Nature Guiding 9781501740862

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NATURE GUIDING

WILLIAM GOULD VINAL Formerly Professor of Nature-Study at the Rhode Island College of Education; now in the New York State College of Forestry at Syracu se University.

ITHACA, N. Y.

THE COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO.

1926

Open access edition funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities/Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book Program. Copyright © 1926 by William Gould Vinal First paperback printing 2019 The text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. To use this book, or parts of this book, in any way not covered by the license, please contact Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. Visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-1-5017-4085-5 (pbk.: alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-5017-4086-2 (pdf) ISBN 978-1-5017-4087-9 (epub/mobi) Librarians: A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

HE

T

PREFACE PERSON who trains for Nature Guiding is dealing with

one of the most difficult and at the same time one of the most enjoyable professions of the world.

not traditional.

It does not have a rut.

fore, must be resourceful.

Nature Guiding is old but The Nature Guide, there­

This book aims to provide a point of view

and considerable material on methods of Nature Guiding.

The

next decade should witness a marked elaboration in the ways or Nature Guiding. During the past fifteen years the writer has been trying out plans of presenting Nature-study in schools and camps. outgrowth of these efforts.

This book is an

The author is deeply indebted to the

hundreds of students, campers, and teachers, who have cooperated throughout the growth of these ideas which have culminated in the publishing of NATURE GUIDING. The term Nature Guide includes not only the government Nature Guide but the Nature Counsellor of the summer camp, the scout naturalist, the many parents who are making an earnest effort to direct their children in nature interests, and the school teacher who is guiding, but not drilling, in Nature-study. Most of the chapters in this book are reproductions of articles published in various educational magazines.

The author wishes to

make the following acknowledgments: To the for Chapters XII, XXIII,

Nature-Study Review

X XIV, XXVI, XXXV, XLIV and parts of

Chapters I, II, and XI.

To the Rhode Island A rbor Day Publi­ cation for Chapters XXV, XL, XLII, and XLIII, and part of Chapter XX. To School News and Practical Educator for Chapters XVI, XVII, XX, XXII, and part of Chapters II, XIX, and XXI.

Popular Educator

To the

for Chapters XXX, XXXI, XXX I I, and part

Chapter XXVIII and XXIX.

To the

Chapters XXVIII and XXIX.

To

of

Primary Educator for parts of the Journal of Geography for

Chapter XXXVII;

Bird Lore for Chapters XLVI, XLVII, and XLVI n ; to the General Science Quarterly for Chapter XXXIII; the Boys Life Magazine for Chapter V; The Nature Magazine for part of Chapter I; The Rhode Island Educational Circular for Chapter L; Camps and Camping for Chapter X; The Camp Fire Guardian for Chapter IV; The Playground for Chapter XLIV and LII I Yosem­ ite Nature Noles for most of Chapter LI; and the Educational Bimonthly for part of Chapter XII. .

Nature Guiding

IV

The author also wishes to thank Dr. Walter E. Ranger, Com­ missioner of Education for the State of Rhode Island, and Mr. W. A. Slingerland, Manager of the Comstock Publishing Company, for the loan of cuts used in their publications, and Mr. William Wessel, Assistant Camp Director of the Boy Scouts of America, for the privilege of taking the pictures of fire building, camp craft, and the outdoor bathtub. Chapter XXVIII, Nature-Study by Grades, was prepared in collaboration with a special committee on science in elementary schools. The writer is indebted to the following who aided with their counsel: Emerson L. Adams, Assistant Commissioner of Public Schools for State of Rhode Island; Dr. John L. Alger, President of Rhode Island College of Education; Harold L. Madison, Curator Children's Museum, Cleveland; and Isaac O . Winslow, Superin­ tendent of Schools, Providence. I cannot conclude this preface without thanking the teachers of the Henry Barnard School, of the Rhode Island College of Education, whose courtesy was unfailing during the many years I worked with them. I wish to express my gratitude to their principal, Professor Clara E . Craig, who was ever ready to aid me with her counsel and experience. Her development of the Americanized-Montesorri system has been

a

great inspiration.

I also wish to thank the mem­

bers of the staff of the Nature Lore School who have so generously given of their time and knowledge to make this important move­ ment a success. Appreciation is especially extended to Professor Anna Botsford Comstock, who is always an inspiring leader in Nature-study work. WILLIAM GOULD VINA L Syracuse University, February 1, 1926.

PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword by Professor Anna Botsford Comstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ir.troduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII IX

PART I: NATURE LORE IN CAMP

Chapter I. Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chap ter IX. Chapter X. Chapter XI. Chapter X I I . Chapter XIII.

Nature Leaders for Camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nature-Lore for Camp . . .................. . .... The Nature Way at Camp Chequesset .......... , The Camp Museum . . . ........................ Etiquette of the Woods . . ...................... Religion from the Out-of-doors . . . . . . . .......... Nature Games. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for N ature Trails . . ................. The Nature Guide's Dictionary . . .. ............. Outdoor Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Craft out of the Environment. . . . . . ............ Common J\Iistakes in N ature B eliefs . . . . . . . .. ... Timber Lines . . ........................... .

I 13 33 43 49 53

65 77 99 III 123 133 159

PART II: NATURE-STUDY IN SCHOOLS

Chapter XIV. Chapter XV. Chapter XVI. Chapter XVII. Chapter XVIII. Chapter XIX. Chapter XX. Chapter XXI.

Chapter XXII. Chapter XXIII.

Teacher Training in Nature-study . . ............. The History of Nature-study . . . ................ The Nature-study Club . . . . .................... The Psychological Basis of Organization . . . . . .... Some General Principles of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . The Teaching Lesson . . . . ..................... . The Project Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knowing Nature Facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mainly Pedagogy of Seeds with some Seeds of Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First Grade Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for Arbor D a y Program . . .. ...... . .. Mechanical Aids in Nature-study . . . . . .......... The Use of Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature-study by Grades . . . . . . ......... . ....... .

Chapter XXIV. Chapter XXV. Chapter XXVI. Chapter XXVII. Chapter XXVIII.

169 175 193 199

215 233

251 263 279 285 301 309 323

335 339

PART III: SUGGESTIONS FOR SOME NATURE-STUDY LESSONS

Chapter XXIX. Chapter XXX. Chapter XXXI. Chapter XXXII. Chapter XXXIII. Chapter XXXIV. Chapter XXXV.

The Wind . ................................... The Rain . . . . . .. ............................. The Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The River and The Valley . . . . . . .. ............. Map Study . ... . . . . .. . . . . . .................... Ten Lessons on Our Food Supply . . . . .. .... . .... Nature Gardening . .................. . .. . . .. . .. .

.

353 359 36 5 371 377 383 391

VI

NGture

Chapter X XX VI . Chapter XXXVII . Chapter XXXVIII. Chapter XXXIX. Chapter X L . Chapter X LI . Chapter XLII. Chapter X LI I I . Chapter XLIV. Chapter X LV. Chapter X LV I . Chapter X LV I I . Chapter XLVIII. Chapter XLIX.

Cuiding

The Potato Potato Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tomato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Projects in a Sandbox . . . . . . . . . . Tree Surgery and Dentistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uses of the Forest . . . . . . . . . Ornamentation with Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plant Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tree Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Locust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The vVoodpeeker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Black Crowned Night Heron . . . . . . . . . . . The Blue Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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407 4 15 42 1 425 427 4 33 437 439 45 3 459 469 473 4 79 48 7

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493 503 52! 525 529

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PART IV : NATURE GUID I N G I N PARKS Chapter L. Chapter LI. Chapter LII. Chapter LIT I . Chapter LIV.

Th e Diary of A Nature Guide' s Son . Notes by a Yosemite Nature Guide . Nature-study on the Playground . . . vVinter Nature-study . . . . . . . . . . . . . B ibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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PUBLISHERS ' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I appreciate the courtesy of the publishers who have allowed me

to use the following quotations and poems: Harper and Bros., poem, FRIENDS, by John Kendrick Bangs; The Bobbs-Merrill Company,

for quotations from James Whitcomb Riley as follows-from RHYMES

OF CHILDHOOD, copyright 1890, from GREEN FIELDS AND RUNNING

B R OO K S , copyright 1892. and other quotations; the

Boston Transcript

and Miss Ruth Hall for the poem To AN ENGLISH SPA RROW by Hazel Hall; The Century Company for Blanche E. Wade's NAT URE ST UDY AND TEACHER, and Carolyn Wells' AN ApPLE LESSON which

appeared in the LINE

St. Nicholas Magazine; Chicago Tribune

for THE

0' Tn'E OR Two; Henry Turner Bailey for quotation from THE

CHILDREN'S BIRTHRIGHT; Henry Van Dyke for quotations on pages 53 and 322; The Science Press for quotation from the

Monthly

Scientific

for April, 1923, page 492; The Comstock Publishing Com­

pany for various quotations from Professor Anna Botsford Comstock and Dr. L. H. Bailey; Houghton Mifflin Co., Riverside Press, and Mrs. Enos Mills for IMAGINATION GUIDES THE RACE ,vhich is in part used in YOUR NATIONAL PARKS by Enos Normal School for the picture of Dr. Sheldon.

M ills; the

Oswego

MAN A

FOREWORD may be a scientist, of high attainment, but it does not

follow that he shall successfully lead the uninitiated into an understanding of the natural world, nor yet give a child an

interest in and a love for his natural environment.

To do this re­

quires not alone scientific attainment but also a comprehension of the absence of knowledge and lack of training in observing natural phenomena of the ordinary adult, and an understanding of the mind and interest of the child. The author of this volu,me is a man of science and has shown to a marked degree his ability to interest his pupils in science and to give to them careful methods of investigation and show to them many ways of interesting the children in the out-of-doors when they should become teachers.

His long experience as a successful head of a

Girls' Camp and his active interest in the Boy Scouts have given him the opportunity to know our boys and girls of to-day as they are, and this knowledge has been of great use to him in preparing teachers of nature-study.

His field classes have been conducted with re­

markable success, with the invariable result that his pupils become interested as well as learned in the ways of nature. The author has been exceptionally broad in his training.

He

began with work for the Fish Commission and later became deeply interested in Botany and finally centered his interest in Forestry. His Arbor Day manuals for Rhode Island were remarkable for their excellence, and brought him wide recognition.

It is, perhaps, because

of the diversity of his scientific training that the author became

terested in the nature lore movement.

in­

For years he has been the

moving spirit in preparing Nature Counsellors for the Summer camps and he has undoubtedly done more to bring children of the camps into true companionship with their natural surroundings, than has anyone else. It is fortunate that the author in the midst of his multiplicity of duties has found time to write the lessons contained in this volume and thus increase the radius of his inspiration and beneficient

in­

fluence.

ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK,

Professor of Nature-Study, Emeritus, in Cornell University

INTRODUCTION I.

THERE IS A NEED FOR NATURE LEADERS

One of the difficulties in the establishment of nature-study has been that there is no field for the work. This is no longer true. There is an awakening throughout the country. Summer Camps need Nature Counsellors. It is admitted that 1. nature lore is the most important and the most difficult position to fill in the summer camp . There are over 5 000 camps. 2. Scouting and Camp Fire Organizations, have the same difficulty. A few scout councils have their naturalist and others will take them on when they can find competen t leaders. 3 . The Nature Guide Movement in Yosemite National Park started in 1 9 2 0. I n 1 9 2 5 the number in Yosemite increased from six to ten guides and had spread to many other parks. The time is near at hand when every community will have its Nature Guide. 4. The Public School officials are realizing that the grade teacher cannot teach nature-study without help . They are meeting the problem with nature-study supervisors. The study is a vital source for project work. Although camping is in the "private school" stage it will undoubtedly become a part of the public school system. Nature leaders are being demanded more and more. 5. The Playgrounds need leaders who know the nature-study method. 6. The Country Day School movement is one toward the nature­ study idea. 7 . Universities are introducing nature-study departments. 8 . Normal Schools are changing t o Teachers Colleges and in the expansion of their work are planning intensive nature training. 9 . From the National Conference on Out-door Recreation called by PRE SIDENT COOLIDGE: "THAT THE CONFERENCE ENDORSE NATURE-STUDY I N SCHOOLS AND THE E XTENSION OF THE NATURE­ STUDY IDEA TO EVERY AMERICAN SCHOOL AND FAMILY; . . . . . THAT THE E STABLISHMENT OF MUSEUMS OF NATURAL H I ST ORY IN NATIONAL PARKS WILL INCREASE THE EDUCATIONAL RECREATIONAL VALUE OF THE PARKs .

II.

"-

Res olution of the Conference.

"NATURE GUIDING" I S A BOOK OF METHODS FOR NATURE LEADERS

Nature Guiding is the science of inoculating nature enthusiasm, nature principles, and incidentally nature facts into the spirit of

Nature

x

individuals.

Guiding

When these facts have accumulated to such an extent

that the owner needs to organize them it becomes the science of Geology, Botany, Zoology, or Agriculture rather than nature-study. Everyone has use for nature-study and only a minority attain the need of organizing their knowledge into science. The greatest handicap to effective and successful nature-study is the lack of teachers trained in the methods of nature-study.

A

university professor may know Phanerogamic Botany yet fail to give his own child a sustained enthusiasm for flowers.

Scout leaders

who have never studied science are more frequently successful in nature guiding then the college graduate in science.

This is why

the nature-study teacher must first of all catch the method. matter of contagion.

It is

a

The method of nature-study is the spirit of

nature-study. The nature-study method is simple if followed in its desirable details.

If teachers are willing to study the analysis of the situation

and be painstaking enough to apply these rules until they become habitual they have laid the foundation for successful nature-study. This is the function of a nature-study department in our Teachers' Colleges.

When the pupil teacher can apply these same steps and

principles to nature conditions characteristic of a new community­ that point is the beginning of professional growth.

Nature knowledge is unlimited. rience.

It will develop through expe­

For the young teacher it is not so important how much

he knows as what he will do with what he knows.

Nature laws, like

moral laws, develop best when lived rather then when preached about. Nature-study is in a healthy, experimental stage with several distinct lines of development.

The purpose of this book is to make

clear the methods in these various phases.

Good results may be

obtained by any one o f these methods but the optimum is bination and adaptation of all.

a

com­

We want men and women who have

an abiding and pleasurable interest and enjoyment in their forests, gardens, orchards, home surroundings, and in the immediate life which these areas support.

There was a child went forth every day; And the first object he look'd upon, that object he became ; And that object became part of him for the day, or a certain part of the day, or for many years, or stretching cycles of years. The early lilacs became part of this child, And grass, and white and red morning-glories, alld white and red clover, and the song of the phc:ebe-bird, And the third-month lambs, and the sow's pink-faint litter, and the mare's foal, and the cow's calf, And the noisy brood of the barn-yard * * * * * * And the apple-trees cover' d with blossoms, and the fruit afterward, and woodberries, and the commonest weeds by the road ; * * * * * * And the school-mistress that pass'd on her way to the school, The village on the highland, seen from afar at sunset-the river between, Shadows, aureola , and mist , the light falling on roofs and gables of white or brown, three miles off, * * * * * * These became part of that child who went forth every day, and who now goes, and will always go forth every day. -Walt Whitman. *

*

*

*

*

*

PART I NATURE-LORE FOR CAMPS

WANDERLUST Beyond the East the sunrise, b eyond the West the sea, And East and West the wanderlust that will not let me be; It works in me like madness , dear, to bid me say good-bye! For the seas call and the stars c;tll, and oh, the call of the sky! I know not where the white road runs, nor what the blue hills are, But man can have the sun for friend, and for his guide a star; And there's no end of voyaging when once the voice is heard, For the river calls and the road calls, and oh, the call of a bird! Yonder the long horizon lies, and there by night and day The old ships draw to home again, the young ships sail away ; And come I may, b ut go I must, and if men ask you why, You may put the blame on the stars and the sun and the white road and the sky! --Gerald Gould, in Stevenson's "Home Book of Verse."

CHAPTER I NATURE LEADERS FOR CAMPS I.

The Call of the Camps

When your grandmother was a girl the neighbors used to shake their heads doubt­ fully and say " Nothing but a regular tom­ boy, anyway . " She could play "Four-old­ cat " or climb a tree with skill that was envied by many of the boys. If the up­ streeters wanted to go 'cross lots they always waited for "Jimmie " Morrill. Grandmother was a live girl. She use to pick huckle­ berries, spin cloth , romp the fields, feed the cattle, and tramp the roads. From these activities she gained health of mind and body. But times have changed. A new kind of girlhood has appeared. The ordinary girl is contented to sit in a stuffy school room, flat­ chested and sallow skinned. She exercises her tongue and finger tips but the body muscles remain flabby. Her circulation has become sluggish , her nerves shriek. she gorges herself with choco­ lates, takes piano and violin lessons, goes to the movies twice a week, dancing school every Friday, and to various parties on the holidays. Do you wonder at the pallid cheeks, pale eyes, and need of after dinner pills to assist digestion ? This type of girl has not learned to live. It is now spring and that peristent desire to get into the fields , to eat green herbs, to scale the wall, to wear old clothes, to sleep in a cabin, is a call of nature. It is a desire to leap back into the good You want to get away from the crowded streets, the old days. school room, and the moving picture shows. You wish to meet untamed nature, as did your grandmother, to stride through the rough forest and to quench your thirst from clear pools . This is a natural feeling. It is a call that may be satisfied by the summer camp . It is a positive necessity to go? Then look into a directory for girls' camps and take your pick. Mountain or plain , sea-shore or lake, boating or horse-back riding, it is all there to satisfy your craving for the great out-of-doors. The opportunities at a girls ' camp are manifold. In the first place there is contact with congenial councilors who are true and tried in character. They are usually college graduates who have had experience dealing with girls. The girls and their sympathetic leaders store up energy together for the coming year. In a camp one sleeps in a tent or cabin with three or four other girls and a councilor. In the days of large families the girls had to learn to consider the happiness of others . One gets the same sort of training at camp for there the elbows touch and they cannot be

-Moore.

Nothing is lost on him who sees With an eye that genius gave ; For him there 's a story in every breeze And a picture in every wave."

"". � "". ;:;: CiQ

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Nature Leaders for Camps

3

too sharp. The out-door air makes red blood and healthy appe­ tites , and in camp one not only eats but sleeps in the open. The first order of the day is reveille which means to get ready for setting-up drill. Indisposition is not a feminine grace in 'a girls ' camp , and every one hustles out for morning exercises . The \vork­ ing of the big muscles�the trunk and leg musc1es�builds up health. It gives arterial tone and prevents kidney or heart disease which are increasing so rapidly under the nerve racking pace of today . The morning air whets the appetite. There is a rush for the table where Miss Camper finds eggs, milk, and johnny cake. As time goes on her mania for candy diminishes . She begins to eat to live, instead of live to eat. The response in her digestion and general health are good omens of right eating. The morning activities may consist of athletics. In a baseball game a girl is able to acquire that general sturdiness so characteris­ tic of bovs. She learns to sacrifice her own wishes for the best interest o f the team and besides, it takes courage to slide bases . This spirit of self-sacrifice and courage will help greatly in after life. The greatest fun of the day is swimming time. As everyone should learn swimming before stepping into a canoe there is a big incentive to acquire this important art . In Japan every boy and girl is taught how to swim but the American girl is just beginning to inherit her right to aquatic sports . After the mid-day meal COmes a period of rest and quietness. This may be the time of arts and crafts. I t was the spinning and weaving industries of the home that developed th e real artistic sense of our grandmothers. These industries have been taken from the hom es and put in the factories. In camp , however, this work is lifted from the plane of necessity to that of opportunity. After the rest hour the campers may take a hike. They learn hiking rules by experience, such as, never walk over anything that you can walk around, or never step on anything that you can step over. The hike may be in the form of a scouting party. The scouts must learn how to find their way and be able to interpret all signs and tracks . There is nothing more fascinating than to sit around the camp-fire after a long ramble, you are tired but it is a "good feeling " fatigue. The camp-fire is started, not "urn big fire" but "urn little fire" as the Injun did,�a fire over which one could cook a supper. The girls are bubbling over with good health and appetites. The fish , just landed from the lake, are baked in a hole in the ground and the baked potatoes are poked out of the hot embers. The ends of the corn husks are tied over the cob, soaked in water, and placed in the hot coals for twenty minutes . M elted butter is then put on with a brush. And then the feast comes and it will be remembered longer than any banquet in a marbled hall hotel. Such occasions form a sunny spot in ones' memory and are pleasant to look back upon as the years roll along.

Cooking breakfast on th e Atlantic shore. -Henry D. Thoreau's "CaPe Cod"

"Here is the spring of springs, and the waterfall of waterfalls. A man may stand here and put all America behind h i m."

�.

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Nature Leaders jar Camps

5

In the evening the camp community gathers around the fire place (not gas logs) and makes merry in song and story. It was the same in colonial days when the neighbors met and made their own fun . More people should learn to play rather than hire others. There are those who have become so fixed in mind and character that they are not able to learn to play. It is claimed that all the virtues of the human race are brought out in play and if this is true, the play element is an important element in the camp activities. And so the days go-all too quickly-for the girl who is enjoying the fascination of living with Nature all summer long, hiking through quiet woods and paddling along clear streams. She should have learned the natural pleasures of the great out-of-doors. Let us hope that she is more tom-boyish and in the best sense of the word. She should have red blood, sound nerves, a quick ear, keen sight, a quick step, and many other of the good characteristics of our grandmother-that good old lady who lived so long ago. II

Counsellor Guidance

Getting a counsellor's job has been a mad rush and gamble. Someone hears of a friend who has such a position and it seems quite appropriate that he should also have a share in the spoils. The idea makes a healthy growth during the night and the candidate makes an onset on Kamp Klondike. He must have a job "immediat­ ment . " One letter this past week announces a friend who is to gradu­ ate from St. Paul's Hospital in June and would like to rest up during the summer. Would I please tell her how to go to work to get a counsellor' s position ? Another is teaching biology in the Smith Hall School and is now prepared to take a position as n ature counsellor. There is a dire need of a counselor's clearing house. This chapter is primarily an analytical study of the vague idea counselorship and, secondly, a guide to would be counselors in summer camps. A camp counsellor is not an errand boy nor simply an employee with wages and time off, nor is he taken for a rest cure. A counsellor is a red-blooded leader who is interested in children and the out-of-doors, and seeing the challenge of this new profession, has enrolled in the camp program to do his bit in child development. The usual leaders in camps are art-craft, camp-craft , dancing, dramatic, song, swimming, outdoor cooking, nurse, and nature­ lore. B ecause one is accomplished in th e technique of one of these specialties is no guarantee that he is a good counsellor for a camp. I know of a song counsellor-a graduate of a well known Conserva­ tory of Music-who on the first day of camp examined every camper as to voice an d ability to sing the chromatic scale. His summer's program failed the first day. The next summer a college trio came from Dixie. They just sang and sang. The campers caught the spirit and the camp became known as a "singing camp." Every. one sang just for the lOve of singing. Singing became a tremendous

6

Nature Guiding

power in developing the spirit of that camp . Every camp has its songs,-old favorites that are sung best about the camp fire. Then there are the marching songs that sort of swing along on a hike. And in the nautical camp the chanteys are given their sea way. Give us singing counsellors-those who are versatile in camping and can sing in rhythm with their camp work. In cleaning out my letter files the other day I came across a written application for a position as swimming counsellor. I re-read the letter with a mingled feeling-I did not know whether to laugh or cry. This applicant not being accepted as a counsellor, had come as a camper. She was one of our poorest swimmers . To swim was painful , if one were to judge by her facial contortions as she churned the bay with her laborious breast stroke. Poor Girl! She did not realize that, 90% of the girls going to a private camp are already good swimmers. She had not heard of the Pre-camp School of the Camp Directors' Association where a rigid examination for a diploma is given to swimming counsellors nor did she know of the American Red Cross Training Camp for Swimming Counsellors and her respon­ sibility for forty young lives, to say nothing of her own life,-that had never dawned on her inexperienced mind. To her swimming meant to be able to keep above water and to get somehow, somewhere, sometime. A young lady appeared at my office door recently (May she read this little sketch for I did not tell her). Possibly she had just had her face in a flour barrel but I doubt if she ever deals with such practical things; possibly she painted her cheeks from within but I doubt if she knows the meaning of that expression ; possibly her cousin is one of her folks but I doubt if she be more than a cousin. "l\Iy cousin is in a camp and I have applied for a job too . I used your name for reference and hope that you don ' t mind . " I assured her that I should be glad to write "something" should the director inquire. I suppose that her specialty is dramatics although I did not inquire. vVould she understand�ould she understand if I had asked her to express her views concerning campers emulating th eir counsellors ? In camp one has to be "sized up ." No "tinkling cymbals" for real girls of the woods . That is the last place in which one can get by with "veneer." But I a m just giving real instances of honest-to-goodness applica­ tions. All directors know that they are typical. I must now get down to brass tacks and tell some of the things that directors look for in choosing a counsel lor. Grandfatherly advice-words from Aunt Minnie some will say-but nevertheless they are the things that count when one is seeking counselorship . Counsellorship Inventory. The following list of the ten qualities of a counsellor is presented so that a wouldbe counsellor can take account of his stock on hand. The best measurement is obtained by having several honest friends write down a per cent for each quality on the basis of ten. The sum of the average of such an analysis is a certain

Nature Leaders jor Camps

7

plan of getting acquainted with one's own characteristics and often clears the way for a marked improvement. If the total adds up to 90- 1 00% it shows a very promising outlook but of course does not guarantee success for it is by their results that we shall know them. If the average is 80-90% the chances of success may even then be fairly good. In this case there should be a second reckoning to dis­ cover the possibility of cultivating new habits. For example: the candidate who scores 4% in social background can by conscious effort learn correct English, acquire clean habits, and practice common courtesies. The remedying of a bad habit requires intelli­ gent treatment and the time required may be a matter of years­ depending upon the malignancy of the case and the persistency of the sufferer. I. Good Social Background: By social background is meant the "everyday" qualifications. Is personal cleanliness habitual ? Does the candidate use correct English? I know of one counsellor who is high grade in everything but his speech. That is decidedly collo­ quial. He says "yeah" for yes and "Don't yer know." This dis­ counts him considerably in the eyes of his director and by the campers who know the difference. Does he know and practice the common cou rtesies of life? Is he companionable and unselfish or is he "the only child" kind ? Is he humble or conceited ? 2. Love oj Children: Counsellors are sometimes a misfit because they do not distinguish between a mere interest and a love of children. In camp the counsellor lives with the boys or girls. They are play­ mates. How many children look up to you as a pal ? If they do not do that now, what reason do you have to suspect that they will when you get to camp? 3. Power oj Moral Guidance: A counsellor must have the charac­ ter that discriminating parents wish their children to emulate. It is not enough to be physically wholesome and mentally clean. A counsellor must be a genuine character builder. He must have rock-bottom courage to say "no " or "yes" at the right time. His trustworthiness stands the test even when acting quickly as in a game. His decisions are fundamentally just and firm. 4. Ma tu re Judgment: Counsellors should be mature enough to guide yet young enough to enjoy participating in the various camp activities. Campers go to him as an advisor and he respects their confidences. s. Attractive Personality : As important as is knowledge, I would rather have a leader with an attractive personality than a person with a whole encyclopedia of knowledge and no magnetism. A person is worthless about camp if he cannot attract young people. The most important is the sunny smile- sort of a "laugh and the world laughs with you" personality, the ability to enjoy a hike when caught in the rain-to come through joyful with a blister on your foot. And then a keen sense oj hum or the sort of a person who can -

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8

Nature Guiding

take as well as give. And he must have a sympathetic heart generous at the right time and firm when necessary. And a generous supply of loyalty-loyal to tentmates, to the team, to the director, to the camp , to other counsellors. Does not cause cliques. crushes. or factitious taste. Can stand the test of being adaptable, i.e. can change plan from sunshine to rain or daylight to darkness. 6 . Physically Fit: The physical obligations of the counsellor are clear cut. He must have the ability to lead on hikes, to run in play, to climb hills, to paddle a canoe, to assist in swimming. It is potent for him to set the example of erect carriage, and good health habits. He must know how to adapt hikes and games to the in­ dividual needs, the dangers of violent exercise, the relation of exer­ cise to meals, the value of corrective work. The physical qualities of a counsellor are clean, sound health habits, tested endurance, reserve energy and a will to safeguard the same. 7. Outdoor Minded: A person who does not have an enthusiastic love of the out-of-doors has no place in camp . He becomes a liability rather than an asset. He should have a real interest in plants and animals. He should love to assist the swimming counsellor-the nature counsellor-and so on-each in turn. He should know the common camp laws of the trail. He must have an honest belief in nature ideals. He must be a protector of all wild life. 8. Camping Knowledge: First it should be announced that direc­ tors have unanimously decided that the best counsellors come from the ranks of the campers. It is estimated that there were 1 50,000 boys and girls in private camps last summer and there were many more in organization camps such as scouts, Camp Fire, Y . M. C. A., and Y . W. C . A . , and there is a long procession of experienced campers back of last summer's list. It is equally true that the majori­ ty of applications come from those who have never camped. The first preparation for counselorship is to attend a well organized camp . The knowledge of camping is an indispensable asset. The coun­ sellor, above all, must be perfectly at home in all kinds of weather. He must possess a certainty in picking a camp site, making a fire. and organizing a meal, for his assurance radiates on the group. If he is not a master of fire building and first aid he should never be given the charge of a trip. He must recognize these responsibilities . A good counsellor should be at least as accomplished as a good camper in any department of camping. He should have a fund of nature enjoyment and at least an amateur understanding. He should be able to point out some nature things well. He should realize that the artcraft department presents an opportunity and be eager, if his time from duties permit, to utilize the equipment. He should recognize that games have a place in the program and whenever convenient should enter in for the sportsmanship of playing. He should have a few camp-fire stories which he can tell in his own words. He should j oin in the camp songs. He should be in for the fun of -

Nature Leaiers for Camps

9

"getting up a show. " His camp training of earlier days has made him an all round camper. 9. Specially G1fted: IVlany would-be counsellors, in their own estimation , can fit in anywhere. All they need is the opportunity. It is true that a good counsellor is an all-round camper. It is equally true that he should have the gift of doing something unusual. Every group of young people finds someone toward whom they gravitate with the usual request "to do something. " This counsellor is a good entertainer. He directs conversation . He possesses originality. And along with this should go the unusual knowledge and ability in one of the nine departments of camping already named . He is counsellor in nature-lore, camp-craft , or camp music-that in which he is well trained. ro. G e n uin e Leader: It is well known that a person may have knowledge but does not know how to get rid of it. This is a frequent criticism of college professors. His methods are just as important as his subj ect. If this is important in a teacher it is even more important in the case of a camp counsellor. In camp there are no walls to obscure the view-the chairs are not nailed to the floor, there is no filing to class. One does not have to take this and that. He is expected to do but he does that which he prefers . The counsellor must have the power to organize. He plans in cooperation with the other leaders . He is punctual-not only at meals, but in arising, and bed making. He is versatile in his own work and a good suggester. He has the ability to put it across to young people. He knmvs child nature . He is so enthusiastic about his own work that the campers get it by contagion. Everyone about h im feels a thrill. He is enterprising. He is firm. The group obeys. He develops leaders within the group. He has initiative and a goodly measure of tact. He knows what to do in an emergency . He changes his plans cheerfully. *

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By now you may have decided your course. If you are not fitted for the work you cannot afford to waste the camper's time and opportunity. If it is still your chosen service and you are "looking ahead" to actually entering this new profession- I am going to entrust you with the name and address of people who are giving their time to the cause : Camp Supplies, Inc . , 52 Chauncey St. Boston. We need to mobilize the best leaders for the great education­ al program of camping. They will cooperate in helping you to attain this end. *

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A nature counsellor has to have all the requisites of other coun­ sellors plus those desirable to make him a good nature leader. I II Counsel for Nature Counsellors It has almost become a maxim that a college graduate will fail as a nature counsellor. In the same way that he tried to teach college

10

Nature Guiding

science in the high school he is now trying to transplant classroom science into the woods, and it does not work. One counsellor gave u p her work at the end of two weeks last summer. There were many things that she did not know "because she had only required thirty flowers in her high school botany class. " From h er poin t of view it was due to her number being thirty instead of a hundred or more. From the director 's point of view it was due to her "high school botany class" methods, and the director was right. "Camp Botany," wh ere one learns thirty trees and knows not one, cannot compete with "woodcraft," where the hickory will bend just right for a rustic toaster and the sassafras gives an arom a to the woodsman ' s tea. In botany one looks at nature , but in c amp one becomes a part of nature-as m uch difference as between a lecture on swimming and swimming. The question often arises,-Am I suited to leading nature-study trips ? or, How can I train myself to become a nature leader ? The following notes will help individuals solve the problem. Do you take walks in the fields and woods? Or do you prefer the movies ? Are you willing to say "I do not know"? If not you will not enjoy leading children. Those who know most say "I do not know" with most ease. Do you use "big words " ? Names are only a means to an end. Never require the learning of scientific names. Use a popular language. Do you tell true to nature stories? Has your experience been rich enough to enable you to round out a study now and then with a true story ? Or is your story telling limited to nursery rhyme and faking. What kind of heels do you wear? The kind of heels one wears proclaims deep facts about one's innermost self. People with com­ mon sense wear low heels. Out-door leaders should have common sense. Do you carry a jack-knife? Guides, tramps, fishermen, boys, scouts, do. Will a dog follow you ? There are people whom a dog will not follow. A dog makes friends. He knows them. Do you make friends with dogs ? Will a chicken eat out of your hand? This is a true test of worth. Can you whistle? This joyful pastime is not a monopoly for boys. A whistling girl is an asset to any community. Can you imitate bird-calls ? Do you teach nature-study? Are you so impressed with its value that you cannot help imparting it to others ? "All foreigners" you say ? "All Americans" I say . Have you tried it ? By what right have you not ? Did you ever see the sun rise? Probably not if you went some­ where every night last week, and the same the week before that,

Nature Leaders jor Camps

II

A regular "mania" for going. Sharp contrast to ad infinitum. "early to bed and rise." To see the sun rise once and then again because it is so beautiful is true culture.

Did you ever sleep out in the open ? Fearlessness of nightly spooks is absolutely essential to good sense in the day. If you can have a good time sleeping on the rough ground you have one quality of a naturalist. Do you attract groups oj people around you ? A councilor must attract. It is not sufficient "to get along" with people. How do you attract? How jar can you go into the woods without discovering something?

Thoreau used to worry if he had gone a few feet without seeing news.

Are you a campfire leader?

nature.

If

so, you are interested in girls and

Do you shrink jrom cows, toads, snakes, and earthworms ?

you add school girl superlatives when you retreat? fear it is because adults taught you the example. along is a crime.

Do If you feip1 To pass this

Can you throw a ball like a boyt

for the out-doors. ment.

This is a test to your early love I wish there were more tomboys. It is a compli­

Do you ever jeed the bt·rds ?

This shows an active or superf.cial

interest.

In what way do you protect wild lije? Do you leave the wood­ lily where it grew? Do you go around or through a beautiful plant collection? Do you pick bunches or sprays? Have you stepped over or on worms? ,\Vhy? A re you always dwelling on the beauties of some other place?

You

should not to do this unless you can see something beautiful where

you are?

Did you ever climb a tree? You should once even after twenty. What pets have you had? What became of them? Why? Did you ever dig in the soil with your hands? A child has this

interest.

What collections have you made? Are you a college graduate? It is

And why did you make them;

not necessary, to be a successful nature leader. Many of the most successful ones are successful in spite of their education in school. They were taught in a woods­ school.

Do you object to a tan ?

to avoid

How much talcum powder do you use

this?

Did you ever go out into the rain for a walk? Will weeds or seeds or slips grow for you ? How would you dress for a hike? No hat

Did you really enjoy it? Explain your answer;

hugh muff, low shoes, muffler, hobble skirts, bright colors, etc? etc? etc?

TRAINING LITTLE CITIZE!'\S THE CHILDRE N ' S BIRTHRIGHT

By Henry Turner Bailey, Director, Cleveland School of A rt. All children ought to b e familiar with the open country. They should know the joy of playing in healthful mud, of paddling i n clean water, of hearing roosters call up the sun, and birds sing praises to God for the new day. They should have the vision of pure skies enriched at dawn and sunset with unspeakable glory ; of dew drenched mornings flashing with priceless gems ; of grain fields and woodlands yielding to the feet of the wind ; of the vast night sky "all throbbing and panting with stars. " They should feel the joy of seed time and harvest, of dazzling summer noons, and of creaking, glittering winter nights. They should live with flowers and butterflies, with the wild things that have made possible the world of fable. They should experience the thrill of going barefoot, o f being out in the rain , without umbrellas and rubber coats and buckled overshoes ; of riding a white birch , o f sliding down pine boughs, of climbing ledges and tall trees, of diving head first into a transparent pool. They ought to know the smell of wet earth, of new mown hay ; of the blossom­ ing wild grape and eglantine ; of an apple orchard in May and of a pine forest in July ; o f the crushed leaves of wax myrtle, sweet fern, mint and fir ; of the breath of cattle and of fog blown inland from the sea. They should hear the answer the trees make to the rain , and to the wind ; the sound of rippling and falling water ; the muffled roar of the sea in a storm, and its lisping and laughing and clapping of hands in a stiff breeze. They should kno w the sound of the bees in a plum tree in May, of frogs in a bog in April, of grasshoppers along the roadsides in June, of crickets out in the dark in S eptember. They should hear a leafless ash hum, a pine tree sigh, old trees groan in the forest, and the floating ice in a brook making its incomparable music beneath the frozen crystal roof of some flooded glade. They should have a chance to chase butterflies, to catch fish, to ride on a load of hay , to camp out, to cook over an open fire, to tramp through new country, and to sleep under the open sky. They should have the fun of driving a horse, paddling a canoe, and sailing a boat, and of discovering that Nature will honor the humblest seed they plant. Things that children can do in cities are not to be compared with such country activities. Out o f the country and its experiences has come and always will come the most stimulating and healthful art of the world. One cannot appreciate and enjoy to the full extent nature-book s , novels, histories, poems, pictures, or even musical compositions, who has not had in his youth the blessed contact with the world of nature.

CHAPTER II NATURE-LoRE FOR CAMPS

I. Organization Nature-Lore originated with the pioneer who loved his woodsy home. It was the way of Thoreau and the training school for Lincoln. Perhaps Enos Mills was the first to start an organized school to teach it to others. He called it Nature Guide and The Trail School. And now" thousands of boys and girls are experiencing the lore of

LONG'S PEAK INN, COLORADO, where Enos Mills created Nature Guiding. The Trail from the Inn to the summit of Lon g ' s Peak is a distance of seven miles.

nature in summer camps. The Nature-Lore School was organized in 1 9 2 0 to train nature leaders for the summer camps. This chapter is an attempt to present this point of view to those who are facing the unexplored possibilities of an outdoor education. The study of nature has been constant but the ideals of nature­ study have been continuously growing and changing. Our first text book to deal with nature-study obj ects was the New England Primer with its religious precepts. Then there was Poor Richard's Almanac which was first published by Franklin in 1 7 3 2 . Every household had a copy of the Old Farmer's Almanac which was used faithfully in weather prediction. Even today, in rural districts , it is strung on a string and hung on a nail for ready reference. But we do not need to learn the signs of the zodiac and neither is it necessary to hew 13

Nature Guidin g

logs and thatch the roof. From rail splitter to horse trader, we were emphasizing the variations in social needs. In colonial days-when certain medicines depended on the knowing of particular weeds it was important to distinguish these weeds by name. Today it is important to know how these same weeds reproduce in order to pre­ vent them in our gardens. New opportunities are now offered for the enj oyment of nature through such factors as automobile-camping and leisure time caused by modern industrial society. Social needs change and with this change there should be a change in subject mat­ ter. Often times, h owever, subject matter which was a need a long time ago , is inherited an d the social needs of the day remain un­ recognized by the school. The social aim of Nature-Lore is Nature Service. Nature Service is efficiency in supplying the nature needs and wants of a community . It should contribute enormously to the leisure time. Community Nature Service includes such activities as the development and en­ j oyment of parks, the beautifying of the streets and commons by the Village Improvement Society, the planting and conserving of shade trees, the encouragemen t of beautiful school grounds, the distribution of shrubs and plants by the Chamber of Commerce, horticultural exhibition s and flower shows, nature guides for field trips and outings, scouting, planning and equipping a camping park, etc. Home Nature Service includes opportunities and guidance in gardening, ornamenta­ tion of grounds, care of house plants, the fun of having pets, the family outing, auto-camping. Any of these activities suggest worthy proj ects for a school. Park citizenship requires more than a passing word. 'Without education our parks become a farce or tragedy. Our parks should have a far-reaching influence upon education. The fact that the maintenance and character of these parks are nov... in the hands of the visitors make it very important that all citizens be trained to understand the duties and opportunities in the use of the parks . B olsheviki Russia shmvs what a tragedy may come from the hands of a large uneducated people. The same thing can happen in a park republic . Nature recreation is one of the greatest contributions that Nature­ Lore can make to society. In rural homes the boys and girls were busy in the woods and fields. They were living with living things . Playtime meant picking flowers, chestnuting, berrying, fishing, boat­ ing, exploring. In cities , and our population is largely urban , boys and girls do not have these natural enj oyments. The factory system and the industrial revolution of organized labor have greatly reduced human labor and increased their leisu re. Our educational training must provide for complete living and for the enj oyment of the in­ creased social leisure. Nature recreation teaches happiness i:l the woods, on the hike, and when camping out. T h e social needs of different communities are quite different. Obviously the nature problem in the school filled with children from

Nature-Lore for Camps

IS

an Italian settlement with vineyards is very different from the prob­ lem of teaching in a country day school. The teacher must first know what types of problems occur in the lives of ordinary citizens of the community. If it is a case of pruning the present nature-study course, begin by eliminating facts which are socially of little value. The psychological aims of Nature-Lore relate to the individual and should contribute to the broader social aim. Of the psychological aims of nature-study information has commonly been emphasized at the expense of ideals and interests . It is a great deal easier for the teacher to ask the children to learn a list and give an examination than it is to develop ideals and interests and test the results. The pendulum swings from the extreme method of learning lists to the opposite extreme of not learning any facts. The knowledge of certain facts is necessary for the welfare of human society. On e ignorant person in a community may be responsible for the house flies that exist in that locality. One house fly can carry enough typhoid germs to innoculate the entire population. The sanitation of a group of people depends upon the membership of that group and can only be safe-guarded by universal education. In the case of forests, the appalling loss from preventable fires, and the economic distress from the lack of conservation are striking examples of the need of a nature education which emphasizes scientific information. The other psychological aims of Nature-Lore which are funda­ mental are : ( I ) Nature habits such as kindness to animals, protection of native plants, feeding hungry birds, and leaving a clean picnic ground, must come through practice and not by sermons. ( 2 ) N ature­ Lore idea ls , everyday beauty, "all's right with the world, " sports­ manship , keeping fit, cooperation, "The world is too much with us . " (3 ) A bzding In terests current events, civic problems, and scientific progress in n ature study . The school that is disp osed to fenc e itself off from these aims-social and psychological-is giving its citizens a one-sided training. A child in this system is in his environment but not of it. He is unable to share in the outdoor responsibilities and enjoymen ts about him because of his one-sided development. A host of boys and girls are realizing these aims not because of th e schools but in spite of them. Their nature-lore experiences come through such agencies as the summer camp and scouting organiza­ tions. Nature-Lore is more than knowledge, more than utility, more than discipline, more than good citizenship, more than appreciation. It is all of these interests interwoven. Our horizon is narrow if it provides growth in one direction and sets up barriers in other directions. If there is a one-sided emphasis on learning the names of birds or on gardening, or on experiments, the capacity to appreciate other things may be lost. I know of a school where the pupils obtained credit for collecting fifty insects and for pressing and mounting fifty flowers. The pupils had learned that if one had forty-nine insects that the required number could be secured by using colored ink and when t�e -

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Nature Guiding

array was complete it often served for several generations in a family, being handed down from brother to sister in turn. I know of other pupils who had a genuine appreciation of nature but were killed off by the teacher's system of taxation. The tax might be to learn to recognize a tree list. But the aims and ideals of democracy have grown from taxation without representation to the application of the Golden Rule in all places. Pupils should h ave a much larger share in the planning of projects and in devising means of solving the prob­ lems which the general project presents. As a further help in organizing Nature-Lore one should use the intensive rather than the extensive method. The encyclopedic method of teaching the whole field of nature-the teaching of every large unit as though on a Cook's Tour, such as,-ferns, shells, trees, birds, flowers, will not do. Also the holding of the telescope on one of these groups to the exclusion of all others will not do. The waste is too great. There is also a tendency to follow the " order of evolution" begin­ ning with the protozoa an d proceeding in an ascending order to man. A zoologist almost always organizes his material in an evolutionary order. The ways in which certain structures appear to have grown out of other structures seem to demand this order of procedure. For example, the breathing of frogs by gills was probably inherited from a fish-like ancestor. Consequently in order to present the frog prop­ erly it would seem necessary to know the fish. Little children have no understanding of evolution. This arrangement in Nature-Lore is not necessary or desirable. Nature-Lore should be adapted to the capacity and interest of the pupils. The large unit comes according to the season and the details are determined by varying circumstances or happenings-never the same twice. Let us start nature lore impromptu this fall. Impromptu nature­ lore has this in its favor-the teacher has nothing at stake as a result of preparation and the subj ect does not put up an umbrella as though being administered a dose. An "impromptu " does not seem as im­ portan t as a prepared for lesson. It is like the college student who had just been studying the use of the camera metre in photography. He tried it out with great precision on his grandmother. She looked at the print and said,-"Isn 't it dreadful ! " He had his picture but he did not have his grandmother. College graduates usually fail as a nature guide as they cannot make nature study natural. I asked one the other day if it were a hundred miles to B oston and she said, "No, it is ninety-nine and three-tenths. " The best impromptu nature lesson is a field trip and it need not be called a lesson at all. You may be interested in the happenings on such an occasion. The particular excursion which I am about to describe was intro­ duced b y the following challenge : " On the Great Island, just across the bay from camp , is a black-crowned night-heron rookery. The rookery is of such a character that it offends the five senses . Mosqui­ toes infest the pines, the day is hot and these pine wood thickets are

Nature-Lore for Camps

I7

sultry, the dead fish are unsightly and have a strong odor, and the herons often throw their last meal at you. Their cry has been likened to the Indian war-whoop. The interesting feature of the trip is that this particular colony is the farthest out on Cape Cod and the obj ect of the trip is to band the grown-up -- - 1 birds. These bands are furnished by the Biological Survey at Wash­ ington and wh oever finds one of these birds, no matter where, he is supposed to report to the govern­ ment headquarters. There are some indications that they go to the coast of Maine before going south for the winter. It requires a great deal of skill and bravery to nm ! down one of these birds . Whoever catches one can have the honor of naming the bird after themselves How many wish to go on this ex­ cursion ? " It is needless to say that a full quota accepted the challenge. The next step was to equip the expedition. It was decided to have Goulash for food. This meant a little arithmetic which worked out as follows for the party of twelve : Two quart cans of tomato, two A Fair Wind one-quart cans of corn, six boiled potatoes, three onions, and a halfpound of bacon. The onions and bacon were fried brown and then added to the mixture. The goulash was served in tin dippers. The individual equipment simply consisted of a tin dipper and spoon . The Cap 'n carried the canned things. Dinn er was cooked and served on the shore of the island before diving into the forest. At the rookery we did just what one would expect from the chal­ lenge. There was much scurrying through the underbrush and loud peals of laughter as the herons bluffed their pursuers by a loud squawk or by a wide open defiant mouth. The hiding of the heron ' s head under a sweater sort of put a quietus on the bird and he peacefully succumbed to being banded. Then it was a regular "gym " exhibition when he was placed on a lower limb of the tree. He would balance with his wings, grab hold with his beak, and clutch with his dangling legs. By trapeze performances he finally gained the uppermost branches where he again felt safe and secure. Thousands (So it seemed) of questions were shot at the leader of the party. Many were answered and many could not be. What good are herons ? Why does the government protect them ? etc. etc . ad liberatum. One learns more by questioning than by being questioned. Note that

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18

Nature Guidt'ng

this plan is the reverse to the usual "lesson" in the school room . The enthusiasm of the trip culminated in composing an original song which was given before the "stay at camp " people. The herons are J en!.;thy birds, And they 're w is e in th eir way, With their long bills and longer legs, They fish in the bay. Trousers turned up above the knees, They fish without a line, For meal time is anytime, To their young in th e pines .

- To the tune of " Father Time. "

(A Vassar Song)

What book work was connected with this trip ? I can hear this unspoken query. l\fy answer is none concerning the black-crowned night heron. Not but what there might be many occasions for it . and rightly. The thing that excited our curiosity enough for a little research in the camp library was the appearance of the lighthouse and buildings on B illingsgate Island. On the way across th e bay someone noticed that B illingsgate was unusually clear and the houses seemed to stand up out of the water. It was pronounced a mirage. A girl from Alabama remembered that the mirage on the Sahara Desert made things seem to be bottom side up . Much discussion followed but it was not settled until arriving back at camp . A book was finally found that described what we had seen as a looming. Everyone now knows the difference and the cause of looming and of a mirage. This part was not planned and is one of those things that makes every nature lore experience different. As we look back over this experience what is there that we have asked for as the ideals of nature lore ? First there is the nature service for the B iological Survey. The benefits of such a survey need not be gone into at the present writing. There is the realization of the n eces­ sity of bird protection and bird reservations-a very essential thing when it comes to appropriations to save some of our disappearing species. It was a lesson in having a good time under difficulties­ perhaps not an aim but rather of a good training in sportsmanship . And who is there that shall say that the information was any the less or that the experience was less rich than an assignment within the four walls of the class room ? As to out door cooking, singing for enjoyment, knowledge of the tides, and the hundred and one things that are a part of the trip .-how shall we value them ? We who have tried it have unlimited faith in the Nature-Lore method. II. Nature-Lore v s . Nature-Study In 1 9 2 0 the National Association of the Directors of Girls Camps voted to hold a Nature Training School for nature councillors . This school is now a permanent institution. It is a significant thing that the course has been termed Nature­ Lore rather than Nature-Study. The words study, teacher, class, lessons, etc . are tabooed in camp. Not that study is less-it is

Nature-Lore jor Camps

I9

deeper. The aims of camp cannot be discounted because of this change in vocabulary. It is a challenge for the teacher to investigate the 'l£'hy of the change. Nature-lore is possibly the goal bu:t hardly ever the realization of Nature-study. Both are organized nature-learning. Just as Nature­ study is not Elementary Science,-'-so too , Nature-lore is not Nature­ study. The point of attack and th e results can never be the same, until the schools h ave their camps and their opportunities of forest recreation. Detailed comparisons will be given to show the present differences in method and what we may expect as results . NATURE· STUDY

NATURE- LORE

Nature -study is mainly aquaria, cages, power-pots, and pictures in the schoolroom. For example : In perch study the fish is placed in an aquarium in the schoolroom. Questions t o direct the observation of the pupil are writtcn on the board, such as : What is the shape? Describe the tail fin. What is the color along the side? How docs this help him? Compare with the picture of the fish from Japan. Perch study in New York City or Toronto is the same. Since it is a schoolroom lesson all the pupils are doing the same thing at the same time. One must either fish or be a "c1am"-there is no other opportuni­ ty. The project method may alle­ viate the situation but how many teachers are there who can use this method successfully in nature-study in a graded room with the hurly­ burly of a modem curriculum. Most so-called project lessons are old lessons made over ""ith more attrac­ tive bait.

Nature-lore is mainly swimming, fishing, Joraging, and photographing out-oj-doors. For example : In the camp dining hall announcement is made that we are going to Gull Pond. Those who want to go fishing may meet "A . B . " on the beach to get bait. As this part of Cape Cod is sandy there are no earthworms except in a few gardens. The bait is, therefore, sand fleas. Right from the beginning perch-lore differs from perch-study. By 9 a. m. the whole camp is " en route, " a four mile h ike o ' er hill and dune. Unlike the school one may fish or not. Those who fish acquire real knowledge of perch . Others may pick blue­ berries for the flapjacks or h ave a shampoo in the lake. In any case one can not be busy around Gull Pond without learning much of nature even though that be not the aim of the expedition. In the group are enthusiastic leaders, chosen because they believe in their work, big sisters but not one "teacher , " so-called.

2. Nature-study is mainly studying living things or about living things. For cxample : A Nature-study les­ son on the red squ irrel means a live animal in the cage, a stuffed specimen or a picture. Let us choose the best conditions-a live animal. The pupil stands off to one side and observes. The questions may bring out a few isolated facts. Other questions re­ quire reading : Has it cheek pouches ? When are the young born ? Describe the front teeth. These answers are artificially produced. The pupil now has generalized statements about red squirrels which are true anywhere. The knowledge is pigeonholed with

2. Nature-lore is mainly living with living things. For example : Last summer a pair of red squirrels took possession of the mail box in the pines. Some of the Campers became too enthusiastic in peeking at the "cute" little fellows and the squirrels had a moving day. The mother squirrel carried each wee baby by the nape of the neck to a safer height-a bird house in the top of a pitch pine. The campers looked on in breathless suspense­ a nature-lore lesson without words. The observers had been partners in the group. They had had an ex­ perience with a living animal under

1.

1.

20

Nature Guiding

other daily collections from History, Grammar, etc. More interesting than these? Yes, but pigeonholed nature­ knowledge is not what we want.

a natural setting. Not learned all about red squirrels? No, for a naturc­ lore lesson is never complete, but pos­ sibly a keener enjoyment and one to be remembered longer.

Nature-study tS mainly an 3. outer urge. The teacher says : Next week we will study the frog. Who will cat ch one for me? I will put a list of qu estions on the board which You may I want you to answer. ha�'e to read some of the library books on frogs in order to find som e of the answers. Do not remov e the wire screen as the frog may get away. I will put this sign "Please give me a fly !" on the side of the jar so that you will not forget to feed it. Such a lesson is full of devices and persua­ It is a teacher-made plan. sions.

3. Nature-lore is mainly an inner urge. The camper says : vVhy can we not catch a frog and watch it swim? The swimming councillor has previously told th em that the frog does the breast stroke perfectly. How­ ever this was not bait for a lesson on frogs. They discovered that the frog executed his strokes so rapidly that they couldn 't see how he did it. A toad was then suggested. Soon some one wished to see the circula­ tion in the foot and finally the inner organs . Only those staid who wanted to see the dissection. In fact those who thought that they might squ eal or have hysteria were asked to go away. Knowledge sought by the pupil is more lasting. It is a self-assigned learning and is carried to a purposeful conclusion by the initiative of the learner.

4. Nature-study in the traditional school is individualized. By a traditional school is meant the formal, arbitrary school that has been in vogue since the colonial Dame School ; 90 0/, of our nature-study lessons are taught on this plan. The criticism is of the method of nature­ study rather than of nature-study. The procedure is as follows : To­ morrow, John will bring his cat to school. For thirty minutes each one of us will think about the cat. For one or two minutes each one will be thinking,-What is the advan­ tage of th e cat h aving retractile claws' While J\Iary is trying to find how many toes the cat has on its front foot the others may be won­ dering what Mary is going to say. Helen may give the cat some milk . (Probably all need to stretch their muscles by now.) And so it goes for the assigned time. There is no doubt in the mind of the visitor as to which person is the teacher. As to the pupils-they are all worker bees cramped in the same kind of a cell.

4. Nature-lore in the summer Camp and a few schools is socialized. The summer camp is a small democracy. Its life is one of spon­ taneity,-free but orderly. If John is fishing there is no class to fold their h ands and watch him. One may fish or not as he choses. If someone else decides to prepare the fish for dinner all well and good. There is team work but not class work. Someone remembers having rolled a fish in clay and baking it. Volunteers want to hunt for clay. Others like the fish broiled. A competition is started in the prep­ aration of fish,-others join th e game. Professor Palmer has described in detail many wcialized nature activi­ ties in his Cornell leaflets. Many such games arise impromptu. Every member of the hive is like the q ueen bee with plenty of room and food for growth . The period of grov, th is n� t arbitrarily put down as t hirty mmutes, or at IO a. m. or for the last week in January in the third grade. There is doubt in the mind of the visitor as to which one is the leader. And to the life of the camper has been added another of those ne ver to be forgotten experiences.

21

Nature-Lore for Camps 5. Nature-study i s something that is taught.

In this respect it is not unlike the three R's. The same dose is pre­ scribed in all cases with absolutely no regard for the requirements. Yet nothing has been suggested in the nature-lore method that could not be applied in the schoo1 . Peter Bell never went to school in the woods as did Thoreau. Peter Bell went to the three R's every day. And he went into a nature-study class. And when he came out he thought that a primrose was a primrose. How could he think otherwise? If there was nothing contagious how could he catch anything? And who is taking Peter Bell, and your boy and my boy to the woods as we were taken? 6. Nature-study with a bell.

starts

and

stops

5. Nature-lore is something that is caught.

This audience is supposedly in­ terested in nature. You were born naturalists. Everyone is a born naturalist but is usually killed as a naturalist before he is ten. You escaped the killing-off process. Right here I wish to ask a personal question : Was your early interest for nature kindled in the four walls of a school room or did you catch the enthusiasm outside? I have my mother to thank for the song of the robin in the old "high-top " tree. And one of the greatest days of my life was when Dad took me "bobbing eels . " A nature-studv lesson could never take the place of these experiences. These experiences are nature-lore. 6.

Nature-lore comes at any time.

Arithmetic is arithmetic no matter whether the bluebird flies South or the bluebird flies North, and arithme­ tic it must be.

It is not scheduled and may not be planned. It may happen on the way to breakfast or during a mid-day rest. It may interrupt a baseball game or it may tip over a canoe.

7. Who are the graduates of the Nature-studv School? One time I

7. Who are the graduates Nature-lore School?

took a larg e party of nature-study students on a carefully planned outing. When we arrived several came up and wanted to know how long they had to stay. They did not see any fun in a wood-frolic. They wanted to get back to the "Movies. " You too may have had dis­ appointments in the la ck of interest in the nature which you appreciate so well. My experience is that the nature student hardly ever gathers what may be called momentum in nature appreciation or accumulative enthusiasm.

III.

of the

All country boys and girls. All pioneers. It was the school of Lin­ coln, John Muir, Thoreau, Burroughs, Enos Mills, and Dallas Lore Sharpe. It was the school of every one who has a woodsy spot where he loves to return. The place where he feels peculiarly at home. The locality that he can write best about in his letters. It is the sea captain who longs for another trip ; it is the old man who dreams of a "barefoot boy with cheeks of tan ; " it is the moun­ taineer who returns to his West Vir­ ginia Home.

What can We Expect from Nature-Lore Experiences ?

There are many evidences that the sununer camp is not the only institution which expects results from nature experiences. In Detroit the public schools have been placed on an eleven month system , so that all the children of all the people may go to an organized camp. For the business firm we m ay mention the Geperal Electric Company which maintains a camp for employees during vacations. Leaders in Social Settlement Work and Community Centers. missionaries and preachers, are seeking the why and how of nature recreation. Along

22

Nature Guiding

with the attempt to develop the music resources of our communities is coming th e idea of recreation in nature. Vacations can no longer be vacancies. What are we doing to meet the situation ? It is stated that 2 0 , 000,000 people in this country attend the mo­ tion picture show daily. They pay �4 , 000, 000 at 1 8 , 000 theatres. This means that one-fifth of our population have the "movie mania. " The moving picture man has a means of amusement (not synony­ mous with recreation) which he has sold for a good price. We have a better proposition which we have not been able to give away. The Sunday supplement is equally popular. We must reorganize. Now is an opportune time to place our wares on the market . Nature-lore gives experiences for the individual or for the group . It gives another wholesome opportunity for spendin g leisure time. The nature-lore student finally accumulates a wealth of nature experiences. These nature experiences are the materials out of which a structure is built. This structure is nature 's laws. Out of the laws comes an appreciation of nature , and appreciation which may be termed a local nature-patriotism. An d local nature-patriotism must precede national nature conservation. Without this appreciation in our people any attempt to develop the conservation of our natural resources is destined to failure. And with all this can we not sing "I love thy rocks and rills" with a new fervor. IV. The Camp Notebook A long and varied experience of taking notes in the field has led to the conclusion that a camp notebook must be : ( I ) . Looseleaf. a . As each camp and camper will have individual needs and desires ; b . So that only the pages needed for the trip scheduled are in­ serted ; c . So that the pages of the previous trip may be safely filed at camp ; d . In order that the pages may be arranged at the end of the season and neatlv bound. (2 ) . Handy siz� , to be carried in a pocket or attached to a belt . ( 3 ) . Standard size, so that printed directions, identification charts, outline drawings , tables, etc . can be inserted or transferred to all field books. (4) . Firm , smooth covers, that they may be used for a drawing board or a writing desk in the field. (5 ) . Durable, to stand hard usage on the hike. Camp Directors will appreciate the fact that the Comstock Pub­ lishing Company has found such a book and is at the same time placing on the market the pages asked for by each camp director. Such a cooperative policy bodes well for all concerned. One of the most successful pages is the tree chart which shows in a compact space the outlines of leaves of our comm on trees. It is a page which is typical of other key sheets to be published. The bird

Nature-Lore for Camps

23

outlines, already well known in schools, have been adapted to this "coat-pocket " edition . Several camps have tried out the scheme and the following notes describe its use at Camp Chequesset. The idea was so successful th at the directors of Camp Chequesset wish to have other camps share the benefits, not that they will do it the same way, but that they may start according to their environment and individuality. Our slogan is "The Nautical Camp for Girls " and all our doings whisper of the sea. Mountain camps will readily translate these breezes from the shore into the airy vernacular of the mountaineer. Page One, The Topographical Map. Th e government topographical map is the best map for use in the field. It may be obtained from the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington , D. C . , at $6 . 00 per hundred. The Survey publishes a key map that shows just which areas have been mapped. It has also selected a set of 2 5 maps that illustrate an interesting variety of geographic features. Some of this set have descriptive texts printed on their backs. The set can be purchased from the Survey by any one for $ 1 .00. In ordering, use a money order or certified check. The map is most conveniently used when cut into sections and mounted on cheese cloth. The section most often used would be the area about camp . If the camp is located near the center of a three mile radius one may cut out a rectangle measuring 7 Ys inches by 6Ys inches, and have a folding map that fits into the notebook. Using the lines of longitude and latitude as a starting place, and mark off the map into inch squares. Each inch represents approxi­ mately a mile. Number the lines and thereafter places may be located by their latitude and longitude. We now have ready one of the most useful pages of the notebook. Safe pioneering, the compass and trail, and real scouting are based upon it. The description of two ways of using the map at Camp Chequesset may suffice to indicate the possibilities. ( r ) . The King's Highway: The old King's Highway was once the route of the saddle horse and the stage coach. This was before the railroad and the state road ran down the Cape. The roadway is then pointed out on the map . The campers are now told that ye old highway has been abandoned to trees and bushes which are rapidly claiming their right of domain. It takes a good scout to follow this hidden trail . For a short distance it is seen in old wagon ruts ,�then keener searching for hub bruises or blazes on tree trunks,�or just sheer luck with the compass along the valley they must have "fol­ lered. " The frontiersman never had a grander opportunity for a battle of wits. You will note that this byway is crossed by longitude 70 degrees and by latitude 42 degrees and 5 5 minutes north. B etween these two points is an advance guard. Squads will be sent at twenty

24

Nature Guiding

minute intervals with messages for the Captain of the guard. As a parting word of advice remember that haste makes waste, the fox is cunning, and sheep follow a leader without thought .

(2 ) . Bellamy's [( ettle. Long long ago Bellamy 's Pirate ship was wrecked at South Wellfleet . T he inhabitants of the Chequesset country harvested the plunder of old coins, flintlocks, and kettles. Each year one of these copper kettles is hidden n ear camp . One time the kettle was concealed at the lowest point on the camp grounds. This proved to be at the bottom of the pond by the garden. The dis­ coverers found something worth while jingling in the kettle . They were coins found on Billingsgate I sland and given to the camp by

Nature-Lore jor Camps Mr. Nye as medals for the winners of this game. This year the kettle has been buried with a "big secret " on the highest summit northeast of camp . Find the kettle and bring it back to camp without being captured. You may study your contour maps and work out the best method of locating and moving the trophy. For each person disturb-

AN OLD SEA CLIFF. Scouting is not limited to the footprints of today. Note the Indian shell heap (A) in the right of the bank. The dark line ( B ) in the cliff shows the contour of the original hill top. Where once was an ancient valley (C) is now a hill or sand dune ( D ) . The original hill (E ) was deposited by the glacier. The exposed roots of the bay­ berry (F) and beach grass (G) show that the cliff is retreating. When written in story form this makes an interesting chapter in the past geography of the shore line of Wellfleet Bay.

CHEQUESSET CAMPERS SKETCHING

ing th e camp routine, such as lateness to a meal , a point will be taken off the final score of that team . The captain of each team will appoint a place for you to meet for council and maneuver. The success of the expedition depends upon strategy. Compasses , field glasses, pe­ dometers , etc . , may be obtained at the camp library. The Page oj Tree Leaves. (A few suggestions for use . ) O n these trips the contour map and the tree page are carried in the notebook. ( r ) . Tree Spying. Stop at a tree, such as the wild black cherry. Each one identifying the tree by use of the leaf chart within three minutes time is given a point. For each mistake a point is sub­ tracted . At the end of the trip add the scores and announce the winners. ( 2 ) . Tree Scouting. Appoint leaders to choose teams . Tell them to study the oak leaves on the chart and then at a given signal give them three minutes to obtain a white oak leaf. The tree given should be knO\Vll to be nearby. At the end of three minutes blow a whistle. Those back in their places with a white oak leaf (no more, no less)

26

Nature Guiding

score a point. Next send them scouting for a red oak acorn, a balm­ of-Gilead bud, and so on. The team scoring the greatest number of points represents the group of best tree scouts. (3 ) . Tree Trailing. Hide messages "en route" and send out com­ panies 30 minutes apart. The messages may read as follows : Take the valley trail to the east until you see a large yellow willow. In an abandoned flickers home is a note. Read it carefullv. This note may read,-Within sight of this spot is a silver poplar � As far from the tree as it is high and in the direction of its noonday shadow is buried a message on birch bark. Please leave this scroll as you find it . The group following the directions farthest and in the quickest time wins the honor of the t:-ail. (4) . Tree Cribbage. This may be played for a time when on a long hike. Assign a numerical value to certain trees. One group may take one side of the road and the other the opposite or the poin ts may go to the side recognizing the tree first. In this case it leads to a long range recognition by form. (Trees "en masse" and silhouettes suggest interesting rainy day projects for the notebook.) Taking the Notebook on Special Trips. As an example of this sort of use of the notebook we will describe our trip called,-"To the Hermitage :" E very bailiwick has its hermit. Ours is a grizzly sea­ dog who has taken to land some two miles from the coast. He is a Thoreau-like individual reminding one considerably of that famous naturalist \vho walked the length of the Cape some three-quarters of a

century ago .

The present recluse has squatted on th e site of

his

great grandsire' s claim and his tract reaches unto the shores of the same pond. From the cedar swamp in back he has lugged, dragged, and rolled in turn the logs for the framework of his hut. The adz, an heirloom, has again played its part and the timbers have been slowly hewn into shape for the sills and rafters. A clump of lilacs, he will tell you all this, marks the east bedroom of the old homestead­ long since tumbled and gone. Of the old days-naught remains to suggest ancestral fortitude or thrift but scraggly apple trees, decrepit, gnarled, and windblown, with a few belichened fence rails. Our equipment for this trip is the notebook with a map , two pages of drawing paper, two pages for notes, colored crayons, a reverence for the crudities of pioneer days, an eagerness to hear and understand a backwoods language,-a woodsy speech which has all but disap­ peared, and a desire to express the experience in writing and in sketch with an understanding heart. Following a perparation in spirit it was suggested that th e campers might like to make a list of the evidences of an early homestead , the methods of a pioneer, the reasons for believing that he has a love for nature, and quaint ex­ pressions. ·What greater wealth of material could one wish for a future school essay (if one can forgive such trespassing) or, if the spirit of the letter has not been killed, for the very j oy of writing literature (note spelling with a small D .

