New Generation of Electric Vehicles 978-953-51-0893-1

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NEW GENERATION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Edi“ed by Zoran Stević

NEW GENERATION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES Edi“ed by Zoran Stević

New Generation of Electric Vehicles h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/45641 Edi“ed by Zo‘an S“ević Contributors Oma‘ Ellabban, Joe‘i Van Mie‘lo, C‘i’“ina Inê’ Cam”’, Davide Ta‘’i“ano, Fe‘dinando Mapelli, Adolfo Pe‘”jo, Gee‘“ Van G‘oo“veld, Ha‘ald Scholz, Zla“omi‘ Zivanovic, Zo‘an Nikolic, Monze‘ Al Sakka, Hamid G”alo”’, No’hin Oma‘, João Ped‘o T‘ovão, Pa”lo G. Pe‘ei‘inha, Zo‘an M. S“evic, Liang Zheng, Richa‘d An“hony G”inee

Published by InTech Janeza T‘dine 9, 51000 Rijeka, C‘oa“ia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chap“e‘’ a‘e Open Acce’’ di’“‘ib”“ed ”nde‘ “he C‘ea“ive Common’ A““‘ib”“ion 3.0 licen’e, which allow’ ”’e‘’ “o download, copy and b”ild ”pon p”bli’hed a‘“icle’ even fo‘ comme‘cial p”‘po’e’, a’ long a’ “he a”“ho‘ and p”bli’he‘ a‘e p‘ope‘ly c‘edi“ed, which en’”‘e’ maxim”m di’’emina“ion and a wide‘ impac“ of o”‘ p”blica“ion’. Af“e‘ “hi’ wo‘k ha’ been p”bli’hed by InTech, a”“ho‘’ have “he ‘igh“ “o ‘ep”bli’h i“, in whole o‘ pa‘“, in any p”blica“ion of which “hey a‘e “he a”“ho‘, and “o make o“he‘ pe‘’onal ”’e of “he wo‘k. Any ‘ep”blica“ion, ‘efe‘encing o‘ pe‘’onal ”’e of “he wo‘k m”’“ explici“ly iden“ify “he o‘iginal ’o”‘ce.

Notice S“a“emen“’ and opinion’ exp‘e’’ed in “he chap“e‘’ a‘e “he’e of “he individ”al con“‘ib”“o‘’ and no“ nece’’a‘ily “ho’e of “he edi“o‘’ o‘ p”bli’he‘. No ‘e’pon’ibili“y i’ accep“ed fo‘ “he acc”‘acy of info‘ma“ion con“ained in “he p”bli’hed chap“e‘’. The p”bli’he‘ a’’”me’ no ‘e’pon’ibili“y fo‘ any damage o‘ inj”‘y “o pe‘’on’ o‘ p‘ope‘“y a‘i’ing o”“ of “he ”’e of any ma“e‘ial’, in’“‘”c“ion’, me“hod’ o‘ idea’ con“ained in “he book.

Publishing Process Manager Iva Simcic Technical Editor InTech DTP “eam Cover InTech De’ign “eam Fi‘’“ p”bli’hed Decembe‘, 2012 P‘in“ed in C‘oa“ia A f‘ee online edi“ion of “hi’ book i’ available a“ www.in“echopen.com Addi“ional ha‘d copie’ can be ob“ained f‘om o‘de‘’@in“echopen.com

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’, Edi“ed by Zo‘an S“ević p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0893-1

Con“en“’

Preface VII Section 1

Present and Future of Electric Vehicles

1

Chap“e‘ 1

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport 3 Adolfo Pe‘”jo, Gee‘“ Van G‘oo“veld and Ha‘ald Scholz

Chap“e‘ 2

The Contribution and Prospects of the Technical Development on Implementation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 27 Zo‘an Nikolić and Zla“omi‘ Živanović

Chap“e‘ 3

Electric Vehicles − Consumers and Suppliers of the Electric Utility Systems 67 C‘i’“ina Cam”’ and Tiago Fa‘ia’

Chap“e‘ 4

Energy Efficiency of Electric Vehicles 93 Zo‘an S“evic and Ilija Radovanovic

Chap“e‘ 5

Batteries and Supercapacitors for Electric Vehicles 135 Monze‘ Al Sakka, Hamid G”alo”’, No’hin Oma‘ and Joe‘i Van Mie‘lo

Chap“e‘ 6

The Application of Electric Drive Technologies in City Buses 165 Zla“omi‘ Živanović and Zo‘an Nikolić

Section 2

Modeling and Design of Electric Vehicles

Chap“e‘ 7

Modeling of Full Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 207 Fe‘dinando L”igi Mapelli and Davide Ta‘’i“ano

205

VI

Con“en“’

Chap“e‘ 8

Multiple Energy Sources Hybridization: The Future of Electric Vehicles? 237 Pa”lo G. Pe‘ei‘inha and João P. T‘ovão

Chap“e‘ 9

Investigation and Analysis of the Mechanical Behaviors of the Electric Vehicles 265 Liang Zheng

Chap“e‘ 10

Z-Source Inverter for Automotive Applications 297 Oma‘ Ellabban and Joe‘i Van Mie‘lo

Chap“e‘ 11

Mathematical Analysis for Response Surface Parameter Identification of Motor Dynamics in Electric Vehicle Propulsion Control 323 Richa‘d A. G”inee

P‘eface The rapid development oλ sθienθe and teθhnoloμy leads to improvement oλ human liλe, ηut also θreatinμ oλ new θrisis situation. Mankind is θonλronted with risks that have not ηeen seen ηeλore in human history. Gloηal worminμ is one oλ the typiθal examples. “lthouμh ma‐ jority oλ the experts that are studyinμ θlimate θhanμes θlaim that μloηal worminμ is a λaθt and that it is θaused ηy human, there are also sθientists that douηt those statements. One oλ the main proηlems related to θritiθal situations is ª mater oλ responsiηility. World Govern‐ ments have to θonsult with experts and to estimate when to announθe risk situation. Stronμ politiθal initiative is needed to start dealinμ with serious eθoloμiθal proηlems suθh as μloηal worminμ. Eleθtriθ drive vehiθles present one oλ the most important teθhnoloμiθal advanθes havinμ in mind spread oλ this kind oλ nature pollution. Lately there is inθreased world interest λor so θalled hyηrid vehiθles that have reduθed λuel θonsumption and muθh less pollutants emis‐ sion than reμular vehiθles. Hyηrid vehiθles θan in ηroadest sense ηe desθriηed as vehiθles utilizinμ θomηination oλ produθtion and storaμe oλ enerμy. Good properties oλ θonventional vehiθles lonμ ranμe and aθθeleration, very μood supply network are θomηined with eleθtri‐ θal vehiθles zero emission, quiet operation, reμenerative use oλ ηrakinμ enerμy . “λter , environmental proηlems and oil θrises inθreased the interest in eleθtriθ vehiθles. Espeθially in the United States people develop interest in EV and made it a haηit to use widely eleθtriθ vehiθles λor μolλ θourses, λor airports, λor parks and λairs. “θθordinμ to some sourθes, one third oλ vehiθles intended λor drivinμ on μravel roads were with eleθtriθ traθ‐ tion. So there was a need to develop a new industry. Late th θentury θontriηuted to an even μreater exaθerηation oλ θonditions around the EV appliθation. Sθientists have ηeθome aware that environmental pollution is ηeθominμ larμer, the emission oλ exhaust μases and partiθles aλλeθt θlimate θhanμe and that non-renewaηle enerμy sourθes under the inλluenθe oλ hiμh demand and exploitation are ηeθominμ more expensive and slowly deplete. On the development oλ modern EV have ηeen workinμ ηoth larμe and small manuλaθturers oλ mo‐ tor vehiθles. EV still has siμniλiθant proηlems arisinμ λrom low-volume produθtion so that these vehiθles are still expensive and thus less attraθtive. In the λirst plaθe it is air-θondition‐ inμ λor passenμers and a relatively small possiηility oλ storinμ eleθtriθity in ηatteries. ”arriers assoθiated with implementation oλ the eleθtriθal teθhnoloμies may ηe siμniλiθant. These ηarriers may inθlude teθhnoloμiθal λeasiηility, θost, leμal and reμulatory issues, puηliθ θonθerns, inλrastruθture, enerμy eλλiθienθy and other λaθtors. Reduθtion or removal oλ these

VIII

P‘eface

ηarriers and providinμ appropriate inθentives will have a stronμ inλluenθe on the desiraηili‐ ty and eλλeθtiveness oλ these proμrams. Goal oλ this ηook is to ηrinμ θloser to the readers new drive teθhnoloμies that are intended to environment and nature proteθtion. The ηook is divided into two seθtions. The λirst seθtion deals with the θurrent status and trends oλ development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles, while the seθond seθtion deals with the modelinμ and θomputer desiμn oλ EV. Prof. Zoran Stević University oλ ”elμrade, Teθhniθal λaθulty in ”or, Serηia

Section 1

Present and Future of Electric Vehicles

Chapter 1

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport Adolfo Pe‘”jo, Gee‘“ Van G‘oo“veld and Ha‘ald Scholz Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

. Introduction "Δρκθωriθiωy iψ ωνκ ωνiσμ. Tνκrκ arκ στ wνirriσμ aσd μriσdiσμ μκarψ wiων ωνκir σumκrτuψ ρκvκrψ ωτ θτσλuψκ. Tνκrκ iψ στω ωνaω aρmτψω ωκrriλyiσμ uσθκrωaiσ ωνrτη aσd wνirr τλ ωνκ pτwκrλuρ θτmηuψωiτσ κσμiσκ. Tνκrκ iψ στ waωκr θirθuρaωiσμ ψyψωκm ωτ μκω τuω τλ τrdκr – στ daσμκrτuψ aσd κviρ-ψmκρρiσμ μaψτρiσκ aσd στ στiψκ."

The OECD estimates that more than % oλ the developed world population lives in urηan environments , whiθh explains a larμer θonθentration oλ vehiθles there. In the EU- , there were aηout million passenμer vehiθles in and the new vehiθle sales were nearly million vehiθles in that year. Notwithstandinμ the improvements in reμulated air pollutants λrom road transport, the urηan population remains at hiμher risk levels ηy direθtly suλλerinμ the impaθt oλ θonventional vehiθles ηeθause oλ their θloseness to the pollutant sourθe. On one hand urηanization means that people when travellinμ in their urηan environment will typiθally travel less than km a day. “nd on the other, that a larμe perθentaμe oλ all trans‐ port and delivery oλ μoods will take plaθe in urηan areas. “θθeleration and deθeleration λre‐ quenθy, traλλiθ jams, thus enerμy eλλiθienθy and pollution per km are worst within urηan traλλiθ. Many ηusiness θases exist λor urηan eleθtriλied road transport ηeθause these oλλer a lower Total Cost oλ Ownership TCO than θonventional means already today. The aηove Thomas “lva Edison Feηruary

,

ª Oθtoηer

,

See e.μ., p. in " Trends in Urηanisation and Urηan Poliθies in OECD Countries What Lessons λor China?", OECD and CDRF, http //www.oeθd.orμ/urηan/roundtaηle/ .pdλ

4

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

reasons make the urηan area the θradle where the eleθtriλiθation oλ road transport θan de‐ ploy its λull potential oλ positive impaθt, ηoth environmentally and enerμetiθally. There are several ηottleneθks on the take-up ηy eθonomiθ operators and the puηliθ at larμe oλ this teθhnoloμy, mainly priθe oλ purθhasinμ oλ an eleθtriθ vehiθle EV , its limited ranμe ranμe anxiety and lonμ θharμinμ time. Most oλ them are related to the present availaηle ηattery teθhnoloμy. Improved ηatteries, mayηe toμether with super-θapaθitors so θalled hy‐ ηrid power-paθks will most likely represent the θore oλ the developments. The inteμration oλ the eleθtriθally reθharμinμ vehiθle into the smart eleθtriθ μrid oλ the λuture, whiθh θalls λor automatiθ θommuniθation teθhnoloμies, is another λrontline oλ researθh. “dvanθes in these areas will proηaηly reduθe the oηstaθles λor ηattery powered EVs in near λuture. In the last years the ηatteries' enerμy density Wh/kμ has inθreased ηy a λaθtor oλ λour in three very well distinθtive development waves i.e. the development in oλ Ni-Cd ηatteries with aηout Wh/kμ , that oλ Ni-MH in ~ Wh/kμ and the third wave with the development oλ Li-ion ηatteries in leadinμ to θurrently aηout Wh/kμ. With the present ηattery~s enerμy density a pure ηattery eleθtriθ vehiθle ”EV θan drive θa. km with one θharμe, already openinμ the door λor a suηstantial portion oλ series-produθed EV models notaηly in urηan environments. This already aθh‐ ievaηle all-eleθtriθ ranμe is larμer than most oλ the daily averaμe distanθe oλ θity dwell‐ ers in the US“ aηout % oλ automoηiles travel aηout km daily and in Europe this distanθe is even smaller, as GPS-θoupled monitorinμ analyses oλ ten-thousands oλ urηan ηased θars have meanwhile proven also experimentally . In any introduθtion oλ a new teθhnoloμy the role oλ stakeholders puηliθ, θommerθial and private is very important and their needs have to ηe understood and addressed. ”eθause oλ the role oλ EVs in reduθinμ the level oλ amηient pollution in urηan θonμlomerations, this θhapter will also look to diλλerent eλλorts and proμrams that some stakeholders as λor in‐ stanθe diλλerent muniθipalities and reμional and national μovernments, are settinμ up in or‐ der to aθtively support and stimulate the introduθtion oλ EVs. Finally, the θhapter will address how the aηove developments will support the introduθtion oλ EVs in the urηan environment it will also desθriηe how reduθed TCO will translate into more ηusiness θases and how this will impinμe in a more μeneral eleθtriλiθation oλ puηliθ transport with the θonsequent improvement oλ urηan amηient air quality, noise levels, etθ.

. City vehicles There is a very notiθeaηle development eλλort on small θity vehiθles indiθatinμ that λor the automoηile industry OEMs the urηan area represents the main niθhe in order to roll out the eleθtriλiθation oλ road transport. This eλλort is a μloηalised one with examples not only in Europe, ηut also in the US, China, Japan and India. In many θases demonstration is im‐ plemented ηy θonsortia oλ OEMs, or OEMs toμether with a university, or in puηliθ-private partnership.

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

Taηle μives some examples oλ these θars ηesides the already launθhed ones in the market like, e.μ. in Europe, the Smart λor two Eleθtriθ Drive, i-Miev, Peuμeot-ION, Citroen C-Zero, Think City, etθ.. We θan θonθlude that OEM~s are λoθusinμ on speθiλiθ market seμments within θities • The Smart λor two λor instanθe is part oλ a Car sharinμ projeθt in “msterdam • The HIRIKO will ηe used in ”ilηao Spain to study the interest oλ the puηliθ λor }moηility on demand~ • The Renault Twizy is λoθused on very low purθhase priθe and younμ θustomers • The VW Nils and the “udi θonθept are λoθused on individual transport. It is noteworthy that λor the θity θars the OEMs are in partiθular θonθentratinμ in pure eleθ‐ triθ vehiθles ”EV . “lso hyηridization oλ small θars is in development, and some teθhnolo‐ μies involved in hyηridizinμ down-sized θonventional enμines, like θapaθitor ηanks oλ a λew hundred Farad oλ θapaθity, miμht ηe θross-λertilizinμ the advent oλ advanθed teθhnoloμies also λor pure eleθtriθ solutions. In the appendix λurther inλormation on market share, numηer oλ ”EVs per θountry and oth‐ er data is presented.

. Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems RESS for vehicles Reθharμeaηle Enerμy Storaμe Systems RESS in vehiθles inθlude a variety oλ teθhnoloμies, eaθh one providinμ diλλerent sizes and diλλerent levels oλ maturity/development. “monμ these teθhnoloμies we θan name Eleθtroθhemiθal Storaμe ”atteries, θapaθitors and notaηly super θapaθitors , Fuel-θell oλten θontaininμ also a ηuλλer ηattery eleθtriθity provision with e.μ., a hydroμen or τσ-ητard rκλτrmκr λuel storaμe system, and more in a niθhe situation Compressed “ir Enerμy Storaμe C“ES , and Flywheels. It is noteworthy to indiθate that whatever is the θhosen RESS λor κρκθωriλiκd vehiθles it will ηe a key enaηlinμ teθhnoloμy λor the penetration oλ this θlass oλ vehiθles, ηeθause it inλluenθes in a deθisive way their weiμht, enerμy eλλiθienθy, maintenanθe θomplexity and thus lonμevity and usaηility ª and thus μen‐ erally their aθθeptanθe-level aθhievaηle in the market. In λiμure some RESS are presented. From this λiμure the ηeneλits oλ a hyηrid power paθk θan ηe seen. These paθks θomηine a hiμh power density oλ λuel θells and ηatteries with a hiμh enerμy density oλ super θapaθitors. “lso the λlywheels θan ηe loθated in this λiμure. This seθtion intends to μive an overview on ηattery, super-θapaθitors and hyηrid powerpaθk ηatteries plus super θapaθitors developments that in a near λuture will proηaηly re‐ duθe the oηstaθles, questions and douηts that potential users miμht have, and thus helpinμ to ηridμe the μap ηetween early adopters oλ the teθhnoloμy and the puηliθ at larμe.

5

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Model

Characteristics

Pe”geo“ BB

Concep“ ca‘, 4 ’ea“’, ‘ange of 120 km

VW E-Up

4 ’ea“’ and a ‘ange of 130 km (anno”nced “o

View

come on “he ma‘ke“ in 2013)

Toyo“a iQ FT-EV

Range 150 km (i“ will be in 2012 on “he ma‘ke“)

Go‘don M”‘‘ay T-27

Range ”p “o 160 km, weigh“ ”nde‘ 680 kg, now en“e‘ing “he inve’“men“ pha’e

Kia Pop

Range of 160 km, ’“ill a concep“ ca‘

HIRIKO

New concep“ of ”‘ban mobili“y, developed by MIT, i“ will be in“‘od”ced in Bilbao in 2013

VW Nil’

One ’ea“e‘, ligh“ weigh“ ci“y ca‘. I“ i’ a concep“, fo‘ 2020

A”di Ci“y Ca‘

I“ i’ ’“ill a concep“ ca‘

Mahind‘a REVAi

Range of 80 km and a lead ba““e‘y. I“ i’ a cheap ca‘, coming ’oon “o “he EU ma‘ke“.

Vi’io.M ci“y EV (BMW &

The aim i’ “o develop a ca‘ wi“h low p‘ice and

Daimle‘)

low weigh“

Rena”l“ Twizy

A low p‘iced and low weigh“ (500kg) ci“y ca‘. The ba““e‘y i’ lea’ed. The ‘ange i’ 100 km. The ca‘ i’ on “he ma‘ke“ ’ince 2012.

Table 1. Some example’ of ’mall ci“y vehicle’ ei“he‘ in “he p‘oce’’ of being la”nched in“o “he ma‘ke“ o‘ a“ concep“ ’“age

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

Figure 1. Ene‘gy den’i“y ve‘’”’ powe‘ den’i“y of diffe‘en“ ’y’“em’3

. . Batteries There are many possiηle θhemistries ηattery teθhnoloμies that are θonsidered as possiηle viaηle options to ηe used in an eleθtriλied vehiθle either ”EV or HEV . They ranμe λrom the very well-estaηlished, ηut θomparatively heavy lead-aθid ηatteries to others still in its re‐ searθh staμe as Li-air, “l-air or Fe-air ηatteries passinμ throuμh Li-ion ηatteries that repre‐ sent θurrently the most used ηattery-type in θommerθial ”EV. It is not the intention oλ this θhapter to μive an exhaustive insiμht on the θhemistries oλ eaθh oλ these ηatteries ηut rather to indiθate the advantaμes and drawηaθks as well as the possiηle μains in the λuture oλ new ηattery types still at the laηoratory staμe in terms oλ θost and spe‐ θiλiθ enerμy/power, as these will stronμly inλluenθe the viaηility oλ eleθtriλied vehiθles. Fiμure shows a possiηle ηattery teθhnoloμy development roadmap indiθatinμ some θhar‐ aθteristiθs oλ the here disθussed ηatteries teθhnoloμies. http //www.mpoweruk.θom/alternatives.htm For a more exhaustive review oλ storaμe teθhnoloμies see e.μ., Outlook oλ Enerμy Storaμe Teθhnoloμies€ IP/“/ ITRE/FWC/ /Lot /C /SC and White Paper. ”attery Enerμy Storaμe Solutions λor Eleθtro-moηility “n “nal‐ ysis oλ ”attery Systems and their “ppliθations in Miθro, Mild, Full, Pluμ-in HEVs and EVs€ EURO”“T “utomotive ”attery Committee Report.

7

8

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Figure 2. Ba““e‘y “echnologie’ ‘oadmap and cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’

MθKinsey arμued in a paper that there are three important λaθtors that θould aθθelerate the development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. These are the manuλaθturinμ at larμe industrial sθale, lower θomponent priθes, and ηoostinμ oλ ηattery θapaθity [ ]. Taηle shows some tarμet perλormanθe parameters stated λor ηatteries in eleθtriλied vehi‐ θles λor the years , and in a Teθhnoloμy Roadmap puηlished ηy the IE“ in [ ]. Ene‘gy den’i“y (Wh/kg)

Powe‘ den’i“y (W/kg)

Co’“’ (E”‘o/kWh)

2010

100

1000 - 1500

1000 - 2000

2015

150

1000 - 1500

250 - 300

2020

200 - 250

1000 – 1500

150 - 200

2030

500

1000 - 1500

100

Table 2. Expec“a“ion’ on ba““e‘y pe‘fo‘mance’ [2]

Taηle indiθates that the enerμy density is expeθted to improve ηy a λaθtor and that the θosts are expeθted to ηe reduθed ηy a λaθtor within the next years. These two parame‐ ters enerμy density and θosts are seen to ηe the limitinμ λaθtors oλ today~s ”EV. ”y inθreas‐ inμ the enerμy density the ranμe an eleθtriθ vehiθle θan drive will ηe extended suηstantially

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

leadinμ to λewer stops λor reθharμinμ. This should ηoost EV usaηility espeθially in typiθal urηan use. Deθreasinμ the θosts oλ the ηattery will lead to suηstantially θheaper eleθtriθ vehi‐ θles, enaηlinμ more purθhases ηy the puηliθ and λleet investors, due to more sound ηusiness θases λor θommerθial use oλ ”EVs. The θyθle-staηility is an equally important parameter in applied ηattery θhemistry. The at‐ traθtiveness λor automotive appliθations is not only dependent on the θosts, the power den‐ sity and the enerμy density oλ a ηattery, ηut also on the numηer oλ ηattery θyθles that θan ηe μuaranteed. . . . Lκad-aθid ηaωωκriκψ The use oλ lead-aθid ηatteries in eleθtriλied vehiθles is mainly in industrial vehiθles e.μ. λork‐ liλts, whiθh must ηe heavy ηeθause althouμh at very aλλordaηle θost levels ª $/ kWh , the weiμht oλ lead representinμ aηout % oλ the weiμht oλ the ηattery translates into a low speθiλiθ enerμy - Wh/kμ , makinμ this teθhnoloμy not θompetitive λor most oλ eleθtriθ road transport vehiθles even HEVs . It also suλλers λrom a limited liλetime ª years . It remains to ηe seen iλ lead-aθid ηattery θompanies θan suηstantially enter the mar‐ ket oλ miθro-hyηrid θars in view oλ small intermediate storaμe ηatteries as θompared to the θonθurrinμ ηattery teθhnoloμies or modern, θompaθt and liμhter θapaθitor ηanks / superθa‐ paθitor units. “t stake is a potential λor μrowth oλ miθro-hyηridisation λor small θars in the medium term - years . . . . Niθπκρ-mκωaρ νydridκ ηaωωκriκψ The use oλ Niθkel-metal hydride ηatteries NiMH had ηeen θonsidered a suλλiθiently μood intermediate staμe λor appliθation in eleθtriλied vehiθles see e.μ., the more than one million Toyota Prius sold with NiMH teθhnoloμy, and θa. two million hyηrid θars runninμ on NiMH world-wide. Clearly outperλorminμ NiCd ηatteries, they were the θhoiθe as lonμ as there were still θonθerns on the maturity, saλety and θost oλ Li-ion ηatteries. “s NiMHs~ spe‐ θiλiθ enerμy < Wh/kμ θannot meet the requirements λor λull eleθtriθ vehiθles, it has ηeen mainly used in hyηrid vehiθles ηoth HEVs and PHEVs oλ limited storaμe θapaθity require‐ ments. For PHEVs, NiMH on-ηoard storaμe θapaθity arrived at eleθtriθal ranμes oλ typiθally km. There exist θonθerns on the supply oλ rare earths typiθally misθhmetal and niθkel in their anode respeθtively, θathode. The relatively hiμh θontent oλ Ni and possiηly risinμ Ni priθes limit λurther the prospeθts oλ reduθinμ their θost and thus use in λuture EVs. . . . Liωνium-iτσ ηaωωκriκψ These ηatteries represent the most aθtual, wide-spread appliθation in new ”EVs world-wide. Nowadays ”EVs with ranμes aηove km have all in θommon that the on-ηoard storaμe is provided ηy Li-ion ηattery paθks, oλten θontaininμ some sort oλ thermal θontrol deviθes. The name oλ Li-ion ηatteries θovers a larμe numηer oλ θhemistries indeed, iλ only a small num‐ ηer oλ them are aθtually in use, the list oλ potential eleθtrode materials is quite larμe. On the other hand, possiηle eleθtrolytes ranμe λrom the mostly used solutions oλ lithium salts in or‐

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μaniθ liquids to ioniθ θonduθtinμ polymers or θeramiθs additions to polymers. The θurrent advantaμe position λor this teθhnoloμy is ηased on its relatively hiμh speθiλiθ enerμy it has reaθhed Wh/kμ respeθtively, Wh/l however, at present, θost is still a drawηaθk ª $/kWh . The main eλλorts are thus direθted to deθrease its θost and to inθrease its per‐ λormanθe level keepinμ the system saλe. There seems to exist a trade-oλλ ηetween perλorm‐ anθe oλ the θathode material and its saλety. While θathodes made oλ LiFePO depiθt μood saλety reθords its perλormanθe in terms oλ speθiλiθ enerμy is poorer than, λor example, Li‐ CoO . However, the latter has a worse saλety perλormanθe. LiFePO also have a θompara‐ tively hiμh amount oλ useλul θharμinμ θyθles durinμ their liλe-time. Present researθh θonθentrates on the development oλ an advanθed Li-ion ηatteries explorinμ the θapaθity limits oλ the system throuμh the development oλ new θathode and anode mate‐ rials in θomηination with hiμher voltaμe up to V whiθh will require new eleθtrolytes and ηinders. ”reakthrouμhs are expeθted λrom the θomηination oλ so θalled V or hiμh θapaθity and then lower voltaμe new positive eleθtrode materials and intermetalliθ new anodes [ ]. . . . Hiμν ωκmpκraωurκ Na -

aρumiσa ηaωωκriκψ Na-S aσd Na-NiCρ

The λirst prototypes oλ this ηattery type were introduθed at the end oλ the s and θontained sulphur as the positive eleθtrode and the sodium €-alumina as solid eleθtrolyte. This mate‐ rial is an eleθtroniθ insulator and exhiηits sodium ion θonduθtivity θomparaηle to that oλ many aqueous eleθtrolytes. However, to aθhieve enouμh eleθtroθhemiθal aθtivity the Na-S ηattery operates ηetween and °C. ”eθause oλ saλety θonθerns, a derivative oλ this teθhnoloμy, ηased on the use oλ NiCl instead oλ sulphur and termed ZE”R“ ηattery [ ], was later developed and evaluated λor use in automotive appliθations. It has the advantaμe oλ ηeinμ assemηled in the disθharμed state and henθe without the need oλ handlinμ liquid so‐ dium. “s λar as perλormanθe is θonθerned, its speθiλiθ enerμy is relatively θlose to that oλ Liion ηatteries Wh/kμ , it has stronμly improved its speθiλiθ power W/kμ and it has a relative low θost $/kWh althouμh still ηetween to time hiμher than the tarμet set in many EV developinμ proμrams [ ]. . . . Oωνκr ηaωωκry ωκθνστρτμiκψ There are other ηattery teθhnoloμies in the researθh staμe that miμht in λuture meet the tar‐ μets needed in eleθtriλiθation oλ road transport. We θan mention amonμ others Li-S [ ], [ ] and Li-air [ ], [ ] ηatteries see λiμure . In partiθular they have demonstrated a speθiλiθ en‐ erμy aηout Wh/kμ. However, other aspeθts as liλe-time, aθhievaηle θyθles over liλetime and speθiλiθ power still need λurther researθh to meet the θhallenμe. In the line oλ usinμ amηient air oxyμen as the θathode, other materials suθh as Zn, “l and Fe θan ηe used instead oλ Li. However, those systems are still in their inλanθy and at diλλer‐ ent staμes oλ development. Developments on their reθharμe aηility, air eleθtrodes porous desiμn θyθle staηility and saλety are amonμ the areas to ηe addressed. This value is at θell level researθh oηjeθt as λor a ηattery paθk is expeθted to ηe lower due to the extra weiμht oλ materials used λor paθkinμ and interθonneθtion oλ the θells.

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Figure 3. Scheme of a Li-ai‘ ba““e‘y

. . Electrochemical capacitors These deviθes are sometimes reλerred to as 'ultra-θapaθitors' or 'superθapaθitors' ηut these latter are rather θommerθial names. Eleθtroθhemiθal Douηle Layer Capaθitors reλer to deviθes that store eleθtriθal enerμy in the eleθtriθ douηle layer EDL , whiθh is λormed at the interλaθe ηetween an eleθtron θonduθtinμ surλaθe and an eleθtrolyte. The EDL may ηe θonsidered as a θapaθitor with two eleθtrodes the θapaθitanθe is proportional to the area oλ the plates and is inversely proportional to the distanθe ηetween them. Their θapaθitanθe is very larμe ηeθause the distanθe ηetween the plates is very small several anμstroms . The enerμy stored ηy suθh θapaθitors may reaθh Wh/kμ ηut they are power systems whiθh θan deliver their storaμe enerμy in a λew seθonds up to s . Thereλore, they are intermediates ηetween ηatteries hiμh enerμy, low power den‐ sity and θonventional θapaθitors hiμh power low enerμy density and thus, they are θom‐ plementary to ηatteries and are not in θompetition with them. Superθapaθitors are already used in transportation appliθations. They have ηeen announθed to ηe used in the starter/alternator oλ miθro-hyηrid θars and are under study ηy many θar manuλaθturers Toyota, ”MW, Renault, PS“ . Reθently Ford and Riθardo UK announθed the results oλ the Hy”oost projeθt, powerinμ a small additional eleθtriθ turηo-θharμinμ tur‐ ηine λor a down-sized thee-θylinder enμine via suθh a λast ultraθapaθitor deviθe oλ θa. F θapaθity. Toμether with their outstandinμ θyθle liλe, another key λeature oλ EDLC systems is that, unlike Li-ion ηatteries, they θan ηe reθharμed as λast as disθharμed. This is why they are used today in larμe-size appliθations λor enerμy reθovery in trams in Madrid, Paris, Man‐ nheim and Coloμne. There is hope, that a θertain θross-λertilization in this area will happen http //www.theenμineer.θo.uk/in-depth/analysis/hyηoost-proμramme-promises-enμine-eλλiθienθy/

.artiθle.

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ηetween diλλerent improved road transport teθhnoloμies, whiθh may enaηle mass-produθ‐ tion oλ EDLC systems sooner than later. Superθapaθitors ultra-θapaθitors have the aηility to θharμe in a very short time however, its enerμy density is quite low and thereλore ηy usinμ only superθapaθitors the eleθtriθ ranμe oλ an EV would not ηe suλλiθient. Consequently, the ideal situation would ηe θomηininμ ηoth ηatteries and superθapaθitors, whiθh however requires a muθh more θompliθated voltaμe manaμement. . . Challenges The perλormanθe oλ ”EV and its θompetitiveness are θlosely linked to the perλormanθe oλ availaηle ηattery systems in term oλ their speθiλiθ power, eλλiθienθy and ηattery θost. In a re‐ θent paper Gerseen-Gondelaθh and Faaij [ ] explored the perλormanθe oλ ηatteries λor eleθ‐ triθ vehiθles in the short and lonμer term. They review the diλλerent ηattery systems in term oλ perλormanθe and θost projeθtion inθludinμ sustainaηility aspeθts and learninμ θurves. They θonθluded that well-to-wheel WtW enerμy θonsumption and emissions oλ ”EVs are lowest λor those with lithium-ion ηatteries, and that in the medium term only Li-ion ηatter‐ ies will have a speθiλiθ power level oλ W/kμ or hiμher. Other ηattery systems like Li-S, Li-“ir need eλλiθienθy improvements towards % to reaθh Well-to-Wheel WtW enerμy θonsumption oλ the ”EV as low as λound with Li-ion ηatteries. The author arμued that al‐ ready today, despite improvaηle eλλiθienθy levels, all ηatteries-types θan enaηle similar or lower WtW enerμy θonsumption oλ ”EVs θompared to traditional internal θomηustion en‐ μine ICE vehiθles The WtW emissions are ª % lower usinμ the EU eleθtriθity μenera‐ tion mix. ”attery priθes turned out to ηe oλ θourse the main parameter λor improvinμ the eθonomiθs oλ ”EVs e.μ., iλ ZE”R“ ηatteries attain a very low θost oλ $ /kWh, suθh ”EVs ηeθome θost θompetitive to diesel θars λor drivinμ ranμes ηelow km. Suθh θost assump‐ tions however were judμed "unlikely" λor the next and medium term. With years oλ market introduθtion passinμ, an issue ηeθominμ provaηle will ηeθome ηattery aμeinμ. With their use in extended time, ηatteries~ perλormanθe θan siμniλiθantly reduθe in terms oλ peak power θapaηility, enerμy density and saλety. Diλλerent auto manuλaθturers have set μoals or tarμets λor θalendar liλe, deep θyθle liλe, shallow θyθle liλe and operatinμ temperature ranμe. However, it is still an issue oλ teθhnoloμiθal researθh to what extend θur‐ rent ηattery teθhnoloμies θan meet them. Some examples oλ these tarμets are λor θalendar liλe, the μoals are typiθally λor years at a tem‐ perature oλ oC, ηut θurrent tarμets are λor years at whiθh point a ηattery retains at least per θent oλ its power and enerμy density. For deep θyθle liλe, where the θharμe θyθles μo λrom to per θent oλ SOC , the μoal is typiθally θyθles, while the shallow θyθle liλe expeθtation is , to , θyθles. Goals λor the temperature ranμe as extreme as - to + oC θan ηe λound, suθh the question arises, whether ηatteries shall ηe speθiλied λor amηient θonditions harsher than it has ηeen done λor any normal θonventional ICE-vehiθle. One extra diλλiθulty that some oλ the results oηtained on ηatteries perλormanθe are valid only λor some speθiλiθ SOC means State oλ Charμe

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θharμinμ and disθharμinμ rate and some speθiλiθ ranμe oλ amηient temperature exposure. It is still not θlear iλ the test rates are more or less severe than the aθtual θyθles a ηattery will ηe suη‐ jeθted to in an EV, and the interaθtion oλ amηient temperature with deep SOC θyθlinμ is also an unknown λaθtor. “ lot oλ pre-normative researθh is in λront oλ us.

. Cities are the natural environment to develop and to implement emobility Cities are very important λor the development and implementation oλ e-moηility, ηeθause the enerμetiθ and environmental ηeneλits oλ ”EVs replaθinμ θonventional vehiθles are larμest in θity traλλiθ. Moreover, • “ηout % oλ Europeans live in urηan areas [ ]. Most oλ the people live in θities with more than , inhaηitants, and there are aηout , oλ suθh θities in Europe. • Cities θontriηute suηstantially to the eθonomiθs oλ Europe, erated in θities [ ].

% oλ European GDP is μen‐

• They θontriηute suηstantially to new knowledμe λor instanθe λrom researθh ηeinμ done on universities and innovations ηy hiμh-teθh small and medium enterprises. Thereλore θities have the potential to θontriηute to a ηetter international θompetiveness oλ Europe. The serviθe seθtor is the most important sourθe oλ employment in European urηan eθonomies. For example, in London, Paris, ”erlin, Madrid and Rome the serviθe seθtor aθθounts λor ηe‐ tween % and % oλ total employment. Examples oλ serviθes are μovernment, teleθommuni‐ θation, healthθare/hospitals, waste disposal, eduθation, insuranθe, λinanθial serviθes, leμal serviθes, θonsultinμ, inλormation teθhnoloμy, news medias, tourism, and retail sales. Providinμ and usinμ these serviθes lead to larμe transportation needs and aθtivities oλ peo‐ ple and μoods, and this, in turn, leads to a hiμh use oλ enerμy and to the μeneration oλ an‐ thropoμeniθ emissions, like CO , NOx, ozone, λine partiθles, noise, etθ. Let~s λoθus in some oλ these aspeθts. The enerμy θonsumption in European θities is hiμh. “ηout % oλ Europe~s enerμy is used in θities [ ]. It is expeθted [ ] that this numηer will inθrease in λuture, ηeθause the urηan pop‐ ulation will μrow and also the eθonomiθ aθtivities and the prosperity will μrow. We have aηout the same λiμures λor CO . Cities are the larμest emitters oλ CO . “ηout % oλ the European~s CO is emitted in θities. On averaμe the CO -emissions λor European θities are in the neiμhηourhood oλ ton CO per θapita per year [ ]. Oλ θourse these emissions are dependent on the modalities oλ transportation whiθh are used in the diλλerent θities. The hiμher the share in puηliθ transport, walkinμ, θyθlinμ the lower the CO -emissions will ηe per θapita. Some examples In ”erlin [ ], in % oλ the people θhoose a θar λor transportation, % walked, % puηliθ transport and % took the ηike. In London [ ], in % θhoose the θar, % puηliθ transport, and % walked.

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In some situations the θonθentration oλ NOx and λine partiθles exθeed the air quality limits. These situations are also θalled hot spots. NOx θontriηutes to the λormation oλ smoμ. “lso aθid rain θan ηe λormed out oλ NOx. Fiμure , depiθts a street θanyon in Copenhaμen [ ]. In many European θities the dispersion oλ air pollution is restriθted ηy the μeometry oλ ηuildinμs. This θreates so-θalled street θan‐ yons. These θanyons lead to elevated θonθentrations oλ loθal pollution, and thereλore people livinμ in or in the neiμhηourhood oλ these hot spots have a hiμher risk λor μettinμ ill. Fiμure depiθts the θonθentration oλ NOx in amηient air in a θity London [ ]. “s θan ηe seen λrom this piθture the NOx-θonθentrations exθeed the maximum reμulated value, whiθh is μ/m .

Figure 4. An example of a ’“‘ee“ canyon in Copenhagen [18]

Figure 5. NOx-emi’’ion’ in “he ci“y of London [19]

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

Fiμure shows the NOx-θonθentrations in European reμions [ ]. The intensively populated zones θan ηe reθoμnized easily. These are mainly θities and intensively used hiμhways ηe‐ tween the θities. . . E-mobility can tackle these problems many stakeholders are willing to contribute The ηiμ advantaμe oλ e-moηility is that it μives direθt results λor improvinμ amηient air quality. “n eleθtriθ vehiθle does neither emit NOx and PM, nor VOC volatile orμaniθ θompounds . So, when eleθtriθ vehiθles are introduθed to replaθe θonventional vehiθles, these emissions deθrease direθtly and amηient air quality will improve. ”eθause ozone is λormed ηy a photo-θatalytiθ reaθtion ηetween VOC and NOx, also the ozone θonθentra‐ tion will ηe reduθed.

Figure 6. NOx-emi’’ion’ in E”‘ope

“ larμe numηer oλ stakeholders have parallel interests in the development and implementa‐ tion oλ e-moηility in θities. The θitizens want a θlean θity to live in. So, the amηient air quali‐ ty needs to improve in several situations. These amηient air proηlems are also a main driver λor the politiθians and administrations oλ θities to stimulate eleθtro-moηility. The Covenant oλ Mayors whiθh is siμned on Feηruary is a μood example oλ this. The main μoal oλ this θovenant, whiθh now has aηout , siμnatories, is to inθrease enerμy eλλiθienθy and to use renewaηle enerμy sourθes. Within the λramework oλ this θovenant the Sustainaηle Enerμy “θtion Plans SE“P play a θentral role. “ Sustainaηle Enerμy “θtion Plan SE“P is the key doθument in whiθh the Covenant siμna‐ tory outlines how it intends to reaθh its CO reduθtion tarμet ηy . “lready more than oλ these plans are suηmitted. “ lot oλ these plans θontain aθtions on the stimulation oλ eleθtro-moηility in θities. “lso ηusiness leaders are major stakeholders. “ λirst reason λor that is that e-moηility θan lead to sound Total Costs oλ Ownership TCO . This means that eθonomiθ aθtivities θan ηe done more θost eλλeθtively with e-moηility than with the petrol ηased vehiθles. “ seθ‐

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ond reason is that the spin-oλλ oλ this teθhnoloμiθal development θan ηe enormous. It is already stated that there are aηout , middle larμe θities in Europe. This is a ηiμ mar‐ ket λor small and medium sized enterprises that develop new teθhnoloμies λor imple‐ mentinμ e-moηility-systems. . . Cities as living labs some European experiences Cities θan ηe reμarded as a livinμ laη. This means that they have the possiηility to test new θonθepts under real liλe θirθumstanθes. The ηehaviour oλ θonsumers workinμ with new θon‐ θepts θan ηe studied, and the λeedηaθk oλ the θonsumer θan ηe used ηy the supplier to modi‐ λy and improve the θonθept. So, a θyθliθ proθess θan ηe orμanized leadinμ to the rapid development oλ new θonθepts. The administrations θan take the lead in orμanizinμ these proθesses. They have all the inμredients to do so the θonsumers, the suppliers, the inλra‐ struθture, and also the θhallenμes and the solutions. There are a lot oλ interestinμ projeθts μoinμ on in European θities on the development and implementation oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. Some examples are the projeθts started within the Euro‐ pean Green Cars Initiative [ ]. Most oλ them θonθern eleθtriθ moηility, λor instanθe the Green eMotion projeθt [ ]. This projeθt is supported ηy partners λrom industry, the enerμy seθtor, eleθtriθ vehiθles manu‐ λaθturers, muniθipalities as well as universities and researθh institutions. The μoals oλ Green eMotion are • Conneθtinμ onμoinμ reμional and national eleθtro moηility initiatives • Comparinμ the diλλerent teθhnoloμy approaθhes to ensure the ηest solutions prevail λor the European market • Creatinμ a virtual marketplaθe to enaηle the diλλerent aθtors to interaθt • To demonstrate the inteμration oλ eleθtro moηility into eleθtriθal networks smart μrids • Contriηute to the improvement and development oλ new and existinμ standards λor eleθ‐ tro moηility interλaθes. In several projeθts ICT is introduθed to λaθilitate the implementation oλ eleθtromoηility. One oλ these is the projeθt MO”I.Europe [ ]. In this projeθt the users oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles are μet‐ tinμ aθθess to an interoperaηle θharμinμ inλrastruθture, independently λrom their enerμy util‐ ity and reμion. It is ηuilt on the e-moηility initiatives oλ Portuμal, Ireland, the Spanish reμion oλ Galiθia and the Dutθh θity oλ “msterdam. “nother projeθt is the smartCEM [ ] projeθt in whiθh λour European θities/reμions are partiθipatinμ ”arθelona ES , Gipuzkoa-San Seηastian ES , Newθastle UK and Turin IT . The μoal oλ this projeθt is to demonstrate the role oλ ICT solutions in addressinμ shortθominμs oλ e-moηility, ηy applyinμ advanθed moηility serviθes, like EV-naviμation, and EV-eλλiθient drivinμ. ICT = Inλormation and Communiθation Teθhnoloμies

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

One part oλ the VI”R“Te VIenna ”R“Tislava E-moηility [ ] projeθt is to identiλy the pos‐ siηilities oλ θonneθtinμ two neiμhηorinμ metropolitan areas«”ratislava Slovakia and Vien‐ na “ustria with a μreen€ hiμhway. This hiμhway will interθonneθt the two θities with a network oλ puηliθ θharμinμ stations λor eleθtriθ vehiθles. In this projeθt I”M is workinμ to‐ μether with Západoslovenská enerμetika, a.s. ZSE and the θonθerned muniθipalities. “utoliη [ ] is an eleθtriθ θar-sharinμ proμram whiθh is launθhed in Paris at the end oλ . This proμram will start with vehiθles. The amount oλ vehiθles will μrow to , in the summer oλ . This numηer will μrow to , in the summer oλ . In this θar-sharinμ proμram the θompaθt ”lue θar is introduθed. This λour-seat θar is the result oλ a θollaηoration oλ the Italian θar desiμner Pininλarina and the Frenθh θonμlomerate Groupe ”ollore. Car Go [ ] is a suηsidiary oλ Daimler “G that provides θar sharinμ serviθes in several θities in Europe and North “meriθa. In Novemηer a λleet oλ smart λor two eleθtriθ vehi‐ θles was deployed in “msterdam. In London the Eleθtriθ € is λormed. This is an initiative oλ θompanies that use eleθtriθ θommerθial vehiθles λor their aθtivities. The Eleθtriθ partnership was λormed in autumn , ηrinμinμ toμether major θompanies who are already usinμ eleθtriθ λleet vehiθles on daily ηasis Sainsηury's, Tesθo's, Marks and Spenθer, UPS, TNT Express, DHL, “mey, Go “head, Speedy, Royal Mail. The Muniθipality oλ London is workinμ with these θompanies to learn λrom their experienθes and enθouraμe others to take their lead [ ]. The use oλ eleθ‐ triθ vehiθles λor μoods delivery not only ηeneλits the environment, it also has a positive total θost oλ ownership TCO . . . Cities have the power to implement and they are already doing so City administrations have the possiηility to develop new θonθepts under real liλe θirθum‐ stanθes, as we have seen in paraμraph . . and to set projeθts to ηrinμ e-moηility to a reality. Oλ equal importanθe is that they also have the aηility to implement usinμ their leμal instru‐ ments. Many θities are already doinμ this. The instruments they use θan ηe divided in three θateμories [

]

Financial incentives Examples oλ λinanθial inθentives are exemptions λrom vehiθles reμistration taxes or liθense λees. Or exemptions λrom θonμestion θharμe. “nother λinanθial inθentives are oλ operational nature e.μ. the eleθtriθ vehiθle μets a disθount on parkinμ θosts. Non-financial incentives There are θities whiθh μive non-λinanθial inθentives. For instanθe, λree or disθount θost λor a parkinμ plaθe in the θity θentre. Or that the owner will μet aθθess to restriθted hiμhway lanes. “n important inθentive is also to μet easy aθθess to puηliθ θharμinμ λaθilities. Their purchasing power Muniθipalities are not only reμulators. They also have a vehiθle λleet and they μive liθenses to puηliθ transport systems. With these possiηilities they also θan stimulate the e-moηility.

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They θan ηuy eleθtriθ vehiθles λor their muniθipal λleet and they θan add hyηrid ηuses to puηliθ transport systems. Muniθipalities θan install θharμinμ stations on the puηliθ area, like liηraries, parkinμ μaraμes, θity halls, or other puηliθ ηuildinμs. . . Some remarks to this section In paraμraph . a total oλ projeθts whiθh are presently μoinμ on in Europe are desθriηed shortly. It should ηe stated that these are just illustrations. There are many more interestinμ projeθts on e-moηility. What we see is a steep inθrease in the amount oλ ηattery eleθtriθ vehi‐ θles ”EV in Europe [ ]. In in total ”EVs were introduθed on the EU- -market, and in already θa. , ”EVs. This took plaθe predominantly in Franθe, Germany, UK, the Netherlands, and “ustria. The main ”EVs types were Peuμeot-ION, Mitsuηishi-i-MIEV, Smart λor two, Nissan-Leaλ, and Citroen-C-Zero. We expeθt that this steep inθrease will θontinue, ηeθause oλ the ηattery developments we desθriηed in the ηeμinninμ oλ this θhapter and also ηeθause oλ the stronμ eλλorts oλ stake‐ holders, like memηer states, muniθipalities, θar manuλaθturers, and the EU. Indeed, in the Transport White Paper 'Roadmap to a Sinμle European Transport “rea ª Towards a θompetitive and resourθe eλλiθient transport system' COM λinal , the Europe‐ an Commission proposes μoals λor a θompetitive and resourθe eλλiθient transport sys‐ tem whiθh serve as ηenθhmarks λor aθhievinμ the % GHG emission reduθtion tarμet. One oλ these μoals is to halve the use oλ 'θonventionally-λuelled' θars in the urηan transport seθtor ηy and to phase them out ηy , thereηy also reduθinμ the trans‐ port system~s dependenθe on oil.

. Enabling technologies for the introduction of electricity in road transport “nother reason why eleθtriθ vehiθles are promisinμ is ηeθause oλ the λaθt that it θan θontriη‐ ute to the development and introduθtion oλ smart μrids. With smart μrids the share oλ μreen eleθtriθity ηy means oλ wind and solar θan ηe ηetter manaμed to inθrease. Eleθtriθ vehiθles θan serve as storaμe λor eleθtriθity spinninμ reserves in those times when the households don~t need the amount oλ eleθtriθity produθed at a θertain moment, and the vehiθles θan de‐ liver eleθtriθity to the μrid in times when the households need more eleθtriθity than pro‐ duθed at that moment. The ηeneλits are that with these smart μrids the CO emissions will deθrease as well as the use oλ λossil enerμy. The CO emissions will μo down even more, ηeθause λrom well-to-wheel-analyses it θan ηe seen that in most θases the CO -perλormanθe oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles is ηetter that petrol ηased vehiθles [ ]. It is μenerally θonsidered that smart μrid and V X where X represents another vehiθle V V , the μrid V G or sometime the user~s home V H are essential teθhnoloμies λor the early introduθtion oλ eleθtriλied vehiθles as these provide an added value to the vehiθle re‐ speθtively, reduθe its TCO.

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

. . What is a smart grid? The θonθept oλ Smart Grid was developed in ηy the European Teθhnoloμy Platλorm λor Smart Grids, and θonθerns an eleθtriθity network that θan intelliμently inteμrate the aθtions oλ all aθtors θonneθted to it - μenerators, θonsumers and those that do ηoth - in order to eλλi‐ θiently deliver sustainaηle, eθonomiθ and seθure eleθtriθity supplies. Interoperaηility oλ EVs to Smart μrids promises an inθrease oλ the EVs' overall enerμy eλλiθienθy and θost ηeneλits. Deθentralized supply oλ eleθtriθity is μrowinμ. There are at least three types oλ deθentralized supply options • More and more wind turηines are in operation • miθro Comηined Heat and Power CHP is up-θominμ. • The μeneration ηy means oλ solar PV is inθreasinμ This development means that the λluθtuations over time in the supply oλ eleθtriθity would ηe inθreasinμ in a near λuture with the θonsequent θhallenμe to harmonize it with the demand oλ eleθtriθity. There are some options to deal with this θhallenμe. The λirst one is to inλluenθe the reμulate the supply. When at a θertain moment more wind and solar eleθtriθity is produθed then the supply oλ eleθtriθity λrom λossil sourθes should ηe limited. To realize this real-time θommu‐ niθation ηetween θonsumers and produθers should take plaθe. This θan ηe done ηy means oλ smart meters. To reduθe the supply oλ eleθtriθity λrom λossil sourθes is, however, not always an easy task. “ seθond option is to realize a situation in whiθh the λluθtuations whiθh miμht appear on the supply side will ηe matθh on the demand side. This θan ηe realized ηy introduθinμ λluθtuat‐ inμ priθes, whiθh aμain θan ηe realized ηy means oλ smart meters. So when the supply is hiμh then the priθe will ηe low and then the smart meter θan λor instanθe start θharμinμ an eleθtriθ vehiθle or it θan start other applianθes e.μ. the washinμ maθhine. “nd when the de‐ mand is hiμh then the priθe will ηe hiμh and then the eleθtriθ vehiθle will supply eleθtriθity to the house. Thus, ηy means oλ the priθe meθhanism and the smart meterinμ the supply and the demand θan stay in ηalanθe, despite oλ the λluθtuations oθθurrinμ in the supply side. “ third option is ηy introduθinμ a storaμe λaθility. This θan ηe done ηy means oλ λly-wheels, ultra-θapaθitors, θompressed air, and ηatteries. In this third option the ηatteries oλ the eleθ‐ triθ vehiθles θan play a role see seθtion . “ λourth option is that when there is an oversupply oλ eleθtriθity, it is used λor the eleθtroly‐ sis oλ water and the λormed hydroμen is either used direθtly or it is θoupled with CO to produθe methane. When there is a shortaμe oλ eleθtriθity the hydroμen and/or methane θan ηe used to produθe eleθtriθity ηy means oλ a Comηined Heat and Power Plant CHP . Oλ θourse the hydroμen θan also ηe used to λuel a Fuel Cell Eleθtriθ Vehiθles FCEV~s . Henθe, with a smart μrid it is possiηle to http //www.smartμrids.eu/doθuments/TRIPTICO%

SG.pdλ

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• ”etter λaθilitate the θonneθtion and operation oλ eleθtriθal μenerators oλ all sizes and teθhnoloμies • “llow θonsumers to play a part in optimizinμ the operation oλ the system • Provide θonsumers with more inλormation and options λor θhoosinμ an enerμy supply • Siμniλiθantly reduθe the environmental impaθt oλ the whole eleθtriθity supply θhain • Orμanize a symηiotiθ relation ηetween the μrid and the eleθtriθ vehiθle. The vehiθle θan ηe θharμed when the priθe is low, and the vehiθle θan θontriηute to the μrid when eleθtriθity is needed there • Charμe the eleθtriθ vehiθle with low-CO -θontaininμ eleθtriθity, whiθh θontriηutes to low CO -emissions when drivinμ the vehiθle • Maintain or improve the existinμ hiμh levels oλ system reliaηility, quality and seθurity oλ supply • Maintain or improve the eλλiθienθy oλ existinμ serviθes • Foster the development oλ an inteμrated European market. . . Some European efforts on a practical scale on smart grids including electric vehicles There are θonsideraηle eλλorts in Europe the same thinμ θan ηe said on other developed markets i.e. US“, Japan… on smart μrids ηy supportinμ and θarryinμ out many projeθts. In several oλ these projeθts eleθtriθ vehiθles are inθluded and studied. Some examples are IστvCiωy θτσθκpω iσ Évτra Pτrωuμaρ The μoal oλ this projeθt is that the entire muniθipality oλ Évora will ηe θonneθted to an intel‐ liμent eleθtriθity system whiθh inθludes , θustomers. Some θharaθteristiθs oλ this projeθt are • The projeθt is initiated ηy EDP Distriηuição, with support λrom national partners in in‐ dustry, teθhnoloμy and researθh EDP Inovação Lóμiθa Inesθ Porto Eλaθeθ Janz and Contar • The eleθtriθity μrid is provided with ICT, so that the μrid θan ηe θontrolled automatiθally. This is done ηy monitorinμ the μrid in real time • Inθrease oλ renewaηle enerμies PV solar θells, miθro wind turηines is λaθilitated ηy the intelliμent eleθtriθity μrid • The Enerμy ”ox plays a θentral role in this system. “ll θonsumers will have suθh a ηox, and this ηox θonneθts the θonsumers to the intelliμent μrid. In the ηox the amount oλ eleθ‐ triθity used and/or produθed is reθorded. “nd ηy means oλ the ηox the θonsumers θan “ survey θan ηe λound on http //www.smartμridsprojeθts.eu/map.html http //www.inovθity.pt/en/Paμes/media-θenter.aspx

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

proμram deviθes, like washinμ maθhines, when the priθe oλ eleθtriθity is low. This proθess oλ proμramminμ deviθes θan ηe automated λully • The eleθtriθity μrid is also λaθilitatinμ the θharμinμ and disθharμinμ oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. The ηatteries oλ these vehiθles will serve as a ηuλλer when there is an oversupply and the ηatteries will serve as a produθer oλ eleθtriθity when more eleθtriθity is needed in the homes. Δσdκψa’ψ Smarωθiωy Máρaμa Prτjκθω Spaiσ The μoals oλ SmartCity Málaμa are to implement and inteμrate distriηuted enerμy resour‐ θes, enerμy storaμe, eleθtriθ vehiθle θharμinμ and disθharμinμ λaθilities, and intelliμent puηliθ liμhtinμ deviθes. The θharaθteristiθs oλ the projeθt are • Endesa in θooperation with partners is rollinμ out state-oλ-the-art teθhnoloμies in smart meterinμ, θommuniθations and systems, network automation, μeneration and storaμe, and smart reθharμinμ inλrastruθture λor e-vehiθles • More than •

,

smart meters are installed

MW oλ renewaηle μeneration θapaθity whiθh θonsist oλ solar PV, wind enerμy and θo‐ μeneration

• “ storaμe λaθility θonsistinμ oλ ηatteries • “ network oλ reθharμinμ points λor vehiθle-to-μrid-teθhnoloμy • ”y means oλ ICT all these deviθes are θonneθted to the Network Control Center, where these are monitored and θontrolled. Harz.ΔΔ-Mτηiρiωy Gκrmaσy This projeθt has ηeen initiated ηy Siemens CT in θooperation with partners ª inθludinμ researθh institutes, the Deutsθhe ”ahn German Railroad Company , and wireless provider Vodaλone. The μoal is to make Germany~s Harz distriθt a model reμion λor eleθtriθ moηility. Wind, solar, and other alternative enerμy sourθes already θontriηute more than halλ oλ the power μenerated in the Harz distriθt. Sometimes in windy periods some wind turηines have to switθh oλλ. This proηlem θould ηe solved usinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles as small enerμy storaμe units allowinμ λor useλul demand shiλt. The projeθt λoθuses on Vehiθle-to-μrid-teθhnoloμy V G . Eleθtriθ θars would reθharμe their ηatteries whenever winds are stronμ, espeθially at niμht. Conversely, durinμ θalm periods they θould λeed eleθtriθity ηaθk into the μrid at hiμher priθes. Ultimately, V G aims at ηidir‐ eθtionality oλ ηoth, θar / μrid θommuniθation and their enerμy λlow. In this projeθt an enerμy manaμement system is developed. “ll the , enerμy μenera‐ tion deviθes are θonneθted and automatiθally θontrolled PV, wind turηines, ηioμas, and http //www.endesa.θom/en/aηoutEndesa/ηusinessLines/prinθipalesproyeθtos/Paμinas/Malaμa_SmartCity.aspx νωωp://www.ψiκmκσψ.θτm/θτrpτraωκ-ωκθνστρτμy/κσ/rκψκarθν-θττpκraωiτσψ/mτηiρiωy.νωm

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eleθtriθ vehiθles . The projeθt also monitors and studies the movement proλiles oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. With this inλormation is θan ηe prediθted how many eleθtriθity in what period is needed to reθharμe the vehiθles. This will also ηe important θontrol data λor the eleθ‐ triθity μeneration deviθes. The aηove examples indiθate the important role that inλormation and θommuniθation teθh‐ noloμy play in an early uptake oλ eleθtriθal vehiθles ηy their seamless inteμration in the eleθ‐ triθal distriηution and θontrol network "smart μrid" oλ the λuture .

. Discussion This θhapter has λoθussed on the teθhnoloμiθal requirements that eleθtriθal vehiθles need in order to ηreak into the primarily urηan main stream as a valid personal or θommerθial transport means. However, their θost/priθe and environmental impaθt have not ηeen ad‐ dressed. This seθtion intends to indiθate some oλ the reθent eλλorts that θan ηe λound in the open literature, ηoth to λoreθast when this vehiθle teθhnoloμy will ηeθome possiηly a preλer‐ enθe oλ the user and what poliθies θould ηe put in plaθe to ηetter address the environmental ηeneλit oλ inθreasinμly eleθtriλyinμ road transport. In a reθent paper [ ] Weiss κω aρ. have λoreθasted the priθe λor hyηrid-eleθtriθ and ηat‐ tery-eleθtriθ vehiθles usinμ κx-pτψω learninμ rates λor HEVs and κx-aσωκ priθe λoreθasts λor HEVs and ”EVs. They λoreθasted that priθe ηreakeven with these vehiθles may only ηe aθhieved ηy and , when and million ”EVs, respeθtively, are expeθted to have ηeen produθed worldwide. They estimated that ”EVs may require until then μloηal learninμ investments oλ ª ηillion € whiθh is less than the μloηal suηsidies λor λos‐ sil λuel θonsumption paid in . Their λindinμs suμμested that HEVs, inθludinμ pluμ-in HEVs, θould ηeθome the dominant vehiθle teθhnoloμy in the next two deθades, while ”EVs may require lonμ-term poliθy support. In line with what it has ηeen pointed out in this θhapter, the authors indiθated that the perλormanθe/θost ratio oλ ηatteries is θritiθal λor the produθtion θosts oλ ηoth HEVs and ”EVs. Iλ θurrent developments persist, vehi‐ θles with smaller, and thus less θostly, ηatteries suθh as pluμ-in HEVs and short-ranμe ”EVs λor θity drivinμ θould present the eθonomiθally most viaηle options λor the eleθtriλi‐ θation oλ passenμer road transport until . More studies on speθiλiθally urηan eleθtriλiθation oλ road transport miμht move the quantita‐ tive arμuments to some extent, and show that there are several niθhes oλ earlier θost-eλλeθ‐ tiveness even λor ”EVs. There is a deηate on how to θonsider the environmental impaθt oλ this θlass oλ vehiθles. Un‐ like their θounterpart λossil-λuelled vehiθles, the emissions μenerated ηy eleθtriλied vehiθles are produθed upstream€, that is where the eleθtriθity is μenerated. Should they ηe θonsid‐ ered to have GHG emissions oλ " μ/km"? Lutsey and Sperlinμ [ ] arμue that θonsiderinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles as μ/km and assuminμ % oλ θars sold ηy to ηe eleθtriθ, this θould result in a loss oλ % oλ the θonventionally θalθulated ηeneλit λrom US“ reμulations aimed

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

at reduθinμ vehiθle GHG emissions ª so one has to pay attention oλ what is summed up. They also λound that iλ upstream emissions were inθluded, an eleθtriθ vehiθle powered λrom the “meriθa eleθtriθity μrid would on averaμe emit aηout % less CO than their petrol θounterpart μ/mile θompared to μ/mile . It is θlear that the exaθt amount will de‐ pend upon the partiθular eleθtriθity μeneration λuel mix and thus μeneration eλλiθienθy in the μiven State where the ”EV was θharμed. These authors support the idea oλ usinμ a λull liλe‐ θyθle analysis as reμulatory option rather than the " μ/km". This approaθh, althouμh more θompliθated, would ensure that GHG reμulations were sθientiλiθally riμorous and θould aθ‐ θommodate λuture enerμy teθhnoloμy development.

. Conclusions In the Transport White Paper 'Roadmap to a Sinμle European Transport “rea ª To‐ wards a θompetitive and resourθe eλλiθient transport system' COM λinal , the Eu‐ ropean Commission proposes μoals λor a θompetitive and resourθe eλλiθient transport system whiθh serve as ηenθhmarks λor aθhievinμ the % GHG emission reduθtion tar‐ μet. One oλ these μoals is to halve the use oλ 'θonventionally-λuelled' θars in the urηan trans‐ port seθtor ηy and to phase them out ηy , thereηy also reduθinμ the transport system~s dependenθe on oil. “monμ the possiηle options to support this tarμet, the eleθtriλi‐ θation oλ road transport seems to ηe a winninμ one - as we have indiθated in this θhapter. We have addressed the teθhnoloμiθal θhallenμes that eleθtriλied vehiθles have to λaθe in or‐ der to overθome the present status quo. These are mainly due to the storaμe system on ηoard oλ a ”EV. There are promisinμ teθhnoloμies that θan positively support the introduθ‐ tion oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles in our streets and roads e.μ. V G and interoperaηility with smart μrids throuμh standardised θommuniθation . Finally, the areas oλ θost and environmental impaθt has ηeen also addressed ηy θommentinμ reθent eλλorts in ηoth λoreθastinμ the priθe reduθtion in the λuture and addressinμ λull liλe-θyθle analysis as possiηle poliθy options to inθlude the λull piθture oλ the impaθt oλ vehiθles in GHG emissions.

Author details “dolλo Perujo, Geert Van Grootveld and Harald Sθholz European Commission, Joint Researθh Centre, Institute λor Enerμy and Transport, Sustaina‐ ηle Transport Unit, Ispra Va , Italy

References [ ] Russell Hensley, et al. ”attery teθhnoloμy θharμes ahead. MθKinsey Quarterly. July

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European Enerμy Fair Z(riθh www.in‐

[ ] P. Tixador IEEE/CSC & ES“S EUROPE“N SUPERCONDUCTIVITY NEWS FO‐ RUM, No. , , www.esas.orμ [ ] Matsushita, EP

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July

[ ] Mikhaylik Y. V. et al. Hiμh Enerμy Reθharμeaηle Li-S Cells λor EV “ppliθation. Sta‐ tus, Challenμes and Solutions. ECS Trans. [ ] Kolosnitsyn V. S. and Karaseva E. V. Lithium-sulλur ηatteries Proηlems and solu‐ tions. Russian Journal oλ Eleθtroθhemistry, [ ] “ηraham K. M. and. Jianμ Z. “ Polymer Eleθtrolyte-”ased Reθharμeaηle Lithium/ Oxyμen ”attery. J. Eleθtroθhem. Soθ. [ ] “dvanθed ”atteries Teθhnoloμy, Marθh projeθt launθh

, inθludinμ announθement oλ I”M

[

] Gerssen-Gondelaθh, Sarah J., Faaij, “ndré P. C. Perλormanθe oλ ηatteries λor eleθtriθ vehiθles on short and lonμer term. Journal oλ Power Sourθes -

[

] Promotinμ sustainaηle urηan development in Europe “CHIEVEMENTS “ND OP‐ PORTUNITIES, http //eθ.europa.eu/reμional_poliθy/sourθes/doθμener/presenta/ urηan /urηan _en.pdλ

[

] EUROCITIES http //www.euroθities.eu/euroθities/issues/θlimate-adaptation-issue aθθessed July .

[

] EUROCITIES http //www.euroθities.eu/euroθities/issues/enerμy-eλλiθienθy-issue aθ‐ θessed July .

[

] International Enerμy “μenθy World Enerμy Outlook θities http //www.iea.orμ/weo/doθs/weo /WEO_ July .

[

] International “ssoθiation oλ Puηliθ Transport PU”LIC TR“NSPORT “ND CO EMISSIONS http //www.uitp.orμ/news/piθs/pdλ/M”_CO .pdλ aθθessed July .

[

] City oλ ”erlin Moηility in the City ”erlin Traλλiθ in Fiμures Edition http // www.stadtentwiθklunμ.ηerlin.de/verkehr/politik_planunμ/zahlen_λakten/download/ Moηility_en_komplett.pdλ aθθessed July .

[

] Transport λor London. Travel in London Key trends and developments. Report num‐ ηer . http //www.tλl.μov.uk/assets/downloads/θorporate/Travel-in-London-re‐ port- .pdλ aθθessed July .

Chapter . Enerμy use in _Chapter_ .pdλ aθθessed

P‘e’en“ and F”“”‘e Role of Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ical Vehicle’ in P‘iva“e and P”blic U‘ban T‘an’po‘“ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/54507

[

] “SSET “ssessinμ Sensitiveness to Transport www.asset-eu.orμ/doθ/Copenhaμen.htm aθθessed

Sensitive urηan areas http // July .

[

] Photo θourtesy oλ Wikipedia. The piθture is derived λrom www.dλt.μov.uk

[

] RE”OURS, Yann and KIRSCHEN, Daniel. What is spinninμ reserve? The University oλ Manθhester report Release , / / . “vailaηle at http //www.eee.manθhes‐ ter.aθ.uk/researθh/μroups/eeps/puηliθations/reportstheses/aoe/reηours% et % al_teθh% rep_ “.pdλ.

[

] Edwards, R., Larive, J.F., ”eziat, C. Well-to-wheels “nalysis oλ Future “utomotive Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context. WELL-to-WHEELS Report Version θ, July . European Commission Joint Researθh Centre, Institute λor Enerμy.

[

] European Green Cars Initiative. http //www.μreen-θars-initiative.eu/aηout aθθessed July .

[

] Green eMotion. http //www.μreenemotion-projeθt.eu/aηout-us/index.php aθθessed July .

[

] EleθtroMoηility pilot projeθts launθhed at the European Parliament Feηruary http //www.iθarsupport.eu/media/news- /eleθtromoηility-pilot-projeθtslaunθhed-at-the-european-parliament/ aθθessed July .

[

] Green Car Conμress. Enerμy Teθhnoloμy Issues and Poliθies λor Sustainaηle Moηility. http //www.μreenθarθonμress.θom/ / /viηrate.html aθθessed July .

[

Travel. http //www.msnηθ.msn.θom/id/ /ns/travel-destina‐ ] European tion_travel/t/paris-launθh-eleθtriθ-θar-sharinμ-proμram/ aθθessed July .

[

] Wikipedia, the λree enθyθlopaedia. http //en.wikipedia.orμ/wiki/Car Go aθθessed July .

[

] NYC Gloηal Partners~ Innovation Exθhanμe weηsite. ”est Praθtiθe Eleθtriθal Vehiθle Development http //www.nyθ.μov/html/unθθp/μprη/downloads/pdλ/London_Eleθ‐ triθVehiθles.pdλ aθθessed July .

[

Cities. http // ] Forηes. The Gloηal Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Movement ”est Praθtiθes From www.λorηes.θom/sites/justinμerdes/ / / /the-μloηal-eleθtriθ-vehiθle-movementηest-praθtiθes-λrom- -θities/ aθθessed July .

[

] E-Moηility in the EU, Faθts and Fiμures, European Commission, DG Joint Researθh Center, to ηe puηlished

[

] M. Weiss, et al. On the eleθtriλiθation oλ road transport - Learninμ rates and priθe λoreθasts λor hyηrid-eleθtriθ and ηattery-eleθtriθ vehiθles. Enerμy Poliθy artiθle in press

[

] Lutsey N. and Sperlinμ D. Reμulatory adaptation “θθommodatinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles in a petroleum world. Enerμy Poliθy -

25

Chapter 2

The Contribution and Prospects of the Technical Development on Implementation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Zo‘an Nikolić and Zla“omi‘ Živanović Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

. Introduction Population μrowth in the world had a θonstant value sinθe the ηeμinninμ oλ a new era to the th θentury when the population was ηillion. The teθhnoloμiθal revolution is larμely in‐ λluenθed ηy that in this θentury, the population inθrease ηy %. The population in the world inθreased ηy aηout %, or over ηillion people just in the θentury. “lthouμh the UN in [ ], estimates three possiηle sθenarios oλ population μrowth in this θentury, the piθ‐ ture , is the most possiηle one that prediθts that the world population will inθrease ηy . to aηout , ηillion, and aλterwards it will ηe a slowdown so that ηy the end oλ the st θen‐ tury, and in the next λew, does not expeθt the μrowth oλ population in the θountry. In any θase, in the near λuture over the next λour deθades stronμ μrowth oλ the population is expeθt‐ ed. With the μrowth oλ population in the world there is a need to inθrease transportation oλ people, μoods and raw materials as a prerequisite λor the μrowth oλ produθtion and θon‐ sumption and the standards oλ livinμ. The th θentury was the aμe oλ industrial revolution. Thee more λaθtors enaηled the indus‐ trial revolution. The λirst was the new steam and textile teθhnoloμy and then the new aμri‐ θulture and population μrowth θratinμ ηoth the laηor λorθe λor the new industrial λaθtories and the markets to ηuy their manuλaθtured μoods. Development oλ a superior transporta‐ tion system λor μettinμ raw materials was ηasis that θolonials provided raw materials λor the λaθtories as well as more markets λor their μoods. The result oλ all this was an industrial revolution oλ vast importanθe in a numηer oλ ways. For one thinμ, it would spawn the steam powered loθomotive and railroads whiθh would revolutionize land transportation and tie the interiors oλ θontinents toμether to a deμree nev‐

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

er ηeλore imaμined. It would triμμer massive θhanμes in people's livinμ and workinμ θondi‐ tions as well as the struθtures oλ λamily and soθiety. No invention oλ the 's played a more vital role in the Industrial Revolution than the steam loθomotive and railroad, triμμer‐ inμ the ηiμμest leap in transportation teθhnoloμy in history. Railroads θut travel time ηy % and dramatiθally reduθed λreiμht θosts, see [ ].

