockdowns. They realised that

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teachers played a vital role in providing explanations to their lessons and tasks, and facilitating student involvement, and that students learn from other students, as well. This school interaction was appreciated and thus, online learning was deemed less preferable by the RBS. Issues of sustaining personal interest and motivation from the perspective of the RBS were confirmed by the presence of distractions at home (such as noisy siblings and home entertainment), limited or faulty internet access and devices, lack of learning support and communication problems. These codes that were identified point to external demotivators for online learning. Internal motivation was lacking in that they almost immediately perceived the setup on online learning as difficult and thus it was easy for them to lose interest in learning.

12.8 What Challenges Do RBS Experience with Online Learning? A great majority of the RBS admitted that online learning during the lockdowns was difficult, and the majority did not cope well as shown by these responses: I did not cope very well. It was hard to keep interested. (Year 9) It was hard to understand what the teacher was trying to explain. (Year 12) I was very stressed out, I couldn’t cope most of the time. (Year 12) It was so hard. We didn’t understand about assignments. (Year 8)

Not coping well with online learning was identified as the behaviour of RBS when faced with challenging situations, in this case, online schooling due to lockdowns. The related codes for not coping well as stated by the respondents were difficulty keeping interested, difficulty understanding the teacher or the assignment and finding schoolwork hard. These identified challenges have been categorised as personal stress attributed to having to do schoolwork online. These support what was discussed earlier on the negative perceptions of online learning. Nearly all of the respondents felt lonely due to isolation and physical separation from friends in school. This challenge encountered by RBS whilst on lockdown is presented in these responses: Before online we worked hard, and teachers also worked hard. When online we all gave up. You feel in prison. No friends, no teachers, not even fresh air. (Year 11) Before was much better we had more help and support. But during the lockdown it was terrible and not useful at all. We lost interest and lost the support that we get in the classroom. I even felt sad because I could not see my friends face-to-face. (Year 12) I felt sad and lonely most of the time even though I have family members. (Year 11) You can also see that the teachers were sick of it. They were not motivated to teach us and looked sad all the time. It is not good for anyone, and I hope it does not come back. We had

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access to computers and resources, but this alone does not help. We needed teachers and face-to-face interaction to learn and be supported. (Year 10)

Feeling lonely is a valid reaction to social isolation and separation from significant people such as friends, family and teachers. While the classmates and teachers, as well as friends were are seen online, and perhaps interacted to through smart mobile devices, this superficial contact seem limited and that actual face-to-face is seen as a better option than online interaction. This social isolation has been known to exacerbate stress and anxiety among refugee youths (Youth Action, 2012). Some experienced little support from family, friends, teachers, or Student Support Officers (SSOs) and as such, posed a major challenge for online learning: I did not get any support as my sisters were also learning English like me. I couldn’t ask for support from my neighbours cause I didn’t know how to even start a conversation with them. (Year 12) I did not get support from parents because they don’t know English as much as me. (Year 8) [If] there was some issue that go around the laptop and you can’t get it fixed. Because you are not at school. Because there no IT person. It was hard to get to the internet sometimes and stuff. (Year 8) I missed out on so much support… due to not working closely with teachers and friends. (Year 11)

Lack of support from significant people, both from home and school was recognised as a key challenge for a number of related reasons identified in this study as codes, such as language barriers and technical issues with digital devices. Students from refugee backgrounds often received support for a range of school subjects, especially with tasks that involve reading and writing. They missed out on this valuable support that has been particularly effective when delivered face-to-face. This may be an indication that most, if not all of the respondents have already developed help-seeking behaviours at school prior to embarking on schooling online. Nearly all students expressed online communication difficulties. Some identified time-related issues that led to this, such as not getting the response from the teacher promptly or not understanding what the teacher said. Some blamed technical difficulties in communication such as faulty microphones, audios and videos. It was bad. It was very hard. Especially whenever I send a message to my teacher. I have to wait for time, and stuff like that. (Year 12) I think face-to-face is better because I understand more and understand the explanations rather than doing it online. If you want to be a mechanic, you cannot do anything. Because it’s hard. You don’t understand that. (Year 11) It was difficult for me, even if the necessary learning tools were provided. I still struggled, mostly due to the lack of communication. (Year 12) Finding difficulties understanding the teacher [online]. (Year 9)

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Another challenge that was identified was home distractions. Most of the participants lived with no less than four or more members of the family. Home distraction was not uncommon among students learning online let alone refugee students. I don’t know, I think you’re not just physically there. I [sic] just being aware of what’s being taught. You can get easily distracted as well. Let’s say when you have a crowded household, it’s a little harder to learn. (Year 11) And some teachers were like, you have to put your camera on, which was even harder. And you get distracted a lot at home like family and siblings and our baby. It’s too noisy and sometimes I cannot understand what’s going on the class. It was terrible. (Year 10) Not that much because I used to finish the work like on my own time. So, I didn’t used to study in the morning because there’s only two rooms. In one of the bedrooms my mom and dad been sleeping and in another my brother is there. So, I was like, Okay, never mind online, goodbye and I’m gonna go back to sleep. And then I’ll study later. So, the hardest thing is the space and where you should sit? When you wake up, let’s be honest, you really can’t study. No one is there to push you to study. When you’re at school, you have to look at everyone, and then you would have fun. Good luck. But at home especially if your sister was online, and she went back to sleep or want to watch a movie. They say “Look, we finish”. They would distract me a lot. (Year 11)

For the refugee-background students, distractions due to overcrowding in the household has been seen as a barrier to learning. Having younger siblings that demand attention can also disrupt and divert students’ attention when learning online at home. Most schools have been aware of this issue and as such have included advisory to parents and caregivers about the importance of setting up a space at home that is conducive to learning (DfE, 2020). However, refugee-background students have economic difficulties to deal with such as poor housing facilities, internet connection, let alone a learning space in an overcrowded home environment. This is what was referred to in Lamb et al. (2020) as the ‘material divide’ among students by socioeconomic status, where many students from low to lower middle-income families do not have desks to study at, no room of their own, no quiet place to study, and have limited resources such as dictionaries and other reference materials. A number of technical issues identified made online learning challenging for the refugee-background students. These issues include, but not limited to, broken or outdated devices that can contribute to slow processing speed, slow internet access or lack of it, and lack of ability (either by ones self or an adult at home) to fix or trouble shoot any technical problem. Some people their laptops had broken microphones, which they did not talk about online, broken cameras, which they didn’t know till online, because we don’t really use them. Some people couldn’t access the internet. Some people didn’t have high internet to access the web, which was really hard. (Year 10) [If] there was some issue that go around the laptop and you can’t get it fixed. Because you are not at school. Because there no IT person. It was hard to get to the internet sometimes and stuff. (Year 8)

Some RBS who had broken microphones, found it difficult to communicate with classmates and the teacher. The challenge of communication was not only related

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to language barriers, but also facilitated by technical difficulties faced in online schooling. To summarise, the main challenges of online learning that emerged from the interviews with RB students, and from constant comparison of their responses, may be organised in these categories: perception of personal stress, challenge of communication, limited social support, household distractions and technical issues. Personal stress as perceived by RB students was a result of the change in schooling routine and can be conceptualised not only as a valid response to the change, but can also be attributed to the inherent disadvantage of RB students. The findings suggest that RB students’ perceived stress due to online learning can also be related to co-existing challenges such as household distractions, communication issues, inaccessible support and technical difficulties.

12.9 Effects of Online Learning on RBS’ Wellbeing From the perspective of RBS, there was a recognition that resources and devices (laptops with dongles) were available to them and schools even lent out laptops and sent out worksheets to students who were unable to go online while on lockdowns. Despite this online schooing was seen as a stressor for most RBS. They cited not coping well due to lack of support or missing out on support, having difficulties understanding the tasks, struggling with communication and missing out on much needed feedback on work. It was somewhat stressful because I wasn’t sure what the teacher thought with the quality of my work or if I was doing something…It was difficult for me, even if the necessary learning tools were provided. I still struggled, mostly due to the lack of support. (Year 10) I did not cope very well. It was hard to keep interested. (Year 9) I couldn’t cope like other students. It was extremely hard… Not enough support. (Year 12)

Some RBS felt a sense of helplessness, particularly for subject areas that required practical application and direct feedback. This added to the stress of not being able to learn skills that they need, as explained by this student: I think face-to-face is better because I understand more and understand the explanations rather than doing it online. If you want to be a mechanic, you cannot do anything. Because it’s hard. You don’t understand that. (Year 11)

Fo many RBS, the sense of isolation also added to the stress of online learning. May outrightly and strongly expressed dislike, if not extreme annoyance with this mode of schooling. Not getting learning support has been cited most often as a major reason for the dislike for online learning during the lockdowns. This cohort, whilst known to be a disadvantaged group of young people have developed help-seeking behaviours in school and hence, were quick to identify learning support not only as a demotivator but also a key stressor in learning.

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I dislike the online learning so much…I missed out on so much support, help and understanding due to not working closely with teachers and friends. I felt sad and lonely most of the time even though I have family members. (Year 11) You can also see that the teachers were sick of it. They were not motivated to teach us and looked sad all the time. It is not good for anyone and I hope it does not come back. We had access to computers and resources but this alone does not help. We needed teachers and face to face interaction to learn and be supported. (Year 11) Before was much better we had more help and support. But during the lockdown it was terrible and not useful at all. We lost interest and lost the support that we get in the classroom. I even felt sad because I could not see my friends face to face. (Year 12)

A direct result of the lack of support was for this RBS student was difficulty keeping on track, if not, getting off track with their learning. As mentioned earlier, a system was set in place for online learning through learning management systems that students were able to access. However, there seem to be more problems and difficulties with online learning that a working LMS cannot address. So, we went into lockdown. And since it was earlier on in the term, I could not stay on track. The whole time. After that I was just, I was off track. And that was it. So, it was really hard though. (Year 9)

Apart from learning plans and task instructions made available online, RBS saw the need for teachers to communicate with them, especially when they needed instructions or answers to their queries. Communication has been identified as a recurring problem, hence a stressor for RBS. I did online learning from because I had Covid, so I had to do online… It was bad. It was very hard. Especially whenever I send a message to my teacher. I have to wait for time, and stuff like that… We did, like a group of three. And it was difficult because you’d have to talk with the person in an online and then it will be difficult because other people are talking too. So, you won’t be motivated to do any work. And you could like leave the class whenever you want. (Year 12) It was somewhat stressful because I wasn’t sure what the teacher thought with the quality of my work or if I was doing something wrong. (Year 10)

It has to be considered that students in general, not only RBS, had other concerns during the lockdowns. While trying to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, this student expressed the difficulty in completing and submitting assignments due to the family having to move houses and having a baby around the house. In Covid, we had a lockdown the first week of term three. And I remember I had assignments due that week. And I was also moving houses. I had to move houses. And it was very hard for me to keep up with my studies and everything was very hard for me to complete my assignments. And I remember I missed out on three assignments. That was during the holidays. And one was to in the first week of term 3. And then I remember coming back to and I was like I’m stressed out and stuff. And so I kept it to myself, I didn’t talk to anyone about it. I was like this not great. I’ll just keep it as it is. I won’t like to touch it or whatever. And then as the weeks went on until like week four, I just had this feeling that you know, I have to do something about this. Like, it wasn’t my problem lockdown happen[ed]. It wasn’t like my fault moving house, it was just one stop. And especially, we had a newborn baby as well, during that time. So that three things going on at once. And it was very hard. (Year 11)

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Fig. 12.2 Identified online learning stressors to RBS

Figure 12.2 summarises the key stressors of online learning tto refugeebackground students: While demotivation has been explicitly identified as a stressor, some students did try to get their acts together. They knew that they have to “push” themselves to keep up with the learning and complete tasks and assignments. This “push” is an insrinsic motivation that this student identified as something that must come from themselves, if they want change for the better. I was getting really, really, really lazy. In COVID-19, there’s no teacher around. This has been gaming all day. So that’s what I did play games. Went to the library, mental lab study, and I didn’t study. But sometimes, like, when I looked at my grades and I wasn’t really happy where I am. And I wanted to change it because no one else is gonna change except me. So, I don’t know how I’ve done that but I was pushing myself. Now I’m totally happy. I finished one exam already. At my language exam yesterday. So, I’m just kicking back and studying from the other two coming up next month. So yeah, COVID-19 was really bad, it affects me a lot because I wanted to the interstate. Covid-19 is everywhere and that’s a big problem here. (Year 12)

Despite perceiving online learning as stressful, this RBS captured a positive effect of online learning that was identified as self-efficacy. To be honest, I feel like it’s good just to chill out to be independent. You have to rely on yourself. It was similar to Uni where you know your level, for example, the teacher used to help you throughout the assignments. So, you don’t really struggle that much. But when you struggle for real, you will take responsibility for your own stuff. So, you can be more independent. I used to be like, for example, I always say, never mind, I’ll just ask the teacher. But in online, I’ll have to do it myself. So, I think it was the best thing about it. (Year 11)

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Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1997, p. 2) as people’s “beliefs in their capabilities to organise and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations.” This RBS, along with some others, recognised that online learning has the potential to develop their self-efficacy by taking responsibility for their own learning. Developing student self-efficacy, in general might just be a solution to RBS struggle with online learning. Student wellbeing may be greatly impacted by positive experience of online learning when student self-efficacy is developed among this cohort.

12.10 Conclusion South Australia has a sophisticated online learning system as a whole and schools have only delivered less than three weeks of online learning to students during the two major lockdowns in the last couple of years. Online learning was implemented through schools, who have policies of online learning with the guidance and direction from the Department for Education. Resources are available to schools and teachers through the Department’s website as well as partner agencies, media, and educational institutions. Disadvantaged students from refugee backgrounds (referred to as RBS throughout this chapter) are identified by the government as priority groups due to low SES and CALD status, and other co-existing and intersecting disadvantages. Online learning from the perspective of RBS can be a positive or negative experience. The negative perceptions were directly related to the challenges they encountered, whereas the positive ones have something to do with having a sense of freedom to do things, without constraints or restrictions, having a sense of control over their time, space and activities, being comfortable and having easy access to entertainment at home. While it is contentious that having a perceived sense of freedom seemed desirable for some RBS, experience tells us that this is not sustainable as teenagers’ brains are still developing at this stage and their understanding (or lack of it) needs to be guided. Majority of the respondents preferred face-to-face over online learning. For these RBS, face-to-face schooling allowed them to better understand their lessons, and tasks, and better communicate with their teachers and peers. They have easy access to support, e.g., IT support, academic support, etc. RBS found social interaction not only with teachers and support workers, but also mostly with peers as beneficial to their learning. For those RBS with limited or no access to devices and internet, face-to-face learning would be more beneficial for them. The challenges that emerged from the perspective of RBS regarding online learning include: • Perception of personal stress emanating from a change in their schooling routine • Limited (if not lack of) support for learning from teachers, parents/caregivers, friends and significant others • Communication difficulty

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• Limited interaction due to isolation • Distractions from family members and household chaos • Technical issues with internet, LMS and personal devices The RBS negative perception of online learning was supported by the challenges they encountered. As such, stressors in regard to online learning impacted not only their learning but also their general wellbeing. This study has provided information that is currently being analysed for sensory modalities (visual, aural, reading-writing, and kinaesthetic) associated with online learning and linking these with learning engagement, challenges and wellbeing of RBS. Information from this study provides a rich source of insights yet to emerge. So much more can be learned from the experiences of RBS with online learning. Acknowledgements We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to the teachers and schools that we have worked with, who gave us their time and support when ever required. We would also like to thank the amazing refugee students who gave their trust and shared their honest thoughts and feelings during our meetings. These studies would have never been useful and truthful without their help. We hope that the work we are doing will provide them access to better settlement, policies, education and future. Ethics Statement This study was approved by the University of Adelaide Office of Research Ethics, Compliance and Integrity/Institutional Review Board (Approval No: H-2018-073).

References ABS. (2018). Household use of information technology: Present estimates on household internet access including number and types of devices, reasons for use, and experience of cybersecurity. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. ABS. (2020). Household impacts of COVID-19 survey: Coronavirus impacts on job status, JobKeeper, superannuation, loan repayments, living arrangements, childcare, schooling and care provided. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2021). Schools 2021: Data on students, staff, school, rates and ratios for government and non-government schools, for all Australian sates and territories. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2022). Australia’s children. Cat. No. CWS 69. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/children-youth/australias-children/contents/health/the-hea lth-of-australias-children?msclkid=e4b9143ac04511ec88f7023cf9463cc2 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge University Press. Brown, N., Te Riele, K., Shelley, B., & Woodroffe, J. (2020). Learning at home during COVID-19: Effects on vulnerable young Australians. Independent Rapid Response Report. University of Tasmania, Peter Underwood Centre for Educational Attainment, Hobart. Cerna, L. (2019). Refugee education: Integration models and practices in OECD countries. OECD Education Working Paper No. 203, OECD. Cerna, L. (2020). Supporting immigrant and refugee students amid the coronavirus pandemic. In OECD Education and Skills Today. OECD, Paris. https://oecdedutoday.com/immigrant-refugeestudents-coronavirus/ Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139–167.