Nature-Lore for Camps

Note, then, that every caillp region has its henmt. Hermits vary. It ought not to be necessary to say "know your hermit. " Hermitages vary as also does the region there-abouts. Therefore, every camp has an experience unto itself with respect to hermits. Not only that but every individual camper has a different reaction to the experience. The stories and drawings therefore show an individuality of response. A few of these are selected at random from the notebooks. These quotations have not been changed. They are borrowed from the personal property of the owner for a definite cause and not for criti­ cism. And let it be emphasized that nature councillors are not to trespass on this private property with a red eye or a red pencil for spelling, split infinitives, or vertical twists to the penmanship. The number of poets and writers killed off by this method will never be revealed but let us not kill the spirit in camps. And as Mrs. Com­ stock says in her Handbook of Nature-Study "These books, of what­ ever quality, are precious beyond price to their owners. And why not ? For they represent what cannot be bought or sold, personal experience in the happy world of out-of-doors. " Mr. Dyer ( The Hermit) . From the field book of "Bumps, " age eleven years, the youngest girl at Chequesset. "His grandfather settled here years ago. The pond was named for him. The lilac bushes and the fruit trees indicate the great age of the place. The Hermit has planted boughs on the north side of his com to protect it from the cold. He also made a wheel-barrow with much patience and care. He has made a little bird house on the top of a stick driven into an old stump which has been there for many years. He has some timbers left from those used to build his house. Back of his house he has made a chicken coop of pine boughs. He has placed boards on either side to weigh the boughs down and keep them together. He shows his interest in flowers and trees by planting and taking care of both. Around his garden is a fence to prevent the deer's (they are seen frequently in this region) from eating all the beans over night as they did one year. Years ago the house used t o b e almost up to the water' s edge but the new house which M r . Dyer made himself is back much farther. Mr. Dyer seems to take an interest in camp girls and is not a bit timid about answering ques­ tions. " Photo Mount Sheets: These are special sheets for snapshots. These little "pleasantries" like the principal on compound interest , double in value in a few years. Is it any wonder that this book, probably Volume I of the author, becomes so highly prized as years roll on ? The Bulletin Board is an important adjunct to the notebook. At the end of a trip a few of the best and most original sketches, stories, poems, snapshots, and collections are exhibited on the bulletin board. This bulletin board is not a place for drying or airing ideas. It is a live place because it is newsy. Yesterday's hike differs from today's story and tomorrow' s game. The blackfish are playing in the offing,-It is a kind of whale.--Watch for any proof ? The blue-

Nature Guiding fish are running down the Bay,-Ten fishermen are wanted on the harf at 3 p. m. B each plums are ripe Follow Barbara right after

w

,-

EVERY CAMP SHOULD HAVE A TREE CHAM PION : The Camp Chequesset tree is the PITCH PINE ( Pinus rigida ) . It stands for ruggedness and individuality . It overcomes difficulties. It never d isplays primness. It is picturesque. I t sends out a healthy aroma and lulls campers to sleep with i t s murmuring branches. To those far away this spray from " The Pines" may revive pleas­ ant memories of camping days Down on Cape Cod. ( Post cards were made of this photograph and on a rainy d ay the campers colored them in with J a p · anere water colors and sent them to old camp friends. Such a spray neyer fades .) It takes three seasons for a pine cone to ripen. The three stages are shown in this picture. How do the pine needles of this spring' s growth differ from older leaves? The staminate or "pollen blossoms" are also shown. Find a few. Find some scars of ti1e needle clusters. How long do the leaves stay on the pitch pine ? How can you tell t hat the larger cone is ripe?

breakfast. The sand pipers are hatching,-' Nuf sed !' Poultry men sign here for tum to collect the eggs. There is always something going on. It is refreshing. It is a medium for the e xch ange of ideas

Nature-Lore for Camps and more than one good resolution is made to an ideal (not idol) at this shrine of activity (not sanctum sanctorum) . Nature-study Forms (Bird, animal, and flower plates) . A resolution was made at Chequesset that no study of plant or animal life should be made except it be alive and in its native haunt. It is surprising how many of these opportunities are waiting for the one who looks for them. When ordering our supplies for the camp notebook we limit the order to the living things at hand. Last June we knew that the barn swallow was feeding her young on the bungalow porch ; that the chickaree had rented the mailbox in the pines ; that a chippy, a robin, and a pine warbler were within 3 0 feet of th e dining room door ; that Bufo the toad was beneath the steps ; that the blue-birds were rearing their second families in the boxes ; that red perch would be caught at Gull Pond ; that the squid, and the skate, and the hermit crab would be seen on the shore ; that the swamp azalea would scent the ponds and arethusa dot the mead­ ows . vVe knew many, many friends that would be at camp and be­ cause we knew these friends, we knew just which outlines to order from the publishers. Then when summer came with a rainy day there were those who were anxious to color in the outline of the barn swallows as they fed the young under the eaves of the piazza. And just because someone was interested in doing this, others became interested. Then so many caught the spirit that it was quite the fashion. And just be­ cause it was not a school there were others who did not care or shall we say did not have to "j oin in. " They had found something more interesting,-perhaps they were reading Cap 'n Eri, or were making fudge , or a pine needle basket, or were just gazing at the colors of a drift-wood fire. "\Vhat ever they were doing it was genuine. And we believe that it was all making for a broader intelligence. The pine warbler arranged her class room for a sunny day. She had built a nest in a small pitch pine about six feet from the ground. In this case a small table was moved to the side of the tree. Here a camper could soj ourn with water colors or merely pause for a peep at the young on the way to mess. She who studied the swallow might not care for the pine warbler or might have some other interest­ and at the camp the interests are varied and many. Several passer­ bys so gained the confidence of the mother bird that they were able to stroke her- not a mean accomplishment in itself. And to that nervous little somebody from so far away this touching of a wild bird was a contact with something far greater-it was a momentary connection with steadiness of motion-better than notebooks or rubies-for therein was the foreglow of self-composure and calmness. To all this the nature councillor must subscribe in vision and sympa­ thy. vVhat one should do on a particular occasion cannot be fore­ cast. It is not preparing prescriptions nor is it dealing out patent medicines . It is furnishing opportunities for the love of the beautiful

30

Nature Guiding

and timely suggestions for companionship with out door life. If in this the councillor be sincere her companions will be many. Chequesset Nature-cards. Plate number VI shows another source of instruction . It is a story told by four pictures. These pictures are taken from the camp environment and arranged to tell an im­ portant truth or serial event in nature. The cards are given out as a surprise after having studied the phenomena or they may serve as a suggestive basis for the written description. In either case they form a bright spot in th e com­ plexity of future living when the writer has a minute to pause for nature reminiscences of camping days. Garden Competition This was a novel com­ petition in establishing boat gardens in old seven teen foot dories sunk in the ground. The flower guide sheet of the Camp and Fiel 1 N otebook is

a

great

aid

in the game. Wellfleet is an ideal gleaning ground for such a fete. When the villagers turned their trade from whaling in the deep sea to quahauging down the CHEQUESSET NATURE CARDS. No. I-From Ponds to Reclaimed Land. Questions : Cause bay the houses were of ponds? How do long ponds become round gradually moved from ponds? How are round ponds conquered by the ocean side of the vegetation? Uses of meadows ? Cape to the harbor shore. The pretty posies of the old fashion gardens were abandoned to fate and now come camp girls scouting for the choicest bloomers to ornament their boat plots. Tansy, iris, spurge, house leeks, yuccas, and dusty miller were delegated to their proper places alongside the Hudsonias and stonecrops from the wilds. The opposing teams looked on with admiration as finishing touches were placed here and there before the arrival of the judges.

Nature-Lore for Camps And then came the judges with their notebooks-the art councillor, nature councillor, and a senior camper. The gardens were viewed most critically-with a fine tooth rake as it were. First the judg es took notes as to color, then as to choice and variety of material. the arrangement and symmetry of form, how the material was planted, and then the originality. One crew had made a sundial while the other had purchased a sailor windmill and this was against them as they had spent money rather than ingenuity. And the idea of per­ man encY,-one garden showed a tendency to run to plants that were in blossom for the time being. Even the trimness of th e ground around the boats did not escape their scrutiny. Solomon 's garden in all its glory could nLlt have been surveyed as were both of these. A Final Word as to Notebooks . We have been dilating about the opportunities and some of the uses of note books at Camp Chequesset. If you are to use a similar scheme you must get on deck and look at the beauties of your own harbor. There are no more beautiful skies, n o more sweeter song birds no greater history, no stauncher patriotism in any harbor than at Wellfleet and these things are n ot better in Wellfl eet than in your town. Some day we hope to come over the mountain and hem' about the notebook on your side. th e

,

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Nature-Study Equipmen t

A quarium Half-barrels are good for water plants and fish. Battery j ars for glass aquaria-Whitall, Tatum Co. , New York City. Fruit jars make good small aquaria. Home-made glass aquaria may bc cemented together. See Hodges " Nature­ studv and Life : " Bee Hir'es Observation Hive with protection when not observing. The A. 1. Root Com­ pany, :Medina, Ohio. " How to Keep Bees, " Comstock, same Company. Blackboard Home-made blackboard-use linoleum in wooden frame . Paint black. Bulletin Board Use natural color art burlap . Andrew Dutton, Canal St . , Boston, l\Iass. Twenty-five to thirty cents per yard. Note : All prices are liable t o vary. Cha rts Use unbleached muslin. Camp Kchonka uses curtains on rollers . Birds A udubon Society, 1 974 Broadway, N ew York City. Miniature Bird Pictures, So subjects, 3 x 4 inches, I C. each . Game of ," 7 WIld Birds ; Game of 3 5 Wild Flowers, 35c . each. Post cards in natural colors of Wild Birds, Animals, etc. Seventy-five leaflets, 43 colored plates, 4 1 outline drawings. 97 h aH tone illustrations, $I .75 postpaid. One hundred fifty colored lantern slides, Soc. each. B ird Charts No. 1 and No. 2 especially recommended . International Harvester Company, Extension Department, Harvester Building, Ch icago. Mimeographs Copy of H elps in Bird Study sent free. Working drawings for making things, I C. each : 1 . 'Wren House. 2. Bird Feeding Station. 3. Nesting Box for Robin. 4. Plant Protector. Mumford, A. W., 1 60 Adams Street, Chicago , Illinois. Birds and Nature Pictures, colored, 25C. each . National Geographic Society, 1 6th and l\I Streets, Washington, D. C., "200 pages illuminated with 250 matchless subjects in full colors, 45 illustrations

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Nature Guiding

in black and white, and thirteen striking charts and maps." $3.00 post raid in United States. Perry Picture Company, JYIalden, Mass . , 300 bird pictures in color. size 6" x 8", 2C. cacho Special prices on large orders. State of New York, State University, Albany. Birds of N. Y. $1 set. Wint:etaska Bird Charts, Dr. John B . May, Cohasset, Mass. Cards 5 � " x 3 � " with outline drawings, legends, and notes on habits. Eighteen land birds, 4 each of wading, swimming, and birds of prey. 30C. per set post paid. Recommended for field work. Clouds Charts of cloud forms : (a) Blueprints, 1 6" x 23", 5c. ; (b) Classification of clouds, colored, 20" x 24", 25c. Free through Congressman or U. S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture, 'Veather Bureau, 'Vashington. Geography (Pictorial) Land, water and air, 48 sheets, $ I .OO ; United States (Prelim. ) (48 sheets) $ I .oo. Pictorial Geography, Dept. B , 1 6 and M St. , Washington. Insect Breeding Cages Simple cages covered with mosquito netting. Have sods, soil, or potted plants inside. Adapted to studying the life histories. Leaf Printing Need the following material : printers roller, tube of printer's ink, photo-mount roller, piece of glass or old slate, and paper. See Comstock 's Handbook of Kature-study for directions. Maps Most valuable is the Topographic Map published by the U. S. Geol. Survey, 'Vashington, D. C. Obtain Monograph 60 by Atwood, Salisbury. Outline maps, made by means of mimeograph, are most valuable. This is especially true of the immediate locality . Minerals A collection of the minerals of the region and exhibits of the local mining industries should be in the Camp lVfuseum. T\venty minerals and 20 rocks in compartments, $4. 50, Chicago Apparatus Company, 32 S. Clinton St . , Chicago. Also vVard Nat . Rist . Est . , Rochester, N. Y .

!v[useum l\Iaking a case is a good manual training project. Use vials for seeds and soil. Labels. Exhibits of local industries. Riker lvlOll11ts for insects. Kny-Schecrer Co . , 225 4th Ave . , New York. Notebook The Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, New York is putting on the market a loose leaf notebook especially adapted to nature-study in the field. It also has pages for accounts, music, and photos. The name of the camp or school will be printed on the outside. Every camper should have one of these note­ books. Price about $ I . 2 5 , at least as near cost as market conditions will allow. Pictures Perry Picture Co . , Boston, l\Iassachusetts. 7 " x 9" pictures in natural colors of birds , animals, minerals, fruits, etc . , 2C. each , assorted as desired . .:\0 order for less than 2 5c. Thompson Blue Prints, Syracuse, New York. Subj ects general . Stereopticon Lantern Acetylene burner and prestolite tank for eamps without electricity . Tree SUr1'ev Send for Horticultural and Pomological Investigations, B. P . 1 . , Form number 2 1 9 , U. S. Dept. Agriculture, \Vashington, D. C . Instructions for t aking a Bird Census, U. S. Dept . Agric. , Bureau B iological Survey, Henry 'IV . Henshaw, Chief, were published in 1 9 1 4 and 1 9 1 5 . Trees Trees in Silhouette. by Henry Turner Bailey. Published by Atkinson, Mentzer and Company, Boston, Mass . , and :'\ew York City. Forest trees, each picture 9 " x 1 2 " , consists of 3 pictures. Price 1 set, 8 sheets, 24 pictures, 40c. Three sets $ 1 .00.

CHAPTER III THE NATURE WA Y AT CAMP CHEQUESSET " There is a pleasure in the pathless woods ; There is a rapture on the lonely shore ; There is society, where none intrudes, By the deep sea and music in its roar : I love not man the less, but nature more . "

-Byron: " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage"

This chapter is written to illustrate how the Nature Lore method has been carried out in one camp. No two camps could furnish the same experiences. It must always be different. All camps do have, however, similiar possibilities . A good leader will discover the nature resources peculiar to the particular camp in which he serves. The method will be the same. The "daily dozen " which follow will be suggestive as to mining the nature possibilities in other camps. Would you like to know how we study nature at Chequesset. We don 't study it. They provide nature experiences for us. I want to tell you about a few of these experiences. I. One day last summ e r we went on a sailing Trip to the Heronry. Professor E. H. Forbush, the State Ornithologist for Massachusetts, is a frequent visitor at camp . His coming usually means a trip to the heron rookery on Great Island , and the Tern Colony on Jeremy Point. We band these birds and have learned that some of the black-crowned night herons on the island go on a hunting trip to Quebec, in the fall, instead of going directly south as was expected. Mr. Forbush always tells interesting experiences around the drift wood fire. On the way home we made up a song to the tune of Father Time. It is one of our camp songs now. 2. The camp flower is the beach pea. This was decided after an enthusiastic campaign between the devotees of the beach pea and the backers of the sea lavendar. (Fig. I . )

3 . A visit to the Hermit is full of nature interests ; we are always welcomed, on this, our annual visit . The adz and the hewn rafters , his rustic bird houses, the white lily which came ashore in the B ritish ship Jason, stories about the taming of the Canadian geese and " Gandy, " the n est of the wild duck, and the feeding of his bob whites stir our imagination and broaden our nature conception. (Figs. 2-3 . ) 4. You would have enjoyed The Crow Debate. Last summer two families of crows started their career in the pines by the lodges. They were rather indiscreet in becoming garrulous early in the morn­ ing. They were brought to trial. There were lawyers for the de­ fense and others for the prosecution . The jury found the crows guilty but because of their youthfulness and future use to the farm­ ers of the Cape they were sentenced to live the remainder of their young life in an onion crate in the top of a pine tree some distance from the lodges. (Figs. 4-5.)

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Natu re GUt"ding

The Nature rVay

35

5 . On Foraging expeditions we gather blue berries or strawberries for pan cakes, harvest succulent shell fish on the shore, or bake perch from Gull pond, any of these occupations is enough to whet one's appetite without the addition of the salty air for sauce. Getting clay, bayberries, quahaug wampum, pine needles, and cat-tails for arts and crafts makes that industry doubly interesting. (Fig. 6 .) 6 . A Whale of a Story. Wellfleet or Whalefleet is said to be the second whaling port in the country. On the old barns you will often see whale weathercocks. At the base of the cliffs, toward Herring River, or up by B lackfish Creek one often discovers the bleached bones of the leviathan partly hidden by the beach grass. Then again, on the back shore a keen eyed camper is often rewarded by glimpses of passing whales. This all goes to show that Wellfleet is a wonderful place for a whale of a story. (Fig. 7 .) Every story must have a heroine. Look now, as to how this port was settled by girl campers. In olden times the Chequesset tribe of red men held clam bakes on these shores and the shells heaps still testify to their ancient festivities. In 1 9 1 4 girl campers resolved to use the same name and established themselves as Camp Chequesset. What wonder, then, that Cheques set Campers dig clams, push out in canoes, and as they get more experience explore Duck Creek in sailboats. Wellfleet Bay is the swnmer home of 5 0 sea-hermits. Camp Chequesset, the nautical camp for girls. It was Tuesday, July 2 8 that the whole camp turned out to go "Down to the sea in ships" at the village movie house. We sat on the edge of our seats in suspense as the mighty whales lifted the boats high out of the water. Then we saw, "Belay ! " "Where away ? " "Two points o ff the starboard bow, Sir !" The Cheques set girls broke out with a hearty clap . I t was such a sudden burst of pleasure that it had to be explained to inquiring villagers , who visited the camp the next day, that that very lingo was the Camp way of saying "Hello. " Now we Chequesset girls have "old salts" come in to tell sea yarns. Cap 'n Stull, the ambergris king, and an old camp friend, came over to camp the evening of July 2 9 th to tell us girls stories. Ambergris, you know, comes from the intestines of a whale and gives the lasting qualities to perfwnery. Well, sir, Cap 'n Stull brought over his sea trinkets. In some old log books he showed us drawings of whales made by sailors, ambergris, high grade watch oil from the head of the blackfish, the claw of a fifteen pound lobster, and the sketch of a whale graven by a fisherman on a sperm whale's tooth. He had a whale sea-bag full of interesting stories and it was with great difficulty that Mother V. dragged us away to bed. Cap 'n Stull is the hero of our yarn. Imagine this ! Just a few days after Cap 'n Stull's visit to camp­ August 3 d to be exact-we were all in swimming. Cap 'n B ill came running down to the wharf and announced that 1 0 5 blackfish were ashore in East Brewster. We were all aglow with excitement. Mrs.

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Cram hurried her famous dinner of swordfish, mashed potato, peas, and all the fixings-topped off with ice cream . Cap 'n Taylor was rounded up and by 1 . 0 5 P. M. all the mennaids and landsmen were aboard the camp launch , Mouette. We were outbound on a whaling trip, and right over the same waters as the whaling boats of yore. On the leeward shore was Eastham . We could see the white sand beach where the Pilgrims beheld their first blackfish in 1 6 2 0 . Chug­ ging and puffing the Mouette bore us down past Billingsgate. Qua­ haug boats were on their moorings . The old rum runner with her weather stained hulk made a black shadow against the island. These things did not interest us today. We were bound whaling. AU eyes were scanning Cape Cod Bay. "Blackfish ! " "B lackfish , " "Right ahead !" "Off the starboard quarter ! " Every Chequesseter was startled by the cry. In the dis­ tance black specks were bobbing out of the calm blue. Cap'n B ill grabbed the mooring hook and stood on the bowsprit. Cap 'n Taylor grinned from the cabin window as he headed his boat toward the school. I t was school in two senses of the word as you shall see. Cameras were held in readiness as the Mouette swiftly bore down on the prey. We gazed at the spouting blackfish . They would arise and dive, their glossy backs glistening in the sun. (Figs . 8- 9 .) "W oopie ! " " Hee-hee ! " cried the campers up forward. And the wild screams were taken up by others aft. The boat churned on through the foaming mass. Thousands of questions were asked. A veritable school room , yet different , for the questions were being asked by the pupils. We were close enough to the blackfish to see their spout holes and to hear their puffing. Yes, these blackfi sh are a species of whale. No, not fish , for they breath by lungs. They will not tip the Mouette over. The fishennen drive them ashore with boats .

It w as at least half

an

hour before we got through asking

questions and if there is such a th ing as an examination I guess it 's when we tell this story and show the pictures to our friends. Ex­ amination or no, we will never forget this whale of a story. Cap 'n Taylor now headed toward the Brewster shore. While the ship 's company were gazing along the beach Chubbie cried out in her sonorous voice, "There they are ! There they are ! " The Mouette swung to. "Lower away ! " came across the deck. The campers sprang over the rail into the dory. "Give way ! " the Cap 'n shouted. "Ay, ay, Sir ! " cheerily cried the Pirate Crew, as the oarsmen pulled for shore. All eyes were riveted upon the black fonns on the beach . "Give way there ! Pull way together !" The loaded dory grated on the sand. All hands o'er the gunnel and the Cap 'n shoved off for another load. I t was a strange sight to see these huge bodies boiling in the hot sun. And there was Cap 'n Stull with his men. The heads had all been re­ moved by his crew to get the famous watch oil. The sight was won­ derful and awesome. Look at this one, piped up Speedie as she leaped upon the foaming prey. All hands lined up for a picture, singing the

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good old Chequesset chantey, "The Cheques set girls don't wear any combs, for they comb their hair with a cod fish bone, " etc. "Mike" was so tickled that she danced a hornpipe right on the whale' s deck. The steel blue of the sky and the sea were becoming one as the Mouette pulled up anchor to return to camp. A note by the directors: This is a true story told by one of our camp­ ers. It answers two questions. One question is-what is your daily program and we always have to answer that we never have two days alike. The tide changes every day and we know not what the next tide will bring. The second question, is, how do you teach nature-study ? Well, this is an example of a nature lesson at Che­ quesset. It is one of the many that a camper lives and experiences. How different from learning a list of 5 0 fish ?

7 . A Chequesset Trip to the Fish Weirs. Dear Folks at Home: The other night Dan Harvey and Cap 'n Jack Williams came over from Provincetown. Dan Harvey sang sea chanteys and had us sing with him. It was simply great. Then Cap 'n Jack told us fishing stories. He had caught a horse mackerel that morning and we seemed so interested that he told Cap 'n B ill that we could go out with him some morning. So last Thursday we went. ( Figs. I O - I I . ) Imagine it ! At 2 : 4 5 A . M . we were creeping around the pines trying not to wake up the whole camp . It seemed funny to be eating breakfast. We were soon speeding through the darkness toward Provincetown. Some were admiring the sunrise, but when we got along a little ways we discovered that it was Highland Light. There was a grand rush for the wharf only to find Cap ' , Williams was going by old time. Edna sketched the sunrise and the boat silhouettes in the harbor. I am sending a snap shot of the sunrise. I t does not half tell the story for it was just gorgeous as it came up out of the Atlantic. I never saw the sun rise before. Cap 'n Williams was surely good to us. He not only took us way out to his fish traps but when we got ashore he showed us around a cold storage plant. I am inclosing a picture of him and the girls that went out. It was great fun to watch the artists. ( Fig. I 2 . ) We drove back to Highland light where a d elicious luncheon was enjoyed by all. Then we visited the bayberry dipping place. Serat tried to buy a bayberry mint. It is most time for taps and I am awfully sleepy. They call it putting out the anchor lights and piping down. We have a treasure hunt tomorrow. Your loving daughter, ANN OLE CAMPER. 8 . The Old Tree Stump is beneath the tide line. The other day one of the camp daddies took us over to see the old stump . He dug around it and cut off some of the wood. We had a great time trying to figure out how this tree use to grow in that spot. When we got home

40

Nature Guiding

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Nature Guiding

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mallet until a complete range o f notes were acquired. I f the piece sounded too h igh the end was chipped off, if too low it was slashed off on the side. Quaker oat boxes, and others of various sizes, were placed under the key boards to give resonance. The instrument was very successful. 8 . A Picture Frame. Fig. I I shows a tree that has been burned by fire and then exposed to the weather for many years. The weath­ ering has given a rustic effect of quarter sawing. Enos Mills has used such pieces for picture frames. •

Fig. 7 . AUTOMATIC STEW FIRE which will burn safely while the builder does camp chores or goes fishing. The sticks settle downward and feed the fire.

L\IAGINATION GUIDES OUR RAC E

During t h e long centuries between cave a n d cottage our good ancestors traveled Nature's inspiring pictured scenes. With interest and with awe they watched the silent movements of the clouds across the sky, they listened with speechless wonder to the mysterious, unseen echo that lived and mimicked in the air, they puzzled over the strange, invisible wind that shook the excited trees and whispered in the rustling grass. They heard the echoing crash of thunder, saw lightning's golden rivers in the cloud mountains and looked with childish joy upon the silken rainbow. They marveled at the wondrous sunrise, the light of day, the fireflies in the forest, and the lonely, changing moon. The mysterious darkness was never understood but the silent, faithful stars they named and watched with nightly wonder. By trail and campfire these thought-filled wonders took life and color, became poetic stories. Through the changing seasons and the passing years Nature built the brain and kindled the illuminating imagination-the immortal torch that guided our advancing race and which triumphantly leads us on.-Enos A . ll.1ills.

CAMP E D ITH MACEY (A Girl Scout Leaders Camp) Briar Cliffe Manor, New York. Photos by Mattie Edward Hewitt. Courtesy Girl Scouts, Inc. A Wonderful example of a Camp which fits its surroundings . Designed and carried out by Mr. James Rippin

Photo by M . E . Hewitt. N . Y . City

Fig. 1 2 . "THE GREAT HALL" is a memorial to Edith Carpenter Macey. The " Singing Steps" are made out of native stones which harmonize with the rugged ledges of Westchester County. It is here that city ills are van­ quished by the sun, air, and simple life.

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Fig. 1 3 . INTERIOR O F THE " G REAT HALL . " Camp Edith Macey. The hewn rafters, straight backed settles before the fire, benches, rustic chairs, and mutton-tallow candles are in keeping with the mansion. Harking back t o primitive times is essential to t h e outdoor scout. -

Fig. 1 4. A UNIT ASSEMBLY LODGE . Where a troop encampment of30 scouts may gather for a "social bee" as did the old fashi one d families 1;wo genera­ tions ago. The fire place is just the incentive for folk songs, country dances. and Woodland stories, and really essential for the " back to the country " movement. -

Fig. 1 5 . OUTDOOR COOKING SHELTER AND CAMP DINING TABLE. Comfort in the open is an Art. Here girls work with the e nvi ronmen t instead of fight­ ing it. Note that the framework of the shelter is chestnut timber which was killed by the chestnut blight and was otherwise doomed to deca y. The fireplace is of field stone, and the roof is shingled with slate slabs. The bench seats are from chestnut logs. The woodwork has a "weathered oak" stain.

CHAPTER XII COMMON J\IISTAKES IN NATURAL HISTORY

Man has roamed over the surface of this earth for at least a half million years . His progress has been incredibly slow. :Uost of his superstitions are the superstitions of the cave man . l\fany of his errors have a direct lineage to folk-lore and nursery rhyme. Is it not remarkable how little we change ? A man-made war in Europe may kill thousands and man-made traditions live. A great step in mental conservation would be taken by eliminating our load of errors and mysticism . The following notes are based on a recent examination which was given to test the kind and extent of mistakes pertaining to natural h istory. The total number examined was 2 8 1 . This included 1 4 different classes ranging from the Junior High School through the College. The results indicate how little the average student thinks and how little the most of them see. Without doubt thousands more will roam the same road until our school authorities open the avenues of opportunity to think and discover. If there were any way of knmving many people would be glad to learn . sub rosa or otherwise, \vhether they should be classified as traditionalists or progressives. This article has been \\Titten so that the reader may test himself as to his belief in Natural History ideas which are ill-born, and of a crude age. The questions introduce a usual misconception and immediately following is told the origin of the erroneous idea and the correction. The percentages are given so that the reader will know where he ranges with others in respect to the right answer. Once realizing the value of live interests it is hoped the reader will help smother the system ,yhich glorifies mute me­ morials of a chaotic past . O ld Sayings 1 -ersus Economic Facts Has your training been one of tradition or of realities ? Try the following test around the camp fire and then read about the results of the test in various schools and the interpretation. These are common "sayings . " Name one economic fact about Fill in the missing words. each animal mentioned.

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Bees Owls . . . . . . . . Bats . . . . . . . . . Loons . . . . . . . Adders . . . . . . Peacocks . . . . . I\Iice . . . . . . . . Crows . . . . . . . Hawks . . . . . . . Hornets . . . . . . .

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Many of our "old sayings " are anything but true. "Busy as a B ee " is the most familiar. 90%� I OO% of the pupils in the various 133

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Nature Guiding

schools examined remember the old adage. Yet a bumble bee is th e antithesis of thrift and does not store enough honey to keep the colony over winter. Only the queens survive the rigors of winter. If by the "busy bee" is meant the honey bee we have but to recall that the community is noted for its drones. The queen and drones do none of the work of the hive, have no pollen baskets, cannot sting, and cannot secrete wax. All the members of the hive loaf or hibernate during the winter. It would be far more appropriate to say as " Idle as a Bee. " A naturalist does not need to be reminded that bats are not blind ; owls are not wise ; loons are not crazy ; adders are not deaf ; peacocks are not proud ; crows are not black ; and hornets are not mad. The results show, however that people are more apt to remember an old saying which is an untruth (prosaic ignorance) than even one eco­ nomic fact about an animal. Is this because of or in spite of our education svstems ? The results of this test are as follows : The avera ge number of sayings remembered in proportion to one econ omi c fact : Peacock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .4 B ees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .06 Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .33 Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .8 Crow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .24 Bat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .6 Hawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Loon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 Hornet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .9 Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 It is rather astonishing to find that the Adder and the Hawk are the only two animals in the list that are more apt to be remembered in connection with some economic fact than in an old saying. It is also surprising to fi n d that with t h e exception of t h e seniors in an Agricultural College the pupils of Junior High Schod a re the onl y ones to know more about the economics of th ese common animals than about their m vths. In the case of th e B at five girls out of fourteen in a Junior High School mentioned the possibility of Bats getting into ones hair. Only one boy out of fourteen mention ed that t hi s might happen. This belief is a feminine trait ,-perhaps because they are more con­ cerned. T�adition is long-lived. The tax that progress has to pay superstition is the worst kind of taxation because along with it vanishes the powers of reasoning. Old sayings are passed down for the most part by "word of mouth . " T hey rec eive a great deal of encouragement in first grade readers and early-grade literature. These sayings pertain to our commonest animals. At the same time our curren t literature and government publications furnish a h ost of facts about these same anin.1a1s. Then there is the opportunity of gaining iniJrmation by observation. Hearsay , reading, and observation are the three vehicles of informa­ tion and if judged by present day results the efiectiveness dimin ishes in the order named, hearsay being far more potent in our present working conception than observation. One is passive absorption, the other acti,-e production. One is parasitism . the other kinetic energy. One is nursery rhyme mysticism, the other is work bench

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service. One is charity entertainment , the other has everyone in the play. One is predigested food, the other food for digestion. One is senile sport, the other Y0uthful enjoyment. Th e function of the school is to make production m ore interesting than elegant consump­ tion. Ten ideas like "Blind as a Bat" remain ten ideas. There is nothing to provoke new thought. The discovery of one idea about the Bat, as-it eats insects-demands more ideas. One can be intellectually as well as physically blind. The first method is one of conspicuous wastefulness whereas the second tends toward further service. Shall we spend our wealth of education in self-indulgence or in production for the community ? If educational courses mean self-indulgence they stop there. If they mean "I have come to make life more abundant " th e curriculum needs revision. Some of the economic facts for which credit was given were due to reputation rather than fact. The ratios have thereby been greatly softened and should we double the sayings as they now stand in pro­ portion to the economic facts the results would be nearer scientific. Take crows for example : fifty per cent of the economic facts given were that crows eat corn. Only twenty-two per cent mention any­ thing of credit to the crow yet authorities say that the crows ' credit account with the farmer far outweighs the debit side. A small minority-yet a serious number-mention such things as "pick out your eyes . " One is reminded of the Old Danish Proverb-"A Crow is never the whiter for often washing, " or the Chinese saying that "Crows are black all the world over. " The axiom of today as regards pupils reared by the tribal-folk-Iore method might be "They are never the wiser for often observing. " The Hawk record parallels that of the Crow. Fifty per cent of those examined m e n t i o n the reputation which has been established in the human mind that "Hawks steal Chickens . " Twenty-one per cent speak of the Hawk as dangerous to small birds. The unclassified answers were such as : " It steals ; " "Dangerous ; " "Eats people ; " "Take away children a t times ; " " Injurious t o small children . " There is a man-raised notion that anything a Mouse , Crow, or Hawk assumes for its own use is stolen property. Stealing has been over­ emphasized. If we pick a blueberry by the roadside or cut a tree from our woodlot is it stealing ? Hens lay eggs for reproducing their kind. Are we stealing when we take them to boil ? The potato plant stores starch in tubers for reproduction. Is man purloining when he uses them for sustenance ? There is the underlying principle of the rights of others. When studying Hawks we should get their point of view and when studying Chickens our focus must be on Chickens. The world needs training in these fundamentals which must first begin in a study of nature 's laws at home. It might help him under­ stand the other fellow's point of view and possibly temper his senti­ ments as regards the rights of a starving Europe.

Nature Gu iding What Color is the Robin 's Breast ? The Robin Redbreast (Erythacus rubecula) of Europe is a warb l er and is less than half the size of the Robin (Pl an esticu s migrat o rius ) of North America. The Robin Redbreast of the Old WorId has been described as having a yellowish-red breast . It has become endeared to t he English by coming near to their h omes in winter and has won a distinguished p lac e in E ngli sh rhyme and lore. A f ew of the colo rs m ention ed by s t an dard writers are given : "Art thou the bird whom JUan loves best , The pious bird with the scarlet breas t , O u r little English Robin ? " - HTordswort h , " Redbrea s t Chasing t h e

Butterfly"

"In the Spring a fuller crimson comes upon the Robin's breast . " - Tennyson , "Locksley Hall" " Robin, Sir Robin, gay , red-vested knight , Now you have come to us, summer ' s in sight . " -L ucy L a rcom, " Sir Robin "

·When the early settlers came to America thev cherished in t heir minds the Robin R edbreast . When they e sp i ed the American T hrush with his home -l o vin g s p irit and chestnut hue it was an easy matter to transfer the t i t l e " Robin Redbreas t " t o our native species . In th e same homelike fashion the bluebird was called the B lue Robin . T h e English c olonists to India and to Aus t rali a performed a similar fe a t In each p l ac e of adventure a new sp ec i es received the name R o b in Redbreast . " It is not surprising t o find that this idea of Robin R.edbreast permeates the minds of Am eric a n folks with an impelling force. I t has a t radi tio na l partisanship with the English race ; an endurance of three centuries on a new c on t in en t . .

"

H ow do students of today an swer the question ,-what is the color of the Rob in s breast ? 4 2 % s a y red ; I i % , redd i sh brown ; I S CQ , orang e red ; and only four out of 2 8 I m en ti o n ed that there is a differ­ ence between the male and female. Other colors mentioned ,,-ere orange, grey , pink, crimson , scarlet , yellow magenta , maroon , brick red , ru s tic red , and chestnut . The results show as much versatility as o n e could desire fro m a s t u d e nt career of n urse ry and rhythmic '

feeding.

The next step c on s is ted of p l a c ing a male robin (The male i s brighter colored) in a paper bag and cutting a small hole to show a small area of t h e breast. Eighteen graduates of various high schools were asked to write the name of the color. The answers w e re as fo ll o ws : brown , 8 ; yellow· brown , 4 ; grey brown , 2 ; red b ro wn , 2 ; golden b ro wn , I ; o ra n ge , 1 . vVhen observing the Robin ' s breast without the bl inders of nursery rhyme no one called it red . The c onc ea lm e nt of the Robin i n the bag was unnecessary as n o one recog­ n iz ed it when it wa s remo\'ed. 'Vhen the group were told that it was a Rob in one immediately said : " B ut the Robin has a red breast ? " This l i ttl e ep i s ode i s typical . From time imme m o ri al- to d a y a s of

C0l/111l01l

Jlistakcs

13 7

yore-we are led to view fact s through the rims and spokes of tradi­ tion and hearsay . S entimentally none of us would abolish the phrase " Robin Red­ breast . " It has a h ome-spun attractiveness. Educationally, how­ ever i t is important t o h.llOW that red is red . We must see . not through the smoked glasses of nursery rhymes , but with a clear visio n . N o t t h a t we w i l l appreciate folk lore a n d Robins less b u t R o b i n Red­ breast more. That the Robin Redbreast does not have a redbreast is representa­ tive of a group of c on tradict i o n s in the language of natural history. The wi ng of the R ed-winged B lackbird is not red ; the shell of th e Soft-shelled Clam is not soft ; the B lack )'lussel is blue ; the Starfi sh is not a fish ; the Potato Bug is not a bug : "Kuthatches do not hatch nuts ; Flying S qu irrels cannot fl y ; D a rn i n g N eedles are unable to darn : wormy apples do not contain worms ; and wa v es are never, no never m o unt ai n h i gh . "

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How do Squirrels Open Nuts The answers were as follows : with their teeth (610%) ; crack them open ( r 8 % ) ; wit h their mouth ( 7 %) ; gnaw them open (4%) . ' Contrary t o prevailing opinion squirrels c annot crack nuts. They gnaw them open . I t i s interesting to note that amongst a hundred college freshmen ( s o men and so women) this knowledge was limited to 1 2 % of th e men . T h e answers might indicate that the men get more of the outdoor experietlce . T hat 6 0 % of those examined say teeth indicates that the question was : What is the principal organ used by the squirrel in o p e n in g nuts ? This reply is typical of the many indefinit e an swers . Pupils should b e trained to answer ques­ tion s intelligentl y . T h e origin 01. the idea that s quirrels crack nuts is ambiguous. The fallacy is bein g perpetuated by first grade readers : There are evi­ dences in literature which suggest that the terms teeth , crack, and nut are associated . Lamb in a letter to vVordsworth (August 9 , I 9 I 5 ) humorously uses the term cracker i n place of teeth ,-" I con­ j ecture my full-happiness 'd friend i s picking his crackers . " Wilber­ force in his life of S . vYilberforce ( I 8 6 8 , p. 3 8 0 ) in describing the nose and chin said , - " She is a toothles s , nut-cracker j awed old woman , but qu ite upright and active. " The Penny Encyclopedia refers t o nut-cracking Squirrels a n d Grove Matthew in h i s poetical work "The Most Famous and Tragical H istorie of Pelops and Hippo­ damia " ( 1 5 8 7 ) writes of "The little crack-n ut Squirrels. " The writer has been unable to find any sl: ch species mentioned in any scientific treatise.

When do Buds Form ?

Even if one never observed that buds begin to form early in the

summer they could easilv reason this out a s it is in summ e r that !)lants do their grow in g and form t h e i r variou s s t ru c ture s . In ,,-inter the buds are in a resting stage. In spring the b u d may develop into

Nature

Gu idin g

a leafy shoot. Sometimes it develops into a flower or a flower cluster or it may produce both leaves and flmvers . The average per cent of the answers classified by seasons shows that fact and belief are very remote. Fall, 2 3 · 5 % ; winter, 2 4 % ; spring, 60% ; summer, 8 % . The percentages , in this case, add to more than a hundred per cent as seyeral pupils mentioned two seasons in which the buds could form . The maj ority of pupils belie\�e that buds foml in the spring. This is true until we get to the seniors in an Agricultural College and teachers just out of Normal School. The larger per cent of these students believe that buds fODl1 in the fall. That one-quarter of the pupils think that buds form in winter may be due to the old proxy of things happen ing in stead of grmving. We must place more emphasis upon the differences between these two phenomena. What do Buds do 1'n the Spring ? Buds begin to grow very early in the spring. Many people glibly say that they begin to "swell. " This growth keeps up for several months. The scales ' then spread apart and fall off. Twigs set in water in the house show how slowly this process takes place. Out of I 9 I answers I OO said that they open . I4 others said that they burst open. The use of the term burst was used almost ex­ clusively by the female sex. 2 2 others said that buds form in the spring. The remaining 55 used such terms as grow, bloom, unfold, and develop. After looking over nearly 2 00 answers to this question one draws the conclusion that the maj ority of people have a mental picture of the bud and its " spring opening" as a sort of spontaneous generation . They believe that they burst open as mushrooms which are said to grow over night . What is the AdvantaRe of Horsechestnut Buds Having

Varnish ? Of Having Wool ' The varnish not only keeps too much water out which is rarely necessary but serves the more important function of preventing the tender leaves from drying out. The wool does not serve to keep out the cold since the buds freeze. The covering is a non-conductor and prevents sudden freezing and thawing. 1 his "slow process" applies in the same way to the successful thawing out of frozen ears. The majority fall easy prey to the idea that varnish is to keep out the moisture and that wool is to keep the buds warm. What is the Difference Between an Insect and a Bug ? In a popular way the term insect includes bacteria , spiders, and wood lice. A coral-polyp has wrongly been called a coral-insect. A bug is thought to be synonym ous with the word insect. Strictly speaking a bug is an insect which possesses a sucking-beak and be­ longs to the order Hemiptera. All bugs are insects but all insects are not bugs.

Common ivlistakes

139

In no class were there less than 1 0 % and in three classes at least

3 S % gave as a difference that insects are smaller. Probably the word

connected up with a confusion that exists as to the meaning of the words insect, germ, and bacteria . However, in following the idea up with a request for a list of bugs and a list of insects the list of bugs consisted of erroneous examples, as : potato-bug, rose-bug, etc . , along with the true bugs, such as : squash-bug and bed-bug. A less com­ mon notion ranging up to 2 0 % of the class was that insects fly and bugs do not. A third difference, less pronounced, is that bugs are hard-shelled. The best answers were limited to seven pupils who recognized that a bug is a kind of insect. No one gave a more specific difference. What is the Difference Between Daylight and Sunlight ? People are not apt to credit the light of day to the sun. Sunshine is the direct rays of the sun whereas sunlight and daylight may be direct, indirect or both . The following are typical answers : 1 . Daylight i s light of day ; sunlight, light of sun . 2 . It might be daylight but the sun might not shine. 3 . Daylight is a natural daily occurrence ; sunlight only when the sun shines. 4 . Sunlight, the sun shines ; daylight, ordinary light. S . Daylight i s light before sunrise and after sunset. 6 . Daylight comes after darkness but sunlight from the sun . 'What is the Difference Between Shrubs and Small Trees ? Shrubs consist of several woody stems from th e same root . Shrubby and scrubby in early use were often applied to trees having a stunted

growth.

A small tree has a single main stem .

The following types of answers form an interesting basis for analyzing the various degrees of mental reactions to the question. I . Shrubs are sometimes plants and bushes and not trees. 2 . Shrubs i s a cluster of small trees. 3 . All shrubs are not small trees. 4 . Shrubs are a group of plants ; a tree is one plant. S . Shrubs h ave many limbs. 6. Shrubs are bushier than many small trees. 7 . Shrubs never grow into trees. 8 . Shrubs are bushes and d o not grow very tall a t any time. 9 . Small trees will grow taller ; bushes will not. 1 0. Shrubs are short chunky bushes ; small trees are tall and slender after the shape of a large tree. I I . Shrubs contain more leaves and are larger in circumference. 1 2 . Shrubs are thicker and branches close to the ground. 13. Shrubs are many trunked plants and small trees have one trunk.

Nature Guiding What is the Difference Between the Lun g Capacity and the Capacity of the Lungs ? Unfortunately there has developed in physiology a difference in these two expressions. B y capacity of the lungs is meant the total amount of air that the lungs are capable of holding at one time but lung capacity means the amount that one can exhale at one time. There is always a certain amount of air left in the remote parts (not only the bottom part) , of the lungs . If any of the Following Statemellts are Incorrect Give th e Correct Fcrm I. Remove the shell of the oyster and look at the animal. The shell is the skeleton of the oyster. The internal or soft parts are only a part of the animal. 8 1 substituted the word fish for animal. The oyster has no back-bone and is not a fish. Amongst the 2 8 1 examined only 1 2 recognized that the whole thing is the animal. Amongst the university freshmen five men and two women noted the difference. 2. Earthworms rain down-It would be nearer correct to say that earthworms rain up , for, as 1 53 stated earthworms come out of the ground when it rains. Five individuals changed the word rain to reign. This may be a result of the tendency of some schools to deal with words rather than ideas. 3 . Night air is "un h ealth y " Nearly three-fifths of those examined recognized that night air is as "healthy " as day air. 4. Flies carry typhoid fever-7 6 gave the correction that flies carry -

typhoid fever germs which cause the disease.

They do not carry the

disease. One answered,-"Right-let 's kill 'em . " 5 . Mosquitoes bite-It i s rather a difficult thing t o prove t o some people that the mosquito does not bite. One man wrote "I know it. " 73 wrote the fact of the case that they pierce and do not bite. It is also interesting to note that only "she bites, " "he is a gentleman . " 6 . Little flies grow into large flies-An adult fly, when it comes from the pupal case is as large as it will ever be. Few people know that the fly does its growing when in the maggot stage. 3 7 of the people examined knew about the growth of flies. 7 . Man and animals eat food-"Man and animals" is a common mistake. It should be "Man and other animals " for man is an animal. A total of 2 0 noticed the error. 1 2 % of the men in propor­ tion to 6% of the women of college freshmen recognized this . 8 . Oxygen purifies the blood-T he red corpuscles of the blood simply act as vehicles of transportation . They carry the oxygen from the lungs to the cells. Only five indicated that oxygen does not purify the blood. The purest blood in the body is the blue venous-1>lood as it leaves the kidneys. 9 . Oxygen builds up the body-Oxygen tears down the tissues and thereby we obtain energy to do work. This knowledge was limited to twenty.

141

Common A1istakes

1 0 . Plants breathe M any believe that animals take in oxygen and give off CO2 and that plants take in CO2 and give off oxygen. Both respire and in the same way. Plants have the additional power of taking in CO2, assimilating the carbon and giving off oxygen. Plants do not breathe. They do not have a respiratory movement. -

A bout What is the Size of the Largest A nimal Cells ? The majority of students believe that cells are always microscopic . Birds eggs are cells. The ostrich egg is the largest living cell. Nerve cells are often 2 H feet in length . Where do Dragons Exist ? The answers may be tabulated as follows : '!� saying

Students ).Jumber don ' t exist College . . . . . . . . . 1 76 22 C;�, High School . . . . . 1 02 43 %

r;,� saying in :\i ythology

2 7 �'o 28 %

:\Cumber savina in W o o�l s 8 3

Number saying China, Africa 15 2

The per cent saying that dragons do not ex�st , tabulated according to sex is as follows : Male College Freshmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 % Junior High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 % (ninth grade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 8 %

Female 58 % 56 % 96 %

These figures are insufficient to warrant an infallible conclusion but they suggest tendencies. To the young child, hobgoblins, cock­ horses and dragon-like beings are quite real. In high school the dragon of Tanglewood Tales is explained as a myth. In college the earlier ideas have persisted, possibly subconsciously, but sufficiently indeed to mystify his mental activities. What an indictment against nursery rhymes should this prove true. On the other hand there is

the possibility that students of college age reasoned out th a t the

question as it stands is rather foolish. They concluded, perhaps, that what is really meant is where are dragons supposed to exist ? However as the figures now stand they indicate that a far greater per cent of college freshmen than of grammar school seniors believe in the existence of dragons. Is it possible that this is the result of a premature classical career ? Is it due to a lack of ordinary scientific training as a basis ? Litera­ ture is the artistic , aesthetic expression or belles-lettres of the evening and science is the working foundation of everyday life. Educators have for the most part placed literary courses at the beginning and science courses at the end of the curriculum . As a result students yiew facts through the fancies of literature. The situation needs investigation in order to disco\-er the modus operandi by which ideas arise . Cure will follow the discovery of the mode of infection .

What Shape are Stars ? Stars are spherical and not star-shaped as one might suppose from representations on flags and Christmas decorations. The idea

142

Nature Guiding

that stars are star-shaped decreases and the idea that they are spherical increases with higher education . The word round was often used for spherical .

vVhat do Bees Gather jr om Flowers ? The idea that insects gather nectar and pollen increases and the mistaken notion that bees gather honey persists into adult life al­ though not to so marked a degree as in youth . What is the Use oj the Hollow Stem to the Flower oj the Da n delion ? The hollow stem is stronger than the solid stem. The answers indicate that the maj ority think of the hollow stem as a passage way. Some think of it as a storage place yet they never see anything stored in the hollow part . Perhaps they think that the food mysteriously disappears upon cutting the stem . Underline the Parts Which are Present in the Pussy Willow Plant (The parts of a plant are root , stem, leaf, bud, flower, fruit) . If one did not already know he might guess that all these parts are present in the pussy willow plant . What Relation is There Between Toads and Warts ? There is no relation. Only twelve of those examined knew friends who had had warts as a result of picking up toads. It is probably not a coincidence that these twelve were not limited to one such acquaintance. If they knew one they knew several. It is easy enough to obtain witnesses who have picked up toads and never had warts and also the testimony of persons who have had warts and never handled toads. Where do Hair Snakes Originate ? Although there is no such animal twenty-five students indicated the method by which hair snakes originate. Out of SO men and S O women i n a college freshman class the idea was limited to 26% of the men. A state agricultural college and a class in high school that had had biology, contributed more means by which these animals originate than the other classes. Chamber's Encyclopedia ( 1 7 53 ) speaks of animated horse-hairs a s horse-hair worms. The places where these fictitious animals were supposed to originate were such as : in dirt ; in the body ; in water ; eggs ; intestines of mam­ mals ; swamps ; crossing of reptiles ; among rocks. Dragons were also supposed to come from swamps and water. A swamp seems to be a mysterious place. Anything that is mysterious, ipso facto, occurs there. Such reasoning would give-way in a good course in nature­ study.

Common Mistakes

1 43

How do Weeds Get Into Gardens ? The maj ority of weeds are annuals and come from seed. 5 2 think that weeds j ust grow in the garden a la Topsy. 2 4 . 2 % (Average) say that they are due t o seed. I n a college freshman class 3 2 % of the women to 1 0 % of the men believe that weeds just grow. This wide spread belief reminds one of the parable of the seed growing unobsen-ed . (Mark 4 : 2 6-2 7 ) . "This is what the Kingdom of God is like- like a man who has scattered seed on the ground and then sleeps by night and rises by day, while the seed is shooting up and growing-he knows not how. " The following sentences show how the same parable is expressed today. The disconcerting thing about these statements is that the authors think that they are giving real reasons . vVe can no longer be content with such statements, as·-" Come there . " " Grow there b y nature. " "Weeds have a natural tendency to grow. " "The seed was probably near a stone or bad soil . " " Unhealthy land . " "Just grow from poor part of soil. " " Grow over night. " " Grow from fertilizer. " "Naturally grow from the ground. " " Natural growth of earth. " "From lack of attention . " "By lazy people not hoeing their gardens . " "Weeds being wild grow anywhere. " "Seeds of weeds are always present. " Such statements show that we may have spontaneous generations in the mind as well as physical spontaneous generation. The latter has been disproved but belief in it, though often subconscious , is still rampant. It is of paramount importance that education do away with the superstition that permeates our intellectual processes. Nature-study , gardening , and general science contribute a great off­ set to this mental obstruction . vVhat Shape is the Heart ? The heart is not heart-shaped . Heart-shaped refers to the con­ ventional form seen on valentines, jewelry, and playing cards . In the same way the botanist calls certain leaves heart-shaped or cor­ date. The heart is sometimes spoken of as pear-shaped. Other early notions referring to the heart have been passed on by certain words and expressions , such as-sweetheart, heart-breaker, hard-hearted, hearty, heartless , and heart-strings. It may be surprising to know that many people think of the heart as cordate. This is true of 2 1 % of those examined in an agricultural college ; junior high school, 2 1 % ; high school freshmen , 3 9% ; high school seniors, 3 5 % ; normal school freshmen 45 % . The latter are our future teachers. They no doubt will learn much about the shape of the heart in physiology and it is to be hoped that they at least will not pass on the mistaken ideas.

Is the Fear oj Snakes "Inborn" or due to Education ? Snakes have played an important part in the delirium tremens of literature. With a scriptural foundation aided by the old time im­ munity of Ireland the fear of snakes is exhibited at a v ery early age.

1 44

Nature Guiding

Amongst college and nonnal school students 3 8 % believe this fear is due to being inborn ; 3 3 % believe it is the result of education or atti­ tude of adults ; and 6% say that it is due to both. There exists an un­ doubted gullibility as to the evil doings of snakes. From this belief it is very easy to manufacture a fable as the hoop snake which is sup­ posed to take its tail in its mouth and ron like a hoop. Superstition and fear is a tax on intelligence. We should in no way more especially by that of awe--subjugate the reasoning powers. Dickens once said, "What a beautiful thing human nature may be made to be. " He might have said in this connection : What a fearful thing human nature may be made to be. A little investigation indicates that the fear of snakes is due to the attitude of parents, teachers, and other associates of the child. Pro­ fessor John B . Watson of Johns Hopkins University has carried on some experiments to test out the truth of the older statements which maintain that violent emotions appear at the child 's first sight of animals. His results are published in "Kindergarten and First Grade" for January, I 9 20. He concludes that babies have fear but that there are few positive results in the reaction of children to their first sight of animals. l ance took a baby rat and a garter snake into the first grade. The children were told that one of the animals was warm and the other cold. They were then asked if any one would like to pat them to see which was warm and which cold. There was a stam­ pede to th e front. I then realized that I had not had the courage of my convictions. The children were then asked to take their seats and told that each one would be given an opportunity to pat the rat and the snake. They all did this without the lea s t sign of fear. It may be claimed that this too was due to education i. e . , the expression of the teacher ' s face, manner of handling the reptile, etc. If this be true, which kind of education do we want ? The kind that handicaps clear thought or the kind that takes things on their face value ? If there are no legitimate reasons for fearing snakes why make the assumption .

lVhat Danger is There in Picking up an Adder? There is a legend that once the Python was the only poisonous snake . It could sting a footprint and the poison would kill the man . One day a Crow told the Python that a man had not been killed. The Python then climbed a tree and spat out all its poison which was swallowed by the smaller snakes. Possibly on no less a founda­ tion rests the assumption that all snakes are poisonous. The word snake does not occur in the scriptures. The tern1 adder is given to several venomous serpents and sometimes to the Horned Viper (Cerastes) . Ps. Iviii 4 . "They are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ears. " This may have given origin to the old saying "Deaf as an Adder. " Pro. 2 3 : 3 2 . "At the last it . . . stingeth like an adder. " From this mav have arisen the idea that adders sting. Adders are not deaf and nei t her do they sting. Behold their wondrous

Common Aiistake s

1 45

colors. Their colors are beautiful and blend and the lilies of the field do not have patterns like one of these . Yet man in all his studies of harmony does not admire them. The danger in picking up an adder, as expressed in school, are hereby given : Poison Sting Bite None College and Normal School . . . . . . . 16% 12% 1 2 '70 8% High School . . . 28% 1 4% 31% 2% The data indicates that these erroneous ideas are later corrected, to a slight extent, but not as much as one might wish. The mistake comes in allowing them to originate. All adders of North America are harmless. (The only poisonous British reptile is the common adder of Europe, Vipera berus. ) The Puffing Adder is protected by his "puffing. " The l\filk Adder or Milk Snake searches around barns and old cellars for rats and mice thereby performing friendly acts for the farmer. The name of this snake comes from a reputation of stealing milk. Ditmars writes that he cannot be induced to drink milk unless suffering from great thirst and goes on to mention that if the snake should drink its full it could not consume more than two teaspoonfuls. Snake facts and snake fancies are therefore quite remote. Scientists believe that man decended from . . ? (Supply the missing word) . No scientist believes that man descended from Monkey. 5 8 % of the students in college and normal school nevertheless think that such is the case. What many scientists do think is that Man and Monkey probably came from a common ancestry. Zoologically they belong to the same group . From a structural point of view man differs less from the apes than they do from other monkeys . Scientists believe that animals originated from ? Scientists do not believe that animals descended from plants. .

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They are supposed to have come from a common ancestry.

There

are organisms which cannot be classified as either plants or animals. Rabbits should be lifted by the .? There is no more logic in thinking that a rabbit should be lifted by the ears than that a cat should be lifted by the tail or a baby by one leg. The tail of a cat is a convenient handle for lifting her but she has taught us that it is not good form. The rabbit has suffered by not having such an effective means of communication. The majority of people believe that rabbits should be lifted by the ears. (The function of the ears is to hear. ) This belief is more prevalent amongst boys and men than with girls and women . It is exceptional to think of lifting the rabbit by the body. This , however, is the most humane method of picking up the animal . .

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What is the Name of the Fourlegged A nimal with Bright Spots Which is Found Under Logs and Stones in Damp Woods ? This animal is the Salamander and not the Lizard which it re­ sembles only in external form. The Salamander is an amphibian and the Lizard is a reptile.

Nature Guiding The results indicate the marked existence of the erroneous idea that the animal is a Lizard. The term Salamander is more widely known amongst the men. The name Salamander is a synonym for fire-proof. The ancient naturalists (or fabulists) Pliny and Aristotle maintained that the salamander was incombustible. This fire-proof fame has come down through the ages being applied to various utensils used around the fire. Give a Sentence Using the Correct Pronoun (it, she, or he) in Referring to Nature The expressions mother earth , mother natme, mother west-wind and the like have led to the misconception that "nature" is "she. " Some have come to think of nature always as "mother nature. " This personification is liable to lead t o what "mother nature" tells her children and then to talking-ducks and weeping Lady-Bird B eetles, and so on, ad infinitum . "Mother nature" is not a mother, as we wish to know mothers. The oyster is said to have 1 /1 , 14 5 ,000 of a chance of living. This is not the act of a mother but a "cold blooded " means of perpetuation. The vase-shaped egg-sac of one of the spiders contains several hundred eggs. These eggs hatch and most of the little spiders are eaten by the stronger members of the family. Only a few young spiders emerge in the spring. We must either change our views of the spirit of a mother or acknowledge that "mother nature" exists entirely in the imagination . What Causes A utumn Colors? The autumn colors are due to the breaking up of the chlorophyll

which gives different species of trees their peculiar colors. The brightest colors are produced in swamps where it is cool and moist before the frost occurs . A frost turns leaves brown and not into bright colors. Nature College and Normal School . . 2 % High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 %

Frost r7%

\Veather 4%

Sun 2%

Season

Sap

3% r% r% 29 % 2% rr% 6% The majority believe that autumn colors are due to frost. Weather and season answers are probably hazy notions of the same idea. To answer this question by saying it is nature is begging the question . All questions pertaining to nature could be answered this way . Why Are Leaves Placed Around Shrubs for the Winter? This common practice amongst horticulturists is to keep the frost in and not out as is commonly thought. The mulch prevents a sudden freezing and thawing. The reasons given with average % were : Warmth , 2 1 % ; frost , 3 7 % ; protection, 1 5 % ; fertilizer, 8 % . lVould you Eat Butter o r Drink Milk that had Chemicals in it? College and Normal School . . . . . . . High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

No

. . . . . . . . .21% . . . . . . . . . 49 %

Depends 9.0 %

0· 5 %

Yes 3°% 17%

Common Mistakes

147

In thinking of chemicals we are too apt to have a vision of labora­ tories, bottles, and labels. If our perspective stops there we do not have the broad outlook that chemistry should give us. We see sym­ bols and not ideas. The symbol is only a means to an end. Our educational courses should not stop with the means of seeing, these tools should be made to reproduce ideas.

Have Some Friend Give You the Following Spelling Test Potato, radish , pole beans, larva (of an insect) , harelip , plantain, dandelion , mullein , caterpillar, development, definite, occurrence, pistil (of a flower) , develop, squirrel, nasturtium, moss , diptheria, dessicate, paraffin, in oculate, tonsillitis , singular of species, leaves, seedsmen , and bacteria . This list of biological terms is a collection of words which are most frequently misspelled. Although many well-educated people are poor spellers the correct spelling of these words may indicate the amount of Biology one has had. In the case of radish , however, the lowest per cent of correct spelling was 45 % made by high school graduates who had had Botany. The misspelling in this instance may have been an index to the kind of Botany they had had in high sch ool. The singular of species is most often misspelled. I t should be species. The highest average was 26% made by the freshmen of a woman' s college. The word specie was the incorrect form most commonly used. One scientist has said that specie is something that a biologist never has. The difficulty may be easily removed in other cases by knowing the meaning of the word as in the case of harelip, pronunciation as in develop , or the origin as dandelion from dent-de­ lion Such words as oc currenc e may be made indelible by calling attention to the two r's. The second most difficult word is mullein. Six per cent of the men in the freshmen class of a noted university were able to spell the word correctly. The Winston Simplified Dic­ tionary gives mullen as a possibility but this book was not published until I 9 I 9 and it is doubtful if any of these men obtained their modem method of spelling from this source. The relations according to sex are of interest. The boys from a ninth grad e headed th e list in spelling development correctly with an average of 84%. The girls from the same school had an average of 63 % but when it came to the word occurrence the girls headed the whole list with 84% correct and the boys of the school had but 5 6 % correct. The girls from two junior high schools obtained the higher per cent in I I cases and the boys in 1 0 cases. The difference is more marked when we come to the freshmen in college where the girls win in 1 5 cases and the boys in 6 cases. Three of these words, where the men averaged higher were in the list won by the boys in the grades. In general , as expected, the spelling efficiency increases with age and grade. .

Nature Guiding This list of words is not intended for a school spelling lesson. They should be added to the pupils' vocabulary when occasion arises for their use. As they are words which are misspelled over and over again the teacher should make sure that they are mastered. Since most of these words are commonly used by children in the grades they should be effectively dealt with at that time. In passing, a story may not be amiss. A tailor wished to order 1 2 smoothing irons or gosses. H e did not know whether to write 1 2 tailor' s gooses or geese : H e finally ordered one tailor's goose and eleven more like the first order. The moral is clear. In times of doubt use "ready-made" words to suit the occasion. Pronounce the Following ·Words : abdomen ab-do '-men not ab'-do-men a-kern acorn (Anglo-Saxon meaning field or acre) aI' and not el' alimentary a'mund almond a� not ant �� as-paT' -a-gus asparagus not sparrow-grass biology not bi bY-ol'o-ji cerebrum ser'e not se-re' ches' not chest' nu t chestnut cranberry not kram kran' beri fun' ji not fung' -gi fungi hoof not hOof hoof hors-radlsh horserad ish not red-dIsh insect

in'-sekt

not in'-sek

intestine not tin in-tes-tln isolated either i' or IS' laboratory Hib'-o-ra-to-ri not lab'-ra-to-tl lettuce not let-us let' -IS loam lorn not loom mackerel mak'-er-el not mak'-rel muskrat musk' rat not mush' rat poplar pop' lar not pop' u lar porpoise por'-pus not par' poise pumpkin pump ' kin not punY kin root root not root spiracle spIr' or spY squirrel skwur' el stomach sturn' uk sumac also h su' mak or shoo' mak teat tet tomato rna to or rna to not to-mat-o turnip tur' nIp not turnup zoology zo-61 not zoo-6l A Providence lady once asked her gardener to plant salivias near the walk. The gardener replied : Wouldn 't spetunias look good over there ?

Cammon Mistakes

I 49

What is a Germ? The etymology of the word germ is doubtful. The Latin word germen means to sprout. In botany it refers to the rudimen t Gf a new organism . Huxley referred to the budding of corals, as multi­ plying "by means of germs. " In Linnaean nomenclature it is the ovary or the seed. Muir and Ritchie 's Bacteriology says "germ , microbe, and micro-organism are often used as synonyms with bac­ teria, though , strictly, they include the smallest organisms of the animal kingdom. " Evidently there is ambiguity in the use of the term amongst biologists . The answers of pupils may be listed as follows ; the figure represent­ ing the highest per cent in any one class thinking that that word is the meaning : Organism , 6 ; micro-organism , 3 6 ; micro-animal, 1 4 ; micro-insect, 2 8 ; and bacteria , 7 0 . The term organism i s not used as often as a generation ago yet it ought not to be confused with micro-organism which refers to a microscopic animal or plant. Organ­ ism has come to be an abbreviated form of micro-organism. What is a Meadow? Originally a m eadow meant a hay field . Later it included a pasture and in some places was extended to include a low well-watered ground. In North America, according to the Oxford Dictionary , it is "a low level tract of un cultivated grass land , especially along a river or in marshy regions near the sea . " If we condense this state­ ment it might read,-a low, level, moist grass land. The word meadow has been prefixed to the names of animals and plants which occupy the meadow land, as meadow hen (name applied to various herons) ; meadow-lark ; meadow-sweet (spiraea) ; meadow beauty (rhexia or deer-grass) . The word meadow occurs frequently in literature but without uniformity as to meaning. Amongst students of today there are 80% who recognize that it is a hay-field. It is a decidedly masculine trait to know that it is in a low area , the knowledge being held in a ration of 4 males to one female. Not more th an 1 2 % of any class , and only a total of 1 8 recognize that i t i s a low hayfield. The geographical distribution of the various meanings of the term would make an interesting study . U p from the meadows all filled with corn " suggests another departure . Wh:zt is D irt? Primarily dirt means excrement, secondarily filth , and only collo­ quially soil. The answers were in the following proportions : soil, 1 4 1 ; filth , 6 4 ; soil and filth , 5 ; matter out of place, 7 . The maj ority have the false impression that soil is dirt. Soil may be perfectly clean , as sand , which is used for filtering. In preparing the garden we are tilling the soil. What is a Biennial ? Biennial (bi-two, annua, year) , existing for two years. In botany a biennial plant vegetates during the growing season of the first year "

I SO

Nature Guiding

and dies after producing fruit the next year. Amongst the freshman class entering college or normal schools many answered that a bi­ ennial means twice a year (3 3 %) as answered that it means two years. How Long Does an Annual Plant Live? An average of 5 9% said one year and an average of 1 6 % said less than a year. The highest number of correct answers were made by boys in a junior high school ( 2 8 %) , and freshmen in a normal school that have had botany (2 7 % ) ; high school freshJll en (2 9 %) ; high school seniors ( 2 8 %) . The figures of the higher institutions would indicate that as education continues the concept of the length of life of an annual plant diminishes. It still remains a masculine trait, 2 0 % of the men in the freshman class to 1 2 % of the women saying that an annual plant lives less than a year. What is a Flower? The following are typical answers : A stationary living creature. 1. 2 . A thing growing out of the earth to beautify it. 3 . A plant with colored variations. 4 . A plant grown to admire and not to eat. 5 . The petaled flourish of a plant. 6. The blossom of a plant. 7 . That which later bears fruit. Over one-third of the pupils in our schools when using the term "flower" are thinking of a "flowering plant. " Such plants are ordi­ nal ily grown for their blossoms. The first four answers show such a use. Early English writers made a similar use. Shakespeare, 1 593 , in Lucerne (p. 8 7 0) mentioned that "unwh olesome weeds take root with precious flowers" and Milton in Paradise Lost (XI, p. 2 73 ) wrote, "0 flours that never will in other climate grow. " In a popular way when we mention flowers we think of the colored (not green) parts and do not say flower when the petals are absen t as in the pussy willow. A corolla and calyx are not necessary. Botanically we should think of the flower as a means for reproduction. The children should be taught that garden vegetables, weeds , and grass are flowering plants. They should think of the flower as a "seed­ maker" and not as an ornament just meant for us. Where do Plants Occur? Plants do not merely sprout from the ground. They may be found in the ocean breakers, on the backs of shell-fish , in clear ponds and on rocky cliffs, on the roofs of all houses and in every room below, on the leaves of trees and on their roots in the ground. Use the Words Sitting, Setting, Laying and Lying in Reference to a Hen Many will no doubt sympath ize with th e farmer who told the Boston School teacher that he didn't give a darn whether the hen

C ommon Mistakes

lSI

was sitting or setting but when she cackled he wanted to know whether she was laying or lying. To set means to cause to sit. It is correct to say that he is setting the sitting hen on a sitting of eggs. Setting hen or a setting of eggs is incorrect. There is such an animal as a setting dog. To lay means to cause to lie. Hens lay eggs. What is an Animal? The meaning of the word animal has had rather a checkered career. Bishop Gawin Gouglas in his translation of Virgil's Aeneid ( 1 5 1 3 ) wrote " Undyr animal beyn contenyt all mankynd, beist, byrd, fowel, fisch , serpent, and all other sik thingis. " The word itself originates from the Latin meaning breath of life or anything living. It was hardly in the English before the end of the 1 6th Century. It was not used in the B ible in 1 6 I I . In 1 8 7 5 , Helps, Animals and Masters (iii, 53 ) says that "When I use the word 'animals' I mean all living creatures except men and women. " In New York. October 1 8 , 1 9 I I a sea captain was brought into court for piercing the flippers of large green turtles in order to tie them. The magistrate held the captain in $500 bail on the basis that within the law the turtle is an animal although withou t the law it is a reptile. The same kind of a case had failed in 1 8 6 7 . On the 1 9 2 0 calendar of the Rhode Island Humane Education Society are the following sentences : "The object of the B ands of Mercy is to teach children to be kind to each other and to all who need help and protection, as well as to animals. " "The child who respects the rights of animals will also respect the rights of human beings. " Amongst the uneducated the fur bearing quadrupeds only are considered as animals. These various meanings of the word have led to a mixture of ideas in the schools. The opinions of college freshmen as to various animals are hereby summarized :

The woodchuck is a mammal. 1 . Woodchuck.-40% females to 1 0% males think it is not an animal. 3 4 % females to 1 2 % males think it is a bird. This is probably a confusion with the woodcock which is a bird. This also indicates that girls think that a bird is not an animal. 2 . Man-Man is an animal, belonging to the class mammals. 3 2 % of the females to 2 % of the males think that man is not an animal. This is further proved by the fact that 1 2 % of the males to 6% of the females correct the statement " Man and animals eat food" to " Man and other animals eat food. " 1 8 out of 2 8 1 examined recog­ nized that man is an anima1. It is also used in this sense in statute books in reference to the prevention of the cruelty to animals as "man and animals. " 3 . Whale-The whale is not a fish. I t is a mammal. 3 6 % females to 68 % males think that the whale is an animal. 6 2 % females to 3 8 % males think that the whale is a fish . The males in every case tested seem to have a more accurate and broader view as to what is an animal.

Nature Guiding 4. The perch is an animal belonging to the class fish. r 6 % fe­ males to 4 2 % males think that the perch is an animal. 7 8 % females to 94% males think that the perch is a fish. 5 . The bat is a mammal and not a bird. 3 8 % females to 6 2 % males think that the bat i s a n animal. 3 6 % females to 4 2 % males think it is a bird. Every thing that flies is not a bird. Fossils show that there used to be flying reptiles. There are so called flying fish , flying squirrels, and a flying lemur. Angels are also credited with the art of flying. The latter are the only animals, not birds, repre­ sented as < having feathers. 6 . The heron is a bird. 2 6 % females to 50% males recognize this. 3 0% females to r 6 % males believe it is a fish. This probably comes from a confusion with the herring which is a fish. 7 . The turtle is a reptile. It is a relative of sn akes and lizards. 2 8 % females t o 4 8 % males recognize that i t i s a n animal. Only 42 % males to r o% females recognize that it is a reptile.