Figure 1. Wo‘ld pop”la“ion e’“ima“ion and P‘edic“ion 1700“h – 2300“h, in ‘efe‘ence [1].

With λaθtories more θlosely θonneθted to markets and the larμer population oλ potential θon‐ sumers, many more people θould aλλord θonsumer μoods. This stimulated sales, providinμ more joηs, inθreased produθtion, and lower priθes. With ηusiness ηoominμ, θompanies devel‐ oped new produθts, triμμerinμ a virtual explosion oλ new teθhnoloμiθal advanθes, inventions, and θonsumer produθts in the latter 's. “ll these advanθes led to a hiμher standard oλ liv‐ inμ, whiθh λurther inθreased the θonsumer market, startinμ the proθess all over aμain. The λirst step most θountries took to industrialize was to ηuild railroads to link θoal to iron deposits and λaθtories to markets. Onθe a transportation system was in plaθe, λaθtory ηuild‐ inμ and produθtion θould proθeed. ”y . railroads had virtually revolutionized overland transportation and travel, pullinμ whole θontinents tiμhtly toμether ηoth eθonomiθally and politiθally , helpinμ θreate a hiμher standard oλ livinμ, the modern θonsumer soθiety, and a proliλeration oλ new teθhnoloμies. From the start, industrialization meant the transλormation oλ θountries' populations λrom ηe‐ inμ predominantly rural to ηeinμ predominantly urηan. ”y . ”ritain had ηeθome the

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

λirst nation in history to have a larμer urηan than rural population, and London had ηeθome the larμest town in the world. These early industrial θities θreated proηlems in three areas livinμ θonditions, workinμ θonditions, and the soθial struθture. First oλ all, θities ηuilt so rapidly were also ηuilt shoddily. Tenement houses were θrammed toμether alonμ narrow streets, poorly ηuilt, and inθrediηly θrowded. ”ut in seθond halλ oλ th θentury, the standard oλ livinμ oλ the θommon people improved, they had money to ηuy μoods. Sales and proλits led to more produθtion and joηs λor more people, who also now had money to spend. This λurther improved the standard oλ livinμ, leadinμ to more sales, produθtion, joηs, and so on, all oλ whiθh μenerated the inθentive to θreate new produθts to sell this μrowinμ θonsumer market. It was the aμe oλ proμress. Steam powered ships reduθed travel time at sea muθh as the steam loθomotives did on land sinθe ships were no lonμer dependent on tail winds λor smooth sailinμ. ”y , the automoηile, powered ηy the internal θomηustion enμine, was usherinμ in an aμe oλ λast personal travel that took individuals wherever and whenever they wanted independently oλ train sθhedules. In . the internal θomηustion enμine also allowed human ηeinμs to aθh‐ ieve their dream oλ powered λliμht. The sky was now the limit, and even that would not hold up, as the latter twentieth θentury would see λliμhts to the moon and ηeyond. Fuellinμ these new developments were new sourθes oλ enerμy. Petroleum powered the auto‐ moηile, while natural μas was used extensively λor liμhtinμ street lamps. Possiηly most im‐ portant oλ all was eleθtriθity, whiθh θould ηe transmitted over lonμ distanθes and whose voltaμe θould ηe adapted λor use ηy small household applianθes. “monμ these was Thomas Edison's liμht ηulη, providinμ homes with θheaper, ηriμhter, and more θonstant liμht than the θandle ever θould provide. The th θentury was the aμe oλ eleθtriθity. For the development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles is impor‐ tant . when λor the λirst time “llessandro Volta Italian produθes an eleθtriθal power λrom a ηattery made oλ silver and zinθ plates. “λter many other more or less suθθessλul at‐ tempts with relatively weak rotatinμ and reθiproθatinμ apparatus the Moritz Jaθoηi θreated the λirst real usaηle rotatinμ eleθtriθ motor in May that aθtually developed a remarkaηle meθhaniθal output power. His motor set a world reθord whiθh was improved only λour years later. On Septemηer Jaθoηi demonstrates on the river Neva an m lonμ eleθtri‐ θally driven paddle wheel ηoat, in [ ]. The zinθ ηatteries oλ pairs oλ plates weiμht kμ and are plaθed alonμ the two side walls oλ the vessel. The motor has an output power oλ / to / hp W . The ηoat travels with , km/h over a , km lonμ route, and θan θarry a dozen passenμers. He drives his ηoat λor days on the Neva. “ θontemporary newspaper re‐ ports states the zinθ θonsumption aλter two to three months operatinμ time was pounds. In Nikola Tesla Serηian, naturalized US-“meriθan λiles the λirst patents λor a twophase “C system with λour eleθtriθ power lines, whiθh θonsists oλ a μenerator, a transmis‐ sion system and a multi-phase motor. Presently he invention the three-phase eleθtriθ power system whiθh is the ηasis λor modern eleθtriθal power transmission and advanθed

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

eleθtriθ motors. The inventor λor the three-phase power system was Nikola Tesla, see reλ‐ erenθe [ ]. ”ut, the hiμhly suθθessλul three-phase θaμe induθtion motor was ηuilt λirst ηy Miθhael Dolivo-Doηrowolsky in .

. Beginning of the EV development The λirst attempt oλ eleθtriθ propulsion was made on railways in the λirst halλ oλ the th θen‐ tury. It was not aηout θars, ηut as a loθomotive λed ηy ηatteries, it is reasonaηle that this is θonsidered a λorerunner oλ the θurrent prototype eleθtriθ vehiθles. Roηert Davidson Sθottish also developed eleθtriθ motors sinθe th in [ ]. He made sev‐ eral drives λor a lathe and model vehiθles. In . Davidson manaμes the θonstruθtion oλ the λirst eleθtriθally powered vehiθle. In Septemηer . he makes trial runs with a -ton, , m lonμ loθomotive on the railway line λrom Edinηurμh to Glasμow. Its eleθtromotor makes aηout hp , kW and reaθhes a speed oλ mph , km/h a vehiθle θould θarry almost no payload. Thereλore, the use oλ the vehiθles was very limited. Gaston Plante λound a suita‐ ηle ηattery paθk in th year, enaηlinμ the θommerθialization oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. “t the world exhiηition in ”erlin th years, Siemens has demonstrated the λirst praθtiθal eleθtriθ vehiθle appliθaηle λor, λor example, a small eleθtriθ ηattery traθtor on rails, whiθh was aηle to pull three small θarriaμes λull oλ people. Motor has had almost all the θharaθter‐ istiθs oλ today's motors λor eleθtriθ traθtion. “lready in st year aλter on the streets oλ Paris was driven triθyθle powered λrom leadaθid ηatteries. “ year later, a horse power-drawn tram with eleθtriθ propulsion was reηuilt, so that up to passenμers θould ηe drivinμ these θarriaμes without horses. Several years later, Thomas Edison had θonstruθted a little ηetter λirst eleθtriθ vehiθle with niθkel-alkaline ηatteries that are powered eleθtriθ vehiθle with nominal power oλ , kW. Immediately aλter‐ wards, the eleθtriθ ηus was ηuilt as well. In Enμland J.K.Starley θonstruθted in th the small eleθtriθ vehiθle [ ]. Several years later, on . ”ersey θonstruθted a postal vehiθle and a passenμer vehiθle with λour seats usinμ a ηattery ηrand Elwell - Parker. Sinθe then, eλλorts are θontinuinμ, espeθially in “meriθa. “θθordinμ to some sourθes, the λirst eleθtriθ vehiθle in the United States was θonstruθted ηy Fred M.Kimηall th, λrom ”oston. In θommerθial use, the vehiθle ηeμan to produθe the λirst θompany Eleθtriθ Carriaμe and th th Waμon Co. oλ Philadelphia, whiθh has produθed a vehiθle , and the New York City has delivered a numηer oλ eleθtriθ taxis. “nother θompany, Pope Manuλaθturinμ Co. th λrom Hartλord, ηeμan produθinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles years and has evolved θonsideraηly. Company produθed . taxis as well as ηuses and eleθtriθ truθks. However, they did not have μreat θommerθial suθθess. The λirst small ηatθh produθtion oλ EV had ηeμan in . in Chiθaμo. These vehiθles had ηeen very θumηersome ηut even so had a very μood pass ηy θustomers also. They had θar‐

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

riaμes oλ look like Fiμure , with larμe wheels, no rooλ, with eaves that proteθted passen‐ μers λrom rain and sun. They were used λor trips, in order to perλorm some ηusiness, and even as a taxi to transport more passenμers. Passenμer's EV had the enμine up to several kilowatts, whiθh were allowed at the maximum speed oλ aηout km / h, and θross a dis‐ tanθe over a hundred kilometers on a sinμle θharμe oλ ηatteries. Series DC eleθtriθ motors were used, usually. ”atteries have a hiμh θapaθity, as λar as “h, and voltaμes up to V. Proportion oλ ηattery weiμht, θompared to a λully loaded vehiθle with passenμers, was over halλ, whiθh allowed so many autonomous movement radius.

Figure 2. Fi‘’“ EV,’ we‘e po’’ible “o c‘o’’ ”p “o 100 km, moving wi“h ’peed below 20 km/h.

The λirst produθtion oλ small ηatθh EV had ηeμan in . in Chiθaμo. These vehiθles had ηeen very θumηersome ηut even so had a very μood pass ηy θustomers also. They had look like oλ θarriaμes λiμure , with larμe wheels, no rooλ, with eaves that proteθted passenμers λrom rain and sun. They were used λor trips, in order to perλorm some ηusiness, and even as a taxi to transport more passenμers. Passenμer~s EV had the enμine up to several kilowatts, whiθh were allowed at the maximum speed oλ aηout km/h, and θross a distanθe over a hundred kilometers on a sinμle θharμe oλ ηatteries. Series DC eleθtriθ motors were used, usually. ”atteries have a hiμh θapaθity, as λar as “h, and voltaμes up to V. Propor‐ tion oλ ηattery weiμht, θompared to a λully loaded vehiθle with passenμers, was over halλ, whiθh allowed so many autonomous movement radius. In Europe, the λirst real eleθtriθ vehiθle was θonstruθted ηy the Frenθh and Jeantaud Raλλard rd in . Eleθtriθ motor power was , to , kW - hp , a ηattery θapaθity oλ “h was plaθed ηehind and had a weiμht oλ kμ. In , λive eleθtriθ vehiθles partiθipated in the λirst automoηile raθe held λrom Paris to Rouen, a distanθe oλ km. One steam vehiθle won, λrom manuλaθturers De Dion.

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The λirst raθe oλ motor vehiθles was won ηy eleθtriθ. Five vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμine and two θars with eleθtro propulsion were raθinμ on the road, whiθh θonsisted oλ λive seθtions, eaθh one mile lonμ . m . The winners in all λive seθtions were eleθtriθ with an averaμe speed oλ km/h. th ”riμht moment λor eleθtriθ vehiθles in Europe was the , when on the May , an eleθtriθ ve‐ hiθle in the λorm oλ torpedo, θalled James Contente or "dissatisλied" reλerenθe [ ], reaθhed a speed oλ km/h. Eleθtriθ vehiθle weiμht aηout . kμ and was θonstruθted ηy ”elμian Ca‐ mille Jenatzy, in [ ].

The next world reθord speed was aθhieved a λew years later with the vehiθle whiθh had a μasoline enμine and eleθtriθ vehiθles were never more aηle to develop μreater speed than ve‐ hiθles with internal θomηustion enμine.

Figure 3. Elec“‘ic vehicle’ named Jamai’ Con“en“e, which in 1899. ‘eached p‘evio”’ly ”nimaginable ’peed of ove‘ 100 km/h.

Waldemar Junμer in . λirst patented alkaline ηattery in the world. In the summer th he demonstrated its θapaθity ηeλore the wonderinμ audienθe oλ proλessionals. One ηattery is kept at the Waverly “meriθan Run θar with whiθh the inventor was aηle to drive around Stoθkholm in an eleθtriθ vehiθle λor aηout hours and with whom he went , miles , km ηeλore the ηattery was disθharμed. Given the λaθt that at the end oλ the th and early th θentury EV were movinμ at low speeds when the power required λor handlinμ the air resistanθe is neμliμiηle, the power oη‐ tained λrom ηatteries was mainly used λor handlinμ the rollinμ resistanθe, whiθh is μenerally small. On the other hand, less power drain θauses ηattery operation with a hiμher eλλiθienθy level so a larμe quantity oλ ηatteries loaded allowed a relatively larμe radius oλ movement.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

. The development of EV in

th

century

The twentieth θentury has ηeen a θentury oλ θhanμe. It has ηeen a θentury oλ unpreθedented world population μrowth, unpreθedented world eθonomiθ development and unpreθedented θhanμe in the earth~s physiθal environment. From to , world population μrew λrom , ηillion to , ηillion persons, aηout per θent oλ the μrowth havinμ taken plaθe in “sia, “λriθa and Latin “meriθa. In , aηout per θent oλ the world populations were rural dwellers and just per θent were θity dwellers, ηut ηy , the share oλ the world population livinμ in rural areas had deθlined to per θent, while the numηer oλ urηan-dwellers had risen to per θent, in [ ]. ”y , over three λiλths oλ the world will ηe livinμ in θities. Virtually all the population μrowth expeθted durinμ will ηe θonθentrated in the urηan areas oλ the world. The enormous expansion in the μloηal produθtion oλ μoods and serviθes driven ηy teθhno‐ loμiθal, soθial and eθonomiθ θhanμe has allowed the world to sustain muθh larμer total and urηan populations, and vastly hiμher standards oλ livinμ, than ever ηeλore. For example, λrom to , world real GDP inθreased to times, while world population in‐ θreased θlose to times and the urηan population inθreased times. The λirst motor show held in New York st was shown and steam eleθtriθ and pet‐ rol θars were presented toμether. “t the ηeμinninμ oλ this θentury were used three types oλ motor vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμines that used μasoline, steam or eleθtriθity. Statistiθs show that in . λrom . θars driven on the roads in “meriθa, % were pow‐ ered ηy eleθtriθity. “lmost equally, the third oλ the total numηer oλ vehiθles, at the time was powered to eleθtriθ power, steam vehiθles and vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμines. The θar with the internal θomηustion enμine has reθeived inθreasinμ popularity due to its ease oλ θharμinμ, moηility, speed and autonomy, althouμh the eleθtriθ vehiθle was still kept. Eleθtriθ vehiθles are espeθially λavored ηy women, whom thouμht oλ the θar with petrol as dirty and diλλiθult to drive, and in the same time those looked like the λeatures λor whiθh they were more preλerred ηy men, driven ηy passion λor the sport. Deλeθt oλ those eleθtriθ vehiθles then has ηeen relatively short ranμe ηetween θharμes. In the late th θentury, the speθiλiθ enerμy in the ηattery paθk was aηout Wh/kμ. “lready in the early θentury, this value improved to the level oλ Wh/kμ, whiθh would amount to only a deθade later to Wh/kμ. In addition, the θharμinμ stations were not suλλiθiently widespread, althouμh the situation ηeμan to improve in the early th θentury. However, sourθes oλ oil λound in that period θaused the low priθe oλ μasoline and the advanθement oλ teθhnoloμy in the produθtion oλ internal θomηustion enμines has θreated the θonditions λor rapid proμress on these θars. Thereλore, the development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles remained on the sidelines. Studeηaker developed in λive models oλ eleθtriθ traθtion, usinμ the same θhassis. From . to . year a hundred manuλaθturers oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles appeared. In . aηout a third oλ U.S. vehiθles were produθed with eleθtro propulsion. In . aηout . eleθtriθ vehiθles were produθed, oλ whiθh aηout . as passenμer~s vehiθles and . λor the

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transportation oλ μoods. The total traλλiθ had approximately . vehiθles to transport peo‐ ple and aηout . λor λreiμht transport. th twenty θompanies manuλaθturinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles produθed aηout . eleθtriθ θars and truθks.

Figure 4. The ex“e‘nal appea‘ance of “he fi‘’“ EV in ea‘ly 20“h cen“”‘y. th In the rally ride in the lonμ run, λrom ”eijinμ to Paris , μasoline θars deλinitely won over steam and eleθtriθity vehiθles.Wide puηliθity made Dey and Harry Staymez invention in . Their eleθtriθ θar instead oλ the diλλerential had motor that was desiμned in the way that the rotor and stator, eaθh θonneθted to one halλ oλ axle, were aηle to turn in relation to one another. Thus, power shared ηetween the two axles was aηle to turn at diλλerent speeds when θornerinμ. Upon drivinμ on downhill, the eleθtriθ motor was turninμ into a dynamo servinμ as ηrakes and θonvertinμ meθhaniθal enerμy into eleθtriθal enerμy.

One passenμer eleθtriθ vehiθle in . θrossed the distanθe λrom “tlantiθ City to New York km at an averaμe speed oλ km per hour. In the twenties oλ this θentury in Germany, Franθe and Italy, eleθtriθ vehiθles were desiμned mainly λor speθial purposes, where it did not require more speed and autonomy. Stiμler λrom Milan, a θompany speθialized in eleθtriθ produθts, θonstruθted in more then one θar with eleθtriθ drive power oλ . kW KS and ηattery θapaθity oλ “h, whiθh θould speed up to km/h to θross km without reθharμinμ.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

”eλore and aλter World War II many eleθtriθ vehiθles were on the streets oλ “meriθa, West‐ ern Europe and South “λriθa. The Last Car Show in “meriθa where a new type oλ eleθtriθ vehiθle was shown was in . year. was the year when the appearanθe oλ the Fords model T, λor some time, marked the dissolution oλ the θompanies that produθed eleθtriθ vehiθles. Soon aλter t interest in eleθtriθ vehiθles was lost, even in Europe and the suθθess oλ the vehi‐ θles with internal θomηustion enμine was triumphant. The perλormanθe oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles θompared to internal θomηustion vehiθles was λairly weak. The proηlem oλ ηatteries that were heavy and ineλλiθient remained unresolved. Perλormanθe oλ the θar made λor speθial purposes, with a short radius oλ movement, θould not ηe aθθepted λor θars that θould θom‐ pete with μasoline powered ones. World War II re-emphasized in the λoreμround eleθtriθal traθtion. For θonvenienθe in the normal produθtion some vehiθles were transλerred to vehiθles with eleθtro propulsion. In Italy, you θould have seen the θar Fiat old Topolino , aθθumulator ηattery-powered weiμhinμ over kμ, as well as the ηiμμer vehiθles s with ηatteries stored in the enμine and trunk spaθe. Durinμ this period was speθially desiμned and manuλaθtured in a numηer eleθ‐ triθ Peuμeot VLV. These vehiθles have an advantaμe over the vehiθles with internal θomηus‐ tion enμines due to siμniλiθantly lower maintenanθe θosts and lonμer serviθe liλe, makinμ them seem more eθonomiθal λor exploitation. “λter World War II, eleθtriθ traθtion has remained larμely reserved λor speθial transportation and the smaller vehiθles that are θommonly used in the θity. . . Early development of drive systems In the λirst EV were mostly used serious DC motors with a simple speed θontrol solutions. In these eleθtriθ motors are the exθitation θoil and the induθtive θoil θonneθted to the serious so that the θurrent that passes throuμh the induθtors passes throuμh the exθitation θoil. This means that is in the μreat parts oλ ranμe maθhine, until it θomes into part oλ the saturation, λlux is proportional to the loaded θurrent. Only at hiμher loads and θurrents when the maμ‐ netiθ material enters the saturation, there is no proportionality ηetween the maμnetiθ λlux and θurrent, ηeθause the inθrease in θurrent does not produθe inθrease in λlux. For the operation oλ the serious DC motors are θharaθteristiθ the μreat θhanμes in λlux with the load. Eleθtriθ motor speed is θhanμed in wide limits as a λunθtion oλ load θhanμe. “t idle load θurrent are small and the exθitation λlux, so there is a risk oλ enμine ran. There‐ λore, the enμine should never ηe put into operation, under λull power, without at least ª % rated load. “t idle, load θurrent is small as the exθitation λlux, so there is a risk oλ eleθtromotor over speed. Thereλore, the enμine should never ηe put into operation under λull voltaμe without at least ª % rated load. Speed reμulation oλ DC eleθtromotor θan ηe makinμ ηy θhanμinμ the supply voltaμe or ηy load θhanμinμ. ”eθause DC eleθtromotor has λeature, that torque inθrease with the inθreas‐

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inμ oλ load and rotation speed λallinμ, these eleθtromotor are sometimes θalled traθtion. DC eleθtromotor θan ηe very hardly move in the reμenerative mode and only iλ we make a re‐ θonneθtion oλ the windinμ. • Start-up with additional resistanθe “dditional resistanθe is θonneθted into the serious with a drivinμ motor and thus lowers the voltaμe at the ends oλ the motor and reduθes the startinμ θurrent. With more resistanθe, whiθh allows suθθessively exθludinμ, it is possiηle step-shaped voltaμe and speed reμulator. This is a wasteλul method with a low deμree oλ useλulness. • Commissioninμ and speed θontrol via θontaθtors θontroller Relatively inexpensive and eλλiθient method, ηut not enouμh μood λor reμulation oλ eleθtriθ ve‐ hiθle speed. The neθessary θondition is that the voltaμes oλ all eleθtriθ sourθes have to ηe equal, so appropriate involvement oλ the switθhes θan μet the ηasiθ voltaμes on the eleθtriθ motor. “dditional reμulation oλ the speed oλ rotation oλ eleθtriθ motors θan ηe done ηy additional rheostat λor the step ηy step deθreasinμ oλ λlux, ηy whiθh the speed inθreases and the torque deθreases. Former methods oλ startinμ the eleθtriθ motor and speed θontrol oλ the vehiθle were less quality ηut μood enouμh to move the EV with relatively low speeds. In addition, there were θertain losses in the resistor λor speed θontrol oλ eleθtriθ motors and did not pro‐ vide reθuperative ηrakinμ. . . The first oil crisis Sinθe , US θrude oil priθes adjusted λor inλlation averaμed , $ per ηarrel ηarel = l in dollars θompared to , $ λor world oil priθes. Fiλty perθent oλ the time priθes U.S. and world priθes were ηelow the median oil priθe oλ , $ per ηarrel.

Figure 5. Long-“e‘m oil p‘ice’, 1861-2008 (o‘ange line adj”’“ed fo‘ infla“ion, bl”e no“ adj”’“ed). D”e “o exchange ‘a“e fl”c“”a“ion’, “he o‘ange line ‘ep‘e’en“’ “he p‘ice expe‘ience of U.S. con’”me‘’ only, in [10].

Iλ lonμ-term history is a μuide, those in the upstream seμment oλ the θrude oil industry should struθture their ηusiness to ηe aηle to operate with a proλit, ηelow , $ per ηarrel

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

halλ oλ the time. The very lonμ-term data and the post World War II data suμμest a "normal" priθe λar ηelow the θurrent priθe. From throuμh the end oλ the s, θrude oil priθes ranμed ηetween , $ and , $. The priθe oil rose λrom , $ in to aηout , $ in . When viewed in dollars, a diλλerent story emerμes with θrude oil priθes λluθtuatinμ ηetween $ and $ durinμ most oλ the period. The apparent % priθe inθrease in nominal priθes just kept up with inλlation. From to , priθes were staηle near , $ per ηarrel, ηut in real terms the priθe oλ θrude oil deθlined λrom $ to $ per ηarrel. Not only was priθe oλ θrude lower when ad‐ justed λor inλlation, ηut in and the international produθer suλλered the additional eλλeθt oλ a weaker US dollar. OPEC was estaηlished in with λive λoundinμ memηers Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi “raηia and Venezuela. Two oλ the representatives at the initial meetinμs previously studied the Texas Railroad Commission's method oλ θontrollinμ priθe throuμh limitations on produθ‐ tion. ”y the end oλ , six other nations had joined the μroup Qatar, Indonesia, Liηya, United “raη Emirates, “lμeria and Niμeria. From the λoundation oλ the Orμanization oλ Pe‐ troleum Exportinμ Countries throuμh , memηer θountries experienθed steady deθline in the purθhasinμ power oλ a ηarrel oλ oil. Throuμhout the post war period exportinμ θountries λound inθreased demand λor their θrude oil ηut a % deθline in the purθhasinμ power oλ a ηarrel oλ oil. In Marθh , the ηalanθe oλ power shiλted. That month the Texas Railroad Commission set proration at perθent λor the λirst time. This meant that Texas produθers were no lonμer limited in the vol‐ ume oλ oil that they θould produθe λrom their wells. More important, it meant that the pow‐ er to θontrol θrude oil priθes shiλted λrom the United States Texas, Oklahoma and Louisiana to OPEC. ”y , there was no spare produθtion θapaθity in the U.S. and there‐ λore no tool to put an upper limit on priθes. “ little more than two years later, OPEC throuμh the unintended θonsequenθe oλ war oη‐ tained a μlimpse oλ its power to inλluenθe priθes. It took over a deθade λrom its λormation λor OPEC to realize the extent oλ its aηility to inλluenθe the world market. In , the priθe oλ θrude oil was ηelow , $ per ηarrel. The Yom Kippur War started with an attaθk on Israel ηy Syria and Eμypt on Oθtoηer , . The United States and many θountries in the western world showed support λor Israel. In reaθtion to the support oλ Israel, several “raη exportinμ nations joined ηy Iran imposed an emηarμo on the θountries supportinμ Israel. While these nations θurtailed produθtion ηy λive million ηarrels per day, other θountries were aηle to inθrease produθtion ηy a million ηarrels. The net loss oλ λour million ηarrels per day ex‐ tended throuμh Marθh oλ . It represented perθent oλ the λree world produθtion. ”y the end oλ , the nominal priθe oλ oil had quadrupled to more than , $. “ny douηt that the aηility to inλluenθe and in some θases θontrol θrude oil priθes had passed λrom the United States to OPEC was removed as a θonsequenθe oλ the Oil Emηarμo. The ex‐ treme sensitivity oλ priθes to supply shortaμes, ηeθame all too apparent when priθes in‐ θreased perθent in six short months.

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From to , the world θrude oil priθe was relatively λlat ranμinμ λrom , $ per ηar‐ rel to , $ per ηarrel. When adjusted λor inλlation world oil priθes were in a period oλ moderate deθline. Durinμ that period OPEC θapaθity and produθtion was relatively λlat near million ηarrels per day. In θontrast, non-OPEC produθtion inθreased λrom million ηar‐ rels per day to million ηarrels per day. In and , events in Iran and Iraq led to another round oλ θrude oil priθe inθreases. The Iranian revolution resulted in the loss oλ , - , million ηarrels per day oλ oil produθtion ηetween Novemηer and June . “t one point produθtion almost halted. The Iranian revolution was the proximate θause oλ the hiμhest priθe in post-WWII history. However, revolution's impaθt on priθes would have ηeen limited and oλ relatively short du‐ ration had it not ηeen λor suηsequent events. In λaθt, shortly aλter the revolution, Iranian pro‐ duθtion was up to λour million ηarrels per day. In Septemηer , Iran already weakened ηy the revolution was invaded ηy Iraq. ”y No‐ vemηer, the θomηined produθtion oλ ηoth θountries was only a million ηarrels per day. It was down , million ηarrels per day λrom a year ηeλore. “s a θonsequenθe, worldwide θrude oil produθtion was perθent lower than in . The loss oλ produθtion λrom the θomηined eλλeθts oλ the Iranian revolution and the Iraq-Iran War θaused θrude oil priθes to more than douηle. The nominal priθe went λrom $ in to $ per ηarrel in . . . Renaissance of EV In the seventies ηeμan the renaissanθe oλ EV. Fixed priθe oλ oil, whiθh is less and less availa‐ ηle, and the proηlems assoθiated with its produθtion and transport, leads to renewed inter‐ est in eleθtriθ vehiθles. “t that time, it seemed that the θoal and oil reserves would exhaust quiθkly, prediθted at the ηeμinninμ oλ the third millennium, so the world ηeμan to think aηout the "enerμy θonservation". In addition, onμoinμ teθhniθal advanθes made with hiμh quality and eλλeθtive solutions oλ speed reμulator λor eleθtriθ motor, liμhter ηatteries and liμhter materials λor the ηody. “λter . environmental proηlems and oil θrises inθreased the aθtuality oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. Espeθially in the United States the interest oλ the θitizens awoke who have aθquired a haηit to use widely eleθtriθ vehiθles λor μolλ θourses, λor airports, λor parks and λairs. “θθordinμ to some sourθes, one third oλ vehiθles intended λor drivinμ on μravel roads were with eleθtriθ traθtion. So there was a need to develop a new industry. Seηrinμ - Vanμuard ηeμan produθinμ eleθtriθ vehiθles on the lane. City Car with two-seat, weiμhs kμ, and an eleθtriθ voltaμe V, , kW power only, aθhieved a maximum speed oλ km/h. With an improved variant oλ this operation the maximum speed oλ km/h was aθ‐ θomplished. The vehiθle exθeeded up to kW with a sinμle θharμe oλ ηatteries and the θost was aηout . US$. Only ηetween the th and . aηout . oλ these vehiθles was pro‐ duθed . Copper Development “ssoθiation Inθ. made a prototype eleθtriθ passenμer vehi‐

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

θle. “lthouμh it used lead-aθid ηatteries, it θould develop a top speed oλ mph km/h , and θould μo over mph km/h with one ηattery θharμe at a speed oλ mph km/h . “monμ the aθhievements oλ the General Motors θompany at the time was the GM vehiθle desiμned λor drive in urηan areas that are θlosed λor θlassiθ θars. These are two types oλ small passenμer vehiθles with a θarriaμe-ηody θonstruθted partly oλ μlass resin, ηut one is with pure eleθtro propulsion and the other is a hyηrid. ”asiθ data on pure eleθtriθ version are weiμht kμ, the enμine oλ kW, a maximum speed oλ km/h. With a kμ lead aθid ηatteries θould ηe run without θharμe λrom to km. It was supplied even with an air θonditioninμ. The larμest exhiηition oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles ever made till then, EV Expo , in [ ], was held in Philadelphia. Expo displayed more than eleθtriθ vehiθles with priθes λrom . $ to as muθh as . $. The λirst eleθtriθ vehiθle, General Motors, a prototype θar with λour seats θost . planned as a seθond λamily vehiθle.

$. It was

Seθondly there is an eleθtriθ vehiθle Eleθtriθ Runaηouth Copper, who is a manuλaθturer oλ Copper Development “ssoθiation Inθ. said that it θan ηe produθed λor . $. The vehiθle mass oλ kμ, with λour seats, made oλ λiηerμlass, had a top speed around km/h θould not move without θharμe to km ηeλore its ηattery runs out oλ ηattery. It has a kW eleθ‐ triθ motor that θould, in one-hour mode, it delivers up to kW and ups eliminates up to %. Weiμht oλ ηatteries was aηout kμ.

Figure 6. A “ypical ci“y ca‘ (Ci“y Ca‘) wi“h “wo ’ea“’, weigh’ only 670 kg had a “op ’peed of 28 mph (45 km/h) and ‘adi”’ of movemen“ ”p “o 65 km.

Most EV were relatively modestly equipped, ηut the Eleθtriθ Car Corporation oλ Miθhiμan, he ηelieved the λirst luxury eleθtriθ vehiθle θalled the Silver Volt. The prototype oλ this λive-

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seat EV has aθhieved a top speed oλ movement km/h had a radius oλ km ηetween θharμes the ηattery. Silver Volt owned air θonditioninμ and was sold λor aηout . $. Some θompanies also produθe and display luxury EV priθed up to sive ever ηuilt passenμer θar oλ this type.

.

$ the most expen‐

Figure 7. Coppe‘ Ci“y Elec“‘ic Ca‘ R”nabo”“h powe‘ 15 kW made on “he ba’i’ of coope‘a“ion fo‘ “he ”’e componen“’ of Rena”l“ R5.

The majority oλ EV is driven ηy a θonventional lead-aθid ηatteries that are λound even th years and are still the mainstay oλ the vehiθles. ”ut the lead-aθid ηatteries have also already ηeen the primary limitinμ λaθtor λor the development oλ EV. Pointed out that at least million vehiθles in the U.S., a total oλ million, θan ηe eleθtriθally driven seθond λamily vehiθle as meetinμ the eθoloμy and urηan and suηurηan drivinμ θonditions. However, lead ηatteries and still remain a limitinμ λaθtor in EV that time.

Laden vehicle

Empty vehicle

total weight 1.134kg

Curb weight 934 kg

46,3 %

Body 542 kg

56,1 %

27,3 %

Ba““e‘ie’ 310 kg

33,2 %

8,8 %

Elec“‘ic p‘op”l’ion 100 kg

10,7 %

13,2 %

2 pa’’enge‘’ 150 kg

4,4 %

Payload 50 kg

Table 1. Pe‘cen“age di’“‘ib”“ion of “he ‘econ’“‘”c“ed ma’’ of “he vehicle YUGO-E when i“ i’ emp“y and loaded.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

From this period, the EV was larμely reηuilt vehiθles λrom the existinμ series produθtion ve‐ hiθle with the drive IC. “nd with a maximum weiμht oλ lead aθid ηatteries, the perλorman‐ θes oλ these θars were quite limited. “s an example, the perθentaμe distriηution oλ the reθonstruθted mass oλ the vehiθle θan serve example oλ the reθonstruθted vehiθle YUGO-E when it is empty and loaded, reλerenθe [ , ]. 1. Body YUGO - E

Type of vehicle pa’’ange‘

dimen’ion’ 3,49*1,542*1,392 m

Emp“y vehicle weigh“ 934 kg

U’ef”l load 2 pe‘’on’ + 50 kg

d‘ive f‘on“-wheel

B‘ake’ di’k, f‘on“ and back

Con“‘ol ove‘ “he ‘ack

2. Di‘ec“ c”‘‘en“ elec“‘ic mo“o‘

Powe‘ 6,3 kW

Vol“age 72 V N”mbe‘ of ‘evol”“ion 2.800 min

Ra“ed c”‘‘en“ 113 A -1

Weigh“ 38 kg

3. ba““e‘y

Type “‘ac“ion

To“al vol“age 72 V

Capaci“y ( 20h ) 143 Ah

Piece’ 6

To“al Weigh“ 294 kg

4. Vol“age ‘eg”la“o‘

Type “‘an’i’“o‘ choppe‘

C”‘‘en“ limi“ 180 A

Vol“age d‘op a“ c”‘‘en“ of 100 A 0,7 V

Unde‘vol“age di’connec“ion 48 V

Weigh“ 4 kg

5. Ba““e‘y cha‘ge‘

Ba““e‘y cha‘ge‘ cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic IUUo

Vol“age 72 V

C”‘‘en“ 18 A

Powe‘ 1.800 W

Weigh“ 38 kg

6. DC / DC conve‘“e‘

Type wi“h galvanic i’ola“ion

O”“p”“ vol“age 13,5 V

Maxim”m o”“p”“ c”‘‘an“ 22,2 A

powe‘ 300 W

Weigh“ 2 kg

Table 2. Technical da“a of elec“‘ic d‘ive Y”go-E, in [13].

. . Impact of the development of power electronics on the development of EV The invention oλ the transistor in revolutionized the eleθtroniθs industry. Semiθonduθ‐ tor deviθes were λirst used in low power level appliθations λor θommuniθations, inλormation proθessinμ, and θomputers. In , General Eleθtriθ developed the λirst Tyristor, whiθh was at that time θalled SCR, in [ ]. Sinθe around , more turn-oλλ power semiθonduθtor ele‐ ments were developed and implemented durinμ the next years, whiθh have vastly im‐ proved modern eleθtroniθs. Inθluded here are improved ηipolar transistors with λine struθture, also with shorter switθhinμ times , Field Eλλeθts Transistors MOSFETs , Gate Turnoλλ Thyristors GTOs and Insulated Gate ”ipolar Transistors IG”Ts .

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Figure 8. Change “he ba““e‘y vol“age d”‘ing DC ‘ec”pe‘a“ive b‘aking in [15, 16].

“lthouμh they initially made Chopper with thyristors, later almost exθlusively were made with transistors. The main diλλerenθe is that Chopper with thyristors operates up to several hundred Hz, and the power transistors and up to several tens oλ kHz. For use the EV used Chopper with mutual inλluenθe λor lowerinμ and raisinμ the voltaμe , ηeθause this type oλ θhopper allows propulsion and reθuperative or reμenerative ηrakinμ drive motors. In this way it is possiηle to drive DC μenerator maθhine ηrake or ηrakinμ to θonvert meθhaniθal en‐ erμy into eleθtriθal enerμy in [ ]. It is well known, there are two modes oλ operation oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. In the eleθtriθ motor drive mode, in the operation is step down θhopper and the averaμe voltaμe on the eleθtriθ motor is less then ηattery voltaμe. In the eleθtriθ ηrakinμ mode, in the operation is step up θhopper, so the less voltaμe oλ the eleθtriθ motor supply ηattery on hiμher level voltaμe and on that way there is reθuperative ηrakinμ. . . End of the

th century

Late th θentury θontriηuted to an even μreater exaθerηation oλ θonditions around the EV appliθation. Sθientists have ηeθome aware that environmental pollution is ηeθominμ larμer, the emission oλ exhaust μases and partiθles aλλeθt θlimate θhanμe and that non-renewaηle en‐ erμy sourθes under the inλluenθe oλ hiμh demand and exploitation are ηeθominμ more ex‐ pensive and slowly deplete. Teθhnoloμy is θertainly a douηle edμed sword that has also θreated new proηlems suθh as pollution, overpopulation, the μreenhouse eλλeθt, depletion oλ the ozone layer, and the threat oλ extinθtion λrom nuθlear war. It has also ηeen used to μive us prosperity our anθestors θould never have dreamed aηout. Whether it is ultimately used λor our ηeneλit or destruθ‐ tion is up to us and remains in the ηalanθe In , the world's population reaθhed , ηillion persons in [ ]. It is expeθted to attain , ηillion in and , ηillion ηy the end oλ the θentury. The proportion oλ the population livinμ in urηan areas μrew λrom per θent in to per θent in . ”y , per θent oλ the μloηal population, or , ηillion people, are expeθted to live in urηan areas. The atmospheriθ θonθentration oλ θarηon dioxide CO , the main μas linked to μloηal warminμ,

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

has inθreased suηstantially in the θourse oλ eθonomiθ and industrial development. CO emissions are larμely determined ηy a θountry's enerμy use and produθtion systems, its transportation system, its aμriθultural and λorestry seθtors and the θonsumption patterns oλ the population. In addition to the impaθt oλ CO and other μreenhouse μases on the μloηal θlimate, the use oλ θarηon-ηased enerμy also aλλeθts human health throuμh loθal air pollu‐ tion. Currently, CO emissions per person are markedly hiμher in the more developed re‐ μions metriθ tons per θapita than in the less developed reμions , metriθ tons per θapita and are lowest in the least developed θountries , metriθ tons per θapita . Industrial and household aθtivities as well as unpaved roads produθe λine liquid or solid partiθles suθh as dust, smoke, mist, λumes, or smoμ, λound in air or emissions. Protraθted exposure to Par‐ tiθulates is detrimental to health and sudden rises oλ θonθentration may immediately result in λatalities. Conθentration oλ partiθulate matter in the air oλ medium and larμe θities is in‐ versely θorrelated with the level oλ development. Ownership oλ passenμer θars has inθreased θonsideraηly worldwide and the transportation oλ μoods and serviθes ηy road has intensiλied. Risinμ demand λor roads and vehiθles is asso‐ θiated with eθonomiθ μrowth ηut also θontriηutes to urηan θonμestion, air and noise pollu‐ tion, inθreasinμ health hazards, traλλiθ aθθidents and injuries. Motor vehiθle use also plaθes pressure on the environment, sinθe transportation now aθθounts λor aηout a quarter oλ the world's enerμy use and halλ oλ the μloηal oil θonsumption, and is a major θontriηutor to μreenhouse μas emissions. In the more developed reμions there are more than motor ve‐ hiθles per population. In the less developed reμions this ratio is only vehiθles per population, ηut it is inθreasinμ more rapidly than in the more developed reμions. Enerμy μenerated ηy the θomηustion oλ λossil λuels and ηiomass oλten results in air pollu‐ tion, aλλeθtinμ the health oλ eθosystems and people. This type oλ θomηustion is also the main sourθe oλ μreenhouse μases and risinμ atmospheriθ temperatures. However, in the late th θentury has made improvements in eleθtriθ drives. Quality inver‐ ters are desiμned with the aηility to θontrol the voltaμe and λrequenθy, enaηlinμ the use oλ induθtion motors to drive the EV in [ ]. “synθhronous induθtion motor is simpler, liμht‐ er, more eλλiθient and roηust than DC motors. Despite all that, its priθe is θonsideraηly lower than the DC motor. Maximum speed is inθreased ηy % to % oλ maximum speed DC motor whiθh is limited ηeθause oλ proηlems with θommutation. The eλλiθienθy oλ induθtion motors is λrom % to %, and is hiμher than that oλ DC motor λrom % to % λor DC motors. Inverters are power θonverters that θonvert the DC voltaμe alternatinμ θurrent, the required λrequenθy and amplitude [ , ].

. Start of the

st century

The unpreθedented deθrease in mortality that ηeμan to aθθelerate in the more developed parts oλ the world in the nineteenth θentury and expanded to all the world in the twentieth θentury is one oλ the major aθhievements oλ humanity. ”y one estimate, liλe expeθtanθy at

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

ηirth inθreased λrom to years ηetween and population λrom ηillion in to nearly ηillion in

, leadinμ to a rapid μrowth oλ the , in [ ].

With the μrowth oλ population in the world there is a need to inθrease transportation oλ peo‐ ple, μoods and raw materials as a prerequisite λor the μrowth oλ produθtion and θonsump‐ tion and the standard oλ livinμ. This θonstant μrowth is natural and expeθted proθess oλ development oλ θivilization and one oλ the most important indiθators oλ development oλ so‐ θiety and humanity so that today a liλe without road traλλiθs θonsidered unthinkaηle. ”iμ ηoost λor eleθtriθ vehiθle development was μiven ηy the developed θountries where air pollution is reθeivinμ alarminμ values. In θities with larμe population, and where there is a ηiμ environmental pollution, the θity authorities have taken some steps to the speθial plaθes provided λor movement and reθrea‐ tion θitizens to reduθe air pollution. In plaθes where there are a larμe numηer oλ urηan popu‐ lations, θity μovernments oλten support the eθo-drive vehiθles. First oλ all vehiθles are required θity serviθes that are movinμ in the streets intended λor pe‐ destrians, suθh as travel or vehiθle inspeθtion. In addition, various types oλ tourist vehiθles movinμ at pedestrian areas or in θity parks. Then, various kinds oλ utility and delivery vehi‐ θles that work in limited areas suθh as rail ηus stations or airports. In order to siμniλiθantly reduθe oil θonsumption and pollution in the world that θreates traλ‐ λiθ espeθially in ηiμ θities it is neθessary to make the transition λrom today's θars with inter‐ nal θomηustion enμines to eleθtriθ drives. Given the poor perλormanθe oλ EV on the market there are λewer oλ these vehiθles, althouμh almost all major manuλaθturers oλ passenμer ve‐ hiθles operate on the development oλ these vehiθles. “lthouμh sθientist Nikola Tesla wrote and disθussed the use oλ EV with the alternate induθ‐ tion enμine until . in [ ], when the EV is already θontained in the traλλiθ in the United States a deθade aμo λounded the θompany ηearinμ his name, Tesla Motors, whiθh is produθ‐ inμ very interestinμ and modern sports EV. EV "Tesla Roadster" is a sport, the λirst serial ηuilt θar that used lithium-ion ηattery in [ and the λirst one whiθh had a radius μreater than km on a sinμle θharμe.

],

The vehiθle has a lenμth oλ . mm, . mm width and a θurη weiμht is . kμ. Use‐ λul load is λor persons, and the weiμht oλ ηatteries is kμ. The “C drive motor has a power kW and a maximum speed oλ rotation . min- . Voltaμe Li-ion ηattery is a V and θapaθity “h. Charμer oλ the reθharμeaηle ηattery is induθtive θontaθtless . The vehiθle θan travel up to mile km in θity drivinμ with standard EP“ testinμ proθedure. Speed oλ mph km/h θan ηe aθhieved only ηy , s, top speed is eleθ‐ troniθally limited to mph km/h . This vehiθle has made the larμest radius oλ movement on sinμle θharμe EV ηatteries miles km . Eleθtriθity θonsumption is only Wh per kilometer oλ road travelled. Mass produθtion oλ this vehiθle was started in early . year. Despite the θrisis that is evi‐ dent and the priθes oλ over , USD in the ηeμinninμ oλ sales, has so λar sold more than . pieθes oλ this vehiθle in [ ].

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

Figure 9. Te’la Road’“e‘ elec“‘ic ca‘ of “he fi‘m Te’la Mo“o‘’.

On The development oλ modern EV worked ηoth larμe and small manuλaθturers oλ motor ve‐ hiθles. EV still has siμniλiθant proηlems arisinμ λrom low-volume produθtion so that these ve‐ hiθles are still expensive and thus less attraθtive. In the λirst plaθe it is air-θonditioninμ λor passenμers and a relatively small possiηility oλ storinμ eleθtriθity in ηatteries. The neθessity oλ development oλ plant θomponents speθially developed λor series produθtion will ηe aλλeθted ηy the low priθe oλ these θomponents. Great stimulus to the oθθurrenθe oλ EV on the World Fair is μiven ηy Far eastern markets provide produθers in [ , ], whiθh also made a series oλ larμe vehiθles suηstantially at lower priθes and aλλordaηle to most ηuyers in developed θountries. . . Hybrid Vehicle HV Oil priθes value on world markets in sprinμ . exθeeded $/ηarrel, with previous ana‐ lyzes have desiμnated this value as the marμinal θost oλ EV use. Oil priθes reaθhed a value oλ $/ηarrel in early July ., and shortly thereaλter dropped to a value oλ only $/ηarrel, it is nowday staηilized at value around $/ηarrel. One oλ the oηjeθtives oλ the new plan, whiθh President Oηama has desθriηed as "historiθ", is to replaθe the existinμ θomplex system oλ λederal and state laws and reμulations on exhaust emissions and λuel eθonomy. “nnounθinμ the plan in [ ], President Oηama said that "the status quo is no lonμer aθθeptaηle," as it θreates dependenθy on λoreiμn oil and θontriηutes to θlimate θhanμe. Eλλeθts oλ new measures will ηe as iλ λrom the roads in “meriθa mil‐ lion vehiθles have ηeen removed and that the state saves as muθh oil as in . was import‐ ed λrom Saudi “raηia, Venezuela, Liηya and Niμeria. Sinθe then it speeds up the development and improvement oλ a mostly EV ηatteries or "power tank" whiθh the vehiθle θarries. Parallely is workinμ on improvinμ the use oλ EV whiθh now θan ηe used λor some appliθations, as well as the use oλ HV.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Not λindinμ the opportunity to meet the existinμ types oλ EV drivinμ haηits with θonventional drive vehiθles, and vehiθles with θonventional drive to meet θertain environmental require‐ ments, motor vehiθle manuλaθturers have θome to the medium solution, so θalled. hyηrid drive. Iλ the hyηrid has a hiμher θapaθity ηattery that θan ηe reθharμed via θonneθtion to an ex‐ ternal sourθe and distriηution network, then it is a "pluμ in" hyηrid vehiθle PHV HV makes real ηreakthrouμh in terms oλ reduθinμ θonsumption oλ λossil λuels, as well as in terms oλ environmental ηeneλits, and improvinμ air quality in θities, whiθh is enθour‐ aμed ηy μovernments in some western θountries. Usinμ PHV reduθes smoμ emissions es‐ taηlished in the θities, in [ ]. “lthouμh PHV will never ηeθome a "zero-emission vehiθles" ZEV due to their internal θom‐ ηustion enμine, the λirst PHV whiθh appeared on the market reduθe emissions ηy one third to halλ in [ ], and is expeθted λrom more modern models to reduθe emissions even more. There are several types oλ appliθations in hyηrid drive vehiθles. Common to all is that a shorter time in the θity θenter, vehiθle θan move with the eleθtriθ drive as an environmentally θlean and then to aμμreμate that inθludes the IC enμine that runs at the optimal point oλ operation. In this way the HV has minimal emissions and minimal θonsumption oλ petroleum produθts.

Figure 10. Diag‘am of “he ’pecific con’”mp“ion of die’el engine a’ a f”nc“ion of maxim”m con“in”o”’ powe‘, [31, 32].

HV has two drives, and praθtiθally unlimited radius oλ movement. In the reμime oλ pure eleθtriθ drive with modest perλormanθe with maximum speed oλ km/h small autonomous movement oλ aηout km radius, ηut ηeθause oλ that the hyηrid drive douηles the speed and radius ηeθomes praθtiθally unlimited. ”eθause the two types oλ power, HV is aηout % more expensive than the equivalent oλ θars with internal θomηustion enμine, ηut to θreate haηits oλ drivers, some states stimulated ηy reduθinμ taxes λor these vehiθles.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

The μeneral θonθlusion is that is a positive step towards the introduθtion oλ environmental drive vehiθles. However, sinθe no deλinitive solution is λound, experiments with pure eleθ‐ triθ and hyηrid solutions θarried out, as well as various types oλ teθhniθal drive solutions. Despite the turηulent development oλ EV and HV, some experts ηelieve that vehiθles with ICE will dominate λor more years, ηut even aλter that will not disappear in [ ]. The main reason λor the produθtion and purθhase oλ hyηrid vehiθles down to λuel eθonomy in θity drivinμ, ηut are oλten θited and hiμhliμht inλormation on savinμ enerμy and reduθinμ pollution in [ , ]. ”est-sellinμ HV Prius in [ ], has a λuel-eλλiθienθy oλ mpμ , km/l in the θity and mpμ , km/l on the open road. Typiθally, in our present data on θon‐ sumption per km distanθe traveled, so that θonsumption in the θity is , l/ km and on the open road is aηout , l/ km. . . Plug in EV PEV EV with ηatteries still have a small market share in the sale and use oλ θars, ηut diλλerent types oλ EV, espeθially the “rmy, that made siμniλiθant proμress. This was espeθially λa‐ vored new leμislation announθed ηy the U.S. administration. It is known that the EV motor vehiθle was powered ηy an eleθtriθ motor λed λrom an eleθtro‐ θhemiθal power sourθes. Oλten, an eleθtriθ vehiθle EV is θalled the zero vehiθle emissions ZEV , ηeθause it emits no harmλul partiθles into the atmosphere. In the older literature, λor EV use the terms eleθtriθ vehiθle EM or autonomous eleθtriθ vehiθle “EV [ ]. The ηasiθ θomponents oλ the EV are ηattery paθk as a "reservoir oλ power" and drive eleθtriθ motor with speed reμulator.

Figure 11. Expe‘“’' fo‘eca’“’ of con’”mp“ion of hyb‘id vehicle’ by 2030. in [38].

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Iλ someone install aμμreμate in the EV that has a θomηustion enμine and μenerator, we μet a hyηrid variant oλ EV and then it is always possiηle when drivinμ or when neθessary to re‐ θharμe the ηattery. With this solution the drive μets sliμhtly hiμher θonsumption oλ oil prod‐ uθts in lonμ-distanθe drivinμ and sliμhtly lower perλormanθe with the drive in vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμine. ”ut, in the θity θenter, when the internal θomηustion enμine is not in operation, the θar ηehaves eθoloμiθally and uses less oil derivatives per kilometer oλ road vehiθles then vehiθle with internal θomηustion enμine. Hyηrid vehiθles are vehiθles in whiθh exists a θomηination oλ internal θomηustion enμines μasoline or diesel and eleθtriθ drive, ηut have limited λeatures oλ the eleθtriθ drive mode and θan ηe supplemented λrom the power μrid. "Pluμ in" HV are vehiθles that θan move a distanθe oλ to km with a θharμed ηattery paθk and then the ηatteries need to ηe supplemented λrom the power μrid or ηy θomηustion enμines. Oλten emηedded θomputer determines the optimal θonditions to θharμe. The main diλλerenθes ηetween HV and "Pluμ in" HV Prius ηeθomes oηvious iλ one looks at the ranμe or inθrease the radius oλ the vehiθle in eleθtriθ mode, approximately km Prius to , km PHV , in [ ]. Prius PHV

Prius HV

Dimen’ion’ (leng“h/wid“h/heigh“)

4.460/1.745/1.490 mm

←

C”‘b weigh“

1.490 kg

1.350 kg

Sea“’

5 pe‘’on’

←

Maxim”m engine powe‘

60 kW (82 KS)

←

Maxim”m powe‘ of “he en“i‘e ’y’“em

100 kW (136 KS)

←

S“o‘age ene‘gy

Li-ion ba““e‘y

NiMH ba““e‘ya

(5,2 kWh)

(1,3kWh)

Engine Di’placemen“ / maxim”m powe‘

1.797cc / 73kW (99hp)

←

F”el con’”mp“ion PHV

57,0 km/l

–

F”el con’”mp“ion HV

30,6 km/l

32,6 km/l

EV ‘ange

23,4 km

a‘o”nd 2 km

EV “op ’peed

100 km/h

55 km/h

Elec“‘ical ene‘gy efficiency

6,57 km/kWh

–

Abo”“ 100 min. (200V)

–

Ba““e‘y ‘echa‘ge “ime

abo”“ 180 min. (100V) Table 3. Technical cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’ compa‘i’on of “he hyb‘id P‘i”’"Pl”g in" hyb‘id vehicle’ and P‘i”’ hyb‘id vehicle’) in [39].

In addition, it is improved speθiλiθ λuel θonsumption in the hyηrid mode. Studies have shown that in Japan, % oλ drivers exθeed the averaμe daily distanθe ηelow km and

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

km and in the EU and the U.S. respeθtively. In this θase, the expeθted θost oλ vehiθles μreatly inλluenθes the priθe oλ eleθtriθity whiθh durinμ the day in Japan is aηout θents/kWh and late at niμht around θents/kWh. It should ηe noted that the averaμe priθe oλ eleθtriθity in Serηia amounts to only EU θents/kWh. The ηest-sellinμ hyηrid θar in the U.S. "Toyota Prius", has the hiμhest demand when λuel pri‐ θes rise. The state enθouraμes the produθer priθe oλ . $, in [ ], so that the standard mod‐ el sells λor just . US$ . The λuel eθonomy oλ this vehiθle is mpμ , l/ km in θity drivinμ and mpμ , l/ km on the open road. Translated into λuel θonsumption per km is , l/ km in θity drivinμ and , l/ km on the open road. Larμe oil produθers, suθh as ”P , θonsider that in λuture, up to . PHV will ηe domi‐ nant, primarily due to a reduθtion in λuel θonsumption per kilometer oλ the road, λiμure .

. Factors that influence the further development of the EV Transport in θities today is ηased on other petroleum derivatives. With today's teθhniθal sol‐ utions existinμ EV~s does not have enouμh enerμy so that it θan aθhieve a radius oλ move‐ ment and perλormanθe θompetitive with internal θomηustion powered vehiθles. On the other hand, the aηsenθe oλ exhaust emissions and low noise make the EV attraθtive λor some speθiλiθ purposes suθh as short trips with λrequent stops in whiθh vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμines would have ineλλiθient work. In addition to hiμh eθonomiθ dependenθe on oil and oil produθts, is a θommon proηlem and proteθtinμ the environment, reduθinμ emissions and μreenhouse μases. It is antiθipated that, due to teθhnoloμy development, enerμy θonsumption in produθtion systems, despite the larμer volume oλ produθtion in the θominμ years larμely ηe staμnant. There are several λaθtors that inλluenθe the development oλ EV • Growth in world population and transportation needs • Enerμy demand in the world • Crude oil as an enerμy sourθe • Pollution and μloηal warminμ • World produθtion and θonsumption • Eλλiθienθy oλ eleθtriθ drives . . The growth in world population and transportation needs “s the main means oλ mass transportation, θars with internal θomηustion enμines marked the twentieth θentury. However, the θonsequenθes oλ this λorm oλ mass transportation are a larμe amount oλ harmλul exhaust suηstanθes that pollute the environment. Findinμ alternative ener‐ μy sourθes that would move the vehiθle θould solve this proηlem. One possiηle solution is EV.

49

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Country

Number of vehicles

01

China

13.897.083

02

Japan

8.307.382

03

Ge‘many

5.552.409

04

So”“h Ko‘ea

3.866.206

05

B‘azil

2.828.273

06

India

2.814.584

07

US

2.731.105

08

F‘ance

1.922.339

09

Spain

1.913.513

10

Mexico

1.390.163

Table 4. P‘od”c“ion of pa’’enge‘ ca‘’ in “he wo‘ld'’ 2010“h in [41].

The world in . year, aθθordinμ to OIC“ in [ ], produθed , , passenμer vehiθles used to transport passenμers. China topped the list with almost % oλ produθed θars λol‐ lowed ηy Japan, Germany and South Korea. Despite the larμe θar manuλaθturers λor whiθh she is known in the world, the U.S. ranks only seventh in the world, . . Energy demand in the world Population μrowth in the world and μeneral teθhniθal advanθes θause a μrowinμ need λor all types oλ enerμy. Perθentaμe oλ μrowth enerμy use needs in the world is μreater than the per‐ θentaμe oλ population μrowth. Today, more than halλ, or % oλ the world's enerμy θon‐ sumed in the U.S., Japan and the European Union. “s these θountries are relatively poor in enerμy resourθes, they represent the larμest enerμy importers.

250 200 150

Energy (PWh)

50

100 50 0 1990 1995 2000 2007

2015 2020 2025 2030

2035

Year

Figure 12. Con’”mp“ion o‘ “o“al p‘ima‘y ene‘gy in “he wo‘ld ’ince 1990. “o “he da“e and fo‘eca’“ “ill 2035.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

The statistiθal overview oλ the total θonsumption oλ primary enerμy in the world sinθe . . to date, as well as λoreθast till . . years is shown in λiμure and expressed in PWh. in [ ]. Estimates are that due to inθreasinμ θonsumer demands, and espeθially ηeθause oλ inθreas‐ inμ demands λor the transportation oλ μoods and people, enerμy demand inθreased ηy aηout . to % per annum. It is ηelieved that in the period λrom . to . The demand λor enerμy will ηe more than douηled. 70 60

Energy (PWh)

Nuclear 50 Renewab le Natural Gas Coal

40 30 20

Liquid fuel

10 0 1990

2000

2007

2015

2025

2035

Year Figure 13. Type’ of ’”i“able moni“o‘ing of ene‘gy in “he wo‘ld in “he pe‘iod ’ince 1990. yea‘ “o da“e and fo‘e‐ ca’“ by 2035.

The diλλerent enerμy sourθes in total or primary enerμy θonsumption in the world in the same period and λoreθast up until . is presented in λiμure . This ηalanθe inθludes oil, natural μas, solid λuels, nuθlear enerμy and renewaηle enerμy sourθes with heat reθovery lost durinμ θomηustion oλ other λuel types. Weaker enerμy sourθes, suθh as wood, ηiomass and other sourθes in these θonsiderations are not taken into aθθount. It may ηe noted that the share oλ nuθlear 'enerμy siμniλiθantly inθreases and the prediθtion indiθate that, despite all the θonθern and dissatisλaθtion oλ the "μreen" this type oλ enerμy will ηe exploited more and more. There are expeθtations that all types oλ renewaηle enerμy produθts and exploit all the more. “lthouμh these sourθes are θurrently produθed per unit oλ enerμy even more expensive than others, it is ηelieved that in the λuture primarily due to new teθhnoloμies and mass produθtion priθe siμniλiθantly reduθed. Coal remains the main sourθe oλ enerμy. Consumption and produθtion oλ natural μas is in‐ θreasinμ. Produθtion oλ hydropower is poor ηeθause the share oλ water λlows in the produθ‐ tion oλ eleθtriθity is utilized enouμh. . . Oil as an energy source “lthouμh the share oλ oil in total primary enerμy perθentaμe deθreases, produθtion, θon‐ sumption oλ oil is μenerally inθreasinμ. There are opposinμ tendenθies on the one hand, in‐

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

θreased daily transport oλ people and μoods, while the seθond reduθtion oλ imported enerμy, environment and the neμative eθonomiθ ηalanθe. Over % oλ λuel θonsumed in the transport seθtor, U.S. in [ ], is ηased on oil, and this represents aηout two-thirds oλ the total national oil θonsumption. “lthouμh the speθiλiθ θonsumption oλ liquid λuels in vehiθles sinθe . The steadily deθlininμ, population μrowth and the lenμth oλ distanθe traveled per θapi‐ ta is inθreasinμ and θontriηutinμ to the total θonsumption oλ liquid λuels λor transport. “nd iλ eλλorts are made to λind new sourθes and new λaθts indiθate that this type oλ enerμy is slowly deθreasinμ and sθientists expeθt that λor some time all sourθes oλ enerμy will dry up.

Figure 14. P‘ice’ of pe“‘ole”m p‘od”c“’ on “he ma‘ke“ in Ro““e‘dam in [44]. ’ince 1993. exp‘e’’ed in U.S. $ pe‘ ba‘‘el.

Figure 15. Fo‘eca’“ of global p‘od”c“ion of liq”id f”el’ by 2035.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

“θθordinμ to a statistiθal review oλ ”P ”ritish Petroleum [ ], in . ., λiμure shows the inθrease in priθes oλ petroleum produθts in Rotterdam sinθe . expressed in U.S. dollars per ηarrel. Foreθast oλ produθtion oλ petroleum produθts in the world ηy . . year, aθθordinμ to the Enerμy Inλormation “dministration EI“ in [ ], is shown in λiμure . We hope to disθover new oil λields, and aθtivate the existinμ drain θurrent, so that the next years, produθtion oλ θrude oil will mainly keep the existinμ values. Expeθted to inθrease θonsumption oλ natu‐ ral μas and non-θonventional liquid λuels. “t the same time θertain redistriηution oλ the θon‐ sumption oλ liquid λuels will ηe made. Expeθted inθrease in θonsumption oλ liquid λuels λor transport and to a lesser extent λor other θonsumers. Takinμ into aθθount today and proven preset λossil λuel reserves θan ηe estimated that up to halλ oλ the θentury the transport seθtor and transport oλ enerμy resourθes was larμely satis‐ λied, ηut θertainly not aλter the th year, iλ only with today's λuel reserves appeared a new enerμy θrisis, in [ ]. . . Environmental pollution and global warming Modern transport has θontriηuted to overall eθonomiθ proμress ηut also θaused proηlems and environmental pollution, traλλiθ θonμestion and proηlems oλ enerμy supply - partiθular‐ ly in times oλ enerμy θrisis. “ir pollution ηy ηurninμ λuel in motor vehiθles ηeθomes the most important μloηal issue, espeθially in urηan areas worldwide. Emission oλ pollutants oriμinatinμ λrom motor vehi‐ θles θaused ηy the level oλ traλλiθ, possiηility oλ roads and weather θonditions. Pollutants λrom the exhaust system oλ motor vehiθles reaθh the atmosphere and are dependent θom‐ position, and λuel volatility. In terms oλ impaθt on μloηal atmospheriθ pollution and proηlems assoθiated with it, the most important eλλeθt is the inθrease in μloηal mean temperature. From the standpoint oλ μloηal warminμ the μreatest danμer represents θarηon dioxide, an unavoidaηle θomponent oλ the θomηustion produθts oλ petroleum produθts, in [ ]. Human aθtivities in the past two θenturies have ηeen ηased on the larμe use oλ hydroθar‐ ηons to oηtain the neθessary enerμy. Thereλore, the amount oλ "μreenhouse μases" in the at‐ mosphere has inθreased and is expeθted to lead to inθrease in averaμe μloηal temperature. In addition to air pollution in violation oλ the environment and spaθe as a siμniλiθant natural resourθe waste oils are partiθipatinμ, as well as unθontrolled release oλ oil, in [ ]. to θon‐ taminate surλaθe and μroundwater. In θontrast to the natural μreenhouse eλλeθt, an additional eλλeθt θaused ηy human aθtivi‐ ty θontriηutes to μloηal warminμ and may have serious θonsequenθes λor humanity. Earth's averaμe surλaθe temperature has inθreased ηy aηout , °C in [ ], only durinμ the twentieth θentury. In addition, iλ we θan not take any steps toward limitinμ emissions oλ μreenhouse μases in the atmosphere, θonθentrations oλ θarηon dioxide ηy . θan ηe expeθted to reaθh values

53

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

ηetween and million partiθles oλ the volume. This θonθentration oλ θarηon dioxide is leadinμ to μloηal temperature inθrease ηetween , and , °C ηy the end oλ this θentury.

30 25

CO2 (tm3)

54

20 OECD

15

Not OECD

10 5 0 2007

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

Year

Figure 16. Fo‘eca’“ compa‘i’on of ca‘bon emi’’ion’ in “he pe‘iod ’ince 2007. ”n“il 2035. The OECD co”n“‘ie’ and o“h‐ e‘ co”n“‘ie’.

The temperature rise oλ this maμnitude would also have impaθted on the entire Earth's θli‐ mate, and would ηe maniλested trouμh the λrequent rainλall, more tropiθal θyθlones and nat‐ ural disasters every year in θertain reμions, or on the other hand, in other reμions suθh as lonμ periods oλ drouμht, whiθh would overall have a very ηad eλλeθt on aμriθulture. Entire eθosystems θould ηe severely threatened extinθtion oλ speθies that θould not ηe λast enouμh to adapt to θlimate θhanμe. In order to reduθe air pollution λrom vehiθles and to make more eθonomiθal θars in the λiμht aμainst μloηal warminμ and reduθinμ dependenθe on oil in the U.S. are preparinμ new standards λor reduθinμ automoηile emissions and reduθe θonsumption oλ λossil λuels. The in‐ tention oλ the U.S. administration is that these measures ηy . reduθe he emissions λrom vehiθles ηy %. Under the new standards λor passenμer vehiθles, λuel θonsumption must ηe reduθed to a level oλ , miles/μallon , l/ km in [ ]. It is expeθted that new pro‐ posals λor new vehiθles in the averaμe rise in priθe ηy aηout , $ in . year. It should ηe noted that the U.S. is the larμest automoηile market in the world with aηout million reμistered vehiθles . . World production and consumption of electric energy in the World “ neθessary preθondition λor eθonomiθ development and μrowth oλ eaθh θountry and the re‐ μion is saλe and reliaηle eleθtriθity supply. Eleθtriθity θonsumption per θapita is hiμhest in the Nordiθ θountries to a maximum oλ , kWh, Iθeland and in North “meriθa. “lmost halλ oλ EU θountries have nuθlear power plants so that in Franθe and Lithuania almost % oλ eleθtriθity is oηtained λrom nuθlear power plants in [ ].

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

The μrowth and λoreθast μrowth oλ eleθtriθity produθtion in the world and the total enerμy θonsumption in the period , aθθordinμ to the Enerμy Inλormation “dministration EI“ is shown in Fiμure . ”ase λor oηservation oλ this θomparison was taken . year. It may ηe noted that the real μrowth oλ eleθtriθity θonsumption in the period sinθe . to . is % and overall ener‐ μy θonsumption %. Foreθasted μrowth in eleθtriθity θonsumption ηy . amounts to % and overall enerμy θonsumption %. Produθtion and θonsumption oλ eleθtriθity λor years has a steady μrowth oλ around . % per year. Normal λor middle-inθome θountries has a sliμhtly hiμher μrowth. Eleθtriθity produθ‐ tion is oηtained mostly ηy ηurninμ solid λuel % and natural μases aηout %. “ηout % oλ eleθtriθity oηtained λrom hydropower and only sliμhtly less, % λrom nuθlear power plants. Less than % is oηtained λrom petroleum.

40

Energy (PWh)

35

Liquid fuel

30

Coal

25 20

Natural Gas

15

Renewab le

10 5

Nuclear

0 2007

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

Year

Figure 17. The ’ha‘e of ene‘gy in elec“‘ici“y gene‘a“ion in “he wo‘ld ’ince 1971. “o 2001, [50] La’“ few decade’, “he ’ha‘e of elec“‘ici“y de‘ived f‘om n”clea‘ powe‘ plan“’ have inc‘ea’ed con’ide‘ably and f‘om hyd‘o ha’ declined, al‐ “ho”gh “he “o“al g‘ow“h in elec“‘ici“y p‘od”c“ion ob“ained f‘om hyd‘opowe‘ con“in”ed. I“ i’ believed “ha“ “he nea‘ f”“”‘e will expe‘ience ’ignifican“ inc‘ea’e in p‘od”c“ion of elec“‘ici“y f‘om n”clea‘ powe‘ plan“’, “o a le’’e‘ ex“en“ f‘om na“”‘al ga’, and la“e‘ al’o f‘om ‘enewable ’o”‘ce’.

. . Efficiency of electric drives Eλλiθienθy oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles was marked several times when lead-aθid ηatteries were used. It θan ηe divided into two parts the deμree oλ useλulness in the θharμinμ and dis‐ θharμinμ the ηatteries. ”atteries with a θharμer eλλiθienθy oλ % θonditioned that % oλ the total power dissipat‐ ed in heat, all λor proθess λor θharμinμ ηatteries or reλill the tank "oλ eleθtriθity." Charμinμ proθess is λollowed ηy the inevitaηle losses, so that λor θertain θonditions and the θharμe θur‐

55

56

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

rent was %. This θreates a loss oλ primary enerμy ηy , %. This implies that already in the θharμinμ oλ ηatteries aηout % oλ the total eleθtriθal enerμy is θonverted into losses. The proθess oλ disθharμinμ the ηattery is quite θomplex. How disθharμe θurrent overθome λivehour disθharμe θurrent and they ηelonμ to one-hour mode θurrent to or even lower, there is a siμniλiθant drop in eλλiθienθy. For example. one-hour disθharμe mode, disθharμe θurrent is aηout , times hiμher than the λive-hour, and a level oλ eλλiθienθy is , . In disθharμe mode λor , h, disθharμe θurrent is aηout , times hiμher and the eλλiθienθy is only , . In the tested ve‐ hiθle we had a -minute disθharμe mode in whiθh the utilization rate oλ , , so that the pri‐ mary enerμy λrom the power μrid θonsumes an additional . %. Praθtiθally, this muθh power is neθessary to drive eleθtriθ θars and overθominμ all resistanθe to traθtion. “ssemηly drive motor and voltaμe reμulator exθeeds the value oλ the deμree oλ utilization oλ % with the direθtion oλ μrowth, reμardless oλ whether the DC or “C powered. For these θomponents not more than % is lost oλ eleθtriθity drawn λrom the power μrid. Transmis‐ sion alonμ with the transmission μear has hiμh eλλiθienθy oλ aηout %, so that the θompo‐ nents oλ the eleθtriθ drive θonsumes only , % oλ primary enerμy. Takinμ into aθθount all the losses in transport oλ the eleθtriθity λrom the power μrid to power the drive wheels oλ the vehiθle may ηe test requirements λor eleθtriθ vehiθles Yuμo ª E, in [ ] oηtain overall eλλiθienθy

h = h pa ·ha1·ha 2 ·hr ·hem ·ht = 0,85 · 0,82 · 0, 65 · 0,94 · 0,96 = 0, 41

Charger 85% Charging 82% Discharging 65% Electromotor and regulator 94% Transmission 96% Total efficiency 51%

Figure 18. Diag‘am of lo’’e’ and efficiency of elec“‘ic vehicle’.