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Crnic, K. A., & GDepartment for Education (DfE). (2022). Teach podcasts. https://www.education. sa.gov.au/schools-and-educators/curriculum-and-teaching/teach-podcast Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD). (2008). Victorian school design. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/principals/infrastructure/vsdintro. pdf Department for Education (DfE). (2020). Our learning SA: Learning home lessons. https://www. education.sa.gov.au/our-learning-sa Drane, C., Vernon, L., & O’Shea, S. (2020). The impact of ‘learning at home’ on the educational outcomes of vulnerable children in Australia during the COVID-19 pandemic. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University, Perth. Fahey, G., & Joseph, B. (2020). Parents’ perspectives on home-based learning in the COVID-19 pandemic. Centre for Inependent Studies, Analysis Paper No. 15]. Sydney. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine. Heffernan, A., Magyar, B., Bright, D., & Longmuir, F. (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 on perceptions of Australian schooling. Monash University, Melbourne. https://www.monash.edu/educat ion/research/downloads/Impact-of-covid19-on-perceptions-of-Australian-schooling.pdf Huber, S., & Helm, C. (2020). COVID-19 and schooling: Evaluation, assessment and accountability in times of crises—reacting quickly to explore key issues for policy, practice and research with the school barometer. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 32(1), 237–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-020-09322-y Ikeda, M. (2020). PISA in Focus: Were schools equipped to teach—and were students ready to learn—remotely? OECD Publishing, Paris. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/were-sch ools-equipped-to-teach-and-were-students-ready-to-learn-remotely_4bcd7938-en Lamb, S., Maire, Q., Doecke, E., Noble, K., & Pilcher, S. (2020). Impact of learning from home on educational outcomes for disadvantaged children: Brief assessment. Mitchel Institute and Victoria University, Melbourne. Maadad, N. (2020). Syrian refugee children in Australia and Sweden: Education and survival among the displaced, dispossessed and disrupted. Routledge. Maadad, N., & Yu, M. (2021). Supporting English language education for children from refugee backgrounds in Australian schools. In M. White & F. McCallum (Eds.), Wellbeing and resilience education: COVID-19 and its impact on education (pp. 111–136). Routledge. Roads to Refuge. (2019). Settlement challenges. Roads to Refuge. https://www.roads-to-refuge. com.au/settlement/settlement-challenges.html Save the Children. (2020). Almost 10 million children may never return to school following COVID19 lockdown: New report. https://www.savethechildren.org.au/media/media-release/childrenreturn-to Schafer, S. (2020). UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2020/9/5f68f6d74/dont-covid-19pandemic-derail-refugee-education.html Siebert, B., & Brice, R. (2020). South Australia ordered into six-day lockdown amid coronavirus outbreak. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-11-18/sa-ordered-into-major-lockdo wns-amid-coronavirus-outbreak/12894666 The Royal Children’s Hospital National Child Health Poll (RCH). (2020). Remote Learning: Experiences of Australian families. Poll Number 19 Supplementary report. The Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria. https://www.rchpoll.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/ 08/NCHP19-Remote-learning-A4_FA.pdf The UN Refugee Agency. (2022). Refugee Data Finder. October 27. https://www.unhcr.org/ refugee-statistics/#:~:text=An%20estimated%2035%20million%20%2842%25%29%20of% 20the%2082.4,were%20born%20into%20a%20refugee%20life%20per%20year Thomas, R. L. (2016). The right to quality education for refugee children through social inclusion. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 1, 193–201. Thornberg, R. (2012). Informed grounded theory. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56(3), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.581686

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Tomasi, A.-M., Slewa-Younan, S., Narchal, R., & Rioseco, P. (2022). Understanding the mental health and help-seeking behaviours of refugees. https://aifs.gov.au/resources/short-articles/und erstanding-mental-health-and-help-seeking-behaviours-refugees United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2020). COVID-19 crisis underlines need for refugee solidarity and inclusion. https://www.unhcr.org/en-au/news/latest/2020/10/5f7 dfbc24/covid-19-crisis World Health Organisation (WHO). (2021). Health Promotion Glossary of Terms 2021. WHO. Youth Action. (2012). Issues for young refugees. https://www.youthaction.org.au/issues_for_ young_refugees#:~:text=However%20young%20refugees%20face%20additional%20pres sures%20such%20as,of%20awareness%20and%20access%20to%20the%20health%20system

Dr. Nina Maadad, Ed.D. is a senior lecturer in the School of Education in the Faculty of Arts, Business, Law, and Economics at the University of Adelaide. She coordinated for 14 years both the Bachelor of Teaching Program and the school placements. Nina delivers several courses in cultural education and society. She currently lectures courses in the School of Education, which entail, Introduction to teaching and learning, multicultural society and educational policies. Nina is interested in projects and supervisions related to middle and secondary school teacher education, professional development, and higher education in the following areas (Migration and culture, Multiculturalism and globalisation, Refugees and education and languages and education). She has authored, co-authored and edited nine books in total so far. Dr. Marizon Yu, Ph.D. has worked in educational support for South Australian secondary schools with the Department for Education. She delivers learning interventions for literacy and numeracy to students with additional needs, including students from refugee backgrounds. With more than ten years of experience in teaching and research, her interests include literacy and numeracy, refugee and migrant issues, community studies, and research projects.

Chapter 13

Flourishing as the Aim of Education: An outline—and Ten Remaining Problems Kristján Kristjánsson

13.1 Introduction Many recent writings about wellbeing in education focus specifically on the ‘objective’ side of wellbeing as flourishing (or so-called eudaimonic wellbeing). I follow that lead in this chapter, which takes its cue from my book on flourishing as the aim of education according to a neo-Aristotelian view (Kristjánsson, 2020; hereafter just referenced as ‘the book’) and various conference papers that I have delivered since it was published. Questions from audiences at those conferences have convinced me that I needed to attend more closely than I do in the book to various remaining weaknesses of my account and how those could be ameliorated. While there is no space in the present chapter to respond to all the potential objections and misgivings that relate to those weaknesses, I present them below as food for thought—or, more specifically, as the next items on the research agenda that I or some other neo-Aristotelian thinker would need to address in order to develop the account of flourishing as the aim of education further. The aim of this chapter is, therefore, to offer a brief overview of the main themes of the book but also to mention various unresolved problems and issues, some of which I address briefly in the book but do not offer definitive answers to; others are not even explored at all in the book but require further elaboration. Because of the present aim to provide breadth (general outline) rather than depth and focus on the next steps of the research journey, this chapter will be made up of many short sections. Further enlightenment on most of the below topics can be gleaned by reading the book. It should be mentioned here at the beginning also that although it is written from an academic standpoint, I try to make it as accessible as possible for practitioners, K. Kristjánsson (B) Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, School of Education, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_13

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and each chapter in the book ends with five questions for teachers which relate the contents of the relevant chapter to classroom experiences and issues.

13.2 The Flourishing Bandwagon In recent years, a number of educational philosophers have developed theories of flourishing as the overarching aim of education (see e.g. Brighouse, 2006; de Ruyter, 2004, 2015; White, 2011; Wolbert, 2018). Brighouse (2006, p. 42) states unequivocally that ‘the central purpose of education is to promote human flourishing’. White (2011, p. 3) wants schools, above anything else, to be ‘seedbeds of human flourishing’. De Ruyter (2004, p. 377) focuses on the hopes of parents that ‘their children will lead a flourishing life’, with those hopes being directed both at the present, namely that the children are flourishing here and now, and the future, namely that their overall lives as adults can be considered flourishing ones (de Ruyter 2015, p. 85). Most recently, Wolbert (2018, p. 2) argues that student flourishing should instantiate human flourishing ‘in a broad sense’, referring to ‘living an optimal life in which people are free (enough) to make their own choices, fill their time with meaningful and successful activities and relationships, and feel happy or satisfied with that’. Chapter 2 in my book aims at explicating and critically reviewing this new paradigm by subjecting it to philosophical and educational scrutiny. Moreover, against those who refuse to take Aristotle as their starting point, I show how contemporary theories of flourishing in education are largely compatible with Aristotle’s account or can be amplified by drawing more explicitly on it. Throughout I ask, at regular junctures, about the specific role of teachers in developing flourishing students. This strategy is meant to keep the eye on the overarching prize of saying something relevant about flourishing as the ultimate goal of educational activities, including school work, rather than just engaging in ivory-tower philosophising. I also explore in Chap. 2 of the book two preconditions of flourishing, external necessities and students’ sense of meaning or purpose, the first of which was given high priority by Aristotle himself. While Chap. 2 does not signal any major departures from an Aristotelian view of flourishing in education (see e.g. Kristjánsson, 2015; cf. Fowers et al., 2021, for a more general neo-Aristotelian account), I note that my considerations motivating the purpose/meaning precondition of flourishing are very much informed by modern sensibilities and must be seen therefore as an extension, rather than a reinterpretation, of Aristotelian flourishing. More specifically, the demand that students develop personal values and aspirations, guiding their purposeful activities, is more individualistic and practical than the mere Aristotelian demand that students gain a theoretical understanding of the human telos and eudaimonia. Arguably, also, some of the debate that I enter in this chapter about the potential role of teachers as agents of social change has a distinctively modern flavour—conditioned by current contexts in Western societies—and would thus have seemed alien to Aristotle and his contemporaries.

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13.3 Problem 1 Most of the educational thinkers I have mentioned above define themselves as ‘liberals’ rather than ‘Aristotelians’. However, liberalism and Aristotelianism are grounded in quite different philosophical assumptions, for example about the extent of universal versus local values, the role of deservingness as a moral value, and the idea of the moral equality of human beings. Is there not a danger, when radically different philosophies uphold the ‘same’ value, that only the value word is common but not the meaning of it? In other words, what, if anything, unites these accounts as true accounts of flourishing? A Strength-Based Approach The new flourishing paradigm must not be conflated with an earlier deficit-based wellbeing paradigm, at the close of the twentieth century, of the emotionally vulnerable child, which essentially psychologised, therapeutised and instrumentalised student wellbeing through initiatives such as the self-esteem and emotionalintelligence movements (see a trenchant critique in Ecclestone & Hayes, 2009). In contrast, the flourishing paradigm takes a strength-based approach to student wellbeing; it is all about furthering assets that students already possess in nascent forms and helping them continue to develop the personal qualities that are intrinsically related to (i.e. constitutive of) flourishing.

13.4 Problem 2 Talk of a strength-based approach reminds us of two further schools of thought (apart from the neo-Aristotelian and the liberal), in this case psychological, who also frequently use the language of flourishing: positive psychology (Seligman, 2011) and self-determination theory (Ryan et al., 2013). So there are then actually four groups of academics who have jumped on the flourishing bandwagon, not only two. Does this not make it even more complicated to figure out what flourishing really means? Does it perhaps have four different meanings in the literature? Can these meanings somehow be synthesised? I try to incorporate insights from positive psychology and the liberal and SDT-accounts in my neo-Aristotelian flourishing account in my book, but do I go far enough in that direction (or, alternatively, perhaps too far)? The Consensus Among All the Flourishing Accounts: Flourishing is a Kind of Objective WellBeing Broadly, accounts of wellbeing can be divided into subjective and objective accounts. A subjective account considers the criteria of wellbeing to be subjective in the sense that they have to do with psychological states (experiences, attitudes, feelings, beliefs) of an agent. If the agent’s reports on those states are authentic (both non-deceptive and non-self-deceptive), they are the last words on her wellbeing. On an objective

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account, however, the criteria of wellbeing have to do with objective features of the agent—facts about her life—that can, in principle, be viewed from outside and to which she may or may not be privy. Those will include psychological states (on which the agent is, then, no unique authority) but also various externalities concerning the circumstances and the proper or improper (e.g. virtuous or non-virtuous) running of her life. There is no space here to offer an extended critique of the main wellbeing accounts, all of which retain partisans (see e.g. Haybron, 2008). In brief, the most prominent subjective ones are hedonic and life-satisfaction accounts. On the former, wellbeing is identified with pleasure as a raw, undifferentiated subjective feeling. Those accounts are typically criticised for not making a qualitative difference between types of pleasure and for implying (counter-intuitively) that being mindlessly ‘high’ on a pleasureinducing pill counts as true wellbeing. On the latter accounts, wellbeing signals the ratio of one’s perceived life accomplishments and fortunes to one’s aspirations. Those accounts are typically criticised for the counter-intuitive assumption that to enhance wellbeing, it is as useful to lower aspirations as it is to increase attainments (see e.g. Kristjánsson, 2013, Chap. 2). Hedonic and life-satisfaction accounts have been combined to form widely used measures of so-called (overall) subjective-wellbeing (SWB). More relevant for present purposes are the objective accounts, of which the flourishing-as-the-aim-of-education one is an instantiation. In some of those accounts, which are often referred to collectively as eudaimonic, wellbeing refers to, and can be measured via, a range of objective criteria having to do with the optimal functioning of human capabilities (cf. Nussbaum, 2011). Recent decades have seen many attempts to offer combined accounts of wellbeing, aimed at capturing both subjective and objective criteria. One is the positive psychological PERMA-model, capturing positive emotion, engagement, relationship, meaning and accomplishments as criteria of wellbeing (Seligman, 2011). Some theorists, including some Aristotelian ones, indeed, argue that objective and subjective wellbeing is always bound to go together (Annas, 2011). The relevant subjective happiness is ‘not something extra to be added’ but rather as part of the way in which the flourishingconstitutive activity is performed (2011, p. 76). Thus, flourishing (in the sense of living virtuously) is a sufficient condition of living happily (2011, pp. 167–168).

13.5 Problem 3 Surely subjective happiness and objective flourishing do not always go hand in hand. What about the richly flourishing philosopher Wittgenstein, who was constantly unhappy, or various artists who lead floundering and even immoral lives but still seem to experience moments of exquisite happiness, consider the painter Gauguin on his idyllic Polynesian island?

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The Contours of Flourishing I define the core concept of the book as follows. Human flourishing is the (relatively) unencumbered, freely chosen and developmentally progressive activity of a meaningful (subjectively purposeful and objectively valuable) life that actualises satisfactorily an individual human being’s natural capacities in areas of species-specific existential tasks at which human beings (as rational, social, moral and emotional agents) can most successfully excel. This is, to be sure, a rather complex definition, grammatically and substantively, involving many distinct variables that I begin to explain in Chap. 1 and spell out gradually in more detail in the course of the whole book. Without such a detailed elaboration of each variable, the concept of flourishing becomes like a shopping trolley that everybody can just fill with their random choice of goods. The variables in the definition will have to be populated with sufficient specificity to prevent the account of flourishing from becoming bland and—as philosophers of science would put it—‘undisconfirmable’. All in all, from an educational perspective, the most important point is that flourishing in education is about the actualisation of each student’s potential, characterological and otherwise.

13.6 Problem 4 Despite those attempts at specificity, is it not suspicious how many different philosophies now gather around the ideal of flourishing? Does it not indicate that a threat of bland triteness hovers over these new flourishing accounts (Carr, 2021)? Does flourishing for education, for example, add anything to the old ideal of ‘liberal education’? Is it just old wine in new bottles? Education for Flourishing is not the Same as Character Education Educating young people as persons of good character is one very important thing (Kristjánsson, 2015); educating them towards a life of overall flourishing is a more ambitious goal, involving a set of considerations that exceed the remit of ‘mere’ character education and must ideally be pursued by every educator, inside as well as outside of classroom. With flourishing being a more capacious goal than the cultivation of character, it allows for more social and educational variance, and it requires engagement with a host of socio-political as well as ‘spiritual’ issues that tend to be conveniently eschewed in the literatures on the moral and characterological dimensions of schooling. More specifically, I argue in the book that realising the virtues (fully) is neither necessary nor sufficient for flourishing. It is not sufficient because flourishing needs a lot of external necessities to be in place; it is not necessary because even people who are mostly just well self-controlled, rather than fully virtuous, can lead ‘good enough’ lives to count as flourishing. Flourishing is a threshold concept; one does not need to achieve flourishing to the highest possible extent to count as flourishing overall.