What is Meant by Ugly? A study of the idea ugly in literature will give a basis for under­ standing the present day feelings. r3 00-1 400, Cursus, Mediaeval and Vulg2.r Latin (Gott) , "Fell dragons and tadis bath . . . ful laithsum on to here and se . . . r 66 6 , Bunyan, Grace, Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (p. 84) , " I was more loathsome in my own Eyes than was a Toad. " r 6 6 7 , Milton , Paradise Lost (XII, r 7 8 ) , " Frogs, Lice, and Flies , must all his palace fill with loath 'd intrusion . " r 600, Shakespeare , As You Like It (ii 1 . 1 2- r 4) , .

"Sweet are the uses of adversity, 'Which , like the toad, ugly and venomous, \Vears yet a precious j ewel in his head . "

The fable o f the j ewel i n the toad's head i s probably based o n the glistening cartilage which represents an unossified basioccipital. r 6 r r , The Bible, Exod. 8 : 2 , "I will smite all thy borders with frogs" Rev. r 6 : r 3 . " Frogs (come) out of the mouth of dragons . " The following terms are used in the Bible in reference to the serpent : subtile, beguiled , fiery, brasen, crooked , poison , biteth piercing, and wise. r 7 48 , Thomson, Castle of Indolence ( 5 43 ) , " In chamber brooding like a loathly toad. " r 8 8 6 , B esant, Children of Gibson , I I , vi, " A knight was sent forth to kill a dragon or a loathly worm. " Animals have borne the burden of false misrepresentation s down through the ages. It is not surprising that the toad gets the highest vote as to ugliness, 60% giving him that characteristic . The other ugly animals were as follows : B at (5 8 %) , earthworm ( 5 4%) , fly ( 5 r %) , snake ( 5 1 %) , ant ( 4 7 % ) , and eggs of clothes moth (42 %) . r 6 % of the females in a college freshman class think that the cow is ugly. It is a male trait to think that the dragonfly and the silkworm

Common Mistakes

1 53

is ugly. Ugliness seems to be a matter of enchantment or prejudice. All these traditions have been interwoven with modern progress . The heavy tax levied by superstiticm on intelligence is well known to scientists What A t: imals are Il1jurious ? 5 6 % of all the pupils examined belieye that the snake is injurious ; 2 7 % the dragonfly ; 2 6 % the bat ; 1 4% the earth\vorm ; and 2 8 % the crow. It is a female trait to think the bat and eggs of the clothes moth are injurious. Of course the eggs are harmless . The larvae that hatch from the eggs do the damage. It is a male characteristic to think that the dragonfly and crow are injurious. The value of these animals as insect destroyers is now becoming generally recog­ nized . It must be admi tted however that the process is slow and the only remedy is progressive work in the grades to prevent the con­ founding of fancy with fact. What io' Cross-pollination ? Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen such as by th e wind, or by insects , from one flower to the stigma of another. Cross-pollina­ tion is not cross-fertilization. Cross-fertilization is the union of the male and female elements. Cross-pollination makes cross-fertiliza­ tion possible. Epilogue: In the beginning of this article I suggested that too much seems to centre on the reputation of the buried past and not on direct observation of the living present . Antiques from tradi­ tion-shops are still coddled by sentimentalists . These musty relics are handed down from generation to generation thereby cheating would-be workers with their false value. My task is finish ed if I have been able to show, at least to some extent, that whatsoever is most exact and regular concernin g nature is also most useful and excellent.

COl\Il\10� J'v1I STAKES

IN GEOGRAPHY

Since ideas gained in childhood are firmly fixed in the mind, it is essentid that they be correct ones. Colloquial expressions learned in the earlier days of life, become a great source of annoyance at a later period. There are certain persistent errors in geography which are in such common usage that they are frequently passed unrecog­ nized. It is the purpose of this article to call attention to such mis­ takes in order that the present day pupils may not be handicapped in later years by having acquired erroneous opinions and phrases from the elementary studies. What is the form of the earth? The form of the earth is an oblate spheroid , but for all practical purposes it may be considered a sphere. The fact that approaching ship s first show their sails does not prove the earth to be a sphere. A curved surface would give the same effect and consequently, so far as this reason is concerned, the earth

1 54

Nature Guiding

might be considered as shaped like a pie. The fact that men have traveled around the earth does not prove it to be a sphere. Men could travel around the earth if it were a cube. What is the "crust" of the earth ? It was formerly thought that the interior Gf the earth was a molten mass and that the exterior was a crust. This condition is impossible since the tremendous pressure of the soil and rocks would not allow substances to exist in any state except that of a solid. If the earth were not a solid it would behave differen tly toward other planets, and there would be internal tides. Another evidence that the earth is a solid is shown by earthquake waves. The shocks from an earthquake travel at a velocity that would be expected in a solid and not in a liquid. There is no such thing as the "crust " of the earth . What-is the sky? The blue sky seems to rest upon the earth , and as children we have often thought of walking to it. The sky is no more a real object than a rainbow, but is the appearance produced by the reflection of blue light from the air. Where is the sky? The sky, or "heavens , " is below our feet as well as above our heads. Stars shine on the opposite side of the earth as well as on this. What part of North America is in the same latitude as England? Many think that England is opposite New York City. England being in the latitude of Labrador, is as far north of New York as the B ahama Islands are south. Distinguish between the following: British Isles, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and the British Empire. Many people use these terms synonymous.1y. Great B ritain includes England and Scotland ; the United Kingdom includes all the B ritish Isles ; the B ritish Empire includes the United Kimgdom and all its possessions. Why does the North lead the South in manufacturing? The North does not have better advantages than the South for manufacturing. The South has the raw material, the coal , and fine water power. The North has led in manufacturing because it got the head start. If a place is directly below on the map , is it directly south? It is a common error to think that what is directly below on the map is directly south . Only places on the same meridian are north or south of each other. For the same reason a straight line on a map does not represent the shortest distance between two places. What direction does the top of the map indicate? Some students th ink that the top of the map must always be north and the right hand east . These conditions usually exist but a map of the United States, al­ though Texas were at the top , would still be a map of the United States . Do Arctic explorers go "up north?" The expressions "up north " and "down south " are incorrect. Down is toward the center of the earth and up is in the opposite direction. This notion probably arose from the fact that the top of the map is generally the northern part.

Common Mistakes

I SS

Do all rivers, in a general way, flow south? The expression "down south " has led some to think that rivers must n ecessarily flow south. The Nile, Mackenzie, and St. Lawrence are examples of rivers which flow toward the north. Point in the direction of the north pole. Ask a pupil to poin t at the north pole and he either points to the northern horizon or to the North Star. If a cannon ball were shot in such a direction it would travel out into space. One would have to point down into the earth at an angle, depending upon the number of degrees the observer is from the pole . How correct is the scale of maps ? The globe is the most correct means of representing the distribution of land and water, but it is not large enough to exhibit the features of small areas. It is im­ possible to represent correctly the curved surface of the earth upon a plane surface. The central part of our hemisphere maps is in tme proportions, but at the edges the distance between two places is doubled. On a common l'v1ercator map , measurements at the equator are correct but the distances on the sixtieth parallel are doubled. Christiana for illustration is represented twice as far from Cape Farewell as it actually is. What is a river divide? A river divide is not necessari:y a mountain. It might be a plain. What is the cause of irregular coast lines ? It is generally due to the sink�ng of the coast . In Norway however the fiords are due to glacial erOSlOn. Is mineral water pure water? The fact that the water contains minerals shows that it is not pure. The rain which falls after it has washed the impurities out of the air, is as pure water as we find naturally.

People who go to mineral springs to be cured of nervous­

ness are probably cured by the amount of water they drink rather than the kind. The greater per cent of n ervous tissue is water and the nerves naturally need water as food. As a race, we are starving our nerves. Where is the Great American Desert? The Great American Desert is almost a thing of the past. It has been effaced from the continent by irrigation . Land which formerly bore sage and cactus is now pro­ ducing from fifty to thousands of dollars worth of alfalfa, peaches, apples and grapes. What is the fertility of desert soil? It is commonly thought that desert soil is always poor soil. It would not pay to irrigate soil which is unproductive. Desert soil is usually rich soil. It needs moisture and not fertility. What enables rivers to traverse deserts ? The Nile and the Colorad o Rivers are examples of rivers which main tain th eir course across a desert . These rivers do not get the bulk of their water supply from the desert. Their water supply is regulated and kept constant by the melting of snow in the mountains.

Nature Guiding What is the climate of deserts ? The desert is not limited to warm regions but may be a cold expanse in Northern Siberia. Deserts are not limited to absolutely dry regions, but have some rainfall. What is meant by "dry land? " The expression "dry land" probably originated amongst seafarers and meant comparatively dry. No land is absolutely dry, not even the desert. A fi lm of water adheres to the particles of soil even in the longest period of drought. The same is true when speaking of dry air ; no air is absolutely dry. Which is heavier, moist air or nearly dry air ? Since vapor goes up it is lighter in weight than air. The vapor in the air displaces some of the nitrogen and oxygen and therefore makes the moist air lighter. Exp lain the motions of heated air. We should avoid the expression "warm air rises. " Heat causes air to expand i 1 all directions. The heavier cold air pushes up the lighter warm air the s am e as mercury pushes up water when mercury is p oured into a te s t tube holding water. 'Warm air does not rise, it is pushed up . What is the o rigin of dew? Dew does not fall but c ollects upon obj ects cooler than the air. A poe t i c o. l licen se m a y giv e a wrong idea . A descrintion mav be both scien tific and beautiful. The two styles are i l lu s {ra ted as follows :" The dew was falling fas t , T h e stars b egan to blink . "- Wordsworth " Came as silent as the dew comes, From the empty air appearing,

Into empty air returning .

Taking shap e when earth it touches ; But invisible to all men In i t s coming and its going . "

-Longfellow " The Song of Hiawatha"

�Fhat is Snow? Frost? Snow is not frozen rain and frost is not frozen dew. Snow is formed b y the condensation of water vapor below freezing point. and rain is the condensation of vapor above the freezing point. Frost and dew are formed the same way except that they a re formed on obj ects in stead of in the air. lYlzy is a rainy day a "good day?" It is customary to call a sun­ shiny day a "good day " an d a rainy day a "bad day . " T h e ra in y day is just i� S i:;ood a day as the sunshiny day , and is just as essential to our "yell bei n ,r: .

Do forests cause rainfall? The popular opinion is that forests r a in fa l l but in r e a l it y the rain is the c au se of the forest . The

cause

,

want of rain

preven t s the

gr8wth

of tree s .

Why do forests grow on t;; e Ii:!!s ai:d n o t in grow on the hills because they do not like the valleys tries .

h ave

Trees do not but because been cleared aw"ay for agriculture and other indus­ the �'a lleys ? the valle y s ,

How far n o r th d o corals grow? Corals grow as far north as the Bermuda Islands which are in the same lat i tude as Cape Hatteras .

Common Mistakes

157

Why can we look at the sun late in the afternoon and not at mid-day? This is not because the sun is farther away nor because it is less bright. The rays have to pass through more dust at sunset than at noon and it is consequently like looking through smoked glass. Where does the sun rise? It is a common saying that the sun "rises in the east and sets in the west . " Sunrise and sunset are con­ venient term-s for the apparent motion of the sun . The real motion is the rotation of the earth into the sunlight. The sun practically "stands still" as Joshua commanded it to do. The sun does not rise directly in the east nor set directly in the west but twice a year. Where does the day commence? Some have thought that the day commences at Greenwich, possibly because longitude is reckoned from that place. It has been decided by arbitration that the Inter­ national Date Line, which is near the 1 8 0th meridian, should mark the beginning of day. Where is the sun at noon ? The sun is not directly overhead at noon except for persons on one parallel. That parallel must be in the Torrid Zone, and the sun is never over one parallel but twice in one year. How long is a day? It is usually thought that a day is twenty­ four hours long. It is , for any one locality, but the total length of each day is forth-eight hours. The new day commences at mid­ night. It takes midnight twenty-four hours to pass around the earth, so that when the new day commences just east of the International Date Line, that day has already existed twenty-four hours ; yet it will be twenty-four more hours before the day will end at that place. Christmas, therefore, is celebrated for forty-eight hours on the sur­ face of the earth. When is the sun nearer to us, in the summer or in the winter? The sun is nearer to us in the winter but the rays are more direct in the summer. It is the direct rays that produce the warm season . Since the distance of the earth from the sun has an effect on temperature the summers of the southern hemisphere should be warmer than ours . Which name is more appropriate, Winter Solstice or December Solstice? What is called the Winter Solstice by us is really the Summer Solstice for the southern hemisphere. It would be better to call it the December Solstice. Where is the line of greatest heat? When speaking of the equator the geographical equator is usually meant. The geographical equator is a fixed regular line but never represents the line of greatest heat. The heat equator is an irregular line which moves from about 2 3 . 5 degrees north to the region of 2 3 . 5 degrees south of the geo­ graphical equator.

"And she climbs at last to a berg set free, That drifteth slow ; And she sails to the edge of the world we see : And waits till the wings of the north wind lean Like an eagle's wings o 'er a lochan of green, And the pale stars glow On berg and flow * * * * Then down on our world with a wild laugh of glee She empties her lap full of shimmer and sheen . A nd that is the way in a dream I have seen The Weaver of Snow. -Fiona Macleod in " From the Hills of Dream. "

"Welcome are both their voices, And I know not which is bestThe laughter that slips from the Ocean 's lips, Or the comfortless Wind's unrest . There' s a pang in all rejoicing, A joy in the heart of pain, And the Wind that saddens, the Sea that gladdens, Are singing the self-same strain . " -Bayard Taylor.

"We walk silent among disputes and assertions but reject not the disputers, nor any thing that is asserted, W e hear the bawling and din-we are reached at by divisions, j ealousies, re­ criminations on every side, They close preemptorily upon u s, to surround us, my comrade, Yet we walk unheld, free, the whole earth over, journeying up and down, till we make our ineffaceable mark upon time and the diverse eras, Till we saturate time and eras, that the men and women of races, ages to come, may prove brethren and lovers, as we are . " - Walt Whitman.

Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak, *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

It carried a shiver everywhere From the unleafed boughs and pastures bare ; The little brook heard it and built a roof 'Neath which he could house him , winter-proof. No mortal builder 's most rare device Could match this winter-palace of ice ; ' Twas as if every image that mirrored lay In his depths serene through the summer day, Each fleeting shadow of earth and sky ; Lest the happy model should be lost, Rad been mimicked in fairy masonry By the elfin builders of the frost . -Lowell.

CHAPTER XIII "TIMBER LINES "

People, like trees, are peculiarly the product o f their environment. Both are gregarious. First come the early settlers in the valleys. In a few years there is a stand of seedlings and they in turn breed more offspring, and thus in half a century or more there are the old patriarchs, almost hidden in the crowd, the second generation, and the grandchildren. The valleys have become crowded and both people and trees march upward to the hills after more and more sun­ shine . Behold, the people maketh the earth empty ; and maketh it waste, and turneth it upside down, and the inhabitants thereof scattereth abroad . And it has come to pass that Nature 's only reservation, that she may call her own, has been pushed unto the " timber-line . " Here steel has not stirred, hoofs have not trampled and hands have not hacked . It is the only extensive and purely wild place not guard­ ed by keepers . These areas too will pass out of their natural exist­ ence-will be gone forever and a day-like the prairies and the deserts-unless a love of untrampled nature is awakened within the hearts of American youth . The outermost edge of tree world is favored above all wild gardens. In the fullness of beauty it opens a panorama across mountains or into the open ocean . Seas of water or cloud make its border and in the middle of it, over damp bottoms or in low hollows, are mossy tundras. For many a century the wind has visited its shrubby growths, ­ working like a dependable gardener ; bending and pruning ; bringing clouds to water them ; siftin g pollen onto flowers ; and scattering resulting seed. Wind-branching pine or spruce in endless variety, irrepressible and undaunted , stand sentinel along the coast of the Atlantic and over the stony crests and folds of Appalachia. Venture out some day b eyond "timber-line, " let night come on, or a storm-and see how quickly you turn back to the shelter of the forest. Perhaps this is the primal instinct of the race. Anyone who has not returned to the forest as he does to the welcome of his own hearthstone is oddly insensitive but he who has not been into un­ spoiled nature still lives in dusty history. The importance of " timber-line" recreation is not merely a dream · There is the Appalachian l\1ountain Club with over 3 , 000 members, 2 5 7 miles of trails, and its huts. The New England Trail Confer­ ence-its membership consisting of mountain clubs, h otel companies, athletic associations, landscape architects, and boy scout organi­ zations, -plans a through trail route from Mt. Katahdin in Maine to the Jersey Highlands and thence to North Carolina. And under the ·Weeks Act, the United States Government plans to purchase about a million acres in the White Mountain region, not for a National Park 1 59

1 60

Nature Guiding

but for a National Forest. Nearly half of this amount has already been purchased . No less significant, and one of the most recent fea:ures in our educational progress, is the rt>le of the s umme r camp. There are at present about 500 private camps for boys and girls. This does not take into account the scout and Y. M. C. A. camps nor the many types of camps for adults. And it is not by mere chance that at least 9 0 % of these camps are within a days hike of "timberline . " Their programs tend toward simple health, simple interests, simple

Fig. 1 . At " Timber Line" in a Cape Cod Forest . Note the clump of scrub oaks sheltered from the fury of the winds by waving beach grass. s impl e beauty. Their leaders realize th a t beside s school lessoris there are nature's lessons, and that nature is at her best near elfin forests. We hope that the time is near when all the children of all the people will have the opportunity of being trained in the ways of unspoiled nature. The most truly "timber-line" school is the Trail School of Enos Mills which is on Long's Peak in Colorada. The country has not yet awakened to how great a son it has lost in Enos Mills. In his preface to the Adventures of a Nature-guide he wishes that "every park had a nature-guide and that every w ild place might early become a park . " The magnitude of his visions were s o large a s t o require longevity and his sudden disappearance leaves a chasm broken in a trail which no one else can blaze. His soul was made for the noblest of nature guides ; he had in a short life laid bare the possibilities of "helpin g people to become happily acquainted with the life and wonders of wild nature . " Wherever there is peace and good will · wherever there is vastness, patience, and beauty, he is at home. Yet the work of Enos Mills must go on. No government or asso­ ciation can save a natural reservation without an intelligent public to

happiness, and

Timber Lines

I6I

enj oy it. Safe camp fires, camp sanitation, sane hunting, conservatiYe fishing, etiquette of the trail, emergencies in the woods, outdoor cooking, are the names of some of the courses that must be given

Fig. 2 . Resting in the crater hole of a Cape Cod scrub oak forest . crater holes are evidences of air raids from the Atlantic.

Such

along side of, if not in the p l a c e of, s p l i t infi nitives, compound interest, trick sp ellin g , and endurance tests in geographic nam es . A woods

Fig. 3 . "No tree l an d on Cape Cod . Along this bleak expanse lies the p atrol li n e of the Coast Guard. This is one of the most dangerous win­ ter coasts in the world. "

-

Nature Guiding can b e no better than the people want it to be. This can only come through education in the personality of the trail . "Timber-lines" have alwa ys been misunderstood. In the first pla ce the word is untruthful . Timber does not cease at a line. Trees get smaller gradually toward an upper limit of growth. Like some other line s i t i s becomin g less dogmatic with the increase of knowl­ edge con cern in g it. As the "snow-line" varies with the season. often

Fig. 4. Cape Cod Pitch Pines often lead a low life on high ground : These girls are lifting the edge of a tree-Iawn-a large limb which has avoided the winds by crawling .

times day by day, so does the "timber-line" vary from year to year. It also varies in different mountains ra ngin g from 6, 400 feet in th e Alps up to 1 2 , 000 feet in some parts of the Rockies. Then again, a " timber-line " is not lim ited to high mountains or to frigid latitudes. It may b e along the coast as shown by th e photographs of the Cape Cod "timber-line. " Furthermore, " Timber-lines" are n ot caused by a cold temperature but have to do with the amount of available moisture. Excessive evaporation due to high winds stunts tree growth on the seashore or in the mountains. In both places the trees are dwarfed, bent and crouching, with leaves thick and leathery to prevent the loss of moisture. C ontrary to expectation the flowers of the dwarfed herbaceous plants of al pine countries assume great brilliancy. It were as though the flowers were m ak in g up for the insignificance of the leaves. Switzerland is nearly as popular for its flowers as for its mountains. The most inaccessible craigs o f the T yrole se moun tains m ake p ossible the Swiss Edelweiss, which signifies noble purity. We rej oice that "timber-line" knowle dge is becoming more general and that "timber-line" folks are becoming more numerous. It is still a "high-brow" subject in that all the p eo pl e have not "arisen" to its

Timber Lines possibilities. To shake the dust of the valleys is almost a necessity. By "timber-line " contact one develops a personality totally different from th e one who struggles along in the crowd. The man of the trail has an individuality of sunshine and air. He is physically fit and has endurance. He enj oys camping and has a natural history back­ ground which is contagious. He is a keen observer-a good thinker and because of these things is versatile in his environment. H� appreciates nature in darkness as well as at noon day, in rain or shine,

Fig. 5. And a little tree shall lead them : Falling out of the tree-tops is a common occurrence when striding over the elfin forests of the Cape Cod " Timber Line. "

i n winter o r summe r. The most hopeful thing i n "timber-line" edu­ cation is that all who are initiated into its lore live out the spirit of "not to be ministered unto but to minister" the knowledge of the trail. But we started to tell about people and " timber-lines . " Here on rugged land have grown wind blown trees, not wanted by man, yet emulating his love of ruggedness. Like him, they are migrating to this alpine region making their way amongst stones and ledge. B oth , perchance, belong n ot to the aboriginal race of mountaineers, but have strayed up from the tender valley stock. None have more difficulties to meet. None meet them with greater sturdiness. These are the ones we wish to describe. Near the summit of the White Mountains we notice little islands of spruce springing up amongst the boulders-their very birthplace for a time defending them against the demon wind. The next year, when they appear above the bulwark, the wind cuts them down. They do not despair but put forth two branches where one grew before . The new twigs lie low or creep between the rocks growing

Nature Guiding m.ore scrubby each year. If p erch a n ce, some raise their head they are chp p ed each year by the wind, like an estate by a l awn mower, until they form tree lawns, from one to three feet h i gh and quite even, as if trimmed b y a gardener . Just before sunset these tree l aw n s appeR r like large carpets l ai d al o n g the low places of the m ou ntains. In -

,

Fig. 6. A Tree Lawn at Lon g ' s Peak , Colorad o : This tree lawn is as regu­ larly clipped by the wind as the wel l kept lawns on Cape Cod. It is about three feet high and

8.S

even as

thoug h

trimmed by a gardener .

time somc of the densest and most impen etrable forests h ave been woven, easier to walk on than t h ro ugh Many of these el fin f ore s t s are old forests, if you reckon from the time they st ar te d but infants s till when you consider their growth and prospects. The wind continues to keep them down for y e a r s until at last t h e y become their own k ee p er s . Some leeward shoot which the wind c an n ot r ea ch s t ar t s up war d in triumph. N o longer is it suppressed a nd it now s t ar t s with new energy toward s an upright life and lives a secon d span, as it were. Thus t he s e p i gm y forests create their own p r ot ec ti o n a united we stand and a divided we fall sort of policy . And thus it i s w ith man . It is on l y here and there-in the rugged places-that a L i n col n or a John Muir or an Enos Mill s springs up . Small clans o f boys spring u p among the boulders, their very birth pl a c es for a time d e fend i ng them a g ai n s t tIl e conventionalities of life . Then when they appear a l o ng the p ri v e t hedge or in the yard of a t enement house the landlord cuts them down. They do n o t desp air .

,

,

,

Timber Lines

but put forth into the street and grow two evils where one grew before. Society continues to keep them down until at last they become their own keepers, and the most persistent prevails and maintains his rights to wild nature. He gets away from the ungrateful host of men. Such is always the pursuit of freedom. "Timber-lines, " the haven of which they dream and aspire to reach, have been pushed farther and farther away and is ever guarded by the hundred tentacled octopus of conventionalities, so that it is an herculean job to escape them . The era of the barefoot boy with cheeks of tan will soon be past. He is an animal which will probably become extinct in southern New England. He may still wander through vacant lots and throw tin cans into a dump heap . If fortunate he may even have access to a park where the chestnut trees and the apple trees have been cut down for fear they should break the dignity of his training . Ah, poor fellow, there are many pleasures he will never know ! "Hear this, ye old men, and give ear, all ye inhabitants of the land. Hath this been in your days, or even in the days of your fathers ? . . . "That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten ; and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten and that which the canker-worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten . . . . "He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my fig-tree ; he hath made it clean bare, and cast it away ; the branches thereof are made white . . . . " B e ye ashamed, 0 ye husbandmen ! howl, 0 ye vine-dressers ! . . . "The vine is dried up, and the fig-tree languisheth ; the pomegranate-tree, the palm-tree also, and the apple-tree, even all the trees of the field, are withered : because joy is withered away from the sons of men . "

This much I have to say unto you for the sake of your children and their children's children. The " timber-line" is their refuge . May we say to all the children of all the valleys that they shall not want. May we still lead them in green pastures. May they walk in the paths which it is righteous that they inherit that they may re­ storeth their souls.

May their cup runneth over .

Surely goodness

shall follow them all the days of their life ; and they will dwell in the house of the Lord forever.

Dev. Fruit Violets

Insect & Flow.

Old Mac Donald

-W ood Etiq uette

Alouette

Nature Talk

Nature Song

Sassafras Tea Tree Cribbage

Hermit

Ind. Le monade

Tree Trailing

Map Hike

Garden

Greens

B irds Nest

Nature Hike

ViI. Friend

Forage

Games

B irds Nest

To Get Somewhere

Trailing Sing Lang.

All Round

Scouting

Plant Geog.

Stars Sounds

Games

Night Stunt

----

Tree Pantomime

Pitch Pine Tag

Blind a s Bat

Attention to Vista

Willow Baskets

Compass

Flag Candy

Rose Garden

Tree Trip

-

I

High Tide .

Dark K ight Anatomy

Tree Tag Day

One Old Cat

To Collect l\1 inerals

Beads

Spot Spy

l\iu'Shrooms

Duck Farm

Insect Census

Lakes

Just So

B ird Authors

Pussy\villow

Snakes

B ayberry Candles

Birds Of Lakes

-

Fifth Week To a M t . Top (Sermon on Mt)

Snipe Hunt

Camouflage

How to Read Blazes

Tinder

Exploring

Potato Subs.

Hollyhocks

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Blueberries

Rivers

Stickeen

Smell

Row B oat

Poison Plants

Sea\veed Mts. Paint Shells

Sunset or Flowers

Richards.

To an old Churchyard

Sixth Week Seventh Week

--

Feeling Game

Aggressive Resemblance

Glacial Eyidences

Relics

Tree Spy

Asparagus Subs.

Bee Hives

Hare Hound

Soil, Mts.

Stalk Flowers

Observation

Hike

B ird Songs

:Making curious Animals

M ists or Sky

To an old fashioned flower Garden

Silhouettes

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Sand or Snow Puzzle

Folk Tales

Decorations

Trees

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Herbs

Landscaping

Trailing

Heroes

Animals

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Seed Dance

Taps

Forestry

B lueprints Leaf Skeletons

Storm or Sun

Visit with Sheep-Read about in B ible

Eighth Week

Nature-Lore should be on the schedul e . There should be opportunity for trips, games, songs, stories, and Sunday Nights. It is not fair to e xpect it to compete with horseback riding and baseball. I t should contribute to the arts and crafts and pantomimes. I t should be prominent on Rainy Days. It should be voluntary. i t i s not necessary to have the same activity twice in a seaSon. There should be a nature library. There should be Audubon Charts for Rainy Day Games. There should be Government Topographic Maps for outdoor trailing and games. There should be material for making leaf prints on Rainy Days. There should be bird outlines and colored penciJ� Cor coloring them in on a rainy day.

I n Camp

Forest Census

Something Apro pro

Story When Resting

Forest Good Turn

Sweet-Grass

B ayberries

Collection

B irds Nest Tag Day

Sunny Day

Clay

for Nature Craft

Hike

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Photography

11 useum B ird Trip

Grasshopper

1 000 Yf. Pine Fire

How and Why

Geology

Fire Spirit

Nature Talk

N ature Story Weather

Tree Silhouette

Twig Relay

Nat. Games

Twig Matching

Cricket

Adaptations

Color Flower Outlines

Rainbow or Wind

!vIattoon ;

To beautiful flower nook

Fourth Week

B ird Chart Games

Rainy Day

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Fungi Etchings Fungi Print

Aquarium Leaf Prints

Nature Craft

R ainy Day

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B ird Houses Mt. Map

Outdoor Services,

To sit and hear birds

Third Week

Sea, stars or trees

Van Dyke ;

Wonderful View

Second Week

I'vlountain or River

Songs of Outdoors

Flowers for Tables

First Week

Sand or Landscape

Sunday N ight Talk

Nat. Poems

Nat. Hike

Sunday

(Including Sundays, rainy days, sunny days, and hike days.)

SUGGESTED NATURE ACTIVITIES FOR EIGHT SUCCESSIVE WEEKS

PART II

NATURE-STUDY FOR SCHOOLS

NATURE-STUDY AND TEACHER We ought to study Nature just from books, is what I say ; It does not do for Teacher dear in any other way. B ecause when once I found a spider, brown and very fat, And brought him carefully to her in my best sailor-hat , My teacher cried aloud in fright , and squealed, and took on so , I had to hurry to the door, and let my spider go . One time I found the finest kind of long, soft, fresh green worm ; But, my ! you ought to see the way it made my teacher squirm ! Then on her desk I put a snail, a harmless little thing That would not hurt a bit, because it could not bite nor sting ; But when it came half-way from out its shell , and tried to crawl, The noise my teacher made they say they heard across the hall . Another time a baby mouse I brought her in a box ; She gave a look, and then a scream that folks could hear for blocks . I thought she' d like to see a snake, and brought one in a pail ; But Teacher yelled a lot, and would not even touch its tail ! So Nature-study in a book is all that she can stand, For when it comes to samples , Teacher hasn't any sand ! -By Blanche Elizabeth Wade, in "St. Nicholas . "

CHAPTER XIV TEACHER T RA I N I N G I N NATL:RE-STUDY

I. The Present Situation Nature education has too frequently failed and has been nearly exterminated by being presented under wrong concepts. It is now showing healthy signs of budding out in the reorganization of Normal Schools into Teachers' C o ll eg e s The Recreation Congress has also giv en a d ecide d impulse to the work of training teachers in nature­ study. It is inevitable that it will vary grea tly in its new organization and also in the specifi c work offered . While standardization of teacher training should particularly be avoided in a field of study that is built up o n the immediate environment, there are certain salient p oi n ts \v h ich would increase the value of the course . The a na l ys i s of the situation consisted in making a study of the cata lo g s of Teachers Colleges offering work in the natural sciences. .

Requests for the catalogs \vere sent to the members of the American Assuciation of Teachers Colleges, which consists of 1 4 3 members . There were found to be 2 7 5 teachers in the natural sciences for th e 1 I 7 Teachers ' Colleges responding to the reouest for a catalog, or an average of 2 . 5 5 teachers p er s choo l . The following c o n cl us io n s are drawn from a study of the titles of Professors . 1.

The l a rge ma j orit y of professors in Te achers ' Colleges have titles that per t ain to technical subj ects which are taught in secondary schools rather than to the e l emen tary subj ects of the grades and j unior h ig h schools . This is a custom which is proba­ b l y taken over from the academic college . If nature-study, or school gardening, or elementary science is taught at all, it is u sua l l y giv en by a man trained in technical subj ects and not prepared in the subj ect from a professional or teacher viewpoint.

2. Th e re is not much a g reeme nt as to what should be ta u g h t nor upon the place of emp h asi s . There are five c l asse s of professors of n a tur a l sciences according to their ti t l e s : a . Elementary grade su bfects s uch a s nature-study, elem en t ary science, and school gardening. This group is in th e min ori ty and is given the value of 1 for purposes of comparison. The number of teachers of natural sciences is an indication of the enrollment rather than the number of co urses i n a given institution . b . General titles such as professor of science or p ro fess or of sci en c e and athletics. The professor of all natural sciences is b ecomi n g extinct . There is still, however, a goodl y number in th e smaller teachers ' colleges. They av era g e 1 . 2 as many as tec'ocher of elementary sub j ects . The science a n d biolo gy teacher in addition to labo ra tory work are commonly ex­ pe ct ed to do extra \vork in other departments . Five of these

169

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Nature Guiding

professors as indicated by their titles, teach athletics. It may be that they are usually better adapted to such work than the professor cf music or pedagogy. c. Special titles such as professor of beekeeping, professor of veterinary science, or the professor of horticultural landscape gardening. These titles sometimes depend upon conditions peculiar to the institution, the professor often being in the vicinity is taken on as an annex . This is no reflection on the ability of the professors with the special title. The number of these professors is 1 . 2 more than the professors of elementary . subj ects . d . Economic subjects such as professor of agriculture and allied subjects . This phase is gaining rapidly and now numbers three times as many professors as do the elementary subj ects. e. Technical subjects such as biology, botany or zoology. Although there are still five times as many professors of technical subjects as there are of the elementary grade sub­ jects this phase is giving away to the economic and profession­ al courses . The number of professors teaching technical subjects as compared with the number of professors teaching elementary school subjects is in inverse ratio to the number of pupil teachers preparing to teach these subjects . A few Teachers' Colleges have made liberal provisions for the Natural Sciences-notably the George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, which offers over 3 000 hours and th e Illinois State Normal University which offers over 2 000 hours . T he num­ ber of hours given in the natural sciences ranges from slightly over 1 00 hours per year up to 3 3 00 hours-rather of a decided con­ trast when comparing the extremes. There is no agreement as to the phase to emphasize or to the amount of time to be given. Some omit one part and others another part. This is irrespective of what the environment has to offer. Most Teachers Colleges give but one or two courses in Nature-study. None offer a complete opportunity for specializing in Nature-study. Since Normal Schools are becoming Teachers' Colleges we can rightfully expect teachers of Nature-study . Agassiz revolutionized teaching from books to the laboratory. We now need to get from the laboratory to the out-of-doors . Spermato­ phytes can be taught in any region-Maine or Florida, but not so with Alpine Plants. What teachers see of flowering plants is mostly in the class room. The titles of the courses indicate a purely academic treatment where the subj ect matter is regarded in its systematic development. There is nothing given to bring out a love for the subject. (The academic ear will scoff at this . ) There is nothing given to meet the specifications of teaching the dandelion or the violet or the care of geraniums to little children. There is no provision for the personal touch with the objects of the environment. It is not surprising that most college-trained Biologists fail with Nature-study.

Teacher Training Courses in Entomology have a decided economic trend as indicated by their titles. There appears to be a tendency to emphasize the economic treatment by giving original and catchy titles. Even in these courses it is not always a knowledge of insects in the home garden, on the shade tree in the dooryard, or pests of the house. Most teachers are pedagogically reared to believe that the only place to study an insect is under a microscope, in fonnalin, or from a specimen mounted in a box. They do not know that every boy and girl has a laboratory at home. They do not know that living insects are more interesting than insects pinned to a board. They do not know that a child can have a happy time with insects. They do not know how to provide occasions for children to have interest and delight with insects. They have not been specifically trained for that kind of a j ob . Our Teachers' Colleges do not provide sufficiently for teaching Nature-study in the Grades and Junior High Schools . They are not meeting the needs of the times . It hardly seems conceivable that some Teachers' Colleges would give more time to training their pupils in the science of Fann Meats, or the technique of swine than in the skill of cultivating the out-of­ doors in the heart of every child. The enjoyment and prosperity of hogs cannot be instilled into the makeup of our teachers at the expense of the enjoyment and prosperity of children . The children who will later be the raisers of hogs will enjoy hog culture better and be more prosperous if they have a genuine interest in the out-of-doors. II.

Suggestions for Teacher Training in Nature-Study

To the teacher of Nature-study falls the most difficult j ob of teaching. He must know the out-of-doors in general and the nature study of the community where he is teaching in particular. He

must be

a

capable teacher

in

order to adapt his methods-probably

to originate new ones-which fit into the particular needs of that community. He must know the working principles of all the sciences -Chemistry, Physics, Geology, B otany, Zoology and Hygiene in order to answer the whys . He must have the ing ability on the fann. He must have the confidence of the boys and girls and their parents . He must be able to lead them on field trips. He must be able and cheerfully willing to render community services not expected of other teachers. He must work constructively and co-operatively in developing various organizations such as Scouts, Campfire Groups, Natural History Societies, Mountaineering Clubs, Audubon Societies, and Conservation. He must keep abreast of the general educational field . Ability to write for Teachers' Magazines and in public speak­ ing will also contribute to his success . There are two classes of students in Teachers' Colleges . The first, and in the maj ority, includes those preparing to teach in general . They cannot afford time to train and master all the methods in the particular subjects. Others are to become special teachers in history, arithmetic, botany, agriculture, and nature-study. The beginning

Natu re

Guiding

courses in these subj ects are reo uired of all . Those chosen for training in Nature-study must be selected from the many available who show a desire and adaptability. In fact the admission to specialization should be restricted to those of such nature experience, personality, and interest as give promise of success in the teaching of Nature­ study. It would be better if the prospective teacher be born in the country where he acquired a nature consciousness in his early days . He then has a background of experiences from which he may draw upon at will . He recognizes an old wood road, the nearly overgrown corduroy bridge, the fallen grist mill ; he knows how to cross the meadows dry shod, jumping from humm o ck to hummock ; he can sO bushwhacking without tearing his clothes or getting lost ; and a thousand other country experiences . He has a country vocabulary and understanding heart. He is in sympathy with the simple life and the country way. He enjoys the countri[ ed and goes to the country for every vacation. He is successful ''lith chickens and gardening, has had orchard experience, knows how to milk a cow, take off the cream, and churn butter. He enj oys camping and the trail . To be nature-minded is more important than to be nature-wise . Furthermore, the Nature-study teacher is not a walking encyclo­ pedia yet he should possess information much in advance of those whom he instructs . It is not practical nor advisable to have a techni­ cal preparation for the basis of teacher preparation . The subj ect and method course must go together. If I were to sacrifice either of the three ,-nature-minded, nature-wise, or nature-pedagogy-I would sacrifice the knowledge . If one is interested and knows how to teach ,. the information will come with the teaching, and richness of expenence . Nature-study teachers should be trained in a separate department . I t should be separate from the technical work of Biology, the econo­ mic work of Agriculture, and the pedagogical work of the education department yet with the privileges of co-opera tion with all of these de­ partments . There should be close association with the science departments wherein materials and equipment for presenting subject matter are essential and available on the one hand, and with the training schools for the training of teachers on the other hand . There should be no duplication of work within the institution. The nature­ teacher training in the professional phases of his j ob would undoubt­ edly render service in the improvement of methods in the subj ect departments . The curricula for teacher training in Nature-study must differ according to the differences in the organization and teaching force of the Teachers' College offering the training. I t is evident, however, that there is a need of a common viewpoint. All students should pursue the same studies in their Freshman year. In the first year it has been my experience that it is necessary to spend more time in acouiring facts . They are merely enabled to get a general view of Nature-study in the large, and methods of study in general. Incident-

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1 73

ally, they are enabled to decide with more certainty whether they shall enter that special field. Each institution should prepare its nature teachers according to the definite needs of the schools wherein they are to serve. We can also agree that there must be active participation in the lines of activity in which the teacher is to act. Not enough attention is now given to practice teaching in Nature-study, to leadership in the field, and to the functions of a nature teacher in the community. Experience a s a Nature Counsellor in a summe r camp brings the pupil to an appreciation level and a doing ability. The nature teacher in training should organize and conduct a complete project in the practice school under definite critics . He should take over a phase of an enterprise in a museum and conduct it on a museum basis . He should organize and direct home gardens. He should have the experi­ ence of being a scout leader. He should be versed in outdoor cooking, camp fires, nature songs, and nature stories. We may think of these requirements as professional activities of a nature study teacher or supervisor. This professional training follows the introductory-perhaps we should say orientation--courses in Nature-study. The Freshman year and possibly the first semester Sophomore are required . The professional courses are then offered as electives for each of the re­ maining terms rather than many nature courses in the Senior year. This gives the pupil opportunity over a period of time to become na­ ture minded, and to make a more permanent decision . By the Senior year he should be nearer competent and therefrre not as wasteful of time in practicing on boys and girls . The student teacher keeps a diary of the various activities, holds conferences with the Professor of Nature-study and the various critics, and visits others in the same l ine of activity whenever possible. He b e c ome s an efficient teacher of nature, has a background of sympathetic understanding of nature obtained through a love and contact with the out-doors, is a student of nature problems, and is fairly well grounded in the other sciences . He is ready to face the nature activities of the Junior High School and the Grades . The nature room should also give an atmosphere . It should be a combination recitation and work room, have a department library, bulletins in pamphlet cases, iHustrative material, a stereopticon lantern, work table, window boxes, ao.uaria, dark room, and a con­ necting office for conferences. There is evidence that educators generally are awakening to the necessity of an increased emphasis on teacher training in Nature­ study. Many Universities are introducing Nature-study Depart­ ments. I t is a live topic amongst leaders. These introductory remarks are written to give a survey of the situation and to serve as a guide in mapping out a Nature-study program for the training of Nature-study teachers and supervisors.

In matters of great weight go to school to the animals.-Democritus.

Mother of marvels, mysterious and tender Nature, Why do we not live more in thee ?-A miet. The poetry of earth is never dead. -Keats. Come forth into the light o f things,

Let Nature be your teacher. - Wordsworth.

CHAPTER XV THE NATURE -STUDY l\10VEMENT IN AMERICA

Possibly no other subject has so frequently shifted its point of view. With each style of presentation it has had its palmy days fo1lowed by a decline. It is quite essential that a prospective Nature-study teach­ er know the pitfalls and, what is more important, know the back­ ground on which he must build and the goal toward which he must aim. Notwithstanding the many fads and periodic "bad repute" it is significant that nature-study still lives. Nature is slow to change. On the other hand, educational methods are constantly changing. This has made it difficult for the majority of teachers to keep up with the pace but through a1l this chaos there have been patient, quiet, sympathetic teachers carrying on Nature-study in a simple, interesting, and absorbing way. If you seek the first nature students in America, you will inevitably go back to the settlers. The pioneer was a born naturalist. He located his home in the wilderness. He selected his pine and hewed it straight with a broad ax for the log cabin. He then sought out clay to chink the logs, and to make bricks for the chimney. The fire was started by flint and tinder. Aromatic herbs were gathered from the fields and hung in the garret as a source of medical supplies. Wild fruits formed an important part of his diet. Meats were pre­ served by salting in barrels or smoked for three weeks by smouldering hard wood chips. He acquired the knowledge of an anatomist at hog killing time in late fall, carefully dressing the animal into hams, shoulders, and ribs. He became an animal psychologist and ac­ quired a reputation for judging horses far above anything described in David Harum. The sheep were shorn and homespun clothes were made in the winter .

His nature-study was seasonal, on his immediate

premises, and met his particular needs. Such aims might well guide the nature-teacher of today. Then followed the urbanizing of America . At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century 7 % of the population lived in the city and 9 3 % in the country . The country boys and girls v,'ere being trained in colonial nature-study. They were not only hard at work in it but in their spare time played it, by going nutting, berrying, f shing, or hunting. At the end of the century 40% of the people were in the city with their children entirely divorced from the training that had been obtained from the school of nature. The sewing machine, kerosene lamp, stoves, matches and the great work of steam super­ seded the Colonial methods. The gathering of peoples into large centers was a decided check in the understanding of nature . Natural history lessons, to teach morals and religion, were intro­ duced into the common schools about 1 8 3 0 . This was the period of the three R 's, which were supposedly the tools to all learning. The following is taken from Lovell's, "Young People's Second B ook" 175

Nature Guiding ( 1 83 6) as an example of a nature story written to teach the wonders of the creation.

The Hen. Of all the feathered animals, there is none more useful than the common hen. Her eggs supply us with food during her life, and her flesh affords us delicate meat after her death . What a motherly care does she take of her young ! How closely and tenderly does she watch over them and cover them with her wings ; and how bravely does she defend them from every enemy, from which she would fly away in terror, if she had not them to protect. While this sight reminds you of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, let it also remind you of the care which your mother took of you during your helpless years, and of the gratitude and duty which you owe to her for all her kindness.

These stories soon became fanciful and untruthful. Many of them concerned foreign objects rather than local material. Darwin's Origin of Species ( 1 8 59) upset the special creation motive of these stories. This fact plus the loss of contact with nature brought the period of sacred natural history to a close . I.

The Contribution To Nature-Study From Education

The roots of American nature-study go back to the great educa­ tional movements of Europe. Rousseau blazed the way for Pesta­ lozzi who, in turn, became a teacher of Froebel. The torch was brought to America by their pupils. The most successful teachers in Nature-study have been decidedly influenced by these educational reformers and the story of the continuity in the development of Nature-study is the rich heritage of the student of today. One of the first to preach the doctrine of modern nature-study was Comenius ( I 5 9 2 - I 6 7 0) '

He said that " as far as possible men are to

be taught to become wise, not by books, but by the heavens, the earth, oaks and beeches, that is, they must learn to know and examine things themselves and not the testimony and observation of others about the things. " Rousseau ( 1 7 1 2- 1 7 7 8) carried out the idea of Comenius by educat­ ing the boy Emile "according to nature . " Rousseau's philosophy was to return to simplicity, reality, and personal experience rather than to be led by authority. His ideas were revolutionary and often extravagant . Many statements were made in "Emile" (published 1 7 6 2 ) that are useful to us today. !

" I would have him (refering t o tutor) a child, so that h e might become a com­ panion "t o his pupil and secure his confidence by taking part in his amusep. 1 9 . ments.

A summer camp Director in selecting someone as a nature coun­ sellor always wants a leader who can play and enjoy nature with the camper. A teacher who is able to say, let us see if we can find out together becomes a companion . Nature-study, more than any other subject, offers this opportunity for companionship . " Children brought up . . . where spiders are not tolerated, are afraid of spiders . . . . I have never seen peasants who were afraid of spiders . . . . If during his infancy,

IThese quotations are taken from William H . Payne's ( 1 893 ) translation and the pages are given as a matter of convenience should the student wish to follow up the selection.

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he has seen toads, snakes, and crabs, without being frightened, he will see without horror, when grown, any animal whatever. " p. 2 7 . Modern psychologists have proven that the fear of animals is acquired and not inborn. The fear of snakes, for example, is due to the actions of adults before children . "We no longer know how to be simple in anyth:ng . . . toys of all kinds and prices-what useless and pernicious furniture ! N othing of all this . . . , Little branches with their fruits and flowers, a poppy head in which the seeds are heard to rattle . . . will amuse him . . . and will not have this disadvantage of accustom­ inli him to luxury from the day of his birth . " p. 3 5 . ' I say that a child does not understand the fables that he i s made t o learn . . . the instruction which we wish to draw from them necessarily brings into them ideas which he cannot comprehend, and the poetical form, while making them easier to retain, itself makes them more difficult for him to understand ; so that entertainment is purchased at the expense of clearness . . . . In the fable of the crow and the fox, children despise the crow, but they all form a liking for the fox . " " You wish to teach this child geography, and you go in search of globes, spheres, and maps. \V-hat machines ! Why all these representations ? Why not begin by showing him the object itself, so that he may know, at least, what you are talking about ! . . . The child who reads does not think-he merely reads ; he is not receiving instruction, but is learning words . . . . He is not to learn science, but to discover it . " p. 1 3 7 . " In your search for the laws of Nature, always begin with the most comw on and the most obvious phenomena, and accustom your pupil not to take these phenomena for reason but for facts. " p . 1 53 . " Emile will never have dissected insects, will never have counted the spots on the sun , and will not know what a microscope or a telescope is. Your wise pupils will ridicule his ignorance, and they will not be wrong, for, before using these instruments, I intend that he shall invent them. " p. I SS . . . . " Once more, my purpose is not at all to give him knowledge, but to teach him how to acquire it when necessary, to make him love truth above everything else . " p. I SS . Nature­ study is not dissecting . The microscope is occasional. Nature-study is not to acquire knowledge. Rousseau has a clear idea as to the aim of a field trip. " \Vnatever is done through reason ought to have its rules : Travels, considered as a part of education, ought to have theirs. To travel for the sake of traveling, is to be a wanderer, a vagabond ; to travel for the sake of instruction, is still too vague an object , for instruction which has no determined end amounts to nothing. I would give to the young man an obvious interest in being instructed ; and this interest , if well chosen, will go to determine the nature of the instruction. " p. 30S. "Men were not made to be massed together in herds, but to be scattered over the earth which they are to cultivate. The more they herd together the more they corrupt one another . . . cities are the graves of the human species. After a few generations, races perish or degenerate, they must be renewed, and this regeneration is always supplied by the country. Send your children away, therefore, so that they may renew themselves, so to speak, and regain, amid the fields, the vigor they have lost in the unwholesome air of places too thickly peo­ pled . " p. 24.

Pestalozzi ( 1 7 46-1 8 2 6) tried to educate his own child according to the plans for "Emile" but failed. In 1 7 7 4 he started a school on his farm to train 50 poor children in the three R's and in gardening . This school failed financially at the end of two years. Pestalozzi be­ lieved that all could be educated to an intellectually free and morally independent life . He substituted discussion for reciting, group in­ struction for individual hearing, and thinking in place of catechism. He maintained that " Observation is the absolute basis of all knowl­ edge . The first object then, in education, must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy ; the second, to express with correctness the

Nature Guiding results of his observation. " This is why Pestalozzi is called the "Father of Object Teaching. " Froebel ( 1 7 8 2- 1 8 5 2 ) from 1 808- 1 8 1 0 was a student and teacher under Pestalozzi and opened a private school at Yverdon, in 1 8 1 6, along Pestalozzian lines. This also was unsuccessful financially. Froebel so directed self-activity as to develop inborn moral, social, and intellectual capacities. Nature-study and school gardening, therefore, became prominent. He considered the child as a social animal rather than independent as Rousseau had trained Emile . This same play and game spirit has been best developed in the sum­ mer camp to its real moral, social, and educational value. The recent camp development of arts and crafts out of the environment---clay for pottery, willow basketry, bayberry candle dipping, and cat-nine­ tail mats is a continuation of the Froebel idea. This is not teaching a trade, as Rousseau would have it, but a development of the creative power. Froebel' s advice to parents is to "Take your little children by the hand ; go with them into nature as into the house of God, allow the wee one to stroke the good cow' s forehead, and to run about among the fowl, and play at the edge of the wood. Make companions for your boys and girls of the trees and the banks and the pasture land . " Froebel also urged that " if the boy cannot have the care of a little garden of his own, he should at least have a few plants in boxes or pots . " H e would encourage the child t o have pets and t o observe wild life. Froebel' s idea was to develop the spirit rather than the "faculties. " The spirit of nature-study is the key to successful nature-study. Much of this spirit has been inherited through Froe­ bel's kindergarten. The first English speaking kindergarten was organized in B oston ( 1 860) and the first public school kindergarten under Superintendent w. T . Harris in St. Louis ( 1 8 7 3 ) .

II. The Contribution to Nature-Study from Science Another great influence on nature-study came down through the halls of science. It dates back to Aristotle ( 3 8 4-3 2 2 B . C . ) , the great­ est pupil of Plato. Aristotle is the founder of Natural History. His use of the inductive method strikes the key note of the teaching lesson in nature-study of today. He believed in the use of the senses followed by reasoning-the observation of facts followed by ex­ planations. His reasoning led to definitions and principles. His knowledge led to a classification of plants and animals. His classi­ fication evolved like that of the child naturalist. It grew gradually out of his personal observation and thinking. Classification may be the result, but is never the aim, of Nature-study. The first half of the 1 9th Century was one of species hunting. Linnaeus ( 1 7 0 7- 1 7 7 8) published his Systema Natura in 1 7 3 5 . Twelve editions followed. His classification was artificial. If there is such a thing as the youth recapitulating the history of science this is the age of collecting spp.cimens. Provision should be made for the child who

The Nature-Study Movement

1 79

wishes t o collect but all children should not be made t o d o this a s was the custom in some schools a few years ago when the sole work of botany was to collect and mount so many plants or in zoology to collect and pin onto a board so many insects. The next period was that of morphology and anatomy. Cuvier ( 1 769- 1 83 2 ) is known as the founder of Comparative Anatomy. The improvement of the microscope led to the study of minute anatomy and Schultze ( 1 8 2 5-1 8 7 4) , who established that the proto­ plasm of the animal and the vegetable cell is the same material ( 1 86 1 ) , became the "Father of Modem Biology. " The laboratory has developed what Dr. Charles Adams so aptly calls the "closet natural­ ist . " Huxley, the pioneer in laboratory teaching, attempted some primers of science, but he had the principles of biology in mind and the child was not ready. A large number of nature teachers were recruited from the laboratory and had had no experience or interest with living plants and animals. Although the laboratory period was most important in the advance of Biology it was undoubtedly a check in the teaching of Nature-study in the public school. The first scientist to take his pupils into the field was Louis Agassiz ( 1 807-1 8 73 ) . His motto, " Study nature, not books, " has been quoted in all attempts at Nature-study. Huxley says,-"Agassiz is a backwoodsman in Natural History. He clears the forest, cutting down all errors, theories, without regard to persons or established reputation . What a pioneer ! " Agassiz, like Froebel and his country­ man Pestalozzi started a school for children but failed financially. Agassiz had great influence on the masses and made nature more popular wherever he went. The Saturday Club had the great Amer­ ican nature writers-Lowell, Holmes, and Emerson. They all loved the out-of-doors and camped in the Adirondacks, the beginning of a very popular movement .

Agassiz' s greatest contribution to American Nature-study was made by his summe r school for teachers on the Island of Penikese, in Buzzard's B ay. David Starr Jordan, in his Science Sketches, says it is the "School of all schools in America which has had the greatest influence on American scientific teaching. " In May, 1 8 7 2 , John Anderson, a rich New York merchant, gave $50, 000 endowment and the Island of Penikese which had a house and bam. Agassiz an­ nounced the opening of the school for July 8 and when the boat was coming into the landing the . carpenters were driving the last nails. The school lasted but three months but included most of the leading science teachers of the country. They studied sea life in its environ­ ment. The death of Agassiz brought the career of the school to a close, but its meth ods were deemed to be far reaching. The next reaction against the " closet naturalist" was brought on by the "ecologist. " Although Ecology is an old subject and re­ ceived some attention by Linnaeus, Humboldt, and others it did not assert itself until about 1 884. This was about the time that Nature­ study was coming into its own. The first course in animal ecology

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180

was given in the University of Chicago, in 1 902, by Dr. Charles C . Adams.2 The Ecological Society o f America was organized i n 1 9 1 4. In both subject matter and method, Ecology is nothing more than advanced Nature-study. Ecology has supplemented the nature­ study field with rich material and the sympathy of its leaders has meant much to the movement.

III. Geography and Nature-Study Geography minus political geograph y is good nature-study. The natural history of the Colonial period was the kind found in the common school fact-geography.. The plants and animals of Asia, Africa, and South America were pictured and described. These same objects became the source of education in building blocks and alphabet books . The scholars were made to memorize the lists be­ cause of the supposed disciplinary value. That Asa Gray was ahead of his time is seen in his protest : "I do not suppose that the mere treasuring up of facts will affect the object of education . I venture the assertion that, if the truth were known, the child ac­ quires a greater number of useful ideas, more real development and strength of mind, during his play hours with his rabbits, his kites, from his story books, than from the lessons assigned him during his hours of study ; he is really educated more out of school than in school . " Home Geography arose in conn ection with the obj ect teaching of Pestalozzi. Carl Ritter, a German, developed this idea beginning about 1 8 1 7 . Arnold Guyot, a pupil of Ritter, was agent of the Massa­ chusetts State Board of Education from 1 848-1 8 5 4 . Guyot, like Pestalozzi and Agassiz, was a Swiss. He came to the United States, as did Agassiz, and lectured to thousands of teachers. Home Geog­ raphy is good Nature-study. The hill, the valley, the brook, and the pond are the homes of our plants and animals. Several home geog­ raphy lessons are included in this book and when these subjects are not taken care of in the geography department they should receive attention by the Nature teacher. .

IV.

.

.

.

The Centers oj Development of LVature-Study in the United States

1.

The Early Development of Nature-study in Illinois. The Natural Science Section of the Illinois State Teachers' Asso­ ciation was organized in December, 1 88 8 and held its first meeting December 2 7 , 1 8 8 9 . Professor S. A. Forbes was elected president. At the fi rst session Professor Forbes read a paper on the History and Sta tus of Public School Science Work in Illinois. The following notes, on the early development of Nature-study in Illinois, are taken from this importan t paper. 2The New Natural History-Ecology. XVII, NO. 7, pp . 49 1-494. 1 9 1 7 .

The American Museum Journal,

Vol .

The Nature-Study l1-1ovement " Beginning in 1 8 5 1 , we find a superintendent of Stark County, (Illinois) saying hopelessly that, desirable as it is, he sees little prospect of a study of science in his schools, and, indeed, that some of his people still object to geography, even as contrary to the Bible, because it teaches that the world is round instead of having four corners. " Professor Forbes goes o n t o say,-"That reaching upward of the masses for more power and more light, which, spreading from Illinois eastward, gave us later the long line of land-grant colleges, and gives us now the State Experiment Stations, gave us also, as a sort of second growth from the seed first sown, the recognized acceptance of the natural sciences as a necessary part of the course of study in a true people' s school. That this fruitful movement arose earlier and went further here than elsewhere, I attribute to the fact that it had here an able and devoted leader, who, himself an educated man, had those great human qualities which no learning can overlay, and which gave him access to all classes and power with all . " He refers to Professor Jonathan B . Turner. Professor Turner, in 1 8 5 1 , called a convention of farmers in Put­ nam County to consider education toward the farm. This not only led to the national land grant act but started a movement toward accepting "natural sciences as a necessary part of the course of study in a true people's school . " Three powerful allies furthered the movement. Ninian W.Edwards the first State Superintendent, in his first report ( 1 8 5 4) stated that the teachers should have a " practical education, in which should be included not only what is commonly embraced in the common school course, but a practical knowledge of the sciences in their application to the ordinary pursuits of life . " The first State Normal ( 1 8 5 7 ) b y 1 8 6 0 attempted, i n the words

of

Principal Hovey, " to put our pupil teachers in possession of the lead­ ing facts of these sciences, (Physiology, Chemistry, Botany, and Geology) and the method of teaching the facts to children . . . " As early as 1 8 6 8 the State Natural History Society assumed " the duty of supplying natural history materials to schools prepared to use them . " " In the Aurora (Illinois) Schools, Principal Jones has introduced in 1 86 8 an elaborate course in natural science, beginning with the first year of the primary, and running through the high school. " These various movements culminated i n 1 8 7 2 i n the introduction of four new sciences on the list required for a county teacher's certificate . This gave a great impulse to the work but by 1 8 7 4 these require­ ments were limited to the holders of first. grade certificates. As the country teachers usually held second grade certificates the study of nature underwent a decline. It remained for Colonel Francis W . Parker ( 1 83 7-1 902) to revive Nature-study in the Cook County Normal School. Colonel Parker was of New England stock being born in Piscataquog, New Hamp.

r82

Nature Guiding

shire. His father died when he was six or seven years of age and young Parker went to work on a farm. He 'always said th at altho he went to school in the winter that his real education was on the farm. Colonel Parker started to teach at the age of sixteen. The Cook County Normal School, January 1 st, 1 896, became the Chicago Normal School. In June, 1 899, Colonel Parker went to the Chicago Institute of Education which was later merged with the University of Chicago. Colonel Parker wrote an account of the work of the Cook County and Chicago Normal School in 1 902 .3 His. statements are forceful and clear cut. "It was our good fortune to take the initial steps in subjects that have since become of general application. The great book of nature, God's infinite volume of everlasting, inexhaustible truth, had had scarcely a place in the courses of study in American Schools . . . The question was : How may nature be adapted to growing minds, to hearts that have loved and lived in nature until, indeed, they entered school ? . . . Things must be learned thoroughly ; and a natural ob­ ject was taken, examined, dissected, painted, drawn-exhausted, and the interest of the children exhausted at the same time . Another way must be found. Professor H . H, Straight, a pupil of the great scientist and educator, Agassiz, entered upon the work, in 1 883, with boundless enthusiasm , . , . It was found that mere labo­ ra tory work was not close enough to the children ; nature refuses to be viewed in bits and rags , , . . Field excursions, with their wealth of observation, were early introduced , Failures in nature-study, failures that were, however, prophecies, were the rule, until 'Wilbur S . Jackman, in 1 889, undertook to grapple with the problem. The idea of thorough exhaustive work was abandoned . The phenomena of the "rolling year" were taken as the general guides ; the child was brought into loving contact with nature ; the subj ects were adapted to differ­ ent stages of child growth ; art and nature were correlated . We have taken a step, and only a step, in the inexhaustible book . " Wilbur S . Jackman ( 1 8 5 5- 1 9 0 7 ) was also a farmer boy and teacher. He graduated from Harvard in 1 88 4 and taught natural science in the high school at Pittsburgh. Colonel Parker took him from here to the Cook County Normal School and then to the Chicago Institute of Education. Jackman became Dean of the School of Education durin I; the last two years of his life. In 1 89 1 Jackman published his book Nature-study. The book brought the child into direct contact with nature. It contained questions, but not answers, and the teachers found difficulty in using the book as they had not been trained in observation. Nathaniel Butler said at a memorial service at the University of Chicago. "To him more than to any one else is due the position of nature-study in the Elementary Schools ,4 Jackman said 'Elementary School Teacher, Vol . I I , No , 1 0 , pp. 765-766, June 1 902 . An Account of the Work of the Cook County and Chicago Normal School from 1 8 83 to 1 899, by Francis W. Parker. 4Elementary School Teacher, April 1 907, Vol. V I I , No. 8 , p. 439 .

The Nature-Study Movement that "The spirit of nature-study requires that the pupils be intelli­ gently directed in the study of their immediate environment and its relation to themselves ; that there shall be, under the natural stimulus of the desire to know, a constant effort at a rational interpretation of the common things observed. " Ira B . Meyers followed Jackman . . "

Courtesy Oswego Normal School

D R . E . A. SHELDON

and Elliot R. Downing has had charge of Natural Science at the School of Education since 1 9 1 1 .

Nature-Study in New York State had Two Centers of Development A . The Oswego Normal School. Cubberley states that "in 1 848 obj ect teaching was introduced into the state normal school at Westfield. " 5

2.

5Cubberley, Public Education in United States, p . 295.

Nature Guiding It remained for the Oswego N onnal School to become the influential center in the distribution of the Pestalozzian principles and practice . Dr. Edward A . Sheldon ( 1 83 2-1 8 9 7 ) was superintendent of schools in Oswego . He first began with Saturday classes which led to a city training school ( 1 86 1 ) and later to the state nonnal school ( 1 866) . Sheldon introduced object teaching in 1 8 5 9 . In December 1 86 1 Dr. Sheldon invited prominent educators to observe the Oswego work. Professor William F . Phelps, principal of the State Nonnal School at Trenton, New Jersey was appointed chainnan to prepare a report. This report helped in the spread of the Oswego idea and in con­ clusion-"Resolved, That this system of primary instruction, which substitutes in great measure the teachers for the book, demands in its instructors varied knowledge and thorough culture, and that attempts to introduce it by those who do not clearly comprehend its principles, and who h ave not been trained in its methods, can only result in failure. " 6 "Notwithstanding the diffusion of the principles of object teaching in the country during that period, its practice died out through the want of teachers trained in the system and its methods . " 7 It was the lack of teachers that caused Physiography to be dropped from the curriculum and has led to a decline in the teaching of General Science. Nature-study has managed to survive altho it has been seriously handicapped by the scarcity of trained teachers . Obj ect teaching was the emancipation from the words of the text­ book . It was a training in observing, reasoning, and expression . Professor S . S . Green, of Providence, R. 1 . , in his report for a com­ mittee, appointed by the N ational Teachers ' A ssociation in 1 8 64, asks, "Would you really know whether a candidate for the teacher' s office i s a good teacher or not ? You need not examine him with difficult questions in Arithmetic, in Algebra, in Geography, or in History. You need not examine him at all . But put him into the school room, take from it every printed page for the use of the teacher or pupil. Give him blackboards, -give them slates . Let him have ears of corn, pine cones, shells, and as many other objects as he chooses to collect, and then require him to give lessons in reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, and the English language. If the children come home full of curious questions, -if they love to talk of what they do at school, -deeply interested,-intent upon their school exercises, -then employ him, - employ him at any price, though he may not have graduated at the University, the Academy, or even the N onnal School . Whene\'er needed, allow him or the children books . You are sure of a good school . " 8 Professor Greene ' s test woul d apply t o good teachers today and but a small per cent 6Barnard's American Journal of Education , Vol . X I I ( 1 862 ) , p . 605 . 'History o f Obj ect Teaching , a n Address delivered b y N . A . Calkins i n 1 86 1 . Published in Barnard' s American Journal of Education, Vol . XII ( 1 862 ) , p. 639 . 80bject Teaching. I t s General Principles , and t h e Oswego System . Professor S. S. Greene, in Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. XVI ( 1 866) , p. 258.

Th e Nature-Study Movement

I8s

would b e able t o qualify. The maj ority of teachers are still carrying on recitations. The method of the obj ect lesson was to present the material to the class . The pupils felt, weighed, measured, tasted, and observed the color, composition, solubility, tenacity, transparency, ductility, brilliancy, and other qualities. They used all the senses. The various qualities were brought out by conversation. New words were in­ troduced as they were needed. The obj ect was then described in

L. H. B A ILEY

wntmg . Natural history objects were occasionally brought in for a lesson but it was more usually a laboratory type of work on lifeless obiects. I n I 8 7 8 , H. H. Straight ( I 846-I 886) came to Oswego Normal to teach natural science . He had studied at Harvard and had been at Agassiz' s s umme r school on Penikese. Professor Straight started Nature-study in New York State in Oswego Normal School ( I 8 7 8) . H e changed object teaching t o a study of living plants and animals. In place of the laboratory-schoolroom lesson he took his classes on field trips. Colonel Francis Parker took Professor Straight to the Cook County Normal echool in I 883 .

186

Nature Guiding

B. Cornell University. The following notes on the development of Nature-study at Cornell University are taken from the preface of Professor Anna B otsford Comstock' s Handbook of Nature-study. " It was inaugurated as a direct aid to better methods of agriculture in New York State. During the years of agricultural depression 1 89 11 893, the Charities of New York City found it necessary to help many people who had come from the rural districts-a condition

ANNA B OTSFORD COMSTOCK

hitherto unknown. . A conference was called to consider the situation . . . . Mr. George T. Powell, who had been a most efficient Director of Farmers' Institutes of New York State was invited to the conference as an expert . . . He made a strong plea for interesting the children of the country in farming as a remedial measure, and main­ tained that the first step toward agriculture was nature-study . . . . In 1 89 4 . . . eight thousand dollars was added to the Cornell Univer­ sity fund, for Extension Teaching and inaugurating this work. The work was begun under Professor I. P. Roberts ; after one year Pro­ fessor Roberts placed it under the supervision of Professor L. H . B ailey, who for the fifteen years since has been the inspiring leader of the movement, as well as the official head . .

.

The Nature-Study Movement In 1 896, Mr. John W. Spencer, a fruit grower in Chautauqua County, became identified with the enterprise ; he had lived in rural communities and he knew their needs. He originated the great plan of organizing the children in the schools of the State into Junior Naturalists Clubs. . . . Some years, 3 0, 000 children were thus brought into direct communication . . A monthly leaflet for Junior Natural­ ists followed ; and it was to help in this enterprise that Miss Alice G . McCloskey, the able Editor o f the present Rural School Leaflet, was brough t in to the work . " The "Handbook o f Nature-study" by Professor Anna B otsford Comstock, 1 9 1 4 is the best textbook that has ever been written upon .

.

N ature-study . It is based upon the Cornell Leaflets which were published from 1 903-1 9 1 1 . The " Teacher' s story" is to help the un­ trained teacher and this is followed by the subject lesson for the children. Its informal but interesting style has made it equally use­ ful in the home. The popular demand for the book has made it necessary to get out a new edition each year. Mrs. Comstock is today the "Dean of American Nature-study. " Upon becoming Professor-emeritus her place was taken by Dr. E . Laurence Palmer who has been getting out the very efficient and popular Rural School Leaflets. 3 . The Rise oj Nature-study in St. Louis. William T . Harris ( 1 83 S- 1 908) , superintendent of schools in St . Louis ( 1 868- 1 8 80) and later United States Commissioner of Educa­ tion ( 1 889-1 906) wrote a syllabus on How to Teach Natural Science in the Public Schools ( 1 8 7 1 ) . In his introduction he says "The course is arranged with reference to method rather than quantity and ex­ haustiveness . " He had a spiral arrangement of topics-plant life in grades 1 st and 4th, animal life in 2d and sth, and physical science in the 3d and 6th His work had a widespread influence in the spread of Nature-study. .

188

Natu re Guiding

4. Bridgewater N annal School, the Early Center of Nature-study in New

England. Albert G . Boyden ( 1 8 2 7-1 9 1 5) was principal of the Bridgewater Nonnal School from 1 860- 1 905 . He was born on a fann in Walpole, Massachusetts and like other leaders in the movemen t was a teacher. "He was a leader in the sports of his fellows, and knew the products of all the fields, woods and streams in the neighborhood of his native village. " (p. 1 8) 9 Principal B oyden in his report of 1 8 8 5 said that

A. c.

B OYDEN

" It is of great importance that the teachers of our country schools should have the fam.iliar acquain tance with nature which will enable them to be guides and interpreters to the opening minds of the children . " The writer use t o sit in the Assembly Hall during what was called general exercises, and marvel at Mr. B oyden's powers of observation. His questions were quite apt to be on nature. What is the first tree on the right as you go down S ummer Street or what color is the foliage of the ash this morning ? In 1 90 7 , Mr. Boyden gave nearly two acres of land to the school for a natural science garden. 9Albert G. B oyden and the Bridgewater Normal School. ( 1 9 1 9) .