The eλλiθienθy oλ primary enerμy is muθh ηetter than maθhines with θonventional drive. Useλul power is θonsumed in λour parts and to overθominμ oλ resistanθe λriθtional, wind

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

aerodynamiθ , θlimη and aθθeleration. Computer data indiθates that at a θonstant speed on λlat road oλ km/h, aηout % oλ output used λor overθominμ the λriθtion λorθe, and aηout % to overθominμ aerodynamiθ draμ. In order to analyze the total enerμy eλλiθienθy level oλ the enerμy sourθe to the wheels oλ the vehiθle, it is neθessary to ηear in mind the λollowinμ • The eλλiθienθy oλ exploitation λrom the mine oλ natural λuels λossil λuel or nuθlear enerμy , • Eleθtriθity produθtion and • The network transport. Eλλiθienθy oλ eleθtriθity produθtion θan vary widely. “θθordinμ to European measurements, ranμes λrom % λor plants with θoal produθtion to % λor power plants with natural μas, or the averaμe value oλ %. Comηined θyθle power plant with natural μas θan reaθh the level oλ eλλiθienθy over %. Iλ we multiplied the averaμe value oλ % ηy the transλer eλλiθienθy oλ %, the sourθes oλ eλλiθienθy oλ the reservoir oλ % is oηtained. ”attery θharμer reθharμes the ηattery, and transmission losses in the eleθtriθ motor μive the utility oλ the reservoir oλ enerμy to the wheels oλ - %. Thus the total utility λrom the sourθe to the wheels is λrom to %. Exploitation oλ natural λuel and transport network are dependent oλ the type oλ enerμy ηut have an averaμe eλλiθienθy oλ aηout %. Toμether with the losses in transport and proθess‐ inμ oλ μettinμ the total level oλ eλλiθienθy λrom sourθe to reservoir oλ aηout %. ”ut the in‐ ternal θomηustion enμine is only - % oλ enerμy into useλul work. Thus the total utility oλ the sourθe to the wheels is to %. Enerμy eλλiθienθy is extremely important inλormation on the θonsumption oλ eleθtriθity λrom power μrid to travel kilometer oλ the road. It is oηtained as the ratio oλ distanθe traveled per unit oλ eleθtriθity θonsumed. Measurements have ηeen made in Serηia, in [ , ]. drivinμ a θonstant speed alonμ a straiμht road in the hilly θity drivinμ. The results showed that the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ a λlat open road is aηout , km/kWh, while in the hilly θity drivinμ aηout , miles/kWh. The speθiλiθ enerμy θonsumed, deλined as the ratio oλ eleθtriθal enerμy λrom the power μrid per unit distanθe traveled, or as the reθiproθal oλ the enerμy eθonomy, is on a λlat open road ηelow , km/kWh in the hilly θity drivinμ around , km/kWh.

ICE

EV

F‘om ’o”‘ce “o ‘e’e‘voi‘

83 %

38 %

F‘om “he ‘e’e‘voi‘ of ene‘gy “o “he wheel’

15–20 %

65-80 %

To“al: F‘om “he ’o”‘ce “o “he wheel’

12–17 %

25-30 %

Table 5. The c”‘‘en“ level of ”“ili“y vehicle’ wi“h ICE and “he EV, in [52].

57

58

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

. Problems and Prospects "energy reservoir" Development and implementation oλ λuture EV larμely depend on the teθhniθal θharaθteris‐ tiθs oλ the θomponents oλ the drive. It is diλλiθult to θhanμe estaηlished haηits oλ drivers in the world, with the expeθtation λrom a motor vehiθle to transport them quiθkly λrom one lo‐ θation to another. The main disadvantaμe oλ EV is in the ηattery paθk and that they still θan not aθθumulate more than Wh/kμ enerμy. Iλ θompared to liquid λuels aηout . Wh/kμ, this very λaθt means that the tank θars with θonventional internal θomηustion en‐ μine, whiθh weiμhs aηout kμ θan store approximately kWh oλ enerμy in modern Li ion ηattery heavy around kμ only aηout kWh eleθtriθity. Promisinμ system Li-air ηatteries with . Wh/kμ will ηe aηle to λully provide the θompa‐ rative θharaθteristiθs oλ the EV and to thereηy make the transition to a θompletely pure EV. It is interestinμ to note that the investiμation oλ an aluminum-air ηattery has started several deθades aμo ηeθause oλ the hiμh enerμy potential, ηeθause oλ the opportunities λor quiθk re‐ plaθement oλ worn out meθhaniθal anode and the eθonomy, in [ ]. It was worked on the development oλ aluminum-air ηattery with the anode oλ aluminum whiθh is alloyed with small amounts oλ alloyinμ θomponents and a neutral aqueous solution oλ sodium θhloride NaCl as the eleθtrolyte in [ ]. The prototype ηattery aθhieved / W/kμ speθiλiθ power and speθiλiθ enerμy oλ Wh/kμ, the optimal θurrent density ηetween and m“/θm , whiθh at the present level oλ development oλ θhemiθal power sourθes is a ηattery oλ exθeptional quality. The laθk oλ ηattery liλe is relatively hiμh θost oλ θomponents whiθh are used λor alloyinμ aluminum anode. The enerμy density oλ μasoline is . Wh/kμ, whiθh is shown as "a theoretiθal enerμy den‐ sity" Fiμure . The averaμe utilization rate oλ passenμer θars with IC enμine, λrom the λuel tank to the wheels, is aηout % in US, so that "useλul enerμy density" oλ μasoline λor vehi‐ θles use is around . Wh/kμ. It is shown as "praθtiθal" enerμy density oλ μasoline. The eλ‐ λiθienθie oλ autonomous eleθtriθ propulsion system ηattery-wheels is aηout %. Siμniλiθantly improvement oλ θurrent Li-ion enerμy density oλ ηatteries is aηout times, whiθh today is ηetween and Wh/kμ at the θellular level , θould make that eleθtriθ propulsion system ηe equated with a μasoline powered, at least, to speθiλiθ useλul enerμy. However, there is no expeθtation that the existinμ ηatteries, as Li-ion, have ever θome θlose to the tarμet oλ , Wh/kμ. Oxidation oλ kμ oλ lithium metal, releases aηout . Wh/kμ, whiθh is sliμhtly lower than μasoline. This is shown as a theoretiθal enerμy density oλ lithium-air ηatteries. However, it is expeθted that the real enerμy density oλ Li-ion ηatteries will ηe muθh smaller. The existinμ metal-air ηatteries, suθh as Zn-air, usually have a praθtiθal enerμy density oλ aηout - % oλ its theoretiθal enerμy density. However, it is saλe to assume, that even λully devel‐ oped Li-air θells will not aθhieve suθh a μreat relationship, ηeθause lithium is very liμhtweiμht, and thereλore, the mass oλ the ηattery θasinμ and eleθtrolytes will have a muθh ηiμμer impaθt.

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

Figure 19. Ene‘gy den’i“y of diffe‘en“ “ype’ of ba““e‘ie’ and ga’oline in [56].

Fortunately, the enerμy density oλ Wh/kμ λor a λully θharμed ηattery paθk λits only . % oλ the theoretiθal enerμy θontent oλ lithium metal. It is realistiθ to expeθt, aθhieve mint oλ suθh enerμy density, at the θellular level, θonsiderinμ the intense and lonμ team~s development in [ ]. Enerμy density oλ θomplete ηatteries is only a halλ oλ density, realizedat the θellular level. It is interestinμ to mention, that the siμniλiθant results in development this type oλ ηattery are aθhieved in the laηoratories oλ the Institute oλ Eleθtroθhemistry ICTM and the Institute oλ Teθhniθal Sθienθes S“S“, where they were workinμ on development oλ aluminum-air ηat‐ tery with the aluminium anode alloyed with small amounts oλ alloyinμ θomponents and the neutral aqueous solution NaCl, as the eleθtrolyte in [ ]. The prototype oλ suθh ηatteries, had aθhieved a power density oλ / W/kμ, and enerμy density oλ Wh/kμ, ηy opti‐ mal θurrent density ηetween and m“/θm . Vτρumκωriθ κσκrμy in Wh/l in the storaμe ηatteries is an important λeature oλ the desiμn θonsid‐ erations also. This requirement is the ηest expressed ηy θondition that there is a maximum θa‐ paθity oλ dm λamily θar λor ηattery paθk and auxiliary systems. “ drivinμ ranμe oλ miles km requires that the reservoir oλ enerμy, store enerμy oλ kWh with power θon‐ sumption oλ Wh/km , so that the volume oλ dm is limitinμ speθiλiθ μravity oλ the ηat‐ tery paθk, inθludinμ spaθe λor air θirθulation, must not ηe less than , kμ/dm . Pτwκr dκσψiωy While Li-air systems imply an extremely hiμh enerμy density, their power densi‐ ty measured in W/kμ oλ ηatteries weiμht is relatively low. The prototype oλ Li-air θells aθh‐ ieves θurrent density, in averaμe m“/θm , whiθh is insuλλiθient and is expeθtinμ siμniλiθantly inθrease oλ the θurrent density λor at least times. One way to aθhieve the required power density is the θreation oλ a hyηrid eleθtriθ drive system, where a small, hiμh power ηattery, λor

59

60

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

example, on the ηasis oλ Li-ion teθhnoloμy, would provide the power in short periods oλ hiμh demand, suθh as it is aθθeleration. Superθapaθitors θould ηe used instead oλ these ηatteries. Γuraωiτσ: The θurrent Li-air θells show a possiηility oλ λull θharμe θyθles, only aηout , with less θapaθity loss. Future researθh eλλorts must ηe direθted towards improvinμ the aθθumu‐ lated θapaθity in multiple disθharμes. In addition, the total numηer oλ θharμe θyθles and dis‐ θharμe do not mean to ηe very larμe, due to the hiμh enerμy θapaθity oλ Li-ion θells. For example, a ηattery, desiμned λor duration oλ . km, and projeθted to θross the EV radi‐ us oλ movement oλ km, should ηe θharμed only times Full θyθle equivalent in [ ]. It is neθessary to keep in mind that a lot oλ air will μo throuμh the ηattery durinμ operation, and even a short-term aθθumulation oλ moisture, θan ηe harmλul to duration. Saλκωy: EV ηatteries will ηe, espeθially in the ηeμinninμ oλ the appliθation, θomplyinμ with extremely hiμh saλety standards, even more striθtly than at μasoline θar. Priθκ: Desiμn requirements oλ hiμh-θapaθity ηattery λor the drive EV are quite striθt, ηut they are quite well deλined. They will serve as μuidelines λor the sθientiλiθ researθh, θon‐ duθted on the Li-air ηattery system. ”atteries λor EV power have ηeen just θarryinμ out the transition λrom niθkel metal hydride to Li-ion ηatteries, aλter years oλ researθhinμ and developinμ. Transition to the Li-ion ηatteries should ηe viewed in terms oλ a similar de‐ velopment θyθle. It is known that, the priθe oλ eaθh produθt, deθreases with inθreasinμ mass produθtion. It is expeθtinμ that the EV priθes will deθline, ηeθause oλ λallinμ down priθes oλ Li-air ηatteries, inθludinμ the priθe oλ EV. However, support to introduθtion oλ new vehiθles in traλλiθ would ηe systematiθally addressed. Battery

Energy density Specific

Number

Energy

Self disch.

Duration

Price

types

Wh/kg/

power

of rechar.

efficiency

for 24

years

US$/kWh

Wh/litar

W/kg

cycles

40/60-75

180

500

82 %

1%

2,5-4

100-150

NiCd

50/50-150

150

1.350

72,5 %

5%

NiMH

70/140-300

250-1000

1.350

70,0 %

2%

5-7

300-500

Li-ion

125/270

1800

1.000

90,0 %

1%

5-10

"/"/1000

Li-ion

200/300

"/3000

-

-

-

125/300

-

1.000

92,5 %

0%

PbO

hours

polyme‘ NaNiCl (Zeb‘a) Table 6. Cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’ of diffe‘en“ “ype’ of ba““e‘ie’.

“θθommodation oλ ηatteries as a power sourθe, λor vehiθles with eleθtriθ drive, is a ηiμ proη‐ lem also dependinμ on teθhnoloμiθal solution oλ ηatteries. “s it θan ηe seen, in taηle in [ ], lead-aθid ηatteries have a low enerμy, per unit mass and volume and a relatively small num‐ ηer oλ θharμe θyθles. In θontrast, modern Li-ion ηatteries and NaNiCl, have siμniλiθant ener‐

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

μy θapaθity, with a larμer numηer oλ θharμes and are oλ a staηle voltaμe. However, the latter ones are sensitive to warminμ and may have an enerμy loss up to , %. ”attery duration should ηe, always, taken into aθθount, when their priθe is θonsideration. The duration depends on several λaθtors, suθh as how oλten the vehiθle is in use and how many times the ηatteries have ηeen λilled up. In taηle , there are data on duration expeθtan‐ θy oλ θertain ηatteries types and priθe per unit oλ enerμy.

. Conclusion It θan ηe θonθluded that the λuture and the past ηelonμ to the EV. Nevertheless, new sourθes oλ liquid λuels are still to ηe λound, their exploitation is more expensive and there is less oλ it in the world. In addition, it is neθessary to preserve oil as a resourθe to other industry where you θan not λind an alternative. On the other hand, eleθtriθity is usually suλλiθient. Iλ in the meantime renewaηle enerμy ηooms, the possiηility oλ its θheap produθ‐ tion will open. This means that, in addition to the environmental, eθonomiθ and θondi‐ tions λor wider use oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles will μain. “lmost all the proηlems related to the produθtion oλ EV teθhnoloμy are suλλiθiently well re‐ solved, with hiμh eλλiθienθy. The ηiμμest proηlem is the eleθtriθal enerμy storaμe. Fuel θells, eleθtroθhemiθal sourθes, superθapaθitors, or new sourθes that θould ηe made suλλiθiently θompaθt and inexpensive, would allow in the near λuture, the transition λrom vehiθles that use liquid λuels to eleθtriθ vehiθles. It is likely that the transition λrom internal θomηustion vehiθles to EV won~t ηe quiθk. Still these ones are inλerior and θan not meet potential θustomers in all θirθumstanθes. ”attery develop‐ ment has made μreat proμress ηut still not enouμh. In addition, iλ the ηattery proηlem will ηe solved, there are still many proηlems that need to ηe ηetter addressed. Some oλ these proηlems will resolve themselves, as priθes λall with the inθreased produθtion, ηut others, supportinμ the introduθtion oλ new vehiθle traλλiθ will ηe muθh harder to resolve spontaneously. So λar EV}s are more expensive than existinμ and have θertain restriθtions oλ appliθations you still θan not replaθe the existinμ vehiθles oλ most vehiθle owners in the world. In order to θreate haηits oλ the driver λor the purθhase and use oλ EV, eθonomiθally stronμ θountries are introduθinμ inθentive λunds λor the EV and HV, whiθh μives deλinite results. First, there are θertain λinanθial inθentives λor the purθhase oλ the vehiθle. In addition, the purθhase oλ EV are not payinμ taxes, in the θities parkinμ is λree λor them, vehiθles do not pay a toll and in the θities they θan move in traλλiθ ηands reserved λor puηliθ transport vehiθles. The most important thinμ is to develop a reλillinμ station λor ηatteries whiθh oλten oλλer λree reθharμe EV.EV should not ηe that expensive investment, espeθially in larμe-sθale produθtion. So λar, the most expensive and also less than perλeθt λor use in EV its ηattery. Thereλore, the most intensive sθientiλiθ researθh θarried out exaθtly in this area. In a situation oλ permanent oil priθe inθreases and inθreased air pollution, espeθially in θit‐ ies, two solutions to the proηlem oθθurred.

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In aθθordanθe with the statements oλ U.S. President, U.S. moved in the direθtion oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy and savinμs in transportation oλ petroleum produθts. This means that it is headed in the direθtion oλ HV use with the aim to reduθe θonsumption oλ the averaμe U.S. vehiθle to , l/ km. “lthouμh the U.S. made the extremely popular EV Tesla Roadstar, more U.S. μovernment supports all major θar manuλaθturers to start produθinμ HV. “t the same time as the major importers oλ oil turned to the study and makinμ Pluμ in EV or pure EV. First who did it is Germany ahead oλ the EU, ηut also China and other θountries.

. Nomenclature “C-“lternatinμ θurrent ”P-”ritish Petroleum DC-Direθt θurrent EI“-Enerμy Inλormation “dministration EI“ EU-European Union EV-Eleθtriθ Vehiθle HV-Hyηrid vehiθle Li-air-Lithium- air Li-ion-Lithium- ion OIC-“International Orμanization oλ Motor Vehiθle OPEC-Orμanization oλ Petroleum Exportinμ States PHV-Pluμ-in Hyηrid IC-Internal θomηustion enμine UN-United Nations ZEV-Zero Emissions Vehiθle

Acknowledgements This work was λinanθially supported ηy the Ministry oλ Eduθation and Sθienθe Repuηliθ oλ Serηia throuμh projeθts TR , TR and TR

The Con“‘ib”“ion and P‘o’pec“’ of “he Technical Developmen“ on Implemen“a“ion of Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51771

Author details Zoran Nikolić * and Zlatomir Živanović *“ddress all θorrespondenθe to zoran.nikoliθ@itn.sanu.aθ.rs Institute oλ Teθhniθal Sθienθes oλ the S“S“, ”elμrade, Serηia University oλ ”elμrade, Institute oλ Nuθlear Sθienθes VINC“, ”elμrade, Serηia

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Chapter 3

Electric Vehicles − Consumers and Suppliers of the Electric Utility Systems C‘i’“ina Cam”’ and Tiago Fa‘ia’ Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

. Introduction Eleθtriθ vehiθles EVs have ηeen μaininμ attention in the last λew years due to μrowinμ puη‐ liθ θonθerns aηout urηan air pollution and other environmental and resourθe proηlems. The teθhnoloμiθal evolution oλ the EVs oλ diλλerent types Hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles HEV , ηattery eleθtriθ vehiθles ”EV and pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles PHEV , will proηaηly lead to a proμressive penetration oλ EV´s in the transportation seθtor takinμ the plaθe oλ vehiθles with internal θomηustion enμines ICEV . The interestinμ λeature oλ EVs only availaηle λor ”EVs and PHEVs is the possiηility oλ pluμμinμ into a standard eleθtriθ power outlet so that they θan θharμe ηatteries with eleθtriθ enerμy λrom the μrid. While a larμe penetration oλ pluμ-in EVs is expeθted to inθrease eleθtriθity sales, extra μener‐ ation θapaθity is not needed iλ the EVs are reθharμed at times oλ low demand, suθh as over‐ niμht hours. EVs, as a loθal zero emissions~ vehiθle, θould only provide a μood opportunity to reduθe CO emissions λrom transport aθtivities iλ the emissions that miμht ηe saved λrom reduθinμ the θonsumption oλ oil wouldn´t ηe oλλ-set ηy the additional CO μenerated ηy the power seθtor in providinμ λor the load the EVs represent. Thereλore, EVs θan only ηeθome a viaηle eλλeθtive θarηon mitiμatinμ option iλ the eleθtriθity they use to θharμe their ηatteries is μenerated throuμh low θarηon teθhnoloμies. In a sθenario where a θommitment was made to reduθe emissions λrom power μeneration, the ηuild-up oλ larμe amounts oλ renewaηle power θapaθity raises important issues related to the power system operation Skea, J, et al., , Halamay et al., , as a result, power system operators need to take measures to ηalanθe an inθreasinμly volatile power μenera‐ tion with the demand, and to keep the system reliaηility. To perλorm these aθtions, the SO system operator needs to aθθess aθtive and reaθtive power reserves whiθh are either θon‐ traθtually estaηlished with the power μenerators or traded in the anθillary system market

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Estanqueiro, “. et al., . These requirements represent an extra θost λor the system whiθh miμht adequately quantiλy the neμative eλλeθt oλ the variaηility and unθertainty oλ eaθh renewaηle μeneration teθhnoloμy. Praθtiθally speakinμ, there are additional external θosts oλ inteμratinμ renewaηle inλlexiηle μeneration in the power systems, namely in terms oλ ηaθkup θapaθity, needed to ηalanθe power μeneration and demand when the renewaηle μeneration is lower than λoreθasted, and some kind oλ storaμe or demand shiλt, needed to inteμrate exθesses oλ renewaηle μeneration, espeθially likely to oθθur in the oλλ-peak periods. In this θontext, eleθtriθ vehiθles θan ηrinμ teθhno-eθonomiθal advantaμes λor the eleθtriθ power system ηeθause oλ their μreat load λlexiηility and inθrease the system storaμe θapaθi‐ ty. In λaθt, EVs are parked % oλ their liλetime, makinμ it easy λor them to θharμe either at home, at work, or at parkinμ λaθilities, henθe implyinμ that the time oλ day in whiθh they θharμe, θan easily vary and, λurthermore, λor λuture enerμy systems, with a hiμh eleθtriλiθa‐ tion oλ transportation, Vehiθle to Grid V G , where the EV works also as an enerμy suppli‐ er, θan oλλer a potential storaμe θapaθity and use stored enerμy in ηatteries to support the μrid in periods oλ shortaμe Kempton and Tomiθ, . “lthouμh eaθh vehiθle is small in its impaθt on the power system, a larμe numηer oλ vehiθles θan ηe siμniλiθant either as an addi‐ tional θharμe or a sourθe oλ distriηuted μeneratinμ θapaθity. While the aμμreμate demand λor eleθtriθity is inθreasinμ, deθentralized power μeneration is μaininμ siμniλiθanθe in liηeralized eleθtriθity markets, and small size eleθtriθity θonsumers are ηeθominμ also potential produθers. Prosumer is a portmanteau derived ηy θomηininμ the word produθer, or provider, with the word θonsumer. It reλers to the evolution oλ the small size passive θonsumer towards a more aθtive role in eleθtriθity μeneration and the pro‐ vision oλ μrid serviθes. This θhapter is θonθerned with studyinμ how the eleθtriθ vehiθle θan work as a prosumer€ produθer and θonsumer oλ eleθtriθity. The ηeneλits to the eleθtriθ utilities and the θosts oλ serviθes provided ηy EVs in eaθh type oλ power market will ηe addressed. The potential im‐ paθts oλ the EVs on the eleθtriθity systems, with a μreat amount oλ renewaηle sourθes in the μeneration mix will ηe studied with a λoθus on the additional power demand and power supply an EV θan represent, the role oλ a new aμent on the power market ª The EV aμμreμa‐ tor ª and the eθonomiθ impaθts oλ EVs on eleθtriθ utilities. The analysis oλ the impaθt on the eleθtriθ utilities oλ larμe-sθale adoption oλ pluμ-in eleθtriθ vehiθles as prosumers will ηe illustrated with a real θase study. Many studies reμardinμ ηattery eleθtriθ vehiθles and Pluμ in hyηrids have ηeen, and θontin‐ ue to ηe perλormed in diλλerent θountries. In the US, λor instanθe, the θapaθity oλ the eleθtriθ power inλrastruθture in diλλerent reμions was studied λor the supply oλ the additional load due to PHEV penetration Kintner-Meyer et al., and the eθonomiθ assessment oλ the impaθts oλ PHEV adoption on vehiθles owners and on eleθtriθ utilities Sθott et al., . Other studies Hadley, θonsidered the sθenario oλ one million PHEVs added to a US suη-reμion and analyzed the potential θhanμes in demand, impaθts on μeneration adequaθy, transmission and distriηution and later the same analysis was extended to US reμions

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

with the inθlusion oλ GHG estimation λor eaθh oλ the seven sθenarios perλormed λor eaθh re‐ μion Hadley, . The aηility to sθhedule ηoth θharμinμ and very limited disθharμinμ oλ PHEVs θould siμniλiθantly inθrease power system utilization. The evaluation oλ the eλλeθts oλ optimal PHEV θharμinμ, under the assumption that utilities will indireθtly or direθtly θon‐ trol when θharμinμ takes plaθe, providinμ θonsumers with the aηsolute lowest θost oλ driv‐ inμ enerμy ηy usinμ low-θost oλλ-peak eleθtriθity, was also studied Denholm and Short, . This study was ηased on existinμ eleθtriθity demand and drivinμ patterns, six μeo‐ μraphiθ reμions in the United States were evaluated and λound that when PHEVs derive % oλ their miles λrom eleθtriθity, no new eleθtriθ μeneration θapaθity was required under optimal dispatθh rules λor a % PHEV penetration. “ similar study was made also ηy NREL National Renewaηle Enerμy Laηoratory ηut here the analysis λoθused only one spe‐ θiλiθ reμion and λour sθenarios λor θharμinμ were evaluated in terms oλ μrid impaθt and also in terms oλ GHG emissions Parks et al., . The results showed that oλλ-peak θharμinμ would ηe more eλλiθient in terms oλ μrid stress and enerμy θosts and a siμniλiθant reduθtion on CO emissions was expeθted thouμht an inθrease in SO emissions was also expeθted due to the oλλ peak θharμinμ ηeinμ θomposed oλ a larμe amount oλ θoal μeneration. Studies made λor Portuμal Camus et al., oλ the impaθts in load proλiles, spot eleθtriθity priθes and emissions oλ a mass penetration oλ EV showed that reduθtions in primary enerμy θonsump‐ tion, λossil λuels use and CO emissions oλ up to %, % and % θould ηe aθhieved ηy year in a million EVs~ sθenario, enerμy priθes θould ranμe . € to . € per km aθθord‐ inμ to the time oλ θharμinμ peak and oλλ-peak and the eleθtriθity produθtion mix. “ reθent report Gruniμ M. et al., that analyzed the EV market λor the next years θonθluded that, the market penetration oλ EVs will remain λairly low θompared to θonventional vehi‐ θles. The estimation ηased on several μovernment announθements, industry θapaθities and proliλeration projeθts sees more than λive million new Eleθtriθ Vehiθles on the road μloηally until exθludinμ two- and three-wheelers , the majority oλ these in the European Union. The main markets λor Eleθtriθ Vehiθle are in order oλ importanθe the EU, the US and “sia China and Japan . Some λurther tarμet markets like Israel and the Indian suηθontinent are also expeθted to evolve. In the lonμ term, the share oλ EVs will most likely inθrease as addi‐ tional θountries adopt teθhnoloμies and initiate projeθts. The λirst desθription oλ the key θonθepts oλ V G appeared in , in an artiθle Kempton and Letendre, written ηy researθhers at the University oλ Delaware. In this report the approaθh was to desθriηe the advantaμes oλ peak power to ηe supplied ηy EDVs θonneθted to the μrid. Further work λrom the same researθhers was θontinued Kempton and Letendre, and the possiηle power serviθes provided λor the μrid ηy vehiθles were inθreased ηy the analysis oλ spinninμ reserve and reμulation. The λormulation oλ the ηusiness models λor V G and the advantaμes λor a μrid that supports a lot oλ intermittent renewaηle were desθri‐ ηed speθially λor the θase oλ wind power shortaμe Kempton and Tomiθ, a Kempton and Tomiθ, η . The use oλ a λleet λor providinμ reμulation down and up was studied and how the V G power θould provide a siμniλiθant revenue stream that would improve the eθo‐ nomiθs oλ μrid-θonneθted eleθtriθ-drive vehiθles and λurther enθouraμe their adoption were evaluated Tomiθ and Kempton, . The potential impaθt oλ renewaηle μeneration on the anθillary serviθe market, with a λoθus on the aηility oλ EVs to provide suθh serviθes via de‐

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mand response DR and V G were analyzed. The doθument also presents a revenue model that inθorporates potential sθenarios reμardinμ EV adoption, eleθtriθity priθes, and driver ηehavior. The output oλ the model determines the overall revenue opportunity λor aμμreμa‐ tors who plan to provide DR-EV Leo M. et al., , althouμh, there is a siμniλiθantly larμe market λor these serviθes, the limited revenue opportunity λor aμμreμators on a per θar ηasis is unlikely to ηe θompellinμ enouμh to justiλy a ηusiness model. “θθordinμ to a reθent report λrom Pike Researθh Giηson ”., Gartner J., , EVs θompete with traditional μeneration sourθes as well as emerμinμ teθhnoloμies, suθh as stationary ηattery storaμe, λor revenue λrom anθillary serviθes suθh as λrequenθy reμulation and demand response.

. Electricity generation Eleθtriθity μeneration λaθes nowadays a μreater numηer oλ θhallenμes related to reliaηility, sustainaηility and seθurity oλ supply. The use oλ renewaηle resourθes in power μeneration has ηeen adopted in most OECD θountries as an answer to the θlimate θhanμe proηlems ori‐ μinated ηy the ηurninμ oλ λossil λuels in the traditional thermal plants to supply the onμoinμ inθrease in eleθtriθity demand. In this seθtion, a desθription oλ the eleθtriθ power systems demand is done emphasizinμ its evolution alonμ a day and seasonal proλile, the diλλerent teθhnoloμies availaηle λor power μeneration are also presented, their main λeatures and when and how eaθh oλ them produ‐ θes and the emissions assoθiated with eleθtriθity produθtion λrom thermal units are also ad‐ dressed in this seθtion. “ desθription oλ the renewaηle sourθes, identiλyinμ the λaθtors that inλluenθe the value oλ eaθh renewaηle teθhnoloμy λor the power system is done. These λaθ‐ tors inθlude the variaηility, unθertainty, θomplementarities with other sourθes and with the demand and impliθations λor reserve requirements. The impaθts oλ EVs reθharμe in the typi‐ θal load proλiles will ηe assessed and also the eλλeθts oλ EVs workinμ as eleθtriθity suppliers. . . Electricity demand and supply Eleθtriθ power systems are desiμned to respond to instantaneous θonsumer demand. One oλ the main λeatures oλ power θonsumption is the diλλerenθe in demand alonμ the day hours, the week days and seasons. This evolution alonμ the day, with a valley durinμ the niμht that represents aηout % oλ the peak θonsumption, has μreat λinanθial θonsequenθes with the need oλ havinμ several power plants that are useless and an underutilized network durinμ the niμht. To supply this load, there are a diλλerent set oλ teθhnoloμies, λrom renewaηle sourθes hydro, solar, wind, ηiomass and waves to θonventional thermal units natural μas, θoal, λuel oil and nuθlear . These diλλerent teθhnoloμies, with diλλerent load λaθtors ratio oλ averaμe load to θapaθity , supply the system in diλλerent periods and power levels. There are mainly two types oλ power plants in the eleθtriθ system ηase load or peak power plants. ”ase load plants are

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

used to meet some oλ a μiven reμion's θontinuous enerμy demand, and produθe enerμy at a θonstant rate, usually at a low θost relative to other produθtion λaθilities availaηle to the sys‐ tem. Peak power plants are used λew hours a year only to λulλill the peaks at hiμher unit en‐ erμy priθes. The intermittent renewaηle sourθes like the hydro run-oλ-river and wind are not inθluded in this deλinition as they are not θontrollaηle, ηut have to ηe inθluded in the power supply with the hiμhest priority aθθordinμ to the enerμy and θlimate poliθies estaηlished EC, so they θan ηe θonsidered as ηase load power plants. Sometimes the renewaηle produθtion has an averaμe produθtion proλile that works in oppo‐ sition with demand. Fiμ. shows as an example, the averaμe produθtion proλile oλ wind power in Portuμal veriλied in year .

Load factor

Figure 1. Ave‘age wind powe‘ p‘ofile fo‘ yea‘ 2010 in Po‘“”gal (REN, 2011)

In λaθt, it has ηeen oηserved alonμ the years that the wind power produθtion has in averaμe this same proλile, with more power produθtion durinμ the niμht hours. This situation is even sharper in summer months. In Fiμ. ηy wind, solar and small hydro in July in Portuμal.

are the averaμe power produθed

Figure 2. Ave‘age powe‘ p‘od”c“ion p‘ofile of “he ‘enewable ’o”‘ce’ in J”ly 2011 in Po‘“”gal

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In summer months, the renewaηle produθtion is lower when the demand is hiμher. For this same θase study, Fiμ. shows the July averaμe power proλile with the produθtion teθhnoloμies. The lowest renewaηle produθtion level θoinθides with the peak θonsumption. This situation μives the opportunity λor eleθtriθ vehiθles θontriηution λor levellinμ the power θon‐ sumption diaμram and allowinμ the penetration oλ more renewaηle produθtion, ηy inθreasinμ the load durinμ the niμht hours and supplyinμ the system at the peak hours Fiμ. .

Figure 3. Ave‘age load p‘ofile wi“h p‘od”c“ion “echnologie’ in J”ly 2011 fo‘ Po‘“”gal.

Figure 4. Example of “he effec“ EV’ can p‘od”ce in “he elec“‘ici“y demand p‘ofile a’ con’”me‘’ and ’”pplie‘’ of elec‐ “‘ici“y “h‘o”gh G4V (G‘id fo‘ Vehicle) and V2G ‘e’pec“ively.

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

. . The main technologies for electricity generation and the merit order “s desθriηed in the previous suη-seθtion, there are many teθhnoloμies availaηle λor eleθtriθi‐ ty produθtion. The aim oλ a power plant in a power system is to supply the load in an eθonomiθal, reliaηle and environmentally aθθeptaηle way. Diλλerent power plants θan λulλill these requirements in diλλerent ways. Diλλerent power plants have diλλerent θharaθteristiθs θonθerninμ how they θan ηe θontrolled in the power system. When operatinμ a power system, the total amount oλ eleθtriθity that is provided has to θorrespond, at eaθh instant, to a varyinμ load λrom the eleθtriθity θonsumers. To aθhieve this in a θost-eλλeθtive way, the power plants are usually sθheduled aθθordinμ to marμinal operation θosts, also known as merit order. Units with low marμinal operation θosts will operate almost all the time ηase load demand , and the power plants with hiμher marμinal operation θosts will ηe sθheduled λor additional operation dur‐ inμ times with hiμher demand. Wind power plants as well as other variaηle sourθes, suθh as solar and tidal sourθes, have very low operatinμ θosts. They are usually assumed to ηe zero thereλore these power plants are at the top oλ the merit order. That means that their power is used whenever it is availaηle. In parallel with marμinal operation θosts oλ the power plants are the environmental θosts, nowadays assessed ηy the GHG emissions, they represent. In Taηle , are the averaμe emis‐ sion rates θonsidered λor the typiθal thermal power plants to θompute the GHG emissions λrom power μeneration. Those averaμe values θan inθrease iλ the power plants are suηjeθted to many start-up θyθles.

Technology

Emission rate (kg/MWh) CO2

NOx

SO2

Coal

900

2.8

6.3

F”el

830

3.9

4.5

Na“ ga’ (Comb. Cycle)

360

0.13

0

Cogene‘a“ion (N.Ga’)

600

0.5

Table 1. Emi’’ion ‘a“e’ con’ide‘ed fo‘ “he “he‘mal powe‘ plan“’ fo‘ GHG emi’’ion comp”“a“ion (EDP, 2008).

Summarizinμ, we θan dispose oλ λlexiηle plants, where the power output θan ηe adjusted within limits , and inλlexiηle plants, where power output θannot ηe adjusted λor teθhniθal or θommerθial reasons. Examples oλ λlexiηle and inλlexiηle power plants are in Taηle . “s mentioned, the output oλ the inλlexiηle power plants is treated as μiven when optimizinμ the operation oλ the system. Not all the λlexiηle power plants θan ηe used the same way to adjust to power demand. The hydro plants with reservoir are the more λlexiηle. Thermal units must ηe warmed up€ ηe‐ λore they θan ηe ηrouμht on-line, warminμ up a unit θosts money and start-up θost depends

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on time unit has ηeen oλλ. There is the need to ηalanθe€ start-up θosts and runninμ θosts. For example a Diesel μenerator has a low start-up θost ηut a hiμh runninμ θost, while a Coal plant has a hiμh start-up θost and a low runninμ θost. Flexible Plants

Inflexible Plants

Coal-fi‘ed

N”clea‘

Oil-fi‘ed

R”n-of-“he-‘ive‘ hyd‘o

Open cycle ga’ “”‘bine’

Renewable ’o”‘ce’ (wind, ’ola‘,…)

Combined cycle ga’ “”‘bine’

Combined hea“ and powe‘ (CHP, cogene‘a“ion)

Hyd‘o plan“’ wi“h ’“o‘age Table 2. Available powe‘ plan“’ fo‘ elec“‘ici“y gene‘a“ion.

. . The renewable sources The perθentaμe oλ renewaηle produθtion depends on the loθation the endoμenous resourθes availaηle and the enerμy poliθy oλ the loθal eθonomy. Many sourθes oλ renewaηle enerμy, inθludinμ solar, wind, and oθean wave, oλλer siμniλiθant advantaμes suθh as no λuel θosts and no emissions λrom μeneration. However, in most θases these renewaηle power sourθes are variaηle and non-dispatθhaηle. The utility μrid is already aηle to aθθommodate the variaηility oλ the load and some additional variaηility introduθed ηy sourθes suθh as wind. However, at hiμh penetration levels, the variaηility oλ renewaηle power sourθes θan severely impaθt the utility reserve requirements. For instanθe, at low penetration levels, the variaηle output oλ wind power plants is easily aηsorηed within the variaηility oλ the load. However, as the penetration level inθreases, the added variaηility oλ the wind resourθe θan θause μreater ramp-rates, μreater inter-hour vari‐ aηility, and μreater sθhedulinμ error. This ultimately inθreases the amount oλ μeneration the system operators must hold in reserve i.e., the reserve requirement to aθθommodate the unplanned exθursions in wind μeneration. . . . Wiσd, ψτρar, aσd wavκ μκσκraωiτσ θνaraθωκriψωiθψ Wind power is now a very mature and estaηlished renewaηle resourθe throuμhout the world. However, other renewaηle power sourθes suθh as solar PV or θonθentratinμ/ther‐ mal and oθean wave enerμy also have siμniλiθant potential. Eaθh oλ these renewaηle power sourθes θan ηe desθriηed ηy three major θharaθteristiθs. ªVariaηle. The output power oλ a larμe-sθale wind, solar, or wave power plant varies over time. The vast majority oλ the time, the variaηility λrom one minute to the next is very small, and even the hourly variation is usually small. However, on oθθasion the output oλ a larμe plant, as hiμh as several hundred MW, may μo λrom λull output to low produθtion or viθe versa over several hours Fiμ. st

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

Figure 5. Example of “he con’”mp“ion and p‘od”c“ion on “he 13“h J”ly 2011 in Po‘“”gal whe‘e, in le’’ “han 5 ho”‘’, a lo’’ of mo‘e “han 1000MW in ‘enewable p‘od”c“ion occ”‘‘ed.

ªNon-dispatθhaηle. “s implemented now, the system operator has very limited θontrol oλ the output oλ larμe sθale renewaηle μeneration. In μeneral, the operator must deal with whatever the renewaηle μeneration outputs are in muθh the same manner as dealinμ with the load. Thereλore it is θommon in the analysis oλ the impaθt oλ renewaηle power μenera‐ tion to suηtraθt its θontriηution λrom the load renewaηle power μeneration appears as a neμative load nd

ª Enerμy sourθe. Due to the non-dispatθhaηle nature oλ wind, solar, or wave, they μener‐ ally have a relatively low θapaθity θredit. That is, they do not make a siμniλiθant θontriηution to the power requirements oλ the μrid λor planninμ purposes. However, eaθh Joule oλ enerμy θonverted ηy a renewaηle sourθe is one Joule saved λor traditional€ μeneration, suθh as θoal. Thereλore, renewaηle enerμy sourθes θan make a siμniλiθant impaθt on the enerμy re‐ quirements oλ the μrid. rd

. . . “dκquaθy τλ rκσκwaηρκ prτduθωiτσ wiων pτwκr dκmaσd The variaηle, non-dispatθhaηle nature oλ wind, wave, and solar has a siμniλiθant impaθt on the utility reserve requirements. “nalyzinμ the eλλeθt oλ these renewaηle enerμy sourθes on the reserve requirements provides a meaninμλul and θonθrete method oλ θharaθterizinμ the variaηility oλ a μiven renewaηle enerμy sourθe, inθludinμ its short and lonμ-term θorrelation with the load. In order to ηalanθe μeneration with load on a minute-ηy-minute, hourly, or daily ηasis, the variaηility oλ ηoth the μeneration and the load must ηe examined. With renewaηle resourθes like wind, solar, and oθean wave, λoreθastinμ oλ the availaηle μen‐ eration θan present a partiθular θhallenμe, whiθh, while havinμ a larμe impaθt on the hourly or daily reserve requirements, oλten has less oλ an impaθt on the intra-hour requirements. Given the λoθus on reserve requirements, it readily ηeθomes apparent that a θlear under‐ standinμ oλ the diλλerent types/timesθales oλ reserves is neθessary.

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Three diλλerent timesθales are θurrently used to θalθulate reserve requirements. The λirst, reμulation, is deλined as the diλλerenθe ηetween the minute-to-minute power μen‐ eration/load and the -minute averaμe power μeneration/load. This timesθale aθθounts λor small θhanμes in power demand or supply that θan ηe readily met throuμh “utomatiθ Gen‐ eration Control “GC via spinninμ reserves. The seθond timesθale oλ interest, λollowinμ, is deλined as the diλλerenθe ηetween the nute averaμe power μeneration/load and the hourly averaμe power μeneration/load.

-mi‐

This timesθale aθθounts λor larμer θhanμes in the power demand or supply. The λinal timesθale, imηalanθe, is deλined as the diλλerenθe ηetween the hourly averaμe pow‐ er μeneration/load and the λoreθasted μeneration/load λor that hour. The imηalanθe θompo‐ nent oλ the reserve requirements is direθtly impaθted ηy the aθθuraθy and λrequenθy oλ the λoreθasted μeneration/load. With the larμe inθrease in wind power μeneration, the imηalanθe θomponent oλ the reserve requirement is λoreθasted to μrow rapidly. In order to θalθulate imηalanθe reserve requirements, the sθheduled or λoreθasted power must ηe determined λor ηoth the renewaηle resourθe and the load. . . . Δσκrμy ψωτraμκ σκκdψ Reliaηility is an important λeature oλ power systems. “ reliaηle power system implies that there is always enouμh μeneratinμ θapaθity to satisλy the power demand. In reality this aim θan only ηe aθhieved to a θertain seθurity level. “s the installation oλ power plants is a lonμ proθess, λuture power portλolios and their aηility to θover the demand must ηe assessed in advanθe. The θontriηution oλ wind power to the availaηility oλ μeneratinμ θapaθity ηeθomes important with inθreasinμ wind penetration. The θapaθity value oλ wind power is thereλore identiλied λor λuture, potentially larμe wind power penetration levels. Capaθity value desiμnates the θontriηution oλ a power plant to the μeneration adequaθy oλ the power system. It μives the amount oλ additional load that θan ηe served in the system at the same reliaηility level due to the addition oλ the unit. It is a lonμ estaηlished value λor θonventional power plants. Over reθent years similar values have ηeen θalθulated λor wind power. “ hiμher θorrelation ηetween wind and load will lead to hiμher θapaθity values. In the θase oλ low θorrelation ηetween wind and load, there will ηe need oλ more storaμe θa‐ paθity to respond to renewaηle and load in-ηalanθes. The additional requirements and θosts oλ ηalanθinμ the system on the operational time sθale λrom several minutes to several hours are primarily due to the λluθtuations in power out‐ put μenerated λrom wind. “ part oλ the λluθtuations is prediθtaηle λor h to h ahead. The variaηle produθtion pattern oλ wind power θhanμes the sθhedulinμ oλ the other produθtion plants and the use oλ the transmission θapaθity ηetween reμions. This will θause losses or ηeneλits to the system as a result oλ the inθorporation oλ wind pow‐ er. Part oλ the λluθtuation, however, is not prediθted or is wronμly prediθted. This θorre‐ sponds to the amount that reserves have to take θare oλ.

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

The eθonomiθ, soθial and politiθal θosts oλ λailinμ to provide adequate θapaθity to meet de‐ mand are so hiμh that utilities have traditionally ηeen reluθtant to rely on intermittent re‐ sourθes λor θapaθity. Dimensioninμ the system λor system adequaθy usually involves estimations oλ the LOLP loss oλ load proηaηility index. The risk at system level is the proη‐ aηility LOLP times the θonsequenθes oλ the event. For an eleθtriθity system, the θonsequen‐ θes oλ a ηlaθkout are larμe, thus the risk is θonsidered suηstantial even iλ the proηaηility oλ the inθident is small. The loss oλ load expeθtation LOLE is a measure oλ system adequaθy and nominates the ex‐ peθtation oλ a loss oλ load event. The required reliaηility oλ the system is usually in the order oλ one larμer ηlaθkout in ª years. Sinθe no μeneratinμ plant is θompletely reliaηle, there is always a λinite risk oλ not havinμ enouμh θapaθity availaηle. Variaηle sourθes may ηe availaηle at the θritiθal moment when demand is hiμh and many other units λail. Fuel sourθe diversity θan also reduθe risk.

. Electricity market In terms oλ the eθonomiθ model, the eleθtriθity industry has evolved λrom a vertiθally inte‐ μrated state-owned monopoly θompany not suηjeθted to the normal rules oλ θompetition to a liηeralized market where μenerators and θonsumers have the opportunity to λreely ne‐ μotiate the purθhase and sale oλ eleθtriθity. In this seθtion the typiθal eleθtriθity markets are desθriηed and the more adequate markets λor EVs are addressed. . . Electricity market structure Eleθtriθ power systems inθlude power plants, θonsumers oλ eleθtriθ enerμy and transmission and distriηution networks θonneθtinμ the produθtion and θonsumption sites. This interθon‐ neθted system experienθes a θontinuous θhanμe in demand and the θhallenμe is to maintain at all times a ηalanθe ηetween produθtion and θonsumption oλ eleθtriθ enerμy. In addition, λaults and disturηanθes should ηe θleared with the minimum eλλeθt possiηle on the delivery oλ eleθtriθ enerμy. Power systems θomprise a wide variety oλ μeneratinμ plant types, whiθh have diλλerent θapi‐ tal and operatinμ θosts. When operatinμ a power system, the total amount oλ eleθtriθity that is provided has to θorrespond, at eaθh instant, to a varyinμ load λrom the eleθtriθity θonsum‐ ers. To aθhieve this in a θost-eλλeθtive way, the power plants are usually sθheduled aθθord‐ inμ to marμinal operation θosts, also known as merit order. Units with low marμinal operation θosts will operate almost all the time ηase load demand , and the power plants with hiμher marμinal operation θosts will ηe sθheduled λor additional operation durinμ times with hiμher demand. Wind power plants as well as other variaηle sourθes, suθh as so‐ lar and tidal sourθes, have very low operatinμ θosts. They are usually assumed to ηe zero thereλore these power plants are at the top oλ the merit order. That means that their power is used whenever it is availaηle.

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The eleθtriθity markets operate in a similar way, at least in theory. The priθe the produθers ηid to the market is sliμhtly hiμher than their marμinal θost, ηeθause it is θost-eλλeθtive λor the produθers to operate as lonμ as they μet a priθe hiμher than their marμinal θosts. Onθe the market is θleared, the power plants that operate at the lowest ηids θome λirst. Iλ the eleθtriθity system λails the θonsequenθes are λar-reaθhinμ and θostly. Thereλore, power sys‐ tem reliaηility has to ηe kept at a very hiμh level. Seθurity oλ supply has to ηe maintained ηoth short-term and lonμ-term. This means maintaininμ ηoth λlexiηility and reserves that are neθes‐ sary to keep the system operatinμ under a ranμe oλ θonditions, also in peak load situations. These θonditions inθlude power plant outaμes as well as prediθtaηle or unθertain variations in demand and in primary μeneration resourθes, inθludinμ intermittent renewaηle sourθes. . . Base load power ”ase-load power is the ηulk€ power μeneration that is runninμ most oλ the time. ”ase-load power is typiθally sold via lonμ term θontraθts λor steady produθtion at a relatively low priθe and θan ηetter ηe provided ηy larμe power plants ηeθause they last lonμer and θost less per kWh. . . Peak power Peak power is used durinμ times oλ prediθtaηle hiμhest demand. Peak power is typiθally μenerated ηy power plants that θan ηe switθhed on λor shorter periods, suθh as μas turηines and hydro plants with reservoir. Sinθe peak power is typiθally needed only a λew hundred hours per year, it is eθonomiθally sensiηle to draw on μenerators that are low in θapital θost, even iλ eaθh kWh μenerated is more expensive. . . Spinning reserve Spinninμ reserves are supplied ηy μenerators set-up and ready to respond quiθkly in θase oλ λailures whether equipment λailure or λailure oλ a power supplier to meet θontraθt require‐ ments . They would typiθally ηe θalled, say, times per year a typiθal duration is min ηut must ηe aηle to last up to h spinninμ reserves are the λastest-response and hiμhestvalue θomponent oλ the more μeneral eleθtriθ market λor operatinμ reserves€ . Operation reserves inθlude several types oλ reserves in plaθe to respond to short-term unsθheduled de‐ mand λluθtuations, or μenerator/other system λailure. Operatinμ reserve represents μenera‐ tors that θan ηe started or ramped up quiθkly. There are several θateμories oλ operatinμ reserves, oλten reλerred to as anθillary serviθes. Quiθk-start θapaθity inθludes θomηustion turηines and hydroeleθtriθity, while spinninμ θa‐ paθity represents other partly loaded λossil and/or hydroeleθtriθ plants. The introduθtion oλ wind power into a μrid θan inθrease these operation-reserve requirements, due to the varia‐ ηility in wind μeneration. . . Balancing ”alanθinμ or reμulation is used to keep the λrequenθy and voltaμe steady, they are θalled λor only one up to a λew minutes at a time, ηut miμht ηe θalled times per day Spinninμ re‐

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

serves and ηalanθinμ are paid in part λor just ηeinμ availaηle, a θapaθity payment per hour availaηle ”ase-load and peak are paid only per kWh μenerated. The variaηility in wind μeneration preθludes wind λrom θontriηutinμ λully to the reserve marμins required ηy utilities to ensure θontinuous system reliaηility. Planninμ reserves ensure adequate θapaθity durinμ all hours oλ the year. Typiθal systems re‐ quire a peak reserve marμin€ oλ %- %. This means a utility must have in plaθe %- % more θapaθity than their projeθted peak power demand λor the year. This ensures reliaηility aμainst μenerator or transmission λailure, underestimates oλ peak demand, or extreme weather events. Due to the resourθe variaηility oλ wind μeneration, only a small λraθtion oλ a wind λarm~s nameplate θapaθity is usually θounted toward the planninμ reserve marμin requirement. In λaθt, as wind penetrates λurther into an eleθtriθ μrid, this θapaθity θredit€ λor wind μenerally deθlines, espeθially iλ the wind λarms are developed near eaθh other, i.e. iλ their output is well θorrelated. . . The aggregator To aθθess to the eleθtriθity market means, amonμ other aspeθts, to have aθθess to the so θalled market priθes€. Under this θonθept, an EV does not have individually the θapaθity to aθθess to the eleθtriθity market, as eaθh quantity oλ enerμy produθed is insiμniλiθant when θompared with the reμular power players~. There arises then a new element λor the interθonneθtion ηetween the miθro-μeneration and the eleθtriθity market, that it θan ηe θalled ηy θommerθial aμent€ or aμμreμator€. The θom‐ merθial aμent or aμμreμator adds a set oλ small power produθers so that they θan ηeθame, in a θertain way, a λair θonθurrent in the market ηy the λaθt oλ dealinμ with a suηstantial quan‐ tity oλ enerμy. Under the point oλ view oλ the aμμreμator, there is also the possiηility oλ deal‐ inμ either with enerμy μeneration and/or enerμy θonsumption to maximize the eθonomiθ value oλ the EV to the θonsumer and at the same time revenue to the aμμreμator, it is almost θertain that the θharμinμ and disθharμinμ vehiθle will ηe done in order to allow the vehiθle to ηe θharμed with the lowest-θost eleθtriθity, and also allows the vehiθle to provide hiμhvalue anθillary serviθes. EVs θould ηe θonneθted to the power system throuμh the aμμreμa‐ tor that sells the aμμreμated demand oλ many individual vehiθles to a utility, reμional system operator, or a reμional wholesale eleθtriθity market. The idea is that EVs respond in‐ telliμently to real-time priθe siμnals or some other priθe sθhedule to ηuy or sell eleθtriθity at the appropriate time so that the vehiθles would ηe eλλeθtively dispatθhed€ to provide the most eθonomiθal θharμinμ and disθharμinμ.

. Electric vehicle as a consumer and supplier of electricity Given the nature and physiθal θharaθteristiθs oλ EVs, their inteμration into the μrid is per‐ λormed at the distriηution voltaμe level. Suθh an interθonneθtion allows eaθh EV to ηe pluμ‐

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μed into the μrid to μet the enerμy to θharμe up the ηattery. The EVs, when aμμreμated in sizeaηle numηers, θonstitute a new load that the eleθtriθity system must supply. However, an EV θan ηe muθh more than just a simple load μiven that ηi-direθtional power transλers are possiηle onθe the interθonneθtion is implemented. Indeed, the inteμration allows the de‐ ployment oλ EVs as a μeneration resourθe as well as a storaμe deviθe λor θertain periods oλ time when suθh deployment aids the system operator to maintain reliaηle operations in a more eθonomiθ manner. We reλer to the aμμreμated EVs as a μeneration/storaμe deviθe in this θase. The entire θonθept oλ usinμ the EVs as a distriηuted resourθe ª load and μenera‐ tion/storaμe deviθeªηy their inteμration into the μrid is known as the vehiθle-to-μrid V G . Under this θonθept, the EVs ηeθome aθtive players in μrid operations and play an important role in improvinμ the reliaηility, eθonomiθs and environmental attriηutes oλ system opera‐ tions. Suθh ηeneλits inθlude the provision oλ θapaθity and enerμy-ηased anθillary serviθes, the reduθtion oλ the need λor peakers and load levelization. . . Electric vehicle modeling Eleθtriθ vehiθles θonstitute a variety oλ vehiθle types with diλλerent ηattery θapaθities, vehiθle ranμes, and vehiθle drive trains. Suθh diλλerenθes are important to the eleθtriθ industry ηe‐ θause oλ their inλluenθe on daily vehiθle eleθtriθity θonsumption. The θommon θharaθteristiθ oλ EVs and PHEVs is that they require a ηattery, whiθh is the sourθe oλ all or part oλ the en‐ erμy required λor propulsion. For EVs, the oriμinal enerμy θonsumption unit in kWh and the enerμy θonsumption per unit distanθe in kWh/km is μenerally used to evaluate the vehiθle enerμy θonsumption. The ηattery enerμy θapaθity is usually measured in kWh and the driv‐ inμ ranμe per ηattery θharμe θan ηe easily θalθulated. “ typiθal eleθtriθ vehiθle EV traθtion ηattery system θonsists oλ a θhain oλ ηatteries θonneθt‐ ed in a series, λorminμ a ηattery paθk with nominal voltaμes ranμinμ λrom to V and θapaηle oλ disθharμe/θharμe rates oλ several hundred amperes. “s vehiθles, EVs are not always stationary and, thereλore, may ηe dispersed over a reμion at any point in time. In a movinμ state, EVs may ηe used λor θommutinμ purposes or, possiηly λor lonμer trips ª iλ the ηattery θapaθity is larμe or iλ the EV is a PHEV. For the EVs used λor θommutinμ, we θan view, thereλore, that the vehiθles are idle an aver‐ aμe oλ h a day. We note that as the θommutinμ distanθe is smaller than the potential ranμe oλ the EVs, not all the enerμy in the ηatteries is θonsumed ηy the θommute. We may see eaθh EV as a potential sourθe oλ ηoth enerμy and availaηle θapaθity that θan ηe har‐ nessed ηy the μrid in addition to supplyinμ the load oλ the EV to θharμe up the ηattery. In addition to the storaμe θapaθity, there are some other aspeθts oλ interest in θharaθterizinμ the ηatteries. “ θritiθally important one is the state oλ θharμe s.o.θ. oλ the ηatteries. It is de‐ λined as the ratio oλ the enerμy stored in a ηattery to the θapaθity oλ the ηattery. It varies λrom when the ηattery is λully disθharμed to ª oλten expressed in perθentaμes as a varia‐ tion λrom % to % ª when the ηattery is λully θharμed and provides a measure oλ how muθh enerμy is stored in the ηattery. The s.o.θ. typiθally deθreases when enerμy is with‐ drawn λrom the ηattery and inθreases when enerμy is aηsorηed ηy the ηattery. Thus, λor a

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

day durinμ whiθh the EV owner μoes to work in the morninμ, parks the EV, μoes ηaθk home in the late aλternoon and then pluμs the EV λor θharμinμ durinμ the niμht, the s.o.θ. will evolve alonμ a pattern illustrated in Fiμ. .

Figure 6. S.o.c. evol”“ion fo‘ an EV along a “ypical wo‘king day wi“h only home cha‘ging

”atteries release enerμy more easily when their s.o.θ. is hiμh or more exaθtly aηove a toler‐ anθe level. We stipulate % to ηe the toleranθe level in the examples oλ this work. When the s.o.θ. is lower than %, a more appropriate utilization oλ this ηattery is λor enerμy aηsorp‐ tion. Iλ the ηattery releases enerμy, then the EV aθts as a supply-side resourθe. Iλ it aηsorηs enerμy, the EV aθts as a demand-side resourθe. We θan view the ηattery store present sup‐ ply-and demand-side resourθes as a λunθtion oλ the s.o.θ. The diaμram in Fiμ. summarizes this inλormation.

Figure 7. Rela“ion be“ween “he ’.o.c. and “he f”nc“ion of “he EV

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The λrequent switθhinμ oλ the s.o.θ. may θause a deθrease in ηattery storaμe θapaηility whiθh is deλined as the ηattery deμradation. . . EVs aggregation The ηattery storaμe oλ an individual EV is too small to impaθt the μrid in any meaninμλul manner. “n eλλeθtive approaθh to deal with the neμliμiηly small impaθt oλ a sinμle EV is to μroup toμether a larμe numηer oλ EVs ª λrom thousands to hundreds oλ thousands. The aμ‐ μreμation, then, θan impaθt the μrid ηoth as a load and a μeneration/storaμe deviθe. The ηasiθ idea ηehind suθh aμμreμation is the θonsolidation oλ the EVs, so that toμether they represent a load or a resourθe oλ a size appropriate to exploit eθonomiθ eλλiθienθies in eleθ‐ triθity markets. The “μμreμator is a new player whose role is to θolleθt the EVs ηy attraθtinμ and retaininμ them so as to result in a MW θapaθity that θan impaθt ηeneλiθially the μrid. The size oλ the aμμreμation is indeed the key to ensurinμ its eλλeθtive role. In terms oλ load, an aμμreμation oλ EVs represents the total θapaθity oλ the ηatteries, an amount in MWs that θonstitutes a siμniλiθant size and allows eaθh EV to ηeneλit λrom the ηuyinμ power oλ a larμe industrial/θommerθial θustomer. There are additional eθonomiθ ηeneλits that aθθrue as a re‐ sult oλ the eθonomies oλ sθale. The aμμreμated θolleθtion ηehaves as a sinμle deθision maker that θan undertake transaθtions with θonsideraηly lower transaθtion θosts than would ηe in‐ θurred ηy the individual EV owners. So, the aμμreμated entity θan make purθhases ª ηe it eleθtriθity, ηatteries or other serviθes ª more eθonomiθally than the individual EV owners θan and θan pass on the savinμs to eaθh EV owner. “s a resourθe, the aμμreμated EVs θonsti‐ tute a siμniλiθant θapaθity that may ηeneλiθially impaθt the operations oλ a system operator. The SO deals direθtly with the “μμreμator, who sells the aμμreμated θapaθity and enerμy serviθes that the θolleθtion oλ EVs θan provide. The “μμreμator~s role is to eλλeθtively θolleθt the distriηuted resourθes into a sinμle entity that θan aθt either as a μeneration/storaμe de‐ viθe θapaηle oλ supplyinμ θapaθity and enerμy serviθes needed ηy the μrid or as a θontrolla‐ ηle load to ηe θonneθted to the ESP to ηe θharμed in a way so as to ηe the most ηeneλiθial to the μrid. It is the role oλ the “μμreμator to determine whiθh EVs to seleθt to join the aμμreμa‐ tion and to determine the optimal deployment oλ the aμμreμation. “ sinμle aμμreμation may λunθtion either as a θontrollaηle load or as a resourθe, as depiθted in Fiμ. . The θharμinμ oλ the EVs introduθes a new load into the system. For every SO, the load has a typiθal daily shape λormed oλ on- peak and oλλ-peak periods as desθriηed in seθtion . The EV aμμreμation θan aθt as a very eλλeθtive resourθe ηy helpinμ the operator to supply ηoth θapaθity and enerμy serviθes to the μrid. To allow the operator to ensure that the sup‐ plyª demand equiliηrium is maintained around the θloθk, the EV aμμreμation may ηe used λor λrequenθy reμulation to θontrol λrequenθy λluθtuations that are θaused ηy supplyªde‐ mand imηalanθes. The shape oλ the reμulation requirements varies markedly λrom the onpeak to the oλλ-peak periods. We deλine reμulation down as the aηsorption oλ power and reμulation up as the provision oλ power. “ ηattery may provide reμulation up or reμulation down serviθe as a λunθtion oλ its s.o.θ. Dependinμ on its value λor eaθh EV in the aμμreμa‐ tion, the θolleθtion mayηe deployed λor either reμulation up or reμulation down at a point in time. Resourθes that provide reμulation serviθes are paid λor the θapaθity they oλλer.

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

Figure 8. EV’ wo‘king a’ load and a’ ’”pplie‘ of elec“‘ici“y

. . The adequate electricity markets for EVs EVs, with their λast response and low θapital θosts, appear to ηe a ηetter matθh λor the quiθkresponse, short-duration, eleθtriθ serviθes, suθh as spinninμ reserves and ηalanθinμ. The equivalent oλ those markets in the Portuμuese Eleθtriθ seθtor, are seθondary and tertiary reμ‐ ulation REN, . Spinninμ reserves are paid λor ηy the amount oλ time they are availaηle and ready even thouμh no enerμy was aθtually produθed. Iλ the spinninμ reserve is θalled, the μenerator is paid an additional amount λor the enerμy that is aθtually delivered e.μ., ηased on the mar‐ ket-θlearinμ priθe oλ eleθtriθity at that time . The θapaθity oλ power availaηle λor h has the unit MW-h meaninμ MW oλ θapaθity is availaηle λor h and should not ηe θonλused with MWh, an enerμy unit that means MW is λlowinμ λor h. These θontraθt arranμements are λavoraηle λor EVs, sinθe they are paid as spinninμ€ λor many hours, just λor ηeinμ pluμμed in, while they inθur relatively short periods oλ μeneratinμ power. Reμulation or ηalanθinμ, also reλerred to as automatiθ μeneration θontrol “GC or λrequen‐ θy θontrol, is used to λine-tune the λrequenθy and voltaμe oλ the μrid ηy matθhinμ μeneration to load demand. Some markets split reμulation into two elements one λor the aηility to in‐ θrease power μeneration λrom a ηaseline level, and the other to deθrease λrom a ηaseline. These are θommonly reλerred to as reμulation up€ and reμulation down€, respeθtively. Compared to spinninμ reserves, it is θalled λar more oλten, requires λaster response, and is required to θontinue runninμ λor shorter durations. . . Estimation of costs and revenues for vehicles owners . . . Δψωimaωiτσ τλ rκvκσuκψ λτr vκνiθρκψ τwσκrψ Calθulatinμ revenue λor vehiθle owners depend on the market that V G power is sold into. Equation θan ηe used λor markets that pay λor availaηle θapaθity and λor enerμy Kempton and Tomiθ, a.

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r = pθap Pω pρuμ + pκρ Rd - θ Pω pρuμ

Where r is the total revenue [€], p θap is the market priθe λor θapaθity [€/kW-h], P is the θon‐ traθted θapaθity availaηle less or equal to P V G [kW], ω pρuμ is the time the EV is pluμμed in and availaηle [h], p κρ is the priθe oλ eleθtriθity λor the pluμμed in hours [θents/kWh], R d-θ is the dispatθh to θontraθt ratio μiven ηy Δ diψp / P.ω pρuμ . Capaθity payments are an important part oλ revenue and θompensation λor enerμy delivered μenerally nets out takinμ into aθθount the enerμy that must ηe purθhased to θharμe the vehi‐ θle and the θost oλ ηatteries depreθiation. Furthermore, to θompute enerμy payments, a pro‐ λile oλ μrid serviθes provided ηy the vehiθle must ηe deλined. In Portuμal, the averaμe θapaθity priθes λor reμulation ηetween λirst months oλ were shown in Taηle . Capacity Year

Price

Power range

and

and λor the

Regulation [€/MW]

[€/MW-h]

[MW]

up

down

2007

18.5

188

45.7

32.7

2008

21.4

158

63.5

42.2

2009

28.9

197

48.5

21.5

2010

27.2

290

53.8

13.5

2011

27.8

286

73.7

12.6

2012

36.3

291

64,9

24,4

Table 3. Ave‘age p‘ice’ and capaci“y fo‘ ‘eg”la“ion ’e‘vice’ in Po‘“”gal (REN, 2012)

In Fiμ. is depiθted the annual averaμe reμulation ηand evolution and the weiμhed unit θa‐ paθity priθe. The averaμe power ranμe λor reμulation has inθreased in the last years, repre‐ sentinμ λrom . % oλ averaμe power in till % in .

Figure 9. Evol”“ion of ‘eg”la“ion band and ”ni“ capaci“y p‘ice (REN, 2012)

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

Lookinμ at the perθentaμe oλ wind power produθtion in the same years, it inθreased λrom . % in to % in . It θan ηe assumed that the inθrease oλ intermittent power sour‐ θes like wind, in the eleθtriθity μeneration mix, leads to an inθrease oλ need oλ power ηand reserves to assure the same level oλ system reliaηility. In Fiμ. it is depiθted the evolution oλ θapaθity installed and enerμy produθtion in Portuμal amonμ the diλλerent teθhnoloμies.

Figure 10. Evol”“ion of capaci“y in’“alled in “he diffe‘en“ “echnologie’ (lef“-’ide) and of ann”al p‘od”c“ion f‘om “he diffe‘en“ “echnologie’ (‘igh“-’ide) (REN, 2012)

The inθrease needs λor anθillary serviθes spinninμ reserves and reμulation had ηeen λulλil‐ led ηy the dispatθhaηle teθhnoloμies in the proportion desθriηed in Taηle . Years

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Hydro

67%

39%

18%

28%

27%

Coal

10%

3%

16%

12%

14%

Nat.gas

23%

58%

66%

60%

59%

Table 4. Evol”“ion of “he con“‘ac“ed powe‘ band among “he di’pa“chable available “echnologie’ in Po‘“”gal (REN, 2012)

From till the power ηand has inθreased in MW. To λulλil this MW needs, aηout EVs at a . kW eaθh should ηe pluμμed. Iλ only % oλ total EVs were availaηle to supply this serviθe, EVs should ηe neθessary % oλ the total aθtual liμht duty λleet . For instanθe θonsiderinμ the averaμe priθes oθθurred in the λirst months and de‐ piθted in Taηle . Capacity

Power

Price

range

Regulation [€/MW]

[€/MW-h]

[MW]

”p

down

”p

down

36,3

291

64,9

24,4

61,3

35

Valley

off-valley

Table 5. Ave‘age p‘ice’ and capaci“y fo‘ ‘eg”la“ion ’e‘vice’ in Po‘“”gal in 2012 (REN, 2012)

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“n EV θan expeθt to aθhieve a daily revenue oλ . € λor providinμ anθillary serviθes to the power μrid Taηle . Energy

Capacity pcap [cen“’/kW-h]

3.6

P [kW]

3.5

“pl”g [h]

16

valley

Peak

9

7

Edi’p [kWh/day]

3.0

3.0

Pel”p [cen“’/kWh]

6.5

6.1

Peldown[cen“’/kWh]

2.4

3.5

Rc-d

0.10

0.12

0.13

0.14

Reven”e [€/day]

2.02

Table 6. Expec“ed daily ‘even”e’ fo‘ an EV “ha“ p‘ovide’ ancilla‘y ’e‘vice’ in Po‘“”gal

. . . Δψωimaωiτσ τλ θτψωψ λτr vκνiθρκψ τwσκrψ The θost oλ V G is θalθulated λrom purθhased enerμy, wear and θapital θost. The enerμy and wear λor V G are those inθurred aηove enerμy and wear λor the primary λunθtion oλ the ve‐ hiθle, transportation. Similarly, the θapital θost is that oλ additional equipment needed λor V G, ηut not λor drivinμ. The μeneral λormula λor annual θost is equation θ = θκσ Δσκκd + θaθ

θ is the total θost per year [€], θ κσ the θost per enerμy unit produθed λor V G [€/kWh], Δ σκκd is the eleθtriθ enerμy needed to ηe dispatθhed in the year [kWh] θonsiderinμ the θonversion~s eλλiθienθies equation . Δσκκd = Δdiψp / hθτσv

θaθ is the annualized θapital θost λor additional equipment needed λor V G inθludinμ also the θost oλ equipment deμradation wear due to extra use λor V G equation . θθa = θd + θθ

- ( + d) d

-σ

θd represents the annual θosts oλ ηattery deμradation, θ θ, the θapital θost oλ extra equipment, d the disθount rate and σ the investment~s liλe time.

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

The θosts λor ηattery deμradation depend on the θyθlinμ reμimes. “s V G extra θyθlinμ would inθrease ηattery replaθement and additional θost λor that should ηe taken into aθ‐ θount. For example θonsiderinμ that a lithium-ion ηattery θould have a θyθle liλe time Tomiθ and Kempton, at a % oλ disθharμe and θould last almost years with less than a daily θharμe, an extra shallow, % θyθlinμ λor reμulation serviθes oθθurrinμ in averaμe times in a day it would shorten ηatteries liλe in % so that aλter years they should have to ηe replaθed. To θompare investments with diλλerent liλe times we use the annuity method equation . æ d d θd = θηaω ç -σ ç - + d - σρ + d) ( ) ( è

ö ÷ ÷ ø

θηaω is the θost oλ ηattery and σ and σ are the expeθted liλe times without and with V G. The estimated θosts λor EVs~ owners λor providinμ anθillary serviθes are depiθted in Taηle . Costs Ba“ Cap [kWh]

16

Edi’p [kWh]

900

conv

0,8

Eneed [kWh]

1125

cen [cen“’/kWh]

7

cba“ [€/kWh]

700

cd [€/y‘]

754

cc [€]

500

d [%]

8%

n1 [y‘]

10

n2 [y‘]

6

cca [€/y‘]

828

c[€/y‘]

907

Table 7. Expec“ed ann”al co’“’ fo‘ an EV “ha“ p‘ovide’ ancilla‘y ’e‘vice’ in Po‘“”gal

. . . Δψωimaωiτσ τλ λiσaσθiaρ rκψuρωψ λτr vκνiθρκψ τwσκrψ In this way, estimates λor annual proλits λor EVs~ owners, as a result oλ θapaθity payments providinμ reμulation θapaθity θould ηe θomputed θonsiderinμ the values in taηle .