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13.7 Problem 5 But is arguing that mere self-control (or ‘continence’ as Aristotle called it) is sufficient for flourishing not blatantly un-Aristotelian? Is this correct to call this a neo-Aristotelian view? Neo-aristotelian or Just Not Aristotelian? I argue in the book that the ‘good life’ of the student, to which education should contribute, must involve engagement with self-transcendent ideals and ignite awefilled enchantment in ways that go well beyond, and even clash with, traditional Aristotle-inspired conceptions of eudaimonia. It must also allow for moral elevation and radical gestalt-switches (epiphanic psycho-moral conversions) of kinds that are bound to appear alien to orthodox Aristotelians. My conception is more demanding than Aristotle’s, e.g. by postulating that the flourishing agent must have a clear personal sense of meaning. In other ways, it is less demanding, for example by assuming that people need not be fully virtuous to flourish satisfactorily (e.g. being well ‘self-controlled’ can suffice as I noted above) and that flourishing need not necessarily be accompanied by subjective wellbeing.

13.8 Problem 6 Am I not saddling Aristotle’s system with alien elements—such as a Platonic realm of transcendence or a cheapened ersatz version of spirituality—that undermine the credibility of the overarching, if fluid and flexible, Aristotelian architectonic of flourishing that I wish to preserve? Re-enchantment of Flourishing It is sometimes complained that some sides of human nature are largely unexplored by Aristotle, sides such that, in addition to being rational, we are also spiritual beings, responsive to beauty, imaginatively creative—without awareness of which any account of human nature becomes deflated and incomplete. Latter-day theorists have identified those missing parts in human beings’ deep-seated orientation or urge—sometimes referred to as ‘a transcendent urge’—towards extraordinary, idealised experiences of the true, good, and beautiful. This urge is revealed in the interhuman aesthetic impulse and a strong drive towards some sort of spirituality. One could even argue that the desire for getting high on drugs—especially psychedelic drugs—has the same psychological (or biological) origin. Here, Aristotelianism lags behind Confucianism with its aesthetic appreciation of ‘Heaven’ (Ti¯an) and the ‘Way’ (Dào). To be sure, Aristotle gives a prominent role to emotions in the actualisation of eudaimonia. When one looks at the emotions that Aristotle describes, however, those fall broadly into three categories with respect to their targets: emotions directed at

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oneself (like pride), at other people (like compassion) or at external events (like fear). Notably missing from this list are any emotions directed at ideals or idealisations, such as beauty, truth, and goodness in the abstract. There is no awe, for example— either inspired by a heightened sense of beauty in art/nature, the mystic immensity of the universe or the unconditional goodness of an act of self-sacrifice. Aristotle thus does not appreciate the relevance for flourishing of what the humanistic psychologists used to refer to as top-of-the-pyramid ‘peak experiences’. I try to ‘re-enchant’ Aristotelian flourishing in my book with a strong focus on awe experiences, to be promoted in the classroom, for example in good science education. If we acknowledge this criticism, schools need to create spaces in which children can find an outlet for the sensibilities that throb in their nerves towards ‘peak experiences’. Teachers should expose students to experiences where they are most likely to come into contact with the ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness. Legends, fairy tales, and folk stories will provide an important initial resource in this regard. Radically put, if the transcendental urge is really part of the human ergon, teachers working within the paradigm of education for flourishing have a duty to help students experience emotions of aesthetic ecstasy and moral and intellectual elevation. In order to do so, they need to help students keep an open mind, explore new ways of seeing, encourage personal awareness, and inform them of research into the nature and impact of peak experiences. A good place to start is with Damon’s (2008) research into the way in which seeing themselves as part of a grand scheme of things helps young people find their self-identity and a path to purpose.

13.9 Problem 7 Does the role of teachers as re-enchanters of students’ lives not go beyond their vocation as teachers and involve too radical an intrusion into students’ personal lives? External Necessities for Flourishing There is a strong emphasis on external necessities in Aristotle, for those who maintain that we can flourish ‘when we are broken on the wheel, or fall into terrible misfortunes, provided that we are good […] are talking nonsense’ (Aristotle, 1985, pp. 21 and 203 [1099a32 and 1153b19–21]). Here Aristotelianism differs significantly from the teachings of Socrates, the Stoics, Confucius, and Buddha. We need, according to Aristotle, in order to flourish as human beings: • • • • • •

Close parental attachment and good upbringing/education Good government, ruling in the interests of the people, and a just constitution Enough wealth to make sure we do not suffer poverty A complete life: namely, a life in which we do not die prematurely Health, strength and even minimal physical beauty Friends and family

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We know that 20%, at least, of children in the world do not have the external necessities in place to thrive at school, if they are able to attend school at all. Do teachers have an obligation to have their voices heard about this? Here is an area where fundamental political views clash, even among those theorists who consider the role of teachers to be an irreducibly moral one. For example, the passionate advocate of the moral dimensions of teaching, Campbell (2008, p. 612), claims that ‘ethical teachers should be good moral agents and moral models, not moralistic activists’, and she considers social justice education for teachers (along currently fashionable lines at least) a ‘distraction’ from the core commitments of teaching. Dissenting from such a view and representing, so to speak, the opposite extreme stance on this issue, MacIntyre (1987) maintains that teachers should ideally be overt agents of social change, and he nostalgically pinpoints a period in history, during the Scottish Enlightenment, when teachers were agents of social change, and he seems to suggest this as an ideal at which to aim. At the same time, MacIntyre is not sanguine about the capacities of contemporary teachers to overturn current free-market liberal theory and oppressive capitalist structures—the real reasons, in his view, why the basic necessities of many children are not met in today’s world. As a matter of fact, he thinks that the dual role of preparing students for real life and helping them develop their potential, places competing and incommensurable demands on teachers, turning them into no less than ‘the forlorn hope of the culture of western modernity’ (MacIntyre, 1987, p. 16): a truly tragic predicament. This sticking point is given surprisingly little attention by current flourishing theorists. Even White (2011, p. 30), whose political viewpoint is essentially leftwing, concedes quite readily that a number of the external necessities are ‘beyond the school’s control’. While that may seem incontestable, it leaves open the question of whether teachers should just bow down to the force of adverse external circumstances impacting on student learning or whether they should take up arms on students’ behalf.

13.10 Problem 8 To what extent is the moral vocation of teachers confined to the flourishing of the kids they are teaching themselves, and to what degree does it extend to all students in the world? How much moral activism is implied by the professionalism of being a teacher? How Much Curricular Change is Called for by the New Paradigm of Flourishing as the Aim of Education? John White is by far the most radical of all the recent flourishing advocates, perhaps motivated by his fear of the potential ‘blandness’ of the ideal of flourishing in leaving everything as it is. Not only does White want to see a change of emphasis in schooling from comprehensiveness to active engagement with particularities, he also thinks that education for flourishing necessitates the tearing up of the whole curriculum,

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as carved up into discrete subjects, and restructuring it along the lines of general educational aims. Despite his radicalism, White (2011, p. 145) is optimistic that the ‘advent of the wellbeing school may be closer than we think’; and in such a school, children will be absorbed in self-chosen worthwhile activities. More specifically, in White’s view, the required changes call for a radically new educational ‘vision’ and a substantially changed curriculum in which we would abandon outdated ‘totems’ of academic rigour, traditional subject-based learning and examination star ratings. If we really want schools to become ‘seedbeds of human flourishing’, he believes, it calls for nothing less than a complete rethinking of the school’s traditional role (White 2011, pp. 1–3, 95). I hesitate in my book to draw such radical curricular implications from a shift towards flourishing education. Let us not forget, for instance, that education for character has historically been one of the school’s most fundamental missions. The ‘de-moralisation’ of the school is a fairly recent aberration from that historical tradition. Giving considerations about students’ virtue-based flourishing pride of place in the visions of our schools would herald not so much a revolution as a retrieval of the time-honoured truth that it is not for the benefit of human beings to gain the whole world if they lose their souls. Notably, in ancient and medieval times, when this truth permeated school curricula, it was not to the detriment of the standard school subjects. Flourishing cannot be achieved without basic knowledge in reading, writing, mathematics, the arts, and the sciences. An overall emphasis on student flourishing, however, may help teachers identify what educationist DarlingHammond (1997, p. 97) calls ‘the teachable moment’, when students are in flow and intrinsically geared towards worthwhile activities. ‘I want a revolution in world education’, psychologist Seligman enthuses (2011, p. 63). I am not sure it is the same kind of revolution for which White pines—but I hope it bears some resemblance to the kind of reawakening that I would like to see in schools and I specified above in terms of ‘re-enchantment’. In my view, such a reawakening has less to do—contra White—with a change in subjects and topics taught than how they are taught—witness my examples of science education for wonder and awe in Chap. 5 of my book.

13.11 Problem 9 Am I being too conservative here and refusing to acknowledge the radical changes in school structure and curricular design that the new paradigm of flourishing requires? Is White’s radical view actually more realistic than mine? Teachers’ Preparedness for the Role of Flourishing Educators Much more would ideally have to be said about the role and education of teachers as educators for flourishing. A paradigm of education for flourishing will need the contribution of teachers as much as teachers need such a paradigm to thrive as professionals (cf. Higgins, 2011, p. 10). It would be an egregious mistake to think, however,

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that a reconceived role as a facilitator of flourishing will come easily to the average teacher. Recent empirical literature teems with examples, from all over the world, of how badly teachers deem themselves prepared for tackling life’s biggest questions in the classroom. They complain about dearth of attention to normative issues in teacher training and about their own lack of moral language and moral identity (see various references in Kristjánsson, 2015, Chap. 7). As Higgins (2011, p. 10) correctly observes, ‘restoring to its central place the flourishing of the practitioner is the first step in constructing a virtue ethics of teaching’. In other words, before teachers can help students explore and answer adequately the question of what kind of persons they want to become, in order to fulfil their potential, the teachers themselves need more extensive training in how to ask and answer such questions about themselves, both at the professional and personal levels. Indeed, it is hard to see how those two levels can be separated in practice: a consideration which casts doubt on the plausibility of de Ruyter’s (2004, p. 379) example of someone who is flourishing as a teacher but not overall as a person. On my neo-Aristotelian theory of flourishing at least, flourishing is not domain-specific in that way; it applies across the whole of one’s life.

13.12 Problem 10 Is a radical overhaul of teacher training required before the paradigm of education as the aim of education can become a reality, and is that an unrealistic expectation in today climate, obsessed with preparing kids for a life of tests rather than the tests of life? Is My Paradigm of Education for Flourishing Still Too Idealistic? Wolbert et al. (2019) have written an intriguing article exploring what kind of theory on education a flourishing theory should be—and critiquing (many) current theories for not falling into the most serviceable category. The issues raised by the three authors merit a discussion at the end of this chapter. To cut a long story short, I do share some of the sensibilities motivating their argument, but I also consider the fundamental distinction they wish to make in their article to be undercut by its lack of conceptual clarity. Wolbert, de Ruyter and Schinkel distinguish between ideal and non-ideal theories of flourishing and argue that because of the ideal nature of most, if not all, of the theories that I have canvassed in this chapter—including possibly my own—they fail to impact educational discourse and practice in the way they should. If by ‘ideal’ they simply meant ‘(too) abstract’, I would second their underlying assumption wholeheartedly. I argue in Chap. 1 of my book and have done so in more detail elsewhere (see e.g. Kristjánsson, 2013, 2018) that when trading in issues such as psychological wellbeing and educational practice, theorists need to stick their heads above the philosophical parapet and be unafraid to engage with messy empirical realities. By all means, let us avoid the poker face of academic philosophy here. However, the

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claim that the three flourishing theorists make is more specific than simply being about the abstract-theory versus concrete-practice gap. It has to do with certain conceptualisations in the flourishing discourse that foreground idealisations of actual school/classroom/student situations. Again, my general sympathies lies with the three authors. One of the most frustrating features of Aristotle’s moral and developmental psychology is how, while he wants to distance himself from Plato’s ivory-tower idealisations, he retains his master’s habit of defining concepts with respect to their most fully realised instances. Again, however, the targets of Wolbert et al. (2019) critique are more specific and more unique to the flourishing discourse. Their claim is that most current flourishing theories in education are ideal in the sense of trading in idealisations of students, teachers, schools, and their situations, rather than non-ideal in the sense of referring to the actual situations and offering action-guiding, policy-relevant advice on how to transition from the ideal to the practical. A distinction can be made here between ‘utopian idealisation’ and ‘realistic idealism’ (Wolbert, 2018, pp. 10–11). Plato’s theory of education and Aristotle’s theory of the flourishing of the ideal phronimos would presumably count as examples of the former. Examples of the latter are given by referring to the theories of White, Brighouse and de Ruyter (in her earlier work). Those offer realistic ideals or blueprints of flourishing schools and students, but they do not involve ‘full integration’ of the theoretical into the practical because the theory is not ‘constructed around the actual’ (Wolbert et al., 2019). At first sight, this criticism seems to be misplaced in the case of someone like White (2011), whose book very much reads like a practical guide on how to implement a flourishing agenda in actual UK state schools. However, even in the case of White, the remaining worry expressed by the three authors is that his advice is built around the assumption that ‘if the minimal criteria (e.g. White’s “basic needs”) are met, then children can be equipped for flourishing in such and such a way’, rather than addressing head-on the (moral-cum-political) question of how those minimal criteria can be met in the real world of today. There is some ambiguity in the article by the three authors whether my own (at that time) under-developed theory of flourishing in education (from an article predating this book) is to be tarred with the same brush as White’s. On the one hand, by distinguishing, as I have done, between preconditions and constituents of flourishing, I anticipate being liable to the same charge as White of taking for granted that the preconditions can be satisfied and spending most of my efforts on the potential cultivation of the constituents, especially the virtues. On the other hand, the authors take my thoughts about the political role of the teacher as an agent of social change as representative of an agenda that is all too often missing in the flourishing discourse because of the narrowly ideal, theoretical nature of this discourse. The ambiguity about my ‘theory’ arguably belies a certain lack of conceptual clarity in their article about the precise distinction between a theory that is ‘realistically ideal’ and ‘non-ideal’. The former term is a bit of an oxymoron, in any case. I am not sure how a theory can be ‘realistically ideal’ without offering some translation of the ideal into the actual. Looking at this from the opposite direction, a non-ideal theory of flourishing presumably needs to draw on theoretical insights

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in order to count as a theory in the first place, rather than just an accumulation of helpful empirical observations. If I were to offer a detailed critique of White’s (2011) book, I would probably complain about it being too practical in places and not elaborating sufficiently on its philosophical underpinnings. At all events, if a theory of flourishing does not count as ‘non-ideal’ unless it takes a stand on every possible socio-political issue that needs to be put in order before educational reform can be successfully implemented, this seems to amount to a new demand for idealisation: the idealisation of the non-ideal—one more oxymoron. There is a lot more to be said about the thought-provoking distinctions made in the article by Wolbert et al. (2019). Yet I cannot shake the impression that it is bedevilled by a deep ambiguity about the boundary between the ‘realistically ideal’ and the ‘non-ideal’. However, their critique is just one of many that can be levelled at the new paradigm of flourishing as the aim of education. I have deliberately left the 10 problems delineated above unanswered. It is not because I cannot think of possible answers to them but because I want to leave the readers with some food for thought, and I hope to draw some of you in to help me and others finesse and develop further the new flourishing paradigm, for example by finding satisfactory responses to the problems suggested above as still remaining.

13.13 Concluding Remarks Until recently, flourishing (eudaimonia) was rarely discussed outside of the hermetically sealed hothouse of Aristotelian philosophy. In the last few decades, hordes of academic psychologists have come on board, although their embrace of the basic tenets of eudaimonic philosophy is sometimes hesitant, lukewarm, or skewed. At present, educationists and educators are joining the party also. Some academic trends become abortive while others continue to catch on. I appeal to readers to help move the flourishing discourse forward in order to make it enrich educational policy and practice across the world. However, in order for such progress to be made, various things need to happen, in my view: • Neo-Aristotelians need to converse more with representatives of other kinds of flourishing accounts, not least positive psychological ones, to look for areas of potential overlaps and syntheses. • At a more general level, crossover work is also needed between objective (flourishing) accounts of wellbeing and subjective (e.g. hedonic and life-satisfaction) ones. At the moment, there is almost no systematic mutual engagement between the two. • Flourishing accounts and other wellbeing accounts of education must not become isolated within academic silos and echo-chambers. Policy-makers, practitioners and even (dare I say) politicians need to be drawn into the discussion also.