By A. C. Boyden,

The Nature-Study Movement Mr. A. C. B oyden, who succeeded his father as principal, inherited his father's interest in the outdoors. One educational periodical in telling about the World' s Fair in St. Louis ( 1 904) said "while it is true that the West is more strongly represented then the East, the exhibit from the State Normal Model School at Bridgewater is pre­ eminently the fullest and richest and the most carefully prepared nature-work in the whole educational exhibit. It is arranged under the personal supervision of Mr. Arthur C . B oyden, who for twenty­ five years has been an enthusiast on Nature work and is today the leading exponent of the subject in Massachusetts. "

V.

The Contribution of the Museum t o Nature-study

A REVIEW OF THE WORK DONE BY THE B L:FFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES

IN

CO-OPERATION

WITH

THE

PUBLIC

SCHOOLS . l O

" From the day of its inception, one fundamental principle has con­ trolled the policy of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Realiz­ ing the important place which a great museum must eventually take in the educational system of its home town, we have always en­ deavored to get into the closest and most effective relationship with the public schools of our city. Every facility which we had to offer to the student has been freely and continuously placed at his command . For years the science teachers of the city have been in the habit of bringing their classes to our building, and Vie have supplied them with room and materials for their work. In the study of geology, thousands of high school pupils have received great benefit form our collections of rocks and minerals, and our display of native birds and animals has been of the greatest help to the classes in zoology and natural history. At the beginning, it was the custom for the teachers to accompany the classes and take charge of their work while here,

the museum

offering simply its collections and rooms, no attempt being made to provide lectures or instruction beyond what was displayed . In time, however, it was found that certain topics were of such universal interest that they would warrant special a ttention, and so the plan of special lectures for the schools came into being. A series of talks on "Bees, " "Birds" and " Insects" was arranged for Saturday afternoons, and were open to such of the grades as cared to come, and met with much success. The attendance at these talks was entirely optional with the classes, the Department of Education simply recommending that as many schools as possible take advantage of them . As a part of the work, it ,vas expected that the classes which came to the talks would take the opportunity of visiting all the rooms of the museum, and in this way become acquainted with the fact that there were here displayed for their benefit many interesting and valuable specimens illustrating topics which would be an important part of their later studies along scientific lines. As a further inducement to lOPublished in Bulletin N o . IV, Vol. VIII of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, 1 906.

1 90

Nature Guiding

the schools to come to our museum, the large lecture room was equipped with a suitable apparatus for the projection of slides, and this was announced as being available for any school or class that cared to come and bring slides to illustrate a talk by the principal or teacher. For some months this room was in nearly constant use by the schools, the teachers coming with the classes and making what­ ever explanation was necessary as the pictures were thrown on the screen by the operator. In one series given to the third and fourth grades, on geography, over 1 4, 000 children attended. Shortly, however, after this plan had been inaugurated, the Department of Education considered it advisable to equip nearly all the schools with

Courtesy Mrs. Enos A. Mills

THE FATHER OF NATURE G UIDING, ENOS A. MILLS, LONG' S PEAK, COLO­ RADO. Nature Guiding, to quote Mr. Mills, " Creates more permanent interest in the biography of a single tree than in the naming of many trees . "

lanterns, and therefore at this time only a few schools are under the necessity of coming to our rooms when they wish to display slides to their classes. In the spring of 1905, through the efforts of Hon. T . Guilford Smith, the President of the Society, a plan was arranged with the Depart­ ment of Education by which our Museum became an important factor in the work as require d from the pupils of the grammar grades A suitable collection to illustrate the weapons and utensils of th e colonial days, used by Indians and whites, was arranged, and notice was sent to all classes studying American History that these things were on exhibit for the schools, and could be seen by applying at the Museum for a suitable hour to be assigned . It was expected that the teachers would bring their classes and explain the utensils and other .

The Nature-Study Movement interesting specimens to the classes from the cases. This plan did not meet with great enthusiasm. The teachers, already having as much special work as they could be reasonably expected to carry, preferred having some one else give the talks, and Dr. Carlos E . Cummings, the Secretary of the Society, was asked to take this matter in charge. This being done, the visits of the schools took the nature of regular lectures, and met with great and immediate success. Although attendance was not required. so many teachers applied for dates that in this course, as can be seen in the appendix, thirty-five separate lectures were given, to an attendance of nearly 5, 000 children. These talks were followed by a series on birds and bees to the seventh grade, thirty lectures in all, to an attendance of 6, 7 00 . "

VI.

The Nature-Guide Movement

The happy idea of NATURE GUIDING, both in practice and in the interpretation of nature, was originated by Enos A. Mills, ( 1 8 7 01 9 2 2 ) . Mr. Mill' s guiding dated from about 1 8 88. For I S or 1 8 years h e conducted parties up Long' s Peak interesting them in the forests, the timber-line, the glacial chasms, and the life stories of the individuals which were met on the trail. His first published article is probably " Guides wanted" in the Saturday Evening Post 1 9 1 7 . "The Children of my Trail School" appeared in the Saturday Evening Post, March 1 9 1 9, and his book, The Adventures of a Nature Guide (Doubleday Page and Co., 1 9 2 0) , gives concrete in­ formation on the subject. "As an experiment in internationalizing such recreational culture, the California Nature-study Leaguell undertook to offer Californians the results of these investigations from Nordic Europe. The work commenced with a series of bulletins, utilizing the California County Library System . Out of their circulation came several concepts. One was having a high power scientist act as Nature Guide at a string of adj acent summ e r resorts. The first test was in 1 9 1 8 at three widely scattered California resort areas . These were made by the State Fish and Game Commission as a part of their conservation work. Having proven satisfactory, the Commission, co-operating with the League, decided on a wider experiment at Lake Tahoe . During 1 9 1 9, Dr. H . C. B ryant of the University of California acted as Nature Leader. The work caught the attention of Superintendent of National Parks Mather of Washington, D. C . " I n 1 9 20 the Federal and State Governments commenced the Nature Guide Service in the Yosemite National Park. It was esti­ mated that 2 7 , 000 visitors to the park made use of the service. The work proved tremend ously popular and in 1 9 2 I it served about 50, 000 tourists. In 1 9 2 1 a similiar service was furnished in Yellowstone Park and in 1 9 2 2 was installed in Glacier National Park . The move­ ment in Yosemite consists of trips for adults and children, lectures, a -----

llBulletin No. 57A, California Nature-study League.

Nature Guiding wild flower show, and a museum where local things are exhibited and hundreds of tourist questions are answered by a naturalist. By 1 9 2 5 , 1 0 Naturalists were on the staff in Yosemite, whereas 6 were employed in the past, branch museums were established, a field school of natural history organized, and I I 3 , 8 7 5 attended lec­ tures and field trips. "Yosemite Nature Notes" is published weekly in summer and monthly in winter .

VII.

The Nature-Lore School

In the same year ( 1 9 2 0) that the Nature Guide Service began in the Yosemite a Nature-lore School was organized on the eastern coast by Dr. W. G. Vinal under the auspices of the National Asso-

Staff at Nature-Lore School in 1923

Left to R ight : ANN A GAL L U P , Curator Brooklyn Childrens' Museum ; E . H . FORBUSH, State Ornithologist for Commonwealth of Massachusetts ; M ARIE STILLMAN R U S SELL, Artist ; W. G . V I N AL Director of the Nature-Lore School ; ANNA B OTSFORD COMSTOCK, Professor of Nature-Study E meritus, Cornell University ; M A R Y STILLMAN, Writer ; SCHUYLER MATTHEWS, Natura list and ,

author.

ciation of

the Directors of Girls Camps . Al though the main pur­ pose of this school was to train Nature Counsellors for summer camps there was a good number of registrations by teachers, physical education leaders, art students, and scou t leaders. This course is usually given for the last week in June just before the opening of camps .

VIII.

Camp Directors' Course

A special course in camping ha s been offered by Columbia U niver­ sity since I 9 2 0 . The students spend a week at Bear Mountain in April or May and during this practice week learn a great deal about the principles and methods of Camp Nature-study.

CHAPTER ORGANIZATION OF A

XVI

NATUR E CLUB

One way of carrying out Nature-study is by means of the Nature Club . The first step in the organization of a Nature Club is to select a practical theme by vote of the prospective members. Write a list of subj ects suitable for investigation in the particular locality, such as : insects, weeds, trees, birds, city beautiful. Next choose a name for the club, as-The Lincoln School B ird Club, The Wampanoag Woods­ men, The Nature Guards, The Woodcrafters of Springfi eld, The Roosevelt Wild Life Protectors, The Burroughs Club, The B lackwolf Tribe, The Agassiz Guides or Junior Audubon . The officers may con­ sist of a club counsellor (usually the teacher interested in the project) , president, vice-president, and secretary-treasurer. The meetings should be held regularly at a stated place and time . If an entire class of pupils should form a club and the teacher were the leader it would be permissible to occupy the regularly assigned school period with the club work making it a part of the school program . The danger of this is that it does not function as a club but often becomes another class. The most successful clubs obtain their membership from the different classes of the school. In this case several clubs might meet at the same time-the attendance depending upon their individual interests. The school period would still be occupied and the benefits would be extended to all members of the school without discrimination . The time and place of the meetings having been decided upon the next order of procedure would be the appointment of a committee to draw up a constitution to be presented at the next meeting. Upon acceptance it may be signed by the charter members. METHOD

The method of the Nature-Lore Club is the socialized-project. Each meeting of the club should have a business meeting with parlia­ mentary procedure, -a short social meeting of songs, yells, and stunts, and a work period . Every member is to be a leader and should be able to demonstrate before the club and in the various school rooms. The counsellors differ from most teachers in that they are leaders, or advisors. They are members of the club working on the same proj­ ect with the other members. The club is self-governing and demo­ cratic in every detail. It is helpful to have a chart on the wall of the clubroom which shows the individual achievments of the members . If this is the first club experience of the members it may be well to have a suggestive list although the self-starting system is better than the cranking up method when used in a club organization. This list, which should pertain to the theme selected, may be somewhat as follows : 1 . Lead in a successful trip ; 2 . Have a story well received ; 3 . Teach a new song ; 4. Invent a related piece of construction, as a trap ; 5 . Report 1 93

1 94

Nature Guiding

on a lecture heard at another club ; 6 . Make a life history chart ; 7 . Show resourcefulness ; 8 . Make an uninteresting topic interest­ ing ; 9 . Perfoml. an act of service ; 1 0 . Read a book for a report ; I I . Write an original essay ; 1 2 . Relate an experience with the subject at hand ; 1 3 . Demonstrate before an audience ; 1 4 . Or­ ganize or maintain a clipping service. This list of achievements is merely suggestive. No one achievement is required and the number of achievements that one may acquire is unlimited. The thing that interests one member may not interest his neighbor. Every member of the club is considered as an individual with individual capacities and interests. Members having the experience of being put upon their own initiative for the first time will have a peculiar and possibly helpless sensation. They are use to being told what to do-if not by the Czar at least by a teacher. The chart is an incentive to achievement and should it be necessary to give school credit it should be stated that ten or some other number of achievements are nec­ essary for credit. It will also be readily recognized that individual achievements are not of the same numerical value. Spirit rather than completeness is sought in the club plan. AIM

The following quotation from "The Nature Study Idea. " by Dr. "I like the man who has had an incomplete course. A partial view, if truthful, is worth more than a complete course, if lifeless. If the man has acquired a power for work, a capability for initiative and investiga­ tion, an enthusiasm for the daily life, his incompleteness is his strength. How much there is before him ! How eager his eye ! How enthusiastic his temper ! He is a man with a point of view, not a man with mere facts. This man will see first the large and significant events ; he will grasp relationships ; he will correlate ; later, he will consider details. " L. H. Bailey, is the keynote to the Nature-Lore Club .

SUGGESTION FOR A N INSECT CLUB .

Insects are selected for a type of club work in September. I.

Insect songs . Obtain " Nature Songs and Stories, " Creighton, published by the Comstock Co., Ithaca, New York. (Cricket, honey bee, mud wasp, woolly bear caterpillar.) Have a group tell the old jingle about " Lady B ird, Lady B ird . " Then tell about the introduction of the Lady Bird Beetle into California to save the orange crop . This story should be found in an insect book and told to the club by a pupil. The group having this project then sing an original parody on Lady Bird, Lady Bird which tells about the TRUE Lady Bird Beetle. Truth is stranger than fiction. Invent an insect chorus to the tune of Old MacDonald.

Nature Club

I 95

Insect Stories. Some good insect stories true to nature are : " Grass Hopper Greens Garden, " Swartz, Little Brown ; " Hexapod Stories, " Edith Patch, Atl. Mo. Press ; " Interesting Neighbors, " Jenkins, Blakiston ; "Social Life in Insect World, " Fabre, Century ; " Insect Stories, " V. L . Kellogg, Holt ; "The Romance of Insect Life, " Edm. Selous, Lippincott, Stories for the social period should always follow and not precede the work. The story of the Untidy Fly, for instance should not be told until club members know about the fly and the harm that it does. The stories should be told by members. Original stories have a greater value. The club leader may suggest something as follows : How many have heard " This is the house that Jack built ? " The insect world has real "houses that Jack built" and if you will write some of those stories we would like to have them at our next meeting. They might be told something like this : This is the girl that caught the germ, brought by the fly, that came from the egg, that was laid in the barn, back of the house that Jack built, etc. Investigate the story about the Hessian Troops sent over to America by King George III. How much damage did they do ? The Hessian Fly was introduced at the same time. In 1 9 1 6 the Hessian Fly destroyed more than $ 1 .00 for every person in the United States. Find all the figures that you can about the Hessian Troops and about the Hessian Fly. Bring in your decisions . What does this have to do with the introduction of new insects ? The Gypsy Moth and the Corn B orer are recent arrivals . The fable about the Ant and the Grasshopper is an impossible event. Tell the story and show what is impossible. Find a true story that is more interesting, as, the Agri­ cultural Ant that plants and harvests a crop, or how ants carry on war, or about bees in their home. The story of the life of Henri Fabre is an in spirat i on He was poor. He was considered a dunce. He did not have costly books or apparatus. He had to study in a kitchen. His folks had no sympathy with his interests and threw away his collections. In spite of these obstacles he became the world' s greatest entomologist. Tell the story of his life . Get " Freckles " and the "Girl of the Limberlost" by Gene Stratton Porter, for the Insect Bookshelf. 3 . Insect Plays. A play might be given on Achievement day. Have a competition by teams and the one presenting the best original play might appear on the special program. Give suggestions, such as-The House Fly Visits an Untidy Family. Characters : Untidy fly, mother, oaby, and a little girl. In the second act the fly visits a tidy family. This may be acted out in pantomime. Plays should always come after subject matter. 4. Construction Projects. Some pupils may wish to collect and display the economic insects of the neighborhood. These insects may be classified as frien� s a�d enemies. This may form a part of the school museum. Thls wlll 2.

.

.vature

Guiding

involve many construction proj ects. The best box for mounting specimens is the Riker Mount which is sold by Kuy-Scheerer Co . . New York City. The better thing to do would be t o make these boxes. Other things to be made are : Net for catching insects. spreading board, rearing cages, aquaria for aquatic insects, killing jars, and fly traps. Directions for making these things may be found in any good book such as Comstock' s Manual for the Study of Insects . The "Moth Number, " Nature Study Review ( I SC) is very goc d . Life history boxes are very valuable, such as that o f the potato beetle. This becomes very useful during garden time. vVhen we realize that the insects devour a little less than one-half of the vegeta­ ble matter that grows we can readily see the economic importance of insect study. The plasticine model is another form of construction . Some mem­ bers of the club will enjoy making such models as the following : Fly's fo.ot, an adult fly or mosquito, or a dragon fly using maple keys for wmgs. 5. Demonstration Projects. The breeding of flies in stable manure, the exhibition of mosquitoes in a glass of water to show how the oil kills the wriggler, fly tracE s on gelatine as described in Comstock ; the killing of scale insects on a fern brought from home ; the treatment of plant lice ; how to spread butterflies on a mounting board ; etc. Everyone in the club is expected to be able to demonstrate . This is an excellent opportunity for correlation in language, and in drawing. 6 . Lectures . Each club should have a reference library. Books may be obtained from the homes, the library, and the l\Iuseum. Magazine articles are up to date . The nevvspaper has something about insects in almost every issue. Ordinarily the lectures should be given by the club members . These lectures could be on individual insects such as the dragon fly, scale insects, etc. Insect architecture, the relation of insects to flowers, how insects are protected, the department of Agriculture, the Silkworm industry, the honey bee would be interest­ ing. Have outside lecturers, as-a doctor who would tell about the housefly, malaria, yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, bubonic plague, leprosy, and sleeping sickness. A member of the mothers ' club might be willing to tell what the housewife should know about insects : the meal worm, flour weevil, moths in the carpet and rugs, ants, cockroaches, fleas, flies, and mosquitoes. A local gardener could tell about the enemies in the garden. The pl umber and the architect have to consider the insects . The inventor got the idea of the aero­ plane, forceps, hypodermic necdle, saw, :6le, auger. or at least could ha ve from the insects. The useful products are : honey, wax, silk, ink, dyestuffs, medicines, and shellac. Invite some one from the l\Iuseum or neighboring college to speak. B orrow insect collections . Get bulletins and also pamphlets from the Department of Agricu lture at the State House.

Nature Club

197

Handwork . Another form of hand work is to make colored posters which show the fly nuisance, the introduction of injurious insects. Make a map to show how this insect has spread . Color in outline drawings of the beetles . Color in moth outlines published by the Comstock Publish­ ing Company. Make a club room border of colored butterflies on. the blackboard . 7.

8.

Community Service . The opportunities for community service in a locality depend upon the needs of that community. The housefly may be the commonest and the most dangerous insect. The story is told of one city that offered a reward for the boy or girl who could bring in the greatest number of flies. One boy who had an unusual eye for business went to work breeding flies and obtained the reward . Whereas the slogan use to be to SWAT THE FLY it is now thought to be better to say PREVENT THE FLY. The housefly lays its eggs in horse manure . Map work, clean up days, newspaper articles, and posters would serve an important part. The mosquito furnishes a great field for a survey and campaign. The children might seek for speci­ mens in the community looking in any stagnant pools, swamps, etc. and note the results upon a map . Specimens in a bottle placed in show windows with posters would tell the story. Models to show draining of swamps and the use of petroleum in one bottle would show another method of prevention. A home survey of the damage of the clothes moth for the past summe r with an estimate of the damage in dollars and cents followed by a poster to illustrate the prevention . If everyone follows the directions for next summer-how many dollars has the club saved to the city for the coming year ? This may be one argument for the suppor� of the club . A child has as much right to study insects as to read about Napoleon a n d Hannibal a nd other destroyers of mankind. One enemy is here and the battle is going on. The latter is a matter of history yet how many are taught about past heroes and remain ignorant of enemies about home . A campaign against head lice or bedbugs or cockroaches might be timely. Again we emphasize that nature service varies with the community needs. Does the gypsy moth and the brown tail, the tent caterpillar or the corn borer need attention ? Herein lies the individuality of the community. The National Point of View. It is essential that the club work does not stop within or is not limited to the horizon of the community. The price of cotton is determined by the cotton boll weevil which is said to wage a tax equal to one-half of the cotton crop. For every bale of cotton sent to the factory another goes to the weevil. How does this compare with the tax imposed upon the colonies by King George the Fourth ? Com­ pare the reaction to these taxes. What is the government doing to prevent the introduction of such enemies as the gypsy moth and the 9.

Nature Guiding com borer ? How does this concern us ? How many people should this concern ? Compare the taxes demanded and paid to insects with the taxes paid for education. In what way would an increased tax for education decrease the insect tax ? Which would you prefer to p a y ? How can this be brought about ? What are you going to do ?

"Children should be interested more in seeing things live and in studying their habits than in killing them. Yet I would not emphasize the injunction, ' Thou shalt not kill. ' I should prefer to have the child become so much interested in living things that it would have no desire to kill them . " -L. H . B ailey i n " The Nature-Study Idea. "

"The sedges flaun t their harvest, In every meadow nook, And asters by the brook-side Make asters in the brook. " -Helen Hunt Jackson.

Summer fading, winter comes, Frosty mornings, tingling thumbs, Window robins, winter rooks, And the picture story books ! -Robert Louis Stevenson.

CHAPTER XVII

THE ORGANIZATION OF NATURE INSTRUCTION ON THE PSYC HOLOGICAL B A S I S .

Suggestions for the Presentation of Fall Flowers by this Method. In the last chapter you were told how one might organize nature instruction as club work with a view to socialization and practical application. Insects were selected to illustrate that method of presentation. In this chapter the subject is treated from a psychologi­ cal basis, i. e. the interest of the child. Suggestions will be given for the presentation of fall flowers by the psychological method. Any method must guarantee progressive in spiring appreciation to the child. It is the child ' s right and heritage. Teachers may choose their method but as to results there can be no question. In the psychological method we start with the child ' s interests. Up to the time that they enter school all that they learn of nature is because of their interest in it. The function of the school is to further this interest. We are developing children and not daisies or dandelions. Some courses in nature-study include "everything. " Each grade has its list of minerals, plants, animals, and physical phenomena. These subjects are usually unrelated and dealt out one at a time as if no other subj ect would do. This method indicates that the aim is encyclopedic information. The schemer or author of the course has mistaken the means of nature-study for the results of nature-study. There is no subj ect that is best. Any list of fall flowers is capable of educating the child. What a ch ild is, is more important than what he knows. The particular flower with which the child deals is inciden­ tal , for "A man ' s a man for a' that and a ' that . " The selection of material has also depended upon the interest of the teacher. This has been lately illustrated in general science textbooks. The physiographer makes his book 90% physiography, the chemist believes that Chemistry is the all important, the botanist would · linger upon plant study, and the literary inclined are often controlled by the sentimental and the mythical. Is there to be no choice of subj ect by the teachers ? Most certainly. That is one reason for. the teacher. It is the aim of nature education to retain the child in right living in his natural environment. If the interest of the child does not put him into first hand relation with these problems it is the duty of the teacher to show the child his needs. The selection of nature material should be determined as far as possible by the interests and needs of the pupil, which are based on his environment as determined by the seasons .

1.

The Collecting Instinct:

Children are especially interested in collecting fall flowers not only because of their collecting instinct but because of their interest in bright colors and their sense of beauty. Have teams for yellow 1 99

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Nature Guiding

flowers , "whites, " "reds, " etc. The "reds " might arrange their flowers on the "red" table, etc . , each team having an alloted space. The "whites" might challenge the "yellows. " When th e children discover that there are more yellow than white flowers the teacher might assign values to the colors and renew the interest by keeping a score. The game spirit is added to the collecting spirit by posting the scores of the teams. For bringing in a new flower give one point, for correctly naming it one point, for writing an interesting fact on the label card give a point. Have a small library for identification pur­ poses , such as Reid' s Flower Guide, Mathews' B ook of Wild Flowers for Young People, and the New York State Museum Flower book. This is the time of year to collect winter or dried bouquets. Plants especially adapted for this purpose are : Rabbit 's Foot Clover, ever­ lasting, bush clover, grasses, sea lavender, bayberry, and pine cones. Arrange in vases without water. The so-called "fern-dish " usually consists of a glass bowl with a glass top . In the bottom of the dish is placed sand with charcoal to keep it "sweet . " Various kinds of moss are arranged as a mat over the sand and given a good sprinkling. The collection takes care of itself as the moisture evaporates to the glass cover and then falls back as "rain" as it would out-of doors. Some plants that may be collected for the "fern dish " are : partridge berry, pipsisewa, checkerberry, prince's pine, gold thread, cranberry, sundews , and if large enough the pitcher plant. Various seedlings and ferns will germinate from the moss. The "fern dish " is not only an ornament but furnishes material for other occasions as the cranberry for geography and the pitcher plant with its method of c atch ing insects is as interesting as any story in fiction. 2 . Social A pproval: Those things which society approve give a dignified enj oyment. Four examples of how we may make use of this interest in teaching fall flowers will be given. a . Potted Plants: This is the time of year to dig up wild flowers and pot them for window decoration during the winter. These plants are most successfully transplanted by taking up sad and all. Each child should have a potted plant of his own with a wooden pot-label . The spirit of ownership , the responsibility of care, the cultivation of the right feeling in regard to his neighbor'S property are early steps in training for citizenship. The practical training, the economic feature of the project, and the results in decoration will call exclamations of approval from all visitors to the room. The children in the primary grades do not appreciate economic values. The transplanting of fall plants would have a larger value from the activity involved and a love of the colors rather than from the commercial standpoint. In the upper grades the pupils have opportunity to use their artistic taste in improving the economic value of the school grounds and the home grounds by transplanting from the fields.

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A. Few Suggestions

Goldenrod: Over fifty varieties. Select when in bloom. Will flourish in rich soil. These and asters make a good hardy border out­ of-doors. Transplant in the fall. Violet: Transplant to border between tall plants. Requires same kind of soil in which it was found. Ferns: Set out in a shady place. North side of buildings . Evening Primrose: Passes winter in rosette form. Blossoms into October. Rosette form may be potted. Hedge Bindweed: Transplant after first frost. It will start a new growth . Have a support for plant to climb . B ecomes a pest out-of­ doors. BUl dock: Vigorous taproot. Good illustration of leaf arrange­ ment. Keep a plant of burdock indoors for several years and note its change in habits due to a change in environment . Dandelion : Leaves will die but large root soon scad -; oat new rosettes. Mullein: A biennial. Obtain plant that has not gone to seed, getting as much of taproot as possible. Sold by florists in England as "American Velvet Plant. " Queen A. nne's Lace. Wild Carrot. Biennial. Blossoms iato November. Jack-in-the-pulpit: This plant is a great favorite with young folks. Recognized in the fall by cluster of scarlet berries. If potted will send up a shoot which will unroll and blossom. Suggests a stoq of mystery. Children enj oy keeping a dairy. Hec tograph outline drawings and have children color in as plant develops. Use pictures for a moving picture show to tell the story of the "Jack" to the Mothers' Club. Yarrow: "1 like the plants that you call weeds,

Sedge, hardhack, mullein, yarrow, Which knit their leaves and sift their seeds Where any grassy wheel-track leads Through country by-ways narrow." -Lucy Larcom.

Has fern-like foliage. Transplant rosette to pot in fall . Its leaves have the odor of tansy which is very pleasant in the winter months. Peppermint: Easily potted and gives the familiar odor of pepper­ mint in the winter. Edible. Bull Thistle: Transplant the rosette of spiny leaves. This will bear several heads of purplish flowers. National flower of Scotland. The story is that a Danish soldier stepped on a thistle and his cry gave warning to the Scots that they were being attacked. This happened over a thousand years ago: Good type for teaching biennials and adaptions ,t o environment . Commo:t Plantain: Large leaves with rosette arrangement. B y breaking leaf stalk one can see t h e tough fibrous bundles. These bundles are typical of the bundles in the higher forms of plants.

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They are the food channels. Pot in the fall. Feed seeds to canary. Called "white man's foot" by Indians. Find the expression in "Hiawatha. " Purslane: or wild portulaca . Its fleshy leaves make it easy to pot. Forms a mat. This plant and the live-forever are easily slipped. b. Purposeful bouquets: i. e. bouquets for the sick in the neighbor­ hood, for the hospital or for the library stimulate the desire to ar­ range flowers beautifully. Arrange two similar bouquets, one in a dull colored, simple vase and the other in a bright colored, fancy vase. Which do the children prefer to send ? Arrange tall stemmed golden­ rods in a tall vase and in a broad shallow dish ; have one vase of goldenrods with the same length of stem and anoth er with varying lengths of stems ; have a tall single chrysanthemum in a tall straight vase and a "bunch" of the same kind of flowers in the same kind of vase ; use one kind of flower with its foliage and compare it with the same flower with another foliage. The children will have the in­ terest and the desire to learn all that they can about the arrangement of a bouquet. Have the children make up bouquets and then vote for the most beautiful one to be sent to a friend. The flowers in the library might be arranged by colors with labels and interesting facts. Committees could keep the "Flower Show" fresh and up-to-date. c . A Weed Exhibition for an Agricultural Fair, or for the Grange, or a Teachers' Institute to show How Weeds Win in their Struggle for Existence would win social approval. The teacher might write the following table on the board as a guide for the arrangement of the exhibition. SEED

Seeds Carried by Wind

Tumble Weeds

Dandelion-P Jimson-A Milkweed-P Canadian Thistle-P Common Thistle-B Wild Carrot-B Ragweed-A

Pigweed-A Ragweed-A Smartweed-A

Seeds Carried by Animals

ROOT T a p Root

Dandelion-P Dock-P Wild Carrot-B Burdock-B Pokeweed-P Mullein-B

Creeping Root

Milkweed-P Sorrel-P Sweet Flag-P Wild lris-P Purslane-A

Long Seeding Period

Cocklebur-A Wild Carrot-B Burdock-B Burmarigold-A Beggar's Ticks

Chickweed-A Purslane-A

S TEM Runners

Cinquefoil-P Hawkweed-P Poison Ivy-P St. Johnswort-P

Creeping U nder­ Stem ground

Grass-P Mints-P Canadian Thistle-P

LEAVES Fleshy

Chickweed-A Purse-A

Reduced

Shepherds Purse-A

Hairy

Mullein-B Nettle Everlasting

Spines

Thistle-B Prickly Lettuce

Psychological Basis

2 03

d. Christmas Presents: November recalls to our minds the nature students of Pilgrim trails. I am not so sure but what their methods were more satisfactory in a pedagogical way than the majority of our nature lessons of to-day. They selected the subj ects which pertained to their needs . Harvesting nature ' s crops was a very important time. It was both an occupation and a fascination. Why not revive some of these old fashioned good times ? They gathered wild grapes for j elly and grape-juice ; barberries give a delightful wild flavor to preserv­ ed pears ; bayberries were gathered for candles ; the fruit of h aws for preserves ; and wild plum preserve is still appreciated by very old­ fashioned people. There were a great many aromatic roots and medicinal plants that were hung in the attic ; corn husks were saved to braid into mats ; fragrant grasses such as sweet grass, native sedges and cat-tail leaves for baskets ; leaves of the balsam , sweet fern , and bayberry for pillows ; they made cider vinegar, shelled corn , and gathered faggots. I am sure that the n ature class, the cooking class, and the arts and crafts class can plan a "thousand things " for Christmas and this is just the time to start . The making of bayberry candles will be described as typical of this form of nature activity. The bayberry picking season begins early, for, as frosty nights come on, the waxy coating begins to drop off. It is important to gather a very large quantity of the berries and we will carry two large gunny sacks for the purpose. The wax is obtained by placing the berries in a wash boiler of water and bringing it to a boil. When all the wax has melted off the berries it will come to the top and when the water cools will harden. Be very careful not to let the wax burn. If the mixture smokes that is what is happening. It may be necessary to boil again in a double boiler to get all the dirt and refuse out of the wax. The bayberry wax may now be melted with tallow in the proportion of I part of bayberry wax to 3 parts of the tallow. The wax will still keep its green color and give its particular aroma. The wax is now ready for the bayberry dips. In preparation for the bayberry dipping party obtain candle wicking. Cut the loose white corel twice the desired length of the candle. Double it and twist lightly to hold the strands together. B end a wire hook through the loop which is convenient to hold it by or to hang it on a line. Melt the wax in a kettle and place news­ papers on the floor near the kettle. Have the children form in a circle with their wicks . As each one passes the kettle he dips the wick into the hot wax and then as it cools shapes the wick with his thumb and fingers so that it will hang straight. Each time that he passes the kettle he dips the wick and adds another layer of wax in the making of the candle This process is kep t up until the candles reach the desired size. 4.

Problems:

The problem-puzzle interest rises into prominence in the grammar grades. The reason of things and the practical application of knowl-

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Nature Guiding

edge is a strong appeal. Those who have read these articles up to the present point will note that nothing has been said about a teaching lesson by the question answer method. This does not mean that the Socrati� method should be left out altogether. It is most valu­ able. This brings us to a lesson that we may call nature-study. Herein nature-study differs from nature-lore. The topic , plant societies will be presented as a type of a problem lesson. The local distribution of plants is determined chiefly by moisture . Select an area for a detailed study of its plant population . Collect the plants which grow in this area. What problem do these plan ts have to meet in order to exist in this environment � Studv each species as to its special devices for meeting the problem . T abulate results. ·What characteristics are dominant ? I.

Pasture Plants: This area is described in detail to show the method of studying a plant society. A great many cattle are kept in a nearby pasture. More cattle are kept in this pasture than can find good feed, yet some plants are able to thrive. These plants are collected by the children and arranged in bottles of water. They are then labeled by the chil­ dren and those which they cannot name are identified by the teacher who may use Dana's, "How to Know the Wild Flowers. " The children try to discover how each plant is able to grow in the pasture. At the time of recitation the teacher writes the record on the board as follows . The material for the table is obtained by ques­ tioning. Soc,·ety Name--Fasture Plants. Problems-Not to be eaten. trampled. I :"IHABlTA:"ITS

Not to be pulled up .

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Thistle Mullein Cinquefoil Dandelion

Spines Hairs Tough and hairy B itter, short stem

Hawthorne Goldenrod Everlasting Buttercup Daisv Yarro w Grass

Thorn Tough and fibrous Cottony Bad ta s te Bad taste Bad taste Creeping root stock Soft and juicy

Not to be

1: S E TO PLA:"IT

Keep off cattle Distasteful Uneatable Not palatable ; not easily taken hold of Wards off animals Kot eas\· to chew Uneata b le Unpalatable Unpalatable Unpalatable Easily reproduced Eaten by cattle

General Statement : Pasture plants are able to overcome their dangers by having spines , or by being unpalatable or by being tough and fibrous.

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Psychological Basis 2.

Water Plants.

Example Bladderwort AJgae Pickerel Weed

Problem :

Duckweed Cow-Lily Rockweed Kelp Floating Plants Floating Plants 3.

Drought Plants :

Example Trees Corn Compass plant Peppergrass Mullein Bayonet Plant Portulaca Dandelion

To obtain air (oxygen .)

Characteristic Epidermis thin Root system reduced Water conducting tissues undeveloped Mechanical tissues undeveloped Air passages Bladder-like floats Few roots Breathing pores on upper surface Waxed upper sorface

Use General absorption Not needed Not needed Held up by water

Buoyancy and breathing Buoyancy Anchorage To obtain air To shed water

Problem to obtain and hold moisture.

Characteristic Shedding leaves Leaves rolling up Leaves edgewise to sun Small leaves Hair covering Thick epidermis Fleshy leaves Long roots

Use Reduce leaf surface Reduce leaf surface Reduce surface Reduce surface Prevents evaporation To hold moisture To store moisture To obtain moisture

Most lawns are in a drought condition as the soil is usually sand or gravel thrown out when digging the cellar. Plants standing in stagnant water are in the same predicament as the Ancient Mariner with "-Water, water, everywhere and not a drop to drink. " These plants cannot use the water on account of the poi­ sonous substances which it contains. Plants in the frigid zones, and hereabouts in winter, are in a drought period on account of the low temperature not allowing them to use the moisture. s.

Other Plant Societies:

Hard-tramped door-yard, fence row, dry, open field, dusty road­ side, meadow bog, barnyard, dripping rock cliff, dry hillside, oak forest, hemlock or pine forest, brookside, swamp, marine plants, a dry stream bed, a running brook, aerial plants, red sea weeds, railroad embankment, river bank, sea beach , pond waters, sand hills , edge of salt marsh , gravel pit, cornfield, sandpit, a small island, high hill-top, a thicket, lake or pond shore, submerged aquatics, floating plants, a sphagnum moor, reed swamp , rock plants and trees recently cut. 6. A ctivity Interest: The interest of the child in activity is one of the earliest interests and probably the predominant. The action of animals is more pro­ nounced and claims greater interest in the first grades. Plant growth is slower and claims a greater interest in the upper grades. The kind of interest that is sought here is not the kind that attracts to the circus because that is a passing show. It must be a wholesome interest that is real and permanent. The relation of insects and flowers is of great interest to children and is another nature-study lesson. One way of introducing the subj ect, write this poem on the board.

206

Nature Guiding "Roly-poly honey bee, Humming in the clover, Under you the tossing leaves, And the blue sky over,

Why are you so busy, pray ? Never still a minute, Hovering now above a flower, Now half buried in it ! " -Julia C. R. D arr

Subject Matter. Pollination is the transference of pollen from the anther to the pistil. If the substance of the pollen grain unites with the substance of the ovule, the ovule is said to be fertilized and it grows into a seed. Most of the characteristics of flowers enable them to secure this end. If the pollen meets the pistil of the same plant, the flower is said to be self-pollinated. Cross-pollination is made possible in the grasses and conifers by the wind, in a few aquatic plants by the water, and in the showy flowers by insects. Conspicuous flowers often have an odor and nectar, a sweet liquid found at the base of the corolla. Insects visit these flowers to gather pollen and nectar. B ees always visit during the day, the same kind of flower that they first collect from in the morning. They do not gather honey but nectar to make the honey. Cross-pollination produces the more vigorous seed and fruit. That is why it is necessary to keep a hive of bees in a cucumber house. Some insects have special structures which facilitate pollination. The tomato-sphinx moth has a long sucking tongue for reaching the nectar in tubular flowers. The honey-bee not only has a long tongue but the hairs are so arranged on the hind-legs that they collect the pollen. The ants are so small and have such smooth coats that they are considered undesirable guests. The humm ing bird a nd some snails also aid in this important work. Flowers aid cross-pollination by insects, as follows : Being inconspicuous but sweet scented-blueberry, Dutchman 's Pipe. Being inconspicuous but carrion scented-carrion flower. Coloring parts, as : Corolla-trillium, geranium, oxalis , etc . Calyx-hepatica, anemone, clematis. Bracts-flowering dogwood. Pistil, matures first-plantain, figwort . Stamen matures first-some mallows, gentian, fireweeds. Sexes of flowers separate-willow, maples. Stamens and pistils different lengths-bluets, primroses. Protect pollen from rain. Natural position-nodding trill ium . Change in position-daisy, clover. Concealing nectar from ants, etc .-snapdragon, butter and eggs. Nectar only reached by long-tongued insects-honeysuckle, clover, nasturtium, morning glory, jimson weed, thistle, sages, evening primrose. Bending stamens so that they will snap against insects-barberry, mountain laurel.

Psychological Basis

207

Arrangement causing stamen t o b e pushed down against insect­ salvia. Giving off odor when insects which visit them are most active. At night-petunia, tobacco. In sunshine-pea family. A pinch-trap which fastens onto the leg of the insect and causes it to carry away pollen masses-milkweed. A box-trap arrangement, insects do not easily find way out-J ack­ in-pulpit, skunk cabbagde. Method of Procedure . Have the class collect as many kinds of the flowers men tioned as possible. When the pupil is on the collecting trip he should wait near a group of flowers for the coming of an insect visitor. What is the name of the visitor ? What is the name of the host ? Where does the insect alight upon the flower ? How does the in sect gain entrance to the flower ? Have questions answered in class. Instead of this some might follow a bee for five minutes and tell exactly what it did. Write terms on board that class will need to use or draw a typical flower, labeling parts. Calyx, sepals. Corolla, petals. Stamens, anther (pollen) filament . Pistil, stigma, style, ovary (ovules) . Butter and Eggs: Why is this plant easily seen from afar ? (Bright colored ; in clusters) . On what part of the flower would an insect land ? Is there any special guide for landing there ? (Orange patch on the lip) . What would cause the flower to open ? (Weight of the insect) . Does the flower give away the nectar ? Explain pollination to class. Would bees or ants be apt to gain entrance ? Why is it good policy to conceal the nectar from ants ? Why is the bee such a good guest ? Show the class the pollen baskets under the compound microscope. Where would you expect the nectar to be stored ? Is there any guide to the nectar ? (Hairs with a groove between. ) What is above the bee ? (Anthers) . A s the bee shakes the flower in obtaining the nectar, what would be taking place overhead. (Pollen dust shakes on his back. ) How would this pollen reach the pistil of another plant ? Have the class observe adaptions in as many other flowers as time permits. The Violet. Where is the nectar probably stored ? (Spur of lower petal) . Observe the doorway to the nectar, to the nectar cup. Against what would the visitor brush when obtaining the nectar ? Of what advantage is the shape of the lower petal ? Are there any guides to the nectary ? DajJodils: Where is the nectar ? Cut a flower lengthwise and taste of the nectar. How far would an insect have to reach to obtain this nectar ? Show class the sphinx moth with its tongue uncoiled. How would the insect become dusted with the pollen ? Nasturtium: Find the nectar. Satisfy yourself that it is nectar. What led you to suspect the location of the nectar. What might lead the bee to the nectar ? What would be in the way of the ant : Exa-

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Nature Guiding

mine several flowers and determine if the staiuens and pistils mature at the same time ? This is of what advantage ? Larkspur: What part of the flower is colored for attraction ? (Sepals) . What parts form the nectar-tube ? (Two sepals) . The petals are guides to the nectar. Do the stamens or pistils mature first . Salvia: What is the color of the calyx ? Of the corolla ? Which forms a long tube ? What protects the stamens and pistil ? The teacher should draw a longitudinal section of the flower on the board as the class describes it. Where is the doorwav for the bee ? What will the head of the bee strike as it enters the fl m:;"er. The stamens are T-shaped. The head hits one arm and that pushes the other arm, which bears the anther, onto the back of the bee. Have class cut open the corolla to see this mechanism . What is the position of th e pistil in older flowers ? This is of what advantge ? Pea Family: Locust, Garden Pea, Sweet Pea, Clover. Where would bees alight ? What would result when a bee stands on this door­ step ? What parts of the flower fall off ? What part cont inues to grow ? Open a pod. Were all the seeds fertiliz ed ? Small undeveloped seeds were not fertilized. Squash: Pass out staminate and pisti llate flowers orstudy these flowers in the school garden. Have class discover that so me flowers produce pollen and that others produce the squash. This is one way of inuring cross-pollination . The willows and the red maple also have the sexes separate. 7 . Expression: Children of all ages take pleasure in telling others what they have seen or done. Tell about the potting of the Jack-in-the-pulpit to another grade ; tell the story of the Bull Thistle and the Scots ; report about the visit to the Childrens' Ward in the hospital with the bouquets ; explain about the weed collection to the garden club ; demonstrate the dipping of bayberry candles to the Mothers ' Club ; investigate as to why Mr. Brown keeps a hive of bees in his green house where he is raising cucumbers ; give exact directions as to finding the spot where the sweet grass grows. Children enj oy purposeful writing. Have them write to the School Nature League, Public School D ep 't. , New York City for assignment to some definite school to which they may send a collection of wild fall flowers. Each child write a letter to his new city friend telling how they gathered the flowers and some of the uses that have been made of them in his school. Wild flowers are better studied in the fall because there is less dan­ ger of exterminating many interesting and beautiful forms. Send for leaflets published by the Society for the Preservation of Native New England Plants, Horticulture Hall , Boston, l\Iass. Organize a seed exchange. List the seeds of fall flowers in your vicinity giving the particular values of each plant and send to a school in the far south , or to the Canadian Northwest, the Pacific states , B ermuda, Australia, etc . , asking for a list of seeds of plants in their

Psychological Basis

209

community that they will exchange. Write to the Department of Agriculture to learn about the law in regard to introducing foreign plants. Interesting material related to plant geography will be gathered. 8. Physical A ctivity: It is the duty of the teacher to furnish the opportunities and pleasure of physical exercise. This may be done by means of games, collecting trips, transplan ting, etc . These activities have been described elsewhere. In fact, every interest is sure to involve other interests. When there is a combination of interests it is often difficult to unravel the complication into simple interests. Neither is it necessary for the chief object is to obtain the interest and those that appeal to several interests are more apt to be successful. a . Organize a weed brigade to clean up a vacant lot or a river bank. Replace the rubbish and weeds by organized plan ting. Set out wil­ lows along th e water' s edge. A public spirit will soon appear in the school. It may become contagious and like the measles infect the whole community. b . A ttract the birds by transplanting to the school grounds their favorite food plants . The birds prefer the wild fruits . Poke weed, sunflowers, wild sarsaparilla, buckwheat, and wild rice prove a great attraction . Elders, mulberries, sumachs, barberry and moun­ tain ash are the best trees and shrubs . c. Poison Ivy Campaign. Getting rid o f poison ivy i s a dangerous occupation. The amount of suffering that the plant causes has led some to believe that every community should take measures to get rid of this pest. Only those who are immune should be selected for the work and they should wear gloves and wash often, using plenty of soap . It does not do any good to simply cut off the tops. The roots must be dug u p .

The smoke caused by burning th i s weed and

the poison sumac is poisonous to many people . d . Sandbox project: There are many ways of preventing weeds. To satisfy the con structive instinct this could be well demonstrat­ ed by a sandbox project. Plant weed seeds and then show how they may be prevented by tillage, crops, lawns, smother crops, as alfalfa, frequent cutting ; and building paper. e . Blackboard frieze: Have a colored frieze of fall flowers on the blackboard . Place at the top so that it will not interfere with daily work. 9.

Story Interest : There are not as many opportunities for the child to become inter­ ested in fall flowers through stories as in the case of animal study. Gene Stratton Porter' s " Freckles" is perhaps the best for upper grades. Hero worship and stories of achievement appeal strongly to the upper grade pupils and they would get a great deal out of reading about Chinese Wilson in the World' s Work for Nov. ' 1 3 . Luther Burbank' s life reads like a story and the work of the Department of

2 10

Nature Guiding

Agriculture in the introduction of foreign plants is fascinating. Most flower stories for the younger grades are too sentimental . The " Child' s Own B ook of Wild Flowers" and Gibson' s Blossom Hosts and Insect Guests may be suggestive to the teacher. 10.

The Dramatic or Play Instinct: Nature-study offers abundant material for creative imagination. It supplies the great fund of well ordered sense material which is the necessary start for the process of real education. It gives opportunity to overcome the danger at this age of being overfed with myths and fairy tales, because it starts with the real. The teacher must remember that the chief value to the child is not in the presenta­ tion of the play but in the planning of the details and in the interpre­ tation. The foundation for the play comes from his external environ­ ment and the expression of the play comes from his internal self. These things are his heritage and right. The play, therefore, cannot be produced until the child has the necessary material. It is necessary to have ideas about fall flowers be­ fore one can excite the imagination about them. The drama or pantomime or whatever the method of presentation is, must come toward the latter part of the study of any particular unit. Other­ wise the drama becomes like the written composition in school where the title is assigned without regard to the pupil' s experience in that definite line. It may be necessary for the teacher to give a start in the organiza­ tion of the drama. The following is given by way of illustration : Tell the class that you are thinking of a rich lady who is very poor. She is rich in wealth but poor in the love of the out-of-doors. In the case of fall flowers she is blind to their beauty, does not smell their fra­ grance, has never experienced their tastes, has never gathered them, and although having ears has never heard the hum of their guests. This is the content of episode 1 . A girl scou t comes along and takes the poor rich-lady by the hand and walks with her in paths that lead to the removal of the blinders and the hood. The lady realizes fully that she too is a companion in this out-of-door life and that she is a working unit with responsibilities and pleasures. To her apply the words of Longfellow to Agassiz : "And he wandered away and away, with Nature the dear old nurse, Who sang to him night and day, the rhymes of the universe. And when the way seemed long, and his heart began to fail, She sang a more wonderful song, or told a more wonderful tale. "

Now Dame Fashion appears and asks : "Why are the ladies of the land so much more natural ? I see women without rouge and with low-heeled shoes ; and girls are flocking along country by-ways with simple, inexpensive dress of bloomers and middies. Everyone goes about joyously yet obeying nature' s laws. Who persuaded the young ladies not to be slaves to a vanity case ? They appear to be enjoying life. Have they discovered a new secret ? And what is it ?

Psychological Basis

211

And among these walks with the commonplace we find nature making itself the guide of fashion. Divide the class into teams and have each work independently in developing the play. One group of people that worked out the story given above represented the blindness by smoked glasses, the deafness with large pieces of cotton batten in the ears, the inability to smell by a clothespin over the nose ; the lack of delicate touch by mittens on the hands ; the missing taste by adhesive over the mouth ; and the general failure to grow by a brick on the head . This person goes about little concerned with her environment . She is absorbed in the use of cosmetics, chewing gum, patting her hair, and arranging her clothing. Her high heels mak e her tired and she sits down often. A girl scout comes along. She is alert. Her step is elastic. She is interested in things about her. She has a keen eye and a sharp ear. Her face is tanned and robust. The bended form on the stone ob­ serves the scout. A cloud of darkness seems to fall away from her. She is greatly agitated and begins to weep . The scout understands and goes to comfort her. In the next scene the two are walking through the woods in hiking costumes. The " spirit of sight" dances out from amongst the trees and restores that pleasure to the blind friend . And thus in turn all that oppresses and fetters her life are removed and she again feels the joy of a free life . II.

The Song Interest: Some will be interested in collecting and some in the drama but all will enj oy group singing. Probably no subject has been written more about in song than that of the flowers. There is a flower song in every good collection of songs. In addition to these general collections there are nature song books such as Katherine Creighton's Nature Songs and Stories published by the Comstock Company .

I2.

The Game Spirit: The game spirit is one of the greatest factors in education . More time should be given to it in the school room . Quick observation, sound judgment, and logical rez- s onin g are used in games. Games should vary according to the age of the pupils. Those best adapted to the lower grades tend toward the physical. As an example of this sort of a game with the fall flowers I will describe the Game of the Senses (see chapter on games) . The Game of the Senses : The teacher has a collection of plants for the purpose hidden in a bag. Some of the plants best suited to this work are the following : Touch, mullein, leaf, water-lily leaf, pearly everlasting plant, the blue flag, a bracket fungus, and a cat-nine tail. Smell : tansy, peppermint, catnip, root of sweet flag, geranium, skunk cabbage, garlic. Taste : sorrel, grape (mashed so as not to be recognized by feeling) , checkberry leaves, sassafras leaf, dandelion leaf, rhubarb . Sight : hold up the commonest plants such as : prim­ rose, j ewelweed, Queen Anne' s lace, and burdock.

212

Nature Guiding

The class is then divided into teams . The teams hold a meeting and elect their best representatives for smelling, one for tasting, and so on . The " smellers" are blindfolded and given chairs in a row . The tester then crushes some tansy leaves and holds it to the nose of each representative who whispers the name . Those who get the correct name are awarded one point for their team . The team having the highest score after all the senses have been tested wins the contest. The game of senses is easily adapted for tree study. In the case of feeling, the ridges and lenticels on the bark are made use of and for the sense of hearing the swish of the pine branch and the rustle of the oak leaves near the ear adds interest.

Adventure: Every boy longs to be Robinhood, in the depths of his Sherwood forest. B old Robin is a good ideal as he tried to stamp out tyranny and typified democracy. Every boy wishes to repeat the experiences of his ancestors and to dare the dangers of night . Girls have the same desires to a less degree. To give them the most adventures take them on a hike. Wander out into a storm or across the stream. The smaller the group the greater seems the adventure. Give them the enjoyment of relating their experiences. This is the time of year for a foraging expedition and it well may be introduced by the game that brings in the edible plants. It is usually wise to carry along someone thing as a "filler, " such as bread or potatoes to bake, in case the foraging is not successful. If the ex­ pedition is well planned one may usually count upon apples and 13 .

possibly a few fish .

The bark from the root of the sassafras may

be

steeped for Sassafras tea and the root of the sweet flag steeped in sugar for candy. It is well to have all these courses to carry out the idea . 'When "en route" gather white acorns. Tell them how the Indians ground the white acorns by pounding them on a large rock with a round stone. If they used the same place for a long time they finally wore a hollow and many of these old corn or acorn pestles and mortars have been found. One may be on exhibition at the museum. Later this was done by the colonists by millstones run by water power. lYe may see one of these on the trip . It is usually better to prepare the acorn flour before the trip as tannin may be bleached out by filtering water through the starchy mixture. The flour is then dried and when taken on the trip it is made into a thick batter with water and baked as small cakes in the glowing ashes. The purpose of this chapter has been to show how the subject of nature-study may be introduced by utilizing the interests of the child. Fall flowers have been used for an example but the same inter­ ests will apply in other units of study. Eleven instinctive interests have been used. They have been arranged in the usual order of occupation in teaching but any one of these interests may be used in introducing the subj ect . The higher grades attack more difficult

2 I3

Psychological Basis

problems, collections, social activities and games. They become more expert in the use of books. Their interest may lead to long hard hours of work. They realize more and more their responsibilities to the community. In building up these activity interests they carry along the "fun of the game" so that whether they become plumbers or teachers they are in it because it is interesting and great fun.

" I ' d rather lay out here among the trees With the singin-birds and bumblebees, A-knowin ' that I can do as I please, Than live what folks call a life of ease Up thar in the city -Riley . .

"All are needed by each one ; Nothing is fair or good alone. I thought the sparrow's note from heaven, Singing at dawn on the alder bough ; I brought him home, in his nest, at even ; He sings the song, but it cheers not now, For I did not bring home the river and sky ; He sang to my ear,-they sang to my eye . " -Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Every clod feels a stir of might . and

.

.

.

climbs to a soul in grass and flowers .

-Lowell. Earth laughs in flowers .-Emerson.

QUOTATIONS " Through every happy line I sing I feel the tonic of the spring. The day is like an old-time face That gleams across some grassy place-­ An old-time face -an old-time chum Who rises from the grave to come And lure me back along the ways Of time's all-golden yesterdays. Sweet day ! to thus remind me of That truant boy I used to love-To set , once more, his finger-tips Against the blossom of his lips, And pipe for me the signal known By none but him and me alone ! " -James Whitcombe Riley. I watch the snowflakes as they fall

On bank and briar and broken wall ; Over the orchard, waste and brown, All noiselessly they settle down , Tipping the apple-boughs, and each Light quivering twig of plum and peach *

*

*

The ragged bramble, dwarfed and old, Shrinks like a beggar in the cold ; In surplice white the cedar stands, And blesses him with priestly hands. -J. T. Trowbridge.

CHAPTER XVIII SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURE TEACHING

It must be evident that the first chapters of Nature Guiding are arranged in a seasonal order. We commence with Nature Guiding in the summer camp and call it Nature-Lore. The Nature Club begins in September with insects as a study and the fall flowers are studied in October as a psychological basis of organization. There is no closed season in Nature-study. With the coming of winter we turn our attention to indoor nature guiding or the teaching lesson. The school room is not the ideal place for carrying out the aims of nature-study but it is usually a necessity in our large cities. We must accept the situation and make the best of it. A nature teacher is an indoor nature guide. If her nature opportunity is less, her child opportunity is greater. Whether children as a whole make any nature contacts still depends more upon the nature lesson than any @ther source. The teacher must remember that, even though the temptation now becomes stronger, her duty is not to cram ideas into the minds but to guide their nature activities. Nature-study is more than recognizing objects. Fifty kinds of birds, flowers, trees, or insects has no more meaning to a growing naturalist than fifty kinds of paint brushes, papers, or ochres would have to an artist who has had no experience in his work. Does the child love these things less or more is the test of the teacher. The teacher must stop working so hard on lists and work a little more with inspiring. How much of the time does she make nature-study a real j oy ? She must bring to the foreground of the child's conscious­ ness the inspiring atmospheres of outdoor nature-study. In transferring on e s activities from the outdoors to the schoolro om it is well to take an account of stock. What is this elusive subject called Nature-study ? It is where the heart is in nature. It is not trees nor the forest floor ; not lacey ferns, nor rich, deep , mossy carpets. Nature-study is a spirit, not a material thing. Nature-study is an impulse, a pleasure of the senses , a sympathy with living things, a perception of natural laws . When a nature guide tries to make you "feel at home" in the open he is not thinking in terms of nomen­ clature or how much do you know ; he is thinking of your natural desires. It is you that "make yourself at home" in the wild places ; it is you that defines what nature-study is and means. A nature teacher can only help with such landscapes and nature contacts as he can conunand, to bring about a realization of the heart 's desire. Nature teachers must h ave a heart. And when they sit behind a desk this heart must still be aglow with the fire of outdoor enthusiasm. To develop this sensitiveness to nature the teacher must recognize the nature instinct , which is inborn , and the laws upon which the growth of this instinct is dependable. '

2 15

216

Nature Guiding

Nature is the teacher of all animals and was the first teacher ot the human race. Gravity, water, and fire ; hard stones, rough bark, and the brier rose ; soft fur, bright colors , and claws, are early ac­ quaintances. These outside influences treat all comers alike. Some learn early and others require repeated experiences . The animal must adjust himself to his surroundings or pay a penalty. Such experiences go to make up his education. The call of the wild is a natural impulse. If we do not establish these " ties that bind " early they are gone forever. If we h old back this instinct of migrating to the woods it is similar to holding back the desire to walk or play. We lose the desire. Instead of holding back we should give opportunity for these sense experiences . Whether the nature instinct develops or not is entirely dependable upon t:1e number and variety of nature stimuli from the outside. The child 's desire for pets , for growing things , for the fields , and for camp are natural impulses. These desires become regUlated as he grows older. If his desires attach themselves to natural obj ects, we can influence the activities that will take place by providing the obj ect . The tendency to go to the fields may attach itself to several things-to fishing, to eat wild strawberries, or possibly to see hatching birds. He yearns to do the thing that he did before. The never-to-be­ forgotten trip to the sea-beach . The tendency to go to th e forest gets stronger in the same way that we educate ourselves to certain foods, whether it b e beans , macaroni, whale blubber, or sauer kraut. Along with the fondness for certain foods (stomach patriotism) may be developed a fondness for certain outdoor stimuli ( I love thy rocks

and rills) . The provisions for stomach patriotism seem to be pretty well taken care of. A B ostonian is so stimulated that beans become his Saturday night diet . He demands them . That he will be as regular in going to the fields Saturday afternoon is not so certain. Our nature habits are pretty much a matter of chance. We must think of our program of nature stimu li as a tool by which we release certain personalities. If we plant seed and cultivate the crop we raise corn or cabbages. In like manner we can guarantee the quality of manhood from these inborn seeds of interest plus culture. We must be aware that there are many external stimuli (weeds) to interfere. This is the lolly pop and chewing gum age. The movie is still a liability. The raising of corn and pigs is still better under­ stood by those who raise corn and pigs than children by those raising children. Superstitions, Nursery rhyme, the Sunday supplement , and j azzy first grade readers play their part in denaturing the child. The modern child has about as much chance in nature as Adam and Eve had in the first days of nature-study. It is a short stay in either case. The nature instinct is not being given a fair chance. We need to give pathways of release for this high voltage of n ature sentiment. The sort of sentiment that furnishes the motive power that drives one out into the fields and forest .

General Principles

217

The teacher must not only recognize the law of nature instincts but the law of purpose. The child must have a reason for wanting nature-study. The success of early man in the wilderness meant success in n ature. His food, shelter, clothing, and drink were sought in nature. These experiences were necessary. When he was hungry his mind set his whole person to work to get food. He was like a cat after a mouse. Great satisfaction accompanied the doing of the thing. It has always been so. And the stronger the purpose the more likelihood there is of success. Every great advance by the human race has been due to the harnessing of natural forces. An inner urge, purpose, or impulse, has been a necessary part of the advance. We owe much to experimental psychology for the making of this law of purpose clear. A cat placed in a box accidentally pulled the string and opened the door which enabled her to get the fish. By trial and error she finally learned to do it. If you took hold of her paw and pulled the string it would not be a short cut. We do not learn that way, yet we have a habit of making the children do what we want them to do. vVe must realize that it is the child's own responses that educate him . He must react to his nature stimuli in the same way that he must eat and digest his own food. We can determine what nature stimuli will play on him but the actual change is in making the response. The function of the nature teacher is to furnish nature stimuli. The child must want to learn to play baseball or he will never learn. He cannot learn by proxy. And going through the motions are not enough,-he must practice. In school, the desire to play baseball already exists but the chances are that he has been killed off as a naturalist. His nature instinct has atrophied. The teacher must create

a

desire .

It is not fair to ask her to compete with the

baseball coach. Camp Directors must also recognize this. The child must be reawakened. He must be given opportunity to practice nature-study. He must become anxious for nature -study. He must have the inner urge so strong that he will find time for it as naturally and as certainly as for baseball . Just as the child must practice baseball he must practice nature­ study. This is called the law of frequency. Some families look forward to going to the country every vacation. Looking country­ ward becomes a habit . If we get a thrill in visiting the woods today we will be more apt to do it tomorrow_ It is the old saying that "practice makes perfect. " Repetition fixes it. Those who have not played in the woods when suddenly brought to them do not know what to do. They are lost. It is like the case of the New York philanthropist who took some news boys up the Hudson on an outing. When he went ashore to see how they were getting along he found them shooting craps in back of a tree. ::\Jaking one contact with nature will not do. It must be frequent.

2 18

Nature Guiding

So far we have considered the fundamental conceptions necessary to teach nature-study. Every teacher must realize that nature-study is a spirit, that every child is a born naturalist, that the culture of this impulse depends upon the law of purpose and the law of fre­ quency. These are necessary as an approach to nature-study. We must next know the values of nature-study.

Fig. 1 . I.

Harvesting the Rights of Childhood

The Falues of Nature-Study

1. The Doctrine of Utility. There is a present day tendency to emphasize the practical, and there are those who would only teach that which has an economic relation. They would teach how to destroy the tomato worm but do not care for the milkweed butterfly. They would look at squash blossoms but not the arbutus. They would know the poison sumach but not the flowering dogwood. But who shall say that the arbutus and flowering dogwood will not some day increase the farm value ? And who shall say that enj oy­ ment is not time well spent ? A naturalist friend of mine studied the foraminifera because he was interested in these microscopic shell animals . Through this interest he finally discovered that they form the alphabet of the oil strata. Whereas before, oil could not be located within a hundred feet, he can locate it within three feet. H e was offered $ 1 00 a day to assist in locating oil wells in lVlexico. When he understood the foraminifera he was able to set them to work for him . The man who gets the most from the farm goes farther than the dollars and cents. He enj oys the bobwhite in his fields and protects him. He is awake to the beauty of the mountain laurel and would

General Principles

2 19

have it grown untorn. He understands the nuthatch and encourages him to work in his orchard. He enjoys the song of the robin as he hoes the long rows of corn. His sympathies are wide and his profits are realized in his thoughts. Knowledge and attitude in respect to birds, insects, flowers, forests, pests, forest fires, leisure time, gardens, domestic animals, shrubbery,

Fig. 2.

NATURE-STUDY TRAINS IN THE HABIT OF OBSERVATION. you find 30 frogs looking at you from this water garden ?

Can

conservation, and many other things in nature affect the common welfare. Ignorance in these things has caused the spread of disease and the destruction of life and property. Ignorance imprisoned Copernicus, Galileo, and Roger B acon. Ignorance made possible the Salem Witchcraft. The same ignorance is at work today. Ignorance of nature' s laws makes the sale of patent medicine possible. Toads and snakes still suffer from superstition. When evalued on an economic basis, Nature-study is worth while. The economic interest, as raising garden products for profit, increases in the upper grades. 2 . Nature-study makes for the Habit of Observation. Nature-study demands observation. The person who has the observation habit has a lively and permanent interest in nature. He is mentally alert in the forest. He is continually making delightful contacts with plants and animals. He is better equipped to travel for it does not mean just to be able to say that he has been to the B lack Forest or

220

Nature Guidin g

that he has seen the edelweiss . He is not willing to dash in to the Yosemite Valley one day and out the next . Listing places is not h is aim. He is not willing to just look. He is there to investigate what nature exhibits. He has the same deep seated interest that the engineer has in engines or the old skipper in sailing craft. And the train ing of the powers of observation does not mean the indorsem ent of the idea "never tell a child what he can see" to the extent that he need not be guided. A nature lesson may well be preceeded by six to ten written questions to direct the observation . The child should get the answer from his own investigation. The questions must be just right-difficult enou gh to require thought, simple enough for them to be able to ans\ver. He acquires the m ental habit of "seeing is believing. " This is the laboratory method. Silent study is of great importance in mastering the acquisition of ideas and power in Nature-study. 3 . Nature-study stimulates all the Senses . vVe have not begun to mine the possibilities in Nature-study. vVe have neglected-almost criminally so-to develop the latent powers of the child. Most of our education is through the eye. The education of the ear is in a pioneer stage. We have done a little in music appreciation but we are for the most part "Nature deaf. " The sounds in nature have to be loud or unusual to provide a sensory stimulus. The rhythmic sounds of nature are unknown . The existence of the man of the wild depended on detecting sound but the civilized man does not know that they exist . The high appreciation of nature by Helen Keller shows what awa it s us in touch education . As a race we are in the bright color stage. vVe do n ot see the soft colors-the harmony of colors­ the dainty touch es everywhere in nature. The importance of color, in school work, has been too little appreciated. The education of our nose and taste is mainly as a sentinel to our stomach . The odors of the field and the tastes of wild fruits play a small part in our patriotism. The smell of the tenement house and of paved streets means home. Nature-study should be a pleasure of the senses . The song of birds, roar of the surf, fragrance of honeysuckle , smell of new ploughed earth, new mown hay, or the ozone from the sea , flavor of a B artlett pear, warm sunshine, bare feet on th e sand beach or in the soft mud , autumn colors, colored butterflies, the browns and grays o f a winter landscape, love of pets, care for plants, wading in a brook, clou d effects , tints af forest and sea, lights and shades. All of these should enrich the life of the child. 4 . A Good Nature Lesson is a Good Language Lesson , but the language lesson should not kill the spirit of the nature lesson . Use the nature method and not the language method else you will defeat the aim of both. I was starting off with an VIIIth Grade on a field trip . Everyone was happy with expectations. The teacher, through lust d dutv or force of habit , "threw a monkev wrench in the wheel " by this pa� ting shot : "I want each one of you to write this up for

General Principles

221

your English lesson tomorrow. " If she had let them enj oy the trip and then requested an essay the chances are that they would have gladly written the story. To be "taken advantage of" bred contempt. When a pupil observes an object and tells others what he sees he is acquiring clearness and precision in expression. Children write better compositions when they select their own subj ect . When given this freedom they usually return to their nature experiences, and a natural interest means greater mental activity. If we enrich this experience we give opportunity for continuing thought and expression.

Fig. 3 .

"Nellie Bly" has Confidence in Her Rider

If the child observes, for a period of time, a woodpecker on a tree he gets connected observations. Continuous thought makes contin­ ous discourse possible. If he is interested his ideas are cumulative whereas poverty of thought means disconnected and unrelated statements. Likewise if his observations have been followed by a good scattering of "whys and hows " his essay will contain reasoning. He is then using the same train of thought that is followed by the scientist. The awakening of the art of expressing cause and effect is the best investment that can be made in the written composition. We are paving the way for the development of the mind of the child in the scientific method of thinking which has distinguished the great

222

Nature Guiding

minds of all ages. This kind of training cannot be obtained from the encyclopedia, any textbook, or any other artificial assignment. 5 · Nature's Laws are Immutable. It is often said that the children of today do not have much respect for law. Many parents have given

4. NATURE PRODUCES ABUNDANTL Y : If every horse­ chestnut blossom produced fruit it would resemble a bunch of grapes. What other examples of the law of overproduction can you find in this picture ?

Fig.

it up . Nature 's laws have not changed. If we put a finger in the fire we get it burnt. If we catch a cold it is due to carelessness or ignorance . I f w e plant a garden a n d do not care for i t w e do not get a crop . If we leave filth around the kitchen sink nature provides scavengers. These scavengers may be bacteria or even cockroaches. Cockroaches cannot live without food. These laws apply to the rich

General Principles

2 23

the poor. It rains on the just and the unjust. Respect for man made laws can best be acquired by a knowledge of the law and order of Nature. 6 . Nature-study is an excellent Hobby for Leisure Time. What do the grown-ups of your community do with their leisure time ? Is it loafing, gossiping, bridge whist . and the movies ? What do they bring home as a result ? How much do the people of your neighborhood spend for commercial recreation ? How much do they spend for nature recreation ? Which gives the best returns on the investment ? Leisure time is the time for nature hobbies. There are always a few boys in every city that have a nature hobby in spite of a lack of encouragement. Enlightened communities should have field clubs, hiking schedules, nature games, school and home gardening, camping, boating, swimming, skating, and fishing parties . Leadership for leisure is more necessary than leadership for work. Nature activities provide recreation for all citizens and not merely for the specialized athlete. The nature guide should have, at least , an equal opportunity to the skilled coach . 7 Nature-study cultivates some of the higher qualities of life. The age of reason, the love of explaining things , and the spirit of invention become prominent in the upper grades. These follow the ability to observe. Professor L. H . B ailey says that " Nature-study is seeing what one looks at and drawing proper conclusions from what one sees. " Nature-study encourages imagination, not the fanciful kind of hobgoblins and fairies, but the healthy kind that leads to invention, painting, art, music , and literature. If we took all the nature-study out of these studies there would be nothing left but the framework. Nature-study makes possible an intelligent understanding of these arts. Many literature teachers have a class read the Chambered Nautilus when they would not recognize one if they saw it. The teachers dwell upon the beautiful thought expressed yet how many times do they read the very same poem outside of the class room for its beauty ? Nature-study makes for sincerity of purpose. S . Nature-study is an aid in School Discipline. A student teacher was recently taken from one of my classes to substitute. A boy came to school the first day-not with the proverbial snake-but with a string tied around the hind leg of a grasshopper. It was the old story of trying out the teacher. The boy had probably given new teachers his psychological test before. He knew just about how it would work. He knew that teachers are wonderful in action . This teacher did not do the expected thing. Fortunately this embryo teacher had just been studying the grasshopper and had a fund of information . She was glad that he had brought the grasshopper. She proceeded to have a nature lesson on grasshoppers. She asked him to bring in something new for the next day. Then again, the child is not a desk animal . He is full of animal spirits. His naughtiness is often due to his inability to sit still for or

.