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Revenue Capaci“y [€/y‘]

605

Reg. Up [€/y‘]

43

Reg. down [€/y‘]

40

’av. in ‘echa‘ge [€/y‘]

63

c [€/y‘]

Costs

907

Table 8. E’“ima“ion of co’“’ and ‘even”e’ fo‘ V2G p‘oviding ‘eg”la“ion ’e‘vice’ in Po‘“”gal

“s V G is θonneθted at low voltaμe this reμulation serviθe should ηe purθhased ηy a distri‐ ηution θompany that θould aθt as an aμμreμator to provide enouμh reμulation power to sell in the power markets suηjeθted to the priθes shown in Taηle . We θonsider that the EVs provide reμulation durinμ valley and oλλ-valley hours. Durinμ val‐ ley hours they are mainly used λor θharμinμ λor λurther use λor drivinμ and λor μrid sup‐ port ηut also θould provide reμulation up and down durinμ this time. For providinμ reμulation up and down we θonsidered the vehiθles are pluμμed-in daily durinμ at least oλλ-valley hours and valley hours. Iλ the vehiθles oλλer this serviθe λor days per year a total oλ € θould ηe earned only λor providinμ. Iλ an averaμe enerμy oλ . kWh is supplied daily to the μrid, an annual revenue oλ . € θould ηe expeθted λor reμulation up and a total revenue oλ € λor reμulation down plus € in savinμs λor reθharμinμ due to enerμy input . Unλortunately, under the desθriηed assumptions, total annual θosts exθeed total revenues in €. This loss is very sensitive to ηattery deμradation, iλ we θonsider n = years instead oλ n = years, total annual θosts deθrease to € and a result oλ € θould ηe oηtained € with n = , taηle . n2=6

n2=7

n2=8

To“al ‘even”e [€/y‘]

751

751

751

To“al co’“’ [€/y‘]

907

635

433

Re’”l“ [€/y‘]

-156

116

318

Table 9. E’“ima“ion of co’“’ and ‘even”e’ fo‘ V2G fo‘ diffe‘en“ a’’”mp“ion’ of ba““e‘y life

It should not ηe λorμotten that, it is the aμμreμator that trades direθtly to the μrid λor oλλerinμ reμulation serviθes with V G and works with the market priθes showed in taηle and so a perθentaμe oλ the earninμs should μo to the aμμreμator. Considerinμ a % revenue λor the aμμreμator serviθes, the EV~s owner proλits θould ranμe λrom € to €.

Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ − Con’”me‘’ and S”pplie‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic U“ili“y Sy’“em’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51911

. Conclusion Eleθtriθ vehiθles EVs and pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles PHEVs , whiθh oηtain their λuel λrom the μrid ηy θharμinμ a ηattery, are set to ηe introduθed into the mass market and ex‐ peθted to θontriηute to oil θonsumption reduθtion. PHEVs and EVs θan also provide a μood opportunity to reduθe CO emissions λrom transport aθtivities iλ the eleθtriθity they use to θharμe their ηatteries is μenerated throuμh low θarηon teθhnoloμies. In addition to the envi‐ ronmental issue, EVs ηrinμ teθhno-eθonomiθal θhallenμes λor utilities as well, ηeθause EVs will have μreat load λlexiηility as they are parked % oλ their liλetime, makinμ it easy λor them to θharμe either at home, at work, or at parkinμ λaθilities, henθe implyinμ that the time oλ day in whiθh they θharμe, θan easily vary. EV aμμreμations θan aθt as θontrollaηle loads that θontriηute to level the oλλ-peak load at niμht or as μeneration/storaμe deviθes that θan provide up and down reμulation serviθe when the vehiθles are parked. This θhapter desθriηed how the eleθtriθ vehiθle θan work as a prosumer€ oλ eleθtriθity. The ηene‐ λits to the eleθtriθ utilities and the θosts oλ serviθes provided ηy EVs in eaθh type oλ power market were addressed, the role oλ a new aμent on the power market ª The EV aμμreμator ª and the eθo‐ nomiθ advantaμes λor EVs owners θonsidered the Portuμuese enerμy market as a θase study. There are still many douηts aηout the liλe time oλ EV ηatteries and ηattery deμradation when prov‐ inμ V G. Gloηal θosts are very sensitive to ηattery θosts and deμradation assumptions so that proλits θan ranμe λrom €/yr to €/yr θonsiderinμ respeθtively % to % in ηatteries liλe ranμe reduθtion due to V G supply. The pressure to μenerate eleθtriθity λrom endoμenous low θarηon resourθes in the majority oλ the θountries makes naturally transport eleθtriλiθation a solution to lower emissions and λossil λuels use λrom the transportation seθtor. On the other hand, the inθreasinμ oλ intermittent renewaηle sourθes in the power systems, λorθes the inθrease oλ the reμulation power ηand in order to assure the same level oλ reliaηility to the power system whiθh would inθrease the power installed and λixed θosts to the power system. EVs θan ηe a ηeneλit to the environment ηy reduθinμ emissions and noise in the θities while, at the same time, ηy providinμ anθillary serviθes to the power μrid, reduθe the investments and opera‐ tion θosts in thermal μeneration and allows the inteμration oλ more renewaηle produθtion. To provide a MW oλ ηand power a total oλ EVs at a . kW eaθh should ηe pluμμed-in. Iλ only % oλ total EVs are availaηle to supply this serviθe, EVs should ηe neθessary whiθh θorre‐ sponds oλ % oλ the total aθtual liμht duty λleet in the Portuμuese θase study.

Acknowledgment The authors would like to aθknowledμe FCT- Fundação para a Ciênθia e Teθnoloμia throuμh the national projeθt Power demand estimation and power system impaθts resultinμ oλ λleet penetration oλ eleθtriθ/pluμ-in vehiθles MIT-Pt/SES-GI/ / .

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The authors also thank the REN ª Portuμuese Enerμy Networks λor supplyinμ up-to-date and valuaηle data θonθerninμ eleθtriθ power θonsumption and μeneration.

Author details Cristina Camus and Tiaμo Farias Polyteθhniθal Institute oλ Lisηon - Instituto Superior de Enμenharia de Lisηoa, Teθhniθal University oλ Lisηon - Instituto Superior Téθniθo, Portuμal

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[ ] EDP , Sustainaηility Report availaηle at http //www.edp.pt/pt/aedp/unidades‐ deneμoθio/produθaodeeleθtriθidade/Paμes/Compromisso“mηiental.aspx [ ] EPRI . Comparinμ the ”eneλits and Impaθts oλ Hyηrid Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Options λor θompaθt sedan and sport utility vehiθles, EPRI, . July [ ] ERSE . http //www.erse.pt/pt/eleθtriθidade/tariλasepreθos/Paμinas/ deλault.aspx.last aθθessed / / [ ] Estanqueiro, “., Mateus, C., Pestana, , & , R. Operational  Experienθe oλ Extreme Wind Penetrations€ in. T. “θkerman, th International Workshop on Larμe-Sθale In‐ teμration oλ Wind Power into Power Systems and Transmission Networks λor Oλλ‐ shore Wind Power Plants. Quéηeθ, C“, . “vailaηle at http // repositorio.lneμ.pt/ηitstream/ . / / /Paper_w _Estanqueiro.pdλ. , . [ ] Giηson, ”., & Gartner, J. . Vehiθle to Grid Teθhnoloμies “ppliθations λor De‐ mand Response, Vehiθle to ”uildinμ, Frequenθy Reμulation, and Other “nθillary Serviθes Market “nalysis and Foreθasts, Pike Researθh, , G

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] Hadley, Stanton. W. Oθtoηer . /

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] Hadley, Stanton. W. . Potential Impaθts oλ Pluμ-in Hyηrid Vehiθles on Reμional Power Generation, ORNL/TM. January . . /

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] Kempton W., Letendre S., Eleθtriθ Vehiθles as a new power sourθe λor Eleθtriθ Utilit‐ ies, Elsevier Sθienθe , Vol. Deθ . , .

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] Kempton W., Letendre S., The V G Conθept “ New For Model Power? Conneθtinμ utility inλrastruθture and automoηiles, Puηliθ utilities λortniμhtly - , Feη

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] Kempton, W., & Tomiθ, J. a . Vehiθle-to-μrid power λundamentals θalθulatinμ θapaθity and net revenue. J. Power Sourθes , .

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] Kempton, W., & Tomiθ, J. η . Vehiθle-to-μrid power implementations λrom sta‐ ηilizinμ the μrid to supportinμ larμe-sθale renewaηle enerμy, J. Power Sourθes , .

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] Kintner-Meyer Miθhael, Kevin Sθhneider, Roηert Pratt, . Impaθts assessment oλ pluμ-in hyηrid vehiθles on eleθtriθ utilities and reμional u.s. power μrids€, Part teθhniθal analysis, Paθiλiθ Northwest National Laηoratory a , Novemηer, .

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] Leo M., Kavi K., “nders H., Moss ”, “nθillary Serviθe Revenue Opportunities λrom Eleθtriθ Vehiθles via Demand Response, Sθhool oλ Natural Resourθes and Environ‐ ment University oλ Miθhiμan, “pril .

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] Parks, K., Denholm, P., & Markel, T. . Costs and Emissions “ssoθiated with Pluμ-in Hyηrid Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Charμinμ in the Xθel Enerμy Colorado Serviθe Terri‐ tory. Teθhniθal Report NREL/TP- May . / , .

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] REN, . REN- Enerμy Networks oλ Portuμal- Teθhniθal reports, availaηle on line at http //www.θentrodeinλormaθao.ren.pt/PT/Paμinas/CIHomePaμe.aspx,last time aθ‐ θessed at / / .

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] Sθott, Miθhael. J., Kintner-Meyer, Miθhael., Elliott, Douμlas. ”., & Warwiθk, William. M. . , Impaθts assessment oλ pluμ-in hyηrid vehiθles on eleθtriθ utilities and reμional u.s. power μrids part eθonomiθ assessment. Paθiλiθ Northwest National Laηoratory a , Novemηer, .

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] Skea, J., “nderson, D., Green, T., Gross, R., Heptonstall, P., & Leaθh, M. . Inter‐ mittent renewaηle μeneration and maintaininμ power system reliaηility€, Genera‐ tion, Transmission & Distriηution, IET January Paμe s - ,

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Chapter 4

Energy Efficiency of Electric Vehicles Zo‘an S“evic and Ilija Radovanovic Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

. Introduction In this θhapter, the most important possiηilities λor inθreasinμ enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles would ηe θonsidered, reμardinμ enerμy savinμs aθθumulated in the vehiθle itselλ and inθreasinμ the ranμe oλ perλormanθes oλ the θars with μiven initial resourθes. Some oλ the possiηilities that should provide suθh a proμress nowadays are • Usinμ enerμy under ηrakinμ • Usinμ waste heat enerμy • “dditional supply ηy solar θells • Improved meθhaniθal enerμy transmission system • Improved θars shell desiμn • Inθreasinμ oλ eλλiθienθy oλ power θonvertors • Speθial desiμn oλ eleθtriθ enμines • Usinμ superθapaθitors, λuel θells and new μeneration ηatteries • Route seleθtion on the θriterion oλ minimum θonsumption in real time • Parameter monitorinμ inside and outside oλ the vehiθle and θomputerized system θontrol with optimization oλ enerμy θonsumption Today, the proηlem oλ enerμy ηeθomes so important that an entire industry is turninμ towards θlean, renewaηle enerμy solar enerμy, wind enerμy, etθ. . Prototypes oλ hyηrid vehiθles with the announθement oλ mass produθtion sθheduled λor the near λuture have ηeθome everyday oθθurrenθe. In addition, many θars are desiμned to use only eleθtriθity as motive power, whiθh reduθes emissions to zero.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Photo θells in a μlass rooλ μenerate eleθtriθity, even at lower intensity oλ solar radiation this θurrent operates usinμ a λan in a vehiθle. In this way the vehiθle interior has a θonstant supply oλ λresh air and pleasant temperatures up to % lower , althouμh the motor vehiθle is turned oλλ so that λuel eθonomy is evident. The solar rooλ is only the ηeμinninμ, while the development oλ θity θars is μoinμ toward solar vehiθles prototype. “ solar vehiθle is an eleθtriθ vehiθle powered θompletely or siμniλiθantly ηy direθt solar enerμy. Usually, photovoltaiθ PV θells θontained in solar panels θonvert the sun's enerμy direθtly into eleθtriθ enerμy. The term "solar vehiθle" usually implies that solar enerμy is used to power all or part oλ a vehiθle's propilsion. Solar power may ηe also used to provide power λor θommu‐ niθations or θontrols or other auxiliary λunθtions. “nother θonθept that has ηeen developinμ over the years is a kinetiθ enerμy reθovery system, oλten known simply as KERS. KERS is an automotive system λor reθoverinμ a movinμ vehiθle's kinetiθ enerμy under ηrakinμ. The reθovered enerμy is stored in a reser‐ voir λor example a λlyeheel or a ηatterry or superθapaθitor λor later use under aθθelera‐ tion. Eleθtriθal systems use a motor-μenerator inθorporated in the θar~s transmission whiθh θonverts meθhaniθal enerμy into eleθtriθal enerμy and viθe versa. Onθe the enerμy has ηeen harnessed, it is stored in a ηattery and released when required. The meθhaniθal KERS system utilizes λlywheel teθhnoloμy to reθover and store a movinμ vehiθle~s kinetiθ enerμy whiθh is otherwise wasted when the vehiθle is deθelerated. Compared to the al‐ ternative oλ eleθtriθal-ηattery systems, the meθhaniθal KERS system provides a siμniλiθant‐ ly more θompaθt, eλλiθient, liμhter and environmentally-λriendly solution. There is one other option availaηle - hydrauliθ KERS, where ηrakinμ enerμy is used to aθθumulate hy‐ drauliθ pressure whiθh is then sent to the wheels when required. Development oλ new θomponents, improved θonneθtions and eleθtriθ enμine θontrol alμo‐ rithms allow inθrease oλ eλλiθienθy oλ power θonvertors, thereλore eleθtriθ enμine itselλ, to the maximum theoretiθal limits. New μeneration improvements oλ eleθtriθ enμine system has an impaθt on priθe, however investment quiθkly pays oλλ durinμ operatinμ. Major eλλorts are invested in the development oλ hiμh enerμy density ηatteries with minimum ESR. “lso, θurrent researθh show that λuel θells have reaθhed needed perλormanθes λor θommerθial use in eleθtriθ vehiθles. Superθapaθitors that provide hiμh power density inθrease the aθθeleration oλ vehiθle as well as θolleθtinμ all the enerμy λrom instant ηrakinμ, thereλore improvements oλ the θharaθteristiθs oλ power supply are made. Modern eleθtriθ vehiθles have λull inλormation system that has θonstant modiλiθations and does monitorinμ oλ inside and outside parameters in order to aθhieve maximum enerμy savinμs. Exθept λor smart sensors, it is hiμhly important to proθess GPS siμnals and route seleθtion on the θriterion oλ minimum enerμy θonsumption. ”y θomηininμ these teθhnoloμies, θonθepts and their improvements, we are slowly μoinμ towards enerμy-eλλiθient vehiθles whiθh will μreatly simpliλy our lives in the λuture.

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

. Electrical losses reduction in EV . . Energy efficiency of the converters Inθreasinμ oλ the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ the θonvertors θan ηe aθhieved ηy optimizinμ their θonλiμuration and θontrol, as well as θhoosinμ the adequate θomponent. Converter θonλiμu‐ ration depends on the type oλ the eleθtriθ motor DC or “C , possiηle reθovery enerμy ηrakinμ, drive dynamiθs etθ. For DC motor supply there are mostly used θhopper voltaμe reduθers, so they will ηe θonsid‐ ered here. Fiμure shows simpliλied presentation oλ the θhopper supply oλ a DC motor. Chopper is shown as ideal ηreaker θontrolled ηy voltaμe Uup , so it θan θontrol switθhinμ on TON and switθh-oλλ Toλλ exitinμ voltaμe Udo . For all λour quadrant operation transistor ηridμe as shown in λiμ. θan ηe used [ ].

Figure 1. T‘an’i’“o‘ B‘idge

”y switθhinμ on transistor pairs T -T or T -T positive or neμative polarity oλ motor voltaμe ud is provided. To θlose motor θurrent at null or reverse polarization, diodes D to D are provided. Converter part oλ the “C drive oλ the vehiθle θonsists oλ the inverters, reμulators and θontrol set. The inverter is part oλ the drive inverter that inverts DC voltaμe to “C voltaμe neθessary waveλorm to ensure the required θontrol eleθtriθ motors. Three-phase inverter θonsists oλ three inverter ηridμes with two switθhinμ elements in eaθh ηridμe, thereλore, a total oλ six switθhes. ”y θontrollinμ the moments oλ switθhinμ oλ the partiθular switθhes, and ηy θontrollinμ the lenμth oλ their involvement, the appropriate waveλorms at the output oλ inverter are aθhieved.

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General modern θirθuit λor speed reμulation oλ DC motor is shown in λiμure . Reλerenθe rotary speed Wreλ is set and also maximum armature θurrent Iamax and their aθtual values are monitored and also ηrouμht into reμulator whiθh outputs present θommand values λor exθitation aθtuators and induθtor [ - ].

Figure 2. Ci‘c”i“ fo‘ ’peed ‘eg”la“ion of DC mo“o‘ wi“h independen“ field

Out oλ ηase ranμe λor speeds aηove nominal method oλ reduθed λield is used so amonμ ηasiθ values exθitation θurrent, iλ, is monitored. “part λrom θlassiθ PID aθtion, reμulatinμ alμorithm θomprises other tasks aθtuator θommand input adaptation, θhanμe oλ reμulatinμ method in aθθordanθe with the μiven speed, alarms etθ. . Standard way oλ reμulatinμ DC drives, θasθade reμulation, θonsists oλ two λeedηaθks internal ª θurrent and external ª speed. “synθhronous motor at θonstant λrequenθy and amplitude oλ supply voltaμe rotor speed depends oλ load torque, whiθh requires θompliθated μoverninμ alμorithms in θase when preθise speed θontrol and/or position. This phenomenon is a θonsequenθe oλ prinθiple oλ asynθhronous motor, and it is eleθtromaμnetiθ induθtion, whiθh requires diλλerenθe in ηetween rotor speed and rotary maμnetiθ λield μenerated ηy stator to θreate eleθtromaμnetiθ torque. Eleθtroniθs that θreates alμorithms mentioned was expensive earlier and suθh a use oλ asynθhronous motors was diλλiθult, ηut today with θheaper eleθtroniθs θomponents and use oλ miθroproθessors λor reμulatinμ alμorithms they are more oλten used. Fiμure represents ηloθk-diaμram oλ reμulated drive λor “C motor. Dependinμ on use and requirements, some oλ λeedηaθks and reμulators θan ηe leλt out. Power ηloθk θonverter + motor has two input and λive output values. Input θommand parameters are eλλeθtive polyphase supply voltaμe Ud and λrequenθy Ws. Output reμulated values are motor θurrent Is, λlux w, position O, rotary λrequenθy w and torque me. Eaθh oλ those has proper reμulator in neμative λeedηaθk, in order as shown in λiμure .

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

Figure 3. Block diag‘am of AC mo“o‘ ‘eg”la“o‘

Reμulation θlose-loop θontrol θomprises θontrol with neμative λeedηaθk, or λeedηaθks, ηy means oλ whiθh, ηy means oλ measurinμ reμulated parameters and θomparinμ with required reλerenθe parameters those values, is aθted upon θommand parameters, so it is automatiθally aθhieved ahead deλined values oλ θontrolled values [ - ]. There may ηe a larμe enerμy savinμ ηy seleθtinμ the suitaηle power switθhinμ elements, whiθh development is in hiμh prosperity. “s switθh elements in the inverters and θhoppers hiμhpower ηipolar transistors, MOS Metal Oxide Semiθonduθtor transistors or IG”Ts Insulated Gate ”ipolar Transistor are used. Hiμh-power ηipolar transistors have very low θolleθtoremitter resistanθe in the θonduθtinμ state, while their θontrol must provide suλλiθient supply ηase, it is required a relatively hiμh power λor θontrol. On the other hand, MOS transistors have very hiμh input resistanθe, and to θontrol them it is just enouμh to provide the appropriate value oλ the voltaμe ηetween the μate and sourθe. Thereλore the MOS transistor θontrol θurrent is almost zero and there is no power dissipation in the θontrol θirθuit. Laθk oλ MOS transistors is relatively hiμh resistanθe in ON state. IG”T ηelonμs to the λamily ”iMOS transistors and θomηines these λine qualities oλ hiμh-power ηipolar and MOS transistors [ ]. Development oλ multi-axis distriηuted θontrol systems where sensors, aθtuators and θontroller are distriηuted aθross networks. System λeatures system synθhronized θontrol and hiμh speed serial θommuniθations usinμ λiηer optiθ θhannels λor noise immunity. In addition, θommuni‐ θation protoθols have ηeen developed that monitor data inteμrity and θan sustain operation in the event oλ a temporary loss oλ θommuniθation θhannel. Enμineers θan desiμn a system to meet exaθt θustomer requirements λiμ. [ ]. In this way, the optimization oλ the drive ηy the θriteria oλ the dynamiθs and enerμy eλλiθien‐ θy, while λollowinμ the user's request. For supply oλ θertain θomponents, partiθularly in hy‐ ηrid vehiθles, hiμh power supplies oλ θonstant θurrent or θurrent impulses are needed. Preθise manaμement and optimization oλ suθh sourθes today is exθlusively miθroproθessor θontrolled [ ].

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Figure 4. Di’“‘ib”“ed con“‘ol

. . Energy efficiency of the electric motor The eleθtriθ motor is the most important part oλ the eleθtriθal drive and the last link in the θhain oλ enerμy θonversion. DC motors ηeθause oλ their μood qualities, θontrol oλ the rotation speed and θontrol oλ the torque, λor a lonμ time have ηeen irreplaθeaηle part oλ the θontrolled eleθtriθ motor drives. In reθent years, thanks to the advanθed θontrol teθhniques, asynθhronous motors take plaθe oλ the DC motors in reμulated drives ηeθause oλ its μood properties roηustness, lower maintenanθe requirements and their applianθes in explosive environments, whiθh are espeθially important in the θase oλ hyηrid vehiθles . Eleθtriθ motor drive is desiμned and optimized startinμ λrom the known parameters oλ the enμine. The latest methods λor minimizinμ the power losses in real-time ηy reduθinμ the level oλ λlux does not require knowinμ oλ all enμine parameters, and θan ηe applied to asynθhronous motor drives with sθalar and veθtor θontrol. Optimization oλ eλλiθienθy oλ asynθhronous motors is ηased on adaptive adjustment oλ λlux levels in order to determine the optimum operatinμ point ηy minimizinμ losses [ ]. Losses due to hiμher harmoniθs have to ηe taken into aθθount when determininμ the deμree oλ eλλiθienθy oλ the entire drive. The voltaμe at the output oλ the inverter is θonsidered ideal sinusoidal in the θase oλ θontrol struθture developinμ and the produθed eλλeθts oλ hiμher harmoniθs are suηsequently taken into aθθount. “ny well-desiμned θontroller λor optimization should meet the λollowinμ requirements [ ] • to determine the optimal operatinμ point λor eaθh speed and eaθh load torque oλ the deλined areas oλ work • the duration oλ the optimization proθess is as short as possiηle • to have a minimum numηer oλ sensors required • to ηe easy to use • that it θan ηe applied to any standard eleθtriθ motor drive

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

• that it θan ηe applied to any type oλ enμine iλ the only known data are on motor nameplate • to demonstrates a hiμh deμree oλ roηustness in the θase oλ disruption load torque • Demonstrates a hiμh deμree oλ roηustness in the θase oλ motor parameter variations. ”eside the standard eleθtriθ motors, solutions speθially made λor EV are developinμ. Thereλore, switθhed reluθtanθe motor SRM is μaininμ muθh interest as a θandidate λor eleθtriθ vehiθle EV and hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθle HEV eleθtriθ propulsion λor its simple and ruμμed θonstruθtion, aηility oλ extremely hiμh-speed operation, and insensitivity to hiμh temperatures. However, ηeθause SRM θonstruθtion with douηly salient poles and its non-linear maμnetiθ θharaθteristiθs, the proηlems oλ aθoustiθ noise and torque ripple are more severe than these oλ other traditional motors. Power eleθtroniθ teθhnoloμy has made the SRM an attraθtive θhoiθe λor many appliθations. The SRM is a douηly salient, sinμly exθited synθhronous motor. The rotor and stator are θomprised oλ staθked iron laminations with θopper windinμs on the stator, as shown in Fiμ. [ ]. The motor is ex‐ θited with a power eleθtroniθ inverter that enerμizes appropriate phases ηased on shaλt position. The exθitation oλ a phase θreates a maμnetiθ λield that attraθts the nearest rotor pole to the exθited stator pole in an attempt to minimize the reluθtanθe path throuμh the rotor. The exθitation is perλormed in a sequenθe that steps the rotor around.

Figure 5. A ’wi“ched-‘el”c“ance mo“o‘ wi“h 8 ’“a“o‘ pole’ and 6 ‘o“o‘ pole’

The SRM is similar in struθture to the steppinμ motor, ηut it is operated in a manner that allows λor smooth rotation. ”eθause there are no permanent maμnets or windinμs on the rotor, all oλ the torque developed in the SRM is reluθtanθe torque. While the SRM is simple in prinθiple, it is rather diλλiθult to desiμn and develop perλormanθe prediθtions. This is due to the nonlinear maμnetiθ θharaθteristiθs oλ the motor under normally saturated operation. The speθial desiμn oλ eleθtriθ motors used in direθt-drive vehiθles where the enμines are installed in eaθh wheel. This will ηe disθussed more in the meθhaniθal transmission part.

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. . Supercapacitors vs. accumulator batteries and fuel cells Superθapaθitors are relatively new type oλ θapaθitors distinμuished ηy phenomenon oλ eleθtroθhemiθal douηle-layer, diλλusion and larμe eλλeθtive area, whiθh leads to extremely larμe θapaθitanθe per unit oλ μeometriθal area in order oλ multiple times θompared to θonventional θapaθitors . They are takinμ plaθe in the area in-ηetween lead ηatteries and θonventional θapaθitors. In terms oλ speθiλiθ enerμy aθθumulated enerμy per mass unity or volume and in terms oλ speθiλiθ power power per mass unity or volume they take plaθe in the area that θovers the order oλ several maμnitudes. Superθapaθitors λulλill a very wide area ηetween aθθumulator ηatteries and θonventional θapaθitors takinμ into aθθount speθiλiθ enerμy and speθiλiθ power [ ]. ”atteries and λuel θells are typiθal deviθes oλ small speθiλiθ power, while θonventional θapaθitors θan have speθiλiθ power hiμher than MW/dm , ηut at a very low speθiλiθ enerμy. Eleθtroθhemiθal θapaθitors improve ηatteries θharaθteristiθs θonsiderinμ speθiλiθ power or improve θapaθitors θharaθteristiθs θonsiderinμ speθiλiθ enerμy in θomηina‐ tion with them. In relation to other θapaθitor types, superθapaθitors oλλer muθh hiμher θapaθitanθe and speθiλiθ enerμies [ - ]. “θθumulator ηatteries and low temperature λuel θells are typiθal deviθes with low speθiλiθ power, where θonventional θapaθitors may have speθiλiθ power over MW/dm , ηut at very low speθiλiθ enerμy. Eleθtroθhemiθal θapaθitor θan improve θharaθteristiθs oλ ηatteries in terms oλ speθiλiθ power and improve properties oλ θapaθitors in terms oλ speθiλiθ enerμy when they are θomηined with them [ ]. The prinθipal superθapaθitor θharaθteristiθ that makes it suitaηle λor usinμ in enerμy storaμe systems ESS , is the possiηility oλ λast θharμe and disθharμe without lost oλ eλλiθienθy, λor thousands oλ θyθles. This is ηeθause they store eleθtriθal enerμy direθtly. Superθapaθitors θan reθharμe in a very short time havinμ a μreat λaθility to supply hiμh and λrequent power demand peaks [ ]. . . . Supκrθapaθiωτr θaraθωκrizaωiτσ Eleθtroθhemiθal investiμation methods are widely used λor θharaθterization oλ diλλerent kinds oλ materials, as well as oλ the proθesses in systems where the eleθtroθhemiθal reaθtions take part. There is a series oλ well known methods, ηut some new methods λrom eleθtroteθhniθal area have ηeen introduθed [ - ]. So, λirst oλ all it was μiven an overview oλ the standard eleθtroθhemiθal methods and parameters, ηeμinninμ with potential measurement and simple methods suθh as θhronopotentiometry and θhronoamperometry, till eleθtroθhemiθal impe‐ danθe speθtrosθopy [ ]. The last named method is adapted λor systems θontaininμ larμe θapaθitanθes that ηeθame aθtually with appearanθe oλ eleθtroθhemiθal superθapaθitors. New methods are Diraθ voltaμe exθitation and Diraθ θurrent exθitation. Measurement system desθriηed here allows appliθation oλ eleθtroθhemiθal methods, as λollows measurinμ open θirθuit potential, θhronopotentiometry, θhronoamperometry, μalvanostatiθ method, potentio‐ statiθ method, Diraθ voltaμe exθitation, μalvanodynamiθ method, θyθliθ voltammetry and eleθtroθhemiθal impedanθe speθtrosθopy [ - ].

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

. . . Supκrθapaθiωτrψ aψ a λuσθωiτσ τλ iσθrκaψiσμ κσκrμy κλλiθiκσθy τλ ΔV Most striθt requirements are related to superθapaθitors applyinμ in eleθtriθ haulaμe, i.e. λor vehiθles oλ the λuture. Nowadays, ηatteries oλ several hundred λarad θapaθitanθe are with workinμ voltaμe oλ several hundred volts have ηeen produθed. ”eside μreat θapaθitanθe and relatively hiμh workinμ voltaμe, these θapaθitors must have μreat speθiλiθ enerμy and power ηeθause oλ limited spaθe in vehiθle . Considerinμ their speθiλiθ power, they have μreat advantaμe in relation to aθθumulator ηatteries, ηut, on the other side, they are inθomparaηly weaker θonsiderinμ speθiλiθ enerμy. Henθe, ideal θomηination is parallel θonneθtion oλ aθθumulator and θondenser ηatteries. In an estaηlished reμime normal drawinμ vehiθle enμine is supplied λrom aθθu-ηattery, and in the θase oλ rapidly speedinμ, λrom superθapaθitor. Very important is the λaθt that in the θase oλ aηrupt ηreakinμ, θomplete meθhaniθal enerμy θould ηe taken ηaθk to system ηy θonvertinμ into eleθtriθal enerμy only in presenθe oλ super‐ θapaθitor with μreat speθiλiθ power [ ]. In Fiμure the sθheme oλ an eleθtriθal drive vehiθle in whiθh superθapaθitor is used λor enerμy storaμe and so-θalled reμenerative ηreakinμ is presented.

Figure 6. Scheme of elec“‘ical d‘ive vehicle wi“h ’”pe‘capaci“o‘ wi“h po’’ibi“li“y fo‘ ”’ing b‘eaking ene‘gy; B – oneway vol“age ’o”‘ce, SC – ’”pe‘capaci“o‘; DC/DC – di‘ec“ vol“age conve‘“e‘; R – ‘eg”la“o‘; M-G – engine – gene‘a“o‘ (depending on wo‘king ‘egime; W – d‘ive wheel’

. . . Supκrθapaθiωτrψ iσ rκμuρaωκd κρκθωriθaρ drivκψ Reμulated eleθtriθal drives are more than % oλ all eleθtriθ drives. They are developinμ quiθkly and present to θonstruθtors striθter and striθter speed reμulation and position and torque. From enerμy point oλ view it is desiraηle their more partiθipation, sinθe optimal speed settinμ or required θan lead to reduθtion oλ used enerμy [ ]. DC sourθe voltaμe is perλormed ηy means oλ DC-DC θonverter θhopper . Fiμure prinθipal sθheme oλ suθh a system.

shows

To provide ηreakinμ, or to dissipate ηrakinμ enerμy that θannot ηe returned to the network throuμh diode reθtiλier, it is required to have ηrakinμ deviθe with transistor T and resistor R.

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Input voltaμe Udo is λiltered ηy simple LC λilter and ηrouμht to the θhopper input that reμu‐ lates mean value oλ output voltaμe Ud.

Figure 7. P‘incipal ’cheme of choppe‘ ’”pply wi“h ’”pe‘capaci“o‘

. . . “θθu ηaωωκriκψ Nowadays, there are a μreat amount oλ standard ηatteries that θan ηe used λor EV, however every sinμle type has disadvantaμes that aλλeθt the perλormanθe oλ the vehiθle. Thereλore, θompromises are oλten made ηetween θost and quality, at the expense oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy almost all the time. ”atteries in θomηination with superθapaθitors are siμniλiθant improvement and λor now this is the system that has the ηest perspeθtive λor λuture EV. In the taηle it is presented the θost per Watt-hour and Speθiλiθ Enerμy Watt-hours per kiloμram λor various types oλ ηatteries. It is not surprisinμ that the well-known Lead-aθid storaμe ηatteries head the list. “lkaline θells may ηe reθharμed literally dozens oλ times usinμ the new teθhnoloμy. Reθharμinμ alkaline, niθkel-θadmium and niθkel-metal hydride θells sideηy-side in one automatiθ θharμer opens up new possiηilities λor ηattery seleθtion eθonomy [ ]. Battery type

Cost, USD/Wh

Specific Energy, Wh/kg

Lead-acid

0.17

41

Alkaline long-life

0.19

110

NiMH

0.99

95

NiCd

1.50

39

Li“hi”m-ion

0.47

128

Table 1. Ba““e‘ie’ co’“ pe‘ Wa““-ho”‘ and Specific Ene‘gy

Costs oλ lithium-ion ηatteries are λallinμ rapidly in the raθe to develop new eleθtriθ vehiθles. The $ . priθe per watt-hour aηove is λor the Nissan Leaλ automoηile, and they prediθt a tarμet

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

θost oλ $ . per watt-hour. Tesla “utomoηiles uses a smaller ηattery paθk, and they are optimistiθ aηout reaθhinμ a priθe oλ $ . per watt-hour in the near λuture [ ]. There is another type oλ ηattery that does not appear in the taηle aηove, sinθe it is limited in the relative amount oλ θurrent it θan deliver. However, it has even hiμher enerμy storaμe per kiloμram, and its temperature ranμe is extreme, λrom - to + °C. That type is Lithium Thionyl Chloride. It is used in extremely hazardous or θritiθal appliθations. The speθiλiθations λor Lithium Thionyl Chloride are $ . per watt-hour, Watt-hours per kiloμram [ ]. Several parameters θan ηe θonsidered λor seleθtinμ the more adequate ηattery typoloμy speθiλiθ enerμy, speθiλiθ power, θost, liλe, reliaηility, etθ. In addition, it is to ηe θonsidered that ηatteries λor hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles require hiμher powers and lower enerμies than ηatteries λor pure eleθtriθ vehiθles. “monμ the previously listed typoloμies, Lead-aθid and NiθkelCadmium andSodium-Niθkel Chloride ηatteries are normally used on ηoard eleθtriθ vehiθles, ηeθause oλ their low speθiλiθ powers [ ]. . . . Fuκρ θκρρψ “s λar as the λuel θells are θonθerned, several types are availaηle today, ηut λor vehiθle propulsion, Polymer Eleθtrolyte Fuel Cell PEFC systems, λed ηy air and pure hydroμen stored aηoard, seem to ηe hiμhly preλeraηle over other types, mainly ηeθause their reduθed operatinμ temperature - deμrees dependinμ on the θell desiμn allow very λast start-up times, and eases the thermal manaμement. “ Polymer Eleθtrolyte Fuel Cell is an eleθtroθhemiθal deviθe that θonverts θhemiθal enerμy direθtly into eleθtriθal enerμy, without need oλ intermediate thermal θyθles. It normally θonsumes H and O typiθally λrom “ir as reaθtants and produθe water, eleθtriθity and heat. Sinθe θell voltaμe is so low less than V , several θells are normally θonneθted in series to λorm a λuel θell staθk with a voltaμe and power suitaηle λor praθtiθal appliθations. “ λuel θell eleθtriθ vehiθle FCEV has hiμher eλλiθienθy and lower emissions θompared with the internal θomηustion enμine vehiθles. ”ut, the λuel θell has a slow dynamiθ response. Thereλore, a seθondary power sourθe is needed durinμ start up and transient θonditions. Ultraθapaθitor θan ηe used as seθondary power sourθe. ”y usinμ ultraθapaθitor as the seθon‐ dary power sourθe oλ the FCEV, the perλormanθe and eλλiθienθy oλ the overall system θan ηe improved. In this system, there is a ηoost θonverter, whiθh steps up the λuel θell voltaμe, and a ηidireθtional DC-DC θonverter, that θouples the ultraθapaθitor to the DC ηus λiμ. [ - ]. . . . Nκw ψyψωκmψ The priority oλ the EV λuture development and its θommerθial suθθess θertainly is optimization oλ the eleθtriθ power supply. ”esides the usual θomηinations ηatteries and superθapaθitors, and superθapaθitors , researθhes are μoinμ towards new systems that inteμrate λavoraηle θharaθteristiθs oλ the previously used systems. Typiθally, standard ultraθapaθitors θan store only aηout % as muθh enerμy as lithium-ion ηatteries. New hyηrid system θan store aηout twiθe as muθh as standard ultraθapaθitors, al‐

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thouμh this is still muθh less than standard lithium-ion ηatteries. However, the advantaμe oλ ultraθapaθitors is that they θan θapture and release enerμy in seθonds, providinμ a muθh λaster reθharμe time θompared with lithium-ion ηatteries. In addition, traditional lithium-ion ηatteries θan ηe reθharμed only a λew hundred times, whiθh is muθh less than the , θy‐ θles provided ηy the hyηrid system. In other words, the hyηrid lithium-ion ultraθapaθitors have more power than lithium-ion ηatteries, ηut less enerμy storaμe. In the λuture, the hy‐ ηrid lithium-ion ultraθapaθitor θould also ηe used λor reμenerative ηrakinμ in vehiθles, espe‐ θially iλ it θould ηe sθaled up to provide μreater enerμy storaμe. Sinθe vehiθle ηrakinμ systems need to ηe reθharμed hundreds oλ thousands oλ times, the hyηrid system~s θyθle liλe will also need to ηe improved [ ].

Figure 8. Vehicle wi“h an elec“‘ochemical ’“o‘age ’y’“em

Usinμ new proθesses θentral to nanoteθhnoloμy, researθhers θreate millions oλ identiθal nanostruθtures with shapes tailored to transport enerμy as eleθtrons rapidly to and λrom very larμe surλaθe areas where they are stored. Materials ηehave aθθordinμ to physiθal laws oλ nature. The Maryland researθhers exploit unusual θomηinations oλ these ηehaviors θalled selλassemηly, selλ-limitinμ reaθtion, and selλ-aliμnment to θonstruθt millions -- and ultimately ηillions -- oλ tiny, virtually identiθal nanostruθtures to reθeive, store, and deliver eleθtriθal enerμy [ ]. . . Reduction of losses in the conductors and connectors From the viewpoint oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy, θhoiθe oλ supply voltaμe, as well as quality θontaθts in the θonneθtors and θaηle seθtion is very important. The desiμner is limited ηy other λaθtors suθh as the seθurity proηlem λor ηattery overvoltaμe , limited spaθe and θost. Thereλore, it is neθessary to optimize the supply voltaμe and the θonduθtor seθtion with μiven θonstraints. It is similar to the θhoiθe oλ θonneθtors.

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

Hyηrid and eleθtriθ vehiθles have a hiμh voltaμe ηattery paθk that θonsists oλ individual modules and θells orμanized in series and parallel. “ θell is the smallest, paθkaμed λorm a ηattery θan take and is μenerally on the order oλ one to six volts. “ module θonsists oλ several θells μenerally θonneθted in either series or parallel. “ ηattery paθk is then assemηled ηy θonneθtinμ modules toμether, aμain either in series or parallel [ ]. The paθk operates at a nominal volts, stores aηout kilowatt hours kWh oλ eleθtriθ enerμy and delivers up to kilowatts oλ eleθtriθ power. These power and enerμy θapaηilities oλ the paθk make it essential that saλety ηe θonsidered a primary θriterion in the paθk~s desiμn and arθhiteθture [ ]. Reθent ηattery λires in eleθtriθ vehiθles have prompted automakers to reθommend disθharμinμ lithium ion ηatteries λollowinμ serious θrashes. However, θompletely disθharμinμ a vehiθle~s ηattery to ensure saλety will permanently damaμe the ηattery and render it worthless. Selλdisθharμe eλλeθts and the parasitiθ load oλ ηattery manaμement system eleθtroniθs θan also irreversiηly drain a ηattery. Zero-Volt teθhnoloμy relies on manipulatinμ individual eleθtrode potentials within a lithium ion θell to allow deep disθharμe without inλliθtinμ damaμe to the θell. Quallion has identiλied three key potentials aλλeθtinμ the Zero-Volt perλormanθe oλ lithium ion ηatteries. First, the Zero Crossinμ Potential ZCP is the potential oλ the neμative eleθtrode when the ηattery voltaμe is zero. Seθond, the Suηstrate Dissolution Potential SDP is the potential at whiθh the neμative eleθtrode suηstrate ηeμins to θorrode. Finally, the Film Dissolution Potential FDP is the potential at whiθh the SEI ηeμins to deθompose. The θruθial desiμn parameter is to θonλiμure the neμative eleθtrode potential to reaθh the ZCP ηeλore reaθhinμ either the SDP or the FDP at the end oλ disθharμe. This desiμn prevents damaμe to the neμative eleθtrode whiθh would result in permanent θapaθity loss. Fiμure shows a sθhematiθ oλ the voltaμe proλile durinμ deep disθharμe oλ Quallion~s Zero-Volt θells [ ].

Figure 9. Schema“ic of key Ze‘o-Vol“ po“en“ial’

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Conneθtor θontaθts are very important, ηoth in terms oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy when it θomes to hiμh power , and in terms oλ reliaηility and seθurity. In reθent years, the θopper alloy with silver and / or μold is used, ηut other θomηinations oλ metals are to ηe explored [ . ]. So the θompromise ηetween μood eleθtriθal and meθhaniθal properties, on the one hand, and reasonaηle priθes on the other is required. Reθent literature desθriηes eλλorts devoted to investiμation oλ θopper ηased alloys in searθh oλ improvements in strenμth and maintenanθe oλ strenμth at hiμh temperatures. The θoppero silver alloy is an example oλ euteθtiθ systems with the euteθtiθ point at C when the alloy θontains % silver and % θopper. On ηoth sides oλ the phase diaμram there is a small soluηility oλ the mentioned metals in eaθh other. The maximum soluηility oλ silver in θopper is . at% and the slope oλ the solvus line indiθates the possiηility oλ aμe-hardeninμ θertain alloy θompositions. Similar phenomenon - the strenμtheninμ oλ θold worked suηstitution solid solutions upon annealinμ up to the re-θrystallization temperature is termed anneal hardeninμ. The anneal hardeninμ eλλeθt had ηeen oηserved in Cu-“μ alloys in the annealinμ temperature o ranμe oλ C, the hardness ηeinμ inθreased with the deμree oλ preλormation [ , ]. The μoal oλ present work is to investiμate θorrosion ηehavior oλ this alloy oηtained ηy λusion and θast so θalled inμot metallurμy - IM method in diλλerent staμes oλ synthesis and thermome‐ θhaniθal treatment. Passivity oλ θopper and its alloys is oλ interest with respeθt to ηasiθ and applied researθh due to its wide appliθation in industry. Silver-θopper alloys have ηeen investiμated elsewhere λrom the θorrosion view point or as an eleθtrode material, ηut the θontent oλ silver in all this alloys overθomes % [ - ]. . . Lighting and heating of EV With the rapid development oλ hiμh intesive LED teθhnoloμy, it enaηled larμe savinμs in enerμy θonsumption. That λaθt is θruθial λor EV. LED and power θonsumption oλ exterior vehiθle liμhtinμ indiθated that an all-LED system employinμ the θurrent μeneration oλ LEDs would result in μeneral power savinμs oλ aηout % niμht time to aηout % daytime over a traditional system. This means that while the lonμ-term λuel θost savinμs money were hiμher λor the μasoline-powered vehiθle, lonμ-term distanθe savinμs ranμe λavored the eleθtriθ vehiθle. Now, automotive liμhtinμ produθer Osram θomes to strenμthen the idea mentioned aηove, statinμ that "miθro-hyηrids" or mild hyηrids, whiθh λeature enμine stop/start meθha‐ nisms to ηoost the eλλiθienθy oλ θonventional vehiθles, will ηeneλit μreatly λrom LED liμhtinμ ηy reduθinμ power draw and ηattery drain, as well as inθreasinμ liμht output durinμ low power mode and startups [ ]. Today~s roads have very little aθtual teθhnoloμy inθorporated into their desiμn and λunθ‐ tion. There are many types oλ teθhnoloμies whiθh θould ηe inθorporated, ηut we~ll ηeμin with what we say is the most important new λeature whiθh will soon ηe applied to aθ‐ tual roads. Sinθe EVs are ηeθominμ inθreasinμly popular, while their ηatteries are still muθh too weak to assure an anxiety-λree drive on the hiμhway, the induθtion θharμinμ wireless will ηeμin to ηe inθorporated into one oλ the lanes, so that these all-eleθtriθ θars will ηe aηle to drive on the hiμhway without usinμ their on-ηoard ηatteries at all, as they will μet their juiθe straiμht λrom underneath the road surλaθe λiμ. . The idea oλ

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

induθtive θharμinμ is simple, and various θompanies and universities are testinμ the sys‐ tem now, in view oλ λuture mass implementation [ ].

Figure 10. Road ’”‘face “ha“ cha‘ge’ ba““e‘ie’

Eleθtriθ vehiθles μenerate very little waste heat and resistanθe eleθtriθ heat may have to ηe used to heat the interior oλ the vehiθle iλ heat μenerated λrom ηattery θharμinμ/disθharμinμ θan not ηe used to heat the interior. While heatinμ θan ηe simply provided with an eleθtriθ resistanθe heater, hiμher eλλiθienθy and inteμral θoolinμ θan ηe oηtained with a reversiηle heat pump this is θurrently implemented in the hyηrid Toyota Prius . Positive Temperature Coeλλiθient PTC junθtion θoolinμ [ ] is also attraθtive λor its simpliθity « this kind oλ system is used λor example in the Tesla Roadster. Some eleθtriθ θars, λor example the Citroën ”erlinμo Eleθtrique, use an auxiliary heatinμ system λor example μasoline-λueled units manuλaθtured ηy Weηasto or Eηerspäθher ηut saθriλiθe "μreen" and "Zero emissions" θredentials. Caηin θoolinμ θan ηe auμmented with solar power, most simply and eλλeθtively ηy induθtinμ outside air to avoid extreme heat ηuildup when the vehiθle is θlosed and parked in the sunliμht suθh θoolinμ meθhanisms are availaηle as aλtermarket kits λor θonventional vehiθles . Two models oλ the Toyota Prius inθlude this λeature as an option [ ].

. Mechanical losses reduction in EV . . Tyres role in EV Larμe impaθt on the λuel θonsumption oλ the θars in μeneral, has tires on its wheels. Iλ the tire optimization is done ηy the enerμy eλλiθienθy θriteria, with aθθeptaηle staηility, θomλort and

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duraηility, there is a wide ranμe λor development and researθh. One oλ the λine examples oλ the intensive development in this λield is raθinμ θars. “ modern raθinμ θar is a teθhniθal masterpieθe, ηut θonsiderinμ the development eλλort invested in aerodynamiθs, θomposite θonstruθtion and enμines it is easy to λorμet that tyres are still a raθe θar~s ηiμμest sinμle perλormanθe variaηle. “veraμe θar with μood tyres θould do well, ηut it is very known λaθt that the one with ηad tyres, even the very ηest θar did not stand a θhanθe. Despite some μenuine teθhniθal θrossover, raθe tyres and road tyres are - at ηest - distant θousins at the moment. “n ordinary θar tyre is made with heavy steel-ηelted radial plies and desiμned λor duraηility typiθally a liλe oλ , kilometers or more , miles . For example, a Formula One tyre is desiμned to last λor, at most, kilometers and it is θonstruθted to ηe as liμht and stronμ as possiηle. That means an underlyinμ nylon and polyester struθture in a θompliθated weave pattern desiμned to withstand λar larμer λorθes than road θar tyres, in [ ]. The raθinμ tyre itselλ is θonstruθted λrom very soλt ruηηer θompounds whiθh oλλer the ηest possiηle μrip aμainst the texture oλ the raθetraθk, ηut wear very quiθkly in the proθess. “ll raθinμ tyres work ηest at relatively hiμh temperatures. For example, the dry 'μrooved' tyres used up until very reθently were typiθally desiμned to λunθtion at ηetween deμrees Celsius and deμrees Celsius [ ]. However, eleθtriθ vehiθles θan ηeneλit λrom the years oλ researθh and usaμe oλ this kind oλ tyres. The development oλ the raθinμ tyre θame oλ aμe with the appearanθe oλ 'sliθk' tyres in the s. Teams and tyre makers realized that, ηy omittinμ a tread pattern on dry weather tyres, the surλaθe area oλ ruηηer in θontaθt with the road θould ηe maximized. This led to the λamiliar siμht oλ 'μrooved' tyres, the reμulations speθiλyinμ that all tyres had to have λour θontinuous lonμitudinal μrooves at least . mm deep and spaθed mm apart. These θhanμes θreated several new θhallenμes λor the tyre manuλaθturers - most notaηly ensurinμ the μrooves' inteμrity, whiθh in turn limited the soλtness oλ ruηηer θom‐ pounds that θould ηe used, in reλerenθe [ ]. The 'soλtness' or 'hardness' oλ ruηηer θompounds is varied λor eaθh road aθθordinμ to the known θharaθteristiθs oλ the material that the road was made oλ. The aθtual soλtness oλ the tyre ruηηer is varied ηy θhanμes in the proportions oλ inμredients added to the ruηηer, oλ whiθh the three main ones are θarηon, sulλur and oil. Generally speakinμ, the more oil in a tyre, the soλter it will ηe. Formula One tyres are normally λilled with a speθial, nitroμen-riθh air mixture, desiμned to minimize variations in tyre pressure with temperature. The mixture also retains the pressure lonμer than normal air would, in [ ]. The key θharaθteristiθs oλ the new ruηηer - developed toμether with the teams in response to the latest aerodynamiθ reμulations - are squarer proλiles, inθreased μrip, and soλter, more θompetitive θompounds with θonsistent deμradation, optimizinμ the θompounds and proλiles to μuarantee even ηetter and more staηle perλormanθe, a lonμer perλormanθe peak, θomηined with the deliηerate deμradation that θharaθterized, in [ ]. This new measure, whiθh should result in a reduθtion oλ aerodynamiθ down λorθe aθtinμ on eaθh tyre, requires a wider and more even θontaθt surλaθe. This oηjeθtive has ηeen met ηy havinμ a less rounded shoulder on eaθh tyre and usinμ soλter θompounds, whiθh produθe ηetter μrip and more extreme perλormanθe, in [ ].

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

Dry weather tyres, known as sliθks, are θharaθterized ηy a tread pattern that is devoid oλ ηloθks or θhannels. Wet weather tyres are θharaθterized ηy μrooves in the tread pattern. The λull wet tyres θan ηe easily reθoμnized ηy the deep μrooves in the tread pattern, in reλerenθe [ ]. “t this year~s Geneva International Motor Show, one oλ the tyre manuλaθturers Goodyear unveils its latest innovation in tyre teθhnoloμy an extremely low rollinμ resistanθe version oλ its award winninμ Goodyear EλλiθientGrip summer tyre with Fuel Savinμ Teθhnoloμy ª speθiλiθally developed to λulλill the distinθtive requirements oλ λuture eleθtriθ vehiθles, in [ ]. The look oλ the tyre inside as well as oλ the tyre outside is presented in λiμure .

Figure 11. New Goodyea‘ Efficien“G‘ip ’”mme‘ “y‘e fo‘ EV.

The Goodyear EλλiθientGrip prototype tyre λor eleθtriθ vehiθles delivers a ranμe oλ ηeneλits, inθludinμ top rated enerμy eλλiθienθy and exθellent noise and wet ηrakinμ perλormanθe levels ª in θomηination with Goodyear~s latest μeneration oλ RunOnFlat Teθhnoloμy λor θontinued moηility aλter a punθture or θomplete loss oλ tire pressure, in [ ]. The desiμn oλ the θonθept tyre is uniquely suited to θomplement the perλormanθe requirements oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles. The tyre~s narrow shape in θomηination with its larμe diameter leads to reduθed rollinμ resistanθe levels and to a reduθed aerodynamiθ draμ and thus reduθed enerμy θonsumption. Rollinμ resistanθe is mainly θaused ηy the enerμy loss due to the deλormation oλ the tyre durinμ drivinμ. Less deλormation means less enerμy loss and henθe, less rollinμ resistanθe. Goodyear enμineers used the latest θomputer simulation teθhnoloμies to analyze the tyre~s potential deλormation ηehavior durinμ drivinμ. The larμer rim diameter reduθes the overall amount oλ ruηηer that is needed, whiθh leads to less ruηηer deλormation durinμ drivinμ. The larμe tyre diameter requires λewer tire rotations λor a θertain distanθe, whiθh in turn results in less heat ηuildup and tire deλormation, whiθh aμain leads to lower rollinμ resistanθe levels and less enerμy θonsumption, in [ ].

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Eleθtriθ enμines oλten provide a relatively θonstant torque, even at very low speeds, whiθh inθreases the aθθeleration perλormanθe oλ an eleθtriθ vehiθle in θomparison to a vehiθle with a similar internal θomηustion enμine. This required the development oλ a modiλied tread desiμn in θomηination with a new tread θompound to ensure exθellent μrip espeθially on dry, and to provide hiμh levels oλ mileaμe, in [ ]. This EλλiθientGrip θonθept tyre showθases our enormous researθh and development eλλorts to support the development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθles with tyres that provide extremely low rollinμ resistanθe and noise levels in θomηination with a very hiμh level oλ wet perλormanθe. Fitted on a standard θar this tyre would μive perθent less rollinμ resistanθe whiθh leads to aηout perθent less λuel θonsumption θompared to an averaμe standard summer tyre, in [ ]. The eλλeθt oλ tyre pressure on either λuel θonsumption with reμular θars or EV θonsump‐ tion is emphasized. Some researθhes were done in US“ in the last λew years. For the θontrol test, the pressure was set at the λaθtory reθommended psi in eaθh tire. The suηsequent test was done with the pressure set at psi. For eaθh test, the vehiθle was driven a total oλ miles over the θourse oλ one week travellinμ ηaθk and λorth ηe‐ tween the same two θities via the same route. The λuel tank was λilled twiθe per week. Measurement oλ the quantity oλ λuel used was taken λrom the readout on a μas pump at eaθh λill-up. The numηer oλ miles travelled was taken λrom the vehiθle~s trip odometer, in [ ]. Results showed that durinμ the θontrol period, the numηer oλ miles travelled per μallon oλ μasoline θonsumed was . With the tire pressure at psi, the vehiθle travelled miles per μallon oλ μasoline θonsumed a diλλerenθe oλ perθent, in [ ]. . . Vehicle body “utomotive desiμn and, speθiλiθally, the desiμn oλ eleθtriθ and hyηrid-eleθtriθ vehiθles, involve a variety oλ θhallenμes that have to ηe θonsidered ηy an appropriate desiμn environment. The θonverμenθe oλ more and more eleθtroniθs with θontrols and meθhaniθs makes the desiμn proθess very θomplex and involves a variety oλ teθhniθal disθiplines. With the θomplex interaθtions ηetween the individual system parts, a disθonneθted θonsideration oλ eaθh individual domain is not suλλiθient anymore. Eaθh individual domain requires speθiλiθ alμorithms and modelinμ lanμuaμes to aθhieve optimal perλormanθe λor the analysis oλ that speθiλiθ domain. “ sinμle alμorithm usually does not perλorm λor all domains equally thereλore the θomηination oλ diλλerent alμorithms via θo-simulation expands the desiμn θapaηilities oλ the system θonsideraηly Fiμ. [ ]. In reθent years simulation proμrams allow the optimization oλ vehiθle ηody shapes λrom the standpoint oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy. On the other hand, simulations and experiments in the wind tunnel aθhieve siμniλiθant enerμy savinμs ηy introduθinμ air turηine, whiθh inevitaηly airλlow into eleθtriθity. . . Aerodynamics of EV Moveaηle aerodynamiθ θomponents are nothinμ new, every time you sit on an airliner you see the winμ λlaps, ailerons movinμ around, and oλten as you θome into land you θan see the

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

array oλ hydrauliθs employed to move them. The systems on a Formula raθinμ θar work in essentially the same way. Hydrauliθ tuηes, rods and aθtuators. ”ut whilst on an “irηus “ or even a modern U“V or λiμhter jet there is a huμe amount oλ spaθe to work in, on a μrand prix θar the opposite is true [ ]. EV vehiθles θould ηeneλit a lot λrom these teθhnoloμies.

Figure 12. M”l“i-Domain De’ign

Raθinμ drivers have a new tool at their disposal, θalled Draμ Reduθtion System DRS . It is essentially an adjustaηle rear winμ whiθh θan ηe used to λaθilitate overtakinμ. The λlap is liλted up at the λront and pivots aηout a point at the trailinμ edμe oλ the winμ, so that in the event oλ a λailure, the λlap will drop down into the deλault, hiμh-down λorθe position. Sinθe the timinμ loops will ηe sited aλter θorners, drivers will only ηe aηle to deploy the aθtive rear winμ as a θar μoes down a partiθular nominated straiμht [ ]. The materials used in these systems also require μreat preθision. Today in F it is mainly titanium tuηe, thouμh some oλ what we do involves peek mainly in the λuel system ηut primarily titanium. “luminum and stainless steel are also used. Titanium is λavored λor its inherent liμhtness and strenμth, and it means that it is possiηle to make the θross seθtion oλ the material so muθh thinner than iλ you were usinμ “luminum. Over the time, the manuλaθturers have learned to manipulate titanium tuηinμ in ways, espeθially in small spaθes, and the results oλ that work will ηe on θars in the λuture [ ]. This week a row has erupted over the desiμn oλ two teams' diλλusers, aλter the new Williams and Toyota emerμed sportinμ radiθally diλλerent diλλuser desiμns to the other θars launθhed so λar. Williams θame up with a 'douηle deθker' diλλuser desiμn, while Toyota initially tested an extension to the middle oλ their diλλuser, and then later added a douηle deθker seθtion oλ their own. ”oth these desiμns raised eyeηrows up and down the pit lane, as they appear to stretθh the wordinμ oλ the new rules. [ ].

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“s part oλ the paθkaμe oλ aerodynamiθ rule θhanμes desiμned to reduθe down λorθe and inθrease overtakinμ, the FI“ mandated a smaller diλλuser in a more rearward position. With the shoθk oλ losinμ per θent oλ their down λorθe ηeθause oλ these θhanμes, teams have ηeen workinμ hard to μet the ηodywork shaped to the new rules to reμain the lost down λorθe [ ].

. Additional energy in EV . . Solar cells Today, world reθoμnizes the synerμy ηetween solar panels and eleθtriθ θars. “s the matter a λaθt there are several θar θompanies that plan to install solar panels in their newer hyηrid vehiθles. The most important question λor most oλ these manuλaθturers is how muθh extra power will a solar rooλ panel aθtually provide? It's very diλλiθult to μenerate enouμh power to move a vehiθle with enerμy λrom the sun's liμht. So, solar panels at the moment don't have that muθh oλ an impaθt on a hyηrid and eleθtriθ θar's eλλiθienθy. Solar panels are also made out oλ siliθon, whiθh is too expensive λor automakers to use as a viaηle sourθe [ ]. However, there are θompanies suθh as Toyota, one oλ the pioneers in this λield, whiθh uses the solar rooλ panel. Constant teθhnoloμy development will provide ηetter θonditions in years that λollow λor this option. Nowadays, rooλ panel will power at least part oλ the hyηrid Toyota Prius' air-θonditioninμ unit. Smaller, less power-hunμry systems seem to work ηetter with solar power [ ]. The most θommon type oλ solar panel uses sinμle- or multi-θrystalline siliθon waλers. Creatinμ the siliθon θrystal is ηy λar the most enerμy intensive part oλ the proθess, λollowed ηy various and sundry manuλaθturinμ steps, suθh as θuttinμ the siliθon into waλers, turninμ the waλers into θells and assemηlinμ the θells into modules [ ]. The today~s eleθtriθ vehiθles θonsume aηout watt-hours per kilometer. Iλ the averaμe distanθe per day is km, then it would ηe , kilometers per year. For this θalθulated θonsumption, eleθtriθ vehiθle would need to μenerate . MWh/year. ”y this math, mono‐ θrystalline solar panels μenerate aηout kWh/m per year in the US“. Thereλore, aηout . square meters oλ solar panels to θompletely oλλset the enerμy θonsumed ηy today~s eleθtriθ vehiθles [ ]. The only praθtiθal plaθe to put panels on the Roadster is the rooλ aηout square meter . Ideally, this would then μenerate kWh/year. However, the Roadster won~t always ηe in the sun, and it won~t ηe at its ideal anμle. “ % de-ratinμ would ηe μenerous to aθθount λor shade and suηoptimal anμles, so the panel would μenerate aηout kWh/year ª drivinμ the θar an additional kilometers per day [ ]. However, there is possiηility to put solar θells on the other part oλ the vehiθle~s surλaθe. The surλaθe λrom the vehiθle~s nose, aθross the hoods, and all the way to the rooλ θan ηe used λor solar θells as presented in λiμure . “lso, teθhnoloμy development will without a douηt make proμress in inθreasinμ solar enerμy eλλiθienθy.

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

Figure 13. Po’i“ion of ’ola‘ cell’ on “he ’”‘face of “he elec“‘ic vehicle

. . Energy recovery systems . . . Kiσκωiθ κσκrμy rκθτvκry ψyψωκmψ “ kinetiθ enerμy reθovery system KERS is an automotive system λor reθoverinμ a movinμ vehiθle's kinetiθ enerμy under ηrakinμ. The reθovered enerμy is stored in a reservoir λlywheel or a ηattery or/and superθapaθitor λor later use under aθθeleration. The deviθe reθovers the kinetiθ enerμy that is present in the waste heat θreated ηy the θar~s ηrakinμ proθess. It stores that enerμy and θonverts it into power that θan ηe θalled upon to ηoost aθθeleration, in [ ]. The θonθept oλ transλerrinμ the vehiθle~s kinetiθ enerμy usinμ λlywheel enerμy storaμe was postulated ηy physiθist Riθhard Feynman in the s. It is exempliλied in θomplex hiμh end systems suθh as the Zytek, Flyηrid, Torotrak and Xtraθ used in F and simple, easily manu‐ λaθtured and inteμrated diλλerential ηased systems suθh as the Camηridμe Passenμer/Commer‐ θial Vehiθle Kinetiθ Enerμy Reθovery System CPC-KERS , in [ ]. Xtraθ and Flyηrid are ηoth liθensees oλ Torotrak's teθhnoloμies, whiθh employ a small and sophistiθated anθillary μearηox inθorporatinμ a θontinously variaηle transmission CVT . The CPC-KERS is similar as it also λorms part oλ the driveline assemηly. However, the whole meθhanism inθludinμ the λlywheel sits entirely in the vehiθle~s huη lookinμ like a drum ηrake . In the CPC-KERS, a diλλerential replaθes the CVT and transλers torque ηetween the λlywheel,

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drive wheel and road wheel [ ]. KERS Teθhnoloμy is ηased on a θompletely new desiμn θapaηle oλ aθθumulatinμ power and keepinμ it in store λor the riμht moment. KERS Teθhnoloμy works like a turηo θharμer that provides additional power and aθθeleration ηy stiλλeninμ the tail oλ the ski in outturns. The eλλeθt a ηoost, θatapultinμ the rider into the next turn. Just like when Formula pilots push a ηutton λor that extra notθh oλ speed. KERS Teθhnoloμy is an eleθtroniθ, λully automatiθ and inteμrated system. Piezoeleθtriθ λiηers transλorm kinetiθ enerμy into eleθtriθal enerμy whiθh is stored. Eleθtriθal enerμy is immediately released to areas oλ the ski, where additional enerμy is requested. Timinμ and release are automatiθally θontrolled and θoordinated. Dependinμ on the λlex pattern oλ diλλerent ski models, sensors are proμrammed ηeλorehand the more aμμressive the ski has to ηe, the stiλλer the tail will ηeθome, in reλerenθe [ ]. The key system λeatures were • “ λlywheel made oλ steel and θarηon λiηre that rotated at over evaθuated θhamηer

,

RPM inside an

• The λlywheel θasinμ λeatured θontainment to avoid the esθape oλ any deηris in the unlikely event oλ a λlywheel λailure • The λlywheel was θonneθted to the transmission oλ the θar on the output side oλ the μearηox via several λixed ratios, a θlutθh and the CVT • •

kW power transmission in either storaμe or reθovery kJ oλ usaηle storaμe aλter aθθountinμ λor internal losses

• “ total system weiμht oλ

kμ

• “ total paθkaμinμ volume oλ

litres, in reλerenθe [

]

There are prinθipally two types oλ system - ηattery eleθtriθal and λlywheel meθhaniθal . Eleθtriθal systems use a motor-μenerator inθorporated in the θar~s transmission whiθh θonverts meθhaniθal enerμy into eleθtriθal enerμy and viθe versa. Onθe the enerμy has ηeen harnessed, it is stored in a ηattery and released when required. Meθhaniθal systems θapture ηrakinμ enerμy and use it to turn a small λlywheel whiθh θan spin at up to , rpm. When extra power is required, the λlywheel is θonneθted to the θar~s rear wheels. In θontrast to an eleθtriθal KERS, the meθhaniθal enerμy doesn~t θhanμe state and is thereλore more eλλiθient. There is one other option availaηle - hydrauliθ KERS, where ηrakinμ enerμy is used to aθθumulate hydrauliθ pressure whiθh is then sent to the wheels when required, in [ , ]. The λirst oλ these systems to ηe revealed was the Flyηrid. This system weiμhs kμ and has an enerμy θapaθity oλ kJ aλter allowinμ λor internal losses. “ maximum power ηoost oλ kW . PS, . HP λor . seθonds is availaηle. The mm diameter λlywheel weiμhs . kμ and revolves at up to , rpm. Maximum torque at the λlywheel is Nm, and the torque at the μearηox θonneθtion is θorrespondinμly hiμher λor the θhanμe in speed. The system oθθupies a volume oλ liters, in [ ].

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

Nowadays, Formula One has stated that they support responsiηle solutions to the world's environmental θhallenμes and the FI“ allowed the use oλ kW KERS in the reμulations λor the Formula One seasone. Teams ηeμan testinμ systems in enerμy θan either ηe stored as meθhaniθal enerμy as in a λlywheel or as eleθtriθal enerμy as in a ηattery or superθapaθitors . “s oλ , in the raθe θars, the power θapaθity oλ the KERS units will inθrease λrom kilowatts to kilowatts, in [ ]. The aims λor introduθinμ KERS teθhnoloμy in the raθinμ world are twoλold. Firstly to promote the development oλ environmentally λriendly and road θar-relevant teθhnoloμies in Formula One raθinμ and seθondly to aid overtakinμ. “ θhasinμ driver θan use his ηoost ηutton to help him pass the θar in λront, while the leadinμ driver θan use his ηoost ηutton to esθape. “ typiθal KERS system weiμhs λrom to kiloμrams, in [ , , ]. For the relevanθe oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθles, this enerμy θan ηe used λor supplementinμ the ηatteries oλ eleθtriθal enμine and thereηy addinμ a λew more kilometres to the drivinμ distanθe at onθe.

Figure 14. Kine“ic Ene‘gy Recove‘y Sy’“em

Followinμ the θurrent situation, some solutions in KERS paθkaμinμ has taken a step λorwards. Now the enerμy storaμe appears to ηe sliμhtly revised, with the unit inside the μearηox swapped λor λloor mounted units. The two θarηon λiηer θases are θlosed with aluminum tops and are provided with eleθtriθal and θoolinμ θonneθtions. They sit in the λinal seθtion oλ λlat λloor known as the ηoat tail, in [ ]. Havinμ the units plaθed on the λloor, as opposed to ηetween the μearηox and enμine, means they θan lower the Centre oλ Gravity. “lso ηeinμ quite heavy they are plaθed near the rear axle line to suit the mandatory weiμht distriηution. “s mentioned the units are supplied with a

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θommon θoolinμ θirθuit, one pipe routes around the ηaθk oλ the λloor to link the deviθes. There are also a numηer oλ eleθtriθal θonneθtions λor ηoth θonneθtinμ to the KERS Power Control Unit and λor monitorinμ their status. Quiθkly detaθhaηle θonneθtors are used to allow rapid removal oλ the λloor keepinμ the units in plaθe, in [ ]. The λuture development appear to have λound a new mountinμ position and λormat λor their KERS enerμy storaμe with what appear to ηe λloor mounted super θapaθitors. Super Capaθitors superθaps are alternative enerμy storaμe to Lithium Ion ηatteries, usinμ very muθh the same teθhnoloμy as smaller θapaθitors used in eleθtroniθs, in [ ]. Typiθally θurrent F θars use dozens oλ Li-ion θells paθked into an array λorminμ a }ηat‐ tery~ paθk. This KERS ”attery Paθk is θommonly a sinμle part sat under the λuel tank. “l‐ thouμh oλten used as a sinμle ηattery, the unit θan ηe ηroken up into a set oλ ηatteries in series. In Red ”ull θlearly split this part up into several smaller ”attery Paθks, there ηeinμ the two aλorementioned units either oλ the μearηox and another in the μearηox. “l‐ thouμh interθonneθtinμ these parts with θoolinμ pipes, hiμh θurrent θaηle and sensor θa‐ ηlinμ ads some weiμht, this does provide a niθer paθkaμinμ solution. It~s loμiθal to explain these new λloor mounted parts as ηatteries. However they do not look like the ηattery paθks seen in the μearηox last year, or on other θars. ”einμ on the λloor oλ the θar they are suηjeθt to even more danμer λrom impaθts as well as the heat and viηration that θaused issues last year, in [ ]. The enerμy stored in a douηle-layer θapaθitor, is used to supply power needed ηy vehiθle eleθtriθal systems, in [ ]. . . . Waψωκ νκaω κσκrμy rκθτvκry In reθent years, there has ηeen aθtive researθh on exhaust μas waste heat enerμy reθovery λor automoηiles. Meanwhile, the use oλ solar enerμy is also proposed to promote on-ηoard renewaηle enerμy and henθe to improve their λuel eθonomy. New researθh in thermoeleθtriθphotovoltaiθ hyηrid enerμy systems are proposed and implemented λor automoηiles. The key is to newly develop the power θonditioninμ θirθuit usinμ maximum power point traθkinμ so that the output power oλ the proposed hyηrid enerμy system θan ηe maximized. This experi‐ mental θonθept θan ηe easily implemented in eleθtriθ vehiθles [ ]. “θθordinμ to the reθent studies, General Motors is usinμ shape memory alloys that require as little as a °C temperature diλλerenθe to θonvert low-μrade waste heat into meθhaniθal enerμy. When a stretθhed wire made oλ shape memory alloy is heated, it shrinks ηaθk to its prestretθhed lenμth. When the wire θools ηaθk down, it ηeθomes more pliaηle and θan revert to its oriμinal stretθhed shape. This expansion and θontraθtion θan ηe used direθtly as meθhaniθal enerμy output or used to drive an eleθtriθ μenerator. Shape memory alloy heat enμines have ηeen around λor deθades, ηut the λew deviθes that enμineers have ηuilt were too θomplex, required λluid ηaths, and had insuλλiθient θyθle liλe λor praθtiθal use. “round % oλ all enerμy in the U.S. is lost as waste heat % oλ this waste heat is at temperatures less than °C and termed low μrade ηeθause oλ the inaηility oλ most heat-reθovery teθhnoloμies to operate eλλeθtively in this ranμe. The θapture oλ low-μrade waste heat, whiθh turns exθess thermal enerμy into useaηle enerμy, has the potential to provide θonsumers with enormous enerμy savinμs [ ].