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• Flourishing accounts need to brought into reflective equilibrium with recent developments in character-and-virtue research (see e.g. Fowers et al., 2021) and not least the recent surge of interest in practical wisdom as a guide to wise decision-making (Grossmann et al., 2020; Kristjánsson et al., 2021). There is clearly a long and winding road ahead for those of us interested in this topic.

References Annas, J. (2011). Intelligent virtue. Oxford University Press. Aristotle. (1985). Nicomachean ethics, trans. T. Irwin. Hackett Publishing. Brighouse, H. (2006). On education. Routledge. Campbell, E. (2008). Teaching ethically as a moral condition of professionalism. In L. Nucci & D. Narvaez (Eds.), The international handbook of moral and character education (pp. 605–613). Routledge. Carr, D. (2021). Where is the educational virtue in flourishing? Educational Theory, 71(3), 389–407. Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: How young people find their calling in life. Free Press. Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn. Jossey-Bass. de Ruyter, D. J. (2004). Pottering in the garden? On human flourishing and education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52(4), 377–389. de Ruyter, D. J. (2015). Well-being and education. In J. Suissa, C. Winstanley, & R. Marples (Eds.), Education, philosophy and well-being: New perspectives on the work of John White (pp. 84–98). Routledge. Ecclestone, K., & Hayes, D. (2009). Changing the subject: The educational implications of developing emotional well-being. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 371–389. Fowers, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Leonhardt, N. D., & Cokelet, B. (2021). The emerging science of virtue. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(1), 118–147. Grossmann, I., Weststrate, N. M., Ardelt, M., Brienza, J. P., Dong, M., Ferrari, M., Fournier, M. A., Hu, C. S., Nusbaum, H. C., & Vervaeke, J. (2020). The science of wisdom in a polarized world: Knowns and unknowns. Psychological Inquiry, 31(2), 103–133. Haybron, D. M. (2008). The pursuit of unhappiness: The elusive psychology of well-being. Oxford University Press. Higgins, C. (2011). The good life of teaching: An ethics of professional practice. Wiley-Blackwell. Kristjánsson, K. (2013). Virtues and vices in positive psychology: A philosophical critique. Cambridge University Press. Kristjánsson, K. (2020). Flourishing as the aim of education: A neo-Aristotelian view. Routledge. Kristjánsson, K. (2015). Aristotelian character education. Routledge. Kristjánsson, K. (2018). Virtuous emotions. Oxford University Press. Kristjánsson, K., Fowers, B., Darnell, C., & Pollard, D. (2021). Phronesis (practical wisdom) as a type of contextual integrative thinking. Review of General Psychology, 25(3), 239–257. MacIntyre, A. (1987). The idea of the educated public. In G. Haydon (Ed.), Education and values: The Richard Peters lectures (pp. 15–36). Institute of Education. Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human developmental approach. Harvard University Press. Ryan, R., Curren, R., & Deci, E. (2013). What humans need: Flourishing in Aristotelian philosophy and self-determination theory. In A. S. Waterman (Ed.), The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia (pp. 57–75). American Psychological Association. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.

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White, J. (2011). Exploring well-being in schools: A guide to making children’s lives more fulfilling. Routledge. Wolbert, L. S. (2018). Flourishing, fragility and family life. PhD Dissertation. Vrije Univesiteit. Wolbert, L. S., de Ruyter, D. J., & Schinkel, A. (2019). What kind of theory should theory on education for human flourishing be? British Journal of Educational Studies, 67(1), 25–39.

Professor Kristján Kristjánsson, Ph.D. is Professor of Character Education and Virtue Ethics at the University of Birmingham, U.K. His interests lie in research on character and virtues at the intersection between moral philosophy, moral psychology and moral education. He has published various books on those issues; the latest ones are Flourishing as the Aim of Education (Routledge, 2020) and Friendship for Virtue (O.U.P., 2022). His previous books include Aristotelian Character Education (Routledge, 2015) which won the S.E.S. Prize for the best Education book of 2015 in the U.K. and Virtues and Vices in Positive Psychology (C.U.P., 2013). In addition to leading the Jubilee Centre’s flagship research projects, Kristjánsson oversees all research activities at the Centre. As a member of various international organisations, Kristjánsson collaborates with colleagues in Asia, Europe, and the US on issues related to the cultivation of a flourishing life and virtuous character in general and virtuous emotions. Kristjánsson is Editor of the Journal of Moral Education.

Part V

New Perspective on Post-school Wellbeing

Chapter 14

The Dynamic-Grit Mindset: Flourishing in the Future Workforce Mohamed Fadhil

14.1 Introduction Significant increases in the number of older persons in our society pose a challenge for biology, social and behavioural sciences, and medicine (Sierra, 2019). Despite the many negative undertones, the word ‘aging’ is associated with, the term ‘successful aging’ is not an oxymoron (Fogle, 2020). Successful aging is a multidimensional concept (Keating, 2022) encompassing wellbeing, avoidance of disease and disability, sustaining high physical and cognitive function, and continued engagement in social and productive activities, including work (Ryff, 1989). The stage is set for research studies to improve our understanding of aging and transform negative perceptions about aging (Heidrich & Ryff, 2021). This would be especially crucial to determine the direction for the wellbeing of the future workforce in Singapore and several other countries in Asia. The science of aging has evolved over the years as longevity in many developed societies has improved dramatically (United Nations [UN], 2019) and involves the amalgamation of several disciplines to understand aging and explore how older people may optimise their functioning both at work and in their social lives (Ferraro & Carr, 2021; Phillipson, 2019). Currently, Asia accounts for one-half of the world’s older population, and this number is expected to increase (UN, 2019). However, research suggests developed countries in Asia, such as Singapore, Japan and South Korea, will experience workforce shortages due to their aging populations (Roy, 2022). Singapore is an illustrative case study as it remains at the forefront of the global economy despite its lack of natural resources, small geographical size, and a rapidly aging workforce. In Singapore, the local workforce is expected to plateau from 2020 onward (Ministry of Manpower [MOM] Singapore, 2019). This indicates that there will M. Fadhil (B) School of Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_14

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be little or zero growth in the local workforce based on current employment and retirement rates (MOM Singapore, 2019). With this forecast in mind, the working lives of older workers warrants a closer examination and deeper understanding. In the employment market and workforce, many older workers face discrimination and are ostracised in relation to recruitment, employment policies, and even career opportunities (Higgs & Gilleard, 2020). In addition, some are relegated to secondary labour markets in developed economies because competitive labour markets are more inclined towards gig economy workers, most of whom are young, fresh graduates (Kuitto & Helmdag, 2021). The working lives of our older generation are indeed a significant part of Singapore and its future, as many important lessons can be drawn from them to inform policymaking in the future concerning the wellbeing of older workers. This research study is the first application of an appreciative inquiry framework in Singapore to examine older workers and is, therefore, very significant given the current climate of austerity and uncertainty in the employment and economic sectors (Cooperrider & Fry, 2020).

14.2 Literature Review The topics of aging, older workers and employability have become defining concerns of our time (Harris et al., 2017). However, discussions and dialogues on aging and work are often stymied because it has been difficult to define what is meant when referring to older workers and deciphering societal definitions of older workers (McCarthy et al., 2017). This is because terms such as older workers, mature workers, senior workers, and experienced workers are used interchangeably (Weber et al., 2019). The perception that ‘50 is the new 40’ suggests a changing public perception of aging (Machado & Sousa, 2019), and the age of 50 is at the cusp of the aging process where a worker is considered an older worker. Likewise, McCarthy et al.’s (2017) study measuring the mental health of older workers in Ireland defined older workers as those aged 50 and above. This study considers all these age ranges and subsequently refers to older workers as Singaporean workers above the age of 50. A review of employment policies by the OECD (2019) supports greater labour participation to foster employability and job mobility for older workers. The OECD (2019) report was crucial in answering the challenges of labour shortages. Despite the growing proportion of older adults globally and various policies advocating for their participation, ageism and prejudiced practices are prevalent and have facilitated discriminatory behaviour against older workers in various workplace settings. Ageism is one of the biggest obstacles confronting older workers in training and employment and has subtly manifested itself in many workplaces (Button, 2020). Worryingly, ageism is a major barrier preventing older workers from becoming valuable workforce members and prevalent in many organisations (Naegele et al., 2018). It could simply be an absence of policies to transform ageist attitudes and perceptions

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in some instances; in others, it could be situated in time-entrenched cultural norms and fixed societal mindsets (OECD, 2019). In times of adversity and opportunity, it is important to explore the capacity of character strengths (Niemiec, 2021; Peterson & Seligman, 2004) to address some of the challenges many modern societies face, including the challenge of addressing ageist attitudes. Character strengths are unique characteristics that allow us to be at our best to deliver our best performances at work while feeling engaged and energised (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Lee et al. (2021) and Niemiec (2021) suggest that character strengths are one of the domains in flourishing, a useful predictor of wellbeing. Thus, it is necessary to consider the context of a strengths-based approach in organisations and workplaces in addition to the more known approaches in education and personal development. character strengths can be a useful predictor of work performance during the hiring process. One of an organisation’s most important objectives when recruiting is to attract individuals who would likely perform well in future and be of value to the organisation (Cherkowski & Walker, 2019). As discussed earlier, the concept of character strengths involves positive traits that significantly contribute to a positive work life and the wellbeing of the workplace (VanderWeele, 2021). Wellbeing is a complex construct to understand and can be challenging to situate in public policy, but it is certain that it is essential in every aspect of human life (Watanabe et al., 2020). Wellbeing is more than just the absence of illness and includes life satisfaction, healthy behaviours and resilience (McCallum & Price, 2016). Keyes (2002) provides another definition of wellbeing that combines hedonics and eudemonics, integrating positive emotions with the full functioning of an individual. McCallum and Price (2016) defined wellbeing as ‘diverse and fluid respecting individual, family and community beliefs, values, experiences, culture, opportunities and contexts across time and change. It encompasses intertwined individual, collective and environmental elements which continually interact across the lifespan’ (pp. 5–6). McCallum and Price (2016)’s definition of wellbeing suggests that it is a multifaceted construct that encapsulates positive emotions, best experiences and optimal functioning. Individuals functioning optimally and living a good life can be considered to be flourishing (Hone et al., 2015) and likely to achieve life satisfaction (Ryff, 1989) and actualise their aims and ambitions (Keyes, 2002). People who flourish report more positive emotions than those who are not and better use of their strengths (Corey, 2002). In addition to being predictive of wellbeing, flourishing is crucial in times of difficulty and austerity, such as global societies suffering from the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic (Waters et al., 2021; White & McCallum, 2021). Given the ageism many older workers face in the workforce while employed or seeking employment (Khan, 2019), scholarly engagement with flourishing is more pressing (Alikaj et al., 2021). Thus, flourishing is an important outcome of wellbeing and fundamental to the wellbeing of older workers.

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14.3 Theoretical Framework Given that Singapore’s workforce is multicultural and multigenerational (Teo, 2019), using a framework of different theoretical perspectives from critical gerontology and wellbeing is practical and relevant to facilitate the interpretation and understanding of multifaceted perspectives of an aging workforce (Bengtson et al., 1997). Considering the context and nature of this appreciative study on older workers, these commonalities are well-suited within an integrative theoretical framework. The theoretical framework outlined in Table 14.1 combines three theories: one found in social gerontology (Bengtson et al., 1997) and two from the field of wellbeing. First, in this theoretical framework is critical gerontology theory, which addresses taken-for-granted assumptions and explores models of aging through a critique of social meanings and assumptions of older workers (Bengtson et al., 1997). Next are two theories under the concept of wellbeing. First, Huppert and So’s (2011) theory of flourishing facilitates an understanding of the factors that allow older workers to flourish (Hone et al., 2015; Huppert & So, 2011) in various workplaces and industries. Second, Owens et al.’s (2019) S-BIT theory of work, developed from concepts in organisational psychology, allows a thorough analysis of factors utilising the strengths of workers while ensuring the existence of promotive contexts to enable workers to flourish and thrive in their respective job roles (Allan et al., 2019a; Owens et al., 2019). Therefore, the integrated theoretical framework, as illustrated in Table 14.1, acts as a theoretical lens to guide the selection and interpretation of data and suggest explanations for relationships and commonalities inherent in the data. This framework combines two different theories into a single, integrated framework. It combines theoretical concepts in critical gerontology with wellbeing. In this framework, wellbeing is comprised of two separate theories: the theory of flourishing and the S-BIT theory of fulfilling work. The focus in this framework is not only on the concepts found in each of the theories but also the relationships between them and how each influences the other. These three theoretical concepts are combined Table 14.1 Theoretical framework for older workers in Singapore Theory

Description

Key concepts

Critical gerontology theory

Focuses on human dimensions of aging; understanding subjective and interpretative dimensions of aging as well as the processes of practical change

Positive models of aging and critical discourses on social meaning of aging

Wellbeing theory

Focuses on factors which enable an older worker Wellbeing, character to flourish both in their professional and personal strengths, flourishing lives. Gives a clear indication of their wellbeing and S-BIT theory of Highlights factors for a promotive work context work and one which capitalises on workers’ strengths

Adapted by author from Bengtson et al. (1997), Huppert and So (2011), and Owens et al. (2019)

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Contextual Support and Barriers Promotive Work Context

Wellbeing

S-BIT Theory of Work

Flourishing

Positive Individual Characteristics

Critical Gerontology

Fig. 14.1 Theoretical framework for examining older workers in Singapore. Adapted by author from Bengtson et al. (1997), Huppert and So (2011), and Owens et al. (2019)

into an integrated framework to facilitate a comprehensive and complete analysis of the entire ecology of work involving older workers in Singapore (Fig. 14.1).

14.4 Methodology This study’s main aim was to challenge prevailing narrowed attitudes towards older workers by discovering their appreciative factors through the involvement of key stakeholders in Singapore’s employment sector. To achieve this, the primary research questions devised were: 1. What are the appreciative factors and enabling influences behind these factors for older workers in employment in Singapore?

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2. How would these appreciative factors inform employment and training policies in the future? The purpose of this study was to extract and document real-world knowledge about the mindsets, attitudes, behaviours, social structures, experiences and shared values of a specific group of people. A qualitative approach was therefore adopted to allow a deep and detailed understanding of each older worker, which a quantitative study may not be able to achieve. An appreciative inquiry methodology was chosen as it was fitting and practical for the purposes of this study. Its application facilitated the in-depth understanding of the lived work experiences of older workers in Singapore’s workforce and dialogues with all stakeholders in this workforce. Moreover, this study was not merely an exercise to understand the lived work experiences of these workers but to use these experiences to envision a better future for them and challenge prevalent ageist attitudes in society and shape wellbeing initiatives of the future workforce. The application of the 4D cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 14.2, is the main intervention model in appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider & Srivastava, 1987; Cooperrider et al., 2008). Only the first two phases of the appreciative inquiry cycle were conducted in this study. First, both phases were well-suited to address the research questions and answer the research gap. The discovery phase (Cooperrider & Srivastava, 1987; Cooperrider et al., 2008) evaluated the appreciative factors of older workers in Singapore and analysed the perspectives of adult educators and industry experts on older workers. The dream phase synthesised the participants’ dialogues (Cooperrider et al., 2008) and used this to inform policymakers and stakeholders in Singapore’s employment and training sectors. Second, the first two phases formed the blueprint for this study, which could be extended by applying the findings to complete the last two phases in the 4-D cycle. By completing the last two phases, the findings from the first two phases could be operationalised to lead a positive transformation for older

Discovery (Appreciating)

Destiny (Sustaining by Empowering)

Affirmative Topic

Dream (Envision Results and Impact)

Design (Co-constructing the Dream)

Fig. 14.2 The 4-D cycle—elements of appreciative inquiry. The 4-D cycle is adapted from Cooperrider and Godwin (2012)

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workers in Singapore. Several existing studies (Arnold et al., 2022; Gordon, 2020; Schmied et al., 2019) have applied the first two phases of the 4-D cycle successfully to achieve a positive transformation or an intervention in a selected group of the population. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 40 individuals, including 30 older Singaporean workers aged 50 years and above from six different industries in Singapore; representatives of national industry bodies, policy advisers, representatives from training providers, workplace supervisors, human resource professionals and adult educators in Singapore (see Tables 14.2, 14.3, 14.4 and 14.5). Purposive and snowball sampling strategies were used to recruit the research participants. Narrative face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with older workers from various industries performing different job roles in Singapore’s workforce. Data analysis in this study was separated into two parts: (1) a thematic analysis (Braun et al., 2006) of the narrative interviews, and (2) an analysis of the focus group discussions and opportunity maps developed after the discussions. All the data collected were analysed using NVivo 12. Table 14.2 Demographics of older workers Older worker