2 24

Nature Guiding

hours like an adult. Nature-study furnishes opportunity for short field trips-a chance to alternate periods of quietness with activity.

II. I.

The Method of Nature-Study Lessons .

Nature-study is Positive. A Boy Scout was coloring m the outline of a bird. He knew that his scoutmaster would not ac­ cept it unless it was good. He went to h is art teacher for criti­ cisms. He did not realize that the art teacher wanted him to learn to use colors. Th e whole scheme of scouting is built on the positive. There is not a sin­ gle not in the Scout Law. Who ever heard of a boy tying a tin can on his dog ' s tail ? And why doesn't he ? B ecause he loves his dog. Yet the method of many leaders in the humane education field is to say, "Now bovs - it is cruel to tie a tin can on a do g s tail. You must not do it. " This usually gives a new idea to some boy and he proceeds to carry it out . I t is not good pedagogy to say, " N ow boys do not steal to­ matoes . " Set them to work Fig. 5. "Every Dog should have a Boy" raising tomatoes. The boy who raises tomatoes is not going to st eal them . What the child owns he protects. And how are we to teach the children to leave our wild flowers for others to see ? Not by signs prohibiting their picking them . They must ap­ preciate the woodrose on the stalk. They must know that it takes seven years for the fawn lily (Dog-toothed violet) to grow seed. They must rea­ lize that wild flowers wilt be­ fore you get them home. They must feel that a spray is more Fig. 6 THE LOVE OF WILD FLOWERS IS I N THE HEART. Signs may help but delicate than a bunch. They the conservation of our wild flowers must experience the secret will never be successful until all our knowledge of where this orchid boys and girls have the opportunity or that one grows. of nature-study. '

General Principles

225

2 . Nature-study is good science but all science i s not good nature­ study. The subject matter is the same but the method is not . Professor L. H . Bailey has said that "When the teacher' s attention is foc used on the subj ect matter he is likely teaching science ; when on the child, he may be teaching nature-study. " The difference has been difficult for most teachers to conceive in practice. Any difference between nature-study and science is a matter of degree rather than being sharp cut . In material used,-nature-study is usually concerned with outdoor wild nature, of the immediate environment, rather than pickled nature which is largely indoor, in a laboratory. Each nature lesson is new in subject and plan whereas the labora­ tory period is an intricate scheme that continues over a considerable stretch of time. Nature-study is for all people and science for the specialized few. Nature-study is for the child who is just opening his eyes to the wonders of the universe and for the adult who can walk humbly with Shakespeare and say "In Nature' s infinite book of secrecy, a little can I read . " vVe usually think of nature-study in the lower grades and science in the VII , VIII grades, high school, and college, yet nature-study can be successful in any grade. Nature-study has proven to be attractive to all, whether it be tourist in the parks or children in the grades. As difficult as it is for some of us to under­ stand, the study of science is attractive to a small per cent of college students, and we venture to guess that one reason is that the ele­ mentary study of the earth and its inhabitants was not made at­ tractive in the grades. Nature-study should be the concrete experi­ ence out of which science grows. I have in mind a friend who was naturally interested in the out-of­ doors . In college he elected a B otany class because he was anxious to go deeper into the secrets that he enjoyed. It proved to be a class in pathological botany. This was the only Botany course that he ever took and the effect n early destroyed his spirit. Today he is recognized as an authority on orchids. We will probably never know the number of nature enthusiasts killed off by the scientific method which says that we must always start with the simplest, microscopic fOnTIS and proceed in the line of evolution. A little of the Nature-study method in Tennessee might have made it easier for the community to comprehend the larger aspect of evolution. Some college professors of science are inclined to smile at the informality of nature-study yet lament at the lack of interest in science exhibited by their own children . What a tragedy ! There are thousands who are apparen tly teaching science successfully yet cannot interest their own children. An example of the difference in method may make it clearer. In a lesson on a frog the nature teacher usually starts with experiences with a live frog in its native environment or in an aquarium . There may be difficulty in discovering the frog, in catching him, and in holding

They Palisades Park a few years ago. made themselves at horne. We must bring back the wild game that we nearly exterminated .

Fig. 7. B v THEIR CHIPS YE SHALL KNOW Beaver were introduced into THEM.

Fig. 8 .

Enjoying the Rights of Childhood

(1Q

� �.

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I,) I,) 0\

General Principles

227

him . When he is placed in an aquarium he may change his color. If we watch him closely we may note that he winks. We may go a step further and see that the eyelid rises from below. We may note that the throat , or the sides of the body, are moving or that the nostrils are closed when he is beneath the water. Every observation is fol­ lowed by why or how ? As many of these observations and reason s are dealt with as the lesson time permits. We can stop at any place and the nature lesson on the frog is complete. The next lesson may be a toad or a tadpole. It will not be a review or a continuation of frog study. It will be a continuity of interest. The nature student has had the fun of going frogging. He has wandered by a brook side and been surprised by a sudden splash . Perhaps he watched the swimmer poke his green head up by a lily pad which was "exactly the same color. " Perhaps he "waded in" and made a grab at the frog and the green mass slipped out of his grasp. Perhaps at a third trial he caught it by the hind leg and heard it croak. As he wandered away with his prize, for an interested teacher, just as he was going over the hill, he may have heard the frog pond chorus. He has had the enjoyment of seeing frogs live rather than watching them die. And then at school he learns that the frog eats insects. He becomes aware that the boy who thinks it necessary to kill frogs on sight is serving a fool trick on a real friend. He reads with his own eyes the wonderful ways in which the frog is adjusted to its environment and his whole life has become richer through the experience. In science he is apt to have a dead frog in formaldehyde. His experience is limited to dissection. He spends no time on the activity of the frog, a very short time on its external features, and an endless amount on its anatomy. If he does not finish the dissection today he continues it in the next period. He probably does not consider its anatomy in relation to its habits . He may review at the end of the term and acquire a few principles and relationships of amphibians to reptiles based on the plain facts of dissection, but he has missed some of the higher aspects of nature-study. Continued nature-study may shade into science. System was the chief aim of Linnaeus. Families and orders was a need of the time. In the same way there may arise a need of arranging a stamp collec­ tion. A boy may wish to keep his Canadian stamps separate from those of the United States. As the collection grows he may have different series of United States stamps. Instead of stamps he may collect minerals, soils, leaves , insects, or twigs. The nature teacher will n ot worry about their classification but stands ready to lend a helping hand or to make suggestions as the occasion demands. When the collector begins to arrange his museum into families and orders he is becoming a scientist. His spirit has been fixed but not killed. His growth has been natural. 3. Nature Lessons should be in Season and not begin with the Amoeba and go up the scale of evolution to mammals. The opening

228

Nature Guiding

buds in spring, seeds forming in the fall, and evergreens in the winter. The return of the birds, the first violet, the emerging black swallow tail, frost in the lowlands, cherries are ripe, the morning star, or the eclipse are studied as they appear on the outdoor stage. 4. Select the Common Objects of the Environment, th e wonders near home in the common things rather than the remarkable ant-eater or the freak gorilla. We have a tendency to teach about the wonderful chambered nautilus and not recognize it when we see it. B etter be.

Fig. 9 . PLAYING WITH A B EAR instead of b ein g brought up on the idea that bears eat naug hty children .

Wordsworth 's " one impulse from the vernal wood. "

corner wh ere

you

are.

B righten the

As far as possible the selection should be by the child. What does he bring in ? The teacher's interest should not interfere. Let a boy bring his rabbit. The success of that lesson may be judged by the number of offers to bring in other pets. A whole train of offerings will follow a successful lesson. This, of course, is not the only criterion in selecting the topics . The subject may depend upon the experience of the class as well as predominant interest, or a school room condition as well as season. 5 . The Object should be present. Nature-study is a study of nature and not about it. This means a specimen in the room, an experiment, or a field excursion. If the plant or animal is small there should be one on every desk and it should be a participating object in th e lesson . Often times the object might j u st as well be in a basement as far a s any use i s made o f i t . A t least 20% o f the questions should require the presence of the obj ec t , for an answer. Every pupil should have the time and opportunity to observe and reason correctly. Lazy teachers will fall down here as it means work to provide new material for each lesson. The school museum should be an important source

General Principles

229

for material. B orrowing a course of study from district one to use in district three is out of order. The nature-study of any school is an individual responsibility of that school. 6. A ctivities rather than Structure. The stress on the study of structure is usually with a view to classification . To a child animate objects are more interesting than inanimate. He is more interested in animal activities which most resemble his own activities . He is particularly interested in young animals. His delight with the puppy and the kitten are well known. They are full of activity. The growth of a plant is rather slow and therefore the interest is not sustained in the early years in gardening. Plants should be grown in the room however. as a lesson in care. 7 . " The Truth is Stranger than Fiction. " To say in December that the tulip tree has all the leaves that will be on the tree next summer stirs one ' s imagination . Yet the winter buds contain these leaves neatly arranged and packed. We may remove the scales and see these baby leaves with our own eyes. How much more interesting then to say that the bud is a sleeping fairy with woolen blankets and that when old Mother Nature touches the wonderful covering with her magic wand that the fairy will jump out and shake out her emerald tresses. Sentimentality was the cause of the last serious decline in nature-study. Nature-study aids in seeing and expressing the truth in simple language. 8 . The" Nature Lesson is not an assignment, but a study period when all the room are active in the lesson. There is no textbook except the obj ect itself. There should , however, be a reference or reading shelf. This is not to be construed to mean that questions for observation should not be put on the board in advance. It is better to have the object around for several days before the lesson . It also does not mean that a child should not carry out a special investigation to report to the class. 9 . A Review is unnecessary in Nature-study. There should not be a lesson on the rabbit today and an examination tomorrow. It is not n ecessary to ask what sort of tracks does the rabbit make today if the boy observed the tracks yesterday. Word s do n ot properly describe the odor of the strawberry. Its a matter for the nose. A review in nature-study should be a matter of repeating those nature experiences which are called for by the children, and after all that is a test of the teacher. 1 0 . The Nature Lesson must come regularly on the program and not be left until the spirit of the room needs revival through nature­ study. The latter method usually means that nature-study will be crowded out . One teacher told me once that she did not have time for nature-study as her little children were Italian and would leave school at an early age. She needed all the time for arithmetic , read­ ing, and penmanship . To read about what , and to write about what, I wondered. She said that she spent two hours per day on arithmetic.

Nature Guiding II. The Jorest and field are the textbooks oj nature s tudy . The child has as much right to read trees as about trees. The money spent for textbooks in other subjects may well be spent for field trips in nature-study. In many European schools the field trip is a recognized part of the schedule. 1 2 . Nature-study may be adventure. One time I had a Boy Scout patrol on a winter camping trip. I found a partially eaten squirrel -

Fig. r o.

A COMRADE F ROM THE WOODS. This little girl is tickled senses of the word.

in

two

and showed it to the boys saying that it might be due to an owl, hawk, or some night prowling mammal. I asked, how many would like to stand watch tonight and try to discover the enemy ? They were all eager. Later in the day I found them getting knives and axes sharpened. I told them that as they were as likely to get hurt as the enemy we would have to have a rule that only clubs be used. It is needless to say that they all had a club. They voted to stand watch by twos rather than by ones. Each couple was on duty for an hour. Their reports were interesting. They did not know that shadows could be such queer shapes nor so dark. They heard more animals and "things" dropping from the trees, than they believed were in the encyclopedia. They didn't appreciate the extent of an hour before. Every detail of the experience has been stored up in

General Principles

23 I

their � inds for years to come and they all pronounce it as a great expenence. 1 3 . Every child has a right to pets. The writer fully realizes that rabbits are cumbersome when it comes time to make a visit to grand­ father' s and that dogs are not popular with landlords. He knows that squirrels may hide in the daming bag or may even tum on the gas . He can even say that father may be called upon at times to take care of the chickens or that mother will have to feed the white rats. But when considering pets we are thinking of the pleasures of childhood and not the inconvenience to parents. Everv child should

care for, train , and grow up with a dog. Patience, good will, compan­ ionsh ip , protection , and responsibility are taught and exemplified by both. We should let every child raise plants. It will give him a new meaning of ownership , protection, and property rights. 1 4 . The Nature Story should jollow the Nature Lesson. We cannot appreciate the Jerusalem Locust Plague, the saving of the crops in Utah from the locusts, or the story of Grasshopper Green 's Garden unless we know the grasshopper. We must know how he eats and his marvellous appetite, we must know that he is bom from an egg laid in the ground in the fall, we must know how he flies. The child who has rabbits is better equipped to enjoy rabbit stories. The student who knows the chambered nautilus can better interpret and enjoy Holmes' poem. 1 5 . Nature-study saves time in the Curriculum by sharpening the perceptive powers, by giving a better understanding for care of the health, by making geography real , by offering a richer basis for in­ terest in drawing, and by fumishing ideas to write for language exercises. It livens the work for all studies.

When the teacher called the apple class, they gathered round to see What question deep in apple lore their task that day might be. "Now tell me, " said the teacher to little Polly Brown, "Do apple seeds grow pointing up or are they pointing down ? " Poor Polly didn't know ; for she had never thought to look, And that 's the kind of questions you can 't find in a book. And of the whole big apple class not one small pupil knew If apple seeds point up or down ! But, then, my dear, do you ? -Carolyn Wells in "St. Nicholas. "

A QUEER PUSSY AN�A E. SA)IPL E

I know a Pussy soft as silk, Who never drinks a drop of milk. She never makes a single sound, Or looks at me with eyes so round. She never caught a single mouse, Or crept about our big brick house. But, she's a pussy j ust the same,For Pussy Willow is her name. -Progressive Teacher.

CHAPTER

XIX

THE TEACHIKG LE S S O N I N NATl'RE-STUDY

For the sake of simplicity the approach to Nature-study has been described by separate methods ; the Nature-lore, the Nature Club, and psychological interests. These methods have been presented separately as a matter of convenience in understanding certain principles and relations involved in organizing a nature course. As a matter of fact nature experiences may occur through any one or by a combination of all of these means . The Kature-lore method un­ derlies the essence of Nature-study and gives the greatest nature re­ turns on the investment. This method, however, is not always possible in the city school or in the winter weather. We have dwelt upon the general principles of indoor Nature Guiding and will now proceed to the more specific teaching lesson . The subjects best adapted to winter Nature-study lessons are mammals, birds, reptiles, and fi sh . These lessons provide for a " close up " experience w ith the animals that later on will be met in the fields. B irds have been selected as an example of a series of indoor teaching lessons . Each lesson will be based upon certain types of birds : a live hen as a type of scratching bird, a live duck as a type of swimming bird, a stuffed flicker as a basis for knowing the climbing bird, a teron for a wading bird, and the owl or hawk as a bird of prey. We will study the gulls of our bay because they are well adapted for flying. T hey are also useful and need protection . At the same time our inland friends may be studying the quail which is well adapted for scratching, is useful, and needs protection. We will study the perching birds not only because they are adapted to their mode of life and are of great economic importance but also because we

consider it practical to be able to admire their song and beauty. We may note that the ostrich depends upon his strong legs for running but we will conserve time to become better acquainted with the birds about our own home. If we read Coleridge' s Ancient Mariner we will have occasion to learn about the Albatross, the largest sea­ bird, measuring 1 2 feet from tip to tip of the wings . Then there is the curious pelican vvith a pouch beneath the bill for scooping and storing food . vVe will not have a lesson on pelicans. Should there be one at the zoo we will hope that our training in observation and reasoning will enable us to easily recognize this remarkable adaptation . We study the particular kind of heron that haunts our rivers and ponds and hear the story of the egrtts rather than stories of storks which belong to the Old vVorld. To summarize : We will select for our nature lessons those things which are common in our environment and can be brought into the school room. We will have varied the lessons upon those things which best typify the marvelous way in which the varied structure and habits of the organism are adapted to their 2 33

23 4

Nature Guiding

surroundings. We will also keep in mind the economic necessity for becoming acquainted with our out-door neighbors. It makes no difference which type is selected first but it preferably should be a live bird, comparatively well known, and with evident adaptations. The pupil first needs to know the birds home and food, for where he lives and what he eats is what he is. Then comes the observation of the following topics : beak, eyes, color, feet, tail, and wings, in relation to the home and food. The lesson may start or end with any topic. The first questions pertaining to any topic require the pupil to observe, analyze, and describe the structure or habit ac­ curately. The next questions require the pupil to explain how these facts enable the bird to live in its home and to obtain its food. In this series of lessons the idea of adaptation to environment grows upon the pupil unconsciously. It is therefore not so essential to cover a certain number of adaptations as it is that the pupil make progressive growth in the appreciation and recognition of the great principle of adaptation. It represents mental habits and attitudes rather than facts to be acquired. It leaves the child with a healthy desire to learn more about that particular obj ect. The nature lesson is never complete but at all stages is a unit. Closely allied to the rule that a Nature-study lesson can never be complete is the necessity of paying attention to the rate of question­ ing. In a Nature lesson as in piano lessons the first aim is to develop movement, accuracy, and appreciation. In piano study there is a great deal of drill in technique. In Nature-study there is a great deal of drill in the technique of observing and thinking but almost never in memorizing the subject matter. The rate of movement depends on the speed of accurate observation and reasoning. As the pupil gains in power the teacher moves to finer and more difficult observations. She does not give a question or lesson because it comes next but be­ cause the pupils have reached that stage of development. If she moves too slow or too fast it is an injury to the pupil. The pupils should practice as fine and complex movements as they can with efficiency. When the class has reached a certain degree of skill a few questions may be written on the board a day or two before the lesson so that each one may have an individual opportunity of work­ ing out the answers. These questions 'should not be exactly th e same as those to be asked in class. Some individuals take to questioning more eagerly and more intelligently than others. Some individuals are handicapped by physical or mental hindrances . In class the questions should be simple and at a rate slow enough for every indi­ vidual yet new enough to arouse the quicker ones to activity. I. Pupil-Questions in a Nature-Study Lesson

The most ordinary mistake in teaching the nature lesson is made in training the pupil to wait for an invitation to think. He is taught to build with the straw carried in the teacher's basket. This is a "flap­ per" method of teaching. "This flapper (teacher) is likewise employed

Teaching Lessons

23 5

diligently to attend his master (pupil) in his walks (thoughts) , and upon occasion to give him a soft flap (easy question) on his eyes, because he is always so wrapped up in cogitation (invention and dis­ covery) , that he is in manifest danger of falling down every precipice, and bouncing his head against every post (learning by experience) . " * Nature-study offers the teacher a n opportunity t o break away from this flapper method for the nature lesson is admirably adapted to keeping the pupil active minded. Younger pupils are inquisitive. They are bubbling over with questions . Parents and teachers usually set about to put on the quietus. They preach the doctrine that little children should be seen and not heard. By the time the pupil gets to college he is probably subdued or dead enough to be called good. Goodness is not deadness. He has became a daydreamer or star gazer and does not search for an answer unless questioned . vVe should reverse this order. We should furnish problems to discover as well as to solve, purposes to be thought out as well as to serve. Teach the child to use his own mind so that he will go on using it. The first thing then is to put the ING into every Nature-study lesson. We learn by doing with emphasis on the ING. One may study swimming and know the rules perfectly yet not know how to swim . One may study English Grammar through all the grades­ know all the rules-and not be able to apply them either correctly or gracefully. How long would one have to watch basketball or tennis in order to qualify on the team ? We learn to swim by swimming, to talk by talking, to play a game by playing the game. In the same way we learn to think by thinking and not by looking on. We learn to enjoy nature problems by enjoying steps in nature problems. We learn to appreciate the order of nature by appreciating the orderliness of the individual.

vVe learn to sense problems by focusing our atten­

tion upon discovering them. B ird study teaches us the psychology of attention . Everyone has had the experience on a bird trip of having eyes and seeing not or having ears and hearing not. If one would find the bird from whence comes the burst of song he should keep his eyes focused on that spot. If one would discover the bird that has just made a certain track it will not do to let his eyes wander across the fields, looking now upon the pines and now upon the clouds. If one is trying to find a bird's nest one should keep his eyes upon the returning mother bird and not upon the tree. As soon as we begin to examine the shape of its bill, its color, or its size, our attention is shaped to these ends. The pupil sets the question or problem. If he sel ects the shape of the bill it is his business to keep his eye on the right spot and to le t his question form itself accordingly. If one cannot learn to observe correctly in­ doors-to keep his eye on the mark-it is likely that he cannot learn *Swift Works, Gulliver pt. iii. , p. 165. (W. P. N. 187 1 . ) Words in parenthe­ sis have been inserted.

Nature Guiding to observe and interpret out-of-doors . "Seek and ye shal1 find" is the motto for achievement in Nature-study. The second phase of a nature lesson is the why of things . The observation plus the why is the scientific method of attack and ac­ complishment. Newton, Watt, and Edison held their attention on the mark that interested them. They were seeking the answers to questions . They asked many questions and discovered answers in certain facts related to their problem. After persistent work over a long period of time th ey solved the larger problem. It was not the mere falling of an apple that enabled Newton to discover gravitation . The moving teakettle lid was observed by Watt and he reasoned the why, but that was only one question and an swer in the invention of the steam engine. The boy Edison was continual1y asking questions by experiment. His success today is based on the same method of interest and attention . Search out and write down the steps in the invention or discovery of any great contribution to human progress and you will have before you the method of developing a nature lesson. It at once becomes the teacher' s function to arouse prob­ lems and not to retail questions . How can this simple process of discovery in the wide world be applied in the school room ? If it is bird-study and the first lesson of this kind the teacher may announce that every bird is a bundle of questions. We cannot see these questions unless we hunt for them . The bird's tools are his bil1, feet, tail, and wings. What question comes to your mind about this bird ? The purpose of each bird study is not only problem seeking and solving but to acquire the feeling of appreciation of the adaptation of birds to their home and food. The teacher must guide the pupils to attain these desired results. Each question that serves this purpose must become a profitable experience. The teacher does not answer the question . The first privilege to answer pupil-made questions is that of the pupil who asks the question. This may be brought about by an adroit question from the class or if need be from the teacher. If it is such a question as : "What is the name of this bird ? " or " Where does it live ? " or "What does it eat ? " a natural need has raisen. If our edu­ cation permits it we solve this need in everyday life by the library method. The teacher wil1 have anticipated this need by having a shelf-library in the room of books containing subject matter on that particular bird. This is the time for initiating library work. The teacher is a librarian and recommends a certain book for finding the name. The pupil who asked the question has found a job and goes to work. A s each pupil accumulates experiences he becomes able to recommend books . He will soon become better able to recommend a book in his line of investigation than the teacher. The use of these tools of knowledge is a valuable habit to acquire . When the habit of finding knowledge in books is fixed he should next get the habitof going to the library to find books for himself. First the book habit­ second the library habit. If the question had been "Why does this

23 7

Teaching Lessons

bird have such long legs ?" some pupil in the class might see the neces­ sity for knowing where the bird lives. The teacher will recognize that "Where the bird lives" is a question for library work but the question "Why does this bird have such long legs ? " is to be thought out. The pupil who asked this question has appointed himself a problem to solve and goes about it. The part that the student takes in the work increases progressively as the lessons advance. He is learning to employ scientific procedure in solving his problems . He is getting a winter school experience to take to the fields in spring where he will meet further problems and situations . This phase of the l esson we will call the pupil-question phase. Up to this point the Nature-study lesson has been quite different from its nearest relative : the Herbartian development lesson . The five steps of Herbart in its current form are : 1 . Preparation (based on experiences of the pupil) ; 2 . Presentation (introducing new cases and experiments) ; 3 . Comparison and abstraction (accounting for differ­ ences) ; 4. Generalization (formulation) ; interpretation (application to everyday life) . The Herbartian lesson is used in the development of principles, laws, rules and definitions as based on facts. I t is well adapted to a series of such lessons as the observation and prediction of the weather ; the transmission of heat in the home ; the use of elec­ tricity ; light in its relation to living, or machines and work. These lessons relate directly to the laws of physical nature. * Some call the study elementary science, others general science, thinking of it as having a distinctly utilitarian value whereas pure Nature-study les­ sons have a cultural value. Although animal and plant lessons do not follow these five steps the teach er of the nature lesson should know the steps in order to introduce them as the need arises in dealing with each adaptation. The plant or animal lesson does not start with a review. It may start or end anywhere, perhaps with an experience, or comparison, or application, or possibly in a new field, or amidst a "hundred questions " from the pupils. The nature lesson does not necessarily have application. The teacher, however, who can teach a development lesson is more apt to succeed with the Nature-study lesson. The teacher-question phase of the Nature-study lesson is necessary to fill in the gaps of the pupil-question phase. Teacher-questions are devices for stimuli. Teacher-questioning is an art. Some say that the ability is born and not made . The writer believes that any teacher who is willing to work and give attention to the art can ac­ quire it and with this conviction will endeavor to contribute in some measure to the mechanics of making the art natural. This will be the subject for the next discussion . II.

Teacher-Questions in

a Nature

Lesson

Teach ing Nature-study or any other subject is often much like lumbering. It is said that only 40% of a tree reaches us. The pre*Physical Nature-study is decidedly wort h while. Nature-study lessons in this Chapter, however, refer to B iological l'.terminated. Study' wormy apples. Where did the worm enter the apple ? (At the blossom end.) Is t h e worm still in t h e apple ? ( A doorway is not always a sign that it h a s left . )

Y o u may fi n d a case where decay h a s started at t h e worm-hole.

introduction of the brown tail and the gypsy-moths.

Read about the

3. VVeeds. Have the class collect different weeds from gardens . Arrange these in bottles, naming each . W hy are weeds harrrJul ? (They take food, sunlight, and moisture from the plants \y e w ant. ) Are these weeds annual, biennial, o r perennial ? Some weeds are useful. Find how . Write on the board a list of ways in which weed s make their way into gardens. Exhibit the w eeo s in turn, and hav e the pupils tell the name of each, its particular method of making its way, and the manner in which it may most easily be destroyed . See Farmers' Bulletins 1 7, 28, 86, 1 88, 1 95, 660 . 4 . Yeasts and Molds . Expose pieces of the same bread to dry air, both warm and cold, as in the schoolroom and on a window-ledge, and to moist air, both warm and cold . For this it may be moistened and placed under a glass dish . Notice what conditions are favorable to the growth of molds. I t is possible to expose the same bread in different houses and to secure different varieties of mold . The black dots on the ends of the threads are spore cases, and give off spores in the form of very fine powder. Try to examine spores under a micro­ scope . What things become moldy ? When are molds our friends ? When are they our enemies ? Why do we place paraffine over jelly ? Why should we wrap fruit in paper ? Why should wooden houses rest on stone, brick, or cement ? Expose a weak solution of su gar to the

Nature-Study by Grades

3 49

air for several days. Note its odor. The scum at the top is made up of yeast plants. Show these under the microscope. What are the uses of yeast ? (Fermenting and bread-making.) 5 . Shell-fish. Secure oyster shells for study, or if possible secure from the Shell-fish Commission a supply of oysters. The shells will open quickly if dipped in hot water. Cut away the flat shell. Note the lines of growth. The deepest grooves mark the ends of a year's growth. Find how old the oysters are. Study the differences in the two halves or valves of the shell, the muscle that holds the parts to­ gether, and the membrane that lines the shell. It is this lining that forms or secretes the shell. Find the oldest and the newest parts of the shell. The thin, lacelike organs next to the lining are the gills, and are used for breathing. Read about the shell-fish industry in Rhode Island . Read about useful shells. Collect different kinds of shells and try to find their names . 6. Value of Birds. Topics for individual investigation and report to the class : birds and insects, birds and weed-seeds, birds as scaven­ gers, birds of prey, the passenger pigeon, Audubon , the snowy egret, the McLane bill, the English sparrow, the English starling, the Audubon Society, domesticating the bob-white, the value of birds for their music, the wild turkey. Have someone give the class a bird talk . See Farmers' Bulletins 54, 497, 506, 630; Biological Survey Papers, 61 , 107. 7. How Plants Use Water. With care to avoid breaking the mem­ brane, pick the shell from a part of the large end of an egg. Then with a pin or toothpick break a small hole in the small end of the egg. Stand the egg, with the small end up, in a glass containing water, having th e water cover about half the egg. In about an hour see what has happened . The water enters the denser liquid of the egg through the membrane in the same way that the dilute solutions of the soil enter the root hairs of the plant. Try an experiment to show that plants take moisture from the soil and give Place a cardboard over the top of a flower-pot containing a small plant, having the stem of the plant extending through the cardboard. In­ vert a glass over the plant . Stand it in bright sunlight. Observe that moisture gathers on the inside of the glass. Or take two flower-pots of the same size, one with a growing plant and the other with the same amount of soil and moisture, but without a plant. Cover the surface of the soil in each case with paraffine. Weigh carefully and in a few days weigh again. Cut the stem of a milkweed, or cut a maple twig in early spring, and observe the result. it out to the air.

8. Plant Breeding. Review lessons that pertain to the reproduction of plants. Read in magazines and books about Burbank, " Chinese" Wilson, and the Bureau of Plant industry. Have pupils investigate the domestication of some plant in which they are especially in­ terested. 9. Strawberry. Each pupil should, if possible, have a complete plant. Does the new plant form before or after the runner takes root ? How many petals has the blossom ? What insects visit the blossoms ? What parts of the blossom fall off ? What part forms the hull of the

3 50

Nature Guiding

fruit ? \Vhat part fonns the berry ? W here are the seeds fonned ? In what two ways are strawberry plants reproduced ? 1 0 . Corn. Grow seedlings in a box or flower-pot. How are the leaves fastened to the stalk ? What prevents the water from running down between the clasping sheath and the stalk ? How is the plant adapted to resist the wind ? Study the roots. Make a cross-section of the stalk. Which is stronger, a solid rod or a hollow rod of the same weight ? What kind of rod is the corn-stalk ? ( Practically hollow. ) As a preparation for summer study raise such questions as these : How do husks differ from leaves ? What part of the flower is the silk ? The kernels ? The pollen is a fine powder. Try to find some. Is it carried by the wind or by insects ? It may be possible to obtain the exhibit and literature of the Corn Products Refining Company, of New York. Write to the Extension Department of the State College. See Farmers' Bulletins 229, 292, 303, 313, 325, 400, 409, 414, 415, 537, 554, 61 7. Send to the Bureau of Plant Industry for circulars 104 and 644·

"President Eliot once said that he had often reflected on the problem of why one person is a successful teacher, while another of equal knowledge, talent and char­ acter fails. As the result of much observation he had concluded that what makes a teacher successful is the power to impart joy. The end of a teacher' s work should b e to inspire i n the pupil joy in learning , joy in the possession of truth.

This is not a lower aim than some other conceivable one, but the highest of all , for joy is the highest end of the universe, the final purpose of God himself. " -F. C . Porter.

"Your p � wer of seeing mountains cannot be developed either by your vanity or your cunoslty, or your love of muscular exercise. It depends on the cultiva­ tion of sight itself, and of the soul that uses it. "-Ruskin .

" To my thinking the real reason for the unsatisfactory condition of nature­ study in American schools is general in that it is practically impossible in many places to find teachers who are competent to direct the studv in an intelligent manner . " -Charles W. Eliot, Nature-Study Review, 3 , page 52, Jan . I907. �

PART III

SUG GESTIONS FOR TEACHING SOME NATURE LESSONS

"And where'er they found the top Of a wheat-stalk droop and lop, They chucked it underneath the chin And praised the lavish crop . " "And the great green pear they shook Till the sallow hue forsook Its features, and the gleam of gold Laughed out in every look. " " Through the woven ambuscade That the twining vines had made, They found the grapes, in clusters, Drinking up the shine and shade. " From " The South Wind and the Sun. " -By James Whitcomb Riley.

CHAPTER XXIX GEOGRAPHY LESSONS IN THE PRUTARY A ND I N THE GRAMMAR GRADES

The division of the elementary schools into primary and grammar grades is merely a matter of convenience. There is no break in the lines of study, the only difference being in the mental and in the bodily conditions of the pupils. The following lessons have been based upon differences which exist in degree rather than kind. The methods employed developed from the following comparison of geography in the primary and in the grammar grades. Primary Crades First three years called nature-study. No text-book used. (Songs, poems, stories. ) No memorizing o f words o r definitions. Aim to cultivate self-reliance ; w ork, therefore, voluntary. Observational. Informal expression of thought. Real object, picture, and language. Crammar Grade More distinctly geographical . Secondary use ; for review and to increase information. Definitions used sparingly to make general concepts clear. Aim to cultivate power of observation, thought, and correct speech ; less voluntary. Explanatory (why and how ?) . Formal expression, principles, and classification. Model, diagram, and experiment added .

Lesson I-The TVind PLAN FOR TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY GRADE S

Idea of object of thought. (Equals introduction .) Open the windows in a warm room . What is coming in the window. (Air.) 2. Ideas of qualities of the object of thought. Brought out by conversation but discovered and expressed by the pupil. (The following qualities are to become a familiar part of the pupils' vocabulary ; strong wind, breeze, calm, cold, cool, warm, hot ; wet, moist, damp, dry ; unseen, heard ; felt ; moves ; presses ; direction-smoke, dust ; leaves, weather-vanes.) How did you know that the wind came in the window ? (Felt, heard, effects.) Could you see the wind come in the window ? (Unseen.) How does the wind feel ? C'INarm or cold ; strong or weak ; moist or dry.) What kind of a wind makes Nature feel glad in spring ? (Warm.) From what direction does a warm wind come ? (South .) 3 53 1.

3 54

Nature Guiding

What does a warm wind do to the muddy streets ? (Dries them. ) Why does the farmer like to have plenty o f wind i n the spring ? (To dry the gardens so that he can plow.) What month is the windy month ? (March.) What kind of a wind makes you wrap up in winter ? (North . ) Why ? (Cold.) Is the north wind gentle or strong ? (Strong.) What kind of a wind is lazy ? (South.) Why do the people like the seashore in the summer ? (Cool.) What makes it cool at the seashore in summer ? (Wind.) From what direction does the sea breeze come ? (East.) How does the wind sound in the wires ? Sails ? Oaks ? Pines ? Storms ? (Howl, whistle, shriek, groan, sigh, wail, whisper, moan, rustle. ) Make the sound that the wind makes. What does the wind do to the snow ? Ocean ? Fallen leaves ? Tall grass ? White fluffy dandelions ? Apple blossoms ? Apples ? Wet clothes ? Sail-boats ? Windmills ? Weather-vanes ? How does the wind help some plants in the fall ? (Shakes off leaves and fruit, scatters seed. ) What toys d o you like best o n a windy day ? (Kites, boats, wind­ mills.) Do firemen like the wind ? Why ? (No, because it spreads the fire.) Do sailors like the wind ? Why ? (No, when it causes wrecks. Yes, when it helps him sail. ) What does the wind do that i s mischievous ? (Spreads fires, causes wrecks, blows down trees and fences, etc.) Why is the wind useful ? (Cools us in summer, dries streets and gardens, turns wind mills, helps ships to sail, etc.)

Pictorial expression Collect pictures to illustrate, the direction, temperature, moisture, strength, and uses of the wind. Have children give stories orally. 4. Information by songs, poems, and stories Andrews, Jane-"The T �lk of the Trees that Stand in the Village Street. " Bryant-"The Evening Wind . " Coolidge, Susan-"The North Wind. " Field, Eugene-"The High Wind. " Longfellow-" Maiden and Weathercock. " "The Windmill . " Mason-"Whichever Way the Wind Doth Blow . " Pratt, Mara L.-"A Legend o f the South Wind. " Proctor-"The Wind. " Rossetti, Christina-"Who has seen the Wind ?" Stevenson, R. L.-"Windy Nights. " "The Wind. " Tennyson-"Sweet and Low . " Thomas, Edith-"The Weather Vane. " Whittier-"The Wind of March. " 3.

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355

"The Weathercock' s Complaint"-Longmans' Pictorial Geograph­ ical Reader. Book I . "Naughty North Wind"-Through the Year. Book I I . Sliver, Burdett. "The Wind's Frolic"-Earth and Sky. A First Reader. Ginn & Co. 5 . Review-Oral and Written PLAN FOR TEACHING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADE S

The experimental method is good in presenting the effect of forces. In studying the wind each experiment is a queston asked of the air and the air is allowed to speak for itself. In this way the pupils get direct information. The experiments are performed before the pupils that they may be conclusive . The pupil should be able to give the meth od, observations and inferences taught by the experiment. otherwise the purpose of the work is lost. The correct expression of these three steps is a test of the success of the experiment . Oftentimes the over-zealous teacher spoils the a-ims of the experiment by telling the class what they should see. I. Experiments Experiment I-Method. Have two test tubes ; one partly full of water, the other containing a small amount of mercury. How does the weight of mercury compare with that of water ? (Heavier.) Pour the mercury into the test tube containing water. Observation. Mercury goes to the bottom. Inference. What does the heavier mercury do to the lighter water in order to get on the bottom of the tube ? (Pushes it up .) What will heavier liquids and gases do to lighter liquids and gases when they are mixed ? (The heavier liquid or gas pushes up the lighter liquid or gas.) Exp. 2-Method. Fit a test tube with a rubber stopper through which passes a small-sized glass tube. Hold the test tube in closed hand and place end of tube under water. Observation . Bubbles of air pass out of the test tube. Inference. Heat causes air to expand. Exp . 3-Method. Weigh a bottle of warm air and a bottle of cold air. Observation . Cold air is heavier than warm air. Inference. Warm or expanded air is lighter than cold air. Exp. 4-Method. Cut two holes in a paper box. Stand a lighted candle in one hole . Place a glass chimney over each hole. Hold a smoking paper over th e cold chimney (the chimney without the candle in it) and over the warm chimney. Observation. Smoke goes down the cold chimney and up the warm chimney . Inference. The heavy cold air is going down and the lighter warm air is going up. Compare the action of the cold air and the warm air with the action of the mercury and the water. (The cold air

Nature Guiding pushes up the warm air.) Avoid the expression, "Warm alr rises and cold air rushes in to take its place . " ) S um up what you have learned about the air. (Heat causes air to expand and become lighter than cold air. The heavier cold air pushes up the lighter warm air.)

A pplication a . Make a diagram t o represent the vertical section of a room with a stove in the centre. A window, at each end of the room, is open at the top and at the bottom. Indicate, by arrows, the direction of the currents of air in the room. (Pupils draw arrows. ) How should we open our windows in order to ventilate the room ? (At top and bottom so as to let the fresh air in at the bottom and the impure air out at the top. ) I n what direction do you think the air is circulating in this room ? (Test theory by means of a lighted candle or by watching dust particles which are floating in the room.) b . Forest and land breeze. Diagram to represents a forest in the center of a field . In what direction would the wind blow on a hot day in July ? (From the forest to the field because the forest is cooler than the field . ) How do you know that this is true from experience. (Felt the cool breeze as went toward the woods. Cattle seek the shelter of the trees on a hot day. Noticed the odor of pines before reaching the pine grove. ) In what direction would you expect the wind to blow in this area in the winter ? (From field to the forest as the woods are warmer in winter. ) Sum up the effects of a forest upon the temperature of a locality. (Forests make the summers cooler and the winters warmer . ) This might be ex­ pressed in a briefer way by saying that forests make the temperature more equable. c . Sea and land breezes . Remember how the sand felt to your bare feet on a hot sum­ mer day and how the water felt in contrast. In what direction would the wind blow under those conditions ? (From the ocean to the land , because the ocean was cooler than the land . ) Do we name winds from whence they come or whither they go ? (Whence they come. ) vVhat name could w e give t o the breeze a t the seashore o n a hot summer noonday ? (Sea breeze.) In what other way do you remember the direction of the sea­ shore wind at noonday ? (Smell the salt air. Ocean breezes are cool and refreshing. The waves came toward the shore. The sand blew onto the east piazza . ) When would you expect a land breeze ? (At night when the land is cooler than the water . ) In Peru, the fishermen go out in the morning by aid of the land breeze and come back in the afternoon by aid of the sea breeze. d . A!onsoons. 'Which freezes first , the ground or the water in the harbor ? (Ground.) Which shows a lower temperature 2.

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357

in winter, the land or the water ? (Land. ) What would be the consequent direction of the wind in winter ? (Land to ocean.) When the wind blows from the land to the sea in winter and from the sea to the land in the summer they are called monsoons. The sailors of India carry out merchandise in the winter and return with the tum of the monsoon. Why may flooding a cranberry bog save the crop ? (Water cools less readily than the land.) Why would you expect the in terior of a continent to be colder in winter than the sea-coast ? (There is no warm water to raise the temperature. ) Wh ich has the more extreme temperature a place which h a s con­ tinental climate or one which has oceanic climate ? (The continental climate, as there is no water to warm it in winter or to cool it in summer. ) Why does England have such a mild climate ? (Has an oceanic climate. ) Why do the coldest winters on the earth exist in northeastern Asia ? (Extreme distance from ocean favors con­ tinental climate. ) e . Terrestial Winds. Where i s the hot zone o n the globe ? (It is a belt located about the equator. ) Would the wind blow toward or from the equatorial belt ? (Toward . as it is the region of light expanded air.) These are called trade winds, not from the fact that they are favorable. for trade, but that they maintain a given path. (Unfortunately the remaining facts of atmospheric circulation must be given to the class without much explanation , as they are far beyond the understanding of elementary pupils . )

" The sullen day grew darker, and anon Dim flashes of pent anger lit the sky ; With rumbling wheels of wrath came rolling on The storm's artillery . " The cloud put on its blackest frown, And then, as with a veng.eful cry of pain, The lightning snatched it, ripped and flung it down In ravelled shreds of rain . " -Descriptions b y James Whitcomb R iley From " The Shower " .

" Then laugh on happy Rain , laugh louder yet !­

Laugh out in torrent-bursts of watery mirth ; Unlock thy lips of purple cloud, and let Thy liquid merriment baptize the earth, And wash the sad face of the world, and set The universe to music dripping-wet ! "

-From " The Rain. "

CHAPTER XXX GEOGRAPHY LESSONS IN THE PRIMARY GRADES

Lesson II- The Rain PLAN FOR TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY GRADES r.

Idea of object of thought. Teach on a rainy day.

2.

Idea of qualities of object of thought. The following qualities are to become a familiar part of the pupil's vocabulary : Effects of sun and wind. Fine and heavy. Size and shape of drops. Storm , shower, sprinkle. Beat against face, window-pane, ground. \Varm, cold. Fair, cloudy, stormy. Watch the raindrops fall. From where do they come ? (Sky.) What is the form of the rain-drop ? (Round like a ball.) How do you know when it is going to rain ? (Cloudy. ) How d o you sometimes know that i t i s raining even though you do not see it ? (Hear it beating against the window-pane.) Why do we sometimes hold our head to one side when we are out in the rain ? (So the rain will not beat in our face. ) How would you know that the rain comes down with some force by looking at the surface of a pond ? (See the effect of the rain on the surface . ) What d o you think the rain does t o the soil when i t strikes the bare ground ? (Washes it away. ) What kind o f a rain makes you "wrap up " ? (Cold. ) What kind o f a rain makes nature feel glad i n spring ? (Warm.) Why is it good to have plenty o f rain in the summer ? (Makes the plants grow. ) Does the farmer like t o have i t rain ? Why ? (Makes his crops grow, fills his wells and springs, and settles the dust. ) What birds like t o have i t rain ? (Ducks, geese, sparrows, robins. all . ) What favorite food do birds hunt for after a rain ? (Worms.) Why do earthworms come out after a rain ? (Ground is too wet.) N arne other animals, besides birds, that like to have it rain. (Frogs, turtles. ) What does the rain d o t o the snow ? (Melts it and washes it away. ) What does the rain d o to the grass ? Streets ? Brooks ? Why do we like to have it rain on a hot day ? (Makes it cooler.) What toys do you like best after a rain ? (Boats, waterwheels.) What can the rain do that is mischievous ? (Wash away rich soil, cause floods, make gullies in the street . ) Could we get along without the rain ? (Sum u p the uses . )

359

Nature Guiding Pictorial expression Make a collection of pictures to illustrate the typical conditions in different parts of the earth of plants and animals, and their relations to the amount of rainfall. Show relation to human life-d.wellings, clothing, food, and occupations. Keep a weather calendar. 3.

4.

Information by songs, poems , and stories "B efore the Rain "-T. B. A ldrich. "After the Rain"-T. B. A ldrich . "The Little Cloud of Liberty"-]' H. Bryant. "To a Cloud"-Wm . C. Bryant. "Through the Year, " B ook I .-Clyde and Wallace. "The Water-Drop 's Journey. " "The Little Lazy Cloud. " "Three Drops of Water and What Became of Them. " "The Endless Story. " "The Sunset City H S. Cornwall. "Signs of Rain"-Jenner. "The Rain "-Caroline Mason . "The Cloud"-Shelley . "Two Little Clouds"-R. L. Stevenson . " Earth and Sky, "- A First Reader-Stickney. "The Water Drops. " "A Tempest . " "-

s.

.

Review-Oral and Written . A GE OGRAPHY

L ESSON

Rain PLAN FOR TEACHING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES

I Evaporation Experiments . Exp. I . Method. Place same amount of water in four separate dishes of equal size. Place under following conditions : warm, cold, wind, and calm. Place the same amount of water in a shallow dish and in a deep dish , and leave under same conditions. Observations. What changes do you perceive ? (Less amount of water in each dish. ) What became of the water ? (Went into the air.) What was the size of the particles of water leaving the dish ? (Invisible.) Call this form of water vapor and the change evaporation. From which dishes did the most water evaporate ? (Warm , wind, and shallow.) Inference. What conditions favor evaporation ? (Heat , wind, and large exposure of surface. ) Exp . 2 Method. Heat same amount o f water, a s was placed in the dishes, over an alcohol lamp . Observation. Water evaporates more quickly . Inference. An increase of heat increases the rate of evaporation. a

Geography Lessons in Primary Grades b.

Questions for Thought. What becomes of the water after a shower ? (Runs off, soaks in, evaporates. ) 2 Name other instances where you think water must have eva­ porated . (Wet blackboards, drying clothes, ink, sidewalks, ponds, lakes, rivers, and the ocean .) 3 What is meant by the expression "Water dries up " ? (Eva­ poration . ) 4 Why d o brooks dry u p in summer ? (Evaporation greater than supply . ) 5 Why do not all bodies of water dry up ? (Supplied with rain. ) 6 On what kind of a day will most water evaporate from the ocean ? (Warm, sunny, clear and windy. ) 7 What d o farmers d o when they want their hay t o dry ? Why ? (Turn it over so as to expose new surfaces. Shake it up so as to expose more surface . ) 8 What i s meant b y the expression "The sun i s drawing water" ? (The heat of the sun is causing the water to evaporate. ) 9 What becomes o f the dew ? Frost ? (Evaporates. ) 10 Place fresh leaves under a tumbler. What collects o n the inside of the tumbler ? (Moisture.) What is passing off from the leaves of plants ? (Vapor. ) II What becomes of perspiration ? (Evaporates.) I2 Does evapora tion of perspiration make us feel cooler or warmer ? (Cooler. Evaporation is a cooling process . ) 1 3 Why i s i t cooler after a summ er shower ? (Moisture i s eva­ porating. ) 1 4 Explain cause of feelings on a "muggy day . " (Perspiration is not evaporated and we have an oppressed feeling .) I S What a r e t h e uses of evaporation ? ( D ry stre ets, sidewalks, ink, clothes, hay, etc., helps leaves to give off vapor and us to perspire ; cools the air. ) I

II . Condensation a. Experiments. Exp . I l'vfethod. Leave a tumbler of ice in a warm room. Observation. What collects on the outside of the glass ? (Moisture. ) Where does the moisture come from ? (Air . ) Inference. How does the temperature o f the glass compare with the surrounding air ? (Cooler.) How did the temperature of the air change when it came in contact with the tumbler ? (Became cooler.) What do you think caused the moisture to form on the tumbler ? (Cooling of the air.) Call this form of water dew and the change condensation. Dew forms on obj ects at a temperature above freezing and frost forms on objects at a temperature below the freezing point. Exp . 2 Method. Heat some water in a test tube over an alcohol lamp .

Nature Guiding Observations. What do you observe above the test tube ? (Steam. ) How does steam differ from vapor ? (Visible .) Injerence. What must be between the steam and the water in the tube ? (Water vapor. ) How do you know ? (Because heat causes water to pass off as a vapor.) How does the temperature of the air in the room differ from the temperature of the air in the tube ? (Cooler.) What happened when the vapor struck the cooler air ? (Condensed. ) What kind of air can carry the most water vapor ? (Warm. ) When water vapor is condensed near the earth it is called jog, and when it is high above the earth it is called a cloud.) b . Questions jor Thought I What collects on the window on wash day ? (Moisture . ) 2 What causes moisture to collect o n the window ? (The hot water evaporates and the cold window-pane causes the vapor to condense. ) 3 Name other instances where you have seen vapor condensing ? 4 When does an ice pitcher "sweat" ? (When it is cooler than the surrounding air.) 5 Why is there more dew on vegetation than on rocks ? (Plants give off water vapor. ) 6 What are the uses o f dew t o vegetation ? (Gives moisture. ) 7 When can you see your breath ? (On a cold day.) 8 Why does it happen only on cold days ? (Cold causes vapor to condense .) 9 Why does fog form over low places ? (More moisture and colder.) 1 0 At what time of day do you usually see fog ? (Morning.) II When does it usually begin to clear away ? (When the sun warms the air.) 12 Of what is a cloud made ? (Condensed water vapor.) 1 3 Is air ever perfectly dry ? (No. ) III.

Precipitation

Recapitulate history of rain formation by experiment on distilla­ tion. (See text-book in Physics for method .) Questions jor Thought I Since dust stays in the air how must its weight compare with that of air ? (Lighter. ) 2 Why will water vapor stay i n the air ? (Lighter. ) 3 What causes the water vapor to form into drops ? (Cooling.) 4 When will the drops of water fall as rain ? (When they become heavier than the air. ) 5 Why do clouds settle before a rain ? (Moisture i s condensing and becoming heavier. ) 6 Why does it not always rain when i t i s cloudy ? (Moisture does not condense enough. ) 7 W e know that air coming out o f a bicycle tire i s expanding and that it is becoming cool . Air which is pushed up is expanding

Geography Lessons in Primary Grades and becoming cool. What is the result when very moist air is cooled ? (Rain. ) 8 Would prevailing westerlies deposit moisture on the leeward or on the windward side of mountains ? Why ? (Windward, as they have to ascend to cross mountains. When they ascend they expand, become chilled and deposit rain on western coasts or slopes . ) 9 What is relation of trade winds t o rainfall ? (Trade winds are growing warmer and absorb moisture. They yield rain on windward slopes of mountains.) 10 Why does it rain in the belt of calms ? (Lighter warm air is pushed up, expands, becomes cool, and vapor condenses into rain.)

IV Review by writing the life history of a rain drop. represent the same by a diagram.

The Desert Shall Rejoice, and Blossom

as

the Rose.

Teacher

-Isaiah.

What Nature Asks, That Nature Also Grants. -James Russell Lowell.

"Rain ! Rain ! Oh, sweet Spring rain ! The world has been calling for thee in vain Till now, and at last thou art with us again. Oh, how shall we welcome the gentle showers, The baby-drink of the first-born flowers, That falls out of heaven as falleth the dew, And touches the world to beauty anew? Oh, rain ! rain ! dost thou feel and see How the hungering world has been waiting for thee? " -James Brown Selkirk (Rain) .

The woods were made for the hunters of dreams, The brooks for the fishers of song ; To the hunters who hunt for the gunless game The streams and the woods belong. They are thoughts that moan from the soul of a pine, And thoughts in flower bell curled ; And the thoughts that are blown with the scent of the fern

Are as new and as old as the world.

-Sam Walter Foss.

CHAPTER XXXI FIELD WORK FOR FOURTH GRADES

I.

The Hill

The aims of this work may be stated as follows : I . To recognize natural objects and processes in the home environ­ ment. 2. To know the causes and variations of the facts and activities . 3 . To discover the significance of the immediate outside world in its relations to man . 4. To appreciate the usefulness, beauty, and truth of these natural features . 5 . To give a foundation for the understanding of nature about other homes .

Lesson I The field work may often be possible from the window of the school . Many teachers believe in field trips, but never take one. This may be due to a lack of training, to a non-appreciation, to want of time, or to the supposed inability to handle a class in the field. The suggestions in this outline are written to meet the first objection . Ap­ preciation develops with practice . The best time is to take the last period of the morning and a part of the noon hour or the last period of the afternoon and additional time. Discipline will take care of itself after one or two trips. If possible, it is better to diVIde the class into two sections, taking about twenty pupils at a time. In any textbook so far printed the material is a mere guide for the study of these objects and processes in all homes. Since each school has its own environment, which is different from that of all other schools, the treatment of the subj ect can never be the same. The trip which is written about in this p ap er , th erefore , is not so general that you would see the points in the study of all hills, but suggests how the teacher may make a selection of the fact to be studied and the method of studying it. It will be noted that the descriptive vocabulary of a hill has been left in italics. These terms should not be emphasized. They are acquired by use. Contrive to have them needed and used fre­ quently. The study of the form. height, slope, base, structure, etc . , of a hill is not important , but form, height, etc . , in relation to the daily life of the people is important. The children should make observations under the guidance of the teacher ; as location of streets, absence of stores , etc. This ought to suggest why each time. The method here is from effect to cause or observation to inference. The important thing to keep in mind is the definition of geography, a study of the earth in relation to man . Trip to Prospect Hill by way of Star Street and J enckes Street. Teach the cause of hills on way by noting where the rain has carved 3 65

Nature Guiding out miniature hills in the gutters. Explain that the Woonsquatucket and Moshassuck Rivers carved out Capitol Hill in the same way. Show how the Capitol is located on a favorable site. Note where railroads pass in relation to the hills. Explain. Note location of grain store, warehouses, factories, and stores. What street follows the base of the hill ? Why does it do that ? Note relation of electric car lines to the hill. Observe that streets go up the hill and around the hill. Which are the main streets ? Why ? It is said that B enefit Street used to be an old cow path back of the barns which belonged to the houses situated on North Main Street. The posts and fences on Star Street are worn where people take hold to prevent falling when it is icy. Why does the class walk so slowly on Star Street ? The part of J enckes Street on the western slope of the hill has a rough, stony surface, because it is too steep for the use of the steam roller. Study characteristic way in which people relax their muscles as they walk down the hill. A stranger can be recognized by the way he braces back when going down the hill. Study the gutters. What has become of the fine soil that we usually see in gutters ? How large are smallest pebbles which have been left ? What does this indicate as to the swiftness of the "run off ? " The steepness of the slope ? What changes have to be made in order that the houses can cling to the sides of the hills. Bring out the idea of terraces. How are the houses able to have entrances at two different stories ? The class is weary by the time it reaches top of the hill. Follow Congdon Street to the south and rest in the second vacant lot on th e right, which gives a fine view of the N arragan set t Basin . Why called Prospect Hill ? Prospect Street runs along the summit of the hill. The height of the hill is 2 06 feet above the level of the Providence River. Enjoy the beauty of the landscape. The distant hills have an even crest. The place where they seem to meet the sky is called the horizon . Note the distant forests ; the spires and roofs outlined against the sky ; the majestic appearance of the State House. Discover by aid of the compass that the steep slope is the western slope ; and that the hill extends north and south. Some of the class have been on the eastern slope of the hill. Have them tell that the eastern slope is gentle. Observe that there are no ware­ houses or business blocks on the hill. The western slope is too steep for that kind of traffic. Observe the apple trees on the slope of the hill. They are the remnants of the orchards of the early settlers. This orchard extended around the hill above Benefit Street. The hill was too steep for the gardens. The pastures and gardens were on the gentle eastern slope. The trees on the side of the hill have the advantage of good sunlight. Explain. Why are there so many vacant lots on this side of the hill ? I t is interest­ ing to know that there were fifty-two "home lots, " each about five acres in size, which ran back to the old "highway " now known as Hope Street. Each settler also had six acres for planting on the

Field Work for Fourth Grade east side of the hill. Listen for distant noises in the city below. Compare with quietness of the hilltop . Obsenre smoke and dust in city. Compare with freshness of the air on the hilltop. Sum up reasons why Prospect Hill is a residential district. Test the tem­ perature at the foot and at the top of the hill. It is usually cooler on top. An advantage in summer as one gets a good breeze, but a dis­ advantage in winter, as houses are hard to heat. Lead pupils to see that marshy places are not good places for dwelling houses. North of the railroad station is a considerable area not settled. This was a large marsh land the central part of which was known as the Cove. I t has now been filled in. The hills are well drained and therefore settled. Locate the Normal School, Moshassuck River, Woonasquatucket River and principal buildings. Locate direction of East Providence, Saylesville and Pawtucket. Follow the course of freight trains by their smoke. Note trains which come from the tunnel. Prospect Hill forms the backbone of a peninsula which is bounded on the east by the Seekonk River and on the west by the Moshassuck River. This peninsula was called Moshassuc by the Indians. The hill at the southern end of this peninsula has been carted away and it is now known as Fox Point. This is opposite to the filling in of the Cove and illustrates two ways in which man overcomes geQ­ graphical obstacles

Lesson 2 This lesson may be a correlated lesson in construction work. The interest of the child has been aroused in a neighboring hill. He now makes models, writes letters, and interprets pictures because he has an end in view. The teacher does not have to search for busy work, just for keeping the hands busy. The following ways are suggestion s for making a model of the hill . The first method is for the teacher and the others for the children. Plaster Paris Model A model can be made from the contour map of the home locality. Make board patterns according to the form of the contour lines. The thickness of the board represents the contour intenral . Nail the boards together in proper relative position and mold clay, plaster, or whatever material is desired, over the boards. Paint the surface and represent the drainage systems, roads, etc . , with various colors. Plaster Paris will not stick to wood unless mixed with gum or glue. Sand Models Use damp beach sand on a modeling board. (The modeling board should be about three feet square with a two or three inch rim. ) Sand has man y advantages over clay-it i s always clean and ready, and is more easily worked. Water may be poured on to show erosion. Papier M ache Soak small bits of newspaper in water for two or three days. Stir mixture until it becomes a thick mass. Varnish or shellac the model after it has dried.

Nature Guiding Salt and Flour Model Mix two parts of common salt to one of flour and add water slowly until it resembles wet sand. \Vork on a smooth board . Varnish or shellac after it has thoroughly dried. Plasticine Model This material has the advantage of being in different colors and can be used several times . It is not affected by pouring water in to it to show rainfall, drainage or tides. Lesson 3 Teach the use of the model . Since we cannot visit all the countries that we are to study we have to use representations. The model and map , then, become a basis for all future geography lessons and therefore the method of using this geographical tool should be made an equipment of the child at an early period. The fundamental ideas of maps and models can best be understood by comparing what is represented upon the model and map with the familiar features of the home locality, while on the other hand a model or map gives a better idea of the home environment. At first , the model is kept in a horizontal position with the northem end toward the north. The transition from out-of-door work to the model consists of testing the pupils' understanding of direction, distance, and scale. Point n orth . Poin t south. What river has the direction north and south ? (:.Yloshassuck. ) Find the Moshassuck River on the model. (Easily recogn ized from blue color, position and name. ) Draw pointer along the Moshassuck River from north to south. What part of the model is north ? South ? What direction is Prospect Hill from the Moshassuck River ? Point to it. The Capitol ? Point to the east side of the model. The west side. Draw pointer along a street that run s east and west. Drill in location of places-Normal School , streets, etc . Point to Prospect Hill. What direction is Prospect Hill from us ? How far is it from us ? Point to Prospect Hill on the model. How far is Prospect Hill from Kormal Hill on the model ? Prospect Hill is slightly over two hundred feet high. How high is it on the model ? Drill until children understand that the model represents to scale a bird's eye view of Providence and vicinity. Lesson 4 Review of the trip to the hill by use of the model. The teacher should add points when the opportunity suggests itself. Correlate with history as far as possible. Lesson 5 T he study of other hills. Other hi lls should be studied 111 comparison. N eutaconkanut Hill affords a magnificent view. It is 2 99 feet high . Why does the path zigzag up the hill ? This hill has not been built upon by houses. Why ? It has been set aside as a park.

Field Work for Fourth Grade Distant hills might be studied from pictures, as Pueblo Indians on table-like hills. A mountain is not an overgrown hill. It differs from the hill in other ways than size. It is better to study a picture of a mountain than to create an imaginary mountain from a hill.

"Tell you what I like the best­ 'Long about knee-deep in June, 'Bout the time strawberries melt On the vine,-some afternoon Like to j es ' git out and rest, And not work at nothin ' else ! " "Pee-wees' singin' , to express l\Iy opinion, 's second class, Yit you'll hear 'em more or less, Sapsucks gittin' down to biz Weedin' out the lonesomeness, Mr. Bluejay, full 0 ' sass, In them base-ball clothes 0 ' his, Sportin' round the orchard jes' Like he owned the premises ! Sun out �n the fields kin sizz, But flat on yer back, I guess, In the shade's where glory is ! That 's jes ' what I ' d like to do Stiddy fer a year er two ! " "Knee-deep i n June. " -By James Whitcomb Riley.

w .... o

Fig. J . Lesson 9. Free Expression Work. Representations were exhibited from the free expression work of the third grade. The papers were not chosen because of their perfection, for they might be improved in many ways. They showed, first of all, that a child illustrates his observations in different ways. These various modes of expression come naturally and not as a task. Why does a child lose hi� initiative in higher grades? Because he does not draw from self-expression. He is required to draw from a specific object and is then criticised because he does not see the object in the same way that the teacher does. Even though the child cannot be an artist he should not be robbed of the enjoyment of drawing. I indicated the interest of the child in the canoe trip of Roger Williams-across the Seekonk and up a " Great Salt River" (the Moshassuck ) , where he landed on the west side of Prospect Hill and found a clear, sparkling spring. 2 pointed toward an artistic temperament. A little sketch to show trees beside the river-casting their reflection upon the clear water. This was made with colored crayons. 3 This child associated the river with the hills. It is a hachure map . The short lines indicate a steep slope and the long, separated iines a gentle slope. The Woonasquatucket and Moshassuck Rivers are represented as flowing along the valleys into Narragansett Bay.

CHAPTER XXXII

FIELD LESSONS FOR FOURTH

GRADE

II. The River I believe that the following story is told by Professor Thorndike. A teacher who had just given a lesson about the Amazon River took the class for a walk along the banks of the Hudson. When she asked, "What is this ? " the class responded in unison, " The Amazon. " Dr. Herbert E . Walter, o f Brown University, relates a n authentic case that took place in Chicago. A high school girl, who walked daily across a bridge that went over the river, maintained that she had never seen a river. The Chicago River was so full of boats that she never associated it with what she had learned from map study. Although these cases are rather extreme, they are typical of much that is being taught in the grades to-day. That the knowledge of local objects is necessary for the under­ standing of distant regions is not a new idea. Carl Ritter said that, "Wherever our home is, there lie all the materials which we need for the study of the entire globe. " It was a century and a half ago that Rousseau said in "Emile :" " Let him learn his first geography in the town he inhabits, stimulating his imagination by expressing wonder as to natural phenomena. " Even a century and a half before Rousseau, a n equivalent idea was given by Comenius : "We know the elements of geography when we learn the nature of the mountains, the plains, the rivers, citadels, or State, according to the section of the place in which we are reared. " I n the study o f the river the same aims are kept i n mind a s i n the study of the hill. Lesson I Field trip along the Woonasquatucket River. Class begin ob­ servations at the corner of Promenade and Park Streets. Recognize characteristic appearance in different parts of the course. Terms come in naturally as needed. The mouth of the river is near the rail­ road station. This is the lower course of the river. Class look about and note what relation the lower course of the river has to man. Each observation should be followed by the question, Why ? Note that streets follow on either side by artificial banks (levees or dikes) ; bridges; grease from sewerage ; drain-pipes entering ; the exhaust pipe pouring out steam from the Brown & Sharpe shops. Recall that mills were formerly run by water wheels. Determine by color of the water what kind of sediment the river is carrying. Where does the river get this sediment ? This is the process of valley making. Lower a bottle from the bridge to get a sample of water. Carry back to school, allow sediment to settle. Use in class work on river. Throw in sticks to observe swift current in center and slower current on the side. Note fine mud deposit along sides where water is less 371

3 72

Nature Guiding

rapid. The river is swifter after a heavy rainfall. Why ? Would it deposit along the banks then ? Find where the banks have been worn away. Why is the stone wall caving in on the opposite side ? Find other proofs of a higher stage of the river, as markings on wall, wearing of rocks and plant life. Just above the wooden embank­ ment are rapids. What is in the bed of the river that causes the rapids ? Observe the flat-bottomed boat just below the foot bridge. Why flat-bottomed ? This is characteristic of river boats. Above the foot bridge there are gullies or miniature canyons. Cause ? This forms a basis for understanding the action of the larger river. The sediment 'of these washouts has been carried to the river. This is not true, however, on the terrace beyond the honey locust tree. Why ? Distinguish between the building up process at the lower course of a stream and the tearing down process at the upper course. Call such a branch stream a tributary. This is a small tributary. We are going to explore a larger tributary. This larger tributary used to wind its way across this region. (Point to area filled in by ashes and refuse. ) This was a swamp. Why are there few houses here ? Why are they filling it in ? Some day this will become a very beauti­ ful spot. What will make it beautiful ? The tributary now flows underground through this part of its course. Look along the oppo­ site border of this old swamp region and see if you can discover where this side stream used to enter the swamp . Reasons for thinking so ? We will walk up Rathbone Street to Valley Street. Why called Valley Street ? Recess until get to head of Rathbone Street . Compare the tributary stream with the trunk stream as to rapidity of current, size of material, depth , clearness , width of the stream , and width of valley. Note the three slopes of a valley. Compare the beauty of the stream here with that of the Woonasquatucket. Follow the winding course of the stream. Note that it is wearing away on the outer curves and building up on the inner. Why ? The rocks in the bed are a great deal larger. Class observe what relation the middle course of a river has to man. A four-foot water-fall is dis­ covered near the approach to Chalkstone Avenue. If possible, bring a miniature water wheel, constructed in the industrial laboratory, and illustrate the use of water wheels. The class can realize the forces of water used for large wheels by watching the upper falls from the bridge on Chalkstone Avenue. Observe other uses of the creek along this part of the course as, the dam , pond, farm, and icehouse. Bring out the reasons after each observation. Look back into Davis Park and call attention of class to the lowland plain, which is damp and without houses. and the upland plain with houses. Follow the brook above the ponds. This is the upper course of the river. Com­ pare current , sediment , depth , clearness, bed rocks, width of stream, sounds of stream, and width of valley with parts already studied. Note cascades, absence of bordering plain, wearing away of soil from roots of trees. Why ? Teach about the relations of such a stream to man-not thickly settled as along the lower course, im-

Field Lessons jor Fourth Grade

3 73

portance as a scenic center, and the presence of forests. Follow each observation by question, Why? If it is found desirable to make two field trips for the purpose of studying the river, the first trip could end at Chalkstone Avenue and the second trip could cover the upper course of the brook and then proceed along the meadows to the source. This brings the class, however, onto an upland plain where the river again takes on the characteristics of old age, being sluggish and carrying fine sediment. Alon g this part of the stream is a parkway. It is mostly filled-in land, being formerly a marsh area. This is the reason why no houses were built there and the region has been saved for the city to use as a parkway and recreation ground. The rapid change of scenery from the smooth water of the Woonasquatucket River, with its uncouth sewerage and neighboring factories, to the turbulent stream with its picturesque waterfalls and forests, affords an opportunity for a field trip which few schools can parallel. The understanding of this little water-way, with all its problems, furnishes the fundamental knowl­ edge for understanding all water-ways.

Lesson 2 A resume of the field trip by use of the model of Providence. The development of the lesson will necessarily be under the careful guid­ ance of the teacher. Later the children will be able to trace the path of the excursion on the model, giving the observations and inferences. Lesson 3 The other drainage lines, such as the Moshassuck, the Seekonk, and the Providence Rivers, can be brought in. Distinguish the main stream and tributaries. Trace the path which rainwater would take from the various hills. Draw pointer along lines where the water will run off in two or more directions. Call a divide. Divides are not always high places. Introduce this idea by use of model. Fix these ideas by a variety of ways, as, a blackboard sketch show­ ing the similarity of a river system to a tree ; compare a divide to the top of an umbrella or to the roof of a house ; reasons for a crowned surface on a good road such as a macadamized street. Make clear to class that divides may be a low land. Use Davis ' Harvard Model and Providence Model to drill on main stream, tributaries, divides, river systems, and river basins. Lesson 4 The class is now ready to study and interpret the features of distant rivers from pictures. Show views. Have pupils tell what part of course is illustrated, how recognize, swiftness, width of stream and valley, depth, size of sediment, and relation to plants, animals other than man , and man. Bring in new terms as cascade, cataract, rill, rivulet , channel, canals, water-ways, navigation, flood plains, deltas, drought , flood, slack water, shoals, irrigation. Emphasize the beauty of the rivers.

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Nature Guiding

Lesson 5 Pupils take an imaginary j ourney down a stream by describing a series of pictures, beginning with the mountains where the river rises and tracing the course of the river to the mouth . Lesson 6 Questions for thought. Write questions on the board where the class can study them. Each question is based upon the previous experiences of the class. The following are merely suggestive. ( I ) From where does the water in the Woonasquatucket come ? ( 2 ) Where does i t go ? (3 ) In what direction does the river flow ? Why ? (4) Why is the tributary beyond Davis Park so rapid and the main stream so slow ? ( 5 ) What becomes of the rain that falls on Normal School Hill ? (6) Why is the Woonasquatucket River larger than the brook in Davis Park ? ( 7 ) In what way is it larger ? Lesson 7. Lantern Talk. Lesson 8 If the class has had map work this lesson could come now. Other­ wise, this should be postponed until after the study of the map. Trace the courses of the Moshassuck and of the Woonasquatucket Rivers. Find where they begin. Find height of these rivers at various places.