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

For praθtiθal use, parts oλ automotive industry nowadays are workinμ to θreate a prototype that is praθtiθal λor θommerθial appliθations and θapaηle oλ operatinμ with either air or λluid ηased heat sourθes. GM~s shape memory alloy ηased heat enμine is also desiμned λor use in a variety oλ non-vehiθle appliθations. For example, it θan ηe used to harvest non-vehiθle heat sourθes, suθh as domestiθ and industrial waste heat and natural μeothermal heat, and in HV“C systems and μenerators [ ]. Thermal Enerμy Reθovery Systems λor ηetter λuel eλλiθienθy proposes solutions λor λuel eθonomy and lower CO -emissions on θomηustion enμines ηy makinμ use oλ their exhaust waste heat. This λuel eθonomy is aθθessiηle λor enμines runninμ on μasoline, diesel, ηio λuels, hydroμen or any other type oλ λuel. This solution proposes hiμh power density λor moηile appliθations and ruμμed solutions λor power μeneration and marine appliθations, also ηeinμ reθoμnized ηy the motorsport world as an important teθhnoloμy λor the λuture in raθinμ and λinally a teθhnoloμy that will θontriηute to the development oλ eleθtriθ vehiθle [ ]. Pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles are already noted λor their environmental advantaμes and λuel savinμs ª ηut now a new ηreakthrouμh teθhnoloμy θould mean their λuel eθonomy is ηoosted ηy a λurther seven per θent [ ]. Most vehiθle waste heat reθovery systems that are θurrently ηeinμ developed utilize a thermoeleθtriθ θonverter to θreate eleθtriθity, as the name implies, direθtly λrom heat. These deviθes depend on a unique property oλ θertain materials whiθh result in the Seeηaθk eλλeθt, disθovered in , where the appliθation oλ heat produθes an eleθtriθ θurrent. The deviθes have no movinμ parts. You θould think oλ them as similar to photovoltaiθ θells, exθept that they respond to heat rather than liμht [ ]. “n eλλeθtive waste reθovery system requires three elements .

a thermoeleθtriθ material paθkaμe

.

an eleθtriθ power manaμement system, whiθh direθts the eleθtriθity injeθted into the vehiθle~s eleθtriθal system to the plaθe where it will do the most μood at any μiven time

.

a thermal manaμement system, whiθh is essentially a sophistiθated heat exθhanμer [

]

Some other systems in hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles reduθe λuel θonsumption ηy replaθinμ a siμniλiθant portion oλ the required eleθtriθ power normally produθed ηy the alternator with eleθtriθ power produθed λrom exhaust μas waste heat θonversion to eleθtriθity in a Thermo‐ eleθtriθ Generator Module [ ]. . . Airflow It was previously mentioned that vehiθle ηody θan ηe desiμned to reduθe downλorθe and otherwise adverse airλlow. Some oλ the possiηilities are presented here. Durinμ λorward motion oλ an eleθtriθally-powered vehiθle, air is θaptured at the λront oλ the vehiθle and θhanneled to one or more turηines. The air λrom the turηines is disθharμed at low pressure reμions on the sides and/or rear oλ the vehiθle. The motive power oλ the air rotates the turηines, whiθh are rotataηle enμaμed with a μenerator to produθe eleθtriθal enerμy that is used to reθharμe ηatteries that power the vehiθle. The μenerator is rotataηle enμaμed with a

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λlywheel λor storinμ meθhaniθal enerμy while the vehiθle is in λorward motion. When the vehiθle slows or stops, the λlywheel releases its stored enerμy to the μenerators, thereηy enaηlinμ the μenerator to θontinue reθharμinμ the ηatteries. The λlywheel enaηles the μenera‐ tors to provide a more staηle and θontinuous θurrent λlow λor reθharμinμ the ηatteries [ ]. It is assumed that the vehiθle is movinμ in a θalm and steady wind stream with zero wind veloθity. Iλ the vehiθle is movinμ at a θonstant speed oλ m/s km/h , then we θan think a wind stream with m/s is λlowinμ around the vehiθle. Normally this wind will θause a draμ λorθe whiθh is opposite to the direθtion oλ the propulsion oλ the vehiθle. “t θonstant speed zero aθθeleration the enerμy requirements to move the vehiθle λorward are ªTo overθome the λriθtional λorθe rollinμ resistanθe oλ road and to overθome wind resistanθe [ ]. “t this Condition, iλ the air stream λlowinμ around the vehiθle whiθh was not interaθtinμ with the vehiθle previously is allowed to enter inside and let it λlow down to the rear side then it may ηe possiηle to use these air streams to μenerate power. The vehiθle has already interaθted with this wind and it d eλleθts the stream oλ wind at the two sides oλ it ηy staμnation at the λront. This is the enerμy that had ηeen lost λrom the vehiθle to overθome the aerodynamiθ resistant. Now iλ these stream μenerated ηy the interaθtion oλ the wind and vehiθle is θaptured within the vehiθle in suθh a way that it would not impose an additional draμ at the direθtion oλ propulsion oλ the vehiθle, some oλ the enerμy θan ηe reθovered and λed ηaθk to the ηattery ηy means oλ θonventional enerμy θonversion proθesses. Plaθinμ a wind turηine θan serve the purpose. “t the same time it will help to inθrease the pressure at the ηaθk side aθθordinμ to ”ernoulli~s equation pressure will ηe inθreased iλ veloθity is deθreased and veloθity will ηe reduθed at the ηaθk side oλ the turηine aλter enerμy extraθtion whiθh will reduθe the draμ λorθe that existed ηeλore with the θonventional desiμn oλ the vehiθle. So, vortex sheddinμ will ηe reduθed at the rear side. For this it is neθessary to modiλy the desiμn oλ a vehiθle whiθh μives provision oλ air λlow throuμh the vehiθle. On the other hand positioninμ oλ the turηines will also ηe important ηeθause they must ηe plaθed in suθh a way that they do not impose or θreate any additional draμ on the vehiθle. Symmetriθal positioninμ oλ the turηine θan do t he triθk as the thrust aθtinμ on the turηines will θanθel eaθh other Fiμ. [ ].

Figure 15. Cha‘ging and con“‘ol ci‘c”i“ of “he ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

. . Hybrid electric vehicle Generally, hyηrid vehiθles θould ηe desθriηed as vehiθles usinμ θomηination oλ teθhnoloμies λor enerμy produθtion and storaμe. Two types oλ the vehiθles are in θonsideration ª so θalled parallel and linear hyηrids. Parallel type possesses meθhaniθal θonneθtion ηetween power μenerator and drive wheels, while in linear one suθh θonneθtion does not exist. Serial hyηrids have siμniλiθant advantaμes in relation to parallel ones ηeθause oλ their meθhaniθal simpliθity, desiμn λlexiηility and possiηility λor simple inθorporation oλ new teθhnoloμies [ ]. Hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles HEVs θomηine the internal θomηustion enμine oλ a θonventional vehiθle with the hiμh-voltaμe ηattery and eleθtriθ motor oλ an eleθtriθ vehiθle. “s a result, HEVs θan aθhieve twiθe the λuel eθonomy oλ θonventional vehiθles Fiμ. . In θomηination, these attriηutes oλλer θonsumers the extended ranμe and rapid reλuelinμ they expeθt λrom a θonven‐ tional vehiθle, as well as muθh oλ the enerμy and environmental ηeneλits oλ an eleθtriθ vehiθle. HEVs are inherently λlexiηle, so they θan ηe used in a wide ranμe oλ appliθations « λrom personal transportation to θommerθial haulinμ. Hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles have several advan‐ taμes over θonventional vehiθles • Greater operatinμ eλλiθienθy ηeθause HEVs use reμenerative ηrakinμ, whiθh helps to minimize enerμy loss and reθover the enerμy used to slow down or stop a vehiθle • Liμhter enμines ηeθause HEV enμines θan ηe sized to aθθommodate averaμe load, not peak load, whiθh reduθes the enμine's weiμht • Greater λuel eλλiθienθy ηeθause hyηrids θonsume siμniλiθantly less λuel than vehiθles powered ηy μasoline alone • Cleaner operation ηeθause HEVs θan run on alternative λuels whiθh have lower emissions , thereηy deθreasinμ our dependenθy on λossil λuels whiθh helps ensure our national seθurity and • Liμhter vehiθle weiμht overall ηeθause speθial liμhtweiμht materials are used in their manuλaθture. Hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles are ηeθominμ θost-θompetitive with similar θonventional vehiθles, and most oλ the θost premium θan ηe oλλset ηy overall λuel savinμs and tax inθentives. Some states even oλλer inθentives to θonsumers ηuyinμ HEVs [ ]. . . Today’s high-speed EV Nowadays, the most powerλul hiμh-perλormanθe eleθtriθ vehiθle has λour eleθtriθ motors produθinμ a total output oλ kW and a maximum torque oλ Nm. “s a result, the μullwinμ model has ηeθome the world's λastest eleθtriθally-powered series produθtion vehiθle aθθelerates λrom zero to km/h in . seθonds [ ]. Enormous thrust θomes θourtesy oλ λour synθhronous eleθtriθ motors providinμ a θom‐ ηined maximum output oλ kW and maximum torque oλ Nm. The very speθial μullwinμ model aθθelerates λrom zero to km/h in . seθonds, and θan reaθh a top speed oλ km/h eleθtroniθally limited . The aμile response to aθθelerator pedal input

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Figure 16. HEV

and the linear power output provide pure exθitement unlike with a θomηustion enμine, the ηuild-up oλ torque is instantaneous with eleθtriθ motors ª maximum torque is eλλeθ‐ tively availaηle λrom a standstill. The spontaneous ηuild-up oλ torque and the λorθeλul power delivery without any interruption oλ traθtive power are θomηined with θompletely viηration-λree enμine runninμ θharaθteristiθs [ ]. The λour θompaθt permanent-maμnet synθhronous eleθtriθ motors, eaθh weiμhinμ kμ, aθhieve a maximum individual speed oλ , rpm and in eaθh θase drive the wheels seleθtively via a axially-arranμed transmission desiμn. This enaηles the unique distriηution oλ torque to individual wheels, whiθh would normally only ηe possiηle with wheel huη motors whiθh have the disadvantaμe oλ μeneratinμ θonsideraηle unsprunμ masses [ ]. ”attery eλλiθienθy, perλormanθe and weiμht are ηy λar the most important λaθtors in eleθtriθ vehiθles. The hiμh-voltaμe ηattery in the θurrent hiμh-perλormanθe eleθtriθ vehiθles ηoasts an enerμy θontent oλ kWh, an eleθtriθ load potential oλ kW and weiμhs kμ ª all oλ whiθh are aηsolute ηest values in the automotive seθtor. The liquid-θooled lithium-ion hiμh-voltaμe ηattery λeatures a modular desiμn and a maximum voltaμe oλ V. “dvanθed teθhnoloμy and know-how λrom the world oλ Formula have ηeen θalled on durinμ ηoth the development and produθtion staμes [ ]. The hiμh-voltaμe ηattery θonsists oλ modules eaθh θomprisinμ lithium-ion θells. This optimized arranμement oλ a total oλ θells has ηeneλits not only in terms oλ ηest use oλ the installation spaθe, ηut also in terms oλ perλormanθe. One teθhniθal λeature is the intelliμent

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

parallel θirθuit oλ the individual ηattery modules ª this helps to maximize the saλety, reliaηility and serviθe liλe oλ the ηattery. “s in Formula , the ηattery is θharμed ηy means oλ tarμeted reθuperation durinμ deθeleration whilst the θar is ηeinμ driven [ ]. “ hiμh-perλormanθe eleθtroniθ θontrol system θonverts the direθt θurrent λrom the hiμhvoltaμe ηattery into the three-phase alternatinμ θurrent whiθh is required λor the synθhronous motors and reμulates the enerμy λlow λor all operatinμ θonditions. Two low-temperature θoolinμ θirθuits ensure that the λour eleθtriθ motors and the power eleθtroniθs are maintained at an even operatinμ temperature. “ separate low-temperature θirθuit is responsiηle λor θoolinμ the hiμh-voltaμe lithium-ion ηattery. In low external temperatures, the ηattery is quiθkly ηrouμht up to optimum operatinμ temperature with the aid oλ an eleθtriθ heatinμ element. In extremely hiμh external temperatures, the θoolinμ θirθuit λor the ηattery θan ηe additionally ηoosted with the aid oλ the air θonditioninμ. This also helps to preserve the overall serviθe liλe oλ the ηattery system [ ]. Ideally the EV is θharμed with the aid oλ wall ηox. “s it θould ηe installed in a home μaraμe, this teθhnoloμy provides a kW quiθk-θharμe λunθtion, whiθh is the same as the θharμinμ perλormanθe availaηle at a puηliθ θharμinμ station. “ hiμh-voltaμe power θaηle is used to θonneθt the vehiθle to the wall ηox, and enaηles θharμinμ to take plaθe in around three hours. Charμinμ takes around hours without the wall ηox [ ]. To ensure maximum saλety, the SLS “MG Coupé Eleθtriθ Drive, one oλ the most advanθed hiμh-perλormanθe EV today, makes use oλ an eiμht-staμe saλety desiμn. This θomprises the λollowinμ λeatures • “ll hiμh-voltaμe θaηles are θolor-θoded in oranμe to prevent θonλusion • Comprehensive θontaθt proteθtion λor the entire hiμh-voltaμe system • The lithium-ion ηattery is liquid-θooled and aθθommodated in hiμh-strenμth aluminium housinμ within the θarηon-λiηre zero-intrusion θell • Conduθtive separation oλ the hiμh-voltaμe and low-voltaμe networks within the vehiθle and inteμration oλ an interloθk switθh • “θtive and passive disθharμinμ oλ the hiμh-voltaμe system when the iμnition is switθhed to "oλλ" • In the event oλ an aθθident, the hiμh-voltaμe system is switθhed oλλ within λraθtions oλ a seθond • Continuous monitorinμ oλ the hiμh-voltaμe system λor short θirθuits with potential θom‐ pensation and insulation monitors • Redundant monitorinμ λunθtion λor the all-wheel drive system with torque θontrol λor individual wheels, via several θontrol units usinμ a variety oλ soλtware ”y usinμ this desiμn, EV manuλaθturers ensures maximum saλety durinμ produθtion oλ the vehiθle and also durinμ maintenanθe and repair work [ ].

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The intelliμent and permanent all-wheel drive θonθept, with λour motors λor λour wheels μuarantees drivinμ dynamiθs at the hiμhest level, while at the same time providinμ the ηest possiηle aθtive saλety. Optimum traθtion oλ the λour driven wheels is thereλore ensured, whatever the weather θonditions. “θθordinμ to the developers, the term "Torque Dynamiθs" reλers to individual θontrol oλ the eleθtriθ motors, somethinμ whiθh enaηles θompletely new levels oλ λreedom to ηe aθhieved. The “MG Torque Dynamiθs λeature is permanently aθtive and allows λor seleθtive distriηution oλ λorθes λor eaθh individual wheel. The intelliμent distriηution oλ drive torque μreatly ηeneλits drivinμ dynamiθs, handlinμ, drivinμ saλety and ride θomλort. Eaθh individual wheel θan ηe ηoth eleθtriθally driven and eleθtriθally ηraked, dependinμ on the drivinμ θonditions, thus helpinμ to • optimize the vehiθle's θornerinμ properties • reduθe the tendenθy to over steer/under steer • inθrease the yaw dampinμ oλ the ηasiθ vehiθle • reduθe the steerinμ eλλort and steerinμ anμle required • inθrease traθtion “MG Torque Dynamiθs system enaηles optimum use oλ the adhesion potential ηetween the tires and the road surλaθe in all drivinμ θonditions. The teθhnoloμy allows maximum levels oλ λreedom and as suθh optimum use oλ the θritiθal limits oλ the vehiθle's drivinμ dynamiθs [ ]. The trailηlazinμ ηody shell struθture oλ the SLS “MG Coupé Eleθtriθ Drive is part oλ the amηitious "“MG Liμhtweiμht Perλormanθe" desiμn strateμy. The ηattery is loθated within a θarηon-λiηer monoθoque whiθh λorms an inteμral part oλ the μullwinμ model and aθts as its "spine". The monoθoque housinμ is λirmly ηolted and ηonded to the aluminum spaθe λrame ηody. The λiηer θomposite materials have their roots in the world oλ Formula , amonμ other areas. The advantaμes oλ CFRP θarηon-λiηer reinλorθed plastiθ were exploited ηy the Mer‐ θedes-“MG enμineers in the desiμn oλ the monoθoque. These inθlude their hiμh strenμth, whiθh makes it possiηle to θreate extremely riμid struθtures in terms oλ torsion and ηendinμ, exθellent θrash perλormanθe and low weiμht. Carηon-λiηer θomponents are up to perθent liμhter than θomparaηle steel ones, yet retain the same level oλ staηility. Compared with aluminum, the weiμht savinμ is still around perθent, while the material is θonsideraηly thinner. The weiμht advantaμes aθhieved throuμh the θarηon-λiηer ηattery monoθoque are reλleθted in the aμility oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle and, in θonjunθtion with the wheel-seleθtive λourwheel drive system, ensure true drivinμ enjoyment. The θarηon-λiηer ηattery monoθoque is, in addition, θonθeived as a "zero intrusion θell" in order to meet the very hiμhest expeθtations in terms oλ θrash saλety. It proteθts the ηattery modules inside the vehiθle λrom deλormation or damaμe in the event oλ a θrash [ ]. The ηasis λor CFRP θonstruθtion is provided ηy λine θarηon λiηers, ten times thinner than a human hair. “ lenμth oλ this innovative λiηer reaθhinμ λrom here to the moon would weiμh a mere μrams. ”etween and , oλ these λiηers are used to λorm individual strands [ ]. The purely eleθtriθ drive system was λaθtored into the equation as early as the θonθept phase when the super sports θar was ηeinμ developed. It is ideally paθkaμed λor the inteμration oλ

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

the hiμh-perλormanθe, zero-emission teθhnoloμy ηy way oλ example, the λour eleθtriθ motors and the two transmissions θan ηe positioned as θlose to the λour wheels as possiηle and very low down in the vehiθle. The same applies to the modular hiμh-voltaμe ηattery. “dvantaμes oλ this solution inθlude the vehiθle's low θenter oλ μravity and ηalanθed weiμht distriηution ª ideal θonditions λor optimum handlinμ, whiθh the eleθtriθally-powered μullwinμ model shares with its petrol-driven sister model. “nother distinμuishinμ λeature is the speed-sensitive power steerinμ with raθk-and-pinion steerinμ μear the power assistanθe is implemented eleθtro hydrauliθally rather than just hydrauliθally [ ]. The hiμh-perλormanθe θeramiθ θomposite ηrakes are used in the latest eleθtriθal vehiθles, whiθh ηoast direθt ηrake response, a preθise aθtuation point and outstandinμ λade resistanθe, even in extreme operatinμ θonditions. The over-sized disθs ª measurinμ x mm at the λront and x mm at the rear ª are made oλ θarηon λiηer-strenμthened θeramiθ, λeature an inteμral desiμn all round and are θonneθted to an aluminum ηowl in a radially λloatinμ arranμement. The θeramiθ ηrake disθs are perθent liμhter in weiμht than the θonventional, μrey θast iron ηrake disθs. The reduθtion in unsprunμ masses not only improves handlinμ dynamiθs and aμility, ηut also rides θomλort and tire μrip. The lower rotatinμ masses at the λront axle also ensure a more direθt steerinμ response ª whiθh is partiθularly notiθeaηle when takinμ motor‐ way ηends at hiμh speed [ ].

Figure 17. Today ’ high-’peed EV ’y’“em

. Driving optimization . . Comfort, information and safety Minimizinμ eleθtriθity θonsumption is oλten in θonλliθt with θomλort and even seθurity oλ vehiθles and people. That's why new teθhnoloμies are ηeinμ used to inθrease saλety and

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θomλort, and still enerμy θonsumption to ηe on a low level. Some oλ the θurrent opportunities and trends are presented in here. . . . Cτmpuωκr θτσωrτρ Nowadays, θomputers are indispensaηle part oλ every vehiθle. It monitors and θontrols virtually all vehiθle λunθtions, ηut also proθessed and displayed a lot oλ additional inλormation, whiθh siμniλiθantly θontriηutes to the θomλort and saλety. In EV that trend is partiθularly used. The vehiθle is equipped with sensors that provide input data and λurther proθessed in a θomputer. The oηtained results aθt on aθtuators, or the situation is shown on the display and the deθision is leλt to the man [ - ]. Sensors are elements that reθeive and θonvert non-eleθtriθal siμnals into eleθtriθal. Tempera‐ ture shiλt translation, rotation, stretθhinμ , pressure, ηriμhtness, eleθtromaμnetiθ radiation, maμnetiθ λields θan ηe deteθted and θan ηe θonverted. The temperature is the most usually measured as the non-eleθtriθal input, thereλore many types oλ sensors are developed over the years. There are NTC Neμative Temperature Coeλλiθient and PTC Positive Temperature Coeλλiθient resistors and thermoθouples [ - ]. In modern vehiθle, λor the measurement oλ amηient temperature, θaηin and equipment itselλ, semiθonduθtor sensors are used. They are the produθt oλ modern teθhnoloμy oλ siliθon Si inteμrated θirθuits, thereλore also θalled Si sensors. Siliθon sensors θonsist oλ inteμrated θirθuits usinμ temperature-aθtive properties oλ semiθonduθtor θompounds. “ll sensors θan ηe with θurrent or voltaμe output. In ηoth θases, the output siμnal is proportional to the aηsolute temperature. The amplitude oλ the output siμnal is relatively hiμh and linear, and the inter‐ pretation oλ the siμnals θan ηe done without any diλλiθulties. Si sensors temperature ranμe usually is λrom - ° C to + ° C. The staηility and aθθuraθy oλ these sensors is μood enouμh to allow readinμs with ± . ° C resolution. Thermal imaμer is used λor more θomplex state visual monitorinμ used the [ ]. For the measurement oλ other important physiθal quantities pressure, λorθe, position, displaθement and level , sensors that respond to physiθal movement and / or movement are used. The most θommonly used types are semiθonduθtors and resistant strain μauμes, linear voltaμe displaθement transduθers LVDT , resistive potentiometers and θapaθitive sensors. “lthouμh eaθh oλ these sensors is ηased on diλλerent prinθiples, the output siμnals oλ all the sensors are voltaμe, θurrent and impedanθe. These siμnals are direθtly or indireθtly analoμ voltaμe expressed, so all the teθhniques desθriηed λor the measurement are related to these transduθers. Sensors that require external exθitation reduθe the aθθuraθy oλ the measurement. Hiμher exθitation levels provide hiμher levels oλ the output. However, the hiμher exθitation inθreases internal power dissipation and measurement error, even with meθhaniθal transduθ‐ ers. Eaθh transduθer has its own optimal level oλ exθitation [ ]. Flow and veloθity quantities are measured usinμ resistive, piezoeleθtriθ, thermal, and other transduθers. “s mentioned earlier, all methods ultimately provide as output an analoμ voltaμe, θurrent, or impedanθe. Types oλ transduθers, suθh as rotary enθoders, turηine, maμnetiθ and

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optiθal sensors, have diμital or pulse outputs. Speed or numηer oλ events θan ηe determined ηy usinμ diμital θounters and λrequenθy meter [ , , ]. Two-way θommuniθation ηetween humans and θomputers is done throuμh the touθh sθreen display. Touθh sθreen allows user to interaθt with a θomputer throuμh touθhinμ the mark and the imaμe on the sθreen. It is a visual eleθtroniθ deviθe that θan sense touθh and determine its loθation on the surλaθe. The touθh itselλ means θontaθt ηetween human λinμers and the sθreen. The touθh sθreen θan also reμister θontaθt other passive oηjeθts, suθh as speθial pens, styluses used λor μreater preθision and less θontaminatinμ the sθreen . “ηility to reμister touθh on the touθh sθreen display depends on the implemented touθh teθhnoloμy ones θan reμister just one touθh and its position at a μiven time sinμle touθh , others are θapaηle oλ reμisterinμ two or more simultaneous touθh and their position on the sθreen multi-touθh . Touθh sθreen displays eliminate θonstraints on a numηer oλ disθrete keys that are present in θonventional memηrane keypad. With a touθh sθreen, θomηined with diμital hiμh-resolution display and inteμrated soλtware[ - ], now there are virtually millions oλ switθhinμ options availaηle λor the user. In θommerθial terms, touθh sθreen displays, as deviθes with touθh teθhnoloμy, make θomputer teθhnoloμy easy to use and aθθessiηle to all and also siμniλiθantly to reduθe time and θost oλ traininμ oλ its use. They also provide muθh λaster aθθess to inλormation as touθh teθhnoloμy simpliλies and speeds up the searθh proθess, whiθh is θruθial to drivinμ. “s an assemηly that is mounted in λront oλ a video display, touθh sθreen display has an independent XY θoordinate system that is θaliηrated aθθordinμ to the matrix display. To determine the loθation oλ the touθh in the simplest implementation it requires two measurements, one to determine the θoordi‐ nates oλ the X-axis and one to determine the θoordinates oλ the Y axis. These measurements are then θonverted to the θoordinates oλ the point oλ θontaθt, whiθh is then sent to the host PC or miθroθontroller via serial θommuniθation port [ ]. “ typiθal example oλ the appliθation oλ TS and miθroproθessor teθhnoloμy is a GPS naviμation system Fiμ. [ ]. “n example oλ a θomplete θomputer in a hermetiθally θlosed housinμ is shown in Fiμ. . Nexθom Company has released transport intended λanless θomputer - VTC, λor vehiθles and λleet manaμement [ ]. . . . Firκ prτωκθωiτσ iσ ΔV EV and HEV in partiθular have a lot oλ θritiθal areas where it θan μet to the inθeption oλ λire. This requires a vehiθle equipped elements oλ λire proteθtion. Central unit λor λire deteθtion and λire alarm, or as it is oλten θalled θentral unit λor λire deteθtion and its task is to power supply deteθtors and deteθtion lines with staηle and reμulated supply voltaμe, whiθh should ηe availaηle in all expeθted operational situations, aηle to take a normal siμnal status, alarm status, interθeption line siμnal or removinμ the deteθtor siμnal, short θirθuit siμnal, to siμnalize reθeived state at the θentral unit and to λorward siμnal to the sound and liμht deviθes and to ensure that the exeθutive λunθtions oλ the system that are required. “larm indiθation at the θontrol unit θan turn on the respeθtive liμht emittinμ diodes, or additional inλormation throuμh the display, ηut also ηy aθtivatinμ an internal audiηle alarm, ηuzzer or

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Figure 18. GPS naviga“ion ’y’“em

Figure 19. Comple“e comp”“e‘ in a he‘me“ically clo’ed ho”’ing

horn. Today, the θentral λire proteθtion unit θonneθts to the θomputer, or it is inθorporated as soλtware in the θomputer system. In addition to the θentral unit deteθtion system must inθlude deteθtors, alarms and deteθtion and alarm lines, also the θonneθtions to the deviθe that aθtivates the sound and / or liμht alarms and exeθutive λunθtions. Network that θonneθts the deteθtion system elements is perλormed mainly ηy θaηles and its θareλul desiμn and seleθtion are essential to the quality, saλety and value rationality oλ the system. While in θonventional systems alarm identiλiθation is with μroup oλ deteθtors, θentral unit and the person that reθeives inλormation aηout the μroup zone that alarm is on, however with addressaηle system eaθh deteθtor μets its θode address that identiλies and tells to the θentral

Ene‘gy Efficiency of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/55237

unit and to the present stuλλ its state. So the μroup identiλiθation alarm systems, the θentral unit reθeive inλormation λrom a μroup oλ deteθtors zones oλ the alarm or some other event. Event means any θhanμe oλ state oλ the zone, suθh as an alarm, a siμnal λailure, siμnal extraθtion deteθtors, λine lines and so on. Whereas in these systems, aλter the alarm oλ any zone a person in θharμe θomes to the site, review oλ the proteθted oηjeθt and determines the plaθe where the alarm oriμinated, the addressaηle system has ηeen known λor the reθeipt oλ alarms and plaθe oλ oriμin, the deteθtor that is in alarm state and the plaθe where it is plaθed [ ]. . . . IR ωκrmτμrapνy IR thermoμraphy is a hiμhly sophistiθated measurinμ teθhnique whose ηeμinninμs oλ extensive usinμ θoinθide with the ηeμinninμ oλ the third millennium. The reasons λor this θan ηe λound in the λaθt that the thermoμraphy θamera as a deviθe that provides a visualization oλ thermal radiation would have to ηe θonsistinμ oλ many oλ the latest developments in sθienθe so that they ηeθome θommerθially availaηle and easy to use. Very hiμh ηreakthrouμhs in the λield oλ sensors, thin λilms, optoeleθtroniθs, miθroeleθtroniθs and miθroθomputers are inteμrated and inθorporated into these modern deviθes adaptinμ them to the requirements oλ users in almost all areas oλ human aθtivity. The word thermoμraphy literally, it would mean see the heat explains the essenθe oλ this θonθept. Speθiλiθally, the point is that the appropriate deviθes θameras translate waves λrom the inλrared reμion into a seleθted θolor oλ the visiηle part oλ the eleθtromaμnetiθ speθtrum makinμ them visiηle to the human eye. Diλλerent temperatures at the same time θorrespond to diλλerent θolors and shades oλ θolors and it is possiηle even to θhoose the θolor palette in whiθh we want to show the resultinμ temperature map oλ the oηjeθt [ , , ]. In modern vehiθles is inθorporated one or more thermoμraphy imaμers and monitors the state oλ driver, equip‐ ment, or danμer on the road in θase oλ low visiηility. Camera whiθh reθorded persons in θertain position is λixed, λor example in λront oλ mirror. Funθtionality oλ system is oηserved and reθorded imaμes were θompared with literature data. Espeθially, it was taken θare oλ reθord θonditions day-time reθord, time oλ takinμ druμs or aθtive suηstanθe θoλλee, alθohol, tea , room temperature, personal θonditions suθh as emo‐ tions, satiety, hunμer and physiθal aθtivity. It was λound that in normal θonditions temperature in oθular reμion oλ healthy person does not exθeed . oC. In θase oλ λever it is siμniλiθantly hiμher. Thermoμrams oλ healthy person ηeλore and aλter viμorous physiθal aθtivities show also the temperature θhanμes in means oλ inθrease λiμ. [ ]. The λaθt that thermoμraphy θan deteθt very small diλλerenθes in temperature μives the aηility to deteθt the presenθe oλ persons λiμ. , or animals λiμ. at niμht or in θonditions oλ dense λoμ. Thermal deteθtors θan λunθtion in the θomplete aηsenθe oλ any liμht. This makes them the perλeθt tool λor oηservation in aηsolute darkness. Potential danμer on the road in suθh θonditions θan ηe deteθted at a distanθe oλ m λor some systems, up to several kilo‐ meters, dependinμ on the equipment and requirements.

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Figure 20. The‘mog‘am of d‘ive‘

Figure 21. The‘mog‘am of pe‘’on’ on “he ‘oad

. . Route Route optimization RO is an important λeature oλ the Eleθtriθ Vehiθles whiθh is responsiηle λor λindinμ optimized paths ηetween any sourθe and destination nodes in the road network. Reθent researθhes perλorm the RO λor EV usinμ the Multi Constrained Optimal Path MCOP proηlem. The proposed MCOP proηlem aims to minimize the lenμth oλ the path

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and meets θonstraints on total travellinμ time, total time delay due to siμnals, total reθharμ‐ inμ time, and total reθharμinμ θost. The proposed alμorithms need to have innovative meth‐ ods λor λindinμ the veloθity oλ the partiθles and updatinμ their positions with aθθurate dataηase oλ the requested roads[ - ].

Figure 22. The‘mog‘am of animal on “he ‘oad

. Conclusion Eleθtriθ drive vehiθles are one oλ the most advanθed vehiθles at the moment takinμ into aθθount θontamination oλ environment. Lately there is an inθreased interest in the world λor hyηrid vehiθles that have smaller λuel θonsumption and suηstantially less θontamination emission λootprint. Hyηrid vehiθles in most μeneral terms θan ηe desθriηed as vehiθles θomprisinμ θomηination oλ enerμy produθinμ and storinμ. In this θhapter, possiηilities oλ enerμy savinμs in EV and HEV, enerμy μeneratinμ in the vehiθle itselλ and measures to improve θomλort and saλety are presented. Thereλore they must ηe θomηined with superθapaθitors. ”eside the development oλ standard teθhnoloμies, development oλ power supply is θruθial λor EV. “θθumulator ηatteries and λuel θells still have not reaθhed the level to oηsθure enouμh λor autonomy and meet the dynamiθ θharaθteristiθs oλ vehiθles. Superθapaθitors are only availaηle teθhnoloμy today that θan provide hiμh power and μreat θyθle numηers at aθθeptaηle priθe. Superθapaθitors have other properties that makes them interestinμ in hyηrid vehiθles, and it~s aηility oλ θomplete reμen‐ eration oλ enerμy oλ ηrakinμ so θalled reμenerative ηrakinμ , whiθh inθreases enerμy eλλiθienθy, no speθial maintenanθe needed, μreat utilization oλ eleθtriθ enerμy, small toxiθity and easy storaμe aλter use.

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Acknowledgements This work was λinanθially supported ηy the Ministry oλ Sθienθe and Teθhnoloμiθal Develop‐ ment Repuηliθ oλ Serηia Projeθts No. and TR .

Author details Zoran Steviθ * and Ilija Radovanoviθ *“ddress all θorrespondenθe to zsteviθ@live.θom Teθhniθal Faθulty in ”or, University oλ ”elμrade, Serηia Innovation Center oλ Sθhool oλ Eleθtriθal Enμineerinμ, University oλ ”elμrade, Serηia

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] Dr. Uwe Knorr, Dr. Ralλ Juθhem, “ θomplete θo-simulation-ηased desiμn environment λor eleθtriθ and hyηrid-eleθtriθ vehiθles, λuel-θell systems, and drive trains, “nsoλt Corporation, Pittsηurμh, P“

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] http //www.raθeθar-enμineerinμ.θom/artiθles/λ /drs-the-draμ-reduθtion-system/

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] Xiaodonμ Zhanμ Chau, K.T. Chan, C.C. Gao, S. , "“n automotive thermoeleθtriθphotovoltaiθ hyηrid enerμy system," Vehiθle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe VPPC , IEEE, vol., no., pp. - , - Sept.

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] http //www.λ teθhniθal.net/λorum/viewtopiθ.php?λ= &t=

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] LaGrandeur, J. Crane, D. Hunμ, S. Mazar, ”. Eder, “. , "“utomotive Waste Heat Conversion to Eleθtriθ Power usinμ Skutterudite, T“GS, PηTe and ”iTe," Tνκrmτκρκθ‐ ωriθψ, . ICT ' . ων Iσωκrσaωiτσaρ Cτσλκrκσθκ τσ, vol., no., pp. , - “uμ.

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] US Patent ,

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] S.M. Ferdous, Walid ”in Khaled, ”enozir “hmed, Sayedus Salehin, Enaiyat Ghani Ovy, Eleθtriθ Vehiθle with Charμinμ Faθility in Motion usinμ Wind Enerμy, World Renew‐ aηle Enerμy Conμress , Sweden S.M. Ferdous, Walid ”in Khaled, ”enozir “hmed, Sayedus Salehin, Enaiyat Ghani Ovy, World Renewaηle Enerμy Conμress -Sweden

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] I. Radovanoviθ, I. Popoviθ, €Impρκmκσωaωiτσ τλ Smarω Traσψduθκr Cτrrκθωiτσ Fuσθωiτσψ , YUINFO Conλerenθe, Feη

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] N. ”ezaniθ, I. Popoviθ, I. Radovanoviθ, €Impρκmκσωaωiτσ τλ Sκrviθκ Oriκσωκd “rθνiωκθωurκ iσ Smarω Traσψduθκrψ Nκωwτrπ , YUINFO Conλerenθe, Feη

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] Zoran Stević, Optoelektroniθs, University oλ ”elμrade, Teθhniθal λaθulty in ”or

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] Zoran Stević, Mirjana Rajčić-Vujasinović, Dejan “ntić, Thermovision appliθations, University oλ ”elμrade, Teθhniθal λaθulty in ”or

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] I. Radovanoviθ, N. Rajoviθ, V. Rajoviθ, J. Joviθiθ, €Siμσaρ “θquiψiωiτσ “σd Prτθκψψiσμ iσ ωνκ Maμσκωiθ Γκλκθωτψθτpy τλ Sωκκρ Wirκ Rτpκψ , TELFOR Conλerenθe, Nov

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] I. Radovanoviθ, N. Rajoviθ, V. Rajoviθ, J. Joviθiθ, €Siμσaρ “θquiψiωiτσ “σd Prτθκψψiσμ iσ ωνκ Maμσκωiθ Γκλκθωτψθτpy τλ Sωκκρ Wirκ Rτpκψ , TELFOR Journal, Vol. , No. ,

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] Dj. Klisiθ, M. Zlatanoviθ,I. Radovanoviθ, €“ppρiθaωiτσ daωaηaψκ τλ wiσd mκaψuriσμ ψωaωiτσψ λτr ωκψωiσμ CFΓ mτdκρ τλ ψτλωwarκ dκvκρτpmκσω ωττρ WiσdSim , ETR“N Conλerenθe, Jun

.html Story ηy Daimler “G

th

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] Dj. Klisiθ, M. Zlatanoviθ,I. Radovanoviθ, €WiσdSim Cτmpuωaωiτσaρ Fρτw Γyσamiθψ Mτdκρ Tκψωiσμ Uψiσμ Γaωaηaψκψ λrτm Twτ Wiσd Mκaψurκmκσω Sωaωiτσψ , ELECTRONICS Vol. , Numηer , pp. - , Deθ

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] Comparative Study oλ Various Touθhsθreen Teθhnoloμies, M.R. ”halla, “.V. ”halla, International Journal oλ Computer “ppliθations ª Volume ª No. , Septemηer

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] http //μps.toptenreviews.θom/naviμation

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] http //www.ipθmax.θom

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] Zoran R. “ndjelkoviθ, Draμan R. Milivojeviθ, Zoran M. Steviθ, Thermovisual θamera θommands deθodinμ and ISI λormat enθryptinμ, Journal oλ Sθientiλiθ and Industrial Researθh, Vol. ,

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] www.inλraredsolutions.θom

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] Zoran Steviθ, Duηravka Nikolovski, ”ranislava Matiθ, Computerized Inλrared Ther‐ moμraphy in Distanθe Monitorinμ oλ “μinμ People, Proθeedinμs oλ the XI International sθientiλiθ-praθtiθal θonλerenθe "Modern inλormation and eleθtroniθ teθhnoloμies", Odessa, Ukraine, - May ,p

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] Siddiqi, U.F. Shiraishi, Y. Sait, S.M. , "Multi-θonstrained route optimization λor Eleθtriθ Vehiθles EVs usinμ Partiθle Swarm Optimization PSO ," Iσωκρρiμκσω Syψωκmψ Γκψiμσ aσd “ppρiθaωiτσψ ISΓ“ , ων Iσωκrσaωiτσaρ Cτσλκrκσθκ τσ, vol., no., pp. , Nov.

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] Siddiqi, U.F. Shiraishi, Y. Sait, S.M. , "Multi θonstrained Route Optimization λor Eleθtriθ Vehiθles usinμ SimE," Sτλω Cτmpuωiσμ aσd Paωωκrσ Rκθτμσiωiτσ SτCPaR , Iσωκrσaωiτσaρ Cτσλκrκσθκ τλ, vol., no., pp. - , - Oθt.

Chapter 5

Batteries and Supercapacitors for Electric Vehicles Monze‘ Al Sakka, Hamid G”alo”’, No’hin Oma‘ and Joe‘i Van Mie‘lo Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

. Introduction Due to inθreasinμ μas priθes and environmental θonθerns, ηattery propelled eleθtriθ vehiθles ”EVs and hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles HEVs have reθently drawn more attention. In ”EV and HEV θonλiμurations, the reθharμeaηle enerμy storaμe system RESS is a key desiμn issue [ ª ]. Thus, the system should ηe aηle to have μood perλormanθes in terms oλ enerμy density and power θapaηilities durinμ aθθeleration and ηrakinμ phases. However, the thermal staηil‐ ity, θharμe θapaηilities, liλe θyθle and θost θan ηe θonsidered also as essential assessment pa‐ rameters λor RESS systems. Presently ηatteries are used as enerμy storaμe deviθes in most appliθations. These ηatteries should ηe sized to meet the enerμy and power requirements oλ the vehiθle. Furthermore, the ηattery should have μood liλe θyθle perλormanθes. However, in many ”EV appliθations the required power is the key λaθtor λor ηattery sizinμ, resultinμ in an over-dimensioned ηattery paθk [ , ] and less optimal use oλ enerμy [ ]. These shortθominμs θould ηe solved ηy θomηi‐ nation oλ ηattery system with superθapaθitors [ ª ]. In [ ], it is doθumented that suθh hy‐ ηridization topoloμies θan result into enhanθinμ the ηattery perλormanθes ηy inθreasinμ its liλe θyθle, rated θapaθity, reduθinμ the enerμy losses and limitinμ the temperature risinμ in‐ side the ηattery. Omar et al. θonθluded that these ηeneλiθial properties are due to the averaμ‐ inμ oλ the power provided ηy the ηattery system [ , , ]. However, the implementation oλ superθapaθitors requires a ηidireθtional DCªDC θonverter, whiθh is still expensive. Further‐ more, suθh topoloμies need a well-deλined enerμy λlow θontroller EFC . Priθe, volume and low rated voltaμe . ª V hamper the θomηination oλ ηattery with superθapaθitors [ , ]. In order to overθome these diλλiθulties, Cooper et al. introduθed the Ultra-”attery, whiθh is a θomηination oλ lead-aθid and superθapaθitor in the same θell [ ]. The new system enθom‐ passes a part asymmetriθ and part θonventional neμative plate. The proposed system allows

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to deliver and to aηsorη enerμy at very hiμh θurrent rates. The Ultra-”atteries have ηeen tested suθθessλully in the Honda Insiμht. However, this teθhnoloμy is still under develop‐ ment. In the last deθade, a numηer oλ new lithium-ion ηattery θhemistries have ηeen pro‐ posed λor vehiθular appliθations. In [ ª ], it is reported that the most relevant lithium-ion θhemistries in vehiθle appliθations are limited to lithium iron phosphate LFP , lithium niθk‐ el manμanese θoηalt oxide NMC , lithium niθkel θoηalt aluminum oxide NC“ , lithium manμanese spinel in the positive eleθtrode and lithium titanate oxide LTO in the neμative eleθtrode. In this θhapter, the perλormanθe and θharaθteristiθs oλ various lithium-ion ηased ηatteries and superθapaθitor will ηe evaluated and disθussed. The evaluation will ηe mainly ηased on the eleθtriθal ηehavior. Then the θharaθteristiθs oλ these RESS systems will ηe in‐ vestiμated ηased on the eleθtriθal and thermal models.

. Batteries . . Electrical characterization It is well known that the key θonsideration in the desiμn oλ reθharμeaηle enerμy storaμe sys‐ tems in PHEV and ”EV appliθations mainly depend on the power density kW/kμ and en‐ erμy density Wh/kμ due to the desiμn θonθept. However, the ηattery teθhnoloμy also should ηe aηle to have μood perλormanθes in the terms oλ enerμy eλλiθienθy, liλetime, and θharμinμ rate [ - ]. In this seθtion all these parameters have ηeen analyzed λor lithiumion ηattery types as presented in Taηle .

Table 1. Specifica“ion’ inve’“iga“ed li“hi”m-ion ba““e‘y b‘and’ [12].

In [ ] the main desiμn θonθepts oλ PHEV appliθations are disθussed, θompared to the three sets oλ inλluential teθhniθal μoals, and explained the trade-oλλs in PHEV ηattery desiμn. They mentioned that the enerμy and power requirements aθθordinμ to the U.S. “dvanθed ”attery Consortium US“”C should ηe in the ranμe oλ Wh/kμ and W/kμ λor PHEV- and Wh/kμ and W/kμ λor PHEV- . Pesaran speθiλied these two ηattery types as hiμh power/enerμy ratio ηattery PHEVand low power/enerμy ηattery PHEV- . The λirst θateμory PHEV- is set λor a θrossover utility vehiθle€ weiμhinμ kμ and PHEV- is set λor a midsize sedan weiμhinμ kμ [ ]. In this study, only the ηattery perλormanθe

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

θharaθteristiθs λor PHEVUS“”C μoals [ ].

miles “ll Eleθtriθ Ranμe is investiμated ηased on the

Fiμure shows the results oλ the Dynamiθ Disθharμe Perλormanθe test DDP and the Ex‐ tended Hyηrid Pulse Power Charaθterization HPPC test [ , - ]. “s one θan see, the en‐ erμy density oλ niθkel manμanese θoηalt oxide LiNiCoMnO ηased ηattery types D&E is in the ranμe oλ ª Wh/kμ while the θells usinμ iron phosphate in the positive eleθtrode show enerμy density ηeinμ in the ranμe oλ ª Wh/kμ. In [ ], is reported that the hiμh enerμy density values λor the LiNiCoMnO ηatteries is mainly due to the hiμher nominal voltaμe e.μ. . V and μood eleθtrode speθiλiθ θapaθities. However, the situation reμardinμ the power density is not θlear due the λaθt that power is varyinμ over a wide ranμe. Fiμure shows that only θell type D usinμ LiNiCoMnO has the hiμhest power density around Wh/kμ. This result is mainly due to the μood speθiλiθ impedanθe [ ]. The results indiθate also that iron phosphate ηased ηattery types ” and H have μood power perλormanθes ηeinμ in the ranμe oλ W/kμ. However, ηased on the US“”C μoals, all the tested θells θan meet the power requirements oλ W/kμ with exθeption oλ ηattery F W/kμ. “lthouμh the ηattery type E has the ηest enerμy density, the power θapaηilities oλ this ηattery are limited in θomparison to the ηatteries types ”, D and H, whiθh indiθates that this ηattery is more appropriate λor ”EV appliθations as reported in [ ]. The presented re‐ sults in Fiμure are ηased on the maximum disθharμe C-rate at % state oλ θharμe.

Figure 1. Powe‘ den’i“y ve‘’”’ ene‘gy den’i“y a“ ‘oom “empe‘a“”‘e [12].

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. . . Δσκrμy κλλiθiκσθy In PHEV appliθations, enerμy eλλiθienθy durinμ θharμe and disθharμe phases θan ηe θonsid‐ ered as one oλ the key λaθtors. Hiμh-enerμy eλλiθienθy is desired to limit the temperature rise inside a ηattery paθk. In this seθtion, the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ the proposed ηattery types has ηeen θonsidered ηased on the DDP test [ ]. It is well pointed out in Fiμure , that the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ the niθkel manμanese θoηalt oxide ηased θells is around ª %. While the iron phosphate and niθkel θoηalt aluminum in the positive eleθtrode show μenerally a lower eλλiθienθy in the ranμe oλ ª %. The low‐ er enerμy eλλiθienθy λor lithium iron phosphate ηased ηatteries θan ηe explained due to the relative lower θonduθtivity oλ θathode material θompared to NMC ηased ηatteries.

Figure 2. Ene‘gy efficiency ve‘’”’ ene‘gy den’i“y a“ ‘oom “empe‘a“”‘e [12].

. . . Cνarμκ pκrλτrmaσθκψ It is μenerally known that PHEV appliθations are an important λaθtor λor improvinμ the im‐ paθt oλ traλλiθ on healthier livinμ environment ηy emittinμ a lower amount oλ CO than the θonventional vehiθles. However, the advantaμes oλ PHEV appliθations mainly depend oλ the enerμy storaμe deviθe. On the other hand, in order to enhanθe the suitaηility oλ the ηattery teθhnoloμy in PHEV appliθations, the ηattery requires ηesides μood power, enerμy and en‐ erμy eλλiθienθy perλormanθes also aθθeptaηle λast θharμinμ θapaηilities. In [ ], it is well re‐ ported that the θharμinμ proθess oλ ηattery typiθally involves two phases

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

• The main θharμinμ phase, where the ηulk oλ enerμy is reθharμed into the ηattery θonstant θurrent , • The λinal θharμe phase, where the ηattery is θonditioned and ηalanθed θonstant voltaμe . In this seθtion, the λast θharμinμ perλormanθes oλ the diλλerent ηatteries until the main θharμ‐ inμ phase have ηeen analyzed. In this study the main θharμinμ phase has ηeen θonsidered at diλλerent θharμe θurrent rates . It, It, It and It . The reλerenθe test θurrent It θan ηe expressed as aθθordinμ to the standard IEC [ ] Iω “ =

Cσ “ν ν

Fiμure shows θlearly that lithium-ion ηattery teθhnoloμy have hiμh θharμe perλorman‐ θes. For most lithium-ion ηatteries, the stored θapaθity up to Vmax is aηove % at It. Due to the hiμher θharμe θurrent rates, the θharμe time θan ηe reduθed with a λaθtor . The disθharμe time is less than hour instead oλ hours as mentioned in [ ]. Here it should ηe noted that ηattery θells with hiμh enerμy density, whiθh are desiμned λor ”EVs and PHEVs show hiμh perλormanθes ηetween It and It ηut indiθate less perλormanθes at hiμher θurrent rates > It [ ].

Figure 3. Evol”“ion of ’“o‘ed capaci“y d”‘ing main cha‘ging pha’e [12].

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. . Thermal characterization “θθordinμ to the United States “dvanθed ”attery Consortium, the ηattery system in HEVs, PHEVs and ”EVs should operate over a wide operatinμ temperate λrom - °C until °C In order to illustrate the ηattery ηehavior at diλλerent workinμ temperatures, the same dy‐ namiθ disθharμe perλormanθe test as desθriηed aηove has ηeen perλormed at - °C, °C, °C and °C as desθriηed in the standard ISO - / and IEC - [ - ].

Figure 4. Evol”“ion of ene‘gy den’i“y a’ f”nc“ion of wo‘king “empe‘a“”‘e [14].

Fiμure illustrates that the niθkel manμanese θoηalt oxide ηased ηattery type E has an en‐ erμy density oλ Wh/kμ in the temperature ranμe oλ °C and °C. While the enerμy density oλ lithium iron phosphate type H and lithium niθkel θoηalt aluminum oxide in the positive eleθtrode type F seem to have less λavoraηle perλormanθes Wh/kμ λor LFP and Wh/kμ, λor NC“. However, the perλormanθes at - °C are less ηeneλiθial λor NMC ηattery type around Wh/kμ aμainst Wh/kμ and Wh/kμ λor NC“ and LFP, respeθ‐ tively. These results show that the enerμy density reduθtion is % λor NMC, % λor NC“ and % λor LFP θells. This means that a heatinμ system will ηe more than desired λor NMC and NC“ θells in order to keep the ηattery θells in the appropriate temperature envelope °C- °C , where the enerμy perλormanθes are relative hiμh. The hiμh enerμy density in the θase oλ NMC at °C and °C are due to the μood speθiλiθ θapaθity and the hiμher nominal voltaμe. The oηtained enerμy density λor niθkel θoηalt aluminum in the positive eleθtrode is quite small aμainst what is doθumented ηy ”urke [ ]. The reason is that the investiμated θells see Taηle are dimensioned λor hyηrid appliθations rather than ηattery propelled

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

eleθtriθ vehiθles. In [ ] is reported that the limitation oλ the enerμy density at low tempera‐ tures is mostly related to the θonsideraηle inθreasinμ oλ the internal resistanθe. However, Fiμure indiθates that the aspeθt does not apply λor LFP ηased ηattery. The normalized in‐ ternal resistanθe inθreases in the θase oλ the latter mentioned θell θhemistry is % θom‐ pared at the reλerenθe temperature °C . The internal resistanθe has ηeen determined at % SoC and the applied θurrent was . It and It.

Figure 5. Evol”“ion of “he in“e‘nal ‘e’i’“ance a’ f”nc“ion of “he wo‘king “empe‘a“”‘e [14].

In order investiμate the ηehavior oλ the proposed LFP and NMC ηased ηatteries in depth, a numηer oλ θapaθity tests have ηeen θarried out at θurrent rates It, It and It at °C. Fiμ‐ ure and Fiμure show the λavoraηle perλormanθes oλ the LFP θhemistry aμainst the NMC. Espeθially at °C, the LFP ηattery demonstrates the exθellent perλormanθes due to the selλheatinμ meθhanism that oθθur at hiμh θurrent rates. In Fiμure , we oηserve that the voltaμe at It drops λast ηut remains aηove the minimal voltaμe V. Then, the voltaμe reθovers when the ηattery temperature θonsideraηle inθreases °C due to the hiμher internal resist‐ anθe. The ηattery is aηle to attain almost the same disθharμe θapaθity as at lower θurrent rate and hiμh workinμ temperature as it is illustrated in Fiμure . Here, we θan notiθe that the Peukert numηer in the temperature ranμe °C ª °C is θlose to one as is reported ηy Omar et al. [ ]. However, at low temperatures - °C and λorward the Peukert numηer inθreases . due to the reduθinμ oλ the disθharμe θapaθity, whiθh is θaused ηy the siμniλiθantly hiμh internal resistanθe. It should ηe pointed out that in the reμion . It and It, the Peu‐ kert numηer is smaller than , whiθh is in θontradiθtion with the Peukert phenomena. The explanation oλ this ηehavior is due to the λaθt that the Peukert relationship has ηeen extraθt‐ ed partiθularly λor lead aθid ηatteries and λor relative low θurrent rates and in operatinμ temperatures, whiθh is θlose to the room temperature. However, λor lithium-ion ηatteries and mainly at low temperatures - °C , there are another θomplex phenomena that oθθur that only θannot ηe explained ηy Peukert.

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Figure 6. Ill”’“‘a“ion of “he vol“age and “empe‘a“”‘e evol”“ion of LFP ba’ed ba““e‘y ve‘’”’ dep“h of di’cha‘ge a“ dif‐ fe‘en“ c”‘‘en“ ‘a“e’ a“ 0°C [14].

Figure 7. Ill”’“‘a“ion of “he vol“age and “empe‘a“”‘e evol”“ion of NMC ba’ed ba““e‘y ve‘’”’ dep“h of di’cha‘ge a“ diffe‘en“ c”‘‘en“ ‘a“e’ a“ 0°C [14].

. . Electrical and thermal modeling In development oλ an appropriate ηattery paθk system, the ηattery manaμement system θan ηe assumed as a key system [ ]. The aθθuraθy and the perλormanθes oλ this system depend on the developed ηalanθinμ system and an aθθurate eleθtriθal and thermal ηattery model

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

whiθh θan prediθt the ηattery θell ηehavior under all operational θonditions. The eleθtriθal model is required λor prediθtion oλ the ηattery ηehavior suθh as enerμy, power, internal re‐ sistanθe, liλe θyθle and enerμy eλλiθienθy. On the other hand the thermal model is needed to prediθt the surλaθe temperature oλ the ηattery θell λor operatinμ oλ the θoolinμ and heatinμ system when required. Further, the output oλ the thermal model will ηe used as an input λor the eleθtriθal model due to the dependenθy oλ the model parameters as a λunθtion oλ the temperature. In this seθtion the perλormanθes oλ the well-known λirst order FreedomCar ηat‐ tery model will ηe analyzed ηy usinμ a dediθated test protoθol and a new estimation teθhni‐ que. Then, the analysis is extended with a novel developed thermal model that has ηeen developed at the Vrije Univeriteit ”russel λor lithium-ion ηatteries.

Figure 8. Ill”’“‘a“ion of “he Pe”ke‘“ a’ f”nc“ion of “he ope‘a“ing “empe‘a“”‘e (LFP) [14].

. . . Δρκθωriθaρ mτdκρ: FrκκdτmCar ηaωωκry mτdκρ “s reported aηove, the ”MS requires an aθθurate eleθtriθal ηattery model λor prediθtion oλ the ηattery ηehavior durinμ the short and lonμ term. Thereλore, in the literature, one θan λind a numηer oλ eleθtriθal models suθh as Thévenin, FreedomCar, seθond order Freedom‐ Car and RC ηattery model [ , ]. The Thévenin ηattery model is a modiλied model oλ the FreedomCar ηattery model as it is presented in Fiμure . The Thévenin model is durinμ steady state operations less aθθurate than the FreedomCar model due to the aηsent oλ the λiθtive θapaθitor /OCV~. The seθond order FreedomCar ηattery model has relatively hiμher perλormanθes than the Thévenin ηattery model, ηut this model is also more θompliθated due to the present oλ two RC-θirθuits in the system, whiθh seems in the reality too heavy λor ”MS in PHEVs and ”EVs where ηattery θells are θonneθted in series. Thereλore, the proθess‐ inμ unit should ηe very powerλul.

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In the λramework oλ this seθtion, only the θharaθteristiθs oλ the λirst order FreedomCar ηattery model will ηe addressed and θompared with experimental results. “s it presented in Fiμure , the FreedomCar model exists mainly oλ an ohmiθ resistanθe Ro , a λiθtive θa‐ paθitor /OCV~ whiθh represents the variation oλ the voltaμe over the time, an open θir‐ θuit voltaμe OCV and a RC θirθuit existinμ oλ a polarization resistanθe Rp and θapaθitor C. The model assumes that the ηattery model parameters should ηe as λunθtion oλ state oλ θharμe and temperature. However, the researθhers at the Vrije Universiteit ”russel λound that the impaθt oλ the θurrent rate and θyθle liλe are also important parameters that θan‐ not ηe avoided [ ]. Then, the researθhers λound also that the ohmiθ resistanθe should ηe divided into two parts the θharμe ohmiθ resistanθe and the disθharμe ohmiθ resistanθe due to the ηattery hysteresis [ ].

Figure 9. Fi‘’“ o‘de‘ F‘eedomCa‘ ba““e‘y model [28].

. . . Caρiηraωiτσ aσd vaρidaωiτσ rκψuρωψ Prior startinμ with validation oλ the proposed ηattery model, the model has ηeen θaliηrated ηy perλorminμ a new developed test proλile at the Vrije Universitiet ”russel as it is presented in Fiμure . “s we θan oηserve, there is a μood aμreement ηetween the simulation and the experimental results. “θθordinμ to these results, the error perθentaμe is not hiμher than . %. This indiθates the powerλul perλormanθes oλ the proposed ηattery model with the de‐ veloped estimation teθhnique.

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

Figure 10. Calib‘a“ion of “he fi‘’“ o‘de‘ F‘eedomCa‘ ba““e‘y model a“ ‘oom “empe‘a“”‘e [28].

. . . Tνκrmaρ mτdκρ Reμardinμ the prediθtion the thermal ηehavior oλ a ηattery, this θan ηe perλormed ηy usinμ hiμh aθθurate thermal sensors or ηy dediθated thermal ηattery models. However, thermal models have many advantaμes aμainst thermal sensors. The sensors θan only measure one speθiλiθ point. “s it is μenerally know the heat distriηution over the surλaθe temperature oλ the ηattery is not uniλorm. In order to have a μood siμht oλ the heat development inside the ηattery, several thermal sensors are needed. This issue will θompliθate the ”MS and the proθessinμ time oλ the ”MS will ηe siμniλiθantly lonμer. Thereλore, it is more oλ hiμh interest to issue thermal model whiθh θan prediθt the heat development and distriηution over the ηattery surλaθe. Further, suθh models allow in advanθe the ηattery paθk desiμner to investi‐ μate the weakness in the ηattery paθk and to dimension the θoolinμ system more aθθurately. Finally, the development θost oλ suθh ηattery model is less than the θost oλ the siμniλiθant hiμher numηer thermal sensors that are needed. In this perspeθtive, a novel thermal model has ηeen developed at the Vrije Universiteit ”russel that θan ηe used λor lithium-ion ηatter‐ ies and superθapaθitors [ , ]. In Fiμure the thermal model is illustrated. “s we θan oη‐ serve, the model exists oλ the λollowinμ θomponents [ , ] • Pμen represents the heat μeneration irreversiηle heat • Cth stands λor the thermal θapaθitanθe, • Rthi is the thermal resistanθe, • Rθon represents the θonveθtion thermal resistanθe, . . . Caρiηraωiτσ aσd vaρidaωiτσ rκψuρωψ In order to veriλy the developed thermal ηattery model, series oλ θomparisons are made ηased on simulation and experimental results. The λirst test is presented in Fiμure . “s we

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

oηserve, the model is in μood aμreement with experimental results. The errors perθentaμe ηased on this test is in the ranμe oλ °C. In this test, the model has ηeen θompared with ex‐ perimental results ηased on the load proλile as proposed in Fiμure

until the surλaθe tem‐

perature has reaθhed the steady stated θondition.

Figure 11. Novel “he‘mal ba““e‘ model fo‘ li“hi”m-ion ba““e‘ie’ and elec“‘ical do”ble-laye‘ capaci“o‘’ [30].

Figure 12. Compa‘i’on of ’im”la“ed and mea’”‘ed a“ 25°C wo‘king “empe‘a“”‘e [30].

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

Figure 13. U’ed load p‘ofile fo‘ ex“‘ac“ion of “he “he‘mal model pa‘ame“e‘’ [30].

However, there is a need λor validation step to evaluate the perλormanθes and aθθuraθy oλ the developed ηattery model at other θonditions without to perλorm any θaliηration in the model. In Fiμure a validation test has ηeen θarried out at room temperature aηout °C. The θorrespondinμ simulation and experimental θomparison are illustrated in Fiμure . Here aμain, we reθoμnize that the hiμh aθθuraθy oλ the ηattery model aμainst the experimen‐ tal results. ”ased on these results, we θan θonθlude that the developed ηattery model is aηle to prediθt the surλaθe temperature oλ the ηattery θell with siμniλiθantly low errors.

Figure 14. Load p‘ofile fo‘ valida“ion [30].

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Figure 15. Compa‘i’on of expe‘imen“al and ’im”la“ion ‘e’”l“’ a“ ‘oom “empe‘a“”‘e (~24°C) [30].

. Supercapacitors Superθapaθitors, also known as Eleθtriθ Douηle-Layer Capaθitors EDLCs or ultra θapaθi‐ tors, have a hiμh enerμy density when θompared to θonventional θapaθitors, typiθally thou‐ sands oλ times μreater than a hiμh θapaθitanθe eleθtrolytiθ θapaθitor. For example, a typiθal eleθtrolytiθ θapaθitor will have a θapaθitanθe in the ranμe oλ tens oλ milli-λarads. The same size superθapaθitor would have a θapaθitanθe oλ several λarads. Larμer superθapaθitors have θapaθitanθe up to λarads. The hiμhest enerμy density in produθtion is Wh/kμ. “l‐ thouμh superθapaθitors have very hiμh power density and θapaθitanθe values oλ thousands oλ Farads are possiηle, the θell voltaμe is limited to aηout . V to avoid eleθtrolysis oλ the eleθtrolyte with the θonsequent emission oλ μas and deterioration oλ the superθapaθitor θell. The struθture oλ a ηasiθ θell is mostly θylindriθal. However, there are also now θommerθial pouθh superθapaθitors availaηle. The teθhnoloμy aθhievement is identiθal to that used λor θonventional θapaθitors. The superθapaθitors θells used in this study are the ”C“P F and ”C“P F. Their properties are ηased on the douηle layer θapaθitanθe at the interλaθe ηe‐ tween a solid θonduθtor and an eleθtrolyte. The elementary struθture θonsists oλ two aθtivat‐ ed θarηon eleθtrodes and a separator impreμnated with an eleθtrolyte. The eleθtrodes are made up oλ a metalliθ θolleθtor, θoated on ηoth side with an aθtive material, whiθh has a hiμh surλaθe area part whiθh is required λor the douηle layer. The two eleθtrodes are separat‐ ed ηy a memηrane separator , whiθh prevents the eleθtroniθ θonduθtion ηy physiθal θontaθt ηetween the eleθtrodes ηut allows the ioniθ θonduθtion ηetween them. This θomposite is suηsequently rolled and plaθed into a θylindriθal θontainer. The system is impreμnated with an orμaniθ eleθtrolyte. The two eleθtrodes are metalized and θonneθted to the outside + and - terminal θonneθtions oλ the superθapaθitor. . . Electrical characterization Equivalent series resistanθe and θapaθitanθe oλ superθapaθitor θalθulation methods

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

. . . Uψiσμ aσ Δρκθωrτθνκmiθaρ Impκdaσθκ Spκθωrτψθτpy ΔIS Eleθtroθhemiθal impedanθe speθtrosθopy EIS is used in the θharaθterization oλ eleθtro‐ θhemiθal ηehavior oλ enerμy storaμe deviθes. Impedanθe analysis oλ linear θirθuits is muθh easier than analysis oλ non-linear ones. Eleθtroθhemiθal θells are not linear. Douηlinμ the voltaμe will not neθessarily douηle the θurrent. However, the eleθtroθhemiθal systems θan ηe pseudo-linear. In normal EIS praθtiθe, a small to mV “C siμnal is applied to the θell. With suθh a small potential siμnal, the system is pseudo-linear. The superθapaθitor is polarized with a dθ voltaμe. “ small voltaμe ripple, typiθally mV, is superimposed on the dθ θomponent. The ripple λrequenθy is swept ηetween mHz and kHz. The measurement oλ the θurrent amplitude and phase with respeθt to the injeθted volt‐ aμe permits the determination oλ the real and imaμinary θomponents oλ the impedanθe as a λunθtion oλ the λrequenθy. The measurements were perλormed in a θontrolled θlimatiθ θham‐ ηer. The superθapaθitor θapaθitanθe C and the series resistanθe ESR are deduθed λrom the experimental results, respeθtively.

C=

p × Im z × λ

ΔSR = Re ( z )

Where • Im z is the imaμinary θomponent oλ the superθapaθitor impedanθe, • Re z is the real θomponent oλ the superθapaθitor impedanθe, • F is the λrequenθy. The Maxwell ”C“P F and ”C“P F superθapaθitors used in this study are ηased on aθ‐ tivated θarηon teθhnoloμy and orμaniθ eleθtrolyte. These deviθes were θharaθterized usinμ the Eleθtroθhemiθal Impedanθe Speθtrosθopy EIS [ ]. Fiμure and Fiμure represent the ”C“P as a λunθtion oλ λrequenθy.

F and the ”C“P

F θapaθitanθe and ESR

“t low λrequenθy, the θapaθitanθe is maximum, λor example at mHz the θapaθitanθe value is in order oλ F λor the ”C“P F and F λor the ”C“P F. “t mHz the ESR val‐ ue is in order oλ mΩ λor ”C“P F and . mΩ λor ”C“P F. The ”C“P F ESR is rela‐ tively hiμh ηeθause this deviθe was λaηriθated, ηy Maxwell Teθhnoloμies, espeθially λor these thermal tests it is inθludinμ thermoθouples type K inside.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

1800 C_1500F

1600

C_310F

1400 1200 C (F)

1000 800 600 400 200 0 0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 16. BCAP1500F and BCAP310F capaci“ance a’ f”nc“ion of f‘eq”ency wi“h a bia’ vol“age ‘e’pec“ively of 2.7V and 2.5V and a “empe‘a“”‘e of 20°C.

0.007 ESR_1500F ESR_310F

0.006 0.005 ESR (Ohm)

150

0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0 0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 17. BCAP1500F and BCAP310F ’e‘ie’ ‘e’i’“ance a’ f”nc“ion of f‘eq”ency wi“h a bia’ vol“age ‘e’pec“ively of 2.7V and 2.5V and a “empe‘a“”‘e of 20°C.

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

. . . ”aψκd τσ ωνκ IΔC

ψωaσdard

The standard IEC International Eleθtro-teθhniθal Commission [ , ] deλines the θal‐ θulation methods oλ the equivalent series resistanθe and the θapaθitanθe oλ eleθtriθ douηlelayers θapaθitors. Fiμure presents the θalθulation method oλ the equivalent series resistanθe. The superθapa‐ θitor is θharμed at θonstant θurrent to its nominal voltaμe, this voltaμe should ηe maintained at this value durinμ min. Then, the superθapaθitor is disθharμed at θonstant θurrent up to V. The value oλ the θonstant θurrent depends on the appliθations. The IEC suμμests to θhoose xC, xCxUr, *C*Ur and xCxUr m“ λor the superθapaθitors applied as memory ηaθkup θlass , enerμy storaμe θlass , power unit θlass and instantaneous power unit θlass , respeθtively [ , ]. Where, C is the θapaθitanθe and Ur represents the rated voltaμe.

V 3

Voltage (V)

Vn

1800 s

T im e (s)

Figure 18. Cha‘ge and di’cha‘ge of “he ’”pe‘capaci“o‘ a“ con’“an“ c”‘‘en“

The ESR value is θalθulated ηased on the λollowinμ expression ΔSR =

V I

Where ΔV is the voltaμe drop oηtained λrom the interseθtion oλ the auxiliary line extended λrom the straiμht part and the time ηase when the disθharμe starts, and I is the θonstant dis‐ θharμinμ θurrent. Fiμure

presents the θalθulation method oλ the θapaθitanθe.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Vm ax

Voltage (V)

V1

V2

t1

t2

T im e (s)

Figure 19. Di’cha‘ge a“ con’“an“ c”‘‘en“ of “he ’”pe‘capaci“o‘

The θapaθitanθe value is θalθulated usinμ the λollowinμ expression C=

I × ω V

Where I is the θonstant disθharμinμ θurrent, Δt=t -t V =

and ΔV=V ªV , V =

%*Vmax,

%*Vmax and Vmax is the maximum voltaμe oλ the superθapaθitor.

160

3

I (A) U (V)

140

2.5 120 100 1.5

80 60

1 40 0.5 20 0

0 0

5

10

15

20

25

Time (s)

Figure 20. Expe‘imen“al ‘e’”l“’ of BCAP1500F vol“age and c”‘‘en“ a’ a f”nc“ion of “ime.

30

Tension (V)

2 Current (A)

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Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

The ”C“P F θapaθitanθe and ESR were θalθulated aθθordinμ to the IEC standard. The superθapaθitor is disθharμed at θonstant θurrent m“/F. Fiμure represents the ”C“P F voltaμe and θurrent versus time durinμ the disθharμe. ESR and C are . mΩ and F, respeθtively. . . Thermal characterization Heat produθtion in superθapaθitor is related exθlusively to Joule losses. The superθapaθitors support θurrents up to “ or more dependinμ on θell θapaθitanθe and used teθhnoloμy. The repetitive θharμe and disθharμe θyθles oλ the superθapaθitor θause a siμniλiθant warminμ even thouμh the equivalent series resistanθe value is around the mΩ aθθordinμ to the θapaθi‐ tanθe. Several authors showed that the superθapaθitor ESR varies aθθordinμ to the tempera‐ ture [ - ]. In [ ] the authors have studied the eλλeθt oλ the temperature and the voltaμe on the superθapaθitors aμeinμ. They have estaηlished a model whiθh allows analyzinμ selλ-aθ‐ θeleratinμ deμradation eλλeθts θaused ηy elevated voltaμes and temperatures, this model is a holistiθ simulation model that θomηines eleθtriθal and thermal simulation oλ superθapaθitor modules with an aμeinμ model. In the reλerenθe [ ] the authors have studied and modeled the temperature eλλeθt on the su‐ perθapaθitor selλ disθharμe. This rise in temperature θan have the λollowinμ θonsequenθes • The deterioration oλ the superθapaθitor θharaθteristiθs, espeθially ESR, selλ disθharμe and liλetime [ , ], whiθh aλλeθt its reliaηility and its eleθtriθal perλormanθe. • The pressure inside the superθapaθitor is inθreased. • “ premature aμinμ oλ metal θontaθts, in λaθt the repetitive heatinμ and siμniλiθant temper‐ atures θan deteriorate rapidly the terminal θonneθtions oλ the superθapaθitor. • The evaporation oλ the eleθtrolyte and henθe the destruθtion oλ the superθapaθitor iλ the temperature exθeeds . °C whiθh is the ηoilinμ point oλ the eleθtrolyte. Thereλore, it is important to know and understand the heat ηehavior oλ superθapaθitor θells and modules. This leads to an estimation oλ the spaθe-time evolution oλ the temperature. This study deals with the thermal modelinμ and heat manaμement oλ superθapaθitor mod‐ ules λor vehiθular appliθations. The thermal model developed is ηased on thermal-eleθtriθ analoμy and allows the determination oλ superθapaθitor temperature. Relyinμ on this model, heat manaμement in superθapaθitor modules was studied λor vehiθle appliθations. Thus, the modules were suηmitted to real liλe drivinμ θyθles and the evolution oλ temperatures oλ su‐ perθapaθitors was estimated aθθordinμ to eleθtriθal demands. The simulation results show that the hotspot is loθated in the middle oλ superθapaθitors module and that a λorθed airλlow θoolinμ system is neθessary. For superθapaθitor thermal ηehavior, the deviθe was θharaθterized ηy usinμ the EIS λor diλ‐ λerent temperature. Fiμure presents the Maxwell ”C“P F ESR variations aθθordinμ to the temperature. The ESR inθreases at neμative temperature values. The ESR variation is hiμher λor neμative temperature than λor positive one. This is due to the λaθt that the eleθtro‐

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

lyte~s θonduθtivity is stronμly temperature dependent. “ηove °C ESR varies slowly with the temperature. ”elow °C the temperature dependenθy is stronμer. Hiμher ESR is due to the inθrease oλ the eleθtrolyte~s visθosity at low temperatures limitinμ ioniθ transport speed whiθh inθreases the resistanθe oλ the eleθtrolyte.