Age

Gender

Profession

Industry

#1

63

Male

Server crew

Food and beverage

#2

65

Female

Corporate trainer

Training

#3

65

Female

National tour guide

Tourism

#4

62

Male

Corporate trainer

Training

#5

60

Male

Counsellor/social worker

Social work

#6

68

Female

Sales consultant

Retail

#7

67

Male

Tour guide/theatre performer

Tourism

#8

62

Female

National tour guide

Tourism

#9

52

Female

Conservationist and facilitator

Public education

#10

70

Male

Conservationist and facilitator

Public education

#11

80

Female

Tour guide/historian

Public education

#12

57

Male

Airline pilot

Aviation

#13

65

Male

Addiction therapist/counsellor

Social work

#14

67

Male

Employment mediator

Manpower

#15

65

Male

Service ambassador

Food and beverage

#16

55

Male

Security officer/administrator

Security

#17

54

Female

Lecturer/course director

Healthcare

#18

52

Female

Airline rostering supervisor

Aviation

#19

57

Male

Maritime shipping auditor

Maritime

#20

57

Female

Security officer

Security

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Table 14.3 Demographics of adult educators Adult educator

Age

Gender

Profession

Training sector

#1

57

Female

Adult educator

Employability skills and digital literacy

#2

39

Female

Adult educator

Employability skills and digital literacy

#3

56

Male

Adult educator

Employability skills and neurolinguistic programming

#4

56

Male

Adult educator

Oil and gas workplace safety and health

#5

51

Male

Adult educator

Employability skills and digital literacy

#6

67

Male

Adult educator

Soft skills and financial literacy

#7

58

Male

Adult educator

Facilitator certification program

#8

54

Female

Adult educator

Employability skills and problem-solving

#9

69

Male

Adult educator

Security and enforcement

#10

53

Female

Adult educator

Employability skills and career coaching

Table 14.4 Demographics of employers Employers

Age

Gender

Profession

Industry

#1

46

Male

Hotel restaurant manager

Hospitality

#2

49

Male

CEO, facilities management organisation

Cleaning and facilities management

#3

52

Female

CEO, consultancy and management

Service consultancy

Table 14.5 Demographics of industry experts Industry expert

Age

Gender

Profession

Industry

#1

54

Male

Social psychologist and counsellor

Social work/psychology

#2

40

Male

Health and aging thought leader

Healthcare/social work

#3

63

Male

Career and employability coach

Training and employability

#4

55

Male

Member of parliament and director for low wage workers union

Manpower and labour ministry

#5

48

Male

Social worker (family service centre)

Social work/career counselling

#6

47

Male

CEO and instructional designer

E-learning solutionist and consultant

#7

35

Female

Organisational and management change consultant

Organisational psychology and change management

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14.5 Findings and Discussion The findings illustrate the dynamic-grit mindset of older workers that underpins the concept of a flourishing worker in Singapore. It demonstrates the core role of the dynamic-grit mindset in determining the optimal functioning of the older worker and how using human-centric approaches can overcome the challenges of systemic inequities in societal and work contexts in the future. The data analysis shows that older workers in Singapore display a dynamic-grit mindset that underpins the concept of a flourishing worker in Singapore. Dynamicgrit mindset refers to a style of thought, a way of seeing work, a habit of living and working, and a work attitude rooted in six key factors and two determinants. The six factors are grit, resilience, meaning, engagement, competency and positive relationships, while the two determinants are emotional intelligence and problemsolving. Having this mindset enables older workers to flourish and experience a sense of fulfilment at work despite being constrained by systemic inequities in Singapore’s workforce. The dynamic-grit mindset facilitates the flourishing of older workers in Singapore and mitigates the challenges of systemic inequities in work contexts that are primarily based on economic practicality rather than human-centric approaches. It is a useful approach to inform and shape future wellbeing initiatives to facilitate the flourishing of older workers in the workforce of the future. The systemic inequities faced by the older workers and their dynamic-grit grit mindset which enabled their flourishing will be discussed in next section.

14.5.1 Systemic Inequities This section explores the systemic inequities inherent in Singapore and their multiple negative impacts on older workers. The inequities experienced by the older workers in this study demonstrate how ageism is systemic in Singapore’s workforce and society and limits employment opportunities for older workers and undermines their potential to flourish. There were four main areas in Singapore where ageism was observed: human resource policies, work contexts, government policies, and contextual barriers. Human Resource Policies One core aspect of any workforce is its human resource function (Wall, 2022). It is a vital cog in ensuring that an organisation performs well and stays ahead of the competition (Wall, 2022). In doing so, many organisations prioritise economic gains, focusing on their ROI (Linsi, 2020). As such, the focus of the human resource department is recruiting workers who can contribute most to the organisation’s productivity. Older workers in this study describe the challenges they face due to ageist attitudes in human resource departments. Many do not view them as valuable assets and, therefore, undeserving of a place in the workforce.

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Older Workers 7, 8 and 20 explained that although they have many years of experience in different industries, they found it challenging to find a job and attributed this to being overlooked due to their age. These challenges are not completely new and have also been observed in Hong Kong and Europe (Cristea et al., 2020). In relation to age discrimination, Adult Educator 1 stated that they normally put aside the job applications of applicants above 40 years of age, preferring to select younger applicants. Burnes et al. (2019) highlight how ageist attitudes are stumbling blocks for older workers, and subsequently limit their employment opportunities. Employer 2 and Adult Educator 2 also mentioned that age was a limiting factor for older workers being considered for employment. They suggest the reasons for this are simply misleading assumptions and stereotypes that depict older workers as liabilities should they be employed. Work Contexts Ageism permeates nearly every part of the workforce and is also observed in workplace contexts (Francioli & North, 2021). During the third focus group session, Older Worker 5 highlighted the challenge of organisations circumventing government policies to safeguard older workers. He explained that organisations would rather hire a younger worker and find ways to exploit loopholes in government policy. In the first focus group, Adult Educator 1 explained that typically, many organisations claim older workers do not have the required skillset and cannot perform the job. Industry Expert 5 added that older workers face the challenge of not utilising technology effectively but found this assumption misguided and inaccurate. Older worker 6 purports that while older workers may be slow to adapt to technology, they can become very proficient in carrying out their work using technology given the right support. It is as such important that older workers are given the time and space to use their strengths to apply technological infrastructure to their work. Another misconception in the workplace due to ageist assumptions relates to digital technology. When discussing the use of technology in workplaces, such as utilising software applications for work purposes or managing work documents digitally, Adult Educators 5 and 2 pointed out that although younger workers may be digital natives and IT savvy, it does not necessarily mean they can use digital technology effectively for work. The older workers are the ones who are familiar with work processes and understand the nuances within the organisation and industry. An important consideration here is that organisations should be critically aware that older workers need to be afforded the opportunity and time to adapt their work to digital technology (Parker & Andrei, 2020), unlike the digital natives who are more familiar with digital technology. Moreover, older workers require training tailored to their needs to address the needs of their organisation. One benefit of aligning the training to the organisation’s unique needs as mentioned by Industry Expert 3 is that older workers’ organisational knowledge will be retained but adapted to new digital processes.

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Government Policies Many governments are grappling with a deficit in the workforce. Governments in OECD countries such as Australia, Germany, Japan and South Korea have attempted to encourage older workers to continue being part of the workforce (Egdell et al., 2020) to simultaneously address the challenge of a high unemployment rate and stem workforce deficits. However, despite the Singapore government mooting similar measures, the subtle age discrimination in implementing these measures highlights the incoherence between government, policies and stakeholders. Older Worker 16 explained that the policy was implemented very differently from its original intention. He argued that government policies to encourage older workers to continue being part of the workforce were rendered useless due to organisations circumventing them due to their ageist attitudes. When considering the challenges described earlier, older workers are demoralised by the efficacy of the policies despite the good intentions of the government to help these workers. For example, during the first focus group session, Older Worker 9 explained that she has failed to land any job due to her age and argued that no matter the number of certifications she has, she is overlooked because she is an older worker. Older Worker 3 agreed, adding that the economic challenges brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic have exacerbated the situation for older workers. Adult Educator 8 pointed out that policymakers and human resources professionals are usually young people unable to realise the value of older workers, as they tend to opt for short-term solutions to produce quick or instant results. Adult Educator 1 highlighted that younger counterparts are unlikely to help and accommodate older workers, as they see them as outdated and less qualified, despite their years of experience. Further, there appears to be a dissonance with the policies implemented to help older workers in Singapore. Empowerment is identified in the S-BIT theory of work as a positive influence in a work context and allows for a higher level of efficacy (Allan et al., 2019b; Owens et al., 2019). Yet, this is something not afforded to older workers. It appears policies are designed to accommodate older workers rather than empower and recognise their potential. Adult Educator 4 claimed the policymakers are unaware of the realities on the ground and unable to empathise with the sacrifice of the older workers. He observed older workers’ discomfort, suggesting the government are not sensitive to the challenges they face in Singapore’s workforce. Adult Educator 7 suggested there may be a mismatch between the skillsets older workers have and the jobs available, and a clear upgrading plan needs to be enacted. Similar challenges are reported in Europe, where governments are struggling to create effective policies to address the challenges faced by older workers seeking employment (Zaniboni et al., 2019). Industry Expert 4 proposed that a mindset shift was needed to appreciate older workers as assets, but achieving this shift would take a long time and be challenging. He reasoned that to mitigate this challenge would require a combination of policies to help older workers. As such, no single policy can effectively address this complex

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challenge; rather, for positive transformation to take place, several policies would have to be applied in tandem. Contextual Barriers Older workers face contextual challenges outside the workplace and experience discrimination beyond human resources and government policies (Rudman & Aldrich, 2021). Two contextual challenges emerged in this study: the work culture unique to Singapore, and the lack of family and social support. Adult Educators 6 and 8 both indicated that some older workers’ families do not support them in seeking work or using digital technology. Adult Educator 8 explained that the children of these workers are usually digital natives and have little patience in teaching their parents how to use technology appropriately. Singapore’s work culture was identified as a barrier to integrating older workers into a workforce that values them. Industry Expert 4 suggested work culture and poor organisational renewal plans are responsible for the barriers older workers encounter when trying to continue to be part of the workforce or get reemployed. Adult Educator 4 further explained the kiasi [afraid to die] attitude and described its prevalence in Singaporean work culture. He observed that this attitude had permeated all levels of Singapore society since independence. People are always striving hard to survive and avoid failure at all costs, even to their detriment. A factor attributed to Singapore’s economic success is its aggressive drive towards economic prosperity (Mathews & Lim, 2019). Due to the absence of natural resources, the government impresses upon its citizens that the nation has to work diligently and relentlessly for economic survival (Chiong & Gopinathan, 2020). This relentless drive, Older Worker 10 claimed, has led to the development of a very demanding work culture and work–life imbalance in Singapore. Industry Expert 4 asserted that the ‘biggest challenge to this issue is a mindset shift’ required in society. He felt that the tightening of government policies allowing foreign labour has improved the situation but more must be done to improve the employment situation for older workers through a combination of policies. The most important factor is the mindset shift needed to acknowledge that older workers are indeed valuable assets to the workforce. This discussion has described ageism inherent within Singapore, and highlighted the plight of older workers suffering from ageism within constrained workplace cultures, recruitment and government policies, and external factors such as a lack of family support.

14.5.2 The Dynamic-Grit Mindset Wellbeing is a diverse and fluid construct respecting individual, family and community beliefs, values, experiences, culture, opportunities and contexts across time and change (McCallum & Price, 2016, pp. 5–6). The flourishing of an individual in a specific context is an indicator of wellbeing (Oades et al., 2021), as it captures

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the thriving of an individual in unique contexts and under specific circumstances (VanderWeele, 2021). Flourishing is defined as an ideal state in individuals demonstrating high levels of hedonic and eudemonic wellbeing (Oades et al., 2021). Researchers generally agree that flourishing refers to high levels of wellbeing and functioning (Huppert & So, 2011; Seligman, 2011; Wissing et al., 2021), which is the definition applied in this study. The flourishing of the older workers in this study can be attributed to their dynamicgrit mindset (see Fig. 14.3). Analysis of the data in this study found that the dynamicgrit mindset incorporates the concept of grit and five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing. The analysis also indicated that two determinants— emotional intelligence and problem-solving—are significant skills that enable the five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) work. The key role of the dynamic-grit mindset in the flourishing of older workers and how this mindset extends the concept of human flourishing are also examined. Further, the transformative nature of this mindset as an instrument to alter negative perceptions of older workers are explained, and the dynamic-grit mindset and its core constructs are defined. The findings from the current study extend Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing and suggest that older workers’ flourishing in Singapore includes grit as a core constituent and the two other determinants (problem-solving and emotional intelligence) encapsulated in the dynamic-grit mindset illustrated in Fig. 14.3. Grit in the Dynamic-Grit Mindset The dynamic-grit mindset is a completely new construct based on the data in this study (see Fig. 14.3). This mindset sets older workers apart from their younger counterparts in Singapore’s workforce and accounts for their success in their respective careers and employment history. The dynamic-grit mindset encapsulates the appreciative factors present in older workers in this study and comprises seven different components. Integrating these individual components—including five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) 10 factors of flourishing—forms the core of this mindset and predicts success factors for older workers in Singapore’s workforce. The first key component in the dynamic-grit mindset is the dynamism observed in the older workers in this study. ‘Dynamic’ means being constantly mobile, active and adaptable in mitigating the constantly changing demands of the workforce and economy (Schulze & Pinkow, 2020). It refers to several positive traits, including industriousness, vision, passion, mindfulness and drive. Existing studies similarly describe dynamism and refer to it as a positive trait necessary for success (Kooij et al., 2020; Rossi et al., 2021; Takashi & Mana, 2020). The current study considers dynamism an essential trait for older workers to remain relevant in a competitive economy and enjoy sustained periods of employment. This construct forms the first part of the dynamic-grit mindset, and its presence in the older workers in this study manifests itself in several forms. First, dynamism could be seen in the constant upskilling and reskilling of older workers to improve their competencies to adapt to the needs of the workforce. Second, it was observed in the way they engaged in learning new knowledge and new skills

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Competency

Resilience

Positive Relationships

Meaning

Dynamic-Grit Mindset

Emotional Intelligence

Engagement

ProblemSolving

Fig. 14.3 The components of the dynamic-grit mindset

to adapt to changing work environments, and third, how they found meaning in their work lives. Lastly, dynamism was visible in the older workers expanding their professional networks by establishing and maintaining positive relationships in their professional lives. As Fig. 14.3 illustrates, the dynamic-grit mindset consists of the concept of grit, five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing, and problemsolving and emotional intelligence. In this study, the concept of grit is extended according to the older workers in Singapore’s context and shifts from the well-known and traditional concept of grit defined by Duckworth et al. (2007). In their seminal work on grit, Duckworth et al. (2007) developed the Grit Scale based on their definition of grit as a construct consisting of perseverance and passion (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Duckworth et al. (2007) found that grit not only consists of sheer perseverance (as commonly assumed) but also includes having a passion for what you do. Jachimowicz et al. (2018) clarify that in Duckworth’s discussion of grit, perseverance must exist in tandem with passion for an individual to flourish. The data in this study indicated that five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing accounted for the flourishing of the older workers; however, grit is also central. As already noted, the analysis revealed that the concept of grit

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in this study encapsulates five components: discipline, commitment, perseverance, passion and vision. This study is the first to suggest the dynamic-grit mindset as a predictor of positive work performance and an indicator of flourishing for older workers. Moreover, it is the first to propose the concept of grit as comprising of the five components, as illustrated in Fig. 14.4. As noted earlier, Duckworth et al. (2007) developed one of the most accepted and known definitions of grit in psychology. As a concept, grit builds on early positive psychology research and describes an individual’s tendency to persistently pursue long-term goals despite challenges or obstacles (Duckworth & Gross, 2014; Duckworth et al., 2007; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). To measure grit, Duckworth et al. (2007) developed and validated a self-report questionnaire, which was intended for use by teenagers and adults in pursuit of specific goals in different domains (Duckworth et al., 2007, 2021). The current study reveals that grit is a significant factor in the flourishing of older workers in Singapore. The findings indicate that besides the known components of grit—perseverance and passion (Duckworth et al., 2007)—three additional components are evident in the grit observed in older workers. Older Worker 21 shared that older workers are disciplined and have ‘the determination to succeed’. Their