In what direction do they flow ?

Tell class how the

sun draws water "up into the air. " This moisture forms clouds which give out rain. Suppose it rains on these hills (pointing to region near the source of the river) . Pupil indicate with pointer where some of the rainfall would go. (Discover that the goal of all rivers is the ocean. ) Have pupils trace a river which originates from a lake or pond. How do the rivers change in size as they flow toward the bay ? How is this shown on the map ? Find tributaries of the river. What do they show about the slope of the land on each side of the main stream ? Indicate the river systems. Trace the divide of the Mo­ shassuc River System. Bring out uses of the river which are shown on the map . Wh ere are cities ? By use of the scale find the length of the rivers. Teacher tell the following story and have class follow on maps with pointers. In the year 1 63 6 Roger Williams built his cabin on the east bank of the Seekonk River at East Providence. The settlers at Plymouth asked him to move away from their land. Roger Williams and his four followers crossed the Seekonk in a canoe. Paddling around Fox Hill he entered the Great Salt River toward the north. What do we now call this river ? On the right he saw a steep hill covered with trees which we now call ? The little craft followed the base of this hill along what river ? Until they saw a hill on the left, which is ? Here the small party landed on the east bank of the stream

Field Lessons for Fourth Grade

375

and drank from a clear cool spring near where North Main Street is now located. They then climbed the steep wooded hill to get a view of the surrounding country. They could see the \Voonsaquatucket River crossing a marsh below where it joined the Moshassuc to form the Providence River. Beyond was Narragansett Bay. These men were pleased with the fine view and decided to make their home at the foot of the hill near the spring. Why there ? This was the beginning of the city of Providence. Lesson 9 Should the school possess a stereopticon lantern the children would now be able to appreciate a river lecture. The talk might include scenes in parts of the neighborhood outside of the field trip and of distant rivers. Postcards could be used in the refiectoscope. This latter means might make it possible for some of the children to tell the rest of the class about the rivers in some place that they have visited.

III. The Valley The pupil has already gained many ideas about the valley in the study of hills and rivers. The work has been planned so that a field trip on valleys is not necessary, although it could be taken with much profit. The children have already n oticed the small channels and washouts caused by the rain, on previous trips. The water dripping from the eaves has made miniature valleys by washing out the finer soil. The last excursion was up the valley of the W oonas­ quatucket. By referring to this trip bring in terms such as : width, length , broad slope, gentle slope, steep slope. By use of pictures bring in terms gulley, ravine, gorge, canyon, dale, dell, ditch , moun­ tain pass, gap . Bring out the human relations-kind of soil, cattle in th e valley, farms, roads, railroads, and business houses. Note in particular, from school window, how the main line of railroad enters Providence from Boston by the Moshassuck Valley, which is between the Capitol and Prospect Hills . Show on the model that there is no natural passage from the city to East Providence and hence the necessity of the tunnel. Brook Street is so named because there used to be a stream of water flowing from a swamp, near the Hope Reservoir, along that line. Note this valley on the model and bring out the idea of how it was a convenient line for the building of a trolley line. The N . Y . , N . H . & H . railroad sweeps around to the northeast in leaving the city so as to avoid the city proper. The railroad, however, does not leave the main valley, but goes along next to the distant hills which can be seen in the west. This broad lowland is called the Narragansett Basin. There are three such basins in New England, the Boston Basin and the Connecticut Basin being the other two. These three lowlands contain the most of the homes of the New England people. Explain.

"They 's something kindo ' harty-like about the atmusfere When the heat of summer's over and the coolin' fall is here­ Of course we miss the flowers, and the blossoms on the trees, And the mumble of the hummin'-birds and buzzin' of the bees ; But the air's so appetizin ' ; and the landscape thru the haze Of a crisp and sunny morning of the airly autumn days I s a pictur' that no painter has the colorin' to mock'When the frost is on the punkin' and the fodder 's in the shock. " " When the Frost i s on the Punkin . " -James Whitcomb Riley

"I have jest about decided It 'ud keep a town-boy hoppin ' Fer to work all winter, choppin' Fer a' old fireplace, like I did ! ·-Lawz ! them old times wuz contrairy !­ Blame' backbone 0 ' winter, 'peared-like Wouldn 't break- ! and I wuz skeered-like Clean on into Feb ' uaryl i'Jothin' ever made me madder Than fer Pap to stomp in, layin' On a ' extry forsetick, sayin' , " Groun '-hog ' s out and seed h i s shadder ! " " Old Winters o n the Farm. " -James Whitcomb Riley.

CHAPTER XXXIII MAP

STUDY

The study of maps formerly consisted of finding names, measuring distances, and mere copying. Experience has shown, however, that the student gains little real knowledge from such use of maps, while on the other hand he often acquires incorrect ideas. The cultural value of such a method is at a minimum since it merely trains the eye in finding names. Distances measured (in straight lines) on all maps are incorrect ; the colors copied are without harmony ; and no intellectual powers are trained unless it be that kind of perseverance which overcomes persistent drudgery. The real aim of maps is to make regions as vivid and real as though they were examined in detail with the eye. Maps should enable the pupil to study the development of a region from the cause and effect method and should make him better able to give events their true surroundings. When one learns to understand a map to that extent he has not only trained the memory, but has disciplined the powers of reasoning, of visualizing, and of generalizing. The art of understanding and applying map knowledge should be gained early in life. It is agreed that the geography of the home region should be taught first. Through the study and observation of our home surroundings we are able to study and interpret the geog­ raphy of distant places. The map gives a better understanding of the home locality and becomes the basis of all future geographic work . The best map, and fortunately the least expensive, is the govern­ ment topographical map. This map more nearly fulfils the modern conception of geography as the study of the earth in relation to life than any other map. Have a pupil who is studying a colored physical map describe the physical features of a region where the two colors meet. Have him describe the same region from a contour map. Ask students to describe the picture that they have of the Alleghany Plateau. They invariably say that the region is a level elevated plain, because that is the definition of a plateau. Have the class look at the contour map and they will discover that it may be one of the most hilly regions in existence. It is better to see a thing than the definition of a thing. Mention the Ohio River. Does it call to mind a winding black line or a picture of the river ? Try the same experi­ ment with a city. Do you see a black dot or a picture of the city when Cincinnati is mentioned ? It is better to visualize the thing than the symbol of the thing. The contour map portrays the physical features as they are, the rivers with their valleys, flood-plains, bridges, ferries, etc . , the city with its streets, houses, etc. The greater value of the contour map has not been realized by most teachers in the graded schools. 377

Nature Guiding The Use of the Contour 1v[ap To show in detail the use of a contour map let us develop a picture of the Allegheny-Cumberland plateau. This may be done by taking the map for any section of the plateau. We will use the map of the Huntington , West Virginia, Quadrangle. The irregularity of the contour lines shows that it is a hilly region. The figures tell that the Ohio River at this point is five hundred feet above sea-level and that the highest hills are about one thousand feet in elevation. This enables us to calculate that these hills are about five hundred feet high. The contour lines are near together, indicating that the hill­ sides are rather steep . Most of the hills are four hundred feet high and should a person stand on top of one he could look along the hill­ tops for a considerable distance. The numerous blue lines indicate a good drainage system and one would expect to see swift streams bounding down the steep hills . The velocity of the streams would enable them t o carry away a great deal of sediment . If this material were slowly brought back, instead of being carried away, the river valleys would become filled and then the hilltops would ultim ately become part of a great plain with a hill proj ecting, now and then , about a hundred feet above the general level. This must be the way that it looked at some remote period of the past. We might speculate as to the future of this region as well as in­ terpret the past. In the distance appears the Ohio River winding slowly within its wide flood-plain. The tributaries have cut deep V-shaped notches into the once level plain and the hills are being rapidly washed down to the master stream .

If this process keeps up

the hills will become smaller and in time the whole area will be worn down nearly to base level. !t is through observing the forces in action and their results that we are able to interpret the past and to predict the future. The contour map pictures to us, then, a hilly region separated by steep-sided valleys. The hills are of about the same height. Down the hills are rushing many streams carrying heavy loads to a larger stream which meanders in a broad flood-plain below. Such are the basic facts that influence the industries and mold the character of the inhabitants. The black parallel lines indicate roads and we note that there are two kinds, the hill roads and the valley roads. In either case they are crooked like the contours, which indicates a rather excessive re­ lief. We think that they follow these lines in order to keep on level ground, as it is difficult to pull heavy loads up hill . Many of the roads are parallel because the rivers have cut parallel valleys. If we were told that these wagon paths are made up of clay soil we would know that during winter and rainy periods they must be very muddy and difficult of passage. The scarcity of black dots along the roadside indicates that the region is thinly populated. This would probably mean far-separated district schools. The impassable roads of winter would make the

Map Study

3 79

transportation of the pupils to a central school impractical. It has been said that good roads make better schools. On the other hand we might say that poor schools lead to poor roads. Although the roads may be an index to the development of a country the real reason lies in the soil and physical features. The Allegheny region does not have the advantage of the hard glacial soil and the more nearly level land of New England. The absence of lakes , as shown on the map , tells us that this part of the country was not invaded by the glacier. A hilly region with poor roads invariably means a sparse population. The black lines with short cross lines represent railroads. They follow the main rivers where they get a nearly level grade and find the larger towns and cities. The junction of the Guyandotte River with the Ohio River predestined the junction of a railroad. This focus of highways together with a wide flood-plain made a favorable site for a city. Huntington, therefore, has free communication along the rivers with flood-plains, but the bordering hills present altogether a different field of life. This sharp contrast in the distribution of population is equally distinct in the allotment of industries. Having studied the topography and lines of transportation we are now ready to interpret the dependent industries. Since the hills are so steep , they are not adapted for agriculture and are therefore prob­ ably covered with forests. The rivers are strong enough to furnish power for the sawing of logs and in their lower courses furnish a means of transportation. Wherever the forests are cleared for agri­ culture the rich soil would doubtless be washed away in a season or two and that area would have to be abandoned for another. The most favorable places for tilling the soil would be along the flood­ plains, where the soil is renewed each year by the spring freshets. Since only the large rivers have flood-plains farming would not be a very extensive industry. Fruit growing might be an importan t industry. On the sunny slopes vineyards could be planted so as to get the sun, after the same manner as on the terraces of France. Apple orchards might also thrive and where there was danger of early frost in fall and late frost in spring they could be planted on the northern slopes. If there are economic minerals within the hills, and the names of some of the villages indicate that there are, the plateau is well adapt­ ed for mining them. In mining it is easier to tunnel into the side of a hill than to tunnel down. The manner in which the rivers have carved the hills therefore makes the minerals available. The lumber, which is necessary in mining, is also near at hand. These conditions to­ gether with the water routes and accompanying railroads make mining a thrifty occupation. All these things show their influence upon the character of the people. In such a rough country we are apt to find log-cabins nestled along the creeks, each settler eking out his existence from the bottom land. If you take an imaginary journey up a creek you will prob-

Nature Guiding

ably find a cabin at the head and should your trip continue along other branches there you would doubtless find similar houses , each sheltering its mountaineer family. People isolated in this fashion are apt to develop different habits. vV hen they meet they cannot agree and hence the family feuds which correspond to the clans of Scotland. These people have their ups and downs in life similar to the physical character of the country. Physically you would expect them to have sinews as strong as the hills and their morals to be of the highest. A Swiss guide once said that "A man can have no evil thoughts here, " and we would expect the same spirit in the West Virginia hills. On the other hand, the rough country forms a good hiding place for outlaws and in such a place is the home of the Kentucky Night Riders and the Moonshiners. Having studied and interpreted the map through the aid of the teacher, the student is now ready to read such stories as, "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, " and ' 'The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come. " The characteristics and life of the people are well portrayed in these stories. The class are now ready to study the political map in the textbook. This map is complementary to the contour map in that each shows features not displayed by the other. In getting this broader view of the plateau region the pupil approaches it with a clear picture in his mind and does not form erroneous ideas as to the physical features, rivers, etc . , which were spoken of in an earlier paragraph . The study o f the Appalachian Plateau region through th e inter­ pretation of the contour map serves to illustrate that such a map is a far better tool than the one of the ordinary textbook. Why they are not used. more in the grammar school is difficult to answer, but in a larger measure it must be due to the teacher's neglect of an oppor­ tunity to improve geo£;raphical teaching. It is hoped that some day every teacher will obtain the government contour map of the home vicinity and type maps of other regions. St. Louis-A River City

The method of teaching cities may be well illustrated by taking St. Louis for an example of a river city. Suppose the class is using Tarr and McMurry 'S New Geography, Second Book. Class open the books to show Fig. 4 I . St . Louis is at the mouth of the Missouri River. Find its location on the map . �What does the name St. Louis indicate as to its early settlement ? What nation first settled the Mississippi Valley ? Do these two facts point to the same con­ clusion : Name rivers which would influence the growth of the city ? From how many directions do they come ? What region is drained by the Missouri ? What products would you expect to be shipped on the M issouri to St. Louis ? What products might be brought down the Mississippi ? What important raw material could easily be sent from the Gulf Coastal Plain ? Sum up the list of raw materials that

Map Study are probably sent by

the rivers to St. Louis. "What factories would you expect to find there ? Examine the railroad maps in the pam­ phlet case of Figure I 5 7 . How many lines enter the city ? Are they mainly east and west or north and south lines ? Why ? Influence on its size. Class turn to page I I 2 and read "The largest city on the lakes is St. Louis, the fourth in size among our cities (Fig. I 5 7 ) . It has a very favorable position in the center of the Mississippi Valley, on the Mississippi River, near the mouths of its two largest tributaries. The railway bridges across the Mississippi at this point have also had great influence on the growth of the city. It is an important shipping point both by water and by rail. "Like Chicago, St. Louis is one of our leading markets for grain and live stock ; but, being so far south , it handles Southern products also , especially cotton and tobacco. Besides this , it is a noted mule and horse market , and a great manufacturing center. It manu­ factures immense quantities of tobacco, beer, flour, boots, shoes, clothing, and iron and steel goods . " What the child reads i n the text i s certainly more interesting and means more than it would have without the map work. The class may now close their books and visualize the different scenes which they would expect to find in St. Louis . Show class pictures of the city, Fig. I 5 6 . The map i n the upper right hand corner of Fig. I 5 7 shows the plan of the city. The government contour map shows the marked peculi­ arities of the city to better advantage. What direction does the city extend ? Why ? Where are the bridges across the Mississippi ? Why ? Which part is more thickly settled ? Why ? In which section is the street arrangement better ? How explained ? Locate the large parks. Reasons for their situation ? Extend knowledge by reading encyclopedias . reports of Boards of Trade, magazine articles, etc .

Teaching Cities from the Map The first step in teaching a city should be by use of maps as in the teaching of all other geographical units. Describe the location of the city by use of political and outline maps. The name of the city may suggest its early settlement by the French . Dutch . Spanish or English. It might suggest the former presence of Indians or the discovery of a valuable ore which caused the city to spring up like a mushroom. The relief map shows whether it is in a mountainous region , a plain, or plateau ; whether the coast is regular with steep cliffs or low near the shore running out into shallow water or irregular with safe harbors. The rivers of the city are the arteries which give it a new commercial life, feeding it with the raw material d the hinterland. Railroads may approach the city through a water gap or tunnel or along a river valley. Having studied these advantages follow out the trade chan­ nels to the adj oining country. What occupations would you expect there ? What consequent products would you expect to be sent to the

Nature Guiding city ? Fertile valleys are apt to produce grains and fruits, mountains yield minerals and lumber , regions too dry for agriculture are suitable for ranching, while the wheat of the plains, the com of the prairies and the cotton of the gulf coastal plain pour into the natural trade centers. The principal products sent in from the hinterland deter­ mine what the occupations of the city will be. If coal or water power is near at hand the raw material will probably be manufactured. The supply of cotton means cotton factories , grain leads to flour mills, cattle require packing houses and the hides furnish leather for shoes. The city may be a port where railroads or rivers terminate. From what regions do these channels lead ? Are the railroads trans­ continental ? From the map study the commercial routes by which steamers travel from the city. What foreign countries probably receive these exports ? What products are probably imported ;The Government contour map of the city adds to the interest of the study. It shows the height of the hills and their elevation above sea level . It shows how the physical features determine the plan of the city. The main streets may follow a river or shore line and other streets run perpendicular to the main thoroughfare. Swamps and rocky situations have probably been avoided and may not be avail­ able for a metropolitan park system. The plans and development of all cities are forced upon them by their geographical setting. The climate of a city is an important factor and should be inter­ preted from the map as in the study of countries . The use of the text-book follows the interpretation of the maps. The text is now read to verify or modify conclusions. (The guidance of the pupil should have unconsciously prevented any gross errors . ) The reading o f various books will also give added information. The study of a city is made more lifelike by the use of pictures . From the industries the pupil may visualize. The manufacturing of flour would mean grain elevators, the importing of cattle requires stockyards, etc . After creating an imaginative scene show the class pictures of the city. The impression resulting will certainly be more valuable than the remembering of the city as a dot on the map .

CHAPTER XXXIV T E N LESSONS O N O U R FOOD SUPPLY .

The writer does not claim originality for any appreciable part of this article. Most of the mathematical facts were gathered by the class in general science,-high school graduates just entering the Normal School. The figures have not been verified and undoubted­ ly contain mistakes . It is simply written as being suggestive as to the method of teaching this extremely vital subject. All around us we hear discussions of the high cost of living. In our windows we are hanging cards to show that we are members of the United States Food Administration. What can the teach ers of our public schools do in this great drive for the conservation of food ? The following is a summary of the lessons taught.

Lesson

I.

Organization of the Course.

At the first meeting of the class the pupils were given a mimeograph sheet telling the terms used in general science and their meaning. Most of these terms and definitions were taken, with some modifica­ tion, from the General Science Bulletin of the lV1assachusetts Commit­ tee. A few new terms were added. When the class understood the terms they were asked to read the notes on the selection of a general unit and prepare to vote by ballot for the one that they considered most worth while. The vote was almost unanimous for Our Food Supply. The following is a copy of the mimeograph sheet : A.

DEFINITIONS OF TERM S .

Education is the process of living. General Science is learning those things in the natural environ­ ment which best fits one to meet those problems in life. A project is an organized undertaking to solve some problem . Projects are of two kinds according to their needs : Individual projects are based upon the definite need or desire of a pupil. (Desk light, electric bell , leakage of gas. ) Community projects are based upon the definite need o r desire of a group of individuals, (Sewerage disposal, municipal baths, prevention of infantile paralysis. ) Projects are o f two kinds according to the methods o f meeting these needs : Constructive projects are those in which the student or group of students is making or assembling the parts of some mechanical device. (Making a wireless o u tfit or loaf of bread.) Interpretation Projects are those in which the individual or group of individuals observes or reads to interpret some question or prob­ lem . (How the wireless works or the action of yeast . ) A n experiment i s a n exercise performed b y a pupil t o obtain the answer to a problem met in a project. 3 83

Nature Guiding A demonstration is an exercise perfonned by a pupil or teacher before a class to make clear some fact or principle met in a project. A general unit is a main topic to be developed by projects, ex­ periments, demonstrations, and discussion. (Food, water-supply, fuel , lighting. ) A topic i s usually limited to one subject which i s related to a general unit. (General unit , fuel ; topics, gas, alcohol, coal, petro­ leum, safety matches. ) T h e scientific m ethod i s t o make observations from which one may draw a conc lusion .

B.

SELECTION O F A GENERAL UNIT.

In selecting a general unit one should keep in mind that it must be ( I ) worth while, ( 2 ) interesting, (3 ) possible to make obser­ vations and do extensive reading, ( 4 ) a problem of this locality. The class may select the general unit which they think most inter­ esting and most worth while at this time. Three to six weeks will be spent upon that unit and then another general un it will be selected . Cleansing and dyeing Street lighting Our food supply Home lighting Heat in the home Household chemicals Our water supply Baking powders and sodas Metals used in the homes Sanitation Household electrical devices Ven tilation Uses of electricity in the city Photography Building our houses

Lesson

2.

Community Projects in Food Conservation.

The needs of a community may become the needs of a nation or of the world and conversely the needs of the world become the needs of every community. Not only to make the world safe for de­ mocracy but to make democracy safe for the world or for the com­ munity the individuals who make up the group should have intel­ ligence as to their responsibilities. As food is the deciding factor of this war the students of the country should become acquainted with the food situation. Fully understanding this the members of the class were asked to make an outlin e of Lesson I , in the pamphlet entitled T E N LESSONS ON FOOD CONSERVATION" publish ed by the United States Food Administration . The following outline was worked out by class discussion and then they were expected to finish it outside of class. "

I.

Aims oj Course. Acquaintance with world situation . ( 2 ) . Definite and immediate things to do. (3 ) . To carry out suggestions.

(I) .

Food Supply 2.

Causes of Universal Shortage of Food. ( I ) . Unkindness of nature. d. Poor conditions of rainfall. a. Late sprin gs . e. Unexpected frosts. b . Droughts. f. Periods of intense heat. c. Hurricanes. Reduced productivity of soil in Europe. 2 ) . ( a. Bad management. r. Withdrawal of men from farms. 2 . Overworked women . b . Unskilled work. 3 . Unskilled old men: 4. List­ less prisoners. c. Lack of fertilizers-sunk by submarines. 3 . Conditions in Germany. ( r ) . Fats. a. No food is fried. b. Soap a luxury. c. Candles have disappeared. ( 2 ) . Why Germany has power to endure. a. Four-fifths self supporting before the war. b. A nation given to overeating-reduction a benefit. c. Cultivating Belgium , Northern France, Roumania. d. Intricate food organization . 4. Position of A llies. ( r ) . Dependent, even in peace, on importations. ( 2 ) . Cannot get supplies from Central Europe. (3 ) . Russia-disorganized railroads. (4) . India and Australia. a. Shortage of tonnage. b. Long distance. ( 5 ) . South America-general crop depression. (6) . United States a. Greatest food-producing country. b. Large acreage in crops. Lesson 3 .

Local Community Projects.

The study of the plan of the United States Food Administration led to the question : What is being done in Providence to meet the food situation ? The class was able to give quite a list of local activi­ ties, asCanning Demonstrations by the Housewives League at the Arnold B iological Laboratory , Brown University. Food Exhibit, Roger Williams Park Museum. Home Gardens. Prizes offered by the Chamber of Commerce Faculty Garden of Brown University . . Cooking Demonstrations at R. L. Rose Company. Freight Embargoes. Etc.

Nature Guiding The projects were listed on the board and the class told to sign their name opposite the one which th ey wished to investigate. No two were allowed to take the same proj ect .

Lesson 4 . The Fundamentals of an Adequate Diet. A knowledge of the fundamentals of an adequate diet also be­ comes a community proj ect at this time. Members of the class were thus asked to make an outline of Lesson IX in the pamphlet men� ioned above. An examination was given upon these two summanes. Lesson 5 . The Cost of Breakfast. This meal was chosen as it is simpler and has a smaller range of variation. This becomes an individual project. In order to standardize results for comparison the following table was pre­ sented as a basis . Food

Average W eight

Oatmeal

y.; oz.

Corn Flakes

� oz.

B anana

3 y.; oz.

Milk

I glass for cereal for coffee

9 grams per cup heaping Sugar teaspoonful Slice White Bread I oz. Coffee

I pat butter

y.; oz.

I medium potato

3 oz.

I egg

2 oz.

Bacon, I slice

28 grams

(Sept. 2 8 , 1 9 1 7 ) Price $0.00094 (6c lb . ) .0062 5 ( I OC 8 o z . ) .02 500 (30C doz . ) .03000 . 0 1 500 .

00300

( I 2C qt . ) .02 500 (40C lb . ) .00 1 7 1 6 ( I OC lb . ) .00833 ( 1 5c 1 lb. 2 oz . ) .00750 (48c lb . ) . 0 1 000 (43 c pk.) .06000 (72C doz . ) .02292 (42 C lb . )

Calories

Protein in Grams

28.1

1 .08

5 1 .0

1 .2 5

52 . 8

0 . 83

1 82 · 5 76.0 1 5 .2

8.25 3 - 43

00.0

0.00

30.0

0.00

75.0

1 .86

0.68

50.0 55·3

0·79

93 ·0

8 ·75

75·9

2 ·5 5

The pupils were asked t o tabulate what they had for breakfast for several days, including the cost , the calories (energy value) , and the protein in grammes (tiSSUE; builders) . From the preceeding data they figured the results for their average breakfast.

A Comparison of the Cost of Breakfast for the Different Members of the Class. The investigations of the class in Lesson 5 were now tabulated on the blackboard. Care was taken not to associate names with Lesson 6.

Food Supply

38i

the cost o f the meal, etc. , s o a s t o obtain free discussion.

examples are given :

A few

Student

Cost

Calories

Protein

A

30C 1 9 ·9C 1 2 · SC 1 2 .0C 4·8c

97 5 41 1 4 So 7 87 1 67

30 gr �:ns 20 9.8 1 1 8 .36 " 1 8 ·35 . .

B

C D G

"

General conclusions were derived from the table, such as :( I ) . The price paid for food must not b e measured solely in dollars and cents . ( 2 ) . Thought and study is needed in planning the dietary. (3 ) . We need t o find what foods will supply the most energy, and the various materials for repairing and building the body at the least cost. Interpretation proj ects arose, such as :( I ) . What is the daily food requirement ? (2 ) . What food habits can we change ? (3 ) . What is the cheapest source for our food essentials ? Lesson 7 .

Some of the Reports on Individual Projects .

These developed out of the class discussion in Lesson 6 . ( I ) . Standard Amounts of Different Nutritive Constituents Required Daily (Hutchinson. Food and Dietetics) . Protein 1 2 5 grams . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 2 . 5 calories Carbohydrate 5 0 0 grams . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 5 0 . 0 calories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5 6 0 calories Fat 50 gram s .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Total

3 02 7 . $ calories .

athletes. Table for Estimating the Comparative Cost and Food Value of Fish. Student visited the Public Market to obtain the prices and studied textbooks for other data . A few of the

Discussion of rations for children , normal school girls .

(2 ) .

significant facts reported are given : Food as Purchased

Refuse Per ct .

Protein Per ct.

Calorific Value

Cod, whole, dressed Cod, salt Herring

29 ·9 24·9 ?

11.1 1 6 ·9 I I ·S

220 325 82S

Mackerel

44·7

10.2

3 70

Halibut Salmon, canned Salmon, fresh

1 7·7 00.0 40 .

1 5 ·3 2 1 .8 2 1 .8

475 915 91S

Market Price

Real Cost

J OC lb. 1 3 C lb. 1 3 c lb. I S . S C lb. 8c apiece ( %' to Y, lb . ) 1 8c apiece 27c lb. (about I lb . ) 2 8 c lb. 3 3 C lb. 1 9 C lb. 1 9C lb. 3 5 C lb 25c lb. .

Some conclusions : ( I ) . Whole fish, not dressed, are high priced due t o the refuse. ( 2 ) . The market price is not the real cost. (3 ) . Herring is a cheap source of energy and protein .

Nature Guiding

388 A

few interpretation proj ects that arose.

( 1 ) . What use can be made of fish refuse for food ? ( 2 ) . May fish be used as a substitute for meat ? (3) . Table jor estimating the Comparative Cost and Food Value oj Meat.

Food as Purchased Chicken Fowl Sirloin Frankfurts Corned B eef

Refuse Per ct.

Protein Per ct.

C alorifi c

Value

Market Price

4 1 .6 25·9 1 2 .8 00.0 2 1 .4

5 13 . 1 62 . 1 74 . 8 8 8 ·9 65·3

295 775 985 1 1 70 1 085

3 5-40C lb. 3 2-3 6c lb. 48-50c lb . 28c lb. 2 6-2 8c lb.

Real Cost 56c lb. 45c lb. 56c lb. 2 8 c lb.

3 1-33c1b.

Conclusions : ( 1 ) . Should consider the proportion of edible material when purchasing meat . Some cheaper kinds are just as nutritious and often less wasteful. A given amount of money will purchase about seven times the energy in corn beef that it will in chicken. Interpretations : ( 1 ) . Why is the food value of chicken so low and the cost so high compared with fowl ? How may cheaper meats be made palatable ? Comparison oj Prices in the Local Produce Market and Two students visited the farmers'

the Retail Markets.

wholesale market on Promenade Street and the retail mar­ kets. Results were tabulated on the board, as follows :

Apples Shelled B eans Pears Tomatoes

Retail Market Price

Market Price

Local Produce Vegetable

$ 1 . 50--2 . 7 5 $ I . 75-2 . 2 5 $ 1 . 5 0 bu. $0 . 7 5- I . 7 5

bu. bu.

13C 25c 22C J OC

bu.

qt.

Y,

qt. qt.

pk.

Large quantities at the same rate $4. 1 6 bu. $2 .40 bu. $7 .04 bu. 1h .20 bu.

Conclusions ; such as,-In the case of pears the same amount of money will purchase about five times as much in the wholesale market as in the retail. The Cost of Cereal. Facts tabulated as follows : (5 ) . N arne of Cereal Corn Flakes Force Shredded Wheat Grape Nuts Oatmeal Cornmeal

Weight per package

Price

8 ounces

J OC J OC

10 12 14

.. .. ..

I lb. in bulk I lb. in bulk

Conclusions : ( 1 ) . Ready to-eat cereal foods a re ::nore expensive.

l IC 13C

6c 6c

Food Supply Crackers and milk give more nourishment for the same money. Cereals are one of the cheapest energy builders.

Lesson 8. New Foods and Methods. A list of supplementary foods and methods were placed on the board, as-soy beans, cow peas , cottage cheese, home-ground wheat in the coffee grinder for a cereal, skim milk, black mussel , dogfish , puffballs, wrapping green tomatoes in paper for winter use, putting eggs in water glass, drying fruits, preserving greens with salt , cold pack method, cotton seed flour, potato flour, rye bread, etc . Some of these, as canning were demonstrated. Others might be classed as construction proj ects, as the making of cottage cheese which is said to have as much protein in one pound as is found in a pound and a half of fowl. The use of soy beans might be an experiment. They are richer and cheaper than other varieties but are not so palatable. Each pupil was asked to select one as an individual proj ect and report to the class.

Lesson 9.

A War Breakfast.

The individuals were now supposed to know the war situation in regard to our food supply. They had figured out the daily cost of breakfast . They had gained some knowledge as to the purchasing of foods, and as to the planning of meals that are fundamentally right. They were now asked to plan a war breakfast and compare the data with what they had tabulated for the fifth lesson. The following was one of the best records. It was not only planned but carried out. Ordinary Breakfast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . War Breakfast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Price 20C 1 0C

Calories 46 1 .2 1 046.8

Protein 2 1 .0 grams 5 . 2 grams

Another wrote : " I used bananas on my shredded wheat instead of sugar and used Challenge Condensed Milk in my coffee for the same reason. I had corn muffins instead of wheat 1:"-read. I have not used fresh bread in any meal. In this one I have made use of stale bread in a bread pudding. "

Lesson 1 0 . Organizing the School into a Working Unit. This consists of morning talks of about five minutes before the school in the assembly hall. The first talk was by the psychology teacher about "Food Ruts. " These talks were on such subj ects as, The Black Mussel. The black mussel is seldom eaten except by our foreign population. It is more nourishing, cheaper, and more easily digested than the oyster. Volunteers were asked to pledge themselves to support a mussel menu and the shellfish was served in the school lunch room the following day. It is hoped that each object lesson is later carried out in the homes.

" The first farmer was the first man, possession and use of land . "

And all historic nobility rests on

-Ralph Waldo Emerson.

"Plow deep while Sheperds sleep . " -Benjamin Franklin.

Spacious and fair is the world ; yet Oh ! how I thank the kind heavens That I a garden possess, small though it be, yet mine own. One which enticeth me homeward ; why should a gardener wander ? Honor and pleasure he finds, when to his garden he looks. -Goethe.

"Now is the high tide of the year . . . . We sit in the warm shade and feel right well How the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell ; We may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing That skies are clear and grass is growing ; The breeze comes whispering in our ear That dandelions are blossoming near, That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing . " -Lowell, ( A Day in June.)

"Whoever makes two blades of grass grow on a spot of ground where only one grew before deserves well of mankind. "-Jonathan Swift.

CHAPTER XXXV NATURE GARDENING

The number of school and home gardens has fallen off greatly since the World War. The present problem of gardening is to make the study interesting as well as practical. It is easy enough to find the directions for planting and hoeing beans but that is no sign that we "know beans " nor does it guarantee anything interesting about beans. The pupils of the lower grades have been prepared for this work by observation and thought questions. If the nature lessons have been rich in content and method there will be no decided gap between this more advanced method and the less formal oral lesson. The pupils are now given opportunity to sit down and do intensive work and to express what they see by sketches. They perform simple experiments which are nothing more than questions asked of the plant. The plant gives the answer. They need this experience of individual , quiet research, still under guidance, as well as the class or m ass recitation. The following exercises are planned for older pupils. The ques­ tions are an aid to study. The answers to the questions need not be written. Whether the pupil sees the answer clearly or not will appear in the drawings. The sketches should be made by each indi­ vidual and passed in at the end of the period . They should be cor­ rected and returned by the next session. The returned work is not redrawn but it is understood that a mistake should not be repeated. The notebook is a record of progress in observing, thinking, and ex­ pression by drawing. The aim of the questions for thought is to cultivate the scientific habit of thinkin g . We accept most of our knowledge as pure in­ f ormation. The plan is to question the student in such a way as to lead him to think out the answer with the laboratory work as a basis of thought, rather than to repeat what has been memorized from a book. He has as much right to read beans as to read about beans. Each student should be reCJuired to do this thinking that he may attain self-assurance and be an easy thinker. If he acquires the habit of approaching the plants of the garden with the scientific attitude he will find it a perennial source of pleasure . The questions for thought may well be used as an intelligence test or one may make a game out of it. Give everyone a sheet of paper and pencil. Give them three minutes to make a list of differences between the "seed leaves " and the "second pair" of leaves in the bean seedling. Exchange papers and have the students check up the number of differences. Write the numbers one to twelve on the board and ask how many papers have one difference, two dif�er­ ences, etc . Return papers. Each one can then see where he stands in relation to the average. 391

Nature Guiding

392 I.

The Seed and Its Germination The seed is a logical beginning for the study of plants. It is also more convenient to study seeds before the leaves and the flowers appear out-of-doors. The seed, above all other parts of the plant , is of interest in the spring when it is germinating or in the fall when it is forming. Furthermore, the seed is easily experimented with and is readily obtained. One of the rules of teaching is to begin with the known and pro­ ceed to the related unknown . The pupil should draw the adult seed­ ling where the parts are readily seen and trace parts down through stages of growth to the corresponding parts in the seeds . This makes it necessary to have a series of seedlings of about the following ages :-three weeks, two weeks, one week, three days, and soaked twenty-four hours. The seeds should be soaked twenty-four hours before planting. These ages are approximate as the kind of seeds and variations of moisture and temperature have to be considered. Large seeds are easy to obtain and easier to study. The sprout protrudes in about three days in the pea and five days in the bean and corn . A variety of seeds and fruits should be gathered in the fall, such as beggar-ticks, cockle-burs, milk-weed, thistle, hop , and jimson weed. The key fruits of the Maple should be collected in the spring. Pine cones and their seeds should be collected in early summer and in fall . Plant these seeds three weeks before they are needed. Only a small per cent will germinate. Seedlings planted in sand, sawdust, or sphagnum moss are neatest to handle and the specimens can be removed without injury. The best plan is to grow the seedlings in a window-box, dividing the garden into small plots for individual pupils . If the specimens are grown in a greenhouse instead of a window garden they should be grown in wooden boxes. Each student is then given a box for grow­ ing specimens. The bean is better to begin with since the parts are more evident than in most seeds and it is most easily handled of those studied. I.

A.

KINDS

Bean. a. The Seedling. Note that the plant has three parts or organs ; roots , stem and leaves. The roots serve to anchor the plant, to dissolve food material, and to take in water. The stem conducts the water and the raw elements to the leaves, which manufacture food products for the plant. The halves of the bean, or first pair of leaves, are the " seed leaves " . The part of the stem below the "seed leaves" is called the "seed stem. " Make careful outline drawings of the series of seedlings proceeding from the adult to the seed. Indicate all parts by printed labels . Draw a "ground line" in each case to show the relation of the surface of the soil to the plant. The general label should show what each stage illustrates ; as, adult seedling, young seedling, or baby seedling of the bean.

Nature Gardening

3 93

b. The Seed. Examine the inside of the pod for the attachment of the seeds. What is the function of the "seed stalk ? " Remove one of the seeds. The scar left on the seed is called the "seed scar. " Look near the "seed scar" for a minute opening, the "seed doorway" . Press the seed and observe the water ooze out of the "seed doorway. " Sketch the bean (X 2 ) * to show these parts. Draw side view (X I ) . Carefully remove the covering of the seed, beginning on the side opposite the "seed scar. " What is the use of the seed coat ? Call all within the covering the embryo. Find the "seed bud " from which the second pair of leaves develop . This bud is called the plumule. How many leaves in the plumule ? How are they folded ? Identify the seed leaf and the seed stem. Remove one seed leaf and draw (X4) showing seed leaf, plumule, and seed stem. C. Questions for Thought. I . Account for differences between a dry and soaked bean. 2 . How much of the plant is formed within the seed ? 3 . What force causes the seed coat to burst ? 4. What are the parts of the embryo ? Which part of the embryo breaks through the seed coat first ? 5 . At what point does the embryo appear through the seed coat ? 6 . What part of the bean makes its way through the soil first ? 7 . Why is the seed stem arched when it breaks through the soil ? 8. What wou ld be the disadvantages of the "seed leaves" being pushed out ? 9 . Does the seed stem o r the plumule develop more rapidly at first ? Why ? Root or plumule ? Why ? 1 0 . How does the bean seed diff e r from the bean embryo ? I I . What are the new parts in the seedling not originally in the embryo ? 1 2 . What part of the bean gives it its food value for man ? For the young plant ? 1 3 . What are the changes in the seed leaves ? Why ? 1 4 . What are the reasons for calling the halves o f the bean leaves ? I S . How do the "seed leaves" differ from the second pair of leaves ? I S . How do the third pair of leaves differ from the second ? 1 7 . What becomes of the "seed leaves " in the older plants ? 1 8 . Describe the development from a n embryo t o a selfsupporting plant . 2 . Squash a. The Seedling. Follow the same procedure of study as with the bean. Make outline drawings showing the successive stages in the *The number following the directions for drawing indicates the scale to which the obj ect is to be drawn.

3 94

Nature Guiding

life history of the seedling. Use the ground line ; label. Look for the peg at the base of the hypocotyl. What is its use ? Compare with the use of the bootj ack. Draw edge view (Xs ) to show the use of the peg. b. The Seed. Make an enlarged drawing of the seed. c. Questions for Thought. 1 . Why do the "seed leaves" become green ? 2 . What other visible changes occur in the "seed leaves ? " 3 . How does the leaf which developed from the plumule differ from the seed leaves ? 4. Why is the plumule of the undeveloped squash seed very small as compared with the plumule of the bean ' s . What part of the seedling neither grows up nor down ? The Pea (Pisum) . 3. a . Life History. :Make a series of drawings to show the life history. Draw view (X I ) of the seed from the seed scar end. Does the seed stem have any relation to the seed doorway ? vVhat is the advantage in this ? vVhy- does the seed bud grow more rapidly than in th e bean and squash . , Sketch side view (X4) with one seed leaf removed. b . Comparison with the Bean . Compare the following parts \vith the bean : ( I ) Outside covering of the seed. ( 2 ) Seed leaf. (3 ) Seed Stem. (4) Seed Bud. 4 . The Corn . a . The Seedling. Brace roots grow from the stem of the corn. Why needed ? In what direction does the primary root grow ? What are the advantages of this ? How does the direction of the secondary roots differ from the primary ? Advantages ? Find the joint (the joint is where the leaf originates and not where it appears to originate) . Make outline drawings to illustrate the life history of the corn seed­ ling. b. The Grain. Find where the grain was attached to the COb . Notice a light area with a central ridge o n one broad face near this end. This is the embryo. Compare with a seedling and note whether the plumule is near the broad or the cob end of the grain. Identify the seed stem. Note the single cotyledon beneath the small cylin­ drical plumule and seed stem . Draw (XS ) the grain of corn showing these parts. The material which fills the rest of the kernel is starch. Place a drop of iodine on the starch. Note color which results. This is a test for starch since it is the only substance receiving this color from iodine. '\Vhat is the use of the starch ' vVhat difference is there in amount of starch as you proceed from younger to older plants ? How explain ? What is the sweetest part of the corn grain ? Explain. Cut a lengthwise section of the grain through the embryo. Draw the cut face (X I O) . B.

EXPERIMENTS .

QUESTIONS A SKED OF SEEDS.

I . Amount of Water in Seeds Under Ordinary Conditions. vVeigh several seeds and then dry them in an oven until they no longer lose in weight.

Nature Gardening

3 95

2 . Amount of Water A bsorbed by Dry Seeds. Weigh several seeds and then place them in water. Reweigh after a complete absorption of water has taken place. 3. Expansive Force in Germination. Fill a bottle with dry beans or peas . Fill spaces with water. Cork tightly. 4. Mm:sture and Germination . Expose seeds to different amounts of moisture. Keep other conditions the same. Tabulate results. 5 . Temperature and Germination . Expose several seeds to differ­ ent but nearly constant temperatures. Keep other conditions, as moisture and exposure to the air, the same. Tabulate results . 6. Light and Germination. Keep moistened seeds under dark and warm conditions. Record all growth. 7. Germination Test. An introduction to Economic Botany. De­ fine. Take a box divided into compartments about one and one-half inches square and two inches deep . Put about an inch of moist saw­ dust in each division of the box. Number the compartments and number ears of corn to correspond with the numbers on the box. Remove six kernels from different parts of each ear, planting the kernels from ear one in division one, etc . Record results. Which ears would you select for seed corn ? Why is seed testing plant selection ? Sum up the value of a germinating test of seeds. 8. Test for Purity of Seeds. Illus. , Grass Seed, Clover Seed, or Alfalfa Seed. Test several samples of one of the kinds mentioned above. Weigh the sample and then separate into : ( I ) Pure seed ; (2) Weed seed ; ( 3 ) Refuse. Record the results as follows : Name of sample Grade of Sample Per cent of pure seed Per cent of weed seed Per cent of refuse Cost per bushel of sample Cost per bushel of pure seed Per cent of pure seed that germinated Actual cost per bushel of pure seed that germinated

Low Grade

High Grade

Low Grade

High Grade

Low Grade

High Grade

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Why is it that the cheapest seed is sometimes the most expensive ? 9. Depth to Plant Seeds. Fill a glass jar with soil , planting beans next to the glass at different depths. Keep the j ar covered, when not making observations, so as to keep out the light. Plant peas, wheat,

Nature Guiding and corn in the same way. Compare results. Record in the following table the number of days it takes each to appear above ground. D epth in inches

Seed

2

I

B eans Peas Wheat

3

4

5

6

7

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___

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--

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Corn

IO. Test for Proteids. Place a drop of nitric acid on the finger. Note color. This is a general test for proteids. Test sections of a grain of corn. What parts contain the most proteid material ? Test a bean for proteid. Compare the test with the test of a grain of corn . I I . Test for Oil. Heat a few beans o n a piece o f paper. I2. Use of Seed Leaves. Remove the seed leaves from a few bean plants. Compare their growth with the remaining seedlings. I3. "Seed Stem A rch. " Sprout some squash or bean seedlings and suspend by threads with roots in water. Compare the form of the "seed stem" with seedlings grown in earth and sawdust. I4. Direction of Growth. Invert several seedlings between a piece of moist blotting paper and a piece of glass. Show results by sketch es . I5. Exhaling. Place a glass of lime water in a jar of sprouting seeds. Cover the jar tightly. Blow thFough a glass tube into another glass of lime water. I6. Inhaling. Place a few embryos in a glass of water. Displace the water by hydrogen gas, Seal and place in a favorable situation for growth . Make a control experiment . c.

SEED DISPERSAL

I. Wind. a. Wings (Key-fruit . ) Illus . , Ash, Elm, Box-elder, or Maple. Sketch to show parts. b . Tufts of Hair. Illus. , Dandelion, Milkweed, Thistle. Sketch. c . Bladders. Illus . , Hop. Sketch . 2 . Water. Illus. , Water-lily. 3 . A nimals. a. Beggar's Tick (Bidens) . Make an enlarged sketch to show the shape of the terminal bristles and barbs. b . Cockle-bur ; Burdock. Make a sketch to show shape, size, and means of holding to animals. D.

CLASSIFICATION

I. Objects. a. To increase the power of searching out facts and arranging them according to some well defined plan, thus building higher and broader conceptions from concrete material.

Nature Gardening

397

b . To give an idea of relationship and some understanding. of the principles of classification. c . To prepare the way for appreciation of true classification of plants and animals. 2. Tables. To be assigned to sections of the class. a. Divide the bean, squash , pea, and corn into two classes ac­ cording to where the nourishment is stored. b. Make a list of seeds protected against How

Heat

Cold

How

Moisture

How Animals How

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I

--- --

Wind

How

I

Gravitation

How

I

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Man

How

-- --

B irds

Ho w

--

Make a list of seeds used as Food

e.

How

Make a list of seeds adapted to distribution by

\Vater How

d.

Drought

I

i c.

l

Why

Medicine

Why

Poison

Why

Make a list of the troublesome weeds of the neighborhood. l\ieans of Dispersal

Name

Remedy

- -------- 1 -----

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E.

FIELD WORK

"In those vernal seasons of the year when the air is calm and pleasant , it were an injury and sullenness against nature not to go out and see her riches and partake in her rejoicing with heaven and earth. ' '-Milton . r . Experiment. Take up a little mud near the edge of a pond. Keep it under favorable conditions for plant growth. Pull up each plant as its grows. Count the number and kinds. 2 . Make a seed collection to exhibit ( r ) Seed dispersion ; ( 2 ) Seed protection ; (3 ) Variety of edible seeds ; (4) to distinguish between poor and good seed for the farm . 3 . Watch for seeds germinating out-of-doors , as the buckeye, maple, and oak. Mount young seedlings to show their life history.

Nature Guiding 4. Account for the location of certain trees by reasoning how the seeds were probably planted there. Locate th eir parents when possible.

F. 1.

egg.

GENERAL Q UESTIONS FOR THOUGHT

Com pare the parts of a grain of corn with the parts of a hen 's

2 . A fruit is a ripened seed vessel, with its contents and whatever parts are consolidated with it. The grain of corn is a fruit. Why has it no need for a seed coat ? 3 . What are the essential parts of a seed ? 4 . What i s the fruit o f the bean plant ? Why does the pod twist when mature ? 5 . What i s the seed ? 6 . What does the tough outer coat o f the corn correspond t o in the pea ? 7 . Give some differences between the fruit of the bean and of the corn ? 8 . Give resemblances in arrangement of the fruit of the corn and of the banana. 9 . What is bran ? 1 0 . Does the cotyledon of the corn appear above the ground ? II. What part of the corn embryo grows up through the soil ? 1 2 . In what plants do the seed stems appear above ground first ? 1 3 . Does the corn or the bean grow more rapidly at first ? Why ? 1 4 . When does a young bean plant cease to be an embryo ? A seedling ? 1 5 . What d o all seeds contain ? 1 6 . "The seed i s a unit o f plant structure. " Explain. 1 7 . What does a seed need in order to germinate ? 1 8 . What causes corn t o pop ? 1 9 . Will a pound of pop corn weigh the same after

popping ? Explain . 2 0 . Why does a farmer sometimes soak his seeds ? 2 1 . What is the first obvious stage of germination ? 2 2 . From where does the seedling get its nourishment ? 2 3 . Where does the root originate ? 2 4 . What would happen if the root end pointed upward in the ground ? 2 5 . What does the root do if an obstacle intervenes ? 2 6 . How does the plant increase its absorbing surface below ground ? Above ground ? 2 7 . From what d o seeds always develop ? 28. Does the peanut develop from a flower ? Explain answer. 2 9 . Is the potato a seed ? Explain . 3 0 . Is a dry seed dead o r alive ? Why ? 3 I . What are the advantages of the resting period of the dry seed ? 3 2 . Why is it better t o have the seed grown in the region where it is to be planted ?

Nature Gardening

3 99

What is the use of the seed to the plant ? Why does nature pack these embryos in such small bundles ? 3 5 . ·What advantages does a plant have in developing large seeds ? Disadvantages ? 3 6 . Should a farmer allow weeds t o grow up after gathering his crop ? Why ? 3 7 . Is it better farming to prevent weeds or to kill weeds ? 3 8 . Name the worst weeds of the neighborhood. How are they adapted to survive ? 3 9 . ·What has been the influence of man on the character of ''leeds ? 33 . 34.

G.

LITE RATCRE

Science does not destroy the poetry of life, but becomes a sound basis for the development of the aesthetic nature. This was the keynote of the life of Thoreau and of Ruskin. In the study of the parts of plants you should acquire that type of mind which enables you to interpret literature related to that particular part. This power should grow in richness, interest and appreciation. Through­ out the course references are made to literature from which you are expected to gather a few quotations related to each part of the plant. References : Ganntt' s "Year of Miracle ; " Thoreau's "The Suc­ cession of Forest Trees, " from "Excursions in Field and Forest. " II. Buds A.

PREPARATORY WORK

Draw the geranium plant to show the following parts : Blade, petiole (leaf stem) and stipules (reduced leaves at base of the petiole) , axillary bud, (bud in apex of the angle formed by the petiole and the main stem) , stem of plant , leaf scar, and stipule scars. A

B.

KINDS

series of horse-chestnut twigs should be developed in water several we2ks before this exercise. What is the arrangement 1 . Horse-chestnut Twig , or Buckeye. of the scales ? Draw outline of the twig and show the terminal bud­ scales. What becomes of the bud-scales ? When ? Find scars left after the removal of the scales of the terminal bud . Find similar scars left fro n last year's bud. What is the difference in the appear­ ance of the bark above and below such a ring ? Why ? How often do these scars form ? How many years old is the whole twig ? What was the growth-length last summer ? The summer before ? What may have caused the difference ? Compare the large horseshoe-shaped scars with the base of a leaf stalk. What inference can you make from this comparison ? How many dots in each ? What do the number of dots indicate ? What is the cause of the dots in these scars ? Were the leaves arranged oppositely or alternately ? Were the leaves of the same size ? How did you get this inference ? If they were not of the same size account for the difference ? Note the difference in color between last year' s leaf scar and last year's bark.

400

Nature Guiding

How account for the difference ? What was the position of the side bud with respect to last year' s leaf ? Call such a bud axillary. Did every leaf have a bud in the axil ? Which would grow under ordinary conditions, the terminal or axillary bud ? Why ? When would the axillary bud be useful ? Find small pores along the bark. These are breathing pores. The flower bud scar is in the angle produced by the forking of two twigs. Finish the sketch of the twig in detail and label the following parts : terminal buds, bud-scales, bud-scale scars, year growths, leaf scars, fibre scars, axillary buds. Write the auto­ biography of your twig. 2 . Tulip, Beech, Magnolia, Elm . What is the form of the bud ? How does the arrangement of the bud-scales differ from that of the buckeye ? Sketch the twig and bud in detail. Find the scars left by the removal of the scales. Find stipule scars. Indicate the annual growths in the drawing. Compare this twig with that of the buckeye. 3 . Bud in Groove of Petiole. Illus. , Green B rier. Draw to show ax­ illary bud in the groove of the petiole. What is the method of leaf casting ? Why is this an advantage to the bud ? 4 . Sub-Petiole Bud. Illus. , Sycamore (Plane Tree or Button­ wood) . These buds are formed under the protecting leaf-stalk which in the sycamore forms a cup , very much like a candle extinguisher. Draw, showing the petiole just removed from the bud. Find stipule scars. What is the age of the oldest bud on the branch ? 5 . A ccessory Bud. Illus. , Red Maple, Butternut, Cherry, Box Elder, Honey Locust . Draw to show characteristics. Would the axillary or the accessory bud be nearer the leaf scar ? How may accessory buds be arranged in respect to the axillary bud ? How distinguish the flower bud from the leaf bud in the Butternut ? C.

I.

C L A S S I F I CATION

Name kind of buds according to i Position

2.

Protection

Growth

Contents

:\Iedicine

Poison

Name buds used for Food

D.

F I E LD 'YORK

It is better to take a field trip on buds and stems at one time. Look for adventitious buds on the elm , the willow, and the poplar where the trunks or roots have been injured. Remove the bud-scales from several varieties of winter buds. Can the young parts with-

Nature Gardening

40 1

stand the exposure ? Watch the growth of some bud not already studied, making successive drawings to show its stages of development. Collect twigs of various trees. Group according to resemblances and differences . Learn to recognize trees by these features. Compare the buds of the Horse-chestnut and the Buckeye. the Red Maple and the Sugar Maple, the Black Walnut and the Butternut. Note the forms of stems as in the mints and the sedges. E.

G E N E RA L Q U E ST I O N S FOR THO UGHT

Why do trees shed their leaves ? Would a Maple tree shed its leaves if kept in a warm room ? Were ancestral trees deciduous or evergreen ? When are new leaves first formed ? How are they protected ? Why are leaves always borne a t the end o f branches ? Do all shoots of the plant form win ter buds ? Why are trees early flowering ? 9 . What parts o f the bud are only o f temporary use ? 1 0 . Does a n unfolding bud produce any new parts ? I I. Why is it that seeds store up reserve material and buds do not ? 1 2 . What are the indi cations that bud-scales grow ? 1 3 . Name trees in which the terminal bud dies. 1 4 . Why are older bud-scale scars obliterated ? 1 5 . What is the first bud of the plant called ? 1 6 . Does that bud develop continually i n annuals ? 1 7 . Why do annuals have unprotected buds ? I S . Why is disbudding a rational mode of directing the growth of plants ? 1 9 . Explain the use of buds in grafting. 20. Are grafted buds parasites ? 2 I . What would be the effect on fruit growing if grafting became impossible ? 2 2 . Why does pruning somtimes cause a tree to become fruitful ? 2 3 . Why should we prune j ust above the bud ? 2 4 . What makes it possible for the horse-chestnut to blossom at the same time that it has leaves and the red maple before it has leaves ? 2 5 . What is the usual difference in age between a twig and its branch ? Why ? 2 6 . Were the terminal buds of this spring in existence a year ago ? If so, where ? 2 7. Do terminal buds always come from terminal buds ? 2 S . From what kind of a bud may an axillary bud develop ? I.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. S.

F.

LITERATURE

" M odern Painters, " part VI , Chap . 1 . Lowell's "Bigelow Papers , " N o . VI . Lubbock : Buds and Stipules. D . Appleton and Co. , $ 1 . 2 5 .

402

Nature Guiding III. Stems

1. Rootstock. Illus. , Peppermint, May Apple, Solomon's Seal, Bloodroot, most any Sedge. Find leaves (reduced to scales) , and axillary buds. Where are the roots distributed ? Draw to illustrate parts. Why are these stems so thick for their length ? Why is cutting of the rootstock by a hoe favorable rather than destructive to the plant ? What is a "sucker" ? How does a rootstock differ from ordinary stems ? Define rootstock. 2 . Tuber. Illus . , Potato, Jerusalem Artichoke. Find a projection in each "eye" called the axillary bud. What is the tiny scale below the axillary bud homologous to ? (Seen best in new potatoes. ) Give reasons for inference. What i s the stem ? Are the buds arranged oppositely or alternately ? Find where the potato was attached to the parent stem. Compare the purpose of storing food in a tuber with that of fleshy roots. Why does it not need a woody tissue ? A thick bark ? Examine a young potato plant. Do the roots or shoots start first ? How know ? Where do new tubers form ? Draw a diagram of a potato plant showing last year ' s potato and his year's potatoes formed from it. Write a paragraph giving the complete life history of the potato plant. What is the potato ball ? What are the differences between a potato seed and a "seed potato " ? Why do potatoes not come true from seed ? What is the advantage of the method of propagating by tuber ( = asexual) over the seed method ( = sexual) ? Why should larger pieces produce a larger yield ? When would the propagation of potatoes by seed be advisable ? Why is it that the only satisfactory way to improve potatoes by selection is by " hill selection" rather than by selecting large potatoes ? ·When d o potatoes change t o a green color ? Why is the potato usually white ? What enables potato sprouts to grow in the dark when it is said that plants cannot live without sunlight ? Give the advantages and disadvantages of sprouting potatoes before planting them. Should potatoes be sprouted in a dark or in a light room before planting . Why ? Take two potatoes and find the weight of each. Remove the epidermis of one. Leave both potatoes in a dry place. In a few days weigh again. The parings should be weighed with the pared potato. What is the use of the epidermis in the potato ? Should potatoes be cut the day of planting or before. Explain . 3 . Corm. Illus. , Crocus, Gladiolus, Indian Turnip , Cyclamen. Draw without removing the leaves. Remove a leaf. Describe the leaf scar. Describe the character of the leaL Remove the remaining leaves. Is there any axillary bud present ? Terminal bud ? Is the axillary growth a root or a branch structure ? Why ? Draw show­ ing all these parts. Label by brackets what represents this year's growth , last year's and year before last. Why do conns need re­ planting every few years ? Does the plant reproduce sexually or asexually ? In how many ways may new corms be found ? Explain. In what part of the corm is food stored ? Define a corm.

Sature Gardening 4. Bulb. Illus. , Hyacinth , Tulip , Onion , Garlic . Draw external view. Draw view of a vertical median section showing stem, leaves, nodes, internodes, axillary buds, terminal bud, and roots. Where is food stored in the bulb ? Define a bulb . Why are the roots smaller in proportion to other parts than those of ordinary plants ? Compare a bulb with a bud. Compare a bulb with a corm in size of stem, "'lumber of leaves, and place of food storage. Compare length of life of bulbs and fleshy roots. 5 . Spines. Illus. , Honey Locust. Draw and label. What rea­ sons for thinking this thorn a modified stem ? From what kind of a bud did it develop ? 6 . Tendrils. Illus. , Grape. Draw. How recognize as a modified stem ? Why does the grape vine not stand erect ? Would you expect it to twine ? Why ? 7 . Elder Twig. (a) . One Year Old. Cut a cross section of a stem one year old. Moisten the cut end and examine with a simple lens. Notice three distinct regions ; bark, wood, pith. The bark is m ade up of three layers. Note the outside gray covering or the epidermis. (Replaced in a few years by cork in most dicotyledons. It is quite conspicuou s in the oak) . The greenish layer beneath the epidermis forms the bast. The cambium (LL. cambium , exchange) is a thin layer between the bast and the wood. The circle of wood represents an annual ring. What geometrical solid would a year' s wood-growth most nearly represent ? The pith is a packing tissue. Observe the fine white threads of pith extending to the cambium layer ; called medullary rays. Draw cross and longitudinal sections of the twig (X r o) . (b) . Two or More Year's Old. Notice the pores in the woody portion . Where are they largest ? (See the grape stem) . What is their function ? (Observe a stem which has stood in red ink a few hours.) Which parts represent fall wood ? Spring wood ? Notice the number of rings in the different twigs. How old is your twig ? Draw a transverse section (X r 0 ) . Cut off a twig of buckeye above and below a bud scale scar. Count the number of rings in each section. Inference ? 8. Oak Block. The concentric rings represent yearly growths. Show by a diagram what part of the tree your block might come from . Which would you expect to have the most compact structure, spring or fall wood ? Find the following parts in the transverse face : spring wood, fall wood, medullary rays, annual rings, and ducts. Draw and label. To find the corresponding parts in the other sections imagine yourself as a small insect traveling along certain paths. For example : travel along a medullary ray going slowly over to the radial face ( = Face view of medullary ray) . Find other medul­ lary rays in the same face. Travel along another ray wb ich leads to a tangential face (= End view) . What geometrical figure is represented by a complete medullary ray ? Medullary rays are called "silver grain" in vertical sections. Draw radial and tangen tial

404

Nature Guiding

faces. Was the growth of your block uniform ? What is quartered oak ? 9 . Field Work. Note the following facts in regard to the shedding of bark : At what age of the tree does it begin ? Evidences of new growth ? Trees most pronounced in ? Peculiarities, as in sweet gum ? Cut the stem of the grape vine and notice which part "bleeds . " Infer which part is most active. Cut the stem of the milkweed. Collect sticks of wood and split them longitudinally into equal parts. Have them planed at ends and on the split surface. Waste bits may be collected from a lumber yard or carpenter shop. Make a collection of twining stems. Study the healing of wounds in trees. Notice on the edge of forests whether the large limbs are next to the open fields or on th e forest side. Note the size of trunks of trees in thick forests. Study stems as homes for animals. Show that the beauty of a plant does not belong to the flower alone. Note character of stems with their graceful curvatures and manner of attachment. Learn to know trees in winter from a distance by studying their form as they appear against the sky. Collect twigs and branches of various shrubs and trees before leafing stage. Place in separate j ars so as to have each 'species a thing distinct in itself. The opening of the buds is most interesting. 1 0 . General Questions jor Thought. I . Give the differences between stems and roots. 2 . Does the root spring from stem or the stem from the root ? Is it necessary for a plant to have a stem ? Explain . 3. 4 . What kind of stems do pasture plants generally have ? Why ? 5 . What would be the disadvantage of the sunflower in th e pasture ? 6 . Why i s the dandelion s o successful o n the lawn ? 7 . How is the cactus adapted to an arid climate ? 8 . Why are stems modified ? 9 . How distinguish stems from leaves ? 1 0 . Wh a t parts o f a tree have a mechanical function ? 1 1 . Why do water plants not need mechanical tissue ? 1 2 . Why d o the stems of climbing plants lack in the strengthening elements ? 1 3 . How classify stems according to structure ? 1 4 . How d o hard woods differ from conifers i n structure ? 1 5 . Which would make better lumber for building vessels, oak or cedar ? Which is better for shingles ? 1 6 . Why d o w e use brush for peas and poles for beans ? 1 7 . 'What are the oldest parts of a tree ? 1 8 . What are the living parts o f a tree ? 1 9 . How much of the tree is living that was alive ten years ago ? What parts of the tree are eternal ? 2 0 . Where does the stem increase i n length ? I n diameter ? 2 I . Why are the trunks of palms nearly equal in diameter and conifers tapering ?

Nature Gardening 2 2 . What height will a nail be ten years after it has been driven in­ to the trunk of a tree ? Into last year's twig ? In to this year's growth ? 2 3 . Why is it easy to remove the bark in spring in making whistles ? 2 4 . What parts of the tree carry the . sap upward ? The food down­ ward. The food to the interior ? 2 5 . Why is a tree able to develop its leaves after girdling ? 2 6 . Why would "ringing a tree" hasten the production of fruit ? Is such a practice to be recommended ? 2 7 . Why d o the parts above the girdle increase in thickness ? 2 8 . Why will girdling a tree kill it ? 2 9 . What would be the effect of girdling Indian com ? 3 0 . Where may food be stored in the stem ? 3 I . What is meant b y "bark" ? 3 2 . What causes the bark to crack ? 3 3 . Why is the bark not as thick as the wood ? 3 4 . What are the advantages o f scraping the trunks o f trees ? 3 5 . What is sapwood ? Heartwood ? What are the differences ? 3 6 . What part of the tree makes the best timber ? 3 7 · In what part of the tree would you seek proper juices for medicine ? 3 8 . Which is heavier, a green or a dry cornstalk ? Why ? 3 9 . What is the difference between timber and lumber ? 40. How does a knot become imbedded in the wood ? 4 1 . Do knots injure lumber to any extent ? How prevent the formation of knots ? 4 2 . Which grow more rapidly, annuals or perennials ? 43 . What are the advantages of rapid growth of plants ? Disadvantages ? 44. Why do annuals not produce bark ? 4 5 . Wh at i s the cause o f annual rings ? 4 6 . Will annual rings be more distinct in the temperate climate or in the tropics ? 4 7 . Why are there no annual rings in the oldest geological trees ? 48 . Is the number of annual rings always a correct indicator of the age of a tree ? 4 9 . On which side of the tree are' the thicker rings formed, the leafy or the less leafy side ? North or south ? Hillside or valleyside ? 5 0 . Where would you expect the annual rings to be thicker, near the heart or near the bark in a large tree ? 5 I . Where should we count the rings of a tree, from a section near the tip or near the base ? 5 2 . Which makes better timber, a tree growing in the open or in the forest ? 5 3 . Why is Norway timber so excellent in quality ? 5 4 . What layers should come together in grafting ? 5 5 . What i s a scion ? A stock plant ? 5 6 . Why can a tree be vigorous and healthy with the center of the trunk gone ?

Nature Guiding 57. If not, 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63 . 64. 65 . 66. 67. 68. 69 .

bloom ?

Need a fruit tree be discarded when it has a hollow trunk ? how treat it ? What causes the lower limbs o f pine trees t o die ? What i s pruning ? Does nature prune ? What are the objects of pruning ? Should pruning b e done in wet weather ? What is the best time t o prune ? Discuss the old saying, " Prune when your knife is sharp . " What is the best way to remove large branches ? Upon what does the healing of wounds depend ? Discuss the protection of wounds by artificial means. How does "heading in" induce fruitfulness ? Why head commercial fruit orchards low ? Why are plants- with undreground stems among the earliest to

7 0 . Many plants with underground stems are woodland species. Why must they bloom early ? 7 I . Why do farmers bank up celery to bleach it ?

I should regard the most valuable of all arts to be the deriving of a comfortable existence from the smallest area of soil . " -A braham Lincoln .

That wonderful gift which some gardeners seem to have for growing anything is no magic ; it comes from the love of plants . . . . And that other gift for making a garden beautiful is no magic either ; it comes of -Tropical A griculturist. loving the garden as well as the plants.

CHAPTER XXXVI A N O UTLINE FOR A STUDY OF THE POTATO (The so-called Irish potato , Solanum tuberosum, and not the Sweet Potato which belongs to the Morning-glory family.)

I.

Historical Facts

For account of origin of the potato , read De Candolle' s " Origin of Cultivated Plants, " pp . 4 5-53 . Probably native of Ch ile, South America. Cultivated by Indians at time of discovery of America. A similar vegetable is eaten by natives of South Africa. Belongs to nightshade family, there­ fore once thought to be poisonous. First introduced into Europe 1 5 80-1 5 8 5 by Spaniards. Sir Walter Raleigh introduced "Vir­ ginian potatoes" into County Cork, Ireland, about 1 5 84. " Po­ tatoes are of less note than horse-radish ,-beets. "-Bradley, 1 7 1 9 . " Plant your potatoes in your worst ground. "-John Evelyn . Par­ mentier ( 1 7 3 7- 1 8 1 3 ) a noted chemist, popularized it in France. Potato soup is known as "potage Parmentier" in his honor. Probably introduced into the United States toward end of 1 6th century (Virginia and North Carolina) . Frederick the Great succeeded in introducing it into Prussia. Louis XVI and Queen Elizabeth wore potato blossoms to help popularize it. Grown in European flower gardens in 1 7 th century. Called Irish potato because used so generally in Ireland. Potato blight caused famine in Ireland in 1 846.

II. Natur e Lesson A. SUbject Matter for Teacher. An ordinary stem, as a geranium, has buds and leaves . A potato is also a stem . The proj ections in each "eye" are buds and near the center of the "eye-brow" may be found a tiny scale which is an undeveloped leaf. This rudimen­ tary leaf is seen best in new potatoes. One could imagine a branch of a geranium converted into a potato by reducing the leaves and storing a great deal of starch in the stem . If this modified ge­ ranium was then placed underground it would give up its green color due to the absence of sunlight. The stem of the potato is large on account of its vast amount of stored food and the leaves have degenerated because the s �em is underground. In early spring, the "seed potatoes" are cut into pieces, each piece having an eye. These are planted in furrows and covered with soil. The bud soon sends out a sprout and from the base of this stem appear small roots. The sprout grows above ground and sends out ash-shaped leaves. The soil is usually drawn around the young plants with a hoe and this forms the "hill " . This prac­ tice is not good as it drains moisture away from the potato. The leaves take carbon dioxide from the air ; water and mineral sub40 7

Nature Guiding A po tato i s

_

.- Stem- . .

a

s t em

__--�

_ ,

�ud-- - - -

,

Typ e stem I I . Roots forming.

Fl ower enl arged

Po t a t o hal l I I I . Matur e Fig. I .

Study of the Potato stances from the soil by means of the roots ; and, in the presence of sunlight, warmth and leaf-green, manufacture a liquid nourish­ ment. In the meantime, underground branches have started from the base of the sprout which look very much like the roots but are slightly larger. These underground branches receive the sweetish food, which is manufactured by the leaves, and begin to enlarge at their ends into potatoes. The food is stored in the potato in the form of starch. The blossoms do not usually produce fruit. This is because it has not depended upon seed but has been reproduced by man in the way just described. In colonial days, the "seed-balls" or "potato­ balls" were quite abundant. After the blossoms fall off, the plant above the ground withers and dies. The potatoes are now said to be "ripe" and are dug with a hoe or potato digger. On large, level farms the potatoes are dug by machines. When the potatoes are harvested they are stored in bins in the cellar or in a dark room where it is warm enough not to freezE the buds, and cold and dark enough to keep the sprouts from starting. In the spring, sprouts start from the eye of some of the potatoes. The sprouts grow very rapidly, taking the nourishment out of the potato until it becomes wrinkled and unfit to eat. B . Method of Procedure. Aim : Appreciation of common things and how plants reproduce. Preparation for intelligent and ap­ preciative interest in potato growing in the spring. Have pupils plant potatoes in a box containing sandy soil. Keep warm and moist. Watch how they grow. Take one up at different intervals to show changes. Draw different stages. Describe the changes. Keep a diary. Review parts of a typical stem using geranium as example .