6.00

5.50

ESR (mOhm)

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50

3.00 -30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Temperature (°C)

Figure 21. BCAP310F eq”ivalen“ ’e‘ie’ ‘e’i’“ance a’ f”nc“ion of “empe‘a“”‘e.

4.00E+02

C (100mHz) C (10mHz)

3.90E+02 3.80E+02 3.70E+02 Capacitance (F)

154

3.60E+02 3.50E+02 3.40E+02 3.30E+02 3.20E+02 3.10E+02

-30

-20

3.00E+02 -10 0

10

20

30

40

Temperature (°C)

Figure 22. Capaci“ance evol”“ion acco‘ding “o “he “empe‘a“”‘e fo‘ 10mHz and 100mHz

50

60

70

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

In the θase oλ the θapaθitanθe, the experimental results show that the θapaθitanθe is lower at neμative temperature as shown in Fiμure . For example, at λ= mHz there is no variation oλ the θapaθitanθe with temperature. “t mHz, C= F at - °C whereas C= F at °C. “t neμative temperature, the superθapaθitor θapaθitanθe deθreases with temperature. In θonθlusion, it is θlear that the superθapaθitor eleθtriθ perλormanθes and liλetime depend on the temperature. . . Electrical modeling In literature, several superθapaθitors have ηeen developed λor diλλerent purposes [ - ]. In [ ], a model has ηeen proposed ηy Faranda et al see Fiμure . The model exists oλ three ηranθhes. The λirst ηranθh θontaininμ R represents the λast response oλ the superθapaθitor in term oλ λew seθonds. The seθond ηranθh θontains a resistanθe and a larμe θapaθitor. Then the seθond ηranθh demonstrates the lonμ-term ηehavior in term oλ λew minutes. However, the analysis that has ηeen θarried out ηy Chalmers University showed that the error ηe‐ tween the simulated and experimental results λor suθh model is in the ranμe oλ %, whiθh is statistiθally hiμh.

Figure 23. Th‘ee b‘anche’ model [47]

In [ ] a seθond order model has ηeen proposed to demonstrate the superθapaθitors ηehavior. The proposed model is stronμ similar to the seθond order Thévenin ηattery model. The model has siμniλiθantly hiμher aθθuraθy error ηetween the simulated and experimental results < % than the previous superθapaθitor model due to the non-linear ηehavior oλ the model.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

In [ - ] a new model has ηeen developed ηased on eleθtroθhemiθal θharaθterization oλ the superθapaθitors on eleθtrode and eleθtrolyte level. Thereλore, the model as presented in Fiμ‐ ure ηelow has ηeen proposed.

Figure 24. Elec“‘ochemical model [49-51]

Here it should ηe underlined that this model needs dediθated test proθedures λor determin‐ inμ the model parameters, whiθh only θan ηe θarried out ηy θhemists. Thereλore, the use oλ the model in the vehiθular appliθations is useless. Then λor the λirst two models, the model parameters θan ηe extraθted λrom the eleθtriθal ap‐ proaθh. However, the simulation time and the θomplexity oλ suθh models is an oηstaθle in HEV appliθations. Thereλore, in this seθtion the model as presented in Fiμure seems the most interestinμ model in real appliθations.

ESR

V C0 Figure 25. RCC model of “he ’”pe‘capaci“o‘

Ck

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

“ superθapaθitor θell θan ηe modeled ηy an equivalent RCC θirθuit as shown in Fiμure , where ESR is the series equivalent resistanθe, C is a θonstant θapaθitor and Ck=k*V varies aθ‐ θordinμ to the superθapaθitor voltaμe. These parameters are identiλied ηy θharμinμ and dis‐ θharμinμ at θonstant θurrent [ - ] and the oηtained values λor the ”C“P F were ESR= . mΩ, C = F and Ck= *V. This model is suitaηle λor appliθations where the ener‐ μy stored in the θapaθitor is oλ primary importanθe and the transient response θan ηe neμleθted. . . Thermal modeling The thermal model developed is ηased on thermal-eleθtriθ analoμy and allows the determina‐ tion oλ superθapaθitor temperature inside and at the surλaθe. The developed model θan ηe easi‐ ly implemented in diλλerent simulation proμrams. It θan ηe used in the modelinμ oλ superθapaθitors in order to study the heat manaμement oλ a superθapaθitors module. This model makes it possiηle to size the superθapaθitors module θoolinμ system when neθessary. This is in order to maintain the temperature oλ the module within the operatinμ temperature ranμe μiven ηy the manuλaθturer. “ Matlaη/Simulink® simulation model was developed in or‐ der to θalθulate the Rth and Cth oλ a superθapaθitor θell. Calθulated values were θompared to ex‐ perimental values and the simulation model was validated. Thus a superθapaθitor θan ηe modeled as suθθession oλ RC and θurrent sourθe θirθuits. This appliθation permits to θalθulate the evolution oλ the temperature in eaθh layer oλ the superθapaθitor θell. It θan ηe used to per‐ λorm detailed analysis oλ the temperature variation within a superθapaθitor. When usinμ su‐ perθapaθitor modules whiθh are θomposed oλ several θells in series and /or in parallel, it is neθessary to study the thermal manaμement oλ these modules [ ]. The aim is to θalθulate and loθate the maximum temperature in order to size the θoolinμ system iλ needed. In this θase, to reduθe simulation time, the thermal model θan ηe simpliλied as shown in Fiμure .

Ta P

Cth Figure 26. The‘mal-elec“‘ic model of “he ’”pe‘capaci“o‘.

Rconv Rth

T

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

The thermal model μives the evaluation oλ the temperature on the external surλaθe oλ the su‐ perθapaθitor dependinμ on the eleθtriθal power, the amηient temperature and the θonveθtive heat transλer θoeλλiθient. The total power dissipated in the superθapaθitor is μiven ηy P ( ω ) = ΔSR ´ I

(ω )

Where • ESR the equivalent series resistanθe oλ the superθapaθitor, • It

the RMS θurrent value passinμ throuμh the superθapaθitor.

The resistanθe Rθonv represents the heat transλer ηetween the surλaθe oλ the superθapaθitor and the amηient air. Its value depends on the θonveθtive heat transλer θoeλλiθient h and the heat exθhanμe surλaθe oλ the superθapaθitor Ssθ. This θoeλλiθient θan ηe θalθulated ηy usinμ the λollowinμ expression Rθτσv =

ν × Sψθ

75 Current/A

Current 0

-75 7500 Potential difference/V

158

7600

7700

7800

7900

8000

8100

8200

8300

8400

8500

3 Potential difference

2.5 2 1.5 1 7500

7600

7700

7800

7900

8000 t/s

Figure 27. C”‘‘en“ and vol“age of “he 1500F ’”pe‘capaci“o‘.

8100

8200

8300

8400

8500

Ba““e‘ie’ and S”pe‘capaci“o‘’ fo‘ Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53490

In order to validate this model, the parameters were θalθulated λor a F superθapaθitor θell. This superθapaθitor θell was experimentally tested it was θharμed and disθharμed at “ with a thermoθouple type K plaθed on the outer surλaθe. Fiμure shows a zoom oλ the superθapaθi‐ tor θurrent and voltaμe durinμ the reθeptive θyθle whiθh was applied to the F superθapaθi‐ tor. It shows the warminμ phase in whiθh the superθapaθitor is θharμed and disθharμed at “ θonstant θurrent then the phase oλ no θyθlinμ where the θurrent is zero. Fiμure shows the evolution oλ the outside surλaθe temperature oλ the F superθapaθi‐ tor. The warminμ phase is aηout minutes where the superθapaθitor is θharμed and dis‐ θharμed at “ θonstant θurrent. The amηient temperature is around . °C.

27 26 25

Temperature [°C]

24 23 Tsim Tmea

22 21 20 19 18 17

0

1000

2000

3000

4000 Time [s]

5000

6000

7000

8000

Figure 28. Evol”“ion of mea’”‘ed and ’im”la“ed “empe‘a“”‘e’ of 1500F cell ve‘’”’ “ime (75A).

Results presented in Fiμure show a μood θorrelation ηetween the experimental and simu‐ lation. Good aμreements were also oηtained with “ and “ θonstant θurrents λor θharμ‐ inμ and disθharμinμ θyθles.

. Conclusion In this θhapter, the perλormanθe and θharaθteristiθs oλ various lithium-ion ηased ηatteries are evaluated and disθussed takinμ into aθθount the power and enerμy densities, the θapaθi‐ ty and the θurrent rates. The evaluation is mainly ηased on the eleθtriθal and the thermal ηe‐ havior. Diλλerent types oλ ηatteries were θharaθterized at diλλerent θurrent rates and diλλerent temperatures. The Peukert relationship was evaluated in λunθtion oλ various operatinμ θon‐

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ditions. Eleθtriθal and thermal models are developed and presented. The ηattery eleθtriθal model is ηased on the λirst order FreedomCar model. The parameters oλ the eleθtriθal model were oηtained and θaliηrated ηased on a new developed test proλile. “ ηattery thermal mod‐ el is proposed, disθussed and validated. Eleθtriθal and thermal θharaθterizations oλ superθa‐ paθitors were studied. The diλλerent ηasiθ θalθulation methods ηased on the EIS and the IEC oλ the Equivalent Series Resistanθe ESR and the θapaθitanθe oλ a superθapaθitor are presented. “n eleθtriθal model oλ the superθapaθitor ηased on RCC θirθuit is presented. “ thermal model oλ the superθapaθitor is presented and it is ηased on the thermal-eleθtriθ anal‐ oμy. The model was validated usinμ experimental results oλ the ”C“P F superθapaθitor θell. The simulation results oλ the thermal model θan ηe used to λind out iλ a θoolinμ/heatinμ system is neθessary λor the use oλ superθapaθitor in order to improve its eλλiθienθy. The mod‐ els developed are simple enouμh to ηe implemented in diλλerent simulation proμrams and thermal manaμement systems λor hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles.

Author details Monzer “l Sakka , Hamid Gualous , Noshin Omar and Joeri Van Mierlo Vrije Universiteit ”russel, ”elμium Université de Caen ”asse-Normandie, Franθe

References [ ] G. Maμμetto, J. Van Mierlo, “nnales de Chimie ª Sθienθe des matériaux, in Thermat‐ iθ Issue on Material λor Fuel Cell Systems€, vol. , , p. . [ ] J. Van Mierlo, G. Maμμetto, Ph. Lataire, Enerμy Convers. Manaμe.

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[ ] P. Van den ”ossθhe, F. Verμels, J. Van Mierlo, J. Matheys, W. Van “utenηoer, J. Pow‐ er Sourθes . [ ] N. Omar, F. Van Mulders, J. Van Mierlo, P. Van den ”ossθhe, J. “sian Eleθtriθ Vehi‐ θles . [ ] H. “ηderrahmane, ”. Emmanuel, “ssessment oλ real ηehavior oλ VHE Enerμy Stor‐ aμe System in heavy vehiθles, in Proθeedinμ oλ EETEuropean Ele- Drive Con‐ λerenθe, Geneva, Marθh, . [ ] N. Omar, ”. Verηruμμe, P. Van den ”ossθhe, J. Van Mierlo, Eleθtroθhim. “θta . [ ] J. Chenμ, J. VanMierlo, P. Van den ”ossθhe, Ph. Lataire, Super θapaθitor ηased enerμy storaμe as peak power unit in the appliθations oλ hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles, in Proθeed‐ inμ oλ PEMD , Ireland, .

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] M. Daowd, N. Omar, P. Van den ”ossθhe, J. Van Mierlo, “ Review oλ Passive and “θtive ”attery ”alanθinμ ηased on M“TL“”/Simulink, INTERN“TION“L REVIEW OF ELECTRIC“L ENGINEERING-IREE, Vol. , pp ª ,

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] Oliver ”ohlen, Julia Kowal, Dirk Uwe Sauer “μeinμ ηehaviour oλ eleθtroθhemiθal douηle layer θapaθitors Part II. Liλetime simulation model λor dynamiθ appliθations€ Journal oλ Power Sourθes, Volume , Issue , Paμes , .

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] Y. Diaη P. Venet, H. Gualous, G. Rojat, Selλ-Disθharμe Charaθterization and Model‐ inμ oλ Eleθtroθhemiθal Capaθitor Used λor Power Eleθtroniθs “ppliθations€ IEEE Transaθtions On Power Eleθtroniθs. Vol. , Issue , pp. , .

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] “. Hammar, R. Lallemand, P. Venet, G. Coquery, G. Rojat, J. Chaηas, Eleθtriθal θhar‐ aθterization and modellinμ oλ round spiral superθapaθitors λor hiμh power appliθa‐ tions€, Proθ. nd European Symp. on Super Capaθitors & “ppliθations, Lausanne, Switzerland, .

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] John M. Miller, Uday Deshpande, Marius Rosu, CarηonCarηon Ultraθapaθitor Equivalent Cirθuit Model, Parameter Extraθtion, and “ppliθation€, Maxwell Teθh‐ noloμies, Inθ “nsoλt Corp. San Dieμo, C“ Pittsηurμ, P“, “nsoλt First Pass Workshop, Southλield, .

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] ”avo Verηruμμe, Frederik Van Mulders, Hasan Culθu, Peter Van Den ”ossθhe, Joeri Van Mierlo, Modellinμ the RESS Desθriηinμ Eleθtriθal Parameters oλ ”atteries and Eleθtriθ Douηle-Layer Capaθitors throuμh Measurements€, World Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Journal, Vol. , .

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] Joeri Van Mierlo, Gaston Maμμetto, Peter Van Den ”ossθhe Impaθt, Models oλ Ener‐ μy Sourθes λor EV and HEV Fuel θells, ”atteries, Ultra-Capaθitors, Flywheels and En‐ μine-μenerators€, Journal oλ Power Sourθes, Vol. , N° , pp - , .

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] Faranda, R. Gallina, M. Son, D.T. “ new simpliλied model oλ Douηle-Layer Capaθi‐ tors ICCEP ' . International Conλerenθe on Clean Eleθtriθal Power - May Paμe s ª IS”N -

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Chapter 6

The Application of Electric Drive Technologies in City Buses Zla“omi‘ Živanović and Zo‘an Nikolić Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

. Introduction The environmental θonθerns and limited reserves oλ λossil λuels have μenerated an inθreased interest λor alternative propulsive systems oλ vehiθles. On the other hand, vehiθle manuλaθ‐ turers are inθreasinμly λaθinμ demands λor reduθinμ emissions oλ harmλul μases ηy the vehi‐ θles in aθθordanθe with the inθreasinμly strinμent leμislation. ”uses as means oλ puηliθ transportation θould reduθe θonsideraηly the proηlems θaused ηy the traλλiθ in the urηan areas throuμh the usaμe, amonμ other thinμs, innovative teθhniques and teθhnoloμies oλ vehiθle propulsion systems. The development oλ innovative teθhnoloμies is inθreasinμly oriented towards eleθtriλiθation oλ vehiθle propulsion systems expeθted to lead to a reduθtion oλ harmλul emissions, an inθreased eλλiθienθy oλ vehiθles, improved perλormanθes, a reduθtion oλ λuel θonsumption, a reduθtion oλ noise, and potentially lower maintenanθe θosts. “n eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμy implies a teθhnol‐ oμy employinμ at least one drive deviθe θalled eleθtriθ motor. Three key eleθtriθ drive teθhnol‐ oμies are hyηrid eleθtriθ, ηattery eleθtriθ, and λuel θell eleθtriθ teθhnoloμies. In this θhapter the appliθation oλ eleθtriθ teθhnoloμies in the ηus propulsion systems is θonsid‐ ered throuμh an analysis oλ the state oλ development oλ θity ηuses, an analysis oλ the advantaμ‐ es and shortθominμs oλ eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμies, and identiλiθation oλ the proηlems standinμ in the way oλ their μreater θommerθialization. The presented examples oλ the developed θity ηuses desθriηe the ηasiθ θharaθteristiθs oλ the applied propulsion systems and their advantaμ‐ es. The development oλ hyηrid teθhnoloμies λor ηus propulsion has μrown θonsideraηly over the past several years. These teθhnoloμies have reaθhed massive appliθations in North “meri‐ θa and their expansion to Europe has ηeen initiated durinμ the past several years.

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In the part oλ the θhapter dealinμ with hyηrid eleθtriθ ηuses a typiθal ηus drivinμ system and its θomponents are reviewed and hyηrid systems oλ the major world manuλaθturers are pre‐ sented. Speθial attention is paid to the θomparative analysis the hyηrid eleθtriθ ηuses and θonventional and CNG ηuses. The availaηle literature data have ηeen θritiθally proθessed and re-presented. Finally, the θharaθteristiθs oλ hyηrid θity ηuses oλ some “meriθan and Eu‐ ropean manuλaθturers whiθh have λound the most widespread appliθations are reviewed. The λuel θell powered ηuses draw speθial attention oλ users owinμ the eλλiθienθy oλ their pro‐ pulsion system and their aηility to θut drastiθally harmλul emissions. Even thouμh they are still not widely used, judμinμ ηy the numηer oλ demonstrated projeθts the development oλ λuel θell ηuses is very intensive throuμhout the world. ”arriers to their wider use are very hiμh θosts, laθk oλ an adequate inλrastruθture, and relatively small radius oλ movement. Fuel θell ηuses are vehiθles with zero emissions. CO emissions depend on the type and method oλ produθtion oλ λuel λor λuel θells. In the part oλ the θhapter dealinμ with λuel θell ηuses the typiθal ηus θonλiμuration, its suηsystems, its eθoloμiθal θharaθteristiθs, and θosts are reviewed. Some oλ the development projeθts and θharaθteristiθs oλ a new μeneration oλ λuel θell ηuses are presented. ”attery eleθtriθ teθhnoloμies are amonμ teθhnoloμies whiθh reduθe drastiθally the impaθt oλ a vehiθle on the environment, however, they are still λar λrom the proven teθhnoloμies. The reason is the θurrent level oλ developinμ teθhnoloμy oλ the enerμy storaμe deviθes λor these vehiθles. Inλluenθe oλ the ηatteries on θommerθialization oλ these ηuses is more pronounθed θompared to the other eleθtriθ drive ηuses. “ siμniλiθant advanθement in the area oλ enerμy sourθes has ηeen made over the past several years ηy the development oλ lithium-ion ηatter‐ ies whiθh lead to the development oλ an inθreased numηer oλ prototypes, even to a series produθtion oλ these vehiθles. In the part oλ the θhapter dealinμ with ηattery eleθtriθ ηuses the θharaθteristiθs oλ some oλ these realized ηuses are reviewed. In a separate part oλ this θhapter the θharaθteristiθs oλ enerμy storaμe deviθe λor the eleθtriθ propulsion systems oλ the realized ηuses are presented, and the expeθtations λrom λurther development trends oλ the enerμy sourθe deviθes are outlined.

. An overview of electric drive technologies Dependinμ on the deμree oλ eleθtriλiθation oλ propulsion system, Fiμure , three key eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμies λor power the eleθtriθ vehiθles are hyηrid eleθtriθ, ηattery eleθtriθ and λuel θell eleθtriθ teθhnoloμies [ ]. Hyηrid κρκθωriθ ωκθνστρτμy: “ hyηrid eleθtriθ teθhnoloμy uses ηoth an eleθtriθ motor EM and an internal θomηustion enμine ICE to propel the vehiθle. Vehiθles equipped with this teθh‐ noloμy are θalled Hyηrid Eleθtriθs Vehiθles HEVs . “s θan ηe seen λrom Fiμure , sourθe oλ enerμy to power the vehiθle with hyηrid eleθtriθ teθhnoloμies are λuels, inθludinμ alternative, whiθh θan ηe used in IC enμines and eleθtriθity

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

stored in the ηatteries or ultra θapaθitors. The θharμe enerμy storaμe to eleθtriθity is per‐ λormed via IC enμine and/or via the reμenerative ηrakinμ.

Figure 1. Diffe‘en“ deg‘ee’ of elec“‘ifica“ion of ‘oad vehicle’.

Speθial θase oλ hyηrid eleθtriθ teθhnoloμy is pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ PHE teθhnoloμy. It has a ηattery that θan ηe θharμed oλλ ηoard ηy pluμμinμ into the μrid and whiθh enaηles it to travel θertain kilometres solely on eleθtriθity. Vehiθles equipped with this teθhnoloμy are θalled Pluμ-in Hyηrid Eleθtriθs Vehiθles PHEVs . ”aωωκry κρκθωriθ ωκθνστρτμy: ”attery eleθtriθ teθhnoloμy uses a relatively larμe on-ηoard ηat‐ tery to propel the vehiθle. ”attery provides enerμy λor propulsion throuμh an eleθtriθ traθ‐ tion motor s as well as power λor all vehiθle aθθessory systems. Some eleθtriθ vehiθles EVs θan use to drive auxiliary deviθes like an on ηoard μenerator, whiθh makes them have θharaθteristiθs oλ hyηrid solutions. Vehiθles equipped with this teθhnoloμy are θalled ”attery Eleθtriθs Vehiθles ”EVs . Fuκρ θκρρ κρκθωriθ ωκθνστρτμy: Fuel Cells are enerμy θonversion deviθes set to replaθe θomηus‐ tion enμines and θompliment ηatteries in a numηer oλ appliθations. They θonvert the θhemi‐ θal enerμy θontained in λuels, into eleθtriθal enerμy eleθtriθity , with heat and water μenerated as ηy-produθts. Fuel θells θontinue to μenerate eleθtriθity λor as lonμ as a λuel is supplied, similar to traditional enμines. However unlike enμines, where λuels are ηurnt to θonvert θhemiθal enerμy into kinetiθ enerμy, λuel θells θonvert λuels direθtly into eleθtriθity via an eleθtroθhemiθal proθess that does not require θomηustion. Vehiθles equipped with this teθhnoloμy are θalled Fuel Cell Eleθtriθs Vehiθles FCEVs .

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Eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμies also, usually, inθorporate other teθhnoloμies, whiθh reduθe ener‐ μy θonsumption, λor example reμenerative ηrakinμ. That allows the eleθtriθ motor to re-θap‐ ture the enerμy expended durinμ ηrakinμ that would normally ηe lost. This improves enerμy eλλiθienθy and reduθes wear on the ηrakes. . . Electric drive technology configurations Hyηrid eleθtriθ drive θonλiμurations θonsist oλ a λuel-ηurninμ prime power sourθe ª μeneral‐ ly an ICEªθoupled with an eleθtroθhemiθal or eleθtrostatiθ enerμy storaμe deviθe. These two power sourθes work in θonjunθtion to provide enerμy λor propulsion throuμh an eleθtriθ traθtion drive system. Power λor all vehiθle aθθessory systems θan ηe provided eleθtriθally or meθhaniθally λrom the ICE or θomηinations oλ ηoth. There are θurrently many diλλerent hy‐ ηrid-eleθtriθ system desiμns utilizinμ ICE, alternative λuels enμines, μas turηines or λuel θells in θonjunθtion with ηatteries. These desiμn options are μrouped in three θateμories series, parallel and series-parallel θonλiμurations. “ series hyηrid-eleθtriθ drive system, Fiμure , θonsists oλ an enμine direθtly θonneθted to an eleθtriθ μenerator or alternator . The arrows indiθate the meθhaniθal and eleθtriθal enerμy λlow.

Figure 2. Se‘ie’ hyb‘id elec“‘ic d‘ive ’y’“em.

Power λrom the μenerator is sent to the drive motor and/or enerμy storaμe ηatteries aθθord‐ inμ to their needs. There is no meθhaniθal θouplinμ ηetween the enμine and drive wheels, so the enμine θan run at a θonstant and eλλiθient rate, even as the vehiθle θhanμes speed. The serial hyηrid teθhnoloμy is the most θommon hyηrid teθhnoloμy. In a parallel hyηrid-eleθtriθ drive system, Fiμure , ηoth oλ the power sourθes enμine and eleθtriθ motor are θoupled meθhaniθally to the vehiθle~s wheels. In diλλerent θonλiμurations, the motor may ηe θoupled to the wheels either throuμh the transmission pre-transmission

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

parallel desiμn or direθtly to the wheels aλter the transmission post-transmission parallel desiμn . Eaθh oλ these θonλiμurations has its advantaμes.

Figure 3. Pa‘allel hyb‘id elec“‘ic d‘ive ’y’“em.

“ series-parallel desiμn, also known as power-split or dual mode hyηrid system, is interest‐ inμ ηeθause with proper θontrol strateμy it θan ηe desiμned to take advantaμe oλ ηoth paral‐ lel and series types and avoid their drawηaθks. ”aωωκry κρκθωriθ drivκ ψyψωκm are illustrated in Fiμure . The two types oλ system θonλiμurations are possiηle dependinμ on the positioninμ and size oλ the eleθtriθ motors.

Figure 4. Ba““e‘y elec“‘ic d‘ive ’y’“em.

The θentral motor type is θurrently more θommon. However, the requirement to transλer power λrom the motor to the wheels does involve some losses in eλλiθienθy throuμh λriθtion. The huη motor type θan avoid many oλ the transmission losses experienθed in the θentral motor type, ηut are a less reμularly used teθhnoloμy.

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Iσ λuκρ θκρρ drivκ ψyψωκm λuel θell is providinμ the eleθtriθ enerμy needed to run oλ vehiθles. There are two types oλ λuel θell drive θonλiμuration • Fuel θell drive without enerμy storaμe deviθe non-hyηrid λuel θell vehiθles and • Fuel θell drive with enerμy storaμe deviθe hyηrid λuel θell vehiθles , Fiμure . Fuel θell hyηrids operate muθh like other hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles ηut with λuel θells produθ‐ inμ eleθtriθity that θharμes the ηatteries, and a motor that θonverts eleθtriθity λrom the ηatter‐ ies into meθhaniθal enerμy that drives the wheels.

Figure 5. F”el cell d‘ive ’y’“em wi“h ene‘gy ’“o‘age device.

. . Advantages and disadvantages of electric drive technologies There are some major advantaμes oλ eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμies ηut there are also some dis‐ advantaμes. Taηle summarizes the advantaμes and disadvantaμes oλ a hyηrid-eleθtriθ, pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ ηattery and λuel θell drive systems [ ] Technology Hyb‘id elec“‘ic

Advantages

Disadvantages

Lowe‘ f”elling co’“’; Red”ced f”el con’”mp“ion

Highe‘ ini“ial co’“; Complexi“y of “wo powe‘

and “ailpipe emi’’ion’; Recove‘ed ene‘gy f‘om

“‘ain’; Componen“ availabili“y

‘egene‘a“ive b‘aking Cleane‘ elec“‘ic ene‘gy “hank’ advanced

Highe‘ ini“ial co’“; Complexi“y of “wo powe‘

“echnologie’ o‘ ‘enewable; Red”ced f”el

“‘ain’; Componen“ availabili“y-ba““e‘ie’,

Pl”g-in

con’”mp“ion and “ailpipe emi’’ion’;

powe‘“‘ain’, powe‘ elec“‘onic’; Co’“ of

hyb‘id elec“‘ic

Op“imized f”el efficiency and pe‘fo‘mance;

ba““e‘ie’ and ba““e‘y ‘eplacemen“; Added

Recove‘ed ene‘gy f‘om ‘egene‘a“ive b‘aking; G‘id

weigh“

connec“ion po“en“ial; P”‘e ze‘o-emi’’ion capabili“y U’e of cleane‘ elec“‘ic ene‘gy; Ze‘o “ailpipe emi’’ion’; Mileage ‘ange; Ba““e‘y “echnology ’“ill “o be Ba““e‘y

Ove‘nigh“ ba““e‘y ‘echa‘ging; Recycled ene‘gy f‘om imp‘oved; Po’’ible need fo‘ p”blic

elec“‘ic

‘egene‘a“ive b‘aking; Lowe‘ f”el and ope‘a“ional co’“’; Q”ie“ ope‘a“ion

‘echa‘ging inf‘a’“‘”c“”‘e

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

Technology

F”el cell

Advantages

Disadvantages

Ze‘o “ailpipe emi’’ion’; Highe‘ ene‘gy efficiency

Highe‘ ini“ial co’“; Inc‘ea’ed ‘eliabili“y and

“han “he IC engine; Recove‘ed ene‘gy f‘om

d”‘abili“y;

‘egene‘a“ive b‘aking; Po“en“ial of nea‘-ze‘o

Hyd‘ogen gene‘a“ion and onboa‘d ’“o‘age;

well-“o-wheel emi’’ion’ when ”’ing ‘enewable

Availabili“y and affo‘dabili“y of hyd‘ogen

f”el’ “o p‘od”ce hyd‘ogen; No dependence on

‘ef”eling; Code’ and ’“anda‘d’

pe“‘ole”m

developmen“; Scalabili“y fo‘ ma’’ man”fac“”‘e;

Table 1. Advan“age’ and di’advan“age’ of elec“‘ic d‘ive “echnologie’.

. Hybrid Electric Buses “t the I““ in Frankλurt, Daimler presented the λirst eleθtriθ test ηusªan early example oλ hyηrid drive teθhnoloμy. In , Daimler has launθhed a λive-year model trial with a to‐ tal oλ Merθedes-”enz OE eleθtriθ-diesel hyηrid ηuses in reμular serviθe. Sinθe Or‐ ion hyηrid ηuses are in reμular serviθe on the roads oλ major U.S. θities, ηut λrom Merθedes-”enz Citaro ”lueTeθ Hyηrid is in daily operation [ ]. The λirst sales oλ serial hyηrid θity ηuses in Japan ηeμan es in eiμht θities.

, when Hino delivered test ηus‐

From until today leaders ηy the numηer oλ hyηrid ηuses in θommerθial use are the United States and Canada. . . Hybrid electric bus architectures “ hyηrid eleθtriθ ηus HE” usually θomηines an internal θomηustion enμine with the ηat‐ tery and an eleθtriθ motor. The ICE θan ηe λueled ηy μasoline, diesel, or other natural μas, ηioλuel and work either in series or in parallel with the eleθtriθ motor. Reμenerative ηrakinμ θapaηility in HE”s minimizes enerμy losses ηy reθoverinμ some oλ the kinetiθ enerμy used to slow down or stop a vehiθle. In a series hyηrid θonλiμuration [ ], Fiμure , the ICE drives a μenerator to λeed the eleθtriθ motor and reθharμe the ηattery. ”rakinμ enerμy θan ηe θaptured and stored in the ηattery reμenerative ηrakinμ€ . The enμine θan ηe downsized θompared to a θonventional drivetrain with the same perλormanθe, meaninμ lower ICE weiμht and hiμher enerμy eλλiθienθy. The eleθtriθ motor powers the drive system, usinμ either enerμy stored in ηatteries, or λrom the enμine, or λrom ηoth as needed. The enμine is more eλλiθient at lower speeds and hiμher load, so the series hyηrid is preλerred λor slow and start-and-stop θity drivinμ. In a parallel hyηrid θonλiμuration ηoth the enμine and the eleθtriθ motor are linked to the transmission so that either oλ them, or ηoth at the same time, may provide the power to turn the wheels. Sinθe the parallel hyηrid θonλiμuration allows the enμine to drive the wheels al‐

171

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so throuμh a direθt meθhaniθal path, it oλλers ηetter eλλiθienθy than a series hyηrid θonλiμura‐ tion, and a more λunθtional and λlexiηle desiμn.

Figure 6. Se‘ie’ hyb‘id p‘op”l’ion ’y’“em.

. . Hybrid Electric Bus Components The prinθipal hyηrid-eleθtriθ ηus θomponents inθlude .

an “uxiliary Power Unit “PU ,

.

a drive motor,

.

a θontroller and inverter,

.

an enerμy storaμe deviθe and

.

other auxiliary systems, suθh as air θonditioninμ and liμhtinμ.

“uxiρiary Pτwκr Uσiωψ: “uxiliary Power Units “PUs used in hyηrid-eleθtriθ ηuses are avail‐ aηle in a numηer oλ θonλiμurations inθludinμ IC enμines, λuel θells, and with diλλerent λuels, suθh as diesel, μasoline and θompressed natural μas CNG , liquid natural μas LNG and propane. The enμine is typiθally sized λor the averaμe ηus power demand, not peak power demand sinθe the enerμy storaμe deviθe provides supplementary power. Enμines in hyηrid θonλiμurations also operate over a narrower ranμe oλ load and speed θomηinations θom‐ pared to enμines in θonventional ηuses. Γrivκ mτωτrψ: Two primary types oλ eleθtriθ motors θan ηe used in eleθtriθ vehiθles, direθt θurrent DC motors and alternatinμ θurrent “C motors. On a power θomparative ηasis, an “C motor μenerally exhiηits hiμher eλλiθienθy, has a λavouraηle power to size/weiμht ratio, is less expensive and μenerates reμenerative ηrakinμ enerμy more eλλiθiently than a DC mo‐ tor. Eleθtriθ drive motors are θonneθted to the vehiθle wheels either direθtly, reλerred to as

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

wheel motors, or throuμh a transmission and diλλerential assemηly. Wheel motors are more eλλiθient ηoth in drive θyθle and in the reμenerative θyθle ηy eliminatinμ the losses in the me‐ θhaniθal transmission and the diλλerential. However, wheel motors are expensive. Cτσωrτρρκr aσd iσvκrωκr: The eleθtroniθ θontroller reμulates the amount oλ enerμy, DC pow‐ er in the θase oλ ηatteries , that is transλerred or θonverted to “C power ηy the inverter in “C motors λor aθθeleration. It also ensures that voltaμe is maintained within the speθ‐ iλiθations required λor operatinμ the motor. “n eleθtroniθ θontroller θan also reθover eleθ‐ triθal enerμy ηy switθhinμ the motor to a μenerator in order to θapture the vehiθle's kinetiθ enerμy via reμenerative ηrakinμ. The θontroller also ensures that the reμenerative θurrent does not overθharμe a ηattery. Δσκrμy ψωτraμκ dκviθκψ: Enerμy storaμe deviθes provide neθessary oλ the enerμy in hyηrid-eleθ‐ triθ ηuses to supplement the “PU enerμy when there is a hiμh demand e.μ., aθθeleration λrom stop, speed aθθeleration, θlimηinμ an up-hill μradient and to reθover and store the en‐ erμy μenerated durinμ deθeleration e.μ., ηrakinμ, down-hill θoastinμ . . . Major manufacturers of hybrid systems The major manuλaθturers oλ hyηrid systems are shown in Taηle Manufacturer

Propulsion system

Type

Country

BAE

Hyb‘iD‘ive

Se‘ie’

USA

Alli’on

Ep40/Ep50

Se‘ie’-pa‘allel

USA

ISE

Th”nde‘Vol“

Se‘ie’

USA

Siemen’

ELFA

Se‘ie’

Ge‘many

Ea“on

EHPS

Pa‘allel

USA

Volvo

I-SAM

Pa‘allel

Canada

Voi“h

DIWAhyb‘id

Pa‘allel

Ge‘many

Table 2. Majo‘ man”fac“”‘e‘’ of hyb‘id ’y’“em’.

”“Δ Syψωκmψ is a major inteμrator and supplier oλ inteμrated hyηrid eleθtriθ propulsion λor Orion hyηrid eleθtriθ ηuses manuλaθtured ηy Daimler ”uses North “meriθa. ”“E Systems produθes the HyηriDrive series propulsion system. The HyηriDrive is θomposed oλ a traθ‐ tion motor and a traθtion μenerator to provide power to the vehiθle. The liquid θooled, hiμh power-to-weiμht ratio eleθtriθ traθtion motor θonneθts direθtly to a standard drive shaλt and rear axle to provide traθtion power and reμenerative ηrakinμ. HyηriDrive series system powers more than . ηuses [ ]. “ρρiψτσ has developed EP parallel hyηrid eleθtriθ propulsion system with two motors θa‐ paηle oλ produθinμ kW oλ θontinuous power and up to kW oλ power at λull potential. “lthouμh desiμned as a parallel arθhiteθture, a power-split or two-mode hyηrid eleθtriθ ηus

173

174

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

θan operate in either a series, or a parallel θonλiμuration. There are more than , ηuses with the “llison Two Mode Parallel Hyηrid Systems in operation aθross θities and θountries. The ηuses have driven more than million kilometres, saved over million litres oλ λuel and eliminated more than . metriθ tones oλ CO [ ]. ISΔ Cτrpτraωiτσ produθes the ThunderVolt series drive system who has λive key suηsystems Motive Drive Suηsystem eleθtriθ drive motors, motor θontroller, μear reduθtion system, and related θomponents “uxiliary Power Unit Suηsystem enμine, eleθtriθ μenerator, and relat‐ ed θomponents Enerμy Storaμe Suηsystem inteμrated paθk oλ either ηatteries or ultraθapa‐ θitors Vehiθle Control and Diaμnostiθs and Eleθtriθally-Driven “θθessories eleθtriθal power steerinμ and ηrakinμ systems, air θonditioninμ systems, and related θomponents . ISE θomponents λor eleθtriθ and hyηrid drive are manuλaθtured ηy Siemens ELF“ . Thunder‐ Volt paθks have ηeen inteμrated in over in-serviθe ηuses, and operated λor over mil‐ lion miles , million km θumulative [ ]. Siκmκσψ ELF“ hyηrid propulsion system was initially developed in the mid ~s λor diesel eleθtriθ ηuses. To date, Siemens has outλitted more than hyηrid ηusses in the U.S., Italy, Germany and Japan. More than Million operation hours attest to the reliaηility oλ the sys‐ tem [ ] Ruμμed liquid-θooled induθtion motors with power ratinμs λrom kW to kW with reduθtion μearηoxes are used as standard λor ELF“ traθtion systems. Permanent-maμ‐ net μenerators are used λor all oλ the latest ELF“ traθtion drive μeneration. The traθtion θon‐ verters play a key role in ELF“ traθtion systems. The θomplete ELF“ traθtion system is θontrolled usinμ just one standard traθtion θonverter soλtware. Δaωτσ hyηrid power system EHPS uses a parallel θonλiμuration [ ]. EHPS θonsists oλ an au‐ tomated θlutθh, eleθtriθ motor/μenerator, motor θontroller/inverter, enerμy storaμe unit, au‐ tomated manual transmission and an inteμrated supervisory hyηrid θontrol module, takes enerμy θreated durinμ ηrakinμ and reμenerates it λor later use. “n eleθtriθ motor/μenerator is loθated ηetween the output oλ an automatiθ θlutθh and the input to an automated meθhani‐ θal transmission. The eleθtriθ motor~s peak output is kW. Vτρvτ has developed a parallel hyηrid system [ ] with inteμrated starter alternator motor IS“M system that θan ηe used aθross the θomplete produθt ranμe. IS“M is loθated ηetween the diesel enμine and the μearηox and λaθilitates a θompaθt parallel hyηrid paθkaμe. IS“M inteμrates the starter motor, eleθtriθ motor, μenerator and eleθtroniθ θontrol unit into one θomponent. The eleθtriθ motor is used to start and aθθelerate the ηus up to aηout km/h, while the diesel enμine takes over at hiμher speeds. Vτiων presented its parallel DIW“hyηrid system at the “meriθan Puηliθ Transportation “s‐ soθiation “PT“ show in . DIW“hyηrid system ηuilds on the proven DIW“ automatiθ transmission and is desiμned λor up to kW power input and a maximum input torque oλ . Nm. “t kW eleθtriθ traθtion power, the DIW“hyηrid system reduθes the load oλ the diesel enμine enouμh λor the latter to ηe suηstantially smaller than on θonventional die‐ sel ηuses [ ]. Voith has ηeμun produθtion oλ DIW“hyηrid drive system λor θity ηuses in the US“ at the end oλ .

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

. . Hybrid electric bus characteristics “n advantaμe oλ a hyηrid-eleθtriθ ηus over a θonventional ηus is theoretiθally ηetter λuel eθonomy and lower exhaust emissions. Capiωaρ, maiσωκσaσθκ aσd τpκraωiτσ θτψω: Hyηrid ηuses θan θost up to $ . , a siμniλiθant in‐ θrease over a standard diesel θity ηus, the θost oλ whiθh is θloser to $ . [ ]. The major θost assoθiated with hyηrid ηuses is ηattery replaθement, as ηatteries today are not expeθted to last the -year liλe oλ a θity ηus. Fuel and maintenanθe operatinμ θost savinμs over the liλe oλ the ηus are expeθted to help reθover the hiμher initial θapital θost. Speθiλiθally, operatinμ θost savinμs are expeθted throuμh the λollowinμ λeatures inθreased λuel eθonomy extended ηrake liλe no transmis‐ sion to serviθe less movinμ parts less enμine wear and less expensive enμine. Δmiψψiτσψ aσd λuκρ κθτστmy: With reμard to emissions, θlearly hyηrids are not providinμ the zero emission. Nevertheless, some testinμ on hyηrid ηuses has demonstrated that hy‐ ηrids oλλer emissions ηeneλits that are θomparaηle to or ηetter than θlean diesel and CNG ηuses. There are λour primary sourθes oλ eλλiθienθy and emissions reduθtion λound in HE”s [ ] smaller enμine size, reμenerative ηrakinμ, power-on-demand, and θonstant enμine speeds and power output. ”y addinμ an eleθtriθ motor a hyηrid eleθtriθ ηus θan ηe equipped with a smaller, more eλλi‐ θient θomηustion enμine. Reμenerative ηrakinμ reθovers enerμy normally lost as heat durinμ ηrakinμ, and stores it in the ηatteries λor later use ηy the eleθtriθ motor. “nother λeature that saves enerμy and reduθes emissions in HE”s is the aηility to temporari‐ ly shut oλλ the θomηustion enμine durinμ idle or θoastinμ modes. In a hyηrid appliθation, the ηus θan ηe desiμned to use its diesel enμine only at the enμine~s optimum power output and enμine speed ranμe. ”arriκrψ ωτ widκψprκad appρiθaωiτσ: The hyηrid vehiθles are still a work-in-proμress€. Many studies noted that hyηrid ηuses still require improvements in three teθhnoloμy areas enerμy storaμe, eleθtriθally-driven aθθessories and on-ηoard diaμnostiθs. . .Comparative analysis between the different buses “n overall θomparison oλ ηuses with diλλerent teθhnoloμies diesel, CNG and hyηrid eleθ‐ triθ have ηeen realized in the COMPRO projeθt and the results are presented in the report "Cost /eλλeθtiveness analysis oλ the seleθted teθhnoloμies" [ ]. “ θomparison oλ ηuses is ηased on several parameters, teθhnoloμiθal, λinanθial, environmental and planninμ-ηased, suθh as reliaηility, eployment λlexiηility, λuel priθe, ranμe, exhaust μas emissions, noise, extra inλrastruθtual needs. The θonsiderations made aηove are summarized in Taηle . “dvantaμ‐ es oλ eaθh θompared teθhnoloμy are λeatured in μreen, disadvantaμes in red.

175

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Diesel Bus • Expe‘ienced

CNG Bus

Hybrid Electric Bus

• New f”el filling ’“a“ion

• High ‘ange +

• High ‘ange

• Red”ced ‘ange

• Low emi’’ion

• Poll”“ion (PM + NOx)

• Low emi’’ion / no PM

• Red”ced con’”mp“ion

• Noi’e

• Low f”el co’“’

• Red”ced CO2

• Inc‘ea’ing f”el co’“’

• Vehicle co’“’ (+30.000 €)

• Red”ced noi’e

• Dependence on mine‘al oil

• Dependence on na“”‘al ga’

• Vehicle co’“’ (+150.000 €) • No“ ye“ expe‘ienced

Table 3. The compa‘i’on be“ween “he diffe‘en“ “echnologie’ of ci“y b”’e’.

“nother θomparison is ηased on a West Virμinia University~s WVU study oλ θity ηus liλe θyθle θost LCC [ , ]. It θovers the λolowinμ ηus types diesel ηuses usinμ ultra low sulλur diesel ULSD , θompressed natural μas CNG ηuses, and hyηrid eleθtriθ ηuses. LCC λaθtors inθluded θapital θosts ηus proθurement, inλrastruθture, and emissions equipment and op‐ eration θosts λuel, propulsion-related system maintenanθe, λaθility maintenanθe, and ηattery replaθement availaηle λrom the literature. “ ηus -year liλe θyθle θost LCC analysis λor a λleet oλ size oλ ηuses was perλormed ηased on inλormation availaηle in the literature, manuλaθturers~ speθiλiθations, and λuel eθonomy data μathered ηy WVU [ , ]. Only teθhnoloμy-dependent λaθtors relevant to ηus propulsion were θonsidered driver and manaμement θost were exθluded. ”uses were as‐ sumed to operate at a national averaμe speed oλ . mph . km/h , to travel λor . mile aηout . km per year, and to seat passenμers λor the purposes oλ θalθulation.

Figure 7. Compa‘i’on of life cycle co’“ be“ween “he diffe‘en“ b”’ “echnologie’.

Capital θosts λor vehiθle proθurement inθludes reλuelinμ station CNG ηus , depot modiλiθa‐ tion, and emissions reduθtion equipment diesel ηus . Inλrastruθture θosts λor CNG ηus teθh‐ noloμy inθlude two θosts λor depot modiλiθation and λor reλuelinμ stations. Operational

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

θosts inθlude θompression eleθtriθity CNG ηus , λaθility maintenanθe, propulsion-related system maintenanθe, ηattery replaθement hyηrid ηus , and λuel θonsumption. Warranty was not θonsidered. Fuel θosts were θalθulated λrom the produθt oλ national annual averaμe mileaμe, estimated λuel eθonomy, and prediθted λuel priθe. “ll priθes were in dollars and CNG priθe data were all θonverted to the ηase oλ diesel enerμy equivalent. Fiμure representinμ total LCC was θreated λor the θapital and operation θosts without λuel θonsumption , and enerμy θost, per ηus per mile. The θapital θost hyηrid ηuses was sliμhtly hiμher than CNG and diesel ηuses. However, op‐ eration θost analysis was similar λor all ηus types. “lthouμh hyηrid ηuses oλλered the ηest λuel eθonomy, this was oλλset ηy the ηattery replaθement θost. Generally, the LCC total θost showed that diesel ηuses are still the most eθonomiθ teθhnoloμy. The West Virμinia University~s report [ ] presents estimates λor θity ηus reμulated and μreenhouse μas emissions. Tailpipe emissions partiθulate matter PM , nitroμen oxides NOx and μreenhouse μas CO and λuel eθonomy estimations were ηased on reθent emis‐ sions and λuel eθonomy studies, and adjusted with ηest enμineerinμ approaθh. For simpler presentation oλ emissions and λuel eθonomy ηy the three typiθal ηus λleets diesel, CNG and hyηrid ηuses , the results μiven in the WVU study are appropriately proθessed and presented in Fiμure [ ]. Comparative values in Fiμure represent averaμe values λor three typiθal drivinμ θyθles M“N, OCT“, and C”D θyθles . “s θan ηe seen λrom Fiμure hyηrid ηuses were attraθtive in oλλerinμ emissions advantaμes. The estimation showed that hyηrid ηuses oλλered lower tailpipe CO , NOx and PM than the diesel and CNG ηuses. Fiμure shows that the diesel hyηrid ηus λuel eθonomy is ηetter than the diesel ηus λuel eθonomy aηout %.

Figure 8. Compa‘i’on be“ween “he diffe‘en“ b”’ “echnologie’.

. . Hybrid electric bus solutions The use oλ hyηrid teθhnoloμy has ηeθome a popular issue in reθent years. Hyηrid solutions are prinθipally availaηle λor all main propulsion types, thus with Diesel, CNG, λuel θells etθ.

177

178

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Taηle

[

,

] and Taηle

[

] show some typiθal hyηrid eleθtriθ ηus solutions oλ major ηus

manuλaθturers with IC enμine.

Hybrid bus

O‘ion VII

New Flye‘

Hyb‘id elec“‘ic b”’

Hyb‘id-Elec“‘ic b”’

Image of bus

Type of hybrid drive

Engine

BAE Sy’“em’ Hyb‘iD‘ive™

ISE Th”nde‘Vol“® TB40-HD

Se‘ial hyb‘id

Se‘ial hyb‘id

C”mmin’ ISB, ULSD, 5.9-li“‘e, 194 kW, wi“h a 120 kW “‘ac“ion gene‘a“o‘

Electric motor/generator AC ind”c“ion mo“o‘, Ra“ed Powe‘ 250 D”al AC Ind”c“ion mo“o‘’, Ra“ed Powe‘ 170 kW, hp con“in”o”’ (320 hp peak)

Peak Powe‘ 300 kW

Energy Storage

Li“hi”m-ion ba““e‘y

Ul“‘a capaci“o‘’

Bus

Imp‘ove f”el economy 30% and

Red”ce emi’’ion’: 25% PM, 32% NOx and lowe‘

Characteristics

‘ed”ce emi’’ion’: 90% PM, 40% NOx, f”el con’”mp“ion and CO2 emi’’ion 30% CO2

Table 4. Hyb‘id elec“‘ic b”’e’ man”fac“”‘ed in No‘“h Ame‘ica.

Hybrid bus

MAN

MERCEDES-BENZ

Lion'’ Ci“y Hyb‘id

Ci“a‘o G Bl”eTec Hyb‘id

Image of bus

Type of hybrid drive

Siemen’, Se‘ial hyb‘id

Engine

MAN D0836 LOH CR, EEV, 6.9 li“‘e, 191 OM 924 LA, 4.8 li“‘e

Se‘ial hyb‘id

kW /260 hp

160 kW/218 hp

Electric motor/

2x75 kW Siemen’ a’ynch‘ono”’

Fo”‘ elec“‘ic wheel h”b mo“o‘’ on “he cen“‘al and

generator

elec“‘ic mo“o‘’. Synch‘onized

‘ea‘ axle’ of “he b”’, o”“p”“ of 320 kW (4x80 kW).

gene‘a“o‘ wi“h an o”“p”“ powe‘ of

Gene‘a“o‘ o”“p”“ 160 kW

150 kW Energy Storage

Ul“‘a capaci“o‘’

Li“hi”m-ion ba““e‘y

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

Bus

Up “o 30 pe‘cen“ lowe‘ f”el

Die’el con’”mp“ion and CO2 emi’’ion’ ‘ed”ced by ”p

Characteristics

con’”mp“ion and CO2

“o 30 %

emi’’ion Hybrid bus

VOLVO

SOLARIS

7700 Hyb‘id

U‘bino 18 Hyb‘id

Image of bus

Type of hybrid drive

In“eg‘a“ed S“a‘“e‘ Al“e‘na“o‘ Mo“o‘ (I- Voi“h DIWAhyb‘id, Pa‘allel hyb‘id SAM) , Pa‘allel hyb‘id

Engine

New Volvo D5E, 5,0 li“‘e capaci“y, ‘a“ed C”mmin’ ISB6.7 250H engine, a“ 210 hp

181 kW (246 hp), 6.7 li“‘e capaci“y

Electric motor/

AC pe‘manen“ magne“ mo“o‘, powe‘ The mo“o‘ p‘ovide’ 85 kW of powe‘ con“in”ally wi“h

generator

‘a“ing of 160 hp and a con“in”o”’

a maxim”m o”“p”“ of 150 kW

‘a“ing of 90 hp Energy Storage

Nickel- Me“al-Hyd‘ide ba““e‘y

Ul“‘a capaci“o‘’

Bus

F”el ’aving’ ”p “o 35 %

Ave‘age f”el ’aving ”p “o 16%

Characteristics

Lowe‘ exha”’“ emi’’ion’

Table 5. Hyb‘id elec“‘ic b”’e’ man”fac“”‘ed in E”‘ope.

”esides the mentioned, other manuλaθturers oλ hyηrid ηuses are Gilliμ, ISE Corporation North “meriθa Sθania, Irisηus Iveθo, Van Hool, VDL ”us & Coaθh, Hess “G Europe Ta‐ ta Motors, Toyota-Hino, Hyundai Motor Company, Mitsuηishi Fuso “sia .

. Fuel cell buses Fuel θells λor ηus appliθations have μenerated an enormous amount oλ attention over the last several years, as they oλλer the promise oλ a θlean, eλλiθient transportation system no lonμer dependent on λossil λuels. The λuel θell has a liλe expeθtanθy aηout one-halλ that oλ an inter‐ nal θomηustion enμine. Thus, θonsumers would have to replaθe the λuel θell twiθe in order to aθhieve a vehiθle operatinμ liλetime equivalent to that oλ a traditional enμine. Fuel θell ηuses FC”s require a suηstantial new inλrastruθture, support, and traininμ re‐ quirements will depend on what type oλ λuel is used λor the λuel θells. Most demonstrations and availaηle ηuses use pure hydroμen stored in θompressed μas λorm.

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. . Fuel cell bus configurations “ll λuel θell vehiθle θonθepts use eleθtriθ motors to power the wheels, typiθally aθθomplish‐ ed throuμh the θomηination oλ an eleθtriθ ηattery storaμe system and an on-ηoard hydroμen λuel θell. Dependinμ on the deμree oλ hyηridization, the ηattery may provide pure pluμ-in€ eleθtriθity to drive the vehiθle some distanθe. The ηattery system would ηe θomplemented ηy a hydroμen storaμe system and a λuel θell, with the μoal oλ extendinμ the drivinμ ranμe to miles km . Early λuel θell ηus desiμns involved an eleθtriθ drive train, where a λuel θell μenerates eleθtriθity whiθh is direθtly supplied to an eleθtriθ motor. “ new μeneration oλ FC”s is ηased on the hyηrid θonθept. Fiμure shows typiθal arranμement oλ the θomponents in FC” [ ]. Key system θomponents are λuel θell system, enerμy storaμe system, hydroμen storaμe system, wheel drive, θoolinμ system, and auxiliaries.

Figure 9. Key componen“’ of “he f”el cell hyb‘id b”’.

Fuκρ θκρρ ψyψωκm: “ λuel θell is an enerμy θonversion teθhnoloμy that allows the enerμy stored in hydroμen to ηe θonverted ηaθk into eleθtriθal enerμy λor end use. In a λuel θell vehiθle, an eleθtriθ drive system, whiθh θonsists oλ a traθtion inverter, eleθtriθ motor and transaxle, θon‐ verts the eleθtriθity μenerated ηy the λuel θell system to traθtion power to move a ηus. The λuel θell system and additional aμμreμates are usually loθated on top oλ the rooλ oλ the ηus. Fuel θells are θlassiλied ηy their eleθtrolyte and operational θharaθteristiθs. For appliθation in vehiθles mostly used are the Polymer Eleθtrolyte Memηrane PEM λuel θells. They are liμhtweiμht and have a low operatinμ temperature. PEM λuel θells operate on hydroμen and oxyμen λrom air. “lkaline λuel θells “FCs are made ηy one oλ the most mature λuel θell teθhnoloμies. “FCs have a θomηined eleθtriθity and heat eλλiθienθy oλ perθent eλλiθient. “ newer θell teθhnoloμy is the Direθt Methanol Fuel Cell DMFC . The DMFC uses pure methanol mixed with steam. Liquid methanol has a hiμher enerμy density than hydroμen, and the existinμ inλrastruθture λor transport and supply θan ηe utilized.

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

There are some major λuel θell manuλaθturers supplyinμ λuel θell power plants λor heavyduty appliθations ”allard Power Systems and Hydroμeniθs Canada , United Teθhnoloμies Corporation UTC Fuel Cells, Enova Systems US“ , Shanμhai Shen-Li Hiμh Teθh Co. Ltd. China , Siemens and Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmηH, Germany , Toyota Japan , Hyundai Motor Co. South Korea . Δσκrμy ψωτraμκ ψyψωκm: Enerμy storaμe systems are μenerally ηased on ηattery paθks and/or ultraθapaθitors μenerally up to kW . Maximum power output and storaμe θapaθity vary dependinμ on hyηrid arθhiteθture. Lithium-ion ηattery teθhnoloμy is the most appropriate oλ enerμy storaμe teθhnoloμy λor use in the ηuses. The ηatteries are usually loθated on top oλ the rooλ oλ the ηus. FC”s are equipped with reμenerative ηrakinμ. Hydrτμκσ ψωτraμκ ψyψωκm: Gaseous hydroμen serves as the λuel. It is stored in θompressed μas tanks, the numηer oλ whiθh is deθisive λor the maximum ranμe ηut also θonλines passenμer θapaθity. The hydroμen storaμe system has ηeen downsized as a result oλ the improved eλλi‐ θienθy oλ the drive train. This has led to the reduθtion in the overall weiμht oλ the ηus. The θylinders to storaμe hydroμen on ηoard operate at an inθreased pressure oλ ηars. Wνκκρ drivκ: The eleθtriθ motor θan ηe either a sinμle main motor or huηªmounted where the motor is desiμned within the wheel . The ηus may ηe equipped with a θentral traθtion system whiθh will ηe loθated at the leλt hand side in the rear oλ the ηus. The rear axle has wheel huη motors and has ηeen speθiλiθally developed to matθh the required speeds, load θapaηilities and enerμy eλλiθienθy. It also serves as a μenerator λor enerμy reμeneration durinμ ηrakinμ. Cττρiσμ ψyψωκm: While runninμ hydroμen throuμh a λuel θell, water is oλ θourse ηeinμ produθed. Some oλ it ηeθomes steam and leaves the system quite easily, as seen at the steam vent at the ηaθk oλ the ηus. Yet, ηeθause PEM θells are sensitive to hiμh heat the θell staθks must ηe θooled down. Thereλore the ηyproduθt λrom produθinμ the eleθtriθity will always partially turn into liquid water that θan aθθumulate in the staθk and slow down the proθess. This θan happen dur‐ inμ idle times or at λull speed. Thereλore all PEM θells need a meθhanism that θlears the staθks onθe in a while or else the eleθtriθity produθtion will ηe slowed down. The majority oλ the staθk manuλaθturers use liquid θooled systems, with radiators to dissipate heat. “uxiρiariκψ: The auxiliary θomponents in the FC” may ηe driven eleθtriθally. This means that they operate only on demand and are not driven θontinuously. This solution is typiθal λor FC”s, whiθh are ηased on the hyηrid θonθept. This will result in a hiμher eλλiθienθy and low‐ er maintenanθe oλ the θomponents. . . Fuel cell bus characteristics Fuel θells oλλer a numηer oλ potential ηeneλits that make them appealinμ λor transport use suθh as μreater eλλiθienθy, quiet and smooth operation, and, iλ pure hydroμen is used on ηoard the ηus, zero emissions in operation and extended ηrake liλe. Inλrastruθture, ηuses, λuel, and maintenanθe θosts assoθiated with hydroμen λuel θells are θurrently prohiηitively expensive. The θost oλ λaθilities has ranμed λrom several hundred thousand dollars up to $ , million λor a maintenanθe λaθility, λuelinμ station, and ηus wash [ ]. Currently, λuel θells λor ηuses are not a θommerθial produθt. The existinμ λuel θell ηuses are prototypes,

181

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manuλaθtured in λairly small numηers. Fuel θell ηuses θan θost $ to $ million or more sinθe they are hand-ηuilt prototypes utilizinμ a pre-θommerθial teθhnoloμy. The hydroμen λuel itselλ is also θurrently very expensive. Costs ranμe dependinμ on the method oλ hydroμen produθtion. One oλ the major θonstraints λor use oλ the λuel θell ηuses is the reλuelinμ time λor hydroμen ηuses. Fillinμ over kμ oλ hydroμen in less than minutes is not θurrently λeasiηle without pre-θoolinμ the hydroμen as the temperature inθrease at these hiμh λill rates would damaμe the hydroμen tanks [ ]. Some θomparisons with diλλerent ηus teθhnoloμies diesel, hyηrid diesel-hyηrid and λuel θell , in terms oλ CO emissions per km traveled, have shown siμniλiθant ηeneλits oλ FC”s [ ]. CO emissions oλ λuel θell ηuses ranμinμ λrom to , kμ/km. Zero emissions are related to renewaηle hydroμen and eleθtriθity. Emissions oλ diesel hyηrid ηuses are , to , kμ/km, ηut emission oλ diesel ηuses are , to , kμ/km. . . Fuel cell bus projects The introduθtion oλ new types oλ ηuses in urηan puηliθ transport is sometimes a θhallenμinμ proθess that inθludes testinμ, demonstration and limited produθtion with a tendenθy to in‐ θrease the numηer oλ vehiθles. Fuel θell-powered ηuses θontinue to ηe demonstrated in puη‐ liθ transport serviθe at various loθations around the world. Many demonstration projeθts have ηeen launθhed in the last years in various staμes oλ implementation. Many have ηeen θompleted, and some oλ them are still aθtive. “n overview oλ mainly λuel θell θity ηus development projeθts is μiven ηelow [ ] Tνκ HyFLΔΔT:CUTΔ projeθt has involved the operation oλ hydroμen powered ηuses in reμular puηliθ transport serviθe in θities on three θontinents. The Projeθt started in and θonθluded at the end oλ . HyFLEET CUTE was θo-λunded ηy the European Com‐ mission and Industry partners throuμh the Commission~s th Framework Proμramme. ΔCTOS Δθτρτμiθaρ Ciωy Traσψpτrω Syψωκm was an initiative to test three Citaro λuel θell ηuses in Reykjavik, Iθeland. The projeθt was λinanθially supported ηy the European Commission. The projeθt started at midand now the ηuses are deθommissioned. STΔP Suψωaiσaηρκ Traσψpτrω Δσκrμy Prτjκθω is a projeθt to explore the use oλ alternative trans‐ port enerμies in Perth, “ustralia. It inθludes the operation three Citaro λuel θell ηuses. It is λunded ηy the μovernment oλ Western “ustralia with support λrom the “ustralian μovern‐ ment. The projeθt started at midand now the ηuses are deθommissioned. CHIC Cρκaσ Hydrτμκσ Iσ Δurτpκaσ Ciωiκψ is the aθtive projeθt whiθh involves inteμratinμ FC ηuses in daily puηliθ transport operations and ηus routes in λive loθations aθross Europe ª “arμau Switzerland , ”olzano/”ozen Italy , London UK , Milan Italy , and Oslo Nor‐ way . The CHIC projeθt is supported ηy the European Union and has partners λrom aθross Europe, whiθh inθludes industrial partners λor vehiθle supply and reλuelinμ inλra‐ struθture. The projeθt will μuide additional reμions in Europe in their λirst λleet appliθation oλ λuel θell hyηrid ηuses in puηliθ transport λrom onwards [ ]. The ηuses in the CHIC

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

projeθt will ηe supplied ηy three diλλerent manuλaθturers - Merθedes-”enz Germany , Van Hool ”elμium and Wriμhtηus UK . "Na”uZ dκmτ" Suψωaiσaηρκ ”uψ Syψωκm τλ ωνκ Fuωurκ – Γκmτσψωraωiτσ is German-λunded projeθt [ ] in whiθh the Hamηurμer Hoθhηahn “G produθed λour Merθedes-”enz Citaro FuelCELL Hyηrid ηuses. Sinθe , the λirst Citaro FuelCELL Hyηrid ηus is involved into serviθe. The National Renewaηle Enerμy Laηoratory NREL has reθently puηlished a status report doθumentinμ proμress and aθθomplishments λrom demonstrations oλ λuel θell θity ηuses in the United States. The report desθriηes the status and θhallenμes oλ λuel θell propulsion λor transport and summarizes the introduθtion oλ λuel θell θity ηuses in North “meriθa. Three major proμrams are [ ] .

Fκdκraρ Traσψiω “dmiσiψωraωiτσ’ψ FT“ Naωiτσaρ Fuκρ Cκρρ ”uψ Prτμram NFC”P inθludes developinμ the new ηuses, expandinμ the λuel θell manuλaθturers ηeyond ”allard and UTC Power to inθlude Hydroμeniθs and Nuvera, and explorinμ multiple ηus sizes and hyηrid propulsion desiμns.

.

Zκrτ Δmiψψiτσ ”ay “rκa ZΔ”“ Grτup Γκmτσψωraωiτσ inθludes next-μeneration λuel θell θity ηuses with redesiμned Van Hool θhassis, the newest UTC Power λuel θell power system, and λully inteμrated hyηrid propulsion system.

.

”C Traσψiω Fuκρ Cκρρ ”uψ Γκmτσψωraωiτσ inθludes λuel θell ηuses in Whistler, Canada. The ηuses are λrom New Flyer, use ”allard λuel θells, and have hyηrid propulsion λrom ISE/Siemens.

Oωνκr prτjκθωψ: In China more than FC”s were used durinμ the “sian Games in and the Olympiθs Games in . In Japan, Toyota-Hino has launθhed several dozen λuel θell ηuses in the period sinθe . In Korea, a Hyundai λuel θell ηus has operated sinθe [ ]. . . New generation of fuel cell buses Mκrθκdκψ-”κσz λuκρ θκρρ νyηrid ηuψκψ: Merθedes-”enz has promoted the use oλ λuel-θell hyηrid ηuses around the world over the past nine years. Sinθe , a total oλ Merθedes-”enz Cit‐ aro ηuses equipped with seθond-μeneration λuel θells were driven a θomηined total oλ more than , million kilometres in a total oλ approximately . hours oλ operation [ ]. Produθtion oλ the seθond μeneration oλ Merθedes λuel-θell hyηrid ηuses started in Novemηer under the CHIC projeθt. Compared with the λuel θell ηuses whiθh were tested in Ham‐ ηurμ in , the new Citaro FuelCELL Hyηrid, Fiμure , provides several siμniλiθant new λeatures [ ] hyηridization with enerμy reθovery and storaμe in lithium-ion ηatteries, pow‐ erλul eleθtriθ motors with kW oλ θontinuous output in the wheel huηs, eleθtriλied power take-oλλ units and λurther enhanθed λuel θells. These should aθhieve an extended serviθe liλe oλ at least six years or . operatinμ hours. New additions are the lithium-ion ηatteries whiθh λor example store reθovered enerμy. With the power stored there the new Citaro FuelCELL Hyηrid θan drive several kilometres on ηat‐ tery operation alone. In μeneral, the desiμn oλ the new FuelCELL ηuses is larμely the same as

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that oλ the Merθedes-”enz ”lueTeθ Hyηrid ηuses that run in reμular serviθe these ηuses also μet eleθtriθal enerμy λrom a diesel μenerator. Thanks to improved λuel θell θomponents and hy‐ ηridization with lithium-ion ηatteries the new Citaro FuelCELL Hyηrid saves on almost % in hydroμen usaμe θompared with the preθedinμ μeneration. Overall λuel θell system eλλiθien‐ θy has also ηeen improved. The λuel θell ηus has a ranμe oλ around kilometres.

Figure 10. The new Ci“a‘o F”elCELL hyb‘id b”’.

Vaσ Hττρ λuκρ θκρρ νyηrid ηuψκψ: V“N HOOL ”elμium is the larμest independent manuλaθturer oλ inteμral ηuses and θoaθhes in Western Europe. More than % oλ the θompany~s produθtion is exported two thirds stay in Europe, the remainder μoes to “meriθa, “λriθa and “sia. In a joint eλλort with UTC Power United Teθhnoloμies Corporation , a supplier oλ λuel θell systems, Van Hool developed λuel θell ηuses λor the European and U.S. markets. Siemens supplied the twin “C induθtion eleθtriθ motor, kW eaθh, θonverters, and adapted traθtion soλtware.

Figure 11. The new Van Hool f”el cell b”’.

Within the projeθt ZE”“ demonstration inθludes new μeneration λuel θell hyηrid ηuses and two new hydroμen λuelinμ stations [ ]. The ηuses are m, low λloor ηuses ηuilt ηy

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

Van Hool with a hyηrid eleθtriθ propulsion system that inθludes a UTC Power λuel θell pow‐ er system kW and an advanθed lithium-ion ηattery rated enerμy . kWh and rated power to kW . Eiμht Dynetek, type θylinders, ηars, are mounted on the rooλ. The new ηuses, Fiμure , λeature siμniλiθant improvements over two previous μenerations oλ λuel θell ηuses that were demonstrated in Caliλornia, Conneθtiθut, and ”elμium. Improve‐ ments inθlude a redesiμned Van Hool θhassis that is liμhter in weiμht, shorter in heiμht, and has a lower θenter oλ μravity λor improved weiμht distriηution. The ηus has a top speed oλ mph km/h . The ηus purθhase θost is aηout $ , million. . . Operating cost and fuel economy of fuel cell buses Many transport operators θontinue to aid the FC” industry in developinμ and optimizinμ advanθed transportation teθhnoloμies. These in-serviθe demonstration proμrams are neθes‐ sary to validate the perλormanθe oλ the θurrent μeneration oλ λuel θell systems and to deter‐ mine issues that require resolution. ”y the end oλ June , nine oλ the twelve new Van Hool λuel θell ηuses had ηeen delivered and seven oλ those were in-serviθe. The ηuses have aθθumulated more than . miles . km and a total oλ . hours on the λuel θell systems. The results presented here are early/preliminary inλormation λrom the λirst λive λuel θell ηuses that have ηeen plaθed in‐ to serviθe at “C Transit [ ]. Taηle . presents the θomparative test results λor the Fuel θell and Diesel ηuses durinμ the evaluatinμ period. Fuel Cell

Diesel

F”el Co’“ ($/km)

0.96

0.42

To“al Main“enance Co’“ ($/km)

0.94

0.41

Total Operating Cost ($/km)

1.87

0.83

Table 6. Ope‘a“ing co’“’ of diffe‘en“ b”’e’ pe‘ kilome“‘e.

Durinμ , NREL θompleted data θolleθtion and analysis on new μeneration FC” demon‐ strations at three transport operators in the United States SunLine Caliλornia, CTTR“NSIT Conneθtiθut, and “C Transit Caliλornia [ ]. The θurrent-μeneration FC”s in serviθe at “C Transit, CTTR“NSIT, and SunLine were all oλ the same ηasiθ desiμn Van Hool m ηuses with ISE Corp. hyηrid-eleθtriθ drives and UTC Power λuel θell power systems. Taηle shows the λuel eθonomy oλ the ηuses at eaθh loθation. Data are μiven in miles per diesel μallon equivalent and in km/litre mile per Gallon = . km/litre . The FC”s at the three loθations showed λuel eθonomy improvement ranμinμ λrom % to % when θompared to diesel and CNG ηaseline ηuses. This taηle also illustrates the variaηility oλ the results λrom λleet to λleet. The results are aλλeθted ηy several λaθtors, in‐ θludinμ duty-θyθle θharaθteristiθs averaμe numηer oλ stops, averaμe speed, and idle

185

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

time . “veraμe speed λor “C Transit ª , mph km/h , SunLine ª mph , km/h [ ]. FC bus

, km/h

CTTR“NSIT ª , mph

Diesel bus

,

CNG bus

mile/gallon

km/li“‘e

mile/gallon

km/li“‘e

mile/gallon

AC Transit

6,8

2,9

4,2

1,8

-

CTTRANSIT

5,5

2,3

3,7

1,6

-

SunLine

8,0

3,4

-

-

3,5

km/li“‘e

1,5

Table 7. F”el economy of “he f”el cell b”’e’ a“ diffe‘en“ loca“ion’.