Vision Vision

Perseverance

Passion

Grit

Discipline

Commitment

Fig. 14.4 The components of grit in the dynamic-grit mindset

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commitment and passion were much more apparent than their younger counterparts. During the first focus group session, Employers 3 and 4 found grit was evident in older workers. Adult Educator 5 added that older workers ‘can handle tough and demanding work’ and that ‘the grit they have makes them see things differently’. Employer 2 revealed that ‘older workers have grit and can handle tough work. They are passionate about their jobs and treat their colleagues with compassion’. The data in this study showed that grit in older workers is a construct encapsulating five components, including perseverance and passion. The five components are discipline, commitment, passion, perseverance and vision, and are presented in the following sections. Discipline The older workers who have the dynamic-grit mindset exhibit discipline in their work lives. Older Worker 20 explained that because of her passion for her job, she wants to do well and is disciplined to go through all the challenges in her line of work. Employer 2 and Adult Educator 10 agreed that discipline is a quality they have observed in older workers, particularly in terms of their punctuality and self-control regarding work attitudes and expectations. Older Worker 6 shared that older workers have the grit and tenacity to ‘grind out the hours’, both during easy and difficult times with the organisation. Older Worker 17 revealed that it takes ‘a certain degree of grit, discipline and commitment’ to manage the demands in the healthcare industry overwhelmed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Industry Expert 2 reiterated that older workers are ‘very disciplined’ and ‘have a clear purpose of what they would like to achieve’. Older Worker 13 claimed he is ‘disciplined and determined to do his work well by the stated deadline’. Discipline is an important quality in organisations, particularly in core industries affected by timeliness (Sitopu et al., 2021). Commitment Commitment is another component found in the concept of grit in this study. The data includes eight instances of older workers displaying commitment to their organisations and work—an evident quality in the older workers in this study. For example, Older Worker 19 described his stint as a captain on board a cargo vessel as one of ‘sacrifice, wholeheartedness and grit’, and Older Worker 7 described his career with the military as one of ‘wholeheartedness and commitment’. Both older workers shared that to do well and flourish in their professions, it was important to be committed to the job, which involves some degree of sacrifice. Many successful entrepreneurs and leaders credited commitment as being key to their success (Ashraff et al., 2020). Further, Hennekam et al. (2020) report that having commitment to a purpose improves workers’ mental health and indicates an individual’s positive wellbeing (Pfund & Lewis, 2020). Adult Educators 3 and 6 observed that older workers are ‘hardworking and very loyal to their organisations’. They ‘have been through ups and downs’ with their organisations and ‘remain committed’ to see through their careers with the same organisations. To remain committed is partly about having grit (Shamshirian et al., 2021), as a worker may always be tempted to move to another organisation with

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better prospects or switch industries during challenging times but older workers in this study remained committed to their organisations. Perseverance Perseverance is the ability to show steadfastness and keep working on something despite encountering challenges and complexities in accomplishing the final objective or goal (Gerhards & Gravert, 2020). In this study, having perseverance is significant in allowing the older workers to flourish. It helped some older workers gain employment opportunities. Industry Expert 2 shared that older workers have ‘selfmotivation and showed tremendous perseverance’ even in the wake of facing multiple challenges in life. Industry Expert 4 added that the older workers ‘have the determination to survive’ and have persevered through ‘a life of hard knocks’ in the workforce. Adult Educator 7 shared that older workers demonstrate ‘a strong sense of belief and persevere’ in challenging situations and ‘are more positive in being able to turn things around’. Employer 3 thought older workers are able to go far in life because of ‘their attitude of not giving up. This attitude makes them valuable to the workforce’. Adult Educator 2 added that older workers ‘can persevere and take hard work’ and are willing to work in challenging industries such ‘as the cleaning and retail industry’, which are not favoured by the younger workers in Singapore. Employer 1 confirmed that older workers ‘represent long term benefits’ for the organisation because of their ability to ‘be disciplined’ and ‘take on challenges without giving up’. Older workers are also known to show perseverance as a form of gratitude to their organisations. Industry Expert 5 admitted that he preferred to employ older workers as they ‘don’t job-hop’ and are ‘determined to succeed despite the odds against them’. Passion Like perseverance, passion is another core component of Duckworth et al.’s (2007) theory of grit observed in the older workers in this study. Here, passion refers to a line of work a person feels motivated to engage in and derives positive effects from doing (Duckworth et al., 2007). Several studies purport that having a passion for the job without prioritising material gain can have many long-term benefits (De Clercq & Pereira, 2020; Toth et al., 2021; Yukhymenko-Lescroart & Sharma, 2019). Adult Educator 7 explained that when older workers are passionate about their jobs, they develop a sense of personal effectiveness that improves competence and experience. This makes older workers much sought after due to their performances, and age would no longer be a barrier or hamper their employment opportunities. Employer 2 reflected that some older workers come from harsh backgrounds, especially considering they started work in Singapore’s developing economy postindependence. The workers Employer 2 described are ‘one of a kind’ and ‘passionate as they appreciate the value of good work and loving what they do’. Vision The last construct underpinning the concept of grit here is vision. Vision refers to having a purpose and the ability to think about and plan for the future to fulfil an ultimate purpose (Damon & Malin, 2020). Having a purpose helps trigger older

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workers’ strengths and enables them to flourish in their respective professions. Older Worker 4 had contingency plans in the event of an economic recession or retrenchment. Although he had a stable job, he took up a taxi licence as a backup. He had no qualms about doing this because he is passionate about meeting people, and this step helps him ensure continuity to his income. Adult Educators 10 and 3 observed that older workers have ‘clear purpose and vision of what they want to achieve’ and sought ‘self-actualisation’, not extrinsic rewards. Older Worker 19 added that older workers generally have a vision, and they ‘have the resilience to see things through’ and ‘realise the vision’. Employer 3 observed that older workers ‘have a vision of what direction the organisation should head towards’ and they ‘have the tenacity to achieve this vision’. Employer 2 noticed that older workers in his organisation developed the ‘grit to survive and achieve the vision’ for Singapore during post-independent, and ‘failure was not an option’ for them. Having a vision or a purpose to work towards brings out a worker’s inherent strengths and has a positive reciprocal effect on the older worker and their organisation.

14.5.3 Other Components in the Dynamic-Grit Mindset The dynamic-grit mindset also incorporates five factors from Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing—resilience, competence, meaning, engagement and positive relationships—and two other determinants, problem solving and emotional intelligence, which are presented in this section. Resilience Resilience was a key appreciative factor observed in the older workers. Resilience is a term that has taken on several definitions reflected in different contexts (Villora et al., 2020). Employer 3 and Adult Educator 10 observed resilience in older workers facing difficulties during job applications or managing challenges at work and in life. Here, resilience refers to the ability to recover or overcome some form of adversity and experience positive outcomes despite an undesirable incident or challenging circumstance (Vella & Pai, 2019, p. 233). Danesh and Shahnaazari (2020) affirm that although resilience is a quality seen in varying degrees in different individuals, they are more pronounced in older people who have experienced different challenges in their lives. Further, resilience is one of the factors responsible for their flourishing. In a work environment, resilience is crucial for older workers’ wellbeing and mental health and it was found that employee resilience improves job satisfaction and the wellbeing of these employees (Crane et al., 2020). Older Workers 18 and 20 highlighted that having resilience is crucial for them to manage challenges at work, especially in critical environments such as in the military and security industry. In addition, during Focus Group Session 4, Adult Educator 5 and Older Worker 5 mentioned that having resilience allowed them to anticipate potential challenges at work and not

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be negatively affected by them. Demonstrating the ability to bounce back from challenges faced at work and not be negatively affected is indicative of someone who is flourishing and experiencing a high degree of wellbeing (VanderWeele, 2021). Economic crises and recessions can damage the workforce, workers’ wellbeing (Godinic et al., 2020) and the economy. The global economy and many workers have been severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic (Waters et al., 2021). However, Older Worker 5 refused to be trapped ‘in a vicious cycle of poverty’ and used his ‘fighting spirit’ to keep going and get out of this cycle. When asked about the ‘fighting spirit’, he explained his resilience and ‘stubborn refusal’ not to be deflated by a ‘selfdefeating mindset’ and mired in difficulty and backwardness. Here, ‘fighting spirit’ is understood as grit, a core concept in the dynamic-grit mindset that sits alongside resilience. This quality is vital for the wellbeing of both the older worker and the organisation (Lim et al., 2020). It is a significant factor crucial to reducing the causes of workplace stress, enabling workers to cope with challenges, be more engaged at work and increase job satisfaction. Competence Competence is another factor observed in the older workers in this study. Competence refers to the technical knowledge, abilities, skills and underlying attributes, required of a worker to perform effectively in a specific work context and has been used to describe both individual and organisational competencies (Salman et al., 2020). Older workers have vast work experiences in different industries, have acquired various competencies and display valuable organisational and industrial knowledge spanning several decades of work experience. In this study, older workers showed they are accomplished in the skillsets required due to their vast experience. Technical competencies refer to having the necessary skillsets to perform a specific job role and fulfil the required job responsibilities (Gauthier, 2020). During Focus Group Session 7, both Industry Expert 6 and Adult Educator 9 shared that older workers are content matter experts and have the technical knowledge of their respective industries at their fingertips. Older workers have picked up valuable knowledge about the technicalities of their job roles over the years— knowledge that cannot be simply taught or passed down in education institutions (Khalaf et al., 2021)—resulting in their confidence to perform well at work. Older workers have practical wisdom (Vasconcelos, 2018). Older Worker 14 explained that besides having ‘a vast knowledge of the industry and all the technical skills, they have developed a sixth sense, the ability to foresee all possible outcomes in a situation’. He suggested that having this foresight and practical wisdom give older workers confidence in their competencies and strengths. Industry Expert 3 contributed that older workers’ experiences and competencies are valuable and cannot be learned or adapted from textbooks. Industry Expert 4, given his experience working with low-wage older workers, presented them as having intangible knowledge of the industry. He describes them as mentors who ‘can guide the younger generation’ and ‘accelerate their learning process’. Moreover, older workers can

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share their vision based on their experiences. This serves as a beacon to guide the younger generation and inspires them towards success. Meaning The older workers in this study showed they were flourishing when they were engaged in meaningful work and found fulfilment in being gainfully employed. Meaning here refers to finding a purpose, fulfilment and satisfaction in the job that is done (Rothausen & Henderson, 2018). Many older workers in Singapore seek to stay active and be meaningfully engaged through work (MOM Singapore, 2019). Huppert and So’s (2011) concept of flourishing promotes sustainability in the professional lives of workers. One factor is finding meaning and understanding the value in one’s work. In this study, older workers with firm career ambitions were observed finding meaning in their work. They were steadfast in their job roles and found meaning in their work due to their ambitions. Older Workers 1 and 9 described how their career ambitions helped them find meaning in their respective professions. Older Worker 1 explained that he felt energised even when working extra hours and found meaning in his role as a service crew member in a fast-food restaurant, compared to his previous job where he was always looking to leave. Similarly, Older Worker 9, an animal and nature lover, found her calling as an animal trainer and observed an improvement in her overall wellbeing, having realised her ambition of working with animals. Older Worker 13 reflected that after some soul searching upon retiring from the stressful global banking industry, he wanted to find work that aligned with his ambition of helping and motivating others. He found meaning and flourished in his calling as an addiction therapist and wrote two books on addiction. Older Worker 20 added that older workers offer stability to the organisation if they find meaning in their work, as they would value their role and not job-hop. Elmes (2021) notes significant improvements in workers’ wellbeing when they found meaning in what they do for a living, which subsequently positively impacted their organisations. Heyes and Tomlinson (2021) similarly report that salary is not a suitable predictor of performance success at work; rather, finding meaning in the job role is a useful indicator that the worker will likely perform well and become an asset to the organisation. Engagement Engagement in this study refers to a deep interest and passion in acquiring knowledge and learning new skills (Ensour et al., 2020). Several older workers in this study showed a deep interest and passion in acquiring knowledge and learning new skills. Their dynamic approach towards remaining relevant in the workforce has helped them flourish in their job roles. Engagement is certainly critical for the wellbeing of an aging workforce and continuous engagement with learning and upskilling have enhanced older workers’ competencies and their flourishing. Although it is often compulsory for older workers to attend training as work requirements, the older workers in this study were happy to be engaged in learning. For example, Older Worker 3 highlighted that when she attended training to facilitate tours conducted at the National Gallery of Singapore, she felt ‘honoured and

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welcomed the opportunity to learn’, even though she was already very experienced. In addition, she explained that although they were given a stipend to attend the training, she was willing to attend training and develop her skillset without any expectation of compensation. Older Worker 13 explained how he embarked on a learning journey to qualify as an addiction therapist, which he described as continuous growth. Older Worker 6 spoke of being passionate about sales and always looking to acquire new skills to improve. Being engaged in learning reveals a positive state of wellbeing (Bartels & Jackson, 2021) and suggests these workers want to remain relevant and valuable to the workforce and are likely to flourish and thrive at work. Older workers are also engaged in learning due to the rapidly changing economic demands. Industry Expert 7 described older workers as being ‘bridges of knowledge who are able to traverse between the knowledge they have and the knowledge they need to learn to cope with changing industry trends’. She explains that the capacity to do this allows them to adapt to changing trends as they can ‘anticipate the future and marry the past with this anticipated future’. An awareness of the changing trends in the industry and economy helps a worker anticipate challenges or seize opportunities in the employment market (Do et al., 2020). Having this awareness is also indicative of flourishing in older workers. Positive Relationships Positive relationships refer to the good relations and connections people develop with others around them; some signs of having developed a positive relationship include respect and trust (Albers & Salomons, 2021). Developing positive relationships with colleagues and peers in the workforce helps older workers flourish in their respective job roles. The S-BIT theory of work applied in this study suggests that workers who experience positive emotional states and experiences with access to opportunities for professional growth and actualisation in their professional lives are likely to achieve positive work engagement and enjoy a holistic state of wellbeing (Allan et al., 2019b). Older workers who demonstrate the ability to develop positive relationships flourish in their professions and display a positive state of wellbeing. Adult Educator 9 and Older Worker 20 explained that in the security industry, for example, building positive relationships is crucial to ensure security arrangements are carried out properly. Older Worker 20 shared that having conversations and building relationships is an essential aspect of the security industry, and these relationships make the work easier. Older Worker 3 added that she performed well as a national tour guide by building positive relationships with her attachés during a global summit. She explained that due to these positive relationships, she received more job offers as she flourished in her role as a guide. Older Workers 6 and 15, however, both enjoy building relationships with people, which is vital in the retail, food and beverage industry. They felt energised by their interactions with customers and developed positive professional relationships. As a result, they performed well at work and experienced positive mental health. Besides being beneficial for performance, developing positive relationships helps older workers with their mental health. Studies confirm that developing positive

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social or professional relationships can enable a positive mental state of health (Allan et al., 2019b; Wissing et al., 2021). Older Worker 10 revealed that developing positive relationships in his role as a military officer helped create a bond with the men and establish a coherent dynamic allowing them to work well together as a unit.

14.5.4 Problem-Solving Problem-solving in this study refers to the process of analysing challenges (Sinha & Kapur, 2021) and seeking solutions to difficult or complex issues in relation to work (Hanschke et al., 2021). Due to vast experience and competencies developed over many years of work, older workers have become effective problem-solvers. Older Worker 19 shared that older workers can look at ‘a challenge from a different perspective’ and ‘the problem-solving skills come with maturity’. Employer 1 thought that older workers have ‘a lot of operational experience’ and ‘can provide practical solutions as they have seen the best practices in the industry’. The experience of an older worker ‘is multifaceted and cannot be entirely replicated in training’. The work experiences of older workers can be considered a form of crystalised wisdom and a cumulative effort of many years of working experience and navigating organisational challenges. Older workers have the knowledge and wisdom to mentor younger workers on problem-solving skills. Problem-solving is a skill that cannot be fully taught in training institutions but is best learned through real-world work experience (Azam, 2020). Adult Educator 7 explained that problem-solving involves practical knowledge that older workers have, and this can serve ‘as a guide’ for organisations and younger workers. The correlation between problem-solving and resilience is evident in older workers who have the required repertoire of problem-solving skills, enabling their resilience during challenges, crises and uncertain times (Prayag et al., 2020). Problem-solving skills and resilience are necessary for organisations, a combination that can determine survival or extinction in a volatile global economy.

14.5.5 Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is the other determinant found to facilitate the flourishing of older workers. Emotional intelligence is an important skill in particular industries. For example, Adult Educator 9 expressed that when it comes to handling conversations and difficult people in the security industry, communication strategies and knowing how to ‘size people up’ and ‘handle demanding and sensitive situations’ is vital. Older Worker 17 added that in a healthcare environment, particularly during the pandemic, situations with patients and families can get ‘heated up’, which demands that ‘staff demonstrate good emotional intelligence’ to handle such situations.