Have someone draw geranium on board to

show stem, leaf, and buds. Lead pupils to find same parts in a potato. Make drawing of potato beside sketch of geranium. Connect same parts with dotted lines. Lead class to infer that the potato is a stem. Have pupils reason out : Why leaf is reduced ? Show class a potato which has been exposed to sunlight and one that has been in the dark. How account for difference in color ? Conclusion : The potato is an enlarged underground stem. Apply a weak solution of iodine to the cut surface of a potato. Observe results. Iodine colors starch blue. Infer that starch has been stored in the potato or underground stem. About a month before this lesson remove the skin from a potato and weigh. Leave in a warm place. Pupils now observe changes in size and weight. Lead class to infer that its loss in size and weight is due to evaporation of water. The composition of potato is 7 8 .3 per cent water, I 8 per cent starch, 2 . 2 per cent protein, 1 .0 per cent ash, and o . I per cent fat. Show by diagram about how much of a potato is water and how much starch.

410

Nature Guiding

Show class a potato which has sprouts upon it. How does it differ from a potato without sprouts ? (Wrinkled) . Why ? New growth eating the starch which was stored in it. Infer that starch is stored in the potato as nourishment for new plants. Kote that sprouts are long white stems with small white leaves. vVhy white ? vVhy long stems ? Why small leaves ? Leave specimen exposed to light and observe changes. Why are potatoes with sprouts not desirable for the table ? Pupil dig up a piece of potato which has been planted . From what does the sprout start ? From what do the roots come ' Do the shoots or roots start first ? In what direction do the roots go ? Why ? Why should the earth be kept loose about the growing plants ? Teach class why potato has large leaves above ground. Show flowers . Show "seed-balls " . These should be collected the year before and preserved in formalin in a small bottle. Explain law of disuse. vVhen the potatoes are ripe the parts above ground wither and die. Why ? (They have served their function . ) I f possible show a potato plant with the new potatoes. Have class review by giving life history of this plant. A diagram may be substituted if the plant is not available.

III. Potato Gardening A. Organizing Club. Send to the U. S . Department of Agri­ culture and to the State Agricultural College for all literature re­ lated to the Potato Club Work .

Farmers' Bulletins 3 5 , 9 1 , 2 9 5 , 3 2 4 , 3 8 6 , 40 7 and 4 1 0 and Bureau of Plant Industry Circular No. 1 1 3 are especially valuable. Let pupils take home cards showing requirements for potato club work. Obtain permission of parents for children to j oin the club and so far as possible for land . The "landless " children should be given opportunities in the school garden, in window-box gar­ dening, and in experimental work. B . Steps in Gardening. Select an open unshaded area. Rich sandy loam is best . Drive a stake in fou r corners of proposed garden and connect with string. Spade up garden for depth of eight inches . Rake until surface is fine and level . Fertilize with street sweepings or buy fertilizer from a seed store. Mix well with soil . Select a well known variety that grows best in the neighbor­ hood . Throw out any diseased potatoes. Mix one-half pint of formalin to 1 5 gallons of water. Put potatoes in solution for two hours and then dry them . This prevents scab disease. Cut potatoes lengthwise into quarters , each piece having two or three eyes . Plant four inches deep and about a foot apart in rows. The rows should be a foot apart unless it is possible to cultivate with a horse and harrow. Hoe once a week to keep top soil fine and to prevent weeds. Keep this up until the plants shade the whole ground. Spray with Paris green as soon as the potato-beetl e is seen. Add

4Ir

Study of the Potato

Bordeaux Mixture when plants are eight inches high to prevent disease. Mix one-fourth pound Paris green , one-half pound lime to 2 5 gallons of water. Dig potatoes as soon as tops are dead. Keep potatoes from each plant separate. Do not allow them to be exposed to the light. The best hills have a large number of potatoes which are uniform in size. Select seed potatoes from these hills for the next season. Separate the remaining potatoes into marketable potatoes and culls. The culls include all small and injured potatoes. Sell or store in a dark place. C . Suggestive Records jar Booklet. Kame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Street and number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Size of garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . feet by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . feet . Description of soil : Calendar : Prepared soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; planted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; sprouts appeared above ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; first flower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; matured (tops died) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; harvested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACCOUNTS

EXPE�SE

DATE I

I KCO�! E 1

------ -- -- --- -------- --------

Cost of seed . . . . . . . . . Cost of fertilizer . . . . . . Preparation of garden, hours at 1 0 cents . . . . Planting potatoes, hrs . at 1 0 cents . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultivation . . . . . . . . at 1 0 cents . . . . . . . . . . . Hours Date Spraying mixtures . . . Spraying at I O cents . . . Date Kinds of Spray Hours Harvesting, hrs. at I OC . . . . Rent of land . . . . . . . . . . . . Total cost . .

Amount sold or used

:l\Iarket price per bus.

. . . . . . Amount on hand . . I Value of crop . . . . . .

D . Other Garden Facts. In 1 8 8 9 there were several hundred varieties . New varieties are obtained from seed. Some yarieties never produce fruit ; others do not eyen blossom . Two crops are grown in one year on the same land in the South. 1 900- 1 9 1 0 . The average acre yield in United States was less than 9 3 bushels. 1 900- 1 9 1 0 . AYerage acre yield i n Germany and Great Britain 2 00 bushels. E. H. Grubb , "Potato King" of Colorado, produces 600 bushels per acre. Earl of Roseberry, Potato wizard of Scotland, 2 000 bushels per acre. Germany yields one-fourth of the world's crop. We consume 37:2' bushels per person a year in the United States.

412

Nature Guidmg

We import about one-fourth of potatoes used in United States. There is no garden crop for which spraying is so necessary as for the potato crop. The best potatoes are about 1 2 ounces, somewhat cylindrical shallow-eved, and white in color. E. Pictures. Collect pictures as well as specimens to show varieties, diseases, different characteristics, machinery for culti­ vation, and methods of caring for the crop . These may be ar­ ranged in the booklets. Obtain Millet 's "The Angelus" , "The Potato Gatherers " , and "Going to Work " .

I V . Uses of the Potato A. In the Home. The potato stands next to wheat as an im­ portant food crop in the western countries. Potato Starch. The making of starch is both valuable and in­ teresting. Grate potatoes into a dish of water. The starch granules settle on the bottom of the dish. Keep rinsing with water until the starch is white and clean. Send for Recipes for the u se of the Potatoes and Horne-made Potato Starch , Form 0-7 , to the States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Boiled Potatoes. Most economical to boil in j ackets. If pared, place in cold water to prevent coloring. If of uniform size they are done at the same time. Place in hot water instead of cold­ will not be soggy. Salt added to water makes the potatoes more tasty. Drain off water. in

Baked Potatoes .

J\Iore wholesome than boiled potatoes.

Place

a hot oven until soft. Break skin to let out the stearn . B . Commercial Uses. Denatured alcohol ; sizing for paper ; thickening colors in calico printing ; glucose.

The Potato-Beetle 1 . Aim : To know the life history and means of protection of the potato-beetle in order to exterminate it. Teach when needed. Place the larvae of the potato-beetle on a potted potato plant which may be kept in a breeding cage. In what way are the larvae injurious to the plant ? How might we attack the insect in this stage ? Handle the larvae and note the odor left on the hands. Would birds enj oy eating the larvae ? Why ? (A distasteful secretion protects them from birds) . Of what advantage are the bright colors of the larvae to itself ? (A warning to birds. ) The larvae change into the pupal stage be­ neath the ground. How would fall plowing help destroy this pest ? In what way would rotation of crops help this problem ' Study the adult. Feed the insect on raw potato. Note whether the adult has sucking or biting mouth parts. (Biting mouth parts) . Does the adult or the young larva have the greatest appetite ' Compare the size of the legs with those of the ground beetle ? (Smaller.) What does this indicate ? (Depends more on wings for loco'

Study of the Potato

413

motion) . In what way does this suggest the need o f co-operation amongst farmers of a neighborhood ? (If each one does not kill these pests they will soon infect clean areas) . Describe the feet . (Claws and pads) . Use ? (Crawling and clinging) . How many pairs of wings does this insect have ? (Two) . Note which wings are used in flying ? ( Inner) . In what way are they adapted for flying ? (Light and gauzy) . Describe the outer wings. (Hard and shell-like) . What do you infer is their use ? (Protection to delicate under-wings) . Pick up a beetle and note how it "plays possum. " When one brushes against a potato plant the adult insects drop to the ground and "play possum " . What is the advantage of this habit ? Hold the insect rather firmly. What is another method of protection ? (Acrid secretion) . The orange colored eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves. Advantage ? The potato-beetle was a native of Colorado where it lived on a wild plant of the nightshade family. VI.

Conservation of Moisture

This lesson should precede th e cultivation of the potato crop . Experiment I. Devise a rack to hold four lamp chimneys in a vertical position. Tie a piece of cloth over the bottom of each and fill within three inches of the top with gravel, sand, clay, and loam , respectively. Pour the same amount of water into each chimney and note the time it takes each soil to absorb the water. Which allows the water to pass through most quickly ? Which soil should we add to a garden that loses its moisture too rapidly ? What soil should we mix with garden soil that does not absorb water readily ? The force which causes the moisture to go downward is called gravity. In heavy soils plant potatoes about three inches deep and in light loose soil four to five inches deep. Why ? Experiment 2 . Pack the soils in the lamp chimneys rather firmly and add a loose dry layer of the same kind of soil on top. Let the lower ends of the chimneys in a pan of water. Note the rate at which the water passes upward in each soil. Compare the rate at which the moisture passes upward in the packed soil and in the loose surface soil. This upward movement of the water is due to capillary attraction. Which would you expect to be more important for the plant , gravitational water or capillary water ? This experiment shows how tillage will conserve capillary water . Explain. The surface layer is called a mulch and this practice is known as dry farming in the west. If it were not for saving of the moisture they could not farm in dry regions. Experiment 3 . Place soil in a tray. Pack the surface firmly on one side and leave a loose surface on the other. Incline the tray slightly and pour water on gently from a watering pot. In which case does the water soak in and in which case does it run off

lVaiure Guiding

the soil ? Lead class to infer that a second reason for keeping a mulch is to absorb the rainfall. The sun bakes the soil after a rain forming a hard surface. v\-hat effect would this have on evaporation of the water ? (Hastens) . What would be the relation of such a surface to the next rainfall ? (Water would run off and not soak in) . Give two reasons for hoeing the garden after a rain. Tillage to conserve soil moisture is really more important than tillage to kill weeds. Experiment 4 . Place the same weight o f wet sand i n two trays of the same size. Arrange soil in one so that it is made up of parallel ridges and keep the contents of the other tray flat. These two trays illustrate two methods of cultivating potatoes , one is called the ridged system or "hilling-up " potatoes and the other is known as the flat method. Weigh occasionally to see which is losing the moisture more rapidly. (The flat method exposes less surface soil and therefore conserves the moisture. ) Should we "hill-up " pota toes or use the "flat method" in a dry region ? In a region which has a great deal of rainfall ?

"Out of its little hill faithfully rise the potatoes' dark green leaves, Out of its little hill rises the yellow maize stalk . " - Walt Whitman .

. . . . If vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil . -A lexander Pope.

CHAPTER XXXVII POTATO GEOGRAPHY!

A knowledge of the origin of our cultivated plants , experience in the use of maps to show their paths of distribution, an adequate conception of how they accumulate their pests, and a comprehension of plant geography in general makes possible a rational policy of plant control. When a plant is subj ected to the influences of domesti­ cation it becomes physiologically weakened. When it is introduced into a new region modifications are brought about by the change in the climatic or other physical features of the environment. Any disturbance in the structure or habits of a plant may lead to the inroads of disease-producing organisms. A brief historical survey of potato geography may serve to portray important facts bearing upon the relations of plant geography and progressive agriculture. Our common potato (Solanum tuberosum) grows wild in western America from Chile as far north as Mexico. There has been consider­ able confusion as to its origin due to related species being found in Peru and Mexico but the ordinary white potato was unknown in Mexico during the period of western exploration.2 De Candolles gives a detailed account of its origin. It is probable that the potato crossed the Atlantic three times before it reached England in about 1 5 8 6 . It is mentioned as having been taken by the Spanish ex­ plorers from Quito, Ecquador in about 1 5 80. They must have carried it up the western coast and then across the Isthmus by mule train. From Spain the tuber was carried to the Georgia seaboard prior to 1 58 5 and thence to Ireland by Sir Walter's Raleigh 's expedition (Raleigh did not go to Virginia himself) . It is interest­ ing to note that the potato did not reach China until 1 8 7 5 . Our De­ partment of A griculture is now experimenting with 2 48 races of po­ tato which have been imported from South America. It is told that when the potato was first introduced into France it would not produce tubers .4 As in the case of the clover which would not thrive in Australia until the bumblebee was introduced to aid in cross-pollination, some concluded that the potato is a gall produced by a fungus and only when the potato-producing organism gets into the soil is the gall or potato produced. Tuber formation, however, has been induced in sterile soil by a concentrated solution of sucrose and there is, therefore, a possibility that the fungi may raise the concentration of the soil media. In this way the organism is an indirect cause of tuberization. The ancestral potato blossomed, produced seed, and died. Con'Seminar paper, Botany Dept. , B rown University, May 2 4 1 9 1 9 . 'Von Humboldt, Nouvelle Espagne, edit . 2, vol. ii p. 45 1 ; Essai sur la Geogra­ phie des Plantes, p. 29. 3De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants, pp. 45-5 .3 . 4Robinson, 1 9 1 7 , The Botany of Crops. ,

41 5

Nature Guiding sequently there were a few small potatoes . Under domestication the vine quickly lost the power of growing seed-balls, many plants not even blossoming. The domestic potato plant, then , may be said to be one that blossoms, produces potatoes, and dies. Artificial selection has resulted in the production of potatoes instead of seed. The period just following the blossoming is rather precarious as there is an inherited tendency to die at that time. If the plant can be carried over this critical period it will grow for some time. If the plant enters a decline it is easily affected by heat, drought, insects and disease. A Bordeaux spray is of great benefit at this time. The thin veil of copper shields the leaves from the glare of the sun , reduces transpiration, checks disease, and stimulates growth . 5 The domestication of the potato has brought about a complete series of changes. The cultivated potato is rather delicately adjusted to its sur­ roundings. Water supply and temperature are the most import­ ant environmental factors. Europe is able to secure a higher yield than the United States due to having a cooler climate and a greater rainfall. The damp climate of Maine is one of the reasons for its high average yield per acre ( 2 06 bushels in 1 9 1 4) as compared with the average yield of the \\Thole country (96 bushels) . The potato itself is about 7 5 % water and when we buy a bushel of potatoes we get about three pecks of water to one peck of starch . Its demands for soil moisture therefore are very great. The soil is another important factor and is closely related to the water supply. Sand absorbs too much heat and the water supply is usually some distance below the surface. Clay, on the other hand, holds too much moisture and causes the tubers to decay. Then again , the root system of the potato is comparatively weak and cannot penetrate a heavy soil like clay. A rich mellow loam is best suited to potato culture. Although the potato is very sensitive to its surroundings it is one of our most widely distributed crops. The largest centers of production on the Atlantic coast are Aroostock County, Maine, and Norfolk, Virginia . The San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys are the best known in the Pacific district. The planting of early potatoes starts about December 2 I in Florida and migrates north­ ward with the season . The progression of planting by months gives an idea of the geographic movement of the crops : January I , northern Florida ; February I , Georgia ; March I , Virginia ; April I , Long Island ; May I , Northern Maine. As the crop matures toward the north the distance of shipment to large centers of population lessens and the price declines. The distribution of seed potatoes is in the opposite direction, most of them coming from Maine, New York and Minnesota, showing that the higher temperature of the south injures their vitality. A summary regarding the potato in other countries yields some 'Stuart, Vermont Agric. Experiment Station, Bulletin 1 79 .

Potato Geography interesting facts. 6 The crop is grown as far north as Dawson City in the Klondike region. Austria , before the war, grew 3 0-7 0% more than the United States. Belgium production was 60 times as great per square mile as the United States. Germany was the greatest potato producing country in the world with an average yield of 2 00 bushels per acre for 1 0 years, more than double that of the United States. Professor S. N. Patten states that this enabled G ermany to overthrow France in the Franco-Prussian War. Sweden with 5;4 million people grows as many as Italy with 3 5 million people. Switzerland suffers at times from an over-production of potatoes The political boundaries of countries offer no barrier to the insect pests and swarms of fungus spores which are seeking their hosts. The spores of the potato blight may be swept by the wind from village to village or they may live on seed potatoes and thus be distributed from country to country. We must realize that the problem is of geographic magnitude and that its solution means world-wide intelligence. The importance of this knowledge was first thrust upon the world during the great Irish Famine in 1 84 5- 1 8 4 7 . Ireland with its in creased population had come to depend upon the potato crop more than any other country. The harvest of 1 84 5 promised to be a rich one when 10 there came out of the west a blight which changed the luxuriant crop to a blackened waste ; 6 00 , 000 people died from famine. What was the source of this great scourge ? During the first 2 5 0 years of potato culture the blight was un­ known. In 1 8 8 7 Jensen7 concluded from experimentation that the blight fungus cannot exist where the mean temperature exceeds 2 5 degrees centigrade. From these two facts Jensen reasoned that so long as potatoes were carried by slow-going sailing vessels the excessive heat of the tropics had disinfected the tubers. In 1 83 0- 1 840 the sailing vessel gave way to the steamship . This quicker means of transportation enabled the organism to exist while crossing the tropics. This conclusion was substantiated by Reeds in 1 9 1 2 who claims that the disease is practically unknown in Virgin ia below an altitude of 2 000 feet and that it appears earlier at high altitudes. The disease scarcely ever occurs south of Latitude 40 degrees. The quick spread of the disease is shown by the following itinery : France, 1 840, Von Martius ; Norway, 1 84 1 , Westrem ; Belgium , 1 84 2 ; Denmark, 1 84 2 , M . Fjeldstrup ; B oston , 1 8 4 2 , mentioned in a letter by B . Watson to Jensen ; New York City, 1 843 . Here is a disease then originating with its host plant. The organism could have been held within bounds by as simple a check as low temperature. Had the solution of the problem been provided for there would have been a great saving of lives, suffering, and expense. 6J . Russell Smith, Industrial and Commercial Geography. 7Jensen, 1 88 7 , Mein. Soc. Nat. Agr. France, 1 3 1 , 3 1- 1 56. BReed, 1 9 1 2 , Phytopathology, 2 : 2 50-2 5 2 .

Nature Guiding

The powdery scab (Spongospora subterranea) is also native to the Andes . It was introduced from Europe to Canada and thence to the United States being discovered in Maine by Morse and Melhus� in 1 9 1 3 . A humid climate and damp soil favor its distribution. This disease was first studied and described by Thaxter of Harvard. Would it not have been a good investment to have met the enemy at home ? The story of powdery scab is repeated by silver scurf (Spondy­ loc1adium atrovirens) . This was known in Europe in 1 8 7 1 being first studied and described by Hertz of Austria . It was next reported by Frank, 1 8 9 7- 1 8 9 8 , in Germany ; Johnson , 1 903 , in Ireland ; Smith and Rea, 1 904 , in England ; and recently in Connecticut by Clinton . This disease is practically limited to the northern boundary of the United States, although it has appeared in one small area in northern Florida. Infected potatoes have been planted in the coastal states but the disease did not appear in the field.lo Soil was then transported to these northern areas from 1 0 states and the disease was produced in 8 cases , showing that a favorable climate is necessary for the existence of the disease. A more recent pest , traveling the same path , is the potato wart disease (Synchitrium endobioticum) . It was known in Hungary in I 8 96 being first reported by Schibbersky, and reached New Foundland in 1 909 coming via Germany and England on seed potatoes. It crossed the line into Aroostook County and was found in Pennsylvania in 1 9 1 8 . This is one of our most serious potato diseases as no spray is effective and it persists five or six y e a rs in the soil even though no potatoes are grown in that area . It is hoped to keep the disease in this state by a quarantine act . It would have been a great deal simpler to have prevented it crossing the ocean. B lack-leg (B acillus phytophthorus) 1 l was introduced from Europe to Connecticut in 1 904. The disease is spread by tubers and soon radiated over the country being observed in New Hampshire in I 906 , in Maine in 1 907 , and in Virginia in 1 909. It has now reached the potato growing centers of Colorado and Oregon. The common scab (Actinomyces chromogenus) may serve as an example of a fungus disease which awaits the coming of a host . The scab organism existed in the soil before potatoes were intro­ duced. The disease is common to turnips and beets but it also has found the potato to be a congenial host . A survey of the origin and distribution of the fungus diseases of the potato lead one to infer that for the most part they travel along certain geographical routes. They come uninvited, propagate rapidly, and cause tremendous destruction . A knowledge of their climatic limitations would have served to keep out most of them . Instead we have maintained the open door policy and have begun 9Morse and .Melhus, 1 9 1 3 . Sci. 3 8 : 6 1 -62 : 1 33 . ' OWeekly N ews Letter, Department of Agriculture, Jan. 26, 1 9 1 6. lIMaine Agric. Exp. Station, Bulletin 1 74, Dec. 1 909.

Potato Geography the fight too late. It is too late to make amends for the past but our responsibility for the future has become manifold. The story of the potato beetle serves as a good summary of the way new pests behave12 • Until 1 8 56 the insect fed upon an allied plant (Solanum rostra tum) in Colorado. Chittenden thinks that it must have originated as a species in Colorado but Tower13 assumes that it must be of tropical origin as is true of its principal food plant Solanum rostratum . Whateyer its origin it is interesting to note that when it once got a taste of Solanum tuberosum the beetle abandoned the wild food plant which its ancestors had fed upon and feasted upon our economic species. Originating as a potato pest in 1 8 5 6 the beetle marched eastward at a terrific pace, covering 1 5 00 miles in 1 6 years. By 1 8 7 4 it appeared on the Atlantic coast and in 1 8 7 7 reached England and Germany. This was one of the first instances of a plant pest of this country moving eastward. B efore this the weeds, dis­ eases , and injurious insects of the world had been spreading westward with the progress of civilization . The isomigs (Lines of equal migra­ tion) show that the march of these hordes lagged on the north and south due to the extreme cold and heat , and today they only appear on the northern and southern boundaries when the temperature has been unusually moderate. The quick invasion of the potato beetle was aided by the prevailing westerlies . A knowledge of the potato beetle and his climate limitations should be of value in keeping him from crossing the Rocky Mountains. Irrigation has extended the geographic range of the potato but the beetle has not found his way across the cold mountain barrier. A little thought and carefulness now will save these new potato areas from the heavy tax demanded by the potato beetle. These undesirable citizens cannot be deported . The mistake would be in thinking that there are no more. The B ureau of Ento­ mology of the United States of Agriculture has listed 3 000 injurious insects which are likely to be introduced. The Federal Horticultural Board is backing up the Federal Embargo Act which prohibits the importation of plants without the sanction of the United States Department of Agriculture. This will guard against the dangers of new plant diseases as well as insect pests. Another safeguard is in the recently organized American Plant Pest Committee which is made up of state foresters, entomologists, agriculturists , and pathologists. It is their duty to give publicity to the campagin and to act quickly vvhenever any new pest is discovered. The time seems fitting to take up at once an efficient means of curbing the activities of these enemy aliens . l'Chittenden, Circular 8 7 , U . S. Department of Agriculture. "Tower. An Investigation of Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles.

CYBELE

Spirit of th' raw and graved earth Whenceforth all things have breed and birth, From palaces and cities great From pomp and pageantry and state Back I come with empty hands Back unto your naked lands.

-L. H. Bailey.

CHAPTER XXXVIII THE TOMATO These facts are simply told to the class as interesting knowl­ edge in connection with their growing tomatoes . They are not to be learned. I . Historical Facts. First found in Peru. Belongs to same family as potato and egg plant. First used as food in 1 83 0. Food value was discovered by accident. First grown as curiosity and was thought to be poison­ ous. Copy these directions by use of hectograph. Each pupil should be given a copy as a guide, not to learn.

II. Steps in Cultivation. Fill a flat box with good, rich soil. Plant seeds second week in March, one-half inch deep . As it originated in the tropics it needs a long growing season. Place on a sunny window sill. Young plants appear in about one week. Raise window on warm days . Water early in forenoon. When there are about four leaves trans­ plant 2 " apart. When 4-6 inches high and crowded transplant s urdy ones to paper-pots, or strawberry boxes or tin rims tied with strings. Water well and replace on sill. Tum pots every day so plants will not lean toward light. If grow spindling, pinch off tops. Transplant to garden about June I or when danger of frost is over. If in paper pot tear off the bottom to let roots grow. Dig a hole about six inches deep . Put in little stable manure and cover with I inch of dirt . Cover plant to second pair of leaves. Press soil firmly about pot. Leave sides of pot to keep awa y the cutworm s . lVIake holes 3' apart in rows ; rows 4' apart. Have rows run north and south to get as much sunlight as possible. Support vines with trellis or stake so berries will not rot , be eaten by slugs or wire worms, or splashed with mud. INater copiously early in forenoon. Shade with newspapers if sunny. Keep soil mellow and free from weeds. In about a month (July I ) , cut off all but three strongest branches. Tie branches to supports with raffia or strips of cloth. B lossom about middle of July. Insects fertilize blossoms. Cut off all tops and side branches ( = suckers) , so nourishment will go to the fruit . Cuttings may be made the last of August . III.

Harvestin g and Marketing.

Maryland is the largest tomato producing state. The tomato is a perennial in Texas and an annual in Rhode Island. If the fru it is to be shipped some distance gather when partially colored and wrap in paper. Ripen fru it on plant for home market. Cu t fruit from 42 1

422

Nature Guiding

plant as they ripen leaving a portion of th e stem on the fruit. The best fruit for market or exhibition is smooth , uniformly ripened , free from disease, uniform in size and attractive in color.

I V. Canning. Send for Farmers ' Bulletin 5 2 1 on Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work. This forms a good basis for a lesson in canning. No other fruit or vegetable is used so extensively. The census for 1 9 0 9 shows that 1 2 , 800,000 cases of 1 2 cans each were packed in the United States. It is a basis for soups, sauces for fish , salad and ketchup . V. Suggestions for A ccessory Lessons. These lessons are given if there is an occassion which demands them , otherwise they are omitted. For example,-if the vines are attacked by the tomato worm that is the time to study it or if there is danger of frosts teach how to cover the plants with paper and the principles involved . I. The Tomato Worm (Also known as Humming-bird moth , Hawk­ moth and Five Spotted Sphinx) . The first lesson should be from the point of view of interest in the life of the insect. The second phase is to protect the plant. Knowledge of the life history of the insect and its adaptations are fundamental to its extermination as a pest. When the tomato worm is first noticed have several specimens brought to school. Rear in a cage by feeding tomato leaves. Give fresh food every day.

The larvae will burrow into moist earth and transform.

After

the class has had opportunity to watch the development of the insect have a lesson upon its life habits. The four stages should be at hand for the lesson. The class is led to make observations, by questions and then to think out the probable reason , or advantage, of each characteristic. The following list of adaptations is for the benefit of the teacher. LARVAE

Green color and markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . imitates a leaf. Tail-like proj ection near hind end . . . . . . . terrifying enemies. Rears threatheningly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . intimidates enemies. Nine pair breathing pores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to purify blood. Small claws on true legs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . holding on to twigs. Jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eating vegetable food. Chrysalis. The larvae forms a chrysalis, (not cocoon) in the ground. Slender handle of chrysalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case for tongue. MOTH

Tongue four inches long-sipping nectar from deep tubed flowers. Tongue coiled like a watch-spring-economical way to carry. Small , undeveloped legs-merely used for support while probing for nectar. Large, strong wings-for flight and poising when extracting nectar.

The Tomato EGG

Have pupils hunt for eggs and bring to class . In the construction class or elementary handwork they could make a box with glass top , fill with cotton-batten and mount to show the four stages of the insect. A small ichneumon fly is parasitic upon the tomato worm. The ichneumon deposits eggs beneath the skin of its victim , within which the larvae feed for a few days. The larvae then emerge and spin their cocoons. These cocoons are often seen upon the tomato worm in late summer. Since the ichneumon fly renders a great service to gardeners, by keeping in check the tomato worm, it should be allowed to breed upon the pest.

Transplanting. This lesson precedes the transplanting of the young plants. Give demonstrations in the window box indoors, and later in the school gardens. Place an inverted glass over a thrifty plant and look for drops of water inside of the glass. The leaves give off moisture through breathing pores or stoma. If the plant gives off more water than it takes through the roots it wilts. The process of taking in moisture through the roots and giving it off through the leaves is called transpiration . Steps in Transplanting. To be used as a guide and not to be learned except by use. Transplant when weather is cool , cloudy and damp , preferably in late afternoon. The plant should be young and vigorous. Transplant shrubs and trees when leaves are off. Break roots little as possible and keep them moist and wrapped. Cut off top to balance loss of roots. Make hole larger than extent of roots and so plant will be two inches deeper than it originally grew. Place good soil at bottom of hole in which roots are to grow and subsoil at surface. Make soil firm and pour water about roots. Leave a mulch on the surface. Shade plant for a few days . 2.

3.

Hotbeds and Cold Frames. Plant houses kept warm by fermenting manure, and sun's heat . Early crops, as lettuce, radishes, etc . , raised this way. Long season crops, such as tomatoes, peppers, etc . Construction . Begin middle of March ; pit 2 ' deep and r ' wider than frame ; fill pit with manure when it is steaming ; thoroughly tramp manure down ; 6/1 layer good soil over pit of manure ; board in,­ front (south) , 6" high and back (north) , 1 2 " . Hotbed sashes are 3 ' x 6' in size. Bank frame on outside with manure ; cover glass with mats cold nights ; give plants air in favorable weather. Cold frame is a hotbed without pit of manure.

42 4

Nature Guiding VI.

References

Bureau of Plant Industry Document 883 . Farmers ' Bulletin, 2 2 0 Farmers ' Bulletin, 1 8 5 , Construction of hotbeds for tomatoes. Nature-Study Review-Jan. 1 9 1 6 pp. 2 7 . Tomatoes for the City Gardener. Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work. Farmers' Bul. 5 2 1 .

" The little cares that fretted me, I lost them yesterday Among the fields above the sea Among the winds at play Among the lowing of the herds The rustling of the trees Among the singing of the birds, The humming of the bees. " The foolish fears of what may happen I cast them all away Among the clover-scented grass, Among the new mown hay, Among the husking o f the com Where drowsy poppies nod Where ill thoughts die and good are born Out in the fields with God. -Elizabeth Barrett B rowning.

CHAPTER XXXIX STUDY O F

THE

Tl:LIP AND

O TH E R B ULBS

I . Nature Lesson Have a bulb for each pupil. Many florists will give them away after Easter. This will help the florist by increasing the demand for cut flowers and bulbs. Have one plant in blossom. Obtain bulb catalogues from seed stores. Have pupils cut a vertical section of the bulb . Nearly every plant has leaves, stems, roots and buds. The bulb is an underground plant. Find the leaves. The roots. Remember that leaves and roots are attached to stems. Find the stem of the bulb . Find the terminal bud. Are there any side buds ? In which part of the bulb is food stored ? Why is the stem so small ? Observe plant in blossom. From what p art of the bulb did the blossom come. The sepals are green at first but later become the same color as the petals. Advantage ? The new sprout is made up of leaves which later open out. What is the shape of the sprout when it comes through the ground ? Advantage ? What is the difference in color of the bulb leaves and the leaves above ground ? Why ? If tulips are allowed to form seeds they cannot form such good bulbs. Why ? After blossoming the plan t forms new buds or bulblets at the side of the bulb . These may be separated to form new bulbs. II. Drawing Make a sketch of the vertical section of a bulb . Crayon sketching of tulips in blossom is interesting for primary grades . The coloring of pictures in seed catalogues is also enjoyable.

III. Garden Study Why Study? Bulb study is especially practical for city children. Bulbs are inexpensive and easy to grow. They appeal to the aes­ thetic nature and grow when flowers are a luxury. They illustmte one way in which plants prepare for winter. Few Interesting Facts. Most bulbs are imported-Roman hyacinths from France, Easter lilies from Bermuda, Narcissi from England and Dutch Bulbs, hyacinths and tUlips from Holland. In I 9 I 2 we paid Holland nearly Yz million dollars for bulbs. Bulbs of special merit bring from $ 500 to $2 000. Washington State is the bulb region of the United States. The department of Agriculture has a bulb garden there for the purpose of conducting experiments. The climate and soil correspond to those in the Netherlands. The largest areas devoted to bulb culture are in Virginia, Rhode Island, Washington and California. 42 5

426

Nature Guiding

Bulbs in Water. 1 hose adapted to this method are th e Chinese Sacred Lily, Paper­ White narcissus and Roman Hyacinths. Place I inch pebbles in bottom glass dish. Stand bulb in center and prop up with pebbles. Pour in water until reaches bottom of bulb . Change water every two days . Keep in dim light 2 -3 weeks. Give abundant sunlight. This is the best method for Kingergarten and primary grades where the pupils can watch its development. Bulbs in Pots. Narcissus and hyacinths are best adapted to the school room . Plan to receive order in September. Purchase best quality (Best bulbs are sold first . ) Pot soon as possible after obtaining. Soak pot in water. Put in J1 inch drainage material-pebbles or ashes . Put soil ( 1 part sand : 1 loam : 1 manure) on drainage material. Hold bulb in place. Place spoonful sand under bulb for drainage. Fill soil around bulb to within J1 inch of top of pot. Firm soil about bulb with hand . Bulb is just barely covered with soil. Water. Place in dark, cool (40°-5 0°) cellar. Keep moist . Keep there until roots well formed ( 2 -3 months) . "Forcing"-Bring to warmer place in dim light. When leaves turn green place in sunlight . Give more moisture during flowering period. Let leaves die naturally. Pots in Trenches. Dig a trench I 5 inches deep . Place 3 inches ashes on the bottom. Place pots on ashes. Pack leaves around and over pots. Fill with soil. Allow ground to freeze. Cover wth 6 inch litter of leaves to keep temperature even. Use boards or brush to hold leaves. Re­ move litter in spring. Take out pots as desired.

Bulbs in the Garden These are the hardy bulbs : hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, crocus, snowdrops, scilla and glory-of-the-snow. They are planted in middle of October. Canna and dahlias are planted outdoors in the spring. B ed of mixed bulbs lacks harmony and design. One variety gives harmony-wanting in variety. B est to plant informally in borders. Pattern beds must consider tim e blooming and height. Make a heavy dibble length desired . Plant three times deeper than bulb is high ; place 6 inch litter or mulch over to keep temperature even ; hold leaves in place with boards or brush ; remove leaf covering in spring ; break off seed pods as petals fall to give strength to bulb ; when cutting flowers cut as few leaves as possible ; allow leaves to dry up before digging up bulbs ; keep each kind of bulb by itself ; spread out loosely in a dry shaded place ; remove and destroy dis eased bu lbs ; place in small peach bas. kets lined with paper ; put away in dry shady place for summer ; pl a n arrangement for next summer ; plant i n October ; ferns combine well with bulbs as the ferns are later in starting.

CHAPTER XL COMMUNITY PROJECTS IN A SAND-Box There are three important elements which enter into a community project in a sand-box. ( r ) The desire of a group of individuals to represent some important fact of life. ( 2 ) The gathering of the needed information from observation, conversation, and' books. (3 ) A worth while representation of this fact so that not only the designers but others will obtain a clearer understanding of the question at hand .

Fig. 1 .

Sand-box Project .-Beautiful Home Grounds.

The advantage of a s an d-bo x over a sand-table lies in the possi­ bility of having a real and often times a living representation. One may grow real trees instead of using paste-board images , have grass instead of green sawdust, water instead of mirrors, cement walks in­ stead of lines on paper. Some of the larger values of this kind of proj ect work are quite evident. There is what may be called a sub-conscious practical knowledge. The majority of city children do not realize that grass comes from seed. They unconsciously realize this fact through growing grass from seed . The mixing of sand and cement becomes a real problem . The foreman of this committee was chosen in a third grade because he had some notions from having watched an uncle who is a builder of cement side-walks. A spirit of cooperation is developed which is often needed in older commun ities. The representation must not be a failure because some one does not do his part in the organized whole. Each individual representation must be up to the standard of the general scheme or it will not harmonize or "fit into things. " Such an undertaking cultivates the imagination. Each 42 7

Nature Guiding pupil or group of pupils finds his part of the whole truth or principle and seeks some way to express it . The lesser or immediate benefits are as varied and numerous as the proj ects themselves. A few examples are described to illustrate how such a proj ect may be carried out .

I.

Beautiful Home Grounds

The preparation consisted of studying some of the general prin­ ciples of landscape-gardening as outlined in Chapter XLIII . The pupils were given the pictures of beautiful homes and by studying the principles found what gave the pleasing effects to the different estates. The organization consisted of various committees who reported their progress to the class for suggestions and criticisms. The com­ mittees and their duties were as follows : 1 . Lawn . The lmvn was planted with grass seed. Care had to be used to dis­ tribute the seed evenly. The watering had to be done gently in order not to wash the seed into hollows. There was an interesting com­ petition to discover the first blade of grass. The lawn was trimmed with scissors. 2 . House. The location of the house determined the walks, trees, and shrub­ bery. It presented an excellent lesson in colors. The green roof and trimmings harmonized with the grass. The white body of the house gave a very neat appearance. The construction of the card-board house furnished an excellent project in drawing. The size and num­ ber of curtains gave live problems in arithmetic . 3 . Garage. This building was made on the same style and color as the house. It was placed economically and conveniently for the owners. 4. Walks. The committee voted to use cement. Th e mixing of the cement, the form for the cement, the plan and scale of the walks furnished practical problems in fractions. 5 . Tennis Court. The location in regard to the sun , the fence net, and rackets tested the ingenuity of the designers . 6 . Hedge. The hedge is determined by the location of buildings, walks and the tennis court. The committee made real cuttings from the privet hedge. The buds produced leaves and the cuttings took root in the sand. They were later transplanted to their homes. 7 . Vegetable Garden . This play garden caused a great deal of research for natural repre­ sentations. Green buds were used to represent cabbages, pine needles for onion tops, twigs of barberries for peppers, etc.

Community Projects 8 . Flower Gardens. This was another problem in colors and representations. 9. Trees and Shrubs. The most satisfactory trees were made by using evergreen cuttings. The deciduous trees were made by planting maple seeds and acorns.

II. Providence, I650: A Correlation in Nature-Study and History In nature-study there was research as to the representation of the pine forest that covered Capitol Hill, the material of thatched roofs,

Fig. 2 .

Sand-box Project-Providence in 1 650.

the characteristics of swamps with hummocks, the drainage to the old spring, the workings of a grist mill, the possible logs for a cabin, the material at hand from which the settlers made the fireplace and chimney. 1 . Prospect and College Hill. This steep-sided hill is seen on the far end of the box. I t is covered with a thick growth of trees. Each settler had a strip of land running from his homestead to the highway (Hope Street ) on top of the hill. Amongst the growth on the vacant lots of this section may be seen wild apple trees. These undoubtedly have descended from the original orchards that used to be on this steep hill-side. 2.

Log Cabins.

The log cabins are made of plasticine. In the plasticine are placed fine sticks which represent logs. Back of the houses is a chimney, the exterior consisting of fine grains of sand to represent rocks. The thatched roofs are made of fine grass arranged like shingles.

43 0

Nature Guiding

3.

North Main Street. The trail running in front of the log houses is shown in the picture as a light line. That trail is the present North Main Street . 4. The M oshassuc River. Flows down the valley parallel to North Main Street. It turned the wheel of Smith ' s old grist mill and passed beneath one of the first bridges of the town into the cove. The Louquassuck Trail crossed by this mill .

Fig. 3. s.

The Cove.

Destructive Lumbering.

The dark central portion of the picture. A cement basin made water proof by paraffi n formed the base. This was covered with clean sand to form a natural setting for the water. 6. Smith's Hill. Covered with pine trees. Its sandy bluffs formed the northern boundary of the Cove. On the summit above the mill is the site of the present State House , and a little farther to the westward the Rhode Island College of Education. 7. Weybosset Street. The dark line winding on the right of the fore-ground is the Pequot Path which led to the land of the Narragansetts on the south. Wey­ bosset Island and the hummocks amongst the marshes formed stepping stones to the village on the east side. This detour in the trail forms the present curve in Weybosset Street . 8 . College Street. A dark line showing the continuation of Weybosset Street up College Hill. It was called the Wampanoag Trail and led to the country of Massasoit and the Plymouth Bay Colony.

Community Projects

43 1

9.

The Woonasquatucket River. Hidden by the forests. An early settler had set himself away from the rest of the village and built a cabin on the banks of the river. Just west of the pine woods is a little ravine which marks the location of a small that runs through Davis Park to the Woonasquatucket. III. A Study in Forestry: Suggested Projects for Arbor Day Destructive Lumbering (Fig. 3 ) . The owner of this forest has had no regard for the future and has been very wasteful with his timber. Reckless lumbering is seen in the 1.

Fig. 4.

Constructive Forestry.

high stumps and large logs left to decay on the ground. The brush furnished food for a fire and the fire-killed timber is now falling and getting ready for the next fire. The young trees are returning but will be killed by the next fire. The wood which was exposed by the fire is now being attacked by fungi and the insects are finding good opportunities for boring into the trunks. The leaf-mould no longer holds the rainfall and the soil is washing onto the railroad track makin g it dangerous for transportation. 2 . Constructive Forestry. (Fig. 4 ) . The golden rule of forestry is t o thin often. Th e stumps show where the large useful trees have been cut for lumber and fire-wood. The younger trees now have room to grow. The brush has been burned as "an ounce of prevention " for forest fires. The forests are not cleared from the steep hillsides and therefore there are no floods or wasting of the rich soil. The owner of this wood-lot will always have a supply of wood .

"Who does h is duty i s a question Too complex to be solved by me, But he, I venture the suggestion, Does part of his that plants a tree , " -LfYWell.

"We read and studied out of doors, preferring the sunlit woods to the house. All my early lessons have in them the breath of the woods-the fine, resinous odour of pine needles blended with the perfume of wild grapes. Seated in the gracious shade of a wild tulip tree, I learned to think that everything has a lesson, and a suggestion * * * * Indeed, everything that could hum , or buzz, or sing, or bloom, had a part in my education-noisy-throated frogs ; katydids and crickets held in my hand until, forgetting their embarrassment , they trilled their reedy note ; little downy chickens and wild flowers ; the dogwood blossoms ; meadow violets and budding fruit trees. I felt the bursting cotton-bolls and fingered their soft fiber and fuzzy seeds ; I felt the low soughing of the wind through the cornstalks ; the silky rustling of the long leaves ; and the indignant snort of my pony, as we caught him in the pasture and put the bit in his mouth­ Ah me ! how well I remember the spicy, c10very smell of his breath ! " -Helen Keller.

CHAPTER XLI TREE SUR GERY A ND D E NTISTRY RULE S FOR THE TREE DOCTOR

1.

To Remove Large Branches. Cut off the branches that are dead, or are dying or are broken. Saw one-third through the limb from the underside and several inches from the support. This prevents splitting of outer wood and bark. Saw on the upper side near the first cut until the limb falls . Saw off the stump so that the cut will continue with the surface of support. 2.

To Prevent the Infection of Wounds. Paint to keep out the decay-producing organisms. If cracks appear, fill and paint.

3 . To Fill Cavities. Dig out all the decayed portions. Fill the cavity with cement so that the surface will be continuous with the inner bark. Collect specimens such as shown in the picture. By observing each specim en try to interpret its past, present, and future. Every branch has a form dependent on two kinds of forces, one growth, the other decay. Whenever a limb is injured the decay-producing organisms of the air attack its surface. In time the largest branch must be re­ duced to dust, if the decay is not hindered by the healing of the wound. Between the beginning of decay and the completed cavity in the trunk there is a whole sequence of forms. The decay may begin as the result of old age, as a broken limb , as a stub from poor pruning, or as an unpainted surface following a good cut. Each form has certain signs by which a good scout can read its history. When the meaning of these forms is once perceived by the student he not only has learned something practical about the care of trees but he has experienced one of the most valuable methods of thinking. The child has as much right to read trees as he has to read about trees. INTERPRETATIONS

The following interpretations are given as a basis for future work :

Figure

I.

OBSERVATION Branch has no bark and gr ey wood. The outer end is ragged. Weathered appearance.

It must be dead.

INFERENCE

Broken by wind or snow. The beginning of decay.

Conclusion : As the decay will continuejnto the trunk, this branch should be sawed off and the wound painted to prevent infection . 43 3

Nature Guiding

43 4

Figure 2 . OBSERVATION Branch nearly gone, through decay. Hole entering trunk. Nut shells, remains of a nest, insects.

INFERENCE May have been broken or cut. No care or preventive measures. Decay has been aided by animals.

Conclusion : As the dec ay has spread in to the trunk, the base of the limb should be sawed off and the decayed portion cut out. To prevent further decay, the hole should now be filled with cement. This is similar to treating a tooth.

Figure 3 . OBSERVATION

A smooth surface.

A rim of new growth over wound . Hole in cut surface.

INFERENCE The surface is not smooth enough for an axe cut. 'Wound has started to heal. Wound was not painted.

A limb sawed off.

Conclusion : This portion should be sawed off and if the decay has not entered the trunk beyond th e new cut , paint the fresh surface so that it will not decay before complete healing. This story might be reviewed by giving the steps in its life history. A branch ; sawed off ; partially healed ; decayed ; sawed off as a speci­ men.

Figure 4. The steps in the life history of this specimen are as follows : Limb ; broken or cut off, leaving a stub ; decayed ; sawed (as seen on other side) ; not painted (as shown by decay on inside) ; decayed ; healed ; sawed as a specimen.

Tree Surgery

43 5

Figures 5 , 6. The growth on these limbs are called fungi. They live on the sub­ stances of the tree and their presence is always a sign of ill health. Limbs having them should be removed. They produce a dust called spores. These spores are blown to exposed places on trees, where they grow new fungi.

" To live an increasingly rich and worthy life is the aim of all endeavor in both life and education . "-Bonser.

"No blooming of roses endureth forever, The glories of sunset not alway remain ; Yet liveth their �race in the spirit, tho' never The senses perceIve the same beauty again. "

-So M. Newman.

" Since w e love, what need t o think? Happiness stands on a brink 'Whence too easy 'tis to fall 'Whither's no return at all ; Have a care, half hearted lover, Thought would only push her over ! " -Lowell, Love and Thought.

"Under the greenwood tree Who loves to lie with me, And tune his merry note Unto the sweet bird's throat Come hither, come hither, come hither . " -Shakespeare (A s You Like It) .

"I chatter over stony ways In little sharps and trebles I bubble into eddying bays I babble on the pebbles . " - Tennyson ( The Brook) .

"And this ('ur life, exempt from public haunt Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones , and good in everything. " -Shakespeare (A s You Like It) .

Only a little shrivelled seed, It might be flower, or grass, or weed ; Only a box of earth on the edge Of a narrow , dusty window-ledge ; Only a few scant summer showers ; Only a few clear shining hours ; That was all. Yet God could make Out of these, for a sick child's sake, A blossom wonder, as fair and sweet As ever broke at an angel 's feet . - Van Dyke ( The Builders) .

CHAPTER XLII THE USES OF THE FORE ST (An application of knowledge of rainfall in an upper primary grade. )

Aim. The aim of this lesson is to present the idea of the value of trees as a group and not as individuals. I.

Introduction . (Experience of the pupil. ) How many have seen a muddy brook ? Where did you see it ? (Street, gardens. ) When did you see it ? (After a rain . ) What made th e brook muddy ? (Rain washed in the soil .) Are muddy brooks swift or slow ? (Swift . ) Do they contain much o r little water ? (Much . ) Does a muddy brook flow all the time ? (No, it is dry part of the time.) Tell the story of a muddy brook. (A muddy brook is seen in the gardens and gutters after a rain . The rain washes the soil into the brook. The brook is then swift and contains much water, but it soon becomes dry.) 2.

3.

Experiment. Have a tray with soil arranged as a hill. Cover half of the hill with moss. Insert small evergreen twigs to represent trees. Use a water­ ing can to represent rain. What is represented when I pour water from the watering pot on the hill ? (Rain. ) I have placed a covering over this hill. Notice how fast the water runs off this hill with a covering on it . Notice how fast the water runs off the hill wi th out a covering on it. On which hill did it run off the faster ? (The hill without the cov­ ing.) This hill is covered with moss and twigs. What is the covering of a real hill ? (Grass and forests. Usually forests.) Think of the hill with a covering and how the water "ran off" from it when it rained. Think of the hill without a covering and how the water ran off from it. From which hill would you get the large , swift , muddy brook ? (The hill without the forest. ) A pplication . I s i t a good thing to have the rich soil washed away ? Why ? (One use of the forests is to prevent such washing away. Why do muddy brooks contain much water ? (No covering to hold back the water.) What would be the result of several overflowing brooks emptying into a river ? (A flood.) 43 7 4.

Nature Guiding How may floods be prevented ? (By having forests at the source of rivers. ) Which river would have the most constant water supply, one whose brooks are covered by forests or one whose brooks come from the bare hills ? (Those protected by forests . ) Are forests favorable o r unfavorable t o navigation in a river ? (Favorable, as they regulate the water supply and make navigation safer and possible for a longer period of time. ) Are forests favorable or unfavorable to the supply of ,vater for manufacturing ? (Favorable, as the water power for a factory is determined by the amount that can be depended upon for the year.) Sum up the uses of the forests that Ive have mentioned . ( I ) Prevents washing away of rich soil, ( 2 ) Prevents floods, (3 ) Regulates the water supply for navigation , and (4) For manufacturing. N arne some other uses of the forest . (The pupils will be able to think of other uses. ) Home for native plants and wild an imals . Produce lumber and other products such as turpentine, maple syrup , rubber, fruit , etc . Source of beauty and pleasure. Checks velocity of winds. Increase safety of farming and fruit growing. Cools temperature in summer and warms in winter.

" They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain : for the earth shall be fuH of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the se a .-Isaia h , xi.

N"ature-study is learning those things in nature that ar e best worth knowing, to the end of doing those things that make life most worth the living . -C. F. IIodge (Nature Study and Life) .

"A little of thy steadfastness Rounded with leafy gracefulness Old oak, give me, That the world's blasts may round me blow And I yield gently to and fro 'While my stout-hearted trunk below And firm roots unshaken be. " -Lowell ( The Beggar) .

CHAPTER XLIII DECORATION WITH PLANTS " I do not own an inch of land­ But all I see is mineThe orchard and the mowing-fields, The lawns and gardens fine. The winds my tax collectors are, They bring me tithes divine. " -Lucy Larcom (A Strip of Blue) .

Fig. ! .

A WOOD PATH THROUGH A VALLEY. Beauty without Adornment. The Grotto, Butler Asylum Grounds, Providence . Such examples of the expression of Nature's forces are becoming rare. Stand very quietly under the hemlocks on the right, some day after school, and you may see the black-crowned night heron in the topmost branches.

43 9

440

Nature Guiding

I. The Town or City Beautiful Figures 1-4 in this chapt er tell th e story of the development of the G l a dys Potter Memorial Gardens in Providence, Rhode Island.

Fig. 2. THE PASSING OF A VALLE Y . Irving Avenu e, near the East Side Fire Station . An example of the effects of the spreading out of a large city . Picture taken in the late fall, 1 9 1 1 .

Fig. 3 . RESCUING ONE OF O U R CHOICE B ITS OF LANDSCAPES . SAME VIEW A S A B OV E . Photograph taken in March , 1 9 1 9 . C an you identify in this picture the trees shown

in Figure 2 .

I t is typical of the way that many of our c it y p l aygro unds come about. The same story migh t be represented by words , as-path , ro a d , street , boulevard ; forest, field, vacant lots, park ; Indians, s e ttlers ,

Decoration with Plants

44 1

country folks ; city p eople ; hunting, farming, trading, manufacturing ; wigwam, cabin, homestead, apartments . You can think of other words that name the chapters in the history of Gladys Potter Memorial Gardens. The following expressions apply either to Figure one or to Figure two. Underline with a pencil those that you think apply to Figure one. Perfume of hemlocks. Rubbish. Unpleasant odors. Stillness. Home of wild plants and warblers. Clatter of the English sparrow and starlings. Fern embroidered. Weeds. Noise. Dust. Rat

Photo by Dr. Marian Weston

Fig. 4.

Same area as Figure 3, December 3, 1 925 . has been added to this scene ?

What

hatchery. Lofty trees. Foliated arches. Ashes and tin cans. Carpet, leaves and mosses. Clang of the trolley. Poplars, grey birches, wild black cherries. Squirrels watching from above. A muddy brook after a heavy rain. A clear, cool stream. Quiet seclu­ sion. Making room for buildings. Oaks, elms and beech . Primitive works of nature. Unclean . Buried in smoke. Tap of the downy woodpecker. Which scene do you prefer ? An interesting proj ect would be to study a park or playground area in your own community. If possible obtain a series of pictures to show the changes. Talk about it with some of the older people of the vicinity. Try to trace the whole length of the former valley. Show where it was on a map of the city. Whose farm did the little stream drain ? What animals drank from its clear pools ? What children played along its banks ? Write your results in the form of a story. In Tokio the city directory tells where to go in order to see the most beautiful snow scenes or where the chrysanthemums are at their best. Compose a directory of the beautiful spots in your town or city.

Nature Guiding

4 42

II.

The Home Grounds. The laying-out and improvement of grounds is called landscape­ gardening. Landscape-gardening is something like landscape-paint­ ing. Some general conclusions regarding the principles and practice of the art are given to enable you to read and interpret the home grounds pictured here and then the grounds of other homes. For example : Read the rules for arranging the shrubbery and then call

Fig. 5 .

A Drive on the Senator Aldrich Estate, Warwick Neck, Rhode Island.

attention to the effects which the landscape-painter has used to bring out the pleasing driveway on the Senator Aldrich estate. I.

General.

2.

The Lawn.

"Nature unadorned is adorned most . " Nature works in curves. The arrangement of plants to resemble nature is called the English style. A formal planting is the Italian or geometrical style. The for­ mal arrangement is out of place on a small lawn . Send for Farmers' Bulletins 2 48 and 1 8 5 . "The greensward is the canvas upon which all architecture and landscape effects are produced. " The lawn should be placed where one can get a distant outside view,-as of the bay or of a river. Small lawns should be convex ; large areas undulative. Keep out all weeds . There should be a strip of grass between walks and shrubs, or gardens.

3 . Walks and Drives.

Walks and drives add no beauty to the grounds. Do not have unnecessary walks. Do not make any wider than needed. Unless the

Decoration with Plants

4 43

distance is short avoid straight lines. Sink the walks a few inches below the surface of the lawn so as to give the effect of a continuous lawn from a distance. The walk should be higher in the center for drainage. Gravel or cement make good walks. Paths should con­ form to the contour of the land.

Fig. 6.

Shrubs Covering a Curved Walk .

4 . Trees. a. Individual Trees. Used for their individual beauty and to furnish shade. They lend distant grandeur to the landscape. Trees standing alone should have characteristic beauty, as : oak for strength ; elm for arching form ; purple beech, blue spruce, or golden arbor vitae for color. Fruit trees serve a double purpose. Overarching trees are effective for the enframement of a building, as the elm . The following trees are very satisfactory on the front lawn : ginkgo, Norway maple, horse-chestnut, Japanese maple, purple or copper beech , and pin oak. b. Trees in Groups . Furnish a background for ornamental ma­ terial and cover unsightly obj ects. Groups should not give too solid an appearance. Avoid groups of same kind, color or size. The taller varieties should be in the centre or form a background. Ever­ greens form a good screen or shelter. The sombre effect may be taken off by deciduous trees, as the golden willow. Trees look well on both sides o f the entrance from the street.

Nature Guiding

444 5.

Shrubs.

Shrubs should blend the trees a nd the lawn. The line where the lawn and shrubbery meet should be made of curves. Evergreens should not border path s as they a re apt to be injured when frost is on them in the winter. The skyline of the shrubbery should be irregular, with alternate groups of tall and shorter shrubs. Plant shrubs in

Fig. 7.

THE USE OF CEDAR to emphasize an entrance and to relieve smooth, cement surface .

a

masses and not singly. Plant thorny shrubs wh ere paths meet and where cuts are likely to be made (barberry, locust, prickly ash) . Taller shrubs should not shut out vistas from the windows. Low growing shrubs may conceal the foundations of the buildings. Ever­ greens rise as a mass from the ground. The foliage of the groups of shrubs should be carried to the ground. Use shrubs to cover the abrupt endings or curves in the walks. Shrubs may be planted on the concave side of all curves. Shrubs with berries furnish food for birds , and color for effect. Wild shrubs such as elder, sumac , dogwoods. and viburnum are good.

6 . Hedges. Hedges make a good background for herbaceous plants. Low hedges are more ornamental. A rounded or triangular top gives more foliage on the side. The top of the hedge should have the same curve as the ground line. A wall thickly covered with a vine, as Boston ivy, gives a similar effect.

Decoration with Plants

445

7 . Vines. Vines carried over walls and pillars carry the green of the lawn upward. They make the house a part of the landscape. If too close to the building they make it damp. They form a cover for pergolas,

Fig. 8 . ENTRANCE TO THE S WAN POINT CEMETERY. The landscape gardening of the Swan Point Cemetery ranks among the best of the country. Pleasing effects are produced both in winter and summer.

verandas, and arbor trellises . The Boston ivy is an excellent climbing plant for brick or stone buildings. The Virginia creeper is good for backyard fences. 8 . Hardy Herbaceous Plants. The hedge makes a good background for hardy herbaceous plants. Plant perennials in the bays and recesses of the shrubbery. Trans­ plant every three or four years to get a vigorous growth. Plant bulbs in masses along the borders of the shrubbery to furnish the edge. A mixed arrangement on small places gives the most pleasure. Mix perennials in groups that bloom at different seasons. Do not have inharmonious colors bloom at the same time. Intricate designs seen on public grounds should not be attempted on small places.

Nature Guiding 9.

A nnuals. The best place for annuals is in the flower garden. The tall­ growing, large-leaved plants, as castor bean and sunflower make g ood screens for fences. Verbena, pansy, sweet aly ssum , and sweet William make beautiful front line or border plants. Arrange acc ording to h eigh t, color, and time of flowering .

Fig. 9 .

Perennials with a Shrubby B a ckground .

The Wild Flower Garden . ·W ood Anemone : transplant rootstock in early spring to border of shrubbery. Bloodroot : transplant rootstock in early spring to moist, sheltered soil. B luets : transplant clumps to open, moist ground. Wild columbine : transplant root masses to dry, sunny, rock-banks. Jack-in-the-pulpit : transplant early in the spring to rich , shady soil. Goldenrod : There are over 5 0 species. Transplant root masses. Lady s slipper : Transplant very early to rich , shady soil. Trillium : Plant rootstocks in shaded borders. Violets : place nearly as pos s ib le in environment such as they come from . Ferns : usually in moist p l ac es away from sun, as-near northern side of the house. There are many original ways of ornamenting the home grounds. One of the most interesting is shown in the picture taken on the estate of Mr. John G. McIntosh, Pawtucket Avenue , East Providence. 10.

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Decoration with Plants

Fig. r o .

4 47

On the grounds of Mr. John McIntosh, East Providence.

PLANT ORNAMENTATION.

Nature Guiding I t consists of the trunk of a large sycamore which has been placed over a pump (June, 1 9 1 8 ) . The handle of the pump proj ects through the trunk. A sign is attached to the trunk which says : "Water, free to all . " The sycamore was cut down in 1 9 1 6 and the annual rings tell that its age is 2 44 years. It therefore started its career in 1 6 7 2

Fig. I I . A VISTA ACROSS THE SEEKO N K . Note that the scene is enframed with shrubs and trees. The bounding lines go toward the view point . The inspector feels as though he were invited down the hill for a nearer view. As one nears the bank of the river he is pleasantly surprised with a mass of aza­ leas and rhododendrons . Plan to visit this spot when these shrubs are in full bloom . Look for other vistas.

and was probably planted by the colonists, as many ornamental sycamores were introduced from England. What an interesting story that seed might tell if could be here and speak. Its birthplace ; how it crossed the water ; how it traveled to the Narragansett country. Then the tree itself. It may well have seen Roger Williams and the Indians. B eing a hundred years old at the outbreak of the Revo­ lution it could have furnished shade for the colonial troops and it saw the stirring days of 1 8 6 1 when the boys went to the front . May the old sycamore exist for a long time in the new service which it is rendering. The ash flag-pole on top of the trunk has experienced no less in­ teresting events. It was the pole in the old coach now owned by Senator Le Baron B . Colt . The coach was originally owned by James de Wolf (Senator, March , 1 8 2 I-October, 1 8 2 5 ) . Senator de Wolf rode from Bristol to Washington in this coach with an array

449

Decoration with Plants

of coachmen and lackeys in brilliant livery. It used to take about a week for the trip, and many famous men have ridden in the old coach which, although 1 00 years old, is in perfect condition. The top of the table shown in the picture was made from a cross section of the same tree. Mr. McIntosh is sitting in the foreground

III. The School Grounds School buildings used to be built on ledges, or on ground which was considered too poor for farming. It might almost have been said, in those days, that some out-of-the-way spot where nothing else could grow was good enough for raising children. Today we feel that the children should have plenty of room to run and play and get fresh air. Even the soil must be good for gardening and for beautifying the grounds. The principles of decorating school grounds are the same as for the home grounds. It is desirable to have hardy trees and shrubs on the school grounds and also a great variety for the purpose of study. We should like to publish the best paper on the decoration of your school grounds. Take a picture of the grounds before and after planting. Send for Farmers' Bulletin 1 3 4 before planting. IV.

The School Room.

Plant decora:tion of the school room is an art. These two refer­ ences will help you to understand the principles of arranging flowers. The School Arts Magazine, June, 1 9 1 4, p. 7 5 4 ; and The Garden Magazine, November, 1 9 1 8 , p. 1 0 6 . I.

Aim,-beauty in : a. Color,-peony, pansy. May be massed. b. Form,-calla lily. Do not mass flowers chosen for form.

Japanese never crowd their flowers . A " bunch " American expression. c . Color and form,-rose buds , chrysanthemums.

The

of flowers is

an

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Receptacles. a. They should be dull colored and simple ; less attractive than that which they hold. b. The shape should be such as to hold the flowers in their natural positions. c . They must have some element in common with the plant, as color or form. The tall , straight vase is good for the tall, single flower. Use a shallow bowl for short stemmed flowers. 3.

Flowers. a. Use only one kind with its own foliage . b. The arrangement must present the freedom of wild nature yet maintain balance. Some flowers must be long and othe rs short . c . Native wild plants are disappearing. Pick moderately . Do not pull up , but cut flowers with a knife.

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Nature Guiding

d. The soft dull colors of winter sprays hannonize and form picturesque bouquets. Try pussy willow sprays i.n January ; berried branches in November ; evergreens in December and twigs of for­ sythia , magnolia, cherry, peach . and apple in February.

Fig. 1 2 .

A Vista across Wellfleet B ay, Cape Cod.

A HYMN FOR ARBOR DAY (To be sung by Schools to "America . " ) God save this tree w e plant ! When it is ripe to fall, Neighbored by trees as tall , And to all nature grant Shape it for good . Sunshine and rain . Let not its branches fade , Shape it to bench and stool, Shape it for home and school, Save it from axe and spade, Shape it to square and rule, Save it for joyful shade, God bless the wood. Guarding the plain. Lord of the earth and sea, Prosper our planted tree, Save with thy might. Save us from indolence, Waste and improvidence, And in thy excellence, Lead us aright.

-Henry Hanby Hay.

45 1

Decoration with Plants IF THERE WERE NO TREES

No place to stray in, Or stray in, or play in, Away from the sleet and the heat ? No fruit, and no nuts, nor the fleet Stir of leaves on the breeze ?

What would the birds say, The squirrels and chipmunks and all The little wild folk If there were no trees straight and tall ? No place to cling to, Or wing to, or sing to , No place-spring or fall­ To build houses small, Elm, apple or oak ?

And what would the earth do While bright season rolled If God all the charms Of the trees should withhold ? iVithout them to dress her, Or bless or caress her, To sing her their songs, dear and old, Around and about her to fold Their strong, tender arms?

What would they all sayThe children so eager and sweet­ If there were no trees To make them a leafy retreat,

"Jock, when ye hae naething else to do, ye may be sticking in a tree ; it will growing, Jock, when ye're sleeping . " -Sir Walter Scott.

Great , wide, beautiful , wonderful world, With the wonderful water around you curled, And the wonderful grass upon yoU!" breast­ World, you are beautifully drest . "

- Vim . B .

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Rands.

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With little p aint-keg, vases and teapots Of wee-blossoms and forgetmenots : And in the windows, either side the door, Were ranged a s many little boxes more Of like old-fa�hioned larkspur, pinks and moss And fern and phlox ; while up and down across Them rioted the morning-glory-vines On taut-set cotton-strings. " -James Whitcomb Riley ( A Child World),

" The least of living things, I repeat, holds a more profound mystery than all our astronomy and our geology hold . " -John Burroughs.

" There is so much within our easy grasp For minds to know in radius of our eyes, We only have to stretch our hands to clasp The ' Open Sesame' to a Paradise ! " -Emily Selinger.

"What is man, that Thou art mindful of him ? And the son of man, that Thou visitest him ? "

"Nature never did betrav The heart that loved h e r ; 'tis her privilege, Through all the years of this our life, to lead From joy to joy, for she can so inform The mind that is within us, so impress With quietness and beauty, and so feed \Vith lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men , Nor greetin& s where no kindness i s , nor all The dreary mtercourse of daily life, Shall e'er prevail against us, or disturb Our cheerful faith, that all which we behold Is full of blessings. " - William Wordsworth.