Data aηout NOx and PM emissions per year presented ηy Van Hool in its promotional ma‐ terials λor three diλλerent λleets oλ ηuses, are shown in Taηle [ ]. The data are θalθulated λor . km per year, averaμe speed km/h, and power θonsumption kW/h. Equivalent emissions reduθtion potential oλ hyηrid λuel θell ηuses μives a CO reduθtion equal to the uptake oλ . aθres oλ λorest and a NOx reduθtion equal to km oλ lanes oλ θars [ ]. The presented results show all the environmental advantaμes oλ the ηuses with λuel θell teθhnoloμies. NOx (per year)

PM (per year)

100 Diesel Euro III buses

62,5 “on’

1,25 “on’

100 CNG buses

25 “on’

0,25 “on’

100 Hybrid fuel cell buses

ze‘o

ze‘o

Table 8. Compa‘a“ive cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’ of NOx and PM emi’’ion’ fo‘ diffe‘en“ b”’e’.

. Battery electric buses Eleθtriθ vehiθles are a promisinμ teθhnoloμy drastiθally reduθinμ the environmental impaθt oλ road transport. “t the same time, EVs are still λar λrom proven teθhnoloμy. Reality is suθh that ηattery teθhnoloμy is simply not the whole answer. This is ηeθause espeθially λor larμe ηuses ηatteries do not θarry enouμh enerμy to power the ηus λor a λull day. “θθordinμ to IDTeθhEx report [ ], "Eleθtriθ Vehiθles " it is estimated that world‐ wide there are aηout . eleθtriθ ηuses, mostly small ones - with aηout . ηeinμ ηouμht eaθh year as the λleets μrow. “lthouμh only % oλ these new ηuses are eleθtriθ, it is expeθted that ηy investment in the purθhase oλ these ηuses will ηe measured in million oλ dollars. The main inθrease in eleθtriθ ηuses will ηe runninμ the λree versions to ηe used without appropriate inλrastruθture alonμ the route.

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

. . Full- size battery electric buses Prτωκrra'ψ ”aωωκry Δρκθωriθ ”uψ: Proterra is the pioneerinμ innovator and manuλaθturer oλ θlean θommerθial transport solutions λor θity ηuses. Three Proterra's zero emission λast-θharμe ηat‐ tery eleθtriθ ηuses, EθoRide ”E , Fiμure , have ηeen put in serviθe in [ ]. The ηuses λeature Proterra's revolutionary θlean-transport teθhnoloμy, inθludinμ the Proter‐ ra TerraVolt Enerμy Storaμe System, whiθh allows a λull ηattery reθharμe in less than mi‐ nutes. “dditional ηus λeatures inθlude Flexiηle ProDrive and vehiθle θontrol system that θan operate in ηattery eleθtriθ mode or with any small “PU to extend vehiθle ranμe when needed Reμenerative ηrakinμ system, allowinμ the reθapture over μy availaηle durinμ ηrakinμ

% oλ the vehiθle's kinetiθ ener‐

Liμht-weiμht θomposite ηody resultinμ in % reduθtion in weiμht, siμniλiθantly lower maintenanθe θosts and % lonμer liλe than traditional diesel ηuses.

Figure 12. P‘o“e‘‘a'’ ba““e‘y elec“‘ic b”’.

Proterra's EθoRide ”E ηattery powered ηuses θan operate on standard routes λor up to three hours«a ranμe oλ - miles to km «and aλter that, require just minutes oλ θharμinμ to μet ηaθk on the road. The ηuses θan aθθommodate as many as passenμers and aθθordinμ to Proterra, will provide $ . in savinμs over the θourse oλ their liλetime thanks to lower λuel and transportation θosts. ”YΓ κρκθωriθ ηuψ: China~s ”uild Your-Dream ”YD hyηrid ηuses, Fiμure , were showθased durinμ the ”eijinμ Olympiθs. ”YD has developed and is θurrently marketinμ a lithiumion ηattery - powered hyηrid-eleθtriθ ηus and all eleθtriθ ηuses. ”YD, manuλaθturer oλ the λirst lonμ-ranμe > km all-eleθtriθ ηus e”US- , has ηeen se‐ leθted as the sole e”US provider λor the International Universiade Games held in Shenzhen, China. “t the θore oλ the e”US teθhnoloμy is ”YD~s in-wheel motor drive system and the Iron Phosphate ηattery teθhnoloμy. The e”US also inteμrates ”YD solar panels on

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the ηus rooλ, θonvertinμ solar enerμy to eleθtriθity whiθh is stored in the ηatteries and θan θompletely oλλset the e”US air-θonditioninμ load extendinμ the ranμe on sunny days [ ].

Figure 13. BYD eBUS-12 elec“‘ic b”’.

”YD has siμned a Letter oλ Intent with the θity oλ Frankλurt, Germany to introduθe ”YD~s all-eleθtriθ, lonμ-ranμe, e”US. ”YD will supply three all-eleθtriθ ηuses e”US- , two DC θharμinμ stations and teθhniθal support in the λirst quarter oλ . ”YD is set to trial a λull-size, all-eleθtriθ ηus in the Danish θapital Copenhaμen. Two K ηus‐ es will initially ηe deployed on ordinary passenμer routes λrom the seθond halλ oλ . The City oλ Windsor, Ontario has siμned a letter oλ intent to purθhase up to ”YD λully eleθtriθ ηuses λor the θommunity~s transport serviθes in . It will ηeθome the λirst City in North “meriθa to launθh lonμ-ranμe, all-eleθtriθ ηuses. ”YD has delivered over all-eleθ‐ triθ ηuses worldwide and θlaims orders λor over . more in , makinμ it the larμest eleθtriθ ηus manuλaθturer in the world. κ-Traθωiτσ ηuψκψ: Netherlands~ θompany e-Traθtion European inteμrator oλ low-λloor λleet ηuses , delivered in the year the λirst oλ two e-”usz eleθtriθ drive ηuses to Rotterdam~s puηliθ transportation authority. The e-”usz is a VDL ”us & Coaθh Citea CLF ηus θonverted with the third μeneration oλ the e-Traθtion system [ ]. e-Traθtion speθializes in development oλ TheWheel as a direθt-drive in-wheel motor system with inteμrated power eleθtroniθs and λluid θoolinμ. TheWheel is desiμned to deliver very hiμh torque at low revolution. Sinθe , e-Traθtion is θontinuously developinμ in-wheel direθt-drive motors λor appliθations ranμinμ λrom Nm to . Nm per wheel. The vehi‐ θles with TheWheel save up to % traθtion enerμy and are % more λuel eλλiθient θom‐ pared to the standard diesel equipped ηus. The e-”uzs is a ηattery dominant€ hyηrid ηus. This means that it has the aηility to run on ηattery only, with the diesel μenerator turned θompletely oλλ. The diesel unit with diesel μenerator θan ηe replaθed and, importantly, the ηus returned to revenue serviθe in rouμhly one hour.

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

In θooperation with e-Traθtion, Hyηriθon, a Swedish θompany θonverted two Volvo θity ηuses to λully eleθtriθ θity ηus with rapid θharμe teθhnoloμy. The ηuses with the name “rθtiθ Whisper, Fiμure , are λrom Novemηer in puηliθ serviθe in the θity oλ Umeå, Sweden [ ]. e-Traθtion and Hyηriθon removed the whole diesel driveline and replaθed it with two e-Traθ‐ tion SM/ - wheel motors mounted on a rear axle θonstruθtion. “ kWh Valenθe Li-Fe ηattery paθk λor the purposes oλ the prototype and pantoμraphs λor the θharμinμ station λorm the ηasiθ θonλiμuration, with a kW diesel μenerator as the ηaθk-up system.

Figure 14. A‘c“ic Whi’pe‘ pl”g in hyb‘id b”’.

The “rθtiθ Whisper's ηus is λast θharμed λor minutes at the end oλ its route to aθhieve nearly % all-eleθtriθ operation ηut with the reliaηility oλ diesel. Without λast θharμinμ, the “rθtiθ Whisper has an all-eleθtriθ runtime oλ aηout - hours with the kW ηatteries ηe‐ λore the diesel μenerator needs to turn on. Future plans inθlude usinμ diλλerent ηattery θhemistries θapaηle oλ λaster θharμinμ and hiμher θharμinμ rates oλ over kW as well as extendinμ this arθhiteθture to meter artiθulated ηuses. SMG ηaωωκry κρκθωriθ ηuψ: The Seoul Metropolitan Government SMG has started θommerθial operation oλ λull-size ηattery eleθtriθ ηuses sinθe , Fiμure . The μovernment has ηeen workinμ on a projeθt to develop the ηuses with loθal teθhnoloμy aλter reaθhinμ an aμreement with Hyundai Heavy Industries and Hankuk Fiηer ηaθk in Septemηer, . It now has a μoal oλ puttinμ . oλ the vehiθles to use in the θity ηy ª this will aθθount λor % oλ all puηliθ transport vehiθles [ ]. The SMG eleθtriθ ηuses are a low λloor desiμn, , m in lenμth and θan travel as λar as km on a sinμle θharμe. Usinμ hiμh-speed ηattery θharμers they θan ηe λully θharμed in less than minutes and have a maximum speed oλ km/h. Four ηattery θharμes are ηeinμ provided. They use hiμh-θapaθity lithium-ion ηatteries and reμenerative ηrakinμ. To reduθe their weiμht and help maximize the distanθe they θan travel ηetween θharμes, these ηuses make extensive use oλ θarηon θomposite materials, instead oλ metal.

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Figure 15. SMG ba““e‘y elec“‘ic b”’.

Opωarκ’ψ ηaωωκry-pτwκrκd Vκrψa: Optare~s ηattery-powered Versa, Fiμure - the UK~s λirst θommerθial λull-size ηattery ηus whiθh started on “pril [ ]. ”attery-powered Versa ηuses are planned to ηe in serviθe at peak times, providinμ a θapaθity inθrease on the minute interval serviθe. The ηuses θan either ηe rapid θharμed, usinμ a speθial θharμer, or slow θharμed. Travel de Courθey intends to re-θharμe the ηuses when they μet to % oλ λull θharμe. “ return journey is around miles km . The Versa~s testinμ is θurrently underway with the λirst ηus to ηe delivered, pendinμ the arrival oλ the other two, and their entry into serviθe. They are not the λirst eleθtriθ vehiθles to ηe θommerθially produθed ηy Optare. It has already delivered Solo EV models, also used on short distanθe shuttle serviθes [ ].

Figure 16. Op“a‘e ’ ba““e‘y-powe‘ed Ve‘’a.

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

Tiσdτ ψτρar κρκθωriθ ηuψ: The “delaide City Counθil~s eleθtriθ solar ηus, Fiμure , is the λirst in the world to ηe reθharμed usinμ % solar enerμy. Reθent advanθes in ηattery teθhnoloμy have helped the suθθessλul development oλ pure eleθtriθ ηuses with a suitaηle ranμe ηe‐ tween reθharμes. The Tindo solar eleθtriθ ηus uses Zeηra ηattery modules, μivinμ it un‐ preθedented enerμy storaμe θapaθity and operational ranμe [ ]

Figure 17. Tindo ’ola‘ elec“‘ic b”’.

Some Tindo ηus θharaθteristiθ are Lenμthª , m, Motor power peak ª kW, Motor power nominal kW, Speed km/h, ”attery θontent , kWh, Fast Charμer ”ooster Power kW, Fuel θosts - % lower than λor a diesel ηus, Ranμe km ηetween re‐ θharμes under typiθal urηan θonditions. . . Small battery electric buses Opωarκ ψτρτ ΔV ηaωωκry κρκθωriθ ηuψ: Optare oλλers the Solo EV, Fiμure , λully eleθtriθ ηuses availaηle in lenμths oλ , m, , m and , m. Replaθinμ the usual diesel enμine is an all-new eleθtriθ drive, λeaturinμ an Enova Systems P “C induθtion motor rated at kW and powered ηy two ηanks oλ Valenθe Lithium Ion Phosphate ηatteries. The two paθks work in parallel and provide V with a total θapaθity oλ kWh. [ ]. “round . Optare Solo EV ηuses in serviθe worldwide produθe zero tailpipe emissions. The model demonstrated in Switzerland is ηased on a standard -seat, , metre Solo, ηut the teθh‐ noloμy θan ηe used on other models in the Optare ranμe with hiμher passenμer θapaθities. The Solo EV has ηeen desiμned to perλorm exaθtly like a standard diesel powered ηus, exθept that it is smoother, quieter and θleaner. It is θompletely traλλiθ θompatiηle, with μood aθθeleration and hill θlimηinμ θapaηilities and a top speed oλ up to km/h. On a λull θharμe it has a ranμe oλ around kilometres dependinμ on load λaθtors and topoμraphy. Sτρariψ Urηiστ κρκθωriθ ηuψ: Polish ηus manuλaθturer Solaris developed the midi Urηino eleθtriθ ηus, Fiμure . The innovative eleθtriθ ηus is ηased on the . m Urηino λamily midi ηus. “t the heart oλ its power system is a kW λour-pole asynθhronous traθtion motor supplied ηy Vos‐

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

sloh Kiepe. Enerμy is stored in two ηatteries weiμhinμ kμ eaθh. These liquid-θooled lithi‐ um-ion ηatteries have a rated voltaμe oλ V and the θapaθity to store kWh [ ].

Figure 18. Op“a‘e Solo EV ba““e‘y elec“‘ic b”’.

Figure 19. Sola‘i’ U‘bino elec“‘ic b”’.

The ηattery θapaθity μives the Solaris Urηino eleθtriθ a ranμe oλ up to km and a maxi‐ mum speed oλ km/h. ”atteries are θharμed with a Walter pluμ-in θonneθtion. “ λull re‐ θharμe λrom the x V, terminal takes as little as λour hours. Even with the . kμ traθtion ηatteries, the Solaris Urηino eleθtriθ is only marμinally heavier than its θonventional θounterparts thanks to the innovative liμhtweiμht θonstruθtion employed.

. Energy storage systems Enerμy storaμe systems, usually ηatteries, are essential λor eleθtriθ drive vehiθles. ”atteries must have a hiμh enerμy-storaμe θapaθity per unit weiμht and per unit θost. ”eθause the ηat‐

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

tery is the most expensive θomponent in most eleθtriθ drive systems, reduθinμ the θost oλ the ηattery is θruθial to produθinμ aλλordaηle eleθtriθ drive vehiθles. The eleθtriθal enerμy storaμe units must ηe sized so that they store suλλiθient enerμy kWh and provide adequate peak power kW λor the vehiθle to have a speθiλied aθθeleration perλorm‐ anθe and the θapaηility to meet appropriate drivinμ θyθles. For those vehiθle desiμns intended to have siμniλiθant all-eleθtriθ ranμe, the enerμy storaμe unit must store suλλiθient enerμy to sat‐ isλy the ranμe requirement in real-world drivinμ. In addition, the enerμy storaμe unit must meet appropriate θyθle and liλetime requirements. These requirements will vary siμniλiθantly dependinμ on the vehiθle type ηattery or λuel θell powered or hyηrid eleθtriθ . There are many enerμy storaμe teθhnoloμy and ηattery θhemistry and paθkaμinμ options λor eleθtriθ drive ηuses. . . Energy storage device used in some electric drive buses ”ased on the presentation oλ realized solutions oλ eleθtriθ drive ηuses, in the previous items oλ this θhapter, it may ηe θonθluded that in the enerμy storaμe deviθes the latest teθhnoloμy ηatteries and ultra θapaθitors are applied. Summary oλ main θharaθteristiθs oλ enerμy stor‐ aμe deviθes, λor eaθh oλ the presented ηuses is μiven in Taηle . “s θan ηe seen λrom Taηle , Li-ion ηatteries are prevailinμ in the realized ηus solutions. In the latest ηus solutions Zeηra ηattery and Iron Phosphate ηattery teθhnoloμy are used. It is notaηle that the enerμy θapaθity oλ enerμy storaμe deviθes ”E”s are siμniλiθantly hiμher than that oλ HE”s and FC”s. In a HE”s with an ICE that reθharμes the ηattery where ηattery operates in θharμe sustain‐ inμ mode , a liμhter and smaller ηattery is employed. HYBRID ELECTRIC BUSES BUS Energy storage

MAN

MERCEDES-BENZ

Lion ’ Ci“y Hyb‘id

Ci“a‘o G Bl”eTec Hyb‘id

Capaci“o‘’

Li“hi”m-ion ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: app‘ox. 0,5 kWh, Max. BUS Energy storage

cha‘ging/di’cha‘ging

powe‘:

Ene‘gy con“en“:19,4 kWh, 200

kW,Maxim”m o”“p”“ of 240 kW and,

Vol“age: 400-750 V

Loca“ed on “he ‘oof

VOLVO

SCANIA

7700 Hyb‘id

E“hanol hyb‘id b”’

Nickel-Me“al-Hyd‘ide ba““e‘y

S”pe‘capaci“o‘’

Ene‘gy con“en“: app‘ox. 4,8 kWh,

Ene‘gy available: "/400 Wh,

Weigh“ing app‘oxima“ely 350 kg,

4x125-Vol“ Maxwell BOOSTCAP® mod”le’, ai‘-

Ra“ed a“ 600 vol“’,

cooled, De’ign life:10-15 yea‘’

Loca“ed on “he ‘oof BUS

SOLARIS

ORION VII

U‘bino 18 DIWA Hyb‘id

hyb‘id elec“‘ic b”’

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Energy storage

S”pe‘ capaci“o‘’

Li“hi”m-Ion ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: 0,5 kWh,

Ene‘gy con“en“: 32 kWh,

Maxwell, 5x125V,

Weigh“ 364 kg, 6 yea‘ de’ign life,

Weigh“ 410 kg

Roof-mo”n“ed FUEL CELL BUSES

BUS Energy storage

BUS Energy storage

Me‘cede’-Benz Ci“a‘o

Van Hool

F”elCELL Hyb‘id b”’

F”el Cell Hyb‘id B”’

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: 26 kWh,

Ene‘gy con“en“: 17,4 kWh,

Ene‘gy ’“o‘age powe‘ 250 kW

Ra“ed powe‘: 76 “o 125 kW

New Flye‘

Van Hool

F”el Cell B”’

F”el Cell Hyb‘id B”’ (UTC powe‘)

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

NaNiCl (ZEBRA) ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: 47 kWh

Ene‘gy con“en“: 53 kWh

BATTERY ELECTRIC BUSES BUS Energy storage

Op“a‘e

Sola‘i’

Solo EV Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ic B”’

U‘bino Elec“‘ic B”’

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: 80 kWh

Ene‘gy con“en“: 120 kWh, Ra“ed vol“age of 600 V

BUS Energy storage

BYD eBUS-12

Tindo

Ba““e‘y Elec“‘ic B”’

Sola‘ Elec“‘ic B”’

Li I‘on-Pho’pha“e o‘ Fe ba““e‘y

Li-ion Ba““e‘y

Ene‘gy con“en“: 324 kWh

Ba““e‘y con“en“: 261,8 kWh

Milage: 300 km on a ’ingle cha‘ge Table 9. Cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’ of ene‘gy ’“o‘age device’ of ’eve‘al b”’ ’ol”“ion’.

“ ”E”s require a larμer and heavier ηattery paθk, to provide ηoth hiμh enerμy density and hiμh enerμy storaμe θapaθity so as to maximize the ranμe ηetween reθharμes. In the PHE”s one θan expeθt smaller, intermediate-sized, ηattery paθks θapaηle oλ either θharμe-sustaininμ operation in the ηlended mode with an aθtive ICE, or θharμe-depletinμ operation. . . Current and future development of energy storage devices “ numηer oλ diλλerent ηattery teθhnoloμies exist at present. The lead aθid ηattery has ηeen used to supply vehiθle eleθtriθity λor a numηer oλ deθades. With the introduθtion oλ the λirst modern EVs in the s, the need λor more powerλul ηatteries arose. Niθkel-θadmium ηat‐ teries were oriμinally used, later replaθed in hyηrid vehiθles ηy niθkel-metal hydride ηatter‐ ies. However, none oλ these ηattery teθhnoloμies provide the enerμy density required λor suλλiθient drivinμ distanθe in pure eleθtriθ mode.

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

Reθently, apart λrom the mentioned, other enerμy storaμe deviθes are in the intensive μrowth and expansion, suθh as Lithium-ion ηattery Li-ion , Li-ion polymer ηattery, So‐ dium Niθkel Chloride ηattery NaNiCl , Lithium iron phosphate ηattery LiFePO , Zinθ “ir ηattery, and Superθapaθitors. ”ased on availaηle analysis and θurrent ηattery data, it appears that the θurrent ηat‐ tery liλe should exθeed seven years and may ηe around ten years λor }averaμe~ use. The most promisinμ θhemistries appear to involve siliθon, sulλur and air oxyμen and another impor‐ tant development is researθh into nanoteθhnoloμies. These trends have ηeen widely reθoμ‐ nized and a reθent presentation ηy Limotive researθhers showed the λollowinμ ηattery teθhnoloμy roadmap, Fiμure [ ]. Siliθon is an attraθtive anode material λor lithium-ion ηatteries ηeθause it has aηout ten times the amount oλ enerμy that a θonventional μraphite-ηased anode θan θontain [ ]. It also has a speθiλiθ enerμy oλ . Wh/kμ ª aηout λour times the enerμy oλ a θonventional μraphiteηased anode. Furthermore, siliθon is the seθond most aηundant element on the planet and has a well-developed industrial inλrastruθture, makinμ it a θheap material to θommerθialize with a θost θomparaηle to μraphite per unit oλ weiμht.

Figure 20. The ba““e‘y “echnology ‘oadmap.

The proηlem with siliθon is that it is very ηrittle and when lithium-ions are transλerred dur‐ inμ θharμe and disθharμe θyθles, the volume expands and θontraθts ηy % whiθh θan pul‐ verise the siliθon anodes aλter just the λirst θyθle. The Li-Ion teθhnoloμy will ηeθome more and more the dominant teθhnoloμy λor eleθtro mo‐ ηility. The Li-Ion teθhnoloμy has not yet reaθhed its λull potential, λurther improvements are still possiηle. Further developments are needed to improve θapaθity and liλetime, reduθe

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

volume and θosts θurrently around € ion , and to ηe saλe and reliaηle [ ].

-€

/kWh λor NiMH and €

-€ .

/kWh λor Li-

“lthouμh λew serious teθhniθal hurdles remain to prevent the market introduθtion oλ eleθtriθ powered vehiθles, ηattery teθhnoloμy is an inteμral part oλ these vehiθles that still needs to ηe siμniλiθantly improved. ”oth θurrent and near-term ηattery teθhnoloμies still have a num‐ ηer oλ issues that need to ηe addressed in order to improve overall vehiθle θost and perλorm‐ anθe. These issues inθlude[ ] • ”aωωκry ψωτraμκ θapaθiωy ª ”atteries λor EVs need to ηe desiμned to optimize their enerμy storaμe θapaθity, while ηatteries λor PHEVs typiθally need to have hiμher power densities. • ”aωωκry duωy diψθνarμκ θyθρκψ ª ”atteries λor various eleθtriθ powered vehiθles have diλλerent duty θyθles. ”atteries may ηe suηjeθt to deep disθharμe θyθles in all eleθtriθ mode in PHEVs or λrequent reθharμe θyθles throuμh reμenerative ηrakinμ in θonventional HEVs. ”atteries λor EVs will ηe suηjeθted to repeated deep disθharμe θyθles without as many intermediate θyθles. Current ηattery deep disθharμe duraηility will need to ηe siμniλiθantly improved. • Γuraηiρiωy, ρiλκ κxpκθωaσθy, aσd τωνκr iψψuκψ ª ”atteries must improve in a numηer oλ other respeθts, inθludinμ duraηility, liλe-expeθtanθy, enerμy density, power density, tempera‐ ture sensitivity, reduθtions in reθharμe time, and reduθtions in θost. ”attery duraηility and liλe-expeθtanθy are perhaps the ηiμμest teθhniθal hurdles to θommerθial appliθation in the near-term.

. Conclusions “ siμniλiθant part in the λuture reduθtion oλ θonsumption oλ λossil λuels and oλ the θorre‐ spondinμ reduθtion oλ emissions oλ harmλul μases will ηe played ηy the alternative propul‐ sion systems and alternative λuels. The development oλ eleθtriθ drive teθhnoloμies intended λor appliθation in ηuses is expandinμ. However, there are many limitations whiθh at this staμe slow down these developments. Sustainaηility oλ alternative propulsion systems is de‐ pendent upon the deμree oλ their teθhnoloμiθal development and a θompromise ηetween the opposed eθonomiθal, eθoloμiθal, and soθial λaθtors [ ]. “ larμe numηer oλ hyηrid ηuses in North “meriθa and Japan and their intense development in Europe over the past several years is a θonλirmation that their numηer in the near λuture will ηe permanently μrowinμ. “lthouμh the sale oλ these vehiθles is relatively small, the hiμh θost oλ λossil λuels and the θosts oλ hyηrid vehiθles ηeθominμ more aθθeptaηle will aθθelerate their λurther development. The hyηrid ηuses are expeθted to θontriηute to λurther reduθtion oλ CO emissions, even thouμh some manuλaθturers have reaθhed the level oλ %. Further improvements in that direθtion will ηe dependent on the deμree oλ hyηridization oλ the pro‐ pulsion system and eleθtroniθ θontrol whiθh should θontriηute to the optimization oλ opera‐ tion oλ ICE and hyηrid system as a whole. The experienθes so λar aθquired, throuμh the development oλ λuel θell ηuses and many dem‐ onstration projeθts around the world, are very positive. Some reports indiθate that the per‐

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

λormanθes oλ λuel θell ηuses in-serviθe are aηove expeθtation. One oλ the many ηarriers to their wider use is the unθertainty oλ hydroμen supplies and hiμh produθtion θosts oλ hydro‐ μen. Other ηarriers are related to the seθurity aspeθts oλ usaμe oλ these vehiθles. Despite the insuλλiθient perλormanθes oλ ηatteries, the next μeneration oλ λuel θell ηuses will ηe ηased on the hyηrid θonθept and Li-ion ηatteries. Some prediθtions tell that λuel θells λor ηuses will ηe θommerθially availaηle within the next - years. “t present, the hiμh θost oλ ηuses is one oλ the μreatest ηarriers to their θommerθialization. Sinθe inθreasinμ the numηer oλ ηattery driven vehiθles and ηuses is evident, thus it θan ηe expeθted that in the λorthθominμ times their numηer will θontinue inθreasinμ. However, ηarriers to their massive implementation will ηe the radius oλ movement, laθk oλ inλrastruθ‐ ture λor reθharμinμ the ηatteries and, oλ θourse, hiμh θost oλ the ηatteries and other power equipment eleθtriθ motors and θontrol eleθtroniθs . Further θhallenμes λor eleθtriθ drive ηuses will ηe the development oλ ηattery teθhnoloμies and oλ other enerμy sourθes. Even thouμh a θonsideraηle advanθement has ηeen made over the past several years ηy the development oλ Li-ion ηatteries, whiθh have aθhieved enerμy density oλ Wh/kμ, there is still spaθe λor λurther advanθements. The only ηattery θhemistries that have a θhanθe oλ aθhievinμ enerμy densities in the , Wh/kμ ranμe are reθharμeaηle metal-air and other. Other non-θhemiθal enerμy storaμe deviθes inθlude superθapaθitors that θan reaθh very hiμh speθiλiθ power levels λor a λew seθonds, ηut θannot hold a lot oλ enerμy. The θurrent μeneration oλ lithium-ion ηatteries typiθally uses a θarηon-ηased anode and a metal oxide θathode. Researθh on next μeneration lithium ηatteries will θontinue the devel‐ opment oλ eleθtrode and eleθtrolyte materials and θhemistries in order to inθrease the liλe and enerμy density oλ the ηattery while reduθinμ size and weiμht. The most promisinμ θhemistries appear to involve siliθon, sulphur and air oxyμen and another important de‐ velopment is researθh into nanoteθhnoloμies.

. Acronyms and Abbreviations Nomenclature “C-“lternatinμ Current “FC-“lkaline Fuel Cell “PT“-“meriθan Puηliθ Transportation “ssoθiation “PU-“uxiliary Power Unit ”E”-”attery Eleθtriθ ”us ”EV-”attery Eleθtriθs Vehiθle ”YD-”uild Your-Dream C“R”-Caliλornia “ir Resourθes ”oard

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C”D-Central ”usiness Distriθt CHIC-Clean Hydroμen in European Cities CNG-Compressed Natural Gas CO-Carηon Monoxide CO -Carηon Dioxide COMPRO -COMmon PROθurement oλ θolleθtive and puηliθ serviθe transport θlean vehiθles CUTE -Clean Urηan Transport λor Europe DC -Direθt Current DMFC -Direθt Methanol Fuel Cell ECTOS-Eθoloμiθal City TranspOrt System EHPS-Eaton Hyηrid Power System EM/G-Eleθtriθ Motor/Generator EV-Eleθtriθ Vehiθle FC”-Fuel Cell ”us FCEV-Fuel Cell Eleθtriθs Vehiθle FT“-Federal Transit “dministration HE”-Hyηrid Eleθtriθ ”us HEV-Hyηrid Eleθtriθs Vehiθle ICE-Internal Comηustion Enμine IS“M-Inteμrated Starter “lternator Motor LCC-Liλe Cyθle Cost LiFePO Lithium Iron Phosphate Li-ion-Lithium-ion LNG-Liquid Natural Gas M“N-Manhattan Cyθle NaNiCl-Sodium Niθkel Chloride NOx -Nitroμen Oxides NFC”P-National Fuel Cell ”us Proμram NREL-National Renewaηle Enerμy Laηoratory OCT“-Oranμe County Transit “uthority

The Applica“ion of Elec“‘ic D‘ive Technologie’ in Ci“y B”’e’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/51770

PEM-Polymer Eleθtrolyte Memηrane PHE”-Pluμ-in Hyηrid Eleθtriθ ”us PHEV-Pluμ-In Hyηrid Eleθtriθs Vehiθle PM-Partiθulate Matter SMG-Seoul Metropolitan Government STEP-Sustainaηle Transport enerμy λor Perth ULSD-Ultra Low Sulλur Diesel UTC-United Teθhnoloμies Corporation WVU-West Virμinia University ZE”“-Zero Emission ”ay “rea

Acknowledgements Finanθial support ηy Ministry oλ Eduθation and Sθienθe Repuηliθ oλ Serηia Projeθts TR , TR and TR is μrateλully aθknowledμed.

Author details Zlatomir Živanović * and Zoran Nikolić *“ddress all θorrespondenθe to zzivanoviθ@vin.ημ.aθ.rs University oλ ”elμrade, Institute oλ Nuθlear Sθienθes VINC“, ”elμrade, Serηia Institute oλ Teθhniθal Sθienθes oλ the Serηian “θademy oλ Sθienθes and “rts, ”elμrade, Ser‐ ηia

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Section 2

Modeling and Design of Electric Vehicles

Chapter 7

Modeling of Full Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Fe‘dinando L”igi Mapelli and Davide Ta‘’i“ano Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

1. Introduction Full Electrical Vehicles (FEVs) and Hybrid Electrical Vehicles (HEVs) are vehicles with many electric components compared to conventional ones. In fact the power train consists of electrical machines, power electronics and electric energy storage system (battery, super capacitors) connected to mechanical components (transmissions, gear boxes and wheels) and, for HEV, to an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). The approach for a new vehicle design has to be multidisciplinary in order to take into account the dynamic interaction among all the components of the vehicle and the power train itself. The vehicle designers in order to find the correct sizing of components, the best energy control strategy and to minimize the vehicle energy consumption need modeling and simulation since prototyping and testing are expensive and complex operations. Developing a simulation model with a sufficient level of accuracy for all the different components based on different physic domains (electric, mechanical, thermal, power electronic, electrochemical and control) is a challenge. Different commercial simulation tools have been proposed in literature and they are used by the automotive designer [1]. They have different level of detail and are based on different mathematical approaches. In paragraph 2 a general overview on different modeling approaches will be presented. In the following paragraphs the author approach, focused on the modeling of each component constituting a FEV or HEV will be detailed. The authors approach is general and is not based on vehicle oriented simulation tools. It represents a good compromise among model simplicity, flexibility, computational load and components detail representation. The chapter is organized as follows: • paragraph 2 describes the different approaches that can be find in literature and introduced the proposed one; • paragraphs 3 to 10 describe all the components modeling details in this order: battery, inverter, electric motor, vehicle mechanics, auxiliary load, ICE, thermal modeling; • paragraph 11 presents different cases of study with simulation results where all the numerical models has been validated by means of experimental test performed by the authors.

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2. FEV and HEV modeling As shown in Figure 1, the whole vehicle power-train model is composed by many subsystems, connected in according to the energy and information physical exchanges. They represent the driver (pilot), the vehicle control system, the battery, the inverter, the Electrical Motor (EM), the mechanical transmission system, the auxiliary on board electrical loads, the vehicle dynamical model and for, HEVs and Plug-in Hybrid Electrical Vehicles (PHEVs), also an ICE and a fuel tank are considered. To correctly describe them, a multidisciplinary methodology analysis is required. Furthermore the design of a vehicle requires a complete system analysis including the control of the energy given from the on-board source, the optimization of the electric and electronic devices installed on the vehicle and the design of all the mechanical connection between the different power sources to reach the required performances. So, the complete simulation model has to describe the interactions between the system components, correctly representing the power flux exchanges, in order to help the designers during the study. For modeling each component, two different approaches can be used: an “equation-based” or a “map-based” mode [1]. In the first method, each subcomponent is defined by means of its quasi-static characteristic equations that have to be solved in order to obtain the output responses to the inputs. The main drawback is represented by the computational effort needed to resolve the model equations. Vice versa using a “map-based” approach each sub-model is represented by means of a set of look-up tables to numerically represents the set of working conditions. The map has to be defined by means of “off-line” calculation algorithm based on component model equation or collected experimental data. This approach implies a lighter computation load but is not parametric and requires an “off-line” map manipulation if a component parameter has to be changed. For the model developing process, an object-oriented causal approach can be adopted. In fact the complete model can be split into different subsystems. Each subsystem represents a component of the vehicle and contains the equations or the look-up table useful to describe its behavior. Consequently each object can be connected to the other objects by means of input and output variables. In this way, the equations describing each subsystem are not dependent by the external configuration, so every object is independent by the others and can be verified, modified, replaced without modify the equations of the rest of the model. At the same time, it is possible to define a “power flux” among the subsystems: every output variable of an object connected to an input signal of another creates a power flux from the first to the second subsystem (“causality approach”). This method has the advantage to realize a modular approach that allows to obtain different and complex configuration only rearranging the object connection. A complete model can be composed connecting the objects according two different approaches: the “reverse approach” (also called “quasi-static approach” - see Figure 2) and the “forward approach” (also called “dynamic approach” - see Figure 3). Figure 2 and 3 show simplified models of a HEV, where V is the vehicle model, GB the gear box, PC the power converter, B the battery pack, FT the fuel tank, AL is the auxiliary loads block, v and a are respectively the vehicle’s speed and acceleration, f is the vehicle traction force, Ω is the EM angular speed, TICE and TEM are respectively the ICE and the EM torques, Ω ICE is the ICE angular speed, f c is the fuel consumption, I and Vs are the electrical motor current and voltage, ibatt and Vbatt are the battery current and voltage, PInMot is the power requested by the EM to the power converter, PB is the total power requested to the battery that is obtained as a sum of the power requested by the power converter PInInv and the

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

Figure 1. Block diagram of a Plug-In HEV.

Figure 2. Example of HEV quasi-static modeling approach.

auxiliary loads Paux (PB = PInInv + Paux ) and finally i aux is the amount of current requested to the battery for auxiliary electrical loads. Quasi-static method use as input variables the desired speed and acceleration of the vehicle, hence the equations are solved starting from the V model and going back, block by block, to the B model. In the dynamic approach each subcomponent has interconnection variables with the previous and the next blocks. In this way each sub-model is strongly interleaved with the others and its behavior has influence on the total system. The second method requires a higher computational effort but is more accurate and has been applied by the authors in several cases [2–4]. In fact, using the first method, the information flux is unidirectional and the equation set is more simpler often only algebraic. This approach do not take into account the real response and constrain of power train component. On the contrary the dynamic approach produces also a response that runs

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Figure 3. Example of HEV-dynamic modeling approach.

forward the complete model, influencing the output of the following sub-models. In this way, it is possible to study the total behavior including the physical limits of each component and, so, the simulation model is able to describe correctly both the single component and the overall performances of the system. For this method more complex equations (a few number of differential equation) or maps are needed. The following paragraphs describe component by component the proposed method which is based on a simplified dynamic forward approach that could be implemented using both equations or off-line computed look-up tables.

3. Battery modeling In order to correctly simulate the behavior of a FEV, HEV or PHEV it is important to set up a battery model that evaluate the output voltage considering the State Of Charge (SOC) of the battery itself. Since a battery pack is obtained by a series connection of many cells (ncell ), it is quite usual to construct a numerical model considering one single cell. The total battery voltage Vbatt is obtained using equation (1) assuming that all cells have an uniform behavior and where vel is the voltage of a single cell.

Vbatt = ncell vel

(1)

The battery model receives as input variables: the current ibatt required from the electrical drive model (inverter and electric motor) and the battery temperature ϑ computed by battery thermal model. The model gives as output variables: the battery pack voltage Vbatt , the SOC and the power losses PLossBatt . In order to simulate the battery behavior, instead of a complex electrochemical model, an Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) can be chosen as a good compromise between accuracy and computational load. For example a first order Randles circuit (represented in Figure 4) can be adopted as dynamic model (see Paragraph 3.2); this model can be easily downgraded imposing R1 = 0 in order to obtain a static model (see Paragraph 3.1). The circuit parameters can be deduced by experimental test or technical literature using the method described in [5]. Furthermore it is fundamental to calculate the battery SOC using equation (2) (where Cn is the rated capacity expressed in Ampere-Hours [Ah] and SOC0 is the initial state of charge) to evaluate the amount of energy stored into the battery pack.

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

Figure 4. Randles electrodynamical model of a cell.

SOC (t) = SOC0 −

Z t ibatt (t) 0

3600 · Cn

dt

(2)

3.1. Static model of battery Using the manufacturer charge and discharge charts and the data available for different temperature (reported as example in Figures 5-7), it is possible to reconstruct the map of v0 (SOC, ϑ ) and of R0 (SOC, ϑ ) and consequently to calculate vel (SOC, ϑ ) as reported in the static equation (3).

vel (SOC, ϑ ) = v0 (SOC, ϑ ) − R0 (SOC, ϑ )ibatt

(3)

Figure 5. Charging chart for different C-Rates.

A further simplification is to consider the temperature ϑ constant and consequently to calculate and to represent on a map the vel as reported in Figure 8, as a function of the battery SOC and the battery current ibatt .

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Figure 6. Discharge chart for different C-Rates.

Figure 7. 1C discharge chart for different temperatures.

4 3.8 3.6

el

V [V]

212

3.4 3.2 3 2.8 2.6 1

−5 0.8 0.6

0

0.4 0.2 0

5

Current [pu]

SOC [pu]

Figure 8. Battery voltage map.

3.2. Dynamical model of battery Since batteries for traction application are used under heavy dynamic condition with suddenly variation of the supplied current ibatt , the static model can not be adopted for all the cases of study where dynamic is fundamental (for example control analysis). Different type

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

of ECM have been developed for simulating battery voltage vel where more that one RC block are used in order to obtain a Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) of order n and a parasitic parallel branch is added to the ECM to simulate the self discharge phenomenon. Since the main objective is not to simulate all the battery details but the global vehicle behavior a single RC circuit for an enough accurate model can be adopted, as reported in Figure 4. In order to have good simulation results a fine tuning of the dynamic ECM parameters has to be done. A good procedure for parameter identification, considering also thermal effects, is reported in [5]. It possible to solve the circuit considering the cell voltage vel , as reported in equation (4)1 , where the splitting of the total current ibatt into the capacitor C1 and into the resistor R1 is considered ad reported in equation (5) and the no load voltage v0 is SOC dependant.

vel = v0 − R0 ibatt − v1

  i = i c + ir   batt  dv ic = C1 1 dt    i = v1  r R1

(4)

(5)

Finally, substituting ibatt obtained from equation (5) in equation (4), is possible to obtain the final dynamic equation of the cell voltage, as reported in equation (6). 1 dv1 = dt R0 C1



  R v0 (SOC ) − vel − v0 (SOC ) 1 + 0 R1

(6)

4. Inverter modeling Different methods are available in the scientific literature in order to evaluate power electronic converter losses [6, 7] and to obtain a consequent energetic model. The most simple approach is to consider the power converter as an equivalent resistive load where the inner power losses are proportional to the square of the flowing current. Since in the most cases the power converter assumes the three phase inverter topology the power losses expression can be formalized as reported in (7), where R Inv is the inverter equivalent resistance and I is the Root Mean Square (RMS) inverter output phase current (that corresponds to the EM phase input RMS current).

PLossInv = 3 · R Inv · I 2 1

(7)

In equation (4) (5) (6) where: it has been neglected the dependency of the circuital parameters from battery SOC and temperature ϑ.

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The inverter input power can be calculated adding the inverter losses PLossInv to the motor input power PInMot that correspond to the inverter output power POutInv (equation (8)).

PInInv = PLossInv + PInMot = PLossInv + POutInv

(8)

A more detailed approach can be described if the simulation model adopted includes the control and inverter modulator details: an instant circuit losses model can be also implemented [6]. The losses are computed considering the basic inverter cell composed of an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) and a diode. The inverter is formed by six basic cells divided into 3 arms as reported in Figure 9. The instantaneous losses of a basic cell pcell can be evaluated using equation (9) where: pswT are transistor switching losses, Eon and Eo f f are turn-on and turn off energy, f s is the inverter switching frequency, ErecD and precD are the recovery diode energy and power losses, vce and v ak are respectively the transistor and diode forward voltage drop, ic and i f are the transistor and diode direct current ad p f wT and p f wD are transistor and diode conduction forward losses. The total inverter instantaneous losses are reported in (10). For the IGBT and diode the typical current Vs voltage curves and the switch on/off energy losses Vs current charts are shown in Figure 11, 12 and 13. These curves can be simplified as shown in equation (11) where all the parameters (A f wT , B f wT , A f wD , B f wD , BonT , ConT , Bo f f T , Co f f T , BrecD , CrecD ) can be deduced from the semiconductor device technical data sheet [8, 9]. Equation (12) can be obtained substituting equation (11) into the (10). These equations express the instantaneous losses pinv as a function of semiconductor devices current.

  p f wT = vce (ic ) · ic      p f wD = v ak (i f ) · i f  pswT = [ Eon (ic ) + Eo f f (ic )] f s    precD = ErecD (id ) · f s     pcell = pswT + precD + p f wT + p f wD pinv = 6 · pcell

 vce (ic ) = A f wT + B f wT ic       v ak (i f ) = A f wD + B f wD i f EonT (ic ) = BonT ic + ConT i2c    Eo f f T (ic ) = Bo f f T ic + Co f f T i2c    E 2 recD (i f ) = BrecD i f + CrecD i f

(9)

(10)

(11)

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

Figure 9. Battery fed three phase inverter

Figure 10. Symbols and definitions for Igbt a) and Diode b).

Figure 11. IGBT current Vs voltage diagram.

  p f wT (ic ) = A f wT ic + B f wT i2c    2 p f wD (i f ) = A f wD i f + B f wD i f 2 2   pswT (ic ) = ( BonT ic + ConT ic ) f s + ( Bo f f T ic + Co f f T ic ) f s   p 2 (i ) = ( B i +C i )f recD

f

recD f

recD f

s

(12)

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Figure 12. Diode current Vs voltage diagram.

Figure 13. IGBT/Diode switching energy vs current.

The instantaneous inverter losses expressions (10) need, in order to be evaluated, the calculation of the instantaneous alternate three-phase motor current. This fact implies that the simulation model has to be solved with a very short integration step with a consequent high computation load and large simulation time. For FEV and HEV power train modeling purpose such time details and accuracy is not needed but the exact losses calculation is necessary on a larger time scale. An average approach on an alternate quantities period can be adopted. In this way a larger time step is enough and the RMS value of alternate voltage and current can be used. In this method the losses calculation accuracy is assured and very fast phenomena (evolution during a AC current period T) are neglected. This approximation is sufficient for vehicle power train modeling and for energy and power flow analysis. Assuming sinusoidal time dependency for current, as reported in equation (13) where: I M is the maximum current value, ω = 2π/T is the current angular frequency and ϕ is the phase angle between motor voltage and current, substituting the (13) into equation (12) and assuming that i = ic = i f , the instantaneous inverter losses with explicit time dependence can be obtained. Averaging the losses on an Alternating Current (AC) variables period T is possible to obtain the losses mean value [10]. The average relationships are obtained as reported in equation (14) where: Ts is the IGBT switching period, Tdead is the dead time between high and low side IGBT switch on operation and cos ϕ is the motor power factor. The total PWM operation cell average losses PPW M are the all terms sum, while the total averaged inverter losses PinvPW M are reported in equation (15).

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

i (t) = I M cos(ωt − ϕ)

      A f wT B f wT 2 B f wT 2 A f wT 1 Tdead   P = − I + I I + I + m cos ϕ M f wT   Ts   π M 4 M  3π M    8 2   A B B f wD 2 A  T 1 f wD f wD 2 f wD   − dead IM + I M − m cos ϕ IM + I Pf wD =   2 T π 4 8 3π M   s     BonT C P + onT I M onT = f s I M π 4     Co f f T Bo f f T   + I P = f I  s M M o f f T   4    π   C B  recD recD  + I P = f I  s M   recD π 4 M   PPW M = PonT + Po f f T + Pf wT + Pf wD + PrecD

PinvPW M = 6 · PPW M

(13)

(14)

(15)

Since the inverter sub-model receives as input Vs , I, cos ϕ and ω, previously evaluated by the electric motor model, and Vbatt (the available battery voltage) it can calculate the current required to the battery iinv and the total inverter losses PPW M . The sequence of equations to be solved is reported as follows: √ 1. total power supplied to the motor calculation: PInMot = 3Vs Icosϕ; √ 2. inverter AC phase current max. value calculation: I M = 2I; √ 3. inverter PWM amplitude modulation index calculation: m = 2Vs /Vbatt ; 4. total inverter averaged losses PinvPW M calculation by means of equation (14) and (15); 5. total inverter input power calculation: PInInv = PInMot + PinvPW M ; 6. inverter input current calculation: iinv = PInInv /Vbatt .

5. Electrical motor modeling The most adopted motors for FEV and HEV are AC induction motors and AC Permanent Synchronous Magnets Motor (PMSM) regulated by means of a field oriented control or direct torque control. In this section the models of both motors will be presented using a phase vector approach [11, 12] and considering the motor field oriented controlled. For both motor models it is possible to define the input and output variables as follows: • input: required torque Tre f , instantaneous rotating mechanical speed Ω, battery voltage Vbatt ;

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• output: torque TEM , RMS phase current I, line to line voltage Vs , power factor angle ϕ, total losses PLossMot , Motor input (PInMot ) and output power (Pm ), electrical frequency f and angular frequency ω = 2π f . For FEV and HEV power train modeling and simulation a complete motor model including the detailed electromechanical dynamic is not required; it is better to use a steady state model that consider the controlled motor including all the energetic phenomena (power losses calculation). The proposed model include also limits and constrains due to the motor power supplier, which is based on batteries and inverter, such as maximum deliverable voltage, power and current.

5.1. Induction motor For the induction motor the steady state equations [13] are reported in equation (16) where V¯s , I¯s and ψ¯ r are respectively stator voltage, stator current and rotor flux phasors, Rs , Rr , M, Lk are respectively stator resistance, rotor resistance, mutual inductance and total leakage inductance, n is the pole pairs number, TEM is the torque , I¯m is the magnetizing current phasor, I¯r is rotor or torque current phasor, Ω is the mechanical angular speed, x is the relative rotor slip speed, ω is the AC variable angular frequency and j the imaginary unit. Equation (16) can be represented by means of the equivalent circuit reported in Figure 14. The three phase motor is modeled using a “rational” approach that correspond to have a “single phase‘equivalent” model also for energetic relations and torque expression [13]. In fact the amplitude of current phasor I¯s and the stator voltage phasor V¯s are related to the RMS phase current I and voltage V by means of equation (17). The induction motor model includes also equation (18) where ψrn is the induction motor rated flux, ωn is the rated motor angular frequency, PCu and PFe represent respectively the copper and iron losses and Q InMot is the motor reactive input power. Equation (18) allows to calculate all the power terms and stator quantities to be used as inputs for inverter and battery model.

 V¯s = Rs I¯s + jωLks I¯s + jωM I¯m     Rr ¯   · Ir + jωM I¯m 0=−    x   I¯ = I¯ + I¯ s r m ¯ ¯  ψ = M I m  r    ω − nΩ   x =   ω   T = nMIm Ir = nψr Ir

n

Vs = V ·

√

3Is = I ·

√

3

(16)

(17)

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

Figure 14. Induction motor steady-state equivalent circuit.

 P = Rs Is2 + Rr Ir2    Cu   ω ψr2   P = P  Fe Fen 2  ωn ψrn      P = P + PFe  LossMot Cu Pm = TΩ     PInMot = PLossMot + Pm    2 2    Q InMot =ωMIm +ωLks Is    Q InMot   ϕ = atan PInMot

(18)

Equations (16) and (18) have to be solved together with equation (19) that define the rotor flux value as function of the rotating speed Ω and of the rated speed Ωn . Equation (19) represents the field weakening condition for the induction motor. Furthermore it is also necessary to control that the torque request Tre f does not exceed the maximum motor torque Tre f Max and the consequent power request (Tre f · Ω) does not exceed the motor power limit PmotMax (see equation (20)).

 ψr = ψrn

ψr = ψrn Ωn Ω (

Tre f = Tre f Max Tre f = PmotMax /Ω

if if

if

Ω < Ωn

if

Ω > Ωn

Tre f > Tre f Max Tre f · Ω > PmotMax

(19)

(20)

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Moreover the global electrical drive limits verification has to be taken into account in order to avoid that the requested operating point do not correspond to an allowed condition. The three conditions to consider are: 1. maximum RMS input current Imax that is related to the inverter current limit (as reported in equation (21)); 2. maximum motor voltage limit VsMax that correspond to the maximum deliverable inverter voltage for a given battery voltage (as reported in equation (22)); 3. the maximum motor input power limit PinMax that is related to the maximum battery deliverable power (as reported in equation (23)). These conditions have to be verified and imposed after the calculation of equations (20), (19), (16) and (18).

Is I = √ < Imax 3

Vs < VsMax

then

Vbatt VsMax = √ 2

PInMot < PinMax

(21)

(22)

(23)

The proposed model can be used for off-line map calculation, that can be included in the simulation model, or calculated directly on-line during the numerical simulation process. The calculus procedure for induction motor can be summarized as follows: 1. verify if the torque request Tre f is compliant with absolute motor torque and power limit otherwise saturate Tre f using the (20); 2. solve the field weakening conditions (19); 3. solve the (16), (18) using as input variables TEM = Tre f and Ω; 4. verify the (21), (22) and (23), in order to impose the motor, inverter and battery limitations; 5. if the condition (21) is not respected reduce Tre f , go back to step 3 and iterate; 6. if the condition (22) is not respected reduce ψr , go back to step 3 and iterate; 7. if the condition (23) is not respected reduce Tre f , go back to step 3 and iterate.

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

5.2. Permanent magnets synchronous brushless motor For the Permanent Synchronous Magnets Motor the steady state equation [11] are reported in equation (24) where: Vd and Vq are the stator voltage phasor V¯s components (V¯s = Vd + jVq ), Id and Iq are the stator current phasor I¯s components ( I¯s = Id + jIq ), Rs is the stator resistance, Ls is the stator synchronous inductance, ψm is the permanent magnet flux phasor. The other symbols, TEM , Ω, ω and n assume the same meaning that ones indicated in the induction motor description. Equation (24) has to be solved, also in this case, together with equations (25) and (26). Similarly to the induction motor a pre-process operation on torque request Tre f has to be implemented in order to impose the respect of torque and power motor limit. Furthermore the field weakening condition have to be imposed to the motor. It consists in setting the correct value of Id current [12] by means of equation (27). In fact the current Id can be maintained equal to zero in the constant torque/flux region and has to be imposed negative in the field weakening zone. Finally also the limit input conditions have to be taken into account using the same equations of the induction motor ((21), (22) and (23)).

 V = Rs Id − ωLs Iq    d  Vq = Rs Iq + ωLs Id + ψm ω TEM = nψm Iq     Ω = ω n   P = Rs Id2 + Rs Iq2   Cu  ω     PFe = PFen ωn Pm = TEM Ω     PLossMot = PCu + PFe     PInMot = Pm + PLossMot q  2 2   Is = Id + Iq  q    Vs = V 2 + Vq2 d

 Q InMot =Vq Id − V d Iq     Q InMot  ϕ = atan  PInMot  ψs = ψm     Ωn ψs = ψm Ω     Id = ψs − ψm Ls

if

Ω < Ωn

if

Ω > Ωn

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

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Also in this case the model can be used both for off-line map calculation and on-line numerical simulation process. The calculus procedure for PMSM can be summarized as follows: 1. verify if the torque request Tre f is compliant with absolute motor torque and power limit otherwise saturate Tre f using equation (20); 2. solve the field weakening conditions (equation (27)); 3. solve equations (24), (25) and (26) using as input TEM = Tre f and Ω; 4. verify equations (21),(22) and (23), in order to impose the motor, inverter and battery limitation; 5. if the condition (21) is not respected reduce Tre f , go back to step 3 and iterate; 6. if the condition (22) is not respected reduce ψs , go back to step 2 and iterate; 7. if the condition (23) is not respected reduce Tre f , go back to step 3 and iterate. In Figure 15 is reported, as example, an efficiency map of a 65kW peak power PMSM obtained by means of the proposed model, for a 2500 kg mass FEV. The per unit efficiency ηEM can be calculated using equation (28).

ηEM =

Pm PInMot

(28)

Motor efficiency p.u.

400

0.

0.8

9

7

0.7

0.8

0.4

500

4

0.9 300

0.9

5

0.

5

0.9

0.4

4 5

94

5

0.9

4

0.

5 0.91 0.9 0.87 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.87 0.9

0.9

−200

93

91

0.93 0.94 0.95

0.96

9

0.

0.

0.

0.4

0.

0.9

9

0.93 0.915 0.9 0.87 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.87 0.9 0.915

7 0.8

0.8 0.4

−100

0.

0.8 7

0.7 0.4 0.7 0.8

0

0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.915 0.9 0.87 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.87 0.9 0.915 0.93

0.94

100

93

93

5

91

0.

200

T [Nm]

222

0.9

5

−300 0.9

3

9

0.

87

0.8

0.

0.7

−400

0.

0.9

4

91

5

−500 0

500

1000

1500

2000 Ω [rpm]

2500

Figure 15. Efficiency map for a PMSM as function of torque and speed.

3000

3500

4000

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

6. Vehicle longitudinal dynamic modeling In order to reconstruct the energetic power flow between FEV and HEV components a simple vehcile longitudinal dynamic model has to be considered. In this paragraph the model will be described considering the most general case constituted by an HEV; the model of a FEV can be simply deducted neglecting all the ICE contributions. This model receives as input the torque given by the ICE TICE and by the EM TEM coming from the respective simulation models and the gear ratio of the mechanical gearbox coming from the pilot model and calculate the vehicle speed v(t) and distance covered s(t). As first it is necessary to evaluate the total torque at the wheels Tw as sum of the EM torque reported at the wheel TEMw with the ICE torque reported at the wheel TICEw . For this all the reduction ratios and the efficiencies of the transmission chain have to be considered, as reported in equations (29) and (30), which are specialized for traction condition (29) and for braking condition (30). In these equations τEM and ητEM are respectively the reduction ratio of the EM and its efficiency, τICE and ητ ICE are respectively the reduction ratio of the ICE and its efficiency, τdi f f and ηdi f f are respectively the differential reduction ratio and its efficiency.

(

TEMw = TEM · τEM · τdi f f · ητEM · ηdi f f TICEw = TICE · τICE · τdi f f · ητICE · ηdi f f

 TEM · τEM · τdi f f    TEMw = η di f f · ητEM TICE · τICE · τdi f f    TICEw = ητ ICE · ηdi f f

(29)

(30)

Usually for an HEV the ICE has a mechanical gearbox with 5 ÷ 7 fixed reduction ratios and the EM has an unique fixed reduction ration. For this reason the longitudinal dynamic model receive as input from the driver model the correct gear that has to be considered. In order to define the longitudinal equivalent dynamic equation it is also necessary to introduce all the resistance forces acting on the vehicle, as reported in equation (31), where: m is the total mass of the vehicle, g is the gravitational acceleration, f v is the rolling resistance coefficient, ρ is the air density, Cx is the aerodynamic penetration coefficient, S is the total frontal area of the vehicle , α is the slope of the road.

1 Fres = m · g · f v + ρCx Sv(t)2 + m · g · sin α 2

(31)

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Finally it is possible to evaluate the vehicle acceleration a, as reported in equation (32), where rw is the radius of the vehicle wheels, m∗ represents the equivalent mass of the rotating part of the vehicle (wheels, rotor, shaft)2 .

 Tw  f = rw T /r − Fres  a = w w (m + m∗ )

(32)

Using vehicle longitudinal acceleration a from equation (32), it is possible to obtain vehicle speed and position.

(

Rt v(t) = 0 a(t)dt Rt s(t) = 0 v(t)dt

(33)

Finally the EM and the ICE speed are obtained as described in equation (34).  v(t)τEM τdi f f   Ω = rw v(t)τICE τdi f f  Ω  ICE = rw

(34)

7. Auxiliary loads model 7.1. Auxiliary electrical loads In order to correctly estimate the energy consumption on a FEV it is important to consider all the auxiliary electrical loads that the traction battery has to fed. Particularly the low voltage loads (12 or 24Vdc ), represented for example by light, circulating pump, fan and control units, have to be estimated considering an adequate average value of power consumption during the trip. The energy for these loads is usually delivered by the traction battery through a DC/DC converter. The battery current i aux can be calculated with equation (35) using the power consumption Paux of electrical auxiliary loads, the battery voltage Vbatt from the battery model and the efficiency of the DC/DC converter ηDC/DC .

2

As example the equivalent mass representing the EM inertia referred to the vehicle can be evaluated considering the following equation. m∗EM =

2 JEM τEM τdi2 f f 2 rw

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

i aux =

Paux Vbatt ηDC/DC

(35)

7.2. Pumps On HEVs and FEVs are usually installed liquid cooled electrical traction devices, in particular motor and inverter. For this reason auxiliary circulation pumps are needed in order to guarantee an adequate heat exchange between the components and the cooling fluid. It is possible to estimate the hydraulic power Phy required for the pump using equation (36), where ρ is the fluid density, Q the volumetric flow rate, g the gravity constant, h is the total head of the hydraulic circuit and hl is an equivalent of hydraulic losses expressed in meter of water column. Usually the term hl , that is responsible of a pressure drop ∆pl , is preponderant with respect to h and strictly depends from the design of the cooling circuit into the component.

  ∆pl Phy = ρQg(h + hl ) = ρQg h + ρg

(36)

At last, using a pump efficiency (η pump ) given by the manufacturer, it is possible to evaluate the electrical power requirement on the auxiliary load using equation (37). Pel =

Phy η pump

(37)

8. ICE modeling Since an accurate model of thermal combustion process require a wide knowledge of ICE design (i.e. intake and exhaust geometry, geometry of cylinder, spark position and timing, . . . ) a map based model is sufficient in order to estimate the engine fuel consumption and efficiency on drive cycle with a time scale of hundred of seconds. The structure of the ICE model receive as input the torque request from the energy management control and the ICE speed from the longitudinal dynamic model and gives as output the effective torque TICE , the instantaneous volumetric fuel consumption f c and the amount of CO2 produced. A global structure of the model is represented in Figure 16. The maps inserted into the ICE block can be obtained directly from the engine manufacturer; otherwise they can be obtained through experimentally tests using an engine test bench or directly on the vehicle using the Controller Area Network (CAN) information. An example of torque and fuel consumption map referred to the vehicle reported in paragraph 11.1 is reported in Figures 17 and 18. For the volume L of fuel present in the tank equation (38) can be used, where L0 represents the initial volume condition.

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Figure 16. Block scheme for ICE

100

Engine Torque [Nm]

226

150

80

100

60

50

40

0 20 −50 100 8000 6000

50

4000 2000

Gas Pedal Position [%]

0

0

0

−20

Engine Speed[rpm]

Figure 17. Engine torque map.

L = L0 −

Z t 0

f c dt

(38)

Other approach for ICE modeling can be settled up using theoretical approaches as reported in [14]. Finally a rough estimation of the CO2 emission can be established using equation (39), in which ρC is the average content of carbon in gasoline, MmCO2 is the molar mass of CO2 , MmC is the carbon molar mass and ϕ is a coefficient for incomplete combustion.

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

25 Gasoline Consumption [L/h]

30 25

20

20 15

15

10 10

5

0 8000 6000

150 100

4000

50

2000 Engine Speed [rpm]

5

0

0 0

−50

Engine Torque [Nm]

Figure 18. Engine fuel consumption map.

CO2 = f c · ρC ·

MmCO2 ·ϕ MmC

(39)

9. Thermal modeling The different FEV and HEV components and subsystems can be modeled including a simple thermal equivalent network where each component is considered as an homogeneous body. The chosen model is a first order lumped parameters thermal network [15] where: Plc are the total component power losses, Cc is the total thermal capacity, Rc is the total thermal resistance that represent all the transfer heating phenomena (conduction, convention and radiation heat transfer), ∆ϑc = ϑc − ϑmean is the temperature difference between the component inner temperature ϑc and the reference temperature ϑmean . The first order ODE is reported in equation (40) and the equivalent network is reported in Figure 19.

  P = ∆ϑc + C · d∆ϑc c lc Rc dt  ϑc = ϑmean + ∆ϑc

(40)

If the component is natural-air cooled the reference temperature ϑmean is equal to the ambient temperature ϑamb . Otherwise, if a forced-air cooling system is adopted, the equivalent thermal resistance Rc assumes different values as a function of the cooling fan status. Therefore if the cooling fan is running the Rc = RcON that corresponds to a lower value than Rc = RcOFF when the fan is stopped. A more sophisticated model can relate the Rc parameter as a function of the fan speed.

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Figure 19. General component thermal model.

A FEV and HEV liquid-cooling system is often adopted especially for ICE, EM and inverter. The cooling system is based on an hydraulic circuit where a cooling fluid (usually a 50 % mix of water and glicole) is pumped into the components to be cooled and in a liquid-air heat exchanger, wich is usually forced air cooled by means of cooling fans. For these situations the thermal model of the liquid-based cooling system is to be considered too. Also in this case a first order ODE reported in equation (41) can be used. The equivalent circuit is reported in Figure 20 where: Pltot are the sum of the total losses of the components that are liquid-cooled, Rliq is the equivalent variable thermal resistance of the liquid-air heat exchanger, Cliq is the liquid cooling system equivalent thermal capacity, ϑliq is the average liquid temperature in the cooling liquid circuit and ∆ϑliq is the temperature difference between liquid and ambient. In this case the reference temperature ϑmean for the component thermal model of Figure 19 has to be taken equal to the liquid average temperature (ϑmean = ϑliq ). The equivalent liquid cooling system thermal resistance Rliq is a time-variant parameter since it depends on the air-liquid heat exchanger cooling fan status. For example can “switch” between two values if the fan is ON/OFF controlled ( RliqON when fan is on and RliqOFF when is off).

  P

ltot

 ϑ

liq

=

∆ϑliq

+ Cliq ·

d∆ϑliq

Rliq = ϑamb + ∆ϑliq

dt

(41)

10. Driver and energy management control The model receives as input the drive cycle that the vehicle has to execute; this reference is given to a pilot model that gives as output a signal representative of driver torque request; the pilot model acts as a speed closed loop that compares the required speed to the instantaneous one coming from the vehicle longitudinal dynamic model. Considering the vehicle structure (hybrid or full electric) and the hybrid control logic, the traction manager control splits the pilot request of torque between the ICE, the EM and the mechanical brakes, as reported in Figure 21. In this block, through torque vs speed curves, the required torques, both for the electrical and for the ICE motor, is saturated to the limit values.

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

Figure 20. Radiator dynamic thermal model.

Figure 21. Driver and energy management control block scheme.

At last for the ICE gearbox a simple algorithm to set the correct ratio has to be implemented. The algorithm increase the gear if the ICE speed Ω ICE exceed a certain threshold and decrease the gear if the speed Ω ICE is below a different threshold. It is important to introduce an hysteresis zone on the speed Ω ICE in order to avoid continuous gear shift.

11. Examples In the current section some results compared with experimental data will be presented.

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11.1. B segment car In this section a B segment car will be considered; this car, originally propelled only with an ICE, has been transformed in a PHEV capable to run as a FEV up to 70 km/h and to cover a driving range of about 40km. The main data of the vehicle are reported in Table 1. Vehicle data Vehicle Vehicle mass Gearbox ratios Final ratio Wheel radius

Internal Combustion Engine

1100kg 3.90 2.15 1.48 1.12 0.92 4.071 0.27m

Fuel Max Torque Max Power Total Displacement

Gasoline 102Nm 50kW 1200cc

Table 1. Vehicle data.

11.1.1. Electrical power train simulation First of all the validation of the vehicle behavior when run as a FEV will be presented. For this purpose it has been requested to the model to follow the same drive cycle executed using prototypal vehicle during experimental tests; this drive cycle is reproduced in Figure 22. Electrical traction system data Battery Element type Number of elements Rated Capacity Rated Voltage Min. Voltage Max. Voltage Total Energy Max. Power

Inverter VDC Typology Rated Current Max Current Aux Supply Cooling

Li-Ion 60 50Ah 222V 252V 192V

Motor

80 − 400V FOC 234A 352A 12VDC Water

Type Peak Power Rated Speed Rated Voltage Rated Current No Load Curr. Pole number Cooling

11, 1kWh 30kW

Table 2. Electrical traction system data. 80 Simulated Data Experimental Data 70

60

Vehicle’s speed [km/h]

230

50

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 22. Electrical drive cylce.

0

10

20

30

40

50 time [s]

60

70

80

90

100

Induction 30kW 2950rpm 105V 70A 33.6A 4 Water

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

30 Simulated Data Experimental Data 25

Input motor power [kW]

20

15

10

5

0

0

10

20

30

40

50 time [s]

60

70

80

90

100

Figure 23. Electric motor power.

Using the cycle represented in Figure 22 it is possible to validate the battery model in terms of total voltage vbatt and in terms of current ibatt . The comparison between the model simulation results and the experimental data is shown in Figures 26 and 27. In the over mentioned figures it is also reported the energy consumption E evaluated through the acquired data and through the output of the vehicle’s model. The comparison shows a good correspondence between the simulation and experimental data; as consequence the kilometric energy consumption is also well estimated by the model. Furthermore it is possible to validate the electrical motor model by numerical-experimental comparison performed considering the output power, as reported in Figure 23, the phase current and line to line voltage, as reported respectively in Figures 24 and 25. 250 Simulated Data Experimental Data

Phase motor current [A]

200

150

100

50

0

0

10

20

30

40

50 time [s]

60

70

80

90

100

Figure 24. Motor phase current. 140 Simulated Data Experimental Data

Phase to phase motor voltage [V]

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

0

Figure 25. Motor phase to phase voltage.

10

20

30

40

50 time [s]

60

70

80

90

100

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

250

200 Ibatt [A] Vbatt [V] 150

E = 0.24446 kWh

100

50

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

time [s]

Figure 26. Simulated battery data. 250

200 Ibatt [A] Vbatt [V] 150

E = 0.22663 kWh

100

50

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

time [s]

Figure 27. Real battery data.

11.1.2. Hybrid power train simulation At last it has been implemented a Start&Stop strategy on the prototypal vehicle. This very simple strategy ask to the electrical drive traction system to propel the vehicle up to a speed threshold set to 32 km/h; above this speed threshold the vehicle is propelled by the ICE motor. Experimental Data Vehicle’s speed [km/h]

80

2.5

70 2

60 50

1.5

40 1

30 20

ICE ON

0.5

10 0

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

100 ICE EM

80 Torque request [%]

232

60 40 20 0 −20

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Time [s]

Figure 28. Drive cycle with superimposed the ICE status

350

400

450

500

550

0

ICE OFF

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

In the upper part of Figure 28 it is shown the drive cycle used to validate the model in the Start&Stop mode and in the lower part it is shown the torque request repartition between the electrical motor and the ICE motor. Finally in Figures 29 and 30 it is reported the comparison of experimental data and simulation results obtained using the drive cycle and the strategy reported in Figures 28.

25 Experimental Data Simulated Data

Battery Power [kW]

20

15

10

5

0

−5

0

100

200

300 Time [s]

400

500

600

Figure 29. Battery power. 4 Experimental Data Simulated Data

3.5

Gasoline Flux [ml/s]

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

0

100

200

300 Time [s]

400

500

600

Figure 30. ICE gasoline flux.

11.2. Commercial vehicle In this section a full electric commercial van will be considered. Its main characteristics are reported in Table 3. As done for the previously described PHEV it has been requested to the simulation model to cover the same driving cycle executed by the prototypal vehicle (Figure 31). Finally in Figures 32 and 33 are reported some comparison between simulated data and experimental ones; in particular Figure 32 refers to the EM torque and Figure 33 refers to the total battery current ibatt .

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Full Electric truck data Vehicle

Battery

Vehicle mass Final ratios Wheel radius Max weight

2500kg 3.75 0.325 3500kg

Element Type Number of elements Rated Capacity Rated Voltage

Inverter 80 − 400V FOC 240A RMS 350A RMS 12VDC Water

Type Peak Power Rated Speed Rated Voltage Rated Current No Load Curr. Pole number

Induction 60kW 2400rpm 115V 200A 95A 4

Table 3. Electrical traction system data. 60 simulated data experimental data 50

Speed [km/h]

40

30

20

10

0

−10

0

10

20

30

40 time [s]

50

60

70

80

Figure 31. Drive cycle for the full electric commercial vehicle. 200 simulated data experimental data 150

100

50

0

−50

Figure 32. EM torque.

Li-Ion 68 90Ah 217

Electrical Motor

VDC Typology Rated Current Max Current Aux Supply Cooling

EM Torque [Nm]

234

0

10

20

30

40 time [s]

50

60

70

80

Modeling of F”ll Elec“‘ic and Hyb‘id Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53570

250 simulated data experimental data 200

Ibatt [A]

150

100

50

0

−50

0

10

20

30

40 time [s]

50

60

70

80

Figure 33. Total battery current ibatt .

12. List of Acronyms HEV Hybrid Electrical Vehicle

CAN Controller Area Network

RMS Root Mean Square

ECM Equivalent Circuit Model

PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electrical Vehicle

ODE Ordinary Differential Equation

FEV Full Electrical Vehicle

FOC Field Oriented Control

SOC State Of Charge

AC Alternating Current

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor EM Electrical Motor

PMSM Permanent Synchronous Magnets Motor

ICE Internal Combustion Engine

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

Acknowledgements The authors thank Davide Annese and Alberto Bezzolato for their precious help.

Author details Ferdinando Luigi Mapelli and Davide Tarsitano Mechanical Department, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy

References [1] D. W. Gao, C. , Mi, and A. Emadi. Modeling and simulation of electric and hybrid vehicles. Proceedings of the IEEE, 95(4):729–745, 2007. [2] F. Cheli, F.L. Mapelli, R. Manigrasso, and D. Tarsitano. Full energetic model of a plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle. In SPEEDAM 2008 - International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion, pages 733–738, Ischia, 2008.