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Besides being important to handle demanding situations, emotional intelligence is required to build positive relationships and open up employment opportunities. Industry Expert 3 and Adult Educator 7 highlighted their abilities to communicate intelligently and soft skills—a skill lacking in the workforce—to ‘identify disconnects’ and ‘build relationships within the industry’. Adult Educator 7 added that having positive relationships is something older workers value, as it provides them ‘with a sense of assurance and security with their peers’ at work. This sense of assurance allows them to have confidence in their strengths and use this positively to flourish in their respective job roles. Older Worker 6 similarly revealed that older workers are often seen ‘collabormating and working together’ and use their ‘emotional intelligence well to help out one another during difficult periods like the pandemic’. Emotional intelligence is a core skill required in organisations to navigate a VUCA global environment (Hurley et al., 2020). Due to their vast experience in different organisations, meeting different people and handling various work situations, older workers in this study have developed excellent emotional intelligence skills. By using emotional intelligence effectively, older workers flourish, perform well in their jobs, and experience positive mental health and overall wellbeing.

14.6 Conclusion This study aimed to challenge prevailing attitudes towards older workers by identifying appreciative factors of older workers as perceived by key stakeholders, including employers and industry experts in Singapore’s employment sector. The findings demonstrated that older workers are assets to Singapore’s workforce and are expected to inform policymakers, shape training initiatives, and create an awareness of older workers as assets to Singapore’s workforce. The discussion surrounding the dynamic-grit mindset has shown that the dynamic-grit mindset is relevant and necessary for positive mental health and wellbeing of older workers. In times of austerity, with many economies still grappling with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, having the dynamic-grit mindset is relevant and practical, not only for the older workers but the entire population of Singapore. In addition, it can help address the labour deficit in Singapore’s workforce as it has shown that older workers are assets to the economy. The dynamic-grit mindset is relevant to other members of the population, such as younger workers and students in higher education institutions who will form part of Singapore’s future workforce, as it will enable their flourishing in their respective contexts and prepare them for different challenges that will confront them in the future. The dynamic-grit mindset is an important, relevant contribution to the field of positive psychology and one that will provide an impetus for the global workforce, as it can become an enabling factor for societies to move forward in overcoming the impacts brought about by the pandemic in the near future. It would be important to extend the findings of this research study and also establish future research in wellbeing in different contexts by exploring the significance

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and applicability of the dynamic-grit mindset, such as in higher education, healthcare, and crisis management. The concept of the dynamic-grit mindset used in this study can serve as an exploratory tool for future scholars to investigate how it can counter different forms of discrimination in workplaces besides ageism. The functionality and benefits of having the dynamic-grit mindset can be evaluated further in older workers working in industries such as healthcare, aviation, and finance that have experienced a challenging period impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, the dynamic-grit mindset can be applied to provide illuminating insights to facilitate reforms of employment policies, workplace practices, and training initiatives in countries grappling with a rapidly ageing population to improve wellbeing policies and programs for healthier lives and facilitate the flourishing of workers in Singapore and many other economies around the world.

14.7 Ethics Statement This study was approved by the University of Adelaide Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) (H-2020-005) on 8 January 2020 and deemed to be low risk, in accordance with the conditions in the university’s HREC requirements. Acknowledgements This chapter is dedicated to my Ph.D. supervisors, both of whom are the editors of this book, and my family for their unwavering support during my Ph.D. journey.

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Dr. Mohamed Fadhil, Ph.D. is a graduate in the School of Education at the University of Adelaide. He is a teaching and research associate in various higher education and research institutes in Singapore. He has also undertaken research work with the Institute for Adult Learning Singapore. His research interests include wellbeing, human flourishing, organizational sensemaking, adult education, employability skills, and restorative justice in education. He is passionate about teaching and has worked across multiple industries in higher education and the professional training industry.

Chapter 15

The Role of Preservice Teachers’ Wellbeing, Dispositions and Self-Awareness in Predicting Future Teacher Behaviour Janet Clinton

and Laura Elvie Smith

15.1 Introduction Teachers play a vital role in shaping the future of society by helping to educate and prepare the next generation of citizens, leaders and thinkers. In addition, teachers are responsible for providing students with a quality education that includes academic instruction and support in social and emotional development areas. Consequently, the current worldwide teacher shortage and concerns for quality education have bought education policy to the fore. The perception of teaching as a career and a profession has been a major focus of discussion; these discussions revolve around the nature of expertise, the growing responsibility of teachers and an increasing workload. The status of the profession and teacher education is being called into question. The mantra is we need quality teachers to ensure a quality education system. This focus emphasises the significance of initial teacher education (ITE) specifically as a means of addressing the worldwide shortage of teachers and concerns about quality and the growing role of teachers in our children’s lives. Currently, teachers’ roles are expanding, likely influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic, to explicitly incorporate support for student mental health and wellbeing and implement whole-school health and wellbeing initiatives. Given the importance of teachers’ roles in providing mental health and wellbeing support for children, understanding the factors that predict the dimensions of readiness and how those dimensions interact with each other is paramount. For instance, a teacher may have J. Clinton (B) · L. E. Smith The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia e-mail: [email protected] L. E. Smith e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. A. White et al. (eds.), New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_15

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high mental health literacy but low motivation or general capacity to change. Consequently, it is argued that preservice teachers and ITE programs increasingly need to be prepared to adapt to support dynamic learning settings. Additionally, teachers’ own wellbeing and mental health are becoming a focal point for policy, education research and ITE. Teachers face high intellectual, emotional and interpersonal demands as part of their roles. The resulting stress has implications for teacher wellbeing, teacher effectiveness and teacher retention. Therefore, there is also a vital need to focus on the wellbeing and mental health of our preservice teachers and provide them with the tools to support their own mental health and wealth being.

15.2 Policy Relevance Education policy in Australia tends to focus on ensuring teachers and students have the knowledge, skills and resources they need to be successful in the classroom. This now includes policies that address the wellbeing of both teachers and students. It is suggested that this is a growing phenomenon internationally. For instance, the United Nations’ (2015) Sustainable Development Goals address this, with Goal 3 being ‘good health and wellbeing’, which aims to ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages. This goal includes targets such as reducing premature mortality from non-communicable diseases and increasing access to sexual and reproductive health services and services for children. It is suggested that student health and wellbeing are an integral part of this goal, as education and health are closely linked and healthy students are more likely to succeed in their education and life (United Nations, 2015). Education policy in Australia emphasises the importance of creating safe, inclusive and supportive learning environments for all students, regardless of their background or needs. This includes policies promoting social and emotional learning, providing access to mental health and wellbeing services, and addressing bullying and harassment in schools. Additionally, it aims to provide students with the knowledge and skills they need to be healthy and resilient physically and mentally. This may include policies that promote physical activity, healthy eating and mental health literacy. Similarly, teacher wellbeing is an integral part of education policy in Australia. It emphasises the importance of creating safe and supportive working environments for teachers and providing them with the resources and support they need to manage stress and maintain their own wellbeing. This includes policies that promote worklife balance, provide access to professional development and support, and address issues such as bullying and harassment in the workplace. In the Australian context, the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) is a national framework that outlines the knowledge, skills and professional dispositions required for competent and effective teaching. The APST are divided into

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seven domains: professional knowledge, professional practice, professional engagement, professional learning, student outcomes, impact on practice, and responsibilities of a professional. The standards are utilised across the country. Accreditation of ITE institutions must demonstrate which standards are emphasised in their program, and registration as a teacher requires preservice teachers to demonstrate how ready they are to enact teaching according to the APST. The APST includes several domains and standards related to wellbeing and mental health. The professional practice domain includes standards that address the importance of creating safe, supportive and inclusive learning environments for all students, including those with diverse needs and backgrounds. The professional engagement domain includes standards that address the importance of building positive relationships with students, families and the wider community and being responsive to the needs of diverse students. The student outcomes domain includes standards that address the importance of monitoring and supporting students’ wellbeing and mental health and promoting their social and emotional learning. The responsibilities of a professional domain also addresses the importance of maintaining the wellbeing of the self and others in the professional setting. The APST also require teachers to have knowledge of child development and child protection and be able to identify and respond to students who may be at risk of harm, including those with mental health issues.

15.3 Wellbeing and Mental Health Needs of Students The importance of child and adolescent mental health is widely recognised for wellbeing during schooling and long-term health, educational and social outcomes. In the long term, mental illness can negatively impact life expectancy, educational attainment, social and emotional outcomes, community participation and life satisfaction (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2019; World Health Organization [WHO], 2014; 2022). Globally, mental health disorder prevalence is 13%, equating to over 970 million people. Approximately 8% of children under 10 years old and 14% of adolescents aged 10–19 have a mental disorder (WHO, 2022). In Australia, almost half of all adults have had a mental illness, and the prevalence at any one time is ~ 20% (Productivity Commission, 2020). For children and adolescents, the statistics are similarly concerning. A large-scale national survey in 2013 and 2014 commissioned by the Australian Government showed ~ 14% of young people (aged 4–17) had a mental health disorder (Lawrence et al., 2015). Psychological stress without a diagnosable disorder, such as the burden of symptoms of anxiety and depression, can also greatly affect the quality of life (WHO, 2022).

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15.4 Role of Schools and Teachers Teachers’ mental health and wellbeing influences more than their readiness to support students and mental health literacy. There is ample evidence that teacher wellbeing influences student outcomes. Research into the relationship between teacher and student wellbeing has found that teacher wellbeing is positively associated with student wellbeing. Conversely, lower wellbeing and depressive symptoms in teachers are associated with lower student wellbeing (Harding et al., 2019). This relationship was found to be mediated by teacher presenteeism, teacher absence and teacherstudent relationships (Harding et al., 2019). Further, teachers’ perception of their ability to help their students with emotional or behavioural issues is associated with their own wellbeing; that is, higher teacher wellbeing is associated with increased confidence in their ability to help their students’ mental health (Sisask et al., 2014). Again, this suggests a significant role for teachers and schools. School staff play an essential role in recognising and supporting children with mental health issues. Further, there is extensive research illustrating the relationship between student health and their learning outcomes (e.g., Basch, 2011; Bond et al., 2001; Eide et al., 2010). Schools are increasingly seen as valuable settings for health and wellbeing promotion. This is unsurprising given schools are where children spend most of their time, and the connection between health and academic outcomes is well-established (Bond et al., 2001). The increasing intersection of health and education at a sector level is also evidenced by the proliferation of health initiatives with schools and advocacy groups. Examples include the establishment of the Australasian School-Based Health Alliance (ASBHA, 2022) advocacy group and the growing investment and expectation for schools to act as community hubs sharing facilities to promote connection with the school among the wider school community (Chandler & Cleveland, 2020). Indeed, school connectedness has been found to be a protective factor against depression and anxiety (Raniti & Rakesh, 2022). Teachers face a growing expectation to enact mental health and wellbeing support in their role. In Victoria, wellbeing is now explicitly referred to in the Framework for Improving Student Outcomes in response to the Royal Commission into Victoria’s Mental Health System (Victorian Department of Education, 2023). This also has implications for ITE, as the emphasis on mental health and wellbeing in schools has changed what it means to be classroom-ready (White, 2021). Research suggests teachers feel unprepared to support the mental health of their students effectively; they have many competing demands and are not always confident in being able to provide adequate support (Giles-Kaye et al., 2022; Graham et al., 2011; Reinke et al., 2011). A recent Cochrane review of health interventions in schools reported that teacher readiness to change and support of school staff are known factors in the successful implementation of health interventions in schools (Wolfenden et al., 2022). Indeed, we know in other areas of educational research, teacher and school readiness for change is a powerful predictor of policy reform uptake, school transformation and program implementation.

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Teacher readiness to support children’s mental health and wellbeing is multifaceted. While teachers’ mental health literacy can be measured and quantified, that is not the whole story. According to Nixon et al. (2010), ‘a teacher may hold professional knowledge and or skills but simply not possess the disposition to act’ (p. 210). This sentiment is reflected in readiness for change models, such as the R = MC2, which emphasise that multiple dimensions (e.g., motivation and capacity) are required (Scaccia et al., 2015) and models of intended behaviour. Similarly, according to Fullan (2014), motivation alone is insufficient for change; it must be accompanied and influenced by internal factors such as moral purpose and identity. The burden of mental health disorders and poor wellbeing also impacts teachers. For example, a 2020 study of Australian teachers found that ~ 18% of respondents were moderately or severely depressed, and over 60% recorded moderate to severe anxiety problems (Stapleton, et al., 2020). This prevalence is higher than the Australian average. There is a lack of research into teachers’ individual-level characteristics, traits and internal factors that may influence their mental health literacy, wellbeing, and readiness to support students’ mental health and wellbeing. Without understanding what influence these characteristics, traits and internal factors can have, the opportunity to improve teachers’ readiness to support students’ mental health and wellbeing that the increased investment and policy focus has created could be jeopardised. Consequently, it is essential to ensure the prioritisation of teacher wellbeing development.

15.5 Prioritising Teacher Wellbeing for Workforce Retention and Recruitment Beyond student outcomes, teacher mental health and wellbeing has implications for the profession. The impact of teacher wellbeing on career progression and retention is well-established. A 2019 nationwide Australian study on perceptions of teaching found that teachers were concerned about the impact of stress, balancing work and life, and the emotional cost of teaching on teacher wellbeing. This concern is evident for both new and highly experienced teachers (Hefernan et al., 2019; McCallum et al., 2017). Teachers have indicated that concerns about their wellbeing directly contributed to their perception of how long they would remain in the profession (Hefernan et al., 2019). Despite this research, a 2021 integrative review suggested a lack of robust evidence about the link between the psychological characteristics of teachers and retention (Bardach et al., 2022). The same review also suggests an association between teachers’ separate personality traits and teacher effectiveness (Bardach et al., 2022). This emphasises the need to look more closely at these characteristics at the preservice level. Associations have also been found between preservice teacher characteristics, such as knowledge and self-regulation, and emotional coping and job satisfaction

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Fig. 15.1 Conceptual framework for teachers’ occupational wellbeing (Viac & Fraser, 2020)

in their career. Again, this highlights the importance of understanding preservice teachers’ profiles and combinations of characteristics/disposition. The model presented in Fig. 15.1 shows the conceptual framework for teachers’ occupational wellbeing as described in a recent OECD working paper (Viac & Fraser, 2020). It illustrates the complexity of examining teachers’ wellbeing and how environment, policy and individual characteristics contribute to teachers’ wellbeing. As outlined in the framework, teachers’ wellbeing influences student wellbeing and the classroom. The OECD (2021) reports that teachers who are stressed are less likely to want to stay in the profession. Factors that have been shown to mitigate stress, minimise intention to leave and increase wellbeing include motivation, job satisfaction and a school climate of collaboration and support (OECD, 2021). Early career teachers are more likely to plan to leave the profession than mid- to late-career teachers (e.g., Arnup & Bowles, 2016; Buchanan et al., 2013). Therefore, it is essential to focus on preservice teachers before they get out into the field and help equip them with the capabilities to withstand the pressures and respond to their environment.

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15.6 Key Factors that Influence Teachers’ Engagement with Wellbeing and Mental Health There are multiple factors that influence teacher engagement in health education and self-reflection about their own wellbeing and mental health. Behaviour change theory provides an avenue for understanding what predicts the likelihood of teachers engaging in health-promoting behaviours. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011) is a commonly used behaviour change model. According to the TPB, whether or not an individual plans to perform a behaviour can be predicted by their intention to do so. Intention to act is determined by attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (i.e., whether they believe they are capable of doing so). Attitudes reflect an individual’s evaluation of their future behaviour. While significant systemic factors influence behaviour that sits outside the model, the TPB provides a useful way of conceptualising the relationship between professional and personal development and intended teacher behaviour. This theoretic view has underpinned many studies on the behaviour of educators, mental health practitioners and students (Hardeman et al., 2002; Heuckmann et al., 2020). Further, the TPB has been used effectively to examine teachers’ intentions to teach health-related content (Burak, 2002). Research indicates that interventions addressing teachers’ specific beliefs, willingness and intention are highly effective at changing their related behavioural intentions (Hardeman et al., 2002; Heuckmann et al., 2020). As is illustrated in Fig. 15.2, the TPB provides a conceptual framework for this study that underscores the relevance of examining the domains of interest to look at predictive intention to behave in ways that are culturally, ethically and socially appropriate. The TPB also provides a lens for thinking about where to target ITE interventions. Whether or not an individual behaves in the way they have intended is predicated on whether they have not just the intention or motivation to act, but also the ability to do so. We argue that ITE can contribute to both. Considering this approach, there are a number of dispositional characteristics that are purported to influence wellbeing and mental health behaviour, such as self-reflection or self-evaluative thinking.

Attitude & Awareness to Wellbeing & Health Education

Knowledge & Skill Wellbeing & Health Education

Intentional Behaviour relating to Wellbeing & Health Education

Wellbeing & Health Education Engagement

Sustained Wellbeing & Health Education Behaviour

Fig. 15.2 Theory of behaviour change model for teacher engagement in wellbeing and health education

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15.7 Self-Evaluative Thinking Building self-awareness and self-reflective abilities is the first step to thinking more evaluatively about one’s impact as a teacher and an individual. Developing an evaluative mindset is essential for teachers. The evaluative mindset encompasses the willingness to assess and judge one’s own impact. More than reflection alone, this is likely to lead to change and action, which may enable teachers to engage with interventions more deeply, consider how their actions contribute to impact, and continue to reflect and evaluate what they are doing (Clinton & Dawson, 2018). Applying this in the context of mental health literacy and readiness to support student mental health, we expect teachers’ engagement in evaluative thinking about these topics and their level of mental health literacy and readiness to support student mental health to be linked.

15.8 The Role of Resilience Resilience likely plays a key role in the relationship between wellbeing and retention. While individual responses to stressors vary, resilience is known to be an important predictor of an individual’s ability to recover from adversity, respond to change, and face challenges. Research on teachers supports this. Resilience has been shown to be a predictor of teachers’ wellbeing and job satisfaction (e.g., Fernandes et al., 2020; Hascher et al., 2021; McCallum et al., 2017). Further, a study of Australian teachers found low levels of resilience were associated with a higher intention to leave (Arnup & Bowles, 2016). Resilience has been shown to mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and teacher burnout (Daniilidou et al., 2020). This suggests that reliance acts as a protective factor when a teacher is facing crises. We argue that resilience is linked to intended behaviour. Using the TPB to consider this relationship, the model suggests that reliance may be associated with the intention to act. For example, building resilience increases self-efficacy (Daniilidou et al., 2020), which in turn increases perceived behavioural control. This study will suggest that resilience also mediates the effect of wellbeing on predicted teacher behaviour.

15.8.1 ITE in the Next 5 Years ITE in Australia is governed by a combination of national and state/territory policies. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) sets the national standards for ITE, which universities and other providers use to guide the design and delivery of teacher education programs. The standards outline the knowledge, skills and professional dispositions teachers must possess to be effective in their roles.

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ITE policy in Australia aims to prepare teachers to be resilient and to manage their own wellbeing, as well as their students’ wellbeing, by integrating content on wellbeing and stress management into ITE programs and providing support and resources to teachers and school leaders. The AITSL (2017) standards include Professional Practice Standard 2.2, which requires teachers to ‘create safe, inclusive and supportive learning environments that promote the wellbeing and engagement of all students’; and Standard 2.3, which requires teachers to ‘understand and respond to the diverse needs of students, including those with disabilities and diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socio-economic backgrounds’. Additionally, some universities and other ITE providers have included specific content on teacher wellbeing and stress management in their teacher education programs. This may include topics such as self-care, stress management and work-life balance. In terms of addressing the issue of stress and wellbeing, the Australian Government has also established some initiatives, such as Supporting and Strengthening Our Teachers, which focuses on the wellbeing and mental health of teachers and school leaders. The initiative aims to promote the wellbeing and mental health of teachers and reduce the risk of stress and burnout. Given that we know that students’ health and learning are interconnected, and that teachers’ mental health and wellbeing and that of their students are also interconnected, focusing on the role of teachers and teachers as individuals is essential. Most research in this area focuses on the wellbeing of in-service teachers. While measuring internal factors and the trait dimensions of teachers for performance monitoring purposes may pose important ethical questions (Clinton et al., 2018), it is useful and appropriate to investigate preservice teachers, particularly as part of ITE selection. Understanding the predictors of preservice teachers’ mental health literacy, self-reflective practice around wellbeing, and readiness to support wellbeing could enable the current investment in wellbeing ITE programs and mental health promotion and interventions in schools to have a greater impact on teachers and students alike. Systemic and policy changes are necessary to reduce the stressors on teachers. However, it is also imperative to understand how to equip teachers with the knowledge, skills and self-awareness necessary to cope with the challenges of the profession. This study argues that understanding the state of preservice teachers’ wellbeing and how that predicts teacher behaviour will contribute to this understanding.

15.8.2 Predicting the Development Needs to Preservice Teacher Wellbeing and Mental Health as a Teacher Understanding the relationship between potential preservice teacher candidates’ selfreported sense of wellbeing and self-perceived mental health provides a window into the work a preservice teacher may need to engage in to be ready to deal with the

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required engagement of wellbeing and mental activities for students. It may also ensure they actively consider their wellbeing and mental health as a teacher. Wellbeing and mental health ITE is highly variable between institutions (Byrne et al., 2015). Understanding the needs of preservice teachers can inform the design of wellbeing ITE, increase consistency between institutions and ensure outcomes are aligned with graduate teaching standards. It is suggested that teachers who are concerned about their own wellbeing, mental and physical health have implications for retention, performance and student outcomes. Subsequently, it is vital preservice teachers understand that the self impacts the way they think they should act as a teacher. Understanding the importance of self-awareness and knowing to develop needs throughout the teaching career leads to building a strong professional journey and identity. The study described in the next section demonstrates a potential relationship between perspective teacher candidates and their perceived sense of self and their predicted intentional behaviour as a teacher. It is argued that ITE programs and teacher educators are responsible for ensuring preservice teachers have an opportunity to develop their knowledge and skill to engage in health education and, importantly, encouraging preservice teachers’ health and wellbeing self-development and reflection.

15.9 Methodology For the purposes of this study, wellbeing has been defined as the state of mental and physical health encompassing positive affect, social connectedness and cognitive functioning. This broadly aligns with the general definition of wellbeing posited by White and McCallum (2020), in which wellbeing is conceptualised as a broad construct with social, physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual dimensions. This also aligns with the OECD’s framework for measuring teachers’ occupational wellbeing, which includes the dimensions of cognitive wellbeing, subjective wellbeing, physical and mental wellbeing, and social wellbeing (Viac & Fraser, 2020). A desktop analysis of an existing dataset was utilised to explore potential teacher candidates’ prediction of how they might act as a teacher in dealing with the moral and ethical nature of teaching, as well as their sensitivity to various cultural and diverse contexts and situations. Figure 15.3 provides an overview of the phases in the methodological approach. Data from an entry assessment for an ITE program was utilised to understand potential preservice teachers’ perceived wellbeing and mental health. The affective items from the assessment tool were used to determine a broad understanding of the self-reported dispositions and personal characteristics, self-regulation, communication skill, and self-awareness and prediction of intended teacher behaviour. Next, these affective or dispositional items were coded for a specific reference to wellbeing and/or mental health. A number of items were selected from the assessment item bank that related specifically to wellbeing or health dispositions.

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Fig. 15.3 Overview of desktop review process

15.10 The Existing Data The Teacher Capability Assessment Tool (TCAT) provided the existing data set. TCAT assesses a range of cognitive and non-cognitive domains associated with fulfilling the requirements of ITE programs. The evidence-based tool informs the selection and development of preservice teachers. For the initial analysis of the disposition measures and the relationship with intended behaviour as a teacher, the database of assessment results for those prospective candidates who applied to enrol in a Master of Teaching program across all jurisdictions (ECE-Secondary) was utilised. The assessment took place from 2015 to 2022. The total sample size was n = 18,400.

15.10.1 TCAT The TCAT is a web-based assessment tool developed to assist in understanding the competencies, characteristics and attributes of individuals applying for tertiary ITE programs. The tool includes a series of questions that concentrate on teaching, specifically the candidate’s experience, reflections on teaching, ability, self and social interaction (Bowles et al., 2014). Research has demonstrated that tests of ability are predictive of occupational performance; personal qualities are related to higher job performance and self-confidence. The tool combines technology with a strong evidence base of knowledge to provide both applicants and ITE providers with comprehensive information about the candidate’s cognitive ability (such as literacy, numeracy and spatial reasoning), personal characteristics, disposition, social interaction, cultural sensitivity and self-awareness in relation to a being a teaching student and as a future teacher professional (Bowles et al., 2014).

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Table 15.1 Range of dimensions assessed in desktop analysis as defined Factor

Description

Personal dispositions

This factor includes items relating dimensions of personal characteristics closely related to personality (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience). The factor also includes items linked to emotional reactivity, anxiety, confidence and empathy

Resilience

The resilience factor includes items relating to responding to stress, rebounding from adversity and persistence

Self-regulation

The self-regulation factor is comprised of items relating to help-seeking attitudes and behaviours, physical self-care, responsiveness to feedback and self-evaluation

Social interaction

This factor is comprised of items relating to communication, collaboration, leadership, conflict resolution, trust and respect

Self-aware social desirability

The self-aware social desirability factor is comprised of items designed to test respondent social desirability bias. The analysis of the items takes into consideration respondent self-awareness of how they are responding

Cultural sensitivity This factor is comprised of items about predicted teacher behaviour relating to cultural differences, attitudes towards social equity, acceptance of difference and related student interactions Ethics, fairness and This factor is comprised of items about predicted teacher moral and ethical values behaviour, such as approaches to fairness, duty of care, respect for others and student needs

The TCAT also provides student feedback reports for students to assist in setting individual goals relevant to work placement and preparation for teaching practice. Table 15.1 provides an overview of the dimensions identified and assessed in the desktop analysis of dispositional factors extracted from the TCAT database. All the items selected were Likert-based questions and scored utilising disagree-to-agree anchors. As suggested in Table 15.1, a range of dimensions were selected for the database; each of these dimensions included several factors and multiple items. All of the items in each factor were utilised in the analysis. The dimensions of ethics, fairness and cultural sensitivity were repurposed as the outcome measure (intended teacher behaviour) in this analysis. Further, it was hypothesised that self-aware social desirability would mediate the dispositional measures of personal characteristics, resilience, self-regulation and self-reflection, and social interaction. As suggested, the dimensions analysed focused on personal characteristics as assessed by the selection tool; two of the dimensions were repurposed for the aims of this study.

15.10.2 Intended Behaviour as a Teacher For this study, intended behaviour of a teacher is represented by the domains of cultural sensitivity, and ethics, fairness and values. Intercultural, social and emotional

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competencies are recognised as essential to the teaching profession. For example, a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2021) report from the International Commission on the Futures of Education called for a new social contract in which education is strengthened with a focus on social justice and cultural diversity. Further, the AITSL (2017) standards for graduate teachers include a requirement for teachers to create inclusive spaces that promote student wellbeing and engagement. This assessment considered the perceived predicted behaviour and asked questions about a teacher’s duty of care, developing a positive culture in the classroom and the role of a teacher in acceptance of differences in others’ beliefs, practices and behaviours.

15.10.3 Self-Awareness and Social Desirability In TCAT, social desirability is measured using a series of behaviour-related items answered on a Likert agreement scale. High scores on this item indicate that a respondent has low self-awareness and is unable to accurately reflect their own behaviour (Bowles et al., 2014). However, extremely low scores on this item suggest the individual lacks awareness of what constitutes appropriate behaviour. Thus, scores that are either abnormally high or low represent low self-awareness. Self-report measures are known to be often limited by social desirability bias. Social desirability bias is thought to be the propensity to underestimate socially undesirable attitudes and behaviours and overestimate more socially desirable behaviours. In research, social desirability bias occurs when a respondent provides a response that they believe is socially, culturally and normatively appropriate (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960; Edwards, 1957). Paulhus (1984) suggests two components: ‘impression management’, which is the purposeful presentation of the self to fit into a situation or please an audience; and self-deception, based on the motivation to maintain a positive self-concept. Respondents answer in a way they believe conforms to the societal norms relevant to the test, or purposefully avoid responding in a way that may cause them embarrassment or result in negative consequences (Tourangeau & Yan, 2007).

15.10.4 The Relationship Between Dispositions and Intentional Behaviour as a Teacher The relationship between the broad affective variables and intended behaviour was analysed utilising structural equation modelling (SEM), using AMOS, SPSS (see Fig. 15.4). SEM was utilised to test the complex hypotheses about the relationships among the affective and dispositional measures utilised in TCAT and potential preservice teachers’ intentional teacher behaviour. The estimated strengths and directions

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of these relationships were determined. Prior to this analysis, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to ensure the dimension matched the structures and patterns of the TCAT as reported. (Bowles et al., 2014; Clinton & Dawson, 2018). The internal structures held and matched the TCAT factors, and the Cronbach alphas were all > 0.76. The model was evaluated using SEM. There were four predictors: personal characteristics (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, self-regulation, goal setting, self-management, task strategy and self-evaluation); resilience (persistence, optimism, ability to rebound, care and reflection of self); and social interaction (conflict resolution, collaboration, trust and respect, leadership). The outcome factors in the model are cultural awareness (cultural sensitivity, acceptance of others) and fairness and norms. To evaluate the effects of social desirability in relation to predicting cultural awareness and ethics, a structural model with social desirability as a covariate to the four predictor variables was run. This entails removing any influence of social desirability from the estimates and exploring the relationships. This covariate model provided adequate fit: Chi-square = 45,201, df = 179, p < 0.001; NFI = 0.716, TLI 0.635, RMSEA = 0.138. This is then compared to a model without the covariate included: Chi-square = 54,548, df = 162, p < 0.001; NFI =

Fig. 15.4 Relationship between TCAT dispositions and intended teacher behaviour

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0.640, TLI 0.537, RMSEA = 0.159. The difference in chi-square measure (which is not affected by sample size) is 9247, df = 17, indicating that it is important to adjust the scores for measures of social desirability. The best predictors of cultural awareness were social interaction (0.71), selfregulation (0.40) and resilience (0.22). The best predictors of fairness and norms were social interaction (0.57) and self-regulation (0.40). The personality factor had a lesser influence on both cultural awareness and fairness, ethics and values. This model provides a framework for exploring the specific relationship between perceived wellbeing and mental health and the self-reported intentional behaviour of potential teacher candidates.

15.10.5 Determining the Relationship Between Wellbeing and Mental Health and Intended Behaviour as a Teacher It was proposed that the potential preservice teachers’ views about teacher behaviour would be influenced by their perceived sense of wellbeing and mental health. To test this hypothesis, individual items that specifically related to wellbeing and mental health were extracted from the data set. For this analysis, data from 2019 to 2022 was selected, and a sample size of 3384 potential teacher candidates emerged. It was suggested that education policy for wellbeing and mental health was more prevalent in this latter period. The measures used in this study were not designed for measuring wellbeingrelated characteristics. The items included are predominately related to the subjective, physical and cognitive aspects of wellbeing. To achieve this selection, a small group of teacher educators were asked to individually select items they believed specifically measured wellbeing and/or mental health. The group was instructed not to consider the previous dimensions but focus entirely on the individual item. Coders were given several examples to ensure they understood the task. Factors relating to cultural sensitivity, ethics, fairness and values and self-aware social desirability were not included. Once the task was completed, any item selected by four out five coders was included. The results of the coding exercise were shared with the coders, and a discussion occurred to reach a consensus. Several other items were then included. The new data set consisted of newly created wellbeing and health disposition items, self-aware social desirability and perceived intentional teacher behaviour. The mean of the items replaced any missing data. An exploratory factor analysis was utilised to identify underlying patterns and structures in the data that may not be immediately obvious in the wellbeing items selected. The factor analysis demonstrated three strong factors: physical health; general health disposition; and resilience, self-regulation and self-reflection. All items contributed to the factors. The Cronbach alpha ranged between > 0.69 and > 0.78. The correlations between the three factors were significant at 0.001 and ranged between 0.22 and 0.58 (see Table 15.2).

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Table 15.2 Wellbeing, mental health and intended teacher behaviour correlations Physical Ethics, CultSensit ResReg and Health Self social health fair and self-reflects disposition desirability values Physical health

1

0.355**

0.230**

0.540**

0.201**

0.435**

Ethics, fair and values

0.355**

1

0.444**

0.614**

0.253**

0.432**

CultSensit

0.230**

0.444**

1

0.309**

0.122**

0.265**

ResRegSelf-reflects

0.540**

0.614**

0.309**

1

0.302**

0.527**

Health disposition

0.201**

0.253**

0.122**

0.302**

1

0.243**

Self-aware social desirability

0.435**

0.432**

0.265**

0.527**

0.243**

1

**Indicates a significance level of