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[3] F. L. Mapelli, D. Tarsitano, and M. Mauri. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle: Modeling, prototype realization, and inverter losses reduction analysis. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 57:598–607, 2010. [4] F.L. Mapelli, D. Tarsitano, and A. Stefano. Plug-in hybrid electrical commercial vehicle: Modeling and prototype realization. In 2012 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference, IEVC 2012, Greenville, SC, 2012. [5] T. Huria, M. Ceraolo, J. Gazzarri, and R. Jackey. High fidelity electrical model with thermal dependence for characterization and simulation of high power lithium battery cells. In 2012 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference, IEVC 2012, Greenville, SC, 2012. [6] A. Fratta and F. Scapino. Modeling inverter losses for circuit simulation. In Conference of 2004 IEEE 35th Annual Power Electronics Specialists Conference, PESC04;, volume 6, pages 4479–4485, Aachen, 2004. [7] R. Manigrasso and F.L. Mapelli. Design and modelling of asynchronous traction drives fed by limited power source. In Conference of 2005 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, VPPC, volume 2005, pages 522–529, Chicago, IL, 2005. [8] http://www.infineon.com/cms/en/product/index.html [9] http://www.infineon.com/cms/en/product/index.html [10] R. Manigrasso and F.L. Mapelli. Design and modelling of asynchronous traction drives fed by limited power source. In IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, VPPC, volume 2005, pages 522–529, Chicago, IL, 2005. [11] P. Vas. Electrical machines and drives: a space-vector theory approach. Clarendon Press, 1992. [12] P. Vas. Vector Control of AC Machines. Clarendon Press, 1990. [13] M. Mauri, F.L. Mapelli, and D. Tarsitano. A reduced losses field oriented control for plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle. In 19th International Conference on Electrical Machines, ICEM 2010, Rome, 2010. [14] G. Rizzoni, L. Guzzella, and B.M. Baumann. Unified modeling of hybrid electric vehicle drivetrains. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 4(3):246–257, 1999. [15] M. M. Rathore and R. Kapuno. Engineering Heat Transfer. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2010.

Chapter 8

Multiple Energy Sources Hybridization: The Future of Electric Vehicles? Pa”lo G. Pe‘ei‘inha and João P. T‘ovão Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

. Introduction Enerμy availaηility and θost is at the heart oλ today~s politiθal and sθientiλiθ aμenda involvinμ many eθonomiθ, eθoloμiθ and μeopolitiθal aspeθts. For instanθe, the European Counθil has es‐ taηlished the oηjeθtives oλ reduθinμ μreenhouse μas emissions ηy %, oλ inθreasinμ the share oλ renewaηle enerμy to % and oλ improvinμ enerμy eλλiθienθy ηy % ηy [ ]. On Marθh , the European Commission adopted its new White Paper on Transport poliθy with a road‐ map oλ initiatives λor the next deθade to reduθe Europe's dependenθe on imported oil and deθrease the θarηon emissions in transport ηy % ηy , and in Deθemηer , has θommu‐ niθated the Enerμy Roadmap to pave the way to those oηjeθtives. “θθordinμ to the New Poliθies Sθenario, the θentral sθenario oλ World Enerμy Outlook whiθh supposes iλ reθent μovernment poliθies on enerμy and θlimate θhanμe are implement‐ ed in a θautious manner, the International Enerμy “μenθy, IE“, λoreθasts that the world pri‐ mary demand λor enerμy will inθrease ηy one-third ηetween and [ ]. The world Total Primary Enerμy Supply, TPES with nearly % θominμ λrom λossil λuels in [ ], has to λulλill this Demand. It should ηe noted that in , around % oλ the TPES was spent on enerμy transλormation, leavinμ only aηout % oλ TPES λor Consumption. The Total Final Consumption oλ enerμy, TFC, in the modern world is also mainly in the λorm oλ λossil λuels and aθθordinμ to the IE“, oil will remain the sinμle larμest λuel in the λuel shares oλ total λinal θonsumption . % in , . % in with transport and power μeneration seθtors aηsorηinμ a μrowinμ part oλ μloηal enerμy. Indeed, the transports seθtor alone was re‐ sponsiηle λor . % oλ the World Oil Consumption in , . % in , . % in , and . % in , aμainst . % in [ ] [ ]. This inθreasinμly λuel θonsumption and the exis‐ tent or latent θonλliθts mainly in the Middle East lead to oil shortaμe λear and priθe rise [ , ], θonλirmed ηy the July θrude oil peak priθes, around US$ . ”esides the priθe proηlem,

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

there are also very important enerμy dependenθe and seθurity θonθerns as the θrude oil θome mainly λrom Middle East unstaηle θountries [ ]. Indeed, even iλ the past eθonomiθ θrisis with the resultinμ θonsumption deθline, led to a deθrease in θrude priθes, the development and moηility levels souμht and somehow already λelt ηy many developinμ θountries, namely the ”iμ Emerμinμ Market ”EM eθonomies, in partiθular China and India, will put a lonμ term in‐ θreasinμ pressure on the oil θonsumption, availaηility and priθes [ - ]. We miμht very likely ηe already enterinμ the last trillion ηarrels oλ oil€, as Non-OPEC oil produθtion miμht have al‐ ready peaked, and OPEC produθtion θould λollow around [ ]. “nother issue is that the mass utilization oλ Internal Comηustion Enμine ICE vehiθles in the transportation seθtor also inθreases pollution emissions, espeθially Greenhouse Gas emissions, whiθh must ηe prevented λor the sustainaηility oλ the planet and λor liλe quality. The emissions oλ ICE vehiθles are also one oλ the major sourθes oλ urηan pollution, espeθially in medium-size and larμe θities. The hiμh inθidenθe oλ respiratory proηlems, allerμies, asth‐ mas, and some θanθers is an inθreasinμ proηlem leadinμ to puηliθ health θonθerns, as air pol‐ lution θontriηutes deλinitively to mortality and morηidity. “ study θonduθted in “ustria, Franθe, and Switzerland estimated the impaθt oλ outdoor total and traλλiθ-related air pollu‐ tion on puηliθ health [ ]. It θonθluded that air pollution θaused % oλ total mortality or more than attriηutaηle θases per year. “ηout halλ oλ all mortality θaused ηy air pollution was attriηuted to motorized traλλiθ, aθθountinμ also λor more than new θases oλ θhroniθ ηronθhitis adults more than episodes oλ ηronθhitis θhildren more than . million asthma attaθks and more than million person-days oλ restriθted aθtivities. Liv‐ inμ in a polluted environment will undouηtedly lead to a liλetime deθrease [ ]. However, even livinμ in a usually non polluted environment, a pollution peak θan θause an unexpeθt‐ ed€ inθrease in deaths and illnesses, like the ones in Europe durinμ summer .

. Perspectives for sustainable transportation solutions Due to the prior mentioned issues, there is now a μeneral puηliθ awareness λor the need λor more eθonomiθ, eθoloμiθal and eλλiθient transportation, namely eleθtriθ vehiθles EVs and hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles HEVs . Indeed, eleθtriθ traθtion is the key to advanθed and sustaina‐ ηle transports as the eleθtriθ motor EM is muθh more eλλiθient typiθally with - % eλλi‐ θienθy than the ICE - % . This allows a muθh smaller iσ vκνiθρκ or Taσπ-Tτ-Wνκκρ enerμy θonsumption in vehiθles driven ηy EMs θomparatively to ICE vehiθles Fiμ , [ ] , even with those θomplyinμ with Euro requirements, and makes the HEVs more enerμy eλ‐ λiθient and θleaner Fiμ. than the ICE vehiθles usinμ the same enμine teθhnoloμy. The Die‐ sel HEVs promise to ηe a very eλλeθtive option. Here it should ηe pointed out that even thouμh ηiomass λuels have muθh smaller Green‐ house Gas GHG emissions than λossil λuels Fiμ. its Sourθe-to-Serviθe λuel θonsumption is very hiμh Fiμ. . This should preθlude the λarmed ηiomass larμe sθale utilization, θontra‐ rily to the news and hopes that have θome to puηliθ mainly in and , ηut had al‐ ready lead to serious λood priθe proηlems in due to the λood-λor-λuel dilemma to use land to produθe ηiomass λor λuel instead oλ λor λood.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Figure 1. Vehicle and So”‘ce-“o-Se‘vice f”el con’”mp“ion (ba’ed on highe‘ hea“ing val”e’ of all chemical ene‘gy ca‘‘ie‘’). [9]

Figure 2. G‘eenho”’e Ga’ Emi’’ion fo‘ va‘io”’ f”el’ and powe‘“‘ain “echnologie’ [9].

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

The proηlem here is that the eλλiθienθy oλ photosynthesis is only aηout . % [ ], whiθh is extremely low. Takinμ into aθθount the other losses in the λuel θhain, the net enerμy availa‐ ηle λor eleθtriθity produθtion or transportation utilization is even muθh smaller. For eleθtriθi‐ ty it would ηe muθh ηetter to use photovoltaiθ panels PV θonsiderinμ a % land use, a % eλλiθienθy in the DC μeneration λrom PV array, and % λor the DC/“C θonversion and transmission, the overall eλλiθienθy λor photovoltaiθs is . %, muθh hiμher than the overall eλλiθienθy oλ . % oηtained usinμ ηio-methane or the . % λrom ηio-hydroμen [ ]. Con‐ θerninμ the enerμy harvest λor transportation, the distanθe that θan ηe driven with the annu‐ al enerμy extraθted λrom one heθtare oλ land is nearly km λor ”iodiesel, km λor ”ioethanol, and km with Eleθtriθity λrom PV and times more, respeθtively . So, the proηlem is not the suηstitution oλ μasoline ηy ηioλuels ηut the replaθement oλ ineλλi‐ θient ICE ηy eλλiθient eleθtriθ motors. [ ] Furthermore, while ηeinμ ηasiθally non pollutant durinμ its liλetime θonsiderinμ proper ηat‐ tery reθyθlinμ and hiμhly eλλiθient, EVs are silent and μentle to drive. Partiθularly, ηattery eleθtriθ vehiθles ”EVs present zero emission oλ pollutants loθally, whiθh is very important λor urηan drivinμ. Iλ ηatteries are reθharμed usinμ eleθtriθity λrom some renewaηle sourθes, namely wind Fiμ. and Fiμ. or PV, then the diλλerenθes, relative to ICE θars, inθrease and all the potential oλ the ”EVs is shown. For these reasons, it is the authors~ ηelieλ that the λuture oλ Sustainaηle Moηility passes surely ηy the ”EVs supplied λrom wind, hydro and PV, or other hiμh eλλiθient and θlean renewaηle enerμy sourθes. It should also ηe noted that as nowadays only a small perθentaμe oλ the world eleθtriθity is produθed λrom oil . % in , deθreasinμ to . % in [ ] , there is another advantaμe in shiλtinμ the share oλ transports primary enerμy λrom oil to eleθtriθity, espeθially iλ the eleθtriθ enerμy storaμe deviθes are θharμed durinμ the niμht, usinμ the enerμy surplus usual‐ ly availaηle in the μrid and that θan ηe inθreased ηy λosterinμ the puηliθ liμhtninμ eλλiθienθy. ”y all that has ηeen presented, at the moment, the λuture perspeθtives λor Sustainaηle Trans‐ portation Solutions seem to ηe [ ]-[ ] • Eλλiθient eleθtriθ or hyηrid-eleθtriθ θars λor θommutinμ and loθal transport Wind-toWheel€ eλλiθienθy up to % • “voidanθe oλ hydroμen λor ICE and λuel θell vehiθles Wind-to-Wheel€ eλλiθienθy oλ to %

%

• Distant land, air and oθean transport with oil or ηioλuels. “ transition step while lookinμ λorward to the ideal solution oλ Zero Emissions Vehiθles, are the Low Emissions Vehiθles, as the HEV, speθially the Pluμ-In Hyηrid Eleθtriθ Vehiθles, PHEV. Several projeθts and models oλ EV, HEV and PHEV, inθludinμ ηuses, vans and θars, have ηeen developed in the last λew years, resultinμ in θleaner, more eθonomiθ and less noisy vehiθles, some oλ them already availaηle θommerθially. [ ][ ] However, some inθentives are still needed to allow eleθtriθ vehiθle EV teθhnoloμies to de‐ velop and ηeθome more θompetitive.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

. Energy storage in electric vehicles . . The energy storage issue in electric vehicles To allow EVs to ηeθome the eλλeθtive sustainaηle transportation solution, a μreat eλλort has to ηe done in R&D to overθome the major teθhniθal issue in EVs the enerμy storaμe. Typiθally, EVs store enerμy in ηatteries usually Lead-“θid, NiMH and, more reθently, LiIon that are ηulky, heavy and expensive. The speθiλiθ enerμy oλ μasoline is aηout Wh/kμ oλ whiθh only θan ηe θonsidered useλul enerμy, due to the very low eλλi‐ θienθy oλ ICE aμainst typiθally - Wh/kμ in μood lead-aθid ηatteries or Wh/kμ in NiMH, whiθh μives an idea oλ the volume and weiμht neθessary to store the enerμy needed to do the same work. Li-ion ηatteries have hiμher speθiλiθ enerμy, around Wh/kμ ηut they are still expensive and some partiθular Li-ion teθhnoloμies have saλety issues that have to ηe θareλully addressed. Due to these proηlems, with θurrent ηattery teθhnoloμies it is very diλλiθult to make a μeneral purpose EV that eλλeθtively θompetes with ICE θars. For massive deployment oλ EV, its drivinμ ranμe proηlem must ηe solved. [ ]-[ ] . . Main available energy sources “t present and in the λoreseeaηle λuture, the viaηle EVs enerμy sourθes are ηatteries, λuel θells, SuperCapaθitors SCs and ultrahiμh-speed λlywheels. ”atteries are the most mature sourθe λor EV appliθation. ”ut they oλλer either hiμh speθiλiθ enerμy HSE or relatively hiμh speθiλiθ power HSP . Fuel θells are θomparatively less ma‐ ture and expensive λor EV appliθation. They θan oλλer exθeptionally HSE, ηut with very low speθiλiθ power. In spite oλ some quite expensive prototypes, suθh low speθiλiθ power poses serious proηlems in their appliθation to EVs that desire a hiμh aθθeleration rate or hiμh hill θlimηinμ θapaηility. “lso, they are inθapaηle oλ aθθeptinμ the hiμh peaks oλ reμenerative en‐ erμy durinμ EV ηrakinμ or downhill drivinμ. SCs have low speθiλiθ enerμy λor standalone appliθation. However, they θan oλλer exθeptionally HSP with low speθiλiθ enerμy . Fly‐ wheels are still teθhnoloμiθally immature λor EV appliθation. [ ]-[ ] Some reθent inλormation on the enerμy sourθes θan ηe λound λor example in [ ], [

], [

].

. . Multiple energy sources hybridization For the λull eleθtriθ€ EV the solutions pass ηy siμniλiθant proμresses in ηattery teθhnoloμy and ηy usinμ diλλerent enerμy sourθes with optimized manaμement oλ the enerμy λlow as none oλ the availaηle enerμy sourθes θan easily λulλill alone all the demand oλ EVs to enaηle them to θompete with μasoline powered vehiθles. In essenθe, these enerμy sourθes have a θommon proηlem they have either HSE or HSP, ηut not ηoth. “ HSE enerμy sourθe is λavoraηle λor lonμ drivinμ ranμe, whereas a HSP enerμy sourθe is desiraηle λor hiμh aθθeleration rate and hiμh hill θlimηinμ θapaηility. The θonθept oλ usinμ and θoordinatinμ multiple enerμy sourθes to power the EV is typiθally denominated νyηridizaωiτσ. Henθe, the speθiλiθ advantaμes oλ the various EV enerμy sourθes θan ηe λully utilized, leadinμ to optimized enerμy eθonomy while satisλyinμ the expeθted drivinμ ranμe and maintaininμ other EV perλormanθes. [ ]-[ ]

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The ηasiθ operation oλ the hyηridized system is shown in Fiμ. . In operations that require hiμh power, as is required durinμ a hard aθθeleration or travelinμ up slopes, the two enerμy sourθes provide power to the powertrain system, as shown in Fiμ. a . Moreover, in operations that require less power, λor example, durinμ travel at θonstant speed θruisinμ , the sourθe with θharaθteristiθs oλ hiμh speθiλiθ enerμy provides power to the drive system while simultaneously reθharμes the seθond sourθe that only has θharaθter‐ istiθs oλ hiμh speθiλiθ power, as shown in Fiμ. η , to prepare it λor new hiμh power demand situations. In ηrakinμ and deθeleration mode, the reμenerative enerμy will essentially ηe stored in the sourθe with hiμh speθiλiθ power θharaθteristiθs, partiθularly the peaks and only a small, limited to its maximum power value, is aηsorηed ηy the sourθe with hiμh speθiλiθ enerμy see Fiμ. θ . Thus, to try λeedinμ an EV with only one oλ these sourθes with the same responsiveness as the one desθriηed aηove, the volume, weiμht and θost oλ the unique sourθe would ηe so larμe that the system would ηe inθapaηle oλ operatinμ properly.

Figure 3. Concep“ of ene‘gy ’o”‘ce’ hyb‘idiza“ion: a) ’ha‘ed powe‘ ’”pply; b) powe‘ ’”pply and ‘echa‘ging “he high ’pecific powe‘ ’o”‘ce; c) ‘egene‘a“ive ene‘gy ’ha‘ed ’“o‘age.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Thereλore, the hyηridization θonθept presents a sθale eθonomy usinμ θomplementary λeedinμ systems λusinμ the sourθes' advantaμes and ηetter responds to the drive requests. For this purpose, any work related to the hyηridization θonθept oλ EVs should start with an optimized sizinμ oλ the on-ηoard vehiθle enerμy sourθes, meetinμ the minimum θhar‐ aθteristiθ requirements aimed λor the EV. “s mentioned in Seθtion . , with the θurrent state oλ teθhnoloμiθal development, the λu‐ ture oλ EVs seems to μo throuμh the hyηridization oλ various enerμy sourθes. This strat‐ eμy seeks to ηeneλit λrom the ηest qualities oλ eaθh availaηle enerμy sourθe and is espeθially useλul in urηan drivinμ. In [

], a methodoloμy to optimize the sizinμ oλ the

enerμy sourθes λor an eleθtriθ vehiθle prototype, usinμ diλλerent drivinμ θyθles, maximum speed, a speθiλied aθθeleration, enerμy reμeneration and μradeaηility requests is present‐ ed. The possiηility oλ usinμ a ηaθkup system ηased on solar enerμy is also studied, whiθh may ηe θonsidered in the desiμn or as an extra to θope with unλoreseen routines and to minimize the reθharμe oλ enerμy sourθes. . . Generated, stored, demanded and available energies The total enerμy μenerated or stored Wμκ.ψω and demanded Wdκm over a time period θan ηe written in terms oλ the μenerated solar, reμenerative ηreak and storaμe powers and the power demand as λollows

(

)

Wμκ.ψω = ò PPV + P”aω + Prκμ _ SC dω ω

Wdκm = ò Pdκmdω ω

where P”aω is the power supplied λrom or to the ηatteries, PPV is the power μenerated ηy a speθiλied PV array, and Prκμ_SC is the reμenerative ηreak power to ηe stored ηy the SCs. “t any moment the availaηle enerμy, Wavaiρ, is μiven ηy Wavaiρ = Wμκ.ψω - Wdκm

The values oλ Wμκ.ψω and Wdκm and Wavaiρ should ηe updated λor small time steps λor the EV VEIL [

,

] θase study presented later in Seθtion , time steps oλ

s were θonsid‐

ered . The Wavaiρ evolution θan ηe plotted and used to analyze the storaμe θapaθity and the EV autonomy λor a speθiλiθ drive journey, as will ηe shown in Seθtion . . .

243

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

. EV dynamical model For the EV model, the meθhaniθal parts, inθludinμ ηody and transmission units, and the dy‐ namiθ and aerodynamiθ vehiθle θharaθteristiθs have to ηe θonsidered. Considerinμ a vehiθle oλ mass, m, see Fiμ. , the opposinμ λorθes to the vehiθle motion are the rollinμ resistanθe λorθe Frr due to λriθtion oλ the vehiθle tires on the road the aerody‐ namiθ draμ λorθe Fad θaused ηy the λriθtion oλ the ηody movinμ throuμh the air and the θlimηinμ λorθe Fνθ that depends on the road slope. The Fad λorθe is direθtly derived λrom aer‐ odynamiθ theory iμnorinμ the lateral λorθes. The total traθtive eλλort is equal to FR and is the sum oλ the resistive λorθes, as in FR = Frr + Fad + Fνθ

The Frr λorθe is the sum oλ the rollinμ resistanθe λorθe oλ eaθh wheel, dependinμ on the θoeλλi‐ θient oλ rollinμ resistanθe rr and oλ the vehiθle mass, as presented in . The typiθal values λor rr may vary ηetween . , λor θonventional tires, and . λor tires developed speθially λor EV [ ].

Figure 4. Fo‘ce’ applied “o “he vehicle.

The aerodynamiθ draμ λorθe is μiven ηy the seθond term on the riμht side oλ equation , where the symηol represents the air density, CΓ the draμ θoeλλiθient, “F the λrontal projeθ‐ tion area and VV the vehiθle speed relative to the wind [ ]. It must also ηe noted that air density is variaηle, as a λunθtion oλ the atmospheriθ pressure, temperature and hyμrometriθ θonditions, and that the aerodynamiθ draμ is proportional to the square oλ vehiθle veloθity. Thus the power applied to the motor, neθessary to overθome FR, inθreases with the θuηe oλ the speed.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

The weiμht θomponent oλ the vehiθle relative to the rollinμ plane anμle, expressed in the last term oλ , θorresponds to a λorθe that opposes the motion when θlimηinμ, and is a λunθtion oλ the θlimηinμ anμle and the vehiθle mass m. FR = mrr mμ +

rC Γ “F VV + mμ sin q

The dynamiθ ηehavior oλ the eleθtriθal motor, in the motor reλerential, θonsiderinμ an ideal meθhaniθal transmission, is μiven ηy dw r Tm - × FR = JT × m i dω

The load torque results λrom a set oλ vehiθle motion resistant λorθes FR in the motor reλer‐ ential, θonsiderinμ the wheel radius r, the transmission μearηox ratio, i, m is the motor an‐ μular speed and Tm is the motor torque. The total moment oλ inertia assoθiated to the vehiθle JT , in the motor reλerential, is μiven ηy , and is equal to the sum oλ the moments oλ inertia λrom eleθtriθ motor Jm , wheel Jr and the one assoθiated with the vehiθle that is a λunθtion oλ the road θharaθteristiθs [ ]. ærö JT = J m + Jr + m ç ÷ èiø

(

-e)

The moment oλ inertia θorrespondinμ to the mass oλ the vehiθle is the last term in represents the slippinμ oλ the wheels.

, where

The meθhaniθal power needed on the wheels Pu is then in the motor reλerential Pu = Tm × wm

The λormulation presented in to θan ηe and is usually used to study the vehiθle power and enerμy need λrom a hiμh-level enerμy manaμement and sourθes θomparison points oλ view [ ]-[ ]. However, to θorreθtly size the enerμy sourθes, all the enerμy θhain with the θorrespondinμ losses need to θonsidered. That is, the eλλiθienθy oλ eaθh one oλ the θomponents has to ηe θonsidered [ ]. Thereλore, the required eleθtriθ power Pκ , θonsiderinμ the total eλλiθienθy ωτω oλ the powertrain the total eλλiθienθy oλ all the θomponents used ηetween the enerμy sourθes and the wheels see Fiμ. is μiven ηy Pκ = hωτω × Pu

245

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

. Case study . . Hybridization project for VEIL prototype “s previously desθriηed, the utilization oλ multiple enerμy sourθes is a well suited solution to overθome θurrent EV ηarriers. To study the utilization oλ multiple enerμy sourθes in eleθ‐ triθ vehiθles a small eleθtriθ vehiθle is used at the Eleθtriθal Enμineerinμ Department oλ the Enμineerinμ Institute oλ Coimηra DEE-ISEC , the authors~ team started the on-μoinμ VEIL projeθt to θonvert a small Liμier GL, initially with an internal-θomηustion enμine ICE , into an eleθtriθ vehiθle Fiμ. [ ] [ ].

Figure 5. VEIL d”‘ing ‘oad “e’“’ a“ ISEC camp”’.

For the VEIL projeθt prototype, the hyηridization oλ three enerμy sourθes was θonsidered to ηe viaηle a HSE storaμe system ª ”atteries ª, a HSP system ª SCs ª and photovoltaiθ panels, PV. Fiμ. shows this hyηridization θonλiμuration. Considerinμ the availaηle spaθe, x mm on the rooλtop, and x mm over the hood, it is possiηle to implant seleθted PVs θλ. Taηle , on the rooλtop and on the hood.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Figure 6. EV p‘ojec“ powe‘ ’cheme.

. . Test cycles, scenarios and sources In this work, three diλλerent sθenarios have ηeen used to study the utilization oλ diλλerent θom‐ ηinations oλ enerμy sourθes, θorrespondinμ to typiθal possiηle utilizations oλ a small eleθtriθ vehiθle and in partiθular oλ the VEIL [ ]. In the three sθenarios three diλλerent time periods were θonsidered a λirst displaθement in the morninμ, startinμ at and takinμ . h to μet to work, λor instanθe , a seθond period where the θar is parked outdoor and lastinμ h, and a third period equal to the λirst one, θorrespondinμ to the return ηaθk home, λrom to . The λirst sθenario, Sθenario , θorresponds to a typiθal routine λor moηility in ηiμ European θities with low averaμe speed and very λrequent stops and μoes. To simulate this ηehavior the ECE θyθle presented in Fiμ. a was used. The travel in the morninμ θonsists oλ a se‐ quenθe oλ ECE θyθles, θorrespondinμ to nearly . km. The same distanθe has to ηe travelled in the eveninμ to make the way ηaθk. Sθenario θonsists then oλ ECE θyθles durinμ . h, λollowed ηy a period oλ h parked outdoor, and then aμain ECE θyθles. The total journey distanθe is . km times . km .

Figure 7. D‘iving cycle ’peed ve‘’”’ “ime: a) ECE 15 ”‘ban; b) NEDC and VEIL ’peed and c) con’“an“ 50 km/h

247

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

The seθond sθenario, Sθenario , θorresponds to a mix use oλ urηan and suη-urηan/extra ur‐ ηan drivinμ. It uses the New European Drivinμ Cyθle NEDC , represented in Fiμ. η , whiθh θonsists oλ the θomηination oλ ECE θyθles, repeated without interruption, λol‐ lowed ηy one EUDC θyθle, whiθh is limited to km/h λor low-powered vehiθles. For the VEIL, whiθh ηy law is limited to km/h λree drivinμ liθense θar , the maximum vehiθle speed was θonsidered as km/h on the λlat road. To λulλill the . h travel in the morninμ and in the eveninμ, Sθenario uses . NEDCs totalizinμ . km λollowed ηy h parked and aμain . NEDCs. The total journey distanθe is aηout . km. Sθenario θorresponds to an extra urηan utilization at the VEIL λull speed that λor this kind oλ vehiθle is limited to km/h. Nevertheless, the study was done θonsiderinμ the sliμhtly hiμher speed oλ km/h, as in Fiμ. θ . In this θase, . h is aηle to θover a . km distanθe ηetween home and work in the morninμ and the same distanθe in the eveninμ, to return ηaθk home almost . km, in total . For the θonsidered test θyθles, the request initial-aθθeleration perλormanθes are deλined as aθθeleratinμ the EV λrom standstill to km/h in s, to km/h in s and km/h in s, λor the ECE θyθle, and λrom standstill to km/h in s, λor NEDC θyθle. The most demand‐ inμ situation θonsidered is then the rd period oλ aθθeleration in the ECE- θyθle, where it is neθessary to reaθh km/h in s. For the sourθes, several diλλerent types oλ ηatteries were θonsidered with the main θharaθteris‐ tiθs shown in Taηle , and SCs and PV panels with the θharaθteristiθs shown in Taηle . The presented priθes in Taηles and are only indiθative, as they θorrespond to the market priθes oηtained λor the projeθt quantities. They miμht deθrease siμniλiθantly λor ηiμ quantities.

Battery

Manufacturer

NVxBS

Capacity[Ah]

Total

Mass

Vol.

Approx. Cost

energy[kWh]

[kg]

[dm3]

[€]

Pbacid

-

12 x 8 = 96V

27.5

3.95

159.2

69.5

1200

Li-ion

SAFT

10.8x9=97.2V

80

7.8

72.0

50.9

(>>18000)

SAFT

12 x 8 = 96 V

2 x 13.5(@ 2C)

2.9

48.0

27.2

2200

SAFT

12 x 8 = 96 V

4 x 13.5(@ 2C)

5.8

96

54.4

4400

Li-ion3

Th”nde‘ Sky

3.2 x 30= 96 V

60 (@ 0.3C)

5.76

75.0

45.25

3671

Li-ion3

Th”nde‘ Sky

3.2 x 30= 96 V

90 (@ 0.3C)

8.64

96.0

65

4235

NiMH-VH mod”le1 NiMH-VH mod”le2,3

NV: nominal vol“age; BS: n”mbe‘ of ba““e‘ie’ in ’e‘ie’. Fo‘ Li-ion, “he val”e >>18000 , wa’ a 2006 q”o“a“ion fo‘ a ’pecific ba““e‘y model; “he o“he‘ val”e’ a‘e fo‘ new p‘od”c“’ in “he ma‘ke“, end of 2008 p‘ice’. 1 Val”e’ p‘e’en“ed fo‘ “wo ba““e‘y bank’ in pa‘allel; 2Val”e’ p‘e’en“ed fo‘ fo”‘ ba““e‘y bank’ in pa‘allel; 3New op“ion’ con’ide‘ed fo‘ “he VEIL p‘ojec“.

Table 1. P‘evio”’ly [30] and new con’ide‘ed ba““e‘ie’ “o ob“ain 96 V

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Source

Manufacturer Maxwell

SC’

BMOD0500–E16

Capacitance Voltage

Series Parallel

500 F / 16 V

5

Capacity

2

Manufacturer

Dimensions

Warranted

Series Parallel

Power [W]

L x W [mm] PV A‘‘ay

BP Sola‘ BP MSX 30

616 x 495

5

Approx.

[kg]

Cost [€]

40-65

50

6150

Total Mass

Approx.

[kg]

Cost [€]

15

1200

200.0 F

Panel Source

Operation Total Mass Voltage [V]

1

135

Operation Voltage [V] 84-105

Table 2. Cha‘ac“e‘i’“ic’ of SC’ and PV panel’

One partiθular θase θorresponds to eaθh type oλ ηatteries. Eaθh one oλ these θases, Case “ to Case F, θonsiders diλλerent possiηle θomηinations λor ”atteries ”at , SCs and PVs, takinμ in‐ to aθθount the diλλerent weiμhts oλ the sourθes used, as shown in Taηle .

Case

Bat. Type

Only Bat. Bat.+SC 1 Bat.+PV Bat.+PV+SC 1

A

NiMH VH mod”le (2 bank’)

432.0 kg

485.0 kg 447.0 kg

500.0 kg

B

Pbacid

543.2 kg

596.2 kg 558.2 kg

611.2 kg

C

Li-ion

456.0 kg

509.0 kg 471.0 kg

524.0 kg

D

NiMH VH mod”le (4 bank’)

480.0 kg

533.0 kg 495.0 kg

548.0 kg

E

Li-ion

459.0 kg

512.0 kg 474.0 kg

527.0 kg

F

Li-ion

480.0 kg

533.0 kg 495.0 kg

548.0 kg

A 3 kg weigh“ inc‘ea’e wa’ con’ide‘ed fo‘ “he SC’ DC/DC conve‘“e‘ and o“he‘ a’’ocia“‐ ed eq”ipmen“. Ca’e’ D-F ‘ep‘e’en“ new ene‘gy ’o”‘ce con’ide‘ed.

1

Table 3. Vehicle ma’’ wi“h diffe‘en“ ’o”‘ce’

. . Calculation and results Usinμ the previously presented λormulation, several relevant quantities θan ηe θalθulated. To implement the model, Matlaη/Simulink® was used [

] and the θharaθteristiθs oλ the eleθ‐

triθal drive, the transmission ratio oλ the μearηox i =

, the wheel radius r =

load vehiθle mass m =

kμ/m @

CΓ= . = .

kμ , the air density

= .

θm , the

ºC , the draμ θoeλλiθient

, the λrontal projeθtion area “F= . m , the θoeλλiθient oλ rollinμ resistanθe , and the total moment oλ inertia assoθiated to the vehiθle JT= .

rr

kμ/m were taken

into aθθount. The slippinμ oλ the wheels, λor the θontrol purposes, is not θonsidered.

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

. . . Pτwκr τσ ωνκ wνκκρψ aσd pτwκr iσ ωνκ ψτurθκψ To properly size the power sourθe to supply the VEIL prototype, the μloηal power θhain should ηe θonsidered, as shown in Fiμ. , i.e., inθludinμ the θorrespondinμ losses, θonsider‐ inμ the ωτω oλ the powertrain all θomponents' eλλiθienθy, ηetween the power supply and the wheels , μiven ηy .

Figure 8. Powe‘ flow diag‘am’ fo‘ global ’y’“em EV: a) T‘ac“ion Mode; b) Regene‘a“ive Mode.

To θalθulate the power needed λrom the eleθtriθ sourθes, Pκ, μiven ηy , λor the VEIL θase, the eλλiθienθy oλ the μearηox μη , the eλλiθienθy oλ the eleθtriθ motor κm , the eλλiθienθy oλ the Variaηle Frequenθy Drive VFD VFΓ and the eλλiθienθy oλ the DC/DC θonverter ΓC had to ηe θonsidered. In traθtion mode, ωτω in ηeθomes ωτωT μiven ηy hωτωT = h μη ´ hκm ´ hVFΓ ´ h ΓC

“nd when the EV is in the ηreakinμ mode, to θalθulate the enerμy that θan ηe stored in and reθovered λrom the SCs, the powertrain power or enerμy reθover eλλiθienθy ωτωR has to take into aθθount also the eλλiθienθy oλ the SCs SC , ηoth λor θharμe and disθharμe hωτωR = h μη ´ hκm ´ hVFΓ ´ h ΓC ´ hSC

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

For the VEIL θomponents, the averaμe eλλiθienθies in and %* %* %* % ≈ % and ωτωR = %* %* %* %* % ≈ very diλλerent λrom those expeθted oλ a near λuture typiθal EV.

are respeθtively ωτωT = %. These values are not

This θlearly shows the need to θareλully θhoose the θomponents, as all the enerμy θhain eλλi‐ θienθy is stronμly inλluenθed ηy the less eλλiθient θomponent. For example, in Fiμ. λor the θyθle ECE- , the meθhaniθal power needed on the wheels Power Demand€, Pu , μiven ηy , the eleθtriθ power to ηe supplied ηy the eleθtriθ sourθes Eleθtriθ Power Demand€, Pκ , μiven ηy and also the Total Reμenerative Power€ availaηle on the wheels and the power that λor the present θase study θan ηe reθovered λrom the SCs, the Eλλeθtive Reμenerative Power€ aηout % oλ the Total Reμenerative Power availaηle on the wheels , is presented.

Figure 9. ECE 15 powe‘ demand and available ‘egene‘a“ive powe‘ on “he wheel’ and on “he powe‘ ’o”‘ce’.

It is also important to notiθe that, even thouμh there are not experimental results λor all the θases θonsidered, the simulated results λor the eleθtriθ power demand at km/h θonstant speed zoom on Fiμ. , . kW, are in very μood aθθordanθe with the measured ones, . kW [ ], whiθh validates the model used, λor a hiμh level daily enerμy study. Nevertheless, it should also ηe pointed out that to study the system response, a muθh more detailed study has to ηe perλormed with more aθθurate θomponent models and smaller time step sθales [ ], and to manaμe the enerμy sourθes, a real time multiple enerμy sourθe monitorinμ sys‐ tem has to ηe used [ ].

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. . . Sωudy τλ ωνκ κλλiθiκσθy pτwκrωraiσ iσλρuκσθκ Usinμ the presented λormulation with the diλλerent eleθtriθal enerμy sourθe θomηinations oλ PV array, SC and ”atteries, and the diλλerent sθenarios λor typiθal drive journeys, as ex‐ plained in Seθtion , the availaηle enerμy, Wavaiρ, was θalθulated with λor s steps λor a typiθal h period. “s initial θonditions, the ηatteries were θonsidered λully θharμed and the SCs θompletely disθharμed. For the solar enerμy, the averaμe hourly statistiθs λor direθt normal solar radiation [Wh/m²] λor the last years at the projeθt loθation, Coimηra, was used. The PV array eλλiθienθy mod‐ el was used to θompute the μloηal μenerated enerμy ηy the panels on a typiθal day oλ two diλλerent months, Novemηer and “uμust, with the minimum and maximum solar radiation, respeθtively. To aθθount λor the near horizontal position oλ the PV panels, as well as λor some undesiraηle aspeθts like the diλλerent solar panels orientation μivinμ oriμin to nonuniλorm irradiation , and the eλλeθts oλ the ηuildinμs and trees shadows, a depreθiation oλ % on the normal irradiation was θonsidered. When the θar is movinμ, the PV enerμy θan ηe direθtly used ηy the powertrain, deθreasinμ the amount oλ enerμy supplied ηy the ηatter‐ ies. When the θar is parked, the PV enerμy is stored in the ηatteries. “s the θharμe θurrent, around “, is muθh smaller than any oλ the θonsidered ηatteries typiθal θharμe θurrents, the ηatteries~ losses were neμleθted. The expeθted aθθumulated enerμy varies ηetween Wh and Wh a day, dependinμ on the θonsidered month, and supposinμ that the driver θan λind a sunny and μood oriented parkinμ plaθe. In Fiμ. the results λor Case “ and Case C are θompared λor sθenario x xECE θyθles and with or without θonsiderinμ the eλλiθienθy oλ the θomponents on the power/enerμy θhain. From the enerμy manaμement and sourθes θomparison points oλ view sometimes it is only θon‐ sidered the enerμy at the wheels [ ]-[ ]. However, as θan ηe seen λrom these two μraphs, λor the sourθes or autonomy sizinμ it is λundamental to θonsider the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ all the en‐ erμy θhain. For example, λrom Fiμ. a it θould ηe said that usinμ only the NiMH ηatteries and SCs the travel oλ work-return home θould ηe aθθomplished θurve , with a sliμhtly positive value at the end oλ the journey ηut θonsiderinμ the ωτω it θan ηe seen that it is not possiηle in any θase, not even with the help oλ the PV panels θurve . Comparinμ θurves and , it θan also ηe seen that the inλluenθe oλ the reμenerative ηreakinμ enerμy is muθh smaller only nearly % ª % ª ωτωT ª oλ this enerμy return ηaθk to ωτωR ª reaθh and θan ηe extraθted λrom the SCs, and only the wheels, whiθh μives an overall reθovery oλ . %, λrom wheel-to-wheel λor the present EV θomponents . . . . Sωudy τλ pτψψiηρκ ψuiωaηρκ ψτρuωiτσψ λτr ωνκ auωτστmy τηjκθωivκψ: σκw Li-iτσ ηaωωκriκψ Caψκψ Δ&F

NiMH ηaσπψ Caψκ Γ vψ

To study possiηle suitaηle solutions λor the autonomy oηjeθtives, three new solutions were θonsidered Case D, where the dupliθation oλ the present two NiMH ηattery ηanks to λour ηanks was θonsidered, and Case E and F, usinμ Li-ion ηatteries that more reθently appeared in the market. The relevant quantities were θalθulated λor all the six θases in Taηle λor eaθh one oλ the three θonsidered displaθement sθenarios, and with and without θonsiderinμ the θomponents eλλiθienθy.

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The Wavaiρ evolution θonsiderinμ ωτω ωτωT and, when appliθaηle, ωτωR , is presented in Fiμ. and , λor Case D and Case F, respeθtively. These λiμures θontain a lot oλ inλormation λrom where some important θonθlusions θould ηe extraθted. Some oλ them will now ηe presented. The Sθenario is the one θorrespondinμ to the most likely utilization oλ a small urηan eleθ‐ triθ vehiθle. From the Wavaiρ evolution in Fiμ. a , it θan ηe θonθluded that even usinμ the λour NiMH small ηattery paθks, it is only possiηle to drive the vehiθle ηaθk home λor Sθenar‐ io , usinμ the θomηination ”at+SCs+PVs. The other two sθenarios Sθenarios with . km, and with nearly km are not possiηle to θarry out with these ηatteries quantity. For Case F, usinμ a diλλerent θomηination oλ Li-ion ηatteries, PV panels and SCs, it θan ηe θonθluded λrom Fiμ. a that λor Sθenario , the ηatteries alone are suλλiθient to drive the km planned λor the journey. However, the ηatteries would ηe almost depleted SOC ηelow % , whiθh is danμerous in terms oλ autonomy reserve or in θase oλ unηalanθed ηatteries, ηesides ηeinμ severe λor the ηatteries liλe time. Furthermore, λor Case F the values presented λor the Li-ion ηatteries~ θapaθity are λor . C that implies a “ disθharμe, whiθh is a quite low value λor ηiμμer disθharμe rates the θa‐ paθity will θertainly ηe siμniλiθantly lower. It is then θonθluded that the utilization oλ PVs or SCs θould overθome these issues. The SCs also will inθrease the EV dynamiθ perλormanθes the ηatteries~ eλλiθienθy and liλe time are also improved. For the NEDCs in Fiμ. η , it θan ηe seen that the θhosen ηatteries alone do not have enouμh enerμy and so it is θlear that the ηest option with that ηatteries is to use ”at+PV+SCs even λor Novemηer, the SOC at the end oλ the trip would ηe around % . However not even with ”at+PV+SCs, is it possiηle to drive Sθenario with this ηattery paθk.

Figure 10. a) Available ene‘gy fo‘ Ca’e A (NiMH ba““e‘ie’) and diffe‘en“ efficiency con’ide‘a“ion; b) Available ene‘gy fo‘ Ca’e C (Li-ion ba““e‘ie’) and diffe‘en“ efficiency con’ide‘a“ion.

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Figure 11. Available ene‘gy fo‘ Ca’e D (NiMH ba““e‘ie’ – Fo”‘ bank’) and 3 diffe‘en“ mobili“y ’cena‘io’.

Comparinμ the μraphiθs a , η and θ in Fiμ.

and

, it θan also ηe seen that the relative

importanθe oλ the reμeneration, i.e. oλ the SCs, deθreases. Indeed, as λor the

km/h θte

μraphiθs θ , the reμenerative ηrakinμ enerμy is neμliμiηle, and it is also θlear that the SCs do not ηrinμ any advantaμe in reality, it is the θontrary the weiμht inθrease due to the SCs, as‐ soθiated eleθtroniθs and support struθtures, inθreases the enerμy θonsumption, deθreasinμ the Wavaiρ relative to the ηatteries-only solution. It θan also ηe θonθluded that λor extra urηan utilization the θorreθt θhoiθe is to add more ηattery paθks. This θonθlusion is reμardless the ηatteries or SCs priθes.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Figure 12. Available ene‘gy fo‘ Ca’e F (Li-ion 90 Ah@ 0.3C) and 3 diffe‘en“ mobili“y ’cena‘io’.

Finally, a very important part oλ the reμenerative ηreakinμ enerμy θan ηe reθovered usinμ SCs. In spite oλ their present hiμh θost, whiθh is expeθted to deθrease in a near λuture, a μen‐ eral θonθlusion is that the reμenerative ηrakinμ reθoverinμ is partiθularly important λor ur‐ ηan traλλiθ. This λundamental aspeθt implies multiple enerμy sourθes hyηridization and a μloηal enerμy manaμement system.

. Hierarchical management concept suitable for multiple sources EVs Reθently, some authors [ ]-[ ] have studied the enerμy storaμe manaμement in EVs λo‐ θused on online θontrol and optimization. In [ ], the authors use the Enerμetiθ Maθrosθopiθ Representation to deλine and implement diλλerent strateμies λor hyηrid enerμy storaμe sys‐ tems λor EVs. In [ ] and [ ], stoθhastiθ dynamiθ proμramminμ is used to determine an en‐ erμy manaμement strateμy λor online θontrol oλ the power λlows durinμ operation θonsiderinμ the stoθhastiθ inλluenθes oλ traλλiθ and driver ηehavior. In [ ], an optimal online power manaμement strateμy is developed usinμ maθhine learninμ and λuzzy loμiθ in order to minimize enerμy sourθes~ power losses.

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Thereηy analyzinμ the results presented in Seθtion . , it is θlear that hyηridization oλ a mul‐ tiple enerμy sourθes λor eleθtriθ vehiθles presents a set oλ requirements λor a μloηal enerμy manaμement system resultinμ essentially in an enerμy and power manaμement proηlem, with several time sθales to deλine implementaηle solutions λor sharinμ enerμy and power ηe‐ tween the seleθted sourθes with diλλerent power and enerμy θharaθteristiθs. The manaμement θonθept is ηased on the use oλ all availaηle resourθes to oηtain the desired result eλλiθiently, whiθh implies an eλλeθtive use and espeθially the θoordination oλ all availa‐ ηle resourθes to aθhieve the oηjeθtives with maximum eλλiθienθy. Thus, the manaμement θonθept λoθuses on the orμanization oλ all proθesses, λrom the point oλ view oλ lonμ termaθtion, always θonsiderinμ the short-term one. Henθe, a μloηal proθess manaμement system it is neθessary that involves diλλerent levels to λorm a strateμiθ vision, deλininμ oηjeθtives and identiλyinμ a strateμy, whiθh will then ηe implemented and imposed. From this deλinition, there is the appliθaηility oλ this θonθept to the enerμy and power manaμement systems usinμ multiple enerμy sourθes. . . Classic hierarchical management structure Typiθally, an overall manaμement struθture θonsists oλ several levels or layers with a hier‐ arθhiθally well-deλined θhain, as shown in Fiμ. , or even a hierarθhiθal θommand θhain. To aθhieve a θommon μoal, several aμents or deθision proθesses, at eaθh level oλ this hierarθhy, are to reθeive and perλorm very diλλerent tasks, espeθially with diλλerent time, ηut always with a θollaηorative point oλ view. It is reθoμnized that the hiμhest level oλ this hierarθhy is mainly responsiηle λor the hiμh level μuidelines that inλluenθe lonμ-term oηjeθtives oλ the proθess. The direθtives listed in hiμh level manaμement are thereλore reλerred to the deθision proθess at intermediate level. However, the lonμ-term μuidelines, aθhieved throuμh the im‐ plementation oλ these direθtives, do not need to ηe well deλined or known in the suηsequent levels. ”ut it is essential that the intermediate level reθeive enouμh inλormation λrom the hiμh-level proθess to make a deθision that meets its oηjeθtives while respeθtinμ the μuide‐ lines oλ the partiθular level oλ superior μuidanθe. Likewise, the hiμher hierarθhiθal level manaμement does not require detailed inλormation on the partiθular oηjeθtives oλ the inter‐ mediate level, and how to exeθute their lonμ-term orientations. “θθordinμ to the μuidelines and restriθtions imposed ηy manaμement level, the medium level takes deθisions almost θontinuously aλλeθtinμ the system operations ηased on pre-es‐ taηlished poliθies manaμement. The θontent oλ the taθtiθal manaμement level deθisions are more interventionist, whiθh leads to a shorter periodiθity deθision as θompared to the hiμh level manaμement. Thereλore, at a periodiθ λrame, the upper level may rethink its θurrent strateμy and its lonμ-term μoals, and as a result, amend its μuidelines, whiθh are θommuni‐ θated to the medium level so that its deθisions take plaθe. The update rate oλ these deθisions is μreater than the θhanμe rate oλ the hiμh level μuidelines. The tasks that θarry out the implementation oλ very speθiλiθ μuidelines λor a μloηal system are deλined as low level manaμement in θlassiθ manaμement hierarθhy. The low level man‐ aμement takes quiθk loθal deθisions whiθh direθtly inλluenθe the proθess usinμ as ηounda‐ ries the deθisions handed down ηy the medium level manaμement. The aθtion λrequenθy at

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

the operational level, the lowest manaμement level, is muθh hiμher than the λrequenθy oλ re‐ newal deθisions oλ the hiμher levels.

Figure 13. Cla’’ic hie‘a‘chical managemen“.

The diλλerent deθision levels in the hierarθhiθal manaμement struθture, shown in Fiμ. , λor a μiven system or proθess, enaηles to θlearly deλine the overall oηjeθtives, the λrequen‐ θy oλ deθisions lonμ, medium, and short term and λorms oλ interaθtion ηetween the vari‐ ous levels. The modular orμanization oλ this strateμy approaθh allows an easy and rapid modiλiθation in eaθh module independently without the proθess manaμement restruθtura‐ tion. Eaθh manaμement module is responsiηle λor a speθiλiθ purpose deλined and is striθt‐ ly responsiηle λor its deθisions and sendinμ deθisions/orientations to the down module oλ the deθision θhain. This hierarθhiθal manaμement struθture θonθept provides a systematiθ dissemination and si‐ multaneously evaluates the proθess to manaμe. Given their diλλerent nature, the μuidelines, deθisions and implementations will inevitaηly have diλλerent θadenθe deθision, in whiθh eaθh level shall take its deθisions with diλλerent θadenθes, and must ηe synθhronized in time so that no mismatθh θan oθθur ηetween the various modules. Thus, the hiμh level responsi‐ ηle λor diθtatinμ the lonμ-term strateμy will have a reλresh rate oλ its oηjeθtives slower than the deθision level intermediate taθtiθal maker that will deθide several times durinμ one θyθle oλ the upper module. The lower level has a responsiηility to produθe reaθtions in a very short time, and sθarθely have an instant response to any θhanμe in the ηehavior oλ the proθ‐ ess within the μuidelines oλ deθision's modules loθated hierarθhiθally aηove. Thereλore, the overall proθess oλ manaμement is divided into three deθision modules with diλλerent respon‐ siηilities and diλλerent times λor the revaluation oλ its deθisions. The diλλerentiated step θonθept oλ the deθision ηased on eaθh deθision module is illustrated in Fiμ. . “s shown in this Fiμure, multiple implementations oλ the low level module oθθur

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ηeλore the intermediate level module makes a λurther deθision, and θonsequently, several deθisions oλ the same level oθθur ηeλore a new μuideline θonsideration is provided ηy the hiμh level module. . . Architecture and hierarchy of the energy management system for hybridized EV It should ηe notiθed that when applyinμ the hierarθhiθal manaμement to orμanizations or θom‐ panies, a striθt sθhedule time to make deθision is not λundamental. However, λor the appliθaηili‐ ty oλ this θonθept to the partiθular proηlem oλ multiple enerμy sourθes manaμement, the θonθept oλ the θlassiθ hierarθhiθal manaμement methodoloμy λor a modular manaμement, where deθi‐ sions are made in a disθrete and deterministiθ way, is mandatory. This is presented in Fiμ. .

Figure 14. Tempo‘al o‘ganiza“ion of “he deci’ion’ in a hie‘a‘chical managemen“ ’y’“em.

“s evidenθed, the modular hierarθhiθal manaμement methodoloμy has various θonθepts that θan ηe modeled and adapted to projeθt enerμy manaμement systems in μeneral and par‐ tiθularly to the manaμement oλ multiple sourθes. This approaθh θlearly demonstrates that a μloηal manaμement proθess with simultaneous oηjeθtives lonμ, medium and short term θan ηe divided into several smaller proθesses, where eaθh proθess has one or more well de‐ λinaηle tasks. The λaθt to distinμuish perλeθtly the natural interθonneθtions ηetween the sev‐ eral manaμement modules with diλλerent time sθales should also ηe stressed. This struθture has partiθular interest to the enerμy manaμement proηlem oλ the EV multiple sourθes, and this question θannot ηe dissoθiated λrom a θorreθt power sharinμ oλ the emηedded sourθes or enerμy storaμe. The θlosed relationship ηetween the power P and the enerμy W due to those parameters are simply related to eaθh other ηy a sinμle parameter, the time ω . The relationship ηetween two quantities is θharaθterized ηy . P=

dW dω

⇔ W = ∫P dω

From , the enerμy is simply the θumulative use oλ power over a period oλ time. Thus, in a direθt way and searθhinμ λor a solution λor the enerμy and power manaμement, the man‐ aμement oλ enerμy θan ηe assoθiated to the hierarθhiθally hiμher one than the power one.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

”ased on the presented hierarθhiθal manaμement θonθept and its adaptaηility to the multi‐ ple enerμy sourθes EV manaμement, a θomplete on-line enerμy manaμement system arθhi‐ teθture λor dual-sourθe EV is presented in Fiμ. , with the introduθtion oλ diλλerent manaμement levels.

Figure 15. A‘chi“ec“”‘e and hie‘a‘chy of “he ene‘gy managemen“ ’y’“em fo‘ a d”al-’o”‘ce EV ’y’“em.

The λormulation oλ the EV enerμy manaμement proηlem with multiple sourθes, with partiθ‐ ular emphasis on urηan θirθuits, is primarily ηased on three λundamental oηjeθtives λor the θorreθt EV operations. The μloηal results oλ the manaμement have to maximize the use oλ the sourθe that ηest suits the powertrain power demand answerinμ the driver and route require‐ ments. The listed oηjeθtives λor this proηlem are Lonμ-Term Planninμ enerμy manaμe‐ ment , responsiηle λor the deλinition oλ an overall manaμement strateμy to produθe a set oλ μuidelines to θonsider in the deθisions oλ lower manaμement levels Short-Term Planninμ power manaμement , whose main λunθtion is the deλinition oλ aθtions that will lead the lower level to produθe the reλerenθe siμnals to θontrol and perλorm the wanted operations, and λinally, the Prompt Exeθution operational θontrol , responsiηle λor the θontrol siμnals μeneration in order to implement the μuidelines and direθtives oλ the two hiμher levels and θommand the power eleθtroniθ θonverters. Thus, usinμ a top-down approaθh, the λirst oηjeθ‐ tive deλines a μloηal strateμy and thereλore deλines the μuidelines and restriθtions that re‐ striθt the deθision spaθe oλ the seθond manaμement level, whiθh toμether diθtate rules to produθe θontrol siμnals that will θontrol the DC/DC θonverters [ ] [ ], as presented in the ηloθs diaμram oλ Fiμ. . Only an approaθh ηased on enerμy and power manaμement throuμh a hierarθhiθal struθ‐ ture, usinμ various manaμement modules with diλλerent responsiηilities, may lead us to oη‐

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New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

tain the μood enerμy eλλiθienθy results presented in Seθtion . . These results were aθhieved θonsiderinμ an optimized manaμement system λor on-line enerμy and power manaμement. “lthouμh hyηridization oλ multiple sourθes and enerμy manaμement topiθs are still open to λurther study, in the present work we attempted to suμμest some wide θhallenμes and de‐ sθriηe new researθh opportunities in order to oηtain an eλλeθtive enerμy manaμement system λor multiple enerμy sourθes eleθtriθ vehiθle.

. Conclusions The emphasis oλ the presented work is on the multiple enerμy sourθes hyηridization λor EVs. “ θomparative study on the impaθt oλ the utilization oλ diλλerent enerμy sourθes, name‐ ly diλλerent types oλ ηatteries, SCs and PV panels, λor diλλerent θommon sθenarios oλ daily use was done. The importanθe oλ θonsiderinμ the eλλiθienθy oλ all the enerμy θhain in the EV was also θlearly shown. Simulation results λor the VEIL Projeθt powered ηy a mix oλ enerμy sourθes were presented and analyzed. “t projeθt start, small NiMH modules seemed to ηe a μood option λor a typi‐ θal urηan utilization. However, with the Li-ion priθe deθrease, some apparently more inter‐ estinμ solutions appeared in the market. It was shown that the reμenerative ηrakinμ enerμy θan ηe quite important in urηan drivinμ, toμether with the PV utilization when a typiθal home-work-home journey is λoreθast, with lonμ outdoor parked periods. This leads to the need oλ sourθes hyηridization λor urηan utilization. ”esides the ranμe extension, the PV uti‐ lization θan also supplement the lonμ-term ηatteries selλ-disθharμe, and in some θases avoid the need oλ a θharμe durinμ the day, whiθh θan ηe partiθularly relevant in terms oλ enerμy θost λor the EV owner and λor μrid enerμy manaμement, espeθially ηy deθreasinμ the need λor λast θharμes. The presented methodoloμy, whiθh is quite simple to apply and extend to any EV, θan ηe λollowed λor the θorreθt sizinμ and θhoiθe oλ the enerμy sourθes to use, de‐ pendinμ on the assumed utilization, and also to estimate what will ηe the EV autonomy or its aηility to perλorm diλλerent utilizations. This θan ηe used to θustomize the EV enerμy sourθes λor the θlient needs and desires. Finally, to allow eλλeθtive multiple enerμy sourθes hyηridization, the arθhiteθture oλ a three level hierarθhiθ enerμy manaμement system λor a dual-sourθe EV was proposed. This sys‐ tem, with its simulation and hardware implementation has ηeen under development ηy the authors showinμ promisinμ results.

Acknowledgements This work was supported in part ηy the Sθienθe and Teθhnoloμy Foundation under Grant SFRH/”D/ / and projeθt Grant PTDC/EE“-EEL/ / and FCOMP- FEDER.

M”l“iple Ene‘gy So”‘ce’ Hyb‘idiza“ion: The F”“”‘e of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’? h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53359

Author details Paulo G. Pereirinha

, ,

and João P. Trovão ,

Department oλ Eleθtriθal Enμineerinμ, Polyteθhniθ Institute oλ Coimηra, IPC-ISEC, Rua Pe‐ dro Nunes, Coimηra, Portuμal Institute λor Systems and Computers Enμineerinμ at Coimηra - R&D Unit INESC Coimηra, Rua “ntero de Quental , Coimηra, Portuμal Portuμuese Eleθtriθ Vehiθle “ssoθiation, Lisηon, Portuμal

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] Paulo G. Pereirinha, João P. Trovão, L. Marques, M. Silva, J. Silvestre, F. Santos “d‐ vanθes in the Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Projeθt-VEIL Used as a Modular Platλorm λor Researθh and Eduθation€, EVS International ”attery, Hyηrid and Fuel Cell Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Symposium, Stavanμer, Norway, - May .

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] Hori, Y, Toyoda, Y., Tsuruoka, Y Traθtion Control oλ Eleθtriθ Vehiθle ”asiθ Experi‐ mental Results Usinμ the Test EV ª UOT Eleθtriθ Marθh€, IEEE Transaθtions on In‐ dustry “ppliθations, Vol. , n. , Septemηer/Oθtoηer .

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] João P. Trovão Paulo G. Pereirinha Humηerto M. Jorμe "“nalysis oλ operation modes λor a neiμhηorhood eleθtriθ vehiθle with power sourθes hyηridization," IEEE Vehiθle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe VPPC , pp. - , - Sept. .

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] João P. Trovão Paulo G. Pereirinha Humηerto M. Jorμe "Simulation model and road tests θomparative results oλ a small urηan eleθtriθ vehiθle," th “nnual Conλerenθe oλ IEEE Industrial Eleθtroniθs, . IECON ' , pp. , - Nov. .

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and Eduθation€, EVS International ”attery, Hyηrid and Fuel Cell Eleθtriθ Vehiθle Symposium, Stavanμer, Norway, - May . [

] João P. Trovão, Paulo G. Pereirinha, Fernando J. T. E. Ferreira, Comparative Study oλ Diλλerent Eleθtriθ Maθhines in the Powertrain oλ a Small Eleθtriθ Vehiθle€, th In‐ ternational Conλerenθe on Eleθtriθal Maθhines, ICEM' , Vilamoura, Portuμal, Septemηer .

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] Marθo Silva, João P. Trovão, Paulo Pereirinha, Luís Marques, Multiple enerμy sour‐ θes monitorinμ system λor eleθtriθ vehiθle€, th International Symposium on Power Eleθtroniθs, Eleθtriθal Drives, “utomation and Motion, SPEED“M , Isθhia, Italy, - June .

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] “. L. “llèμre, R. Triμui, “. ”ousθayrol, Diλλerent enerμy manaμement strateμies oλ Hyηrid Enerμy Storaμe System HESS usinμ ηatteries and superθapaθitors λor vehiθ‐ ular appliθations, th IEEE Vehiθle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe, VPPC , Septemηer - , , Lille, Franθe.

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] S. Caux, D. Wanderley-Honda, D. Hissel, M. Fadel On-line enerμy manaμement λor HEV ηased on partiθle swarm optimization, th IEEE Vehiθle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe, VPPC , Septemηer - , , Lille, Franθe.

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] C. ”ordons, M. “. Ridao, “. Pérez, “. “rθe, D. Marθos Model prediθtive θontrol λor power manaμement in hyηrid λuel θell vehiθles, th IEEE Vehiθle Power and Propul‐ sion Conλerenθe, VPPC , Septemηer - , , Lille, Franθe.

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] C. Romaus, K. Gathmann, J. ”öθker Optimal enerμy manaμement λor a hyηrid ener‐ μy storaμe system λor EVs ηased on stoθhastiθ dynamiθ proμramminμ, th IEEE Vehi‐ θle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe, VPPC , Septemηer - , , Lille, Franθe.

[

] Sθott J. Moura, Dunθan S. Callaway, Hosam K. Fathy, Jeλλrey L. Stein, Tradeoλλs ηe‐ tween ηattery enerμy θapaθity and stoθhastiθ optimal power manaμement in pluμ-in hyηrid eleθtriθ vehiθles, Journal oλ Power Sourθes, Volume , Issue , May , Paμes .

[

] Yi L. Murphey, ZhiHanμ Chen, Leonidas Kiliaris, M. “ηul Masrur, Intelliμent power manaμement in a vehiθular system with multiple power sourθes, Journal oλ Power Sourθes, Volume , Issue , January , Paμes .

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] R. de Castro, R. João P. Trovão P. Paθheθo P. Melo Paulo G. Pereirinha R. E. “rau‐ jo "DC link θontrol λor multiple enerμy sourθes in eleθtriθ vehiθles," IEEE Vehi‐ θle Power and Propulsion Conλerenθe VPPC , pp. - , - Sept. .

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] Mário “. Silva, João P. Trovão, Paulo G. Pereirinha "Implementation oλ a multiple input DC-DC θonverter λor Eleθtriθ Vehiθle power system," Proθeedinμs oλ the rd International Youth Conλerenθe on Enerμetiθs IYCE , pp. - , - July .

Chapter 9

Investigation and Analysis of the Mechanical Behaviors of the Electric Vehicles Liang Zheng Addi“ional info‘ma“ion i’ available a“ “he end of “he chap“e‘ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53275

. Introduction “n eleθtriθ vehiθle EV , also reλerred to as an eleθtriθ drive vehiθle, uses one or more eleθtriθ motors or traθtion motors λor propulsion. Eleθtriθ vehiθles are ηeinμ widely developed due to their ηetter perλormanθe than the traditional λuel vehiθles in terms oλ environmental pol‐ lution and enerμy θonsumption [ - ]. However, θomparinμ with the traditional petroleum vehiθles, the relatively short drivinμ distanθe oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle is the main hindranθe to prevail. To improve the perλormanθe oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle and exθel the internal θomηus‐ tion enμine vehiθles, researθh and study need to ηe done. In this θhapter, analyses and appli‐ θations are developed to investiμate the meθhaniθal ηehaviors oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθles suθh that the perλormanθe oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθles θan ηe θonsideraηly improved.

. Investigation of the regenerative braking force in electric vehicles In order to overθome the weakness oλ the short drivinμ distanθe, the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle has to ηe suηstantially improved [ ]. The reμenerative ηrakinμ teθhnoloμy is aηle to θonvert the exθessive kinetiθ enerμy oλ the vehiθle into another λorm, whiθh θan ηe either used immediately or stored until needed [ ]. In this seθtion, the reμenerative ηrakinμ λorθe is analyzed and an optimized θontrol strateμy λor the reμenerative ηrakinμ proθess was proposed ηased on the results oλ the analysis. With the implementation oλ this optimized θontrol strateμy, the enerμy eλλiθienθy oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle θan ηe appreθiaηly improved.

266

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

. . Analysis of the regenerative braking force The amount oλ reθovered enerμy durinμ the ηrakinμ proθess depends on the maμnitude oλ the reμenerative ηrakinμ λorθe. In order to aθhieve the maximum amount oλ reθovered ener‐ μy, the λorθes in the λront and rear tires oλ the vehiθle durinμ the ηrakinμ proθess should ηe analyzed and distriηuted at the optimal level. Fiμure represents a sθhematiθ oλ the vehiθle durinμ the ηrakinμ proθess in whiθh the deθeleration oλ the vehiθle is denoted as j, the μravi‐ tational aθθeleration is denoted ηy μ and the ηrakinμ λorθes in the λront and the rear wheels are denoted as Fxη and Fxη , respeθtively. Forθe Equiliηrium yields Fz = mμ

η j νμ a j νμ and Fz = mμ + L μ L L μ L

The ηrakinμ rate z and the adhesion θoeλλiθient Φi are deλined as z=

F j and F i = xηi μ Fzi

V

j Mg

mj hg

Fxb2 Fz2

Fxb1

b

a L

Fz1

Figure 1. Schema“ic of “he vehicle d”‘ing “he b‘aking p‘oce’’.

In μeneral, there are three diλλerent sθenarios due to the various distriηution oλ the ηrakinμ λorθes in the λront and rear wheels i ηoth the λront and rear wheels are loθked at the same time ii the λront wheels are loθked whereas the rear wheels are unloθked and iii the rear wheels are loθked whereas the λront wheels are unloθked.

Inve’“iga“ion and Analy’i’ of “he Mechanical Behavio‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53275

The λirst sθenario is the ideal θase that has the ηest ηrakinμ eλλeθt. The relationship ηetween the λorθes in the λront and rear wheels θan ηe derived and expressed as Fxη =

é mμ νμ L mμη ê η + F + Fxη ê νμ mμ xη νμ ë

ù ú ú û

The seθond sθenario is a danμerous θase in whiθh the vehiθle loses the steerinμ θapaηility ηut it won~t ηe rolled over. The relationship ηetween the λorθes in the λront and rear wheels in this sθenario θan ηe shown as Fxη = Fxη

L - F νμ F νμ

-

mμη νμ

The third sθenario is an extremely danμerous θase in whiθh a rollover may ηe oθθurred. The relationship ηetween the λorθes in the λront and rear wheels in this θase θan ηe derived and written as

Braking force in the rear wheel Fxb2

Fxη =

F mμa - νμ Fxη L + F νμ

Equal Braking Rate

R curve

I curve

F curve

Braking force in the front wheel Fxb1

Figure 2. Plo“’ ‘ep‘e’en“ “he ‘ela“ion’hip’ be“ween “he b‘aking fo‘ce’ in “he f‘on“ and ‘ea‘ wheel’.

”ased on Eqs. ~ , the relationships ηetween λorθes in the λront and rear wheels oλ the eleθtriθ vehiθle in these three diλλerent sθenarios θan ηe plotted and shown in Fiμ. . I θurve, as illustrated with red dark θolor, represents the λirst sθenario i.e., the ideal θase the seθ‐

267

268

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

ond sθenario is represented ηy a series oλ F θurves and R θurves represent the third sθenario whiθh is the extremely danμerous θase. The aηove analysis reveals that the distriηution oλ the ηrakinμ λorθes ηetween the λront and rear wheels plays the θruθial role on the ηrakinμ perλormanθe oλ the vehiθle. In order to en‐ sure the ηrakinμ saλety oλ the vehiθle, United Nations Eθonomiθ Commission λor Europe UNECE estaηlished a reμulation ECE R whiθh striθtly reμulates the distriηution ranμe oλ the ηrakinμ λorθes ηetween the λront and rear wheels, as shown in Fiμ. [ ]. The horizon‐ tal axis z represents the ηrakinμ ratio, and the vertiθal axis π is the adhesion θoeλλiθient ηe‐ tween the tire and the road in the λiμure.

Figure 3. Diag‘am ‘ep‘e’en“ing “he b‘aking ‘eq”i‘emen“’ ’“a“ed in ECE R13 [6].

“θθordinμ to ECE R sults in

, the adhesion θoeλλiθient needs to satisλy k< z+ .

Fxη + Fxη = mμz and Fxη =

z+ . .

×

/ .

, whiθh re‐

mμ η + zνμ L

The ηrakinμ ratio z θan ηe vanished and it yields Fxη + Fxη mμL

+

Fxη + Fxη η+ . L

νμ +

.

mμη - . L

Fxη =

In addition, the adhesion θoeλλiθient oλ the rear wheel has to ηe less than that oλ the λront wheel to avoid the oθθurrenθe oλ the extremely danμerous sθenario. This means

Inve’“iga“ion and Analy’i’ of “he Mechanical Behavio‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53275

π =

Fxη F £ π = xη Fz Fz

Þ

η + νμ z Fxη ³ and Fxη + Fxη = mμz Fxη a - νμ z

The ηrakinμ ratio z θan ηe θanθelled and it ηeθomes Fxη =

é mμ νμ L mμη ê η + Fxη + Fxη ê νμ mμ νμ ë

ù ú ú û

whiθh evidently matθhes with the ideal distriηution I θurve.

Braking force in the rear wheel Fxb2

Usinμ Eqs. and , the distriηution ranμe oλ the ηrakinμ λorθes in λront and rear wheels θan ηe plotted and shown in Fiμ. . It θan ηe seen λrom Fiμ. that I θurve represents Eq. and M θurve represents Eq. . The aθθeptaηle ηrakinμ λorθes in the λront and rear wheels should ηe distriηuted ηetween the ranμe enθlosed ηy I θurve and M θurve, aθθordinμ to the teθhniθal requirements stated in ECE R .

I curve

Distribution Range of the braking forces

M curve Braking force in the front wheel Fxb1 Figure 4. The di’“‘ib”“ion ‘ange of “he b‘aking fo‘ce’ in f‘on“ and ‘ea‘ wheel’, ’a“i’fying ECE R13.

. . An optimized control strategy of the regenerative braking ”ased on the analysis developed in the previous seθtion, an optimized θontrol strateμy oλ the reμenerative ηrakinμ proθess is proposed in this seθtion. This proposed θontrol strat‐ eμy aims at the λollowinμ three μoals saλety oλ the vehiθle ηrakinμ maximization oλ the reθovered enerμy a simple θontrol system with a low θost oλ manuλaθturinμ. “ λront-wheel drive pure eleθtriθ vehiθle is utilized in this researθh, with the parameters list‐ ed in Taηle .

269

New Gene‘a“ion of Elec“‘ic Vehicle’

Pure Electric Vehicle

AC Induction Motor

Gear Power

Ma’’

1144 kg

D‘ag coefficien“

0.335

Heigh“ of cen“e‘ of ma’’

0.5m

F‘on“al a‘ea

2.0 m2

Wheelba’e

2.6 m

Coefficien“ of ‘olling ‘e’i’“ance

0.009

Di’“ance be“ween cen“e‘ of ma’’ and f‘on“ axle

1.04 m

Radi”’ of “he wheel

0.282 m

Nominal powe‘

75 KW

Nominal ‘o“a“ing ’peed

2640 ‘/min

Maxim”m ‘o“a“ing ’peed

10000 ‘/min

Maxim”m “o‘q”e

271 N·M

Ove‘load fac“o‘

1.8

Gea‘ ‘ed”c“ion ‘a“io

6.6732

Main gea‘ ‘ed”c“ion ‘a“io

1

Lead acid ba““e‘y pack

Table 1. Pa‘ame“e‘’ of “he p”‘e elec“‘ic vehicle ”“ilized in “hi’ ‘e’ea‘ch.

The enerμy due to the reμenerative ηrakinμ θan ηe reθovered when the ηrakinμ rate is ηe‐ tween and . . No enerμy will ηe reθovered when the ηrakinμ rate is hiμher than . . The optimal distriηution oλ the ηrakinμ λorθes ηetween the λront and rear wheels is presented as the OGFC-I θurve shown in Fiμ. .

Equal Braking Rate

R curve

Braking force in the rear wheel Fxb2

270

I curve

F curve M curve

Braking force in the front wheel Fxb1

Figure 5. Op“imized di’“‘ib”“ion c”‘ve of b‘aking fo‘ce’ in f‘on“ and ‘ea‘ wheel’.

Inve’“iga“ion and Analy’i’ of “he Mechanical Behavio‘’ of “he Elec“‘ic Vehicle’ h““p://dx.doi.o‘g/10.5772/53275