CHAPTER THE TEACHING O F

P LANT

XLIV

DISEASES IN THE GRADE S

As the history of parallel movements may throw light upon our present problem it may be worth while, as well as interesting, to briefly review old acquaintances. In searching the mouldy rolls of the past one finds that the fruit of that forbidden tree furnishes a frequent theme. As early as 1 3 40 in the "Ayenbite of Inwyt, " the title of a religious treatise by a monk, appears the well known saying that "a roted eppel amang the holen, maketh rotie the yzounde. " Shakespeare in the Mer­ chant of Venice (VI . iii, 1 0 2 ) mentions "a goodly apple rotten at the heart" and in the Taming of the Shrew (I. i . 1 3 9) says : "Faith (as you say) there 's small choice in rotten apples. " As these are suggestive of the manner of mentioning plant diseases in the past one must conclude that the purpose was not so much to teach the disease of the plant as to teach human morals. The handing down of knowledge of moulds, blight , and rust has been in the folk-lore stage and is so today in most cases. The crediting of the failure of a crop to an east wind or some such force is the method of th e Australian native. The medicine lore of the savage is but just disappearing along the fence row of the fanner and remains with the untutored, yet a scientific knowledge of these things is a practical necessity for a civilized community . One might expect that the history of the hygiene movement in the grades would be suggestive as to the possibilities in garden hygiene but such is not the case. A little research shows that we are only in the initial stages of teaching the child how to care for himself. " In 1 900 only eight cities in America had any organized health work in schools" (U. S. B ureau of Education Bulletin , 1 9 1 3 ) . The Greeks emphasized physical training and Locke and Rouseseau preached it , but clean hands as a prevention of disease was unheard of at that time. It was not until 1 8 8 5 that physiology and hygiene were made a compulsory study by the laws of Massachusetts , and that was one of the first states to make the subject a part of the curriculum. When human hygiene is so recent that it scarcely has a history it would not seem over encouraging for the study of plant diseases. We do not need to be reminded that the teaching of plant diseases in any organized way is very recent. The Yearbook of the Depart­ ment of Agriculture for 1 8 9 9 tells us that in 1 8 8 5 there were only three institutions teaching this subj ect and that ten years later " 5 0 colleges and stations engaged in the work and at least 1 00 special investigators were devoting their time to it . " Notwithstanding these preliminary remarks there are sufficient reasons for introducing the subj ect at this time. In Massachusetts alone for the summer of 1 9 1 8 it is reported that 7 5 , 000 boys and 45 3

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Nature Guiding

girls not living on fanns had gardens. If they are to be encouraged in this work they must know how to take care of these diseases which are so prevalent . Then , again , the potato blight is not a concern of Maine alone nor the black wart of the potato , in Penn­ sylvania, just a question of that state. There must be a F ederal intelligence in regard to the things which concern its welfare. Like­ wise, a healthy garden is a community asset , and the ignorance of one gardener is a menace to the whole neighborhood. Other by-products of this knowledge will be a greater intelligence in re­ gard to the causes of all diseases and their cure by patent medi­ cines. Then , the consumer should have an appreciation of whole­ some food and knowledge as to how it should be cared for in the home. He should have some notion as to what it costs to grow clean healthy produce and a greater respect for the farmer. A far more important result may be the plant physician for every com­ munity . He will work after the fashion of the Chinese doctors '\vho are paid for the prevention rather than the cure of diseases . In this way the working power of the gardens of the community will be kept at top-notch efficiency. If plant diseases should be taught in the grades what are some of the topics that may be presented and what method ought to be used ) The following notes are merely suggestive as to a few proj ects. Cut slices of raw potato with a sterilized knife and place each slice in a saucer under a glass. Place under different conditions, such as : warm , cold ; dry, moist ; sunny, dark ; a slice that has been in contact with a dusty surface and one that has not ; peeled and unpeeled ; a healthy potato in contact with a decaying spot on another potato, and a healthy potato in contact with a healthy potato ; a bmised and a scratched potato and a sound potato. A child can easily derive the following practical conclusions by ob­ serving the color changes and decay effects without the use of a microscope : Vegetables and fmits decay more readily in dark , moist , warm cellars . Unclean receptacles aid decay. The skin keeps out germs of decay. Decay is passed on by contact. Fmit should be handled carefully. Coldness, dryness, and sunshine are germ killers. Another series of experiments is with dishes of agar. Make finger prints before and after washing the hands . Expose a dish for five minutes before and for five minutes after s\veeping ; before and after a thunder shower ; early in the morning and late in the afternoon ; a drop of distilled water, faucet water, and dish water. Try inoculation experiments with a sterile needle, as-removing bits of decaying potatoes , oranges , onions , apples , parsnips , etc . , to a test tube with agar and stopping mouth of tube with absorbent cotton. Inoculation now becomes a visible thing to the child. Visit a diseased potato field. Where is the disease thriving most ,-in the rich or poor soil , at the low moist end of the garden or where it is well drained, where the foliage is crowded or where

Plant Diseases

45 5

plants are far apart , on the sunny corner or the shady corner ? Are there any varieties that a ppear to be more susceptible ? The class will be impressed with the fact that thp- lack of proper food, over­ crowding, and absence of sunshine lowers the vitality of the plants and makes them susceptible to disease. These conclusions must make the conditions of human hygiene seem real and not a matter of preaching. A field trip to a woodlot is also of great value. Find trees being destroyed by fungi. What enabled the fung-i to attack the tree ? See how many kinds can be collected . Find leaves with blemishes and colored spots which are symptoms of disease. Symptoms in plant diseases are much more evident than with people. A lesson on the higher parasites such as dodder, mistletoe, etc . , may b e made a basis of morals. The law of the use and disu se of parts is rather striking in these plants. A lesson in history will also be instructive such as a report on the cause and efiect of the potato blight in Ireland during the great famine of 1 8 44 . Have an exhibition of moulds brought in from the homes. In­ clude everything,-shoes, books , fruits , preserves, etc . In class discussion bring out the causes and emphasize the preventions. Try to get an estimate as to how much is destroyed each year by moulds in the home. Some people may feel that a knowledge of these things leads to unhappiness. It reminds me of a story that I read a long time ago about an Arab who admonish ed a traveller for having stepped on a worm . The traveller asked the Arab if he did not know that he was destroying hundreds of living beings when he ate a fig. When the dusky inhabitant of the desert was shown the organisms through a microscope he took the microscope and dashed it against a rock. Let us not accept the philosophy that 'ignorance is bliss ' . I T I S AN I L L WIND THAT B LOWS NOB ODY GOOD A FAB LE S E Q U E L TO T E A C H I N G PLANT D I S E A S E S I N T H E GRAD E S

"Abominable East Wind ! " cried the farmer, as he gazed at his potatoes ; "to what a woe-begotten end have you brought my winter food ! " "The same old story ! " murmured the wind , i n reply. "Always blame the weather for troubles you have brought upon yourself. What more could have been done for you ? All this day have I brought water to your garden to save you from famine. If you did not spray your potatoes to prevent blight, when warned by the Farmers ' Bulletin , who is to blame but yourself ? " " I a m unfavored, indeed , " rejoined the farmer. " I thought you were a friend , but have been deceived . " "Not by me, " replied the wind , patiently. " I tend to my work every day. I bring the crops warmth. I bring them moisture. I mislead none but the superstitious and ignorant . "

Nature Guiding "Superstitious ! ignorant !" cried the farmer. "How little do you know as to who I am. Trustee of the Academy-Superin­ tendent of the Sunday School for thirty years-a leader of the community. " "A leader who cannot lead ! Wise, perhaps , in the laws of the village-ignorant in the laws of nature. You have mistaken the friend that brings a good harvest for the pest that causes famine. Alas for your neighborhood, if no better leader can be found . " The farmer turned away, and the wind played across the field . The wind danced up and down the rows and mourned his luck­ less fate. "Yet , " said he to himself, as he dried up a muddy pool about to decay a hill of potatoes, "I will keep on trying. What an ignorant farmer ! " *

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Scene : The kitchen. Characters : Mother Hubbard , a rich lady who had gone through the form of being patriotic by preserving peas without being in­ telligent as to the correct method. Faith , the daughter of Mother Hubbard who had great faith in her fashionable mother. "These here peas are moulding, " observed Mother Hubbard to her daughter Faith , as she slowly took one jar after another from the shelf. "Such miserable weather ! " Some would have said "just my luck" but it comforted the fashionable lady' s heart to lay all the blame on the weather. Faith, hmyever, took but little in terest in the matter. Her mother was always grumbling about the east wind and her rheumatic pains which should have been called the gout. The door banged with great violence. It was a pity that Mother Hubbard had placed wme jars so near the edge of the table. for, when the door was blown too, they fell with a crash, and mouldy peas were strewn across the floor. And , "Do we meet once again ? " said the Jar Spore to the Floor Spore, in whose company he had traveled at preserving time. "Do we meet once again ? " How pleasant indeed. "I have not seen you since Mother Hubbard locked me up ,vith the peas. Well, well , well. Let me first ask how you are this morning ? " "Oh, pretty well, " replied Floor Spore, "but very, very sad. You have little cause to be sad. You ha\'e had some fine peas to grow upon. But I ! Alas, the cruel wind has dried me up and I never can grow again. Most of the merry little cousin spores that played with us have dried up and died. What are you smiling at ? " "I am smiling, " said the Jar Spore. "at your calling t h e Wind a cruel being. " "And why shouldn't I ? Do I not well know ? " asked the Floor Spore ? "I wonder, Floor Spore, what we do know! People are very sure as to what they know and then they find out that it is a mistake. "

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"What makes you think that ? " inquired Floor Spore. "I have learn't it , " replied Jar Spore "from an acquaintance I have made here,-Mother Hubbard. She just said that the weather caused the peas to mould and now-" Just at that moment the door opened. Faith came in and began to look around with wide staring eyes. "Why mother, " cried the maiden, "What has happened ? " "That horrid wind ! " wept the mother i n despair, a s she threw the dripping mass into the garbage pail. "Whew-w-w, " said the Wind angrily. "It is always some one else that is to blame. You called me horrid. Why did you open the window and invite anything 'horrid' to come in ? " "I thought that you would cool the room . I mistook your hateful temper. I know you now ! Must I lose my preser ves ? Must my patriotism go for naught ? Ay, whistle on in your j oy. " "Fool ! It is no j oy to me to see your jars of peas spoilt nor your moldy views upset. It is my duty to help the peas to grow, to bring rain and warmth . I destroy germs. It is ignorant people like you that turn good into evil. You have turned me toward your ru in. What ignorant parents brought you up and did not teach you the laws of nature ? " " M y poor mother ! " wept Faith ; " how unkindly you speak to her ! But you are nothing but the wind. You know not what she does for me, her only child. She takes me into society, I have beautiful gowns, and fairy stories to read . " "Even so ? " swayed the wind, "accomplished i n the laws o f fashion that changed but yesterday-unacquainted with the simple realities of life which have worked through the ages. Oh, that you knew the laws by which I live. " The Wind stole out of the window and across the garden. "I may be of service yet , " said he. "What a foolish world. " *

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Little Truth rambled about the fields gathering wild flowers and running after birds and insects. It was her mother who first taught her where to find the gentians and bluets and about the beauty of the hills. Truth never wearied of watching the garden . She used to throw herself upon the ground and watch the bean plants. One day she spied rose colored spots on the bean pods. She had never seen them before. She thought she knew, and running to her mother , shouted , "Mother ! there are roses on the beans !" Truth 's mother took the little girl on her knee, and tried to ex­ plain that the colored spots were accidental. Roses could not grow on beans. Truth was very silent, and then asked, "Why ? " The mother sighed, a s she did not understand these spots herself. The next day was Sunday. Truth and her mother walked to church. Strange to relate the preacher talked about the colored spots on the beans. He called it blight. Truth heart beats' very

Nature Guiding fast for she was to hear about the roses. But, alas [ The pastor told of th e wicked beans and the Divine Wrath , and prayed that his congregation take warning. The little girl began to cry and the distressed mother had to get up and leave the church , leading Truth by the hand. The next day found Truth in her favorite haunt. She was watch­ ing the beans with a look of pity on her face \vhen she was inter­ rupted by the voice of a stranger. The stranger smiled and said, "What are you doing little girl ? " " I a m looking at the colored spots o n the bean pods. " "And why are you looking so sadly at the bean plants ? " " I a m s o sorry for them [ " cried Truth . "I a m s o sorry that God is angry with them. " "What makes you think that God is angry with the bean plants ? " "vVhy the preacher said s o i n his sermon . " The stranger nodded with a smile and placed his hand on Truth 's head and said : " I will tell you a secret, little girl . I suspect that the preacher never studied the color spots on the bean and may not know very much about them . " As he spoke he took a lens from his pocket and let Truth look through it at one of the colored spots. " That is as much a plant as the bean. " continued the stranger. Truth could hardly speak. A look of admiration came upon her face. Then he touched the red spot with a needle and placed a tiny speck under the microscope. " These are like seeds but we call them spores, " he went on to explain. "Do you wish to know more about them ? " Truth eagerly nodded her head. The stranger now proceeded to explain . "Each of these little beads is a spore. They are so small that we can only see them through the microscope. The wind blows them around and when they land on the bean plant they send small threads into the pods or leaves. The red spots then appear and in a few hours there are thousands of more spores ready to be blown around . So now, little girl, you know why those red spots are on the bean pods. " *

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Meanwhile the wind had heard the conversation between the kind-hearted stranger and the little girl. The wind was happy now, and said, "I have at last found some one who can face the truth and explain it in simple words. I am thankful that some people are searching out the wonders of nature instead of blaming her for what th ey do not know. " With these words he whistled merrily and danced away to do his part in the world of natural laws.

CHAPTER XLV RHODE ISLAND TREES : A TYPE STUDY IN TREE GEOGRAPHY At the end of the Glacial Period there were no trees in Rhode Island. It is interesting to trace their source since that time. It is not mere accident but natural causes that have determined what trees selected this part of New England for their home. The character of the cli­ mate as tempered by Narragansett Bay, the sand plains along the coast, the granite hills of the west, the moisture in the soil-in short,

Fig. I .

A Bla ck Spruce Swamp at North Scituate. A Labrador Scene in Rhod. Island. The B lack Spruce Grows but a Few Feet in Height. Note the Leavee of the Leather Leaf or Cassandra Peering Above the Snow on the Lower Rights

all of the forces that make up the environment of a tree-have had to do with the migration of trees into our valleys and up our rugged slopes. A knowledge of the sources of our generous supply of trees awakens admiration and wonder. I.

A.

Rhode Island the Meeting Place of Trees.

Trees of a Northern Range

The Black Spruce. In the new reservoir basin at North Scituate there is a black spruce moor. As this is the only accessible area in which the black spruce occurs in Rhode Island, tree lovers should visit it before the flooding of the reservoir destroys it forever. This cold, deep bog is a refrigerating spot where the roots are immersed in cold water until late in the spring. The roots cannot absorb

459

Nature Guiding nutrition at a freezing temperature and only certain plants are able to thrive there. Years ago the black spruce found this formation, gained a foothold on the margin , and later spread over the center. The black spruce is a northern tree and extends along the tributaries of the Yukon in Alaska. The tree is never more than 1 5 to 20 feet high , and bears fruit when it is two or three feet high. Sphagnum , the pitcher plant, and the creeping snowberry or moxie plum (Chiogenes hispidula) , which is common in Labrador, grow beneath this spruce . Strange is it not that w e should find a bit o f Klondike scenery right here in Rhode Island. The Canoe Birch. The canoe birch is also known as the white birch and the paper birch. We often cal1 the gray birch the white birch, but this is not correct. The canoe birch is one of our most beautiful trees. It can be easily identified by its white bark, which is easily peeled . There are considerable numbers growing wild on Diamond Hil1, and it is ornamental in our parks and private grounds. This tree comes to us from the wilderness region of Lab­ rador. Every school child is sure to call to mind Hiawatha ' s request , " Give me of your bark, 0 Birch-Tree ! " when he wishes to make a birch bark canoe. " Give me of your bark, 0 B irch Tree ! Of your yellow bark, 0 B irch Tree ! Grm\·ing by the rushing river, Tall and stately in the valley ! I a light canoe will build me. -From Longfellow's "Hiawatha . "

The Yellow Birch . Another essentially northern tree is th e yellow birch. It has often made the members of the Main e Club feel at home in Little Rhody. Rhode Island boys and girls also have a chance to go to the "yellow birch swamp . " They can recognize it by the silky lustre of the bark and by the way it curls into shreds. This tree may be seen in the Grotto of the Butler Asylum grounds and in the Metcalf Botanical Garden . This is an example of a tree that grows chiefly in a cold swamp , and like most swamp trees, is northern. The American Beech. The beech is one of the characteristic trees of the northern woodlands. Poets and artists might find much of charm in the majestic beeches growing in the Butler Hospital ravines. The smooth steel-gray trunks make them easy to distinguish when walking through the Moses B rown Woods . And it gives a touch of the historic to know that some of our oldest beeches may have furnished shade for Roger Williams. leave this barren spot to mc ! Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree ! - Th omas Campbell . "

" Oh,

Trees of a Southern Range The Pin Oak. Rh ode Island is the northern limit of the pin oak. The tree occurs wild i n the border-land of the great Kingston Swamp and along the banks of the Pawcatuck River. The tree is more easily

B.

Rhode Island Trees recognized in winter. It is a straight-trunked tree with slender branches, most of which are horizontal. It has been frequently used for ornament in Providence and may be seen in front of the Union Station, along the Blackstone Boulevard , and in Swan Point Cemetery.

The Red Birch. This is another southern tree that haunts the river borders. Its reddish , ragged bark makes it picturesque. It can be identified easily in the shrubbery of the Moses Brown School, where it forms a pleasing spectacle amongst the forsythias. There are several speciInens in the Metcalf Garden. The Black Walnut. There is some doubt as to whether the black walnut was ever native to Rhode Island. Several trees are thriving in Apponaug. There are two black walnuts on the southwest corner bf Cypress and Ivy streets, in Providence. This tree grows as far south as Florida. It has been said that it takes a century for the tree to reach market size. The wood is so valuable and so much sought after that the tree has become almost extinct. The tree played an important part in the world war in furnishing wood for rifle stocks and airplane propellers. The boy who starts a black walnut farm will not only be making a good investment, but will be performing a patriotic duty, besides saving a most valuable tree for the future. The Yellow Wood. The yellow wood is an ornamental tree, as in fact are all the other southern trees which we will mention. It grows wild in a very limited area between North Carolina and Alabama. Rhode Island people are very fortunate in being able to see this tree, especially when it is covered with its white blossoms. This rare tree may be seen in Roger Williams Park, on the Metcalf grounds, and west of the small pond in the Butler Hospital grounds. The Red Bud. In early spring the red bud decorates the hillsides from New York to Florida. Its deep tint and profuseness suggest the peach orchard. The red bud may be seen in the shrubbery near the gymnasium of Pembroke Hall , Brown University. The Kentucky Coffee Tree. This rather curious tree is related to (Jur honey locust . As the name suggests, the fruit was used by the colonists of Kentucky as a substitute for coffee. This rare tree grows wild from New York south to Tennessee. Rhode Island people are fortunate in seeing this ornamental tree. One is located at Roger Williams Park, and another may be seen on the Normal School grounds, being the class tree in the spring of 1 9 I 6 . Another repre­ sentative hangs over the wall on Power street, near Brown street. The Catalpa Tree. The catalpa was once confined to the south, but is now naturalized in Rhode Island. It is quite common in our parks and along our streets. One street is called Catalpa Road. The tree is also known as the Indian Bean, Candle tree and Bean tree.

462

Nature Guiding

C.

Trees from Abroad When Roger Williams came, all our plants were native. The region was a wide expanse of forests, and beneath them were tender wood-loving plants such as the ladies' slipper and the Jack-in-the­ pUlpit. The coming of the colonists upset the flora , and as civiliza­ tion advances trees disappear and along with them native plants . The killing off of native species gave chance for foreign plants . As the forests of Europe were largely destroyed ages ago, the plants are those of th e open and their coarse hardy features have been inbred for years. The introduction and thrift of such European plants as dandelion, mallow, plantain , chickweed , burdock, mullein, sorrel , yarrow, and toadflax are indications of the passing of our forests. Along with the weeds have come various trees . One may take a "tree trip abroad" in Providence. Som e of the more commonly introduced species are mentioned. Fruit Trees. The apple, pear, and quince were introduced to Ameri­ ca from the Old World. They were brought on account of their fruit value. The apple frequently escaped from cultivation , and in old pastures has assumed a bushy character and is often protected from cattle by thorn-like branches. The fruit reverts to its ancestral, wild flavor when growing under these conditions. "High o 'er the mead-flowers' hidden feet I bear aloft my burden sweet . " - The Pear Tree- William Morris. Rhode Island might well be called the cradle of the apple industry

of America. The first horticulturist of this part of the country was William B lackstone. His orchard was planted in a region which is now a part of Rhode Island. He is said to have originated a new species of apple. The state is a natural orchard area, and produces finely flavored fruit , as proved by the Rhode Island Greening. The southern slopes of the hills and land suited for farming but not so used, should be covered with orchards. A generation ago no one would dream that apples would cost more than oranges in our mar­ kets. The demand is becoming greater. The population of Rhode Island has been vastly increased, but the production of apples is constantly decreasing. This is largely due to the neglect and destruc­ tion of old orchards. We can no longer rest on the reputation of past history. The time is ripe for progressive action in Rhode Island fruit growing. "Ho ! The little-red-apple Tree ! Sweet as its juiciest fruit Spanged on the palate spicily, And rolled o 'er the tongue to boot, Is the memory still and the joy Of the Little-red-apple Tree, When I was the little-est bit of a boy And you were a boy with me ! " -James Whitcomb Riley.

Rhode Island Trees The Beeches , the Purple, Fern-Leaved, and Weeping Beech . These are all varieties of the European Beech. They may be seen at Roger Williams Park and elsewhere. Maples from Europe, the Norway and Sycamore Maples . These introduced maples are common along our streets and in our drives. In winter one may distinguish them by the red buds of the Norway and the green buds of the syc·· amore. The leaf-stem of the Norway maple has a milky juice. European Poplars , the Lom­ bardy and the Silver Poplars . The Lombardy Poplar is sup­ posed to have originated in Lombardy. It also is native to the mountains of Afghanis­ tan. It never produces seed in America , and has to be reGrey B irch C atkins and Seed produced by cuttings just like a geranium. It may be readily distinguished by the vertical growth of its branches. The tree is very common in Providence. There is a conspicuous hedge or screen of Lombardy Poplars on the Blackstone Boulevard, and another on the State House grounds. The Silver or White poplar is so-named because of the white down on the under side of its leaves. The tree was brought to Rhode Island by the early colonists , and thickets of these trees often mark the yard of an old homestead which has long since disappeared. This tree is more apt to frequent the older villages and farms. Other Tree Immigrants from Europe. Specimens of the beautiful English Elm may be seen on College Hill , near 54 College street, and on Benefit street , near Power street. The spring class of 1 9 1 7 planted an English Wht"te Oak on the Normal School grounds. Another tree of this species is on B enefit street , near Star street. Several large Yellow Willows, a handsome winter tree, grow at Nayatt . A ustrian Pines may be seen at Roger Williams Park, and in front of the former Morris Heights School building on Morris avenue, Providence. D. Tree Settlers from Asia. The Ginkgo. This oriental tree is said to have traveled from China to Japan, thence to England and thence to America. It may be recognized by its fan-like leaf, which has given it the name of Maiden­ hair Tree. It is a sacred tree in Japan. There are several of these trees in front of the Providence Public Library and along the Black­ stone Boulevard near Swan Point. It is a relative of the pines and spruces, but like the larch sheds its leaves . The Chinese Chestnut. This tree has been introduced to take the place of our American Chestnut, which is threatened with extermina­ tion by the chestnut blight. There are several in the nursery at

Nature Guiding Roger Williams Park, and two were planted in the spring of 1 9 1 5 on the Normal School grounds . " The gray hoss-chestnut's leetle hands unfold, Softern a baby's be a three days old . " -Lowell.

Horsechestnut. The horsechestnut tree is a native of southern Asia. Anna B otsford Comstock writes : "The wealth of children is, after all, the truest wealth in this world ; and the horsechestnuts, brown and smooth, looking so appetizing and so belying their looks, have been used from time immemorial by boys as legal tender--a fit use, for these handsome nuts seemed coined purposely for boys ' pockets. " Every Providence boy knows the location of a horsechestnut tree. B owen street is noted for its horsechestnut shade trees. Ailanthus Tree. The ailanthus or Tree of Heaven came from China. It is quite extensively planted in parks and private grounds through­ out the city. It probably has the largest leaf of any tree in Rhode Island, often reaching a length of three feet. The name Chinese Sumach tells the character of the leaf. The tree was first planted in 1 8 2 0 on Long Island, and was probably literally blown into Rhode Island, as its winged seeds were wafted on a favoring wind. The Peach Tree. This tree came from Asia. We have already seen how many of our fru it trees originated in Europe. In Japan cherries and peaches are cultivated as ornamental trees. White Mulberry. The white mulberry is probably a native of China. It is interesting to know that the leaves are fed to silkworms and the tree has gone westward or

in

advance of the silkworm.

The

tree reached England in the early part of the 1 7 th century, and America about 1 8 3 0. It grows on Copley Lane in Providence and near the Arbor Vitae hedge in the Metcalf B otanical Garden. II Rhode Island Cross Roads of Trees. The Sandy Trail. It is thought by some botanists that after the Glacial Period. Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, Southern Rhode Island, and New Jersey formed part of a sandy coastal plain. Georges Bank would have been dry land at that time. Since that time the New England coast has been slowly sinking and the plants of the ancient coastal plain have re­ treated to these sand area pockets. Consequently similar plants are isolated in these regions. The ancient coast area formed a north and south sand plain for the migration of plants that could adapt them­ selves to that kind of a soil. Many of our coastal trees , therefore, skip the rockbound coast of Cape Ann , New Hampshire and Maine to reappear in the land of Evangeline, or toward the south show up on the sandy stretch of Cape Cod, on Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard, east of New London , and in New Jersey. The American Holly. In Rhode Island the holly is common in South Kingston and Little Compton It follows the coast into the A.

Rhode Island Trees sand areas south of Boston , to Quincy and Norwell . The tree ' s habitat extends south to Florida. There i s danger o f its being ex­ tenninated in Southern New England, as great quantities are sent to market in Boston and Providence during the Christmas season. The White Cedar. The white cedar is very common in the Kingston Swamp . There are a few stands as far north in the state as Rumford. It is very rare north of Boston except at Cape Breton Island and in Nova Scotia, where it is found quite abundantly. The tree is found along the coast south to Florida. Associated with cedar bogs and ponds is the sedge spike rush (Eleocharis interstincta) , which follows the coast into the tropics, actually growing in Cuba and the Isle of Pine. The Post Oak. The post oak is found along the shore at Wickford. It grows on the same sort of sterile soil on Cape Cod as far as B rew­ ster. It is not mere chance that the post oak and pitch pine do not grow on B lock Island. The island has sand dunes in one part, but in the main it is a great block of clay. The tree is found southward to Florida, obtaining a greater size as it nears the more favorable climate of the south. B. The Granite Way. The granite hills of the western part of the state fonn a cross road to the south for the trees that prefer the granite soil. These same trees are found in the granite areas of Labrador, along the granite coast hills of northern New England and across Rhode Island , and then follow the Appalachian ridges to North Carolina. They find the same climate on the mountain tops of the south that prevails in the lowlands of the north. Mountain Maple. T his tree is found in Nova Scotia and along the mountains to Georgia. It is occasional in northern Rhode Island . We are not all fortunate enough to spend our vacations in mountain­ ou s New England or in Nova Scotia , but we still have the opportunity to admire this beautiful colored maple. Mountain Ash. The mountain ash is not a relative of the ash, but belongs to the rose family. It is very beautiful in the autumn, when its fruit becomes a bright red. This tree grows in cool swamps and on the mountain slopes of the north , and is found occasionally in the northern section of Rhode Island, extending along the moun­ tains to North Carolina . The American Larch , and Fir Balsam. These two conifers prefer cool swamps and grow as far north as the Arctic Circle. From Labra­ dor they extend along the mountains to New Jersey and Pennsyl­ vania, being absent along the coast . The larch grows in the Moses Brown grounds and in the Metcalf Garden. " Give me of your roots, 0 Tamarack ! Of your fibrous roots, 0 Larch Tree ! My canoe to bind together, So to bind the ends together That the water may not enter, That the river may not wet me ! " -Longfellow , i n "Hiawatha . "

Nature Guiding The Hemlock, White Pine, Red Oak , American Hornbeam, and Black Birch are other trees which have crept in from the north . They prefer to occupy the cool spots and grow south along the Alleghanies to Georgia. All of these trees except the hornbeam may be seen at Roger Williams Park. " This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, B earded with moss, and in garments green , indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of eld , with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. " -Longfellow.

III. A Typical Tree Walk in Rhode Island. We have just learned that Rhode Island has a cosmopol itan forest. Its conditions of soil and climate make it a natural assembly ground for trees. A tree walk in Providence will give us an idea of a tree census and the value of such a census to our citizens. This tree walk will start at the corner of Barnes and Prospect streets and will continue along the south side of Barnes street . On the opposite corner is a broken down elm tree. Note the wood­ pecker 's home. He learned that the tree was dead some years ago by tapping it and decided to set up housekeeping. Just back of this tree are two old cherry trees. The forester would say that they have been "dehorned " . This is a harsh treatment and it is doubtful if they will recover, and it certainly does not improve their appearance. I. The large tree under which we stand is a Norway 111aple. Look at the deep f urrows running up and down the trunk .

The fruit

stalks in the top of the tree show that it had many "keys " last year. Can you find any seedlings which have come from the fallen seeds ? Find a seedling two years old. 2. This is a sugar maple. Compare the size of the twigs with those of the N onvay maple. How does the bark differ ? 3 . Silver ll/laple. The bark of the silver maple is scaly. 4. American Elm . The flower buds make black spots against the sky. 5 . This is a Maple. Look back and see which one of the three maples it most nearly resembles . In back of this are pear trees . 6 . W e have just seen this kind o f tree. What i s it ? 7 . What kind of a maple is this ? 8 . Examine the trunk and name this tree. Yellow Wood. What other trees have we seen that came from 9. Europe ? In the yard in back of this tree is an evergreen with large leaves. It is the rhododendron , which is the state flower of West Virginia. What is our state tree ? To the left of the evergreen is a magnolia. Note the large buds. What will come from them ? There are pear trees in back of the magnolia. 10. Horsechestnut. From what continent were the horsechest­ nuts introduced ? This is an example of tree dentistry. Why ,vas an

Rhode Island Trees operation perfonned on this tree ? What material was used for filling ? Why ? Find some of last year' s leaf stems on the ground. Carefully bend a limb down and find the places where the leaves were attached. What kind of a fruit tree is in back of the horse­ chestnut ? II. Sugar Maple. Note something unusual about the large limbs in the top of this tree. This was done during the winter. What do you suppose did it ? How many limbs were affected this way last winter ? I2. American Elm . What kind of a maple is this ? What state is noted for this I3. kind of tree ? I4, I S . What are these trees ? Find a bird box on the elm on the opposite side of the street. Cross Brown Street, keeping on the same side of Barnes . I. Note the young elm with a forsythia beneath it in the corner of the vard . ? How many main trunks does it ; . This is a large have ? In what direction do the ends of the twigs point ) This is one way to tell this tree. ·What makes the knot-like appearance on the twigs ? Look at the small white birch or canoe birch in the back of the yard. 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . These trees are sometimes called rock maples. They grow in "orchards" in northern New England. vVhat name have we already given these trees ? 8 . The buds will tell you the name of this maple . Observe the three clusters of Gypsy moth eggs on the northern side of the tree. What is the advantage of their being on the underside of the limb ? 9 . Name this maple. Observe the buds and name this tree . IO. I I, I2. Wh at are these trees ? Note the Norway maple across the street . Moses Brown Walk. Just inside the gate is an elm . To the far left by the shrubs is a young blue spruce. To the right by the tennis court is a pignut hickory. Along the left of the path alternate sugar maples and Lombardy poplars. Which have branches curving sharp­ ly upward ? Which are taller ? These trees grow faster and when they become old and decrepit they will be cut down and the tops of the sugar maples will spread across the open spaces. Find an elm with a squirrel 's winter home. On the right is a black oak with one main trunk. It has kept some of its leaves on all winter. This is characteristic of oaks. On what part of the tree have the leaves remained ? Why are there none in the other part ? Note the white oak with many wide-spreading limbs which are lighter than the black oak. In back of this tree in the shrubbery are several red or river birches. Suggest how they got their names ? Next we come to an old apple tree. Note the pruned limbs which have commenced to heal. This is called tree surgery. Note the lines of small holes on

Nature Guiding the large limb which leans easterly toward the flag pole. These holes were made by the sap-sucker. This bird is a kind of woodpecker and is related to the flicker whose home we saw on the beginning of the trip . The large , dark tree over on the left is a larch. It sheds its leaves , but the cones show that it is a conifer. IV. The Rhode Island Tree University. You must now realize that every Rhode Island community is an arboretum with trees from the North , trees from the South , trees

JUNIPER

PIN OAK

U M B RELLA PINE

SPRUCE

(Native to R . L) (From the South) (From Japan) (From the North) Fig. 3. Rhode Isl and is the Meeting Place of Trees. It might well be said that they come " Fro m Greenland 's icy mountains to India 's coral strand. "

from across t h e Atlantic and trees from the Far East . A great collection of trees is here. The next step in a well-organized arbo­ retum is to label the trees. This spring many classes will make gradu­ ation gifts. Why not label a few trees ? Let us make Arbor Day, 1 9 2 0 , a notable event by founding the Rhode Island Tree University. I know of nothing so inexpensive that will bring such satisfactory returns on the investment. To know our trees is the beginning of life-long acquaintances. To be interested , to be able to call them by name, to protect them-mean increasing civic pride. Such a gift will endow an educational system that not only works during school time but after hours and through vacations. It will afford an ex­ tension course for all the time for all the people.

CHAPTER XLVI "GRASSHOPPER" A TYPE LESSON IN INSECT-STUDY The Locust Subject Matter. Both the name and the strong hind legs indicate that this insect is a jumper. When it straightens its hind legs , it is sent for a remarkable distance through the air. The wings also aid it in escaping from the many bird enemies. When the grasshopper alights it is not easily seen as its color resembles the grasses. The grasshopper is well equipped for climbing. When it is crawl­ ing up the side of a tumbler we can see the small pads which enable it to stick to the glass. Its claws are also useful in climbing grasses . The spines in the hind legs are used as a comb for cleaning other parts. The two pair of wings make an interesting study. The front pair are hard and thick forming a protective cover for the under wings. The front wings are held erect when flying, the hind wings being the only ones used in flight. The delicate flying wings are folded like a fan beneath the covers when the animal is walking through the grass, thus preventing them from being torn by the sharp blades. The ability to conceal the bright colored back wings beneath the protective color of the forewings, is an advantage when pursued by birds. The mouth consists of two lips, a pair of black bony j aws that work sideways like scissors, and a pair of helpers or arrangers. The clover leaf or grass blade is held in a vertical position by means of the front feet. The insect then cuts the grass downward. It keeps reaching up and cutting the blade downward until the food is devoured or un­ til its hunger is overcome. The "molasses " is partially digested food used in defense. The great appetite of the grasshopper enables one to comprehend the locust plagues spoken of in the B ible (B ook of Exodus) and of its recent damages in Kansas and Argentina. The grasshopper has two large eyes and three single ones. There is a small eye in front of each big eye and one in the centre of the forehead. The feelers are also thought to be organs of smell. Their j oints enable the insect to feel in all directions. The breathing pores may be seen on each segment of the abdomen . The ears are on the first segment of the abdomen and are well protected by the wings . The female grasshopper h a s four proj ections at the end o f the body which are used for burrowing. The eggs are laid in the fall in holes made by the female in the ground. The young hatch out in the spring. They resemble the adult except in size and in the absence of wings. Fall plowing exposes many eggs and is one way of keeping them in check. Grasshoppers have different ways of singing. Some rub the hind­ legs together, others rub the back leg against the first pair of wings and still others rub the wings together. The true grasshopper has feelers longer than the body. The insects which we commonly call grasshoppers , are locusts. 469

4 70

Nature Guiding

Method of Presentation. Have the class collect several locusts. They should make the following observations during the collecting trip to report to the class. Describe the home of the locust . How does it move about ? What is its color ? How does it escape ? Have the pupils bring the insects to school in a paste board box. Holes should be made in the box so that the insects can breathe. Have fresh clover, tumblers and blotters for covers on the front table. Let each student take a tumbler and a few pieces of clover. Place one or two locusts in a tumbler, cover the opening with blotting paper and invert on desks. Do not become alarmed at the escape of any of the locusts . Agassiz tells in his notes , of giving a lecture to an audience , each one of which was holding a grasshopper. Occasionally one of the hoppers would escape and Agassiz would stop the lecture until it was caught. He considered this a part of the training. This is preparing the pupil for later work. There should be a chart drawing of the mouth parts, as shown in Comstock's Handbook of Nature Study, Pg. 3 68 or Linville and Kelly's Zoology, Pg. 3 . The mouth parts should be greatly enlarged and labeled . Use common names, such as upper lip , lower lip , jaws, tongue and helpers. After hearing observations made in the field prepare the students to observe the grasshopper eating. Bring out the fact that each animal has its own way of eating. When we eat corn we hold the cob horizontally, move the corn instead of our head and usually begin at the left end. We do it this way because it is the easiest . The class is now given some time to watch the grasshopper eat. Pupils should note the mouth parts and the manner of eating. (Holds food vertically because the jaws work from right to left like a pair of scissors . Begins at the top and eats down. ) If the class cannot dis­ cover these points without some aid, ask a few questions, such as­ Do the j aws move up and down or from right to left ? Does it move !ts head or the food ? Hold a grasshopper and place a pencil point in its mouth. The Legs. Why does the locust have such large hind legs ? (Jump­ ing) . For what does it use the forelegs ? (Holding food. ) Why does it need the middle legs when feeding ? (To keep its balance.) Why does the locust need three pair of legs ? How does the grasshopper hold his hind legs just before jumping ? (Have a boy take a position as though he were going to j ump . Class note that he bends the knees and then straightens them.) How far can he jump ? What is the advantage of this ? What enables the grasshopper to climb the side of the tumbler ? (Pads on bottom of the feet which secrete a sticky substance.) What else keeps the insect from slipping when climbing grasses ? (Claws and spines . ) Compare with men who climb telephone poles. Note the thread like affairs on top of the head. For what are they used ? (Feel . ) In how many directions can the grasshopper feel ? (All.) What structure of the feelers enables the grasshopper to feel in all directions ? (J ointed. )

Grasshopper

47 1

The Wings . How many pair ? Which pair does it use in flying ' (Class watch closely as the grasshopper flies . ) What does it do with the hind pair when walking : What are the advantages of this ? How is it able to place the larger hind pair under the front wings ? Show a mounted specimen with wings spread. Other Observations for the Pupil. The movement of the abdomen is caused when the insect breathes. The breathing pores are along the sides of the abdomen . The ear is under the wings on the first ring. Note the two large eyes and three smaller ones. In the grammar grades the questions may be written on the board and the pupil allowed to think out the answers at leisure. In the primary grades the teacher develops the lesson, one question at a time. In the grammar grades the results may be tabulated as the pupils give the answers. As�Description Advantage Green or brown color . . . . . . . . . not easily seen by enemies. Jointed antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . to feel in all directions. The general vivarium for the locusts should consist of a cage made of netting. Moistened earth could be placed on the bottom and fresh grass given to the insects daily. Wheat or grass could be raised in pots and placed in the cage. Suggestions for Correlations Drawing. An enlarged drawing, using a whole page of drawing paper is a good test as to whether the pupil sees all the parts. The side view and a top view with wings spread would be worth while. Written Language. A description or a story of the life of a grass­ hopper would give good opportunity for originality of expression. Written language in the school is for the purpose of expressing clearly what one already knows, and not for the purpose of originating new ideas. Most of us are incapable of the latter. Oral Language. The pupil might describe himself as a grasshopper leaving out the name. This description might continue until every­ one in the class recognized what was being described. Story. Read or adapt some story for the class. Literature Quotations John Burroughs, Signs and Seasons�Page 2 4 , speaks of seeing grasshoppers on a warm , thawy day in February. "The grass hatches out under the snow, and why should not the grasshopper. And yet , if a poet were to put grasshoppers in his winter poem, we should re­ quire pretty full specifications of him or else fur to clothe them with . Nature will not be cornered, yet she does many things in a corner and surreptitiously. Homer ,,, rites of the voices of old men, too old to be in the army, who "In summer days like grasshoppers rejoice, A bloodless race, that send a feeble voice. "

Nature Guiding "Green little vaulter in the sunny grass, Catching your heart up at the feel of June, Sole voice that 's heard amid the lazy noon . " -Leigh Hunt . "The poetry o f earth is never dead ; When all the birds are faint with the hot sun, Anci hide in cooling trees, a voice will run From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead ; That is the grasshopper's. He takes the lead In summer luxury. " -John Keats. "'Where the dusty highway leads , High above the wayside weeds They sowed the air with butterflies, like blooming flower seeds, Till the dull grasshopper sprung Half a man's height up, and hung Tranced in the heat with whirring wings And sung and sung and sung . " -James Whitcomb Riley. " The flying grasshopper clacked his wings Like castanets gayly beating . " -Elizabeth A kers.

References: Boyden, A. C. 1 900. Nature Study by Months . The New England Publishing Company . Excellent suggestions as to method. Comstock, A . B . 1 9 1 2 . The Handbook of !\ature-Study. The Comstock Publishing Company. The best all-around book for teachers. Daulton , Agnes 11 . 1 905 . Autobiography of a B utterfly and other Stories. Rand McNally & Company . The Insects' Fiddle-Dee-Dee. An excellent story for children which is scientifically correct . Fairchild, David. 1 9 1 3 . The Monsters of our B ackyards. In the National Geographic Magazine, 1Iay 1 9 1 3 . Contains thirty-nine full-paged pictures of insects which are excellent for class work. This magazine can be obtained at 25 cents per copy by writing to the National Geographic Society , \Vashington, D. C. Foot, Constance M . 1 909. Insect Wonderland . John Lane Co . , New York. Grasshoppers Lane, Pg. 1 3 9- 1 5 7 . A conversation between a grasshopper and a field-mouse. Good for oral reading in the Grammar Grades. Can be easily adapted to other grades. Linville and Kelly. 1 906. A Text-book in General Zoology. Ginn & Company. \Vritten for secondary schools. An excellent, up-to-date text for the teacher with good suggestions as to method. Morley, Margaret W. 1 903 . Insect Folk, Pg. 59- I I 3 . Ginn & Com pany. Written for children but has too much detail and expects the use of scientific names. Good for subject matter and in illustrating tact at certain points. Morley, Margaret W. 1 907. Grasshopper Land . A . C. McClurg & Company. A very complete treatise with an index. Chapter XVI, the Diary of a Locust , good for grammar grades. Riley, C. V. Destructive Locusts. Bulletin 25. The U. S. Dept. of Agricul­ ture, Washington, D. C . Schwartz, Julia A . 1 9 I O. Grasshopper Green 's Garden. Little, Brown & Company, Boston, Mass. An excellent story for grammar grades. Could be easily adapted for an oral story in the primary grades. Wilson, Mrs . L. L . 1 89 7 . Nature- S tudy in Elerrentary Schools . The Mac­ millan Company . Suggestive as to method.

CHAPTER XLVII SUGGESTIVE LESSONS IN B IRD-STUDY : THE WOODPECKER

The following lessons are suggestive for an introduction to bird­ study in the grades. The Flicker is taken as a type, since it is a penna­ nent resident, at least as far north as Massachusetts, and may become an acquaintance before the arrival of other species. Moreover, the Flicker is a good bird to know. This woodland drummer is venturing into cities where it is adapting itself to civilization. One has taken up its abode in a telephone pole, within sight of my home, and its reveille on tin roofs may be heard nearly every morning. It seems as pleased with this new invention as a boy with a new drum. An old barn at home has been a Flicker hotel for years. These facts may be an indication of how other birds might fall into civilized habits if we should meet them half way. If we can develop an ap­ preciative interest in these things in our boys and girls, we will have taken a long step towal'd gaining this end. Lesson I. Field Observations. The teacher should become acquainted with a Flicker rendezvous, retreat , as the species is usually solitary, and take the class to visit the place. The pupils must approach on the alert, "all eyes and ears, " for any secrets which the birds may divulge. Suddenly one flies up from the ground. W hat color did it show when it flew ? (White rump . ) What was the path of its flight ? (A wavy, up-and­ down motion. When the wings went down the bird went up , and vice versa. ) Someone should make a drawing on the ground , to show the manner of flight. If the pupils do not observe these points , they must sharpen their eyes for another trial. What was the Flicker probably doing on the ground ? (Feeding. ) All birds do not eat the same food . If we would like to know what the Flicker was eating when we disturbed its feast, let us walk to the place where it was feeding and investigate. What do we find that might be eaten by the Flicker ? (Weed seeds, bayberries, black alder, poison sumac , and poison ivy berries. An ant ' s hill might be present, as this is a favorite morsel of the Flicker. ) The Flicker eats all of these things that we have found. We might think that it is a good thing for the Flicker to eat the seeds of these poisonous plants, but it has been found that after the waxy substance on the ou tside of the berry has been digested the seed is thrown out from the mouth. These seeds will genniitate and, since the scattering of poisonous plants is not desirable, this cannot be placed on the credit side of our account with Mr. Flicker. Who saw where our friend went ? (To an old apple tree across the field. ) Let us visit the home of the Flicker family. On our way we m a y hear the Flicker call to its mates. If we do, let us try to tell or

47 3

474

Nature Guiding

what it says. After interpretations by the class, tell them how other listeners have read the call. "If-if-if-if-if-if-if, " Burroughs ; "Up, up, up, up , up , up , up , " Thoreau ; "Wick, wick, wick, wick, " Mrs. Wright ; "Wake-up, wake­ up, wake-up, wake-up, " Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott ; "Kee-yer, kee­ yer, kee-yer, kee-yer, " Chapman ; "Yarup ! yarup ! yarup-up-up-up ! " Dallas Lore Sharp . Does anyone think that this Woodpecker sings ? In which does it excel, instrumental or vocal music ? W hat kind of a

Fig. I .

Specimens to show WHY and How Dr. Woodpecker per­ formed an operation.

musician might we call it ? (Drummer.) Investigate and describe its drum . (A hollow dead limb . ) Sometimes it telegraphs a wireless message to its mate ; at other times it is a sort of an anvil solo, and quite frequently a duller beat in the search for food. Try to learn these sounds in the Flicker's signal code. As we get nearer, let us make an effort to see some of the Flicker's colors. (Black crescent on breast, golden shaft of quill feathers, and spotted underparts . ) I n what position i s the bird resting o n the tree ? (Perched o n a limb or clinging to the trunk. ) Remember this is a Woodpecker, and most of its kind cling to trees instead of perching. The class should observe the position of the tail (outer end braced against the trunk) and, if possible, note character of tail-feathers. (Sharp , pointed ends . ) Of what use is such a tail ? (Acts as a prop . ) Since Mr. and Mrs. Flicker have not set up housekeeping, we may look in at the door. In what kind of limb are they building ? (Dead limb. Knock on the limb with a stone.) Why ? (B ecause it is easier to dig out the decaying particles of wood.) Fathom the hold, to find how far it exteZlds. (One to three feet.) What is the advantage of so deep a hole ? (To

The Woodpecker

475

escape enemies and better protect inmates from the weather. ) Let the class look for places on the tree where a Woodpecker has been drilling. What was it after ? (Grubs .) We may call the Flicker a tree surgeon . Why ? (The tree is the landlord and Dr. Flicker pays rent to his Treeship by removing undesirable insect visitors. These insect lodgers do not pay rent and are injurious to the health of the tree. ) W e have found that Dr. Flicker sometim es eats things which reflect upon his good character, and at other times he eats things which make him very useful. Lesson II. Indoor Observation. Use stuffed specimens and pictures. The class should collect illustrative material such as that shown in Figure 1 . The teacher may exchange material with distant schools. The portion of a tree, for instance , illustrated in Figure 2 came from the Pacific Coast. It shows the work of the California Woodpecker, a red-headed Wood­ pecker on the western edge of our continent, which drills holes and stores acorns in them for future use. Review the field-trip , asking about the Flicker' s flight, colors, home, call and food. The class is now ready to make close observa­ tions, and to study some of the de­ tailed structures which fit the Wood­ peeker for its life, which has been observed in the field. Lead the class to discover the dif­ ference between the male and the female. Mr. Flicker has a mous­ tache. Madame Flicker, of course, has not. If all of the colors of the plumage were not seen on the trip, Fig. 2. The Carpenter Woodpecker they should be noted now. stores acorns in trees. This is com­ Compare the arrangement of the mon in California. Material of toes with that of the Robin. The this kind may be exchanged with Eastern Schools. Flicker has two toes in front and two behind, the Robin has three in front and one behind. Who remembers something the Woodpecker was doing that it could not have done as well if its toes had been arranged like the Robin's ? (Clinging to the side of the tree.) What was the position of its tail when it was clinging to the trunk ? (It was bent under against the tree.) Look closely at the tail and tell how it differs from the Robin 's tail. (It has sharp-pointed, stiff feathers .)

Nature Guiding What use does the Flicker make of such a t ail ? (H elp s hold itself on the trunk. ) W e call this kind o f tail a prop. Tell the different ways in which the Woodpecker is fitted to cling to tree trunks. (The toes are arranged like ic e- t o n gs for nipping, and the bird braces itself with its tail.) Why does the Flicker want to cling to the side of the

Fig . 3 .

Work of the Sapsucker and home of the Downy Wood­ pecker. As far as possible, material should be collected by the pupils.

tree ? (To excavate for grubs, or to build a h ome . ) What tool does the Flicker use for this work ? ( Th e bill . ) In what way is its bill a go od instrument for this work ? (Sharp-pointed , st out and hard . ) T h e teacher may now tell t h e class the fo ll owing story , using ma­ terial such as is shown in Fig. I to illustrate the point . Yesterday,

The Woodpecker we found places in the apple tree where Dr. Woodpecker had per­ formed a surgical operation. (Open the sticks, which have been split . ) Inside of this tree were "worm tracks " such as are seen here. Worms did not make these borings , but young beetles called grubs. They correspond to the caterpillar stage of th e butterfly. Dr. Woodpecker came along and saw where Mr. Grub had broken entrance and decided that here was a good meal. Now he did not start to get baby beetle by boring in at the place where the grub entered, as perhaps you and I would do. He held his head close to the trunk and listened. The hard, dry wood is a good telephone, and he heard the grub clicking away as he was digging his tunnel. Dr. Woodpecker, after his diag­ nosis, determined the nearest way to the wonn and began to drill. How could he get the worm out after drilling the hole ? He has just the right kind of an instrument for such work, his tongue. He thrust his tongue through the white grub , drew him out and ate him. His tongue is covered with a sticky substance which enables him to catch ants. Three thousand ants have been found in the stomach of one Flicker. The Flicker is a carpenter, as well as a doctor. I am going to tell you how he builds his home. First he outlines his doorway like this . (Make a circle with dots . ) He gets it just the right size. It is not so large that cats can come in, and not so small that he cannot get in himself. Could we draw a doorway just the right size for our house ? He then uses his bill as a pick and begins to chip away the wood, to make a hole. He enjoys the work in the same way that we do when we build a house. Fig. 3 . Lesson III. Comparisons. Use stuffed specimens , pictures of other kinds of 'Woodpeckers , and exchange material . Have the class d iscover points in which all Woodpeckers are alike. How may we distinguish them ? The Downy and the Hairy Woodpeckers may often be attracted near school­ houses and homes by hanging pieces of beef fat in the trees. Fig. 4 SUGGESTIONS F O R C O RR E LATIONS

Lesson IV. Language. Let the class suppose that they are Flickers, and tell about them­ selves. Ask each pupil to write a story on what one Woodpecker did as he watched it for fifteen minutes. In schools where children dramatize, it might be profitable and interesting to write a drama with the Flicker, an apple tree, and a fat baby beetle as characters . The Flicker affords an unusual opportunity for word study. Mr. Colburn gave 3 6 common names of this species in the Audubon Magazine for June, 1 8 8 7 . The Country Life in America , July, 1 9 1 3 , says that there are 1 2 6 names. These names are nicknames, each of which gives a hint of some characteristic of the bird. Have the class detennine which indicates the color, song, flight , and habits of the bird : Yellow-hammer, Piquebois Jaune, Yellow-shafted Wood-

Nature Guiding pecker, Yellow-winged Woodpecker, Crescent-bird, Clape, Cave-duc , Fiddler, Hittock, Hick-wall, Piute or Perrit , Wake-up , Yaffie, Yar­ rup , Yucker, Tapping-bird, High-hold, High-holder, and the High­ hole. The Woodpeckers have not attained the literary rank of the Blue­ bird, the Oriole, and some others. Walt Whitman speaks of "The High-hold flashing his golden wings. " Lesson V. Drawing. Fill in outline drawings with colored pencils or water-colors. These outlines may be made on a hectograph. It is worth while to make different views, as a front view of the Flicker to show polka-dots and locket ; side view, to show the moustache of Father Flicker or its absence in Madame Flicker, and the golden wing shafts ; back view in flight , to show the white field mark, barred color scheme on the back, and the red patch on the back of the head. Simple draw­ ings , to illustrate the story of the Flicker's activities , bring out skill and interest . Such a series of sketches might include the bird flying up from the ground ; position on the trunk ; head bent back for ham­ mering ; outline of a doorway ; the completed mansion ; the eggs in the nest ; bringing food ; the babies , with mouths wide-opened to receive the food , and the young on a limb receiving a lesson in flying. The food for the young, it should be explained , is invisible as it is partly digested in the alimentary canal. The process of feeding is peculiar since the food is literally pumped into the mouth of the young.

Lesson VI. Manual Training. The construction of a home for the Flicker. Hollow out a small block of wood leaving the bark on the outside. The opening from the outside should have a diameter of two and a half inches . Model­ ing the home and eggs in clay is fascinating work for the younger grades . The Flicker does not build a nest . The eggs rest upon small chips, which probably fall to the bottom of the hole during the con­ struction of the house. Lesson VII. IYlusic. There are not many opportunities to correlate the study of the Flicker with music . The cry is rather difficult to imitate. The drum­ ming is worthy of imitation in the elementary grades. Try to differ­ entiate between the Flicker's drumming as a pastime and its picking for food. The noisiness of the Flicker may be contrasted with the music of some of our more accomplished feathered singers.

Fig.

YeJlow-Crowned and Black­ Crowned Night Herons

I.

CHAPTER XLVIII THE B LACK-C ROWNED N IGHT HERON (Nycticorax nycticorax nCEvius) A METHOD OF STUDY

I. Subject Matter. The Black-crowned Night Heron is known more commonly when called by one of its nicknames : Squawk, Quawk, or Qua B ird. In some of the southern states it is known as Gros-bec , Indian Hen . o r Indian Pullet. The bird receives the first o f these appellations from its call as it flies to and from its hunting-ground late in the afternoon or at night. Longfellow gives the proper setting, in 'Evangeline, ' when he says, "Deathlike the silence seemed, and unbroke, save by the herons Home to their roosts in the cedar trees returning at sunset . "

The Black-crowned is the most abundant and familiar of the Heron family. A large colony of these birds has a breeding-ground on Cape Cod, not far from Camp Chequesset , a girls' camp , where the writer had frequent opportunity to visit the heronry and to experiment upon the birds with the camera. This particular colony is in a pitch-pine grove which is located near a marsh . If one enters the rookery in daytime-which is usually bedtime for this species-he finds things rather quiet until discovered. The invader is then serenaded with a great din. The parents fly into the air, squawking and cackling promiscuously. B lanchan likens it to pandemonium, and Wilson compares the noise with that of two or three hundred Indians "choking or throttling" each other. Such is the heralding as one enters the sanctum sanctorum of herondom. 47 9

Nature Guiding The housekeeping is no more inviting than the notes of greeting. The ground and trees are white with excrement, and a foul odor comes from decomposing pieces of fish which have fallen to the groun d. Here and there are the remains of a young bird who did not meet the laws of arboreal life successfully. Should a visitor climb toward the nests, the young birds still further show their unsociability by disgorging their last meal . The Herons also have good allies in the mosquitos, whose method of attack might repel any human foe who at­ tempted to harm the landlords of the settlement. The nests of these Herons were ragged platforms of dead sticks built in the forks of trees about 1 0 to 2 0 feet from the ground. The birds, it should be noted, usually repair the old nests , which do not show the high degree of craftsmanship exhibited by other birds , while cleanliness is an unknown factor. In this lat­ itude , the Black-crowned Night Fig. 2 . A Banded Black-crowned Heron returns about the second Night Heron, two years old. week of May, and as it is found breedin g often into June, one may find the young in all stages of development during the midsummer months. The baby Herons wear a coat of gray down and have a promi­ nent head -crest . The one in the picture appeared to be dead, and I had to poke him several times before I learned that he was 'playing possum . ' He would not hold up his chin , so appears as a fluffy ball in his photograph. In less than a month these babies become nearly as large as their parents. This rapid growth is due to their enormous appetites. The old birds not only work nights but have to leave the homestead in the afternoon to keep the young well fed. They bring in fish , eels , and frogs and can ill afford to have 'fisherman 's luck. ' The food is softened and partially digested in the alimentary canal of the adult before it is served to the young. To have a family of three or four average 1 . 5 feet in height in their bare feet, in four weeks, is an undertaking that keeps both father and mother Heron working full time. The young Heron has a dress more like the Bittern's than that of its parents. In this early period the color of the young blends well with the trees , making it more difficult to discover them . Sitting , day in and day out, like sentinels, except with a more expectant look, they await the return of the parents with food. When I climbed a tree to take a picture of one of the young Herons,

Black-Crowned Night Heron

it began to climb away, and went rapidly to the end of a neighboring branch. If it lost its balance it regained it by us ing its bill . One unfortunate youngster fell to the ground and was allowed to pose on a limb . If disturbed on the perch the bird erected its crest , opened its cavernous beak, and spread its wings , presenting a terrifying appearance sufficient to drive away anyone having designs on its tender and plump makeup . It was interesting to watch the adult birds feeding on the marshes and along the creek in front of the cam p . They wade ankle-deep

Fig.

3.

A Black-Crowned Night Heron in its Haunts . ( Photograph of :Mounted Specimen)

(usuall y is sp ie d,

thought of as knee-deep ) , often standing still . When food the arched n eck allows the bird to strike with great forc e . To a small fish the Heron ' s leg must resembl e a stick , a n d t h e l ight ventral color must render its body imperceptible when looked at against the sky from below. The Heron ' s j uvenile p lu m ag e enables the owner to escape becoming food for enemies , while the color of the adult i s a n aid in securing food . The B l ack-crowned Night Heron is very w id ely distributed. It breeds from New B runswick to Patagonia . * I n this re gi on i t begins to migrate about the middle of October. Audubon says that the adults go farther south than the young.

*Distribution and Mi grat i on of N orth American Herons and Their Allies' , Wells W . Cooke. 1 9 1 3 . B iological Survey, Bulletin 1\ 0 . 45 .

Nature Guiding II. Method of Teaching. If there are Herons in the neighborhood , it is best to enc ourage pupils to observe these birds out-of-doors . B egin the work with an interesting description and ask a few questions to arouse the pupils ' interest. If there is a rookery that can be visited it might be desirable to have a few pupils make a study of it. Observations of the adult feeding is an excellent training which is worth while for all the class. Pupils might have individual notebooks in which they could write answers to certain questions. These questions should be written on the blackboard when it is time to make the observations and the class be given at least a week for observation work. A . Observations. (a) Questions for Observation at the Rookery. r. Try to enter the heronry without being discovered . If you are discovered : How did the bird discover you ? How do you know that you were discovered ? 2. What does the bird say ? If you have heard the same call before, when did you hear it ? Where did you hear it ? 3 . Where does the Heron carry its long legs when flying ? How do they help it at this time ? 4 . What is the color of the underside of the Heron ? 5 . When the birds come back to the trees note the color of the legs, the eyes, the top of the head, the back. 6. Where are the nests placed ? Of what material are they made ? Where is the material obtained ? How do you suppose it is obtained ? Compare the nest with some familiar nest . 7. Do the young birds make any noise ? What do the parents feed the young ? How can you tell this ? 8 . What is the difference in color between the old bird an d the young one ? 9. Describe a baby bird. (b) Questions for Observation at the Marsh. I. Does the bird ever stand motionless ? (Audubon says that this one never does . ) Advantage o f the habit ? Does this Heron prefer to walk or wade ? If it wades, how 2. deep does it go in the water ? How is it adapted for its method of locomotion ? 3 . In what position does it hold the head ? What is the ad vantage of this ? 4 . What does the bird do when it sees prey ? Why does it do this ? 5 . I n what position does i t hold its head when flying ? Why ? Describe its colors. Why would i t be difficult for a fish to 6. discover it ? Where does it place the legs when flying ? How does this 7. position help it ? How would it be hindered if it did not do this ? 8 . What does the bird do when it hears a noise. (Note that birds differ in their response to a noise. The B ittern, for example, rather squats than flies. )

Black-Crowned Night Heron Try to discover what the bird eats . (c) Questions for Observation in the Laboratory. (Preferably use a stuffed specimen , otherwise a picture. ) I. Describe the beak. What i s the character o f the edges of the bill ? Advantage ? 2. Compare the length of the tail with that of other birds . Disadvantage ? How is it overcome ? What is characteristic of the legs ? Why should they be so ? 3. Compare the growth of feathers on the legs with the growth of feathers on the legs of the Owl. Explain the difference. Describe the wings. What does that tell you ? 4. What is unusual about the toes ? How does this help the bird ? 5. 6 . What duck-like characteristic is found in the foot ? How can this be of service ? 7. Compare the length of the neck with that of the legs. Why should there be this relation ? 8 . What is the position of the neck ? When would this pOIse be helpful ? 9. What part of the eye is red ? Look at the pupil of several birds . What color is the pupil in every case ? How does the iris of the immature Night Heron differ from that cif the adult ? Each pupil has now had opportunity to make careful observations, and each one has had the benefits of the training. B. Organization. Closely following the observation period should come the stage of organization. The teacher meets the class as a group . Questions about the observations made are asked and the results grouped somewhat as follows, the teacher writing down the facts on the blackboard as they are obtained from the pupils : 9.

THE B LACK-CROWNE D N I GHT HERON

Food: Frogs, eels, worms, fish, mice. Home: Marshes and Creeks. Color . . . . . B lack head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hence name. Light below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not easily seen by animals it seeks. Dark above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not so easily seen from above. Red iris . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . peculiar to some birds . Three white crown feathers . . . ornamentation at breeding-time. B eak . . . . . Large, lance-like . . . . . . . . . . . . killing prey . Sharp-edged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to hold slippery food. Eyes . . . . . Well forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for quick sight. Large pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to see at night . Neck . . . . . S-shaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to dart at food. Length of legs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to reach food. Drawn in when flying . . . . . . . . better balanced . Legs . . . . . Long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to keep body above the water. Most part unfeathered . . . . . . . not to get feathers wet. Straight back when flying . . . . to steer. Toes . . . . . Long and wide spread . . . . . . . to distribute weight . Slightly webbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . to bear them up in soft mud. Back toe well developed . . . . . . useful in perching as well as for bal. . ancing Tail . . . . . . Short, weak feathers . . . . . . . . . steers with legs. Wings . . . . Long and broad . . . . . . . . . . . . . strong flight.

Nature Guiding C.

Conclusion The pupil should be led to make the general conclusion, from facts gathered, that the Black-crowned Night Heron is a wading bird well adapted to its home and habits of getting food. Later the pupil will begin to see that to a great extent any bird is structurally adapted to its environment, that is to where it lives and what it eats. These two topics namely, home and habits, should come first , therefore, in considering an animal . D. Comparison. The Black-crowned Night Heron has been used as a type of Heron and of a larger group commonly known as wading birds. The pupil is now ready to understand related forms and to search out differences and possibly, to give reasons for variations. A visit to a museum, if convenient, may well be made or pictures of the various forms studied used. Questions for observations should be given for this lesson in the same manner as before. The following notes are subj oined for the benefit of the teacher who may add to them as occasion demands. 1. Plovers . Slender bill, to probe ground ; wings long and acute ; swallow-like flight ; 'hind toe small , scarcely touching ground ; builds nest on ground ; toes not webbed, gathers food from upper part of beach in firm sand ; each toe has lobes (water propellors) , yet is suited to running along the beach. 2. A vocet. Long curved bill, to search out worms and snails in crevices and under stones. 3. Woodcock . Long bill, to thrust into mud for worms ; end extremely sensitive, for the purpose of feeling for food ; eyes far back ; tongue secretes a sticky substance to help hold worms ; brown­ colored plumage ; builds nest on ground in leaves. Wilson 's Snipe is a close relative of the Woodcock. J acana has feet adapted for walking on floating lily-pads ; 4. spurs on wings used for fighting ; found in South America . E . Correlations .

Have the class investigate and make reports on the following : 1 . Literature .

Story of the Egret . Why our Shore Birds are Disappearing. The Stork. Child Stories : Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates , by Mary Mapes Dodge, pp. 2 3 7-3 9 . Wonder Stories Told for Children b y Hans Christian Anderson. PP · 4 3 1 -3 6 .

The Cranes ' Express. An Old Tale. Adapted for Lower Grades . 2. Drawing. The Heron and its relatives have been used a great deal , especially in ornamentation, by the ] apanese . The class might look over the chinaware and vases at home and bring in pieces that

Black-Crowned Night Heron

illustrate the use of birds in art. B irds are picturesque whether wading or flying. A cover design might be made at this time for the note-books. Drawings to show the various forms of beaks and feet are int eresting Visit an art museum and study the use of the Heron in art . .

THE DOWNY WOODPECKER

By GARRETT N EWKIRK The Downy is a drummer-boy, his drum a hollow limb ; If people listen or do not , it's all the same to him. He plays a Chinese melody, and plays it with a will, Without another drumstick but j ust his little bill ; And he isn 't playing all for fun, nor j ust to have a lark, He's after every kind of bug or worm within the bark ; Or, if there is a coddling-moth, he'll get him without fail, While holding firmly to the tree with all his toes, and tail. He is fond of every insect , and every insect egg ; He works for everything he gets, and never has to beg . From weather either cold or hot he never runs away ; So, when you find him present, you may hope that he will stay. "A thousand voices whisper it is spring ;

Shy flowers start up to greet me on the way, And homing birds preen their swift wings and sing The praises of the friendly , lengthening day . " -Louise Chandler Moulton. "When Nature had made all her birds, With no more cares to think on, She gave a rippling laugh , and out There flew a Bobolinkon. " -Ch ristopher P . Cranch. "In the budding woods the April days, Faint with the fragrance from the life begun, Where the early fluttering sunbeam plays Like a prisoned creature of the sun, With sweet trill or plaintive note, Quick pulsation of a throat, With the life and light of Spring, There the birds of April sing . " -Dora Read Goodale.

Nature Guiding "Oh, every year hath its winter, And every year hath its rain­ But a day is always coming "'Then the birds go Korth again. "

" STUPIDITY STREET " 1 saw with open eyes

Singing birds sweet Sold in the shops For the people to eat , Sold in the shops of Stupidity Street. 1 saw in vision The worm in the wheat, And in the shops nothing For people to eat ; Nothing for sale in Stupidity street. By Ralph H odgson.

" The woods were filled so full of song There seemed no room for sense of wrong. " -Tennyson.

CHAPTER XLIX SUGGESTIVE LESSONS I N B I RD-STUDY THE BLUE JAY

I. Field Observations There is only one practical use to which you can put these sugges­ tions. Make them the purpose for wood excursions, not for the class , but for individuals and small groups. No one should try to teach what he does not know, but there is a great deal about a B lue Jay that one can know. You must catch the spirit before the lesson , and a single excursion into the woods of autumn or winter will give it , for the B lue Jay is a permanent resident. You ought to hear his notes ring through the silence of the October frost ! Stand still and see if you can discover his business. 1 . In what sort of a locality do you discover him ? 2 . Describe his method of flight. 3 . Does he walk or hop ? 4 . What does he eat ? 5 . How do the other birds like him ? 6 . How does the Jay break off an acorn ? 7 . How does he open the acorns ? 8 . Where does he hide the acorns ? [B irds ' nests are more easily found in winter than in summer, and this is really the time to study them, as one can collect and observe them carefully without disturbing the tenants. ] Q . Where d o you find the B lue Jay's nest ? 1 0 . In what kind of a tree ? 1 1 . How high is it from the ground ? 1 2 . Where is it in the tree, on a branch or in a fork ? 1 3 . Is the nest easy to find ? Why ? 1 4 . Of what material is it built ? I S . How is the material arranged ' 1 6 . What holds the nest together ? 1 7 . In the spring try to find a B lue Jay building his home. Do both parents work at the nest-building ? 1 8 . When do they commence to build their nest ) 1 9 . How does the Jay get twigs ? 2 0 . Where are the twigs obtained and how carried to the nest ? This is a kind of nature-test . It differs from most school studies in that the test comes right at the beginning of the subj ect. It is a test of the power to observe nature. Again , it gives the child an experience of his own. He has something interesting for conversa­ tion. His own experience is really the only kind of a subj ect for him to write about. It gives him an opportunity for self-expression , something different from the phonograph method by which some48 7

Nature Guiding one else's ideas are repeated. Do not let him put on smoked glasses or stuff cotton into his ears after he has observed these twenty points. It would be like planting twenty seeds in a garden and never looking at them again. Some naturalists have been observing the B lue Jay for fourscore years or more, and there are still new Blue Jay sounds and tricks to hear and see. Here, again, is the difference between book-study and nature-study. A test in the former ends the study, but in the latter it is simply opening the way for a lifelong examina­ tion, besides being a great deal more fun . By the latter method, one's failures are not proclaimed, and his successes are a point in pedagogy for other subj ects. II. Blue Jay Experiences . (A Character Study) As I do not know the Blue Jay experiences of other people, I shall have to tell about mine. They started on a farm in South S cituate, Mass. The B lue Jays were stealing the corn , and that was an unpardonable sin on the farm . There are four more chapters of this story of which I will simply give the titles : An Old Shot Gun ; Concealed in the Bushes ; Imitations of the Blue Jay's Call ; A Dead B lue Jay. This paragraph would not have to be written had I been given the opportunities for bird-study that boys and girls have to-day. Right here I want to say that I do not belittle the opportunities of the farm. One has to know things to succeed on the farm . He must plant , harvest, prepare, and use. In the city it is a little money, a store, and a can-opener. If the city boy or girl wishes to share in the experience of the great out-of-doors, he only needs to step into the parks and use his senses . Thus he may acquire some real knowledge by observation , a fundamental principle in education . As a farmer-boy I knew the Blue Jay, his haunts and his failings and could call him to any tree. �What I needed was a teacher ' someone to organize, direct, and guide (not stuff) my observations : The next notable B lue Jay experience that I recall was when I had a class on a field-trip . We went to a field to watch Some purple Grackles. One of the Grackles flew to a large elm tree, carrying a white grub which he had excavated from the ground. Just as the Grackle landed, a B lue Jay flew down, snatched the grub , and flew to another limb , where it proceeded to beat the worm against the tree. When this juicy morsel had been devoured, the Jay flew again, this time to where its nest was located. This whole picture was run off in about two minutes. The incident showed the thieving instincts and "cheek " of the bird, but at the same time his fondness for grubs. We had his character in a nutshell. The Blue Jay is also a big tease, at times a bully. The house across the street has a picket fence along the side of the lawn. One day in the fall we saw a cat sitting peacefully on the upper ledge of the fence. Suddenly, two B lue Jays appeared on the scene. They flew back of the cat and perched three or four feet away, from time to

Bird-Study time swooping down at it, being perhaps within a foot above it. The starting-point was a maple tree that shaded the fence. Now and then the birds would call jay-jay-jay. The whole performance seemed to be a game, and was seen at two different times and several months apart.

Fig.

I.

The Moose-bird Caught on the Wing.

In September, 1 9 1 6 , I went on a trip to New Brunswick. It was a 'camera hunt , ' which is much m ore fun than shooting with a gun. The cruise led twenty-fom miles from the nearest house and settle­ ment, right into the woods on the headwaters of the Miramichi . Our party found quarters at an old abandoned lumber camp . On a fishing-trip up the Little Dungavon one day, we cooked our noon meal at the junction of two streams. From our cornmeal allowance we had m3.de some bannock. It was considered rather valuable. since we had 'toted' our provisions on our backs, carrying enough f or a week which is quite a lug. I had forded one of the stre3J11 S to get some dry wood for the fire, and, upon tuning toward the place where our provisions were spread out, I saw a bird making away with our golden bannock. I decided that if it tasted as good to the bird as it did to me, he would return , so I hid in the tall grass and focussed my camera on a tin cup which held the disputed food. I did not have to wa;t long before h e came back. Without following even woodsman etiquette, this feathered messmate tried to stand on the rim of the cup , which upset both of our plans , blurring the picture I tried to make. Such little unexpected or unplanned incidents, however, only add to the excitement . This was the first time that I had ever seen the bird , but I remembered its picture and knew that it was the Canada Jay. On returning to civilization ( ?) we learned

49 0

Nature Guiding

that the lumbermen call it the Moose-bird. In some parts it is called Meat Hawk, Carrion-bird or Whiskey-Jack. Kennicott suggests that its Indian name, Wiss-ka-chon, was probably contorted into Whiskey-John and thence to Whiskey-Jack. Many of the strange noises we heard in camp , near sundown, were undoubtedly not bears or wildcats but the Moose-bird. We later

Fig. 2 .

made friends at camp .

Canadian Jay Caller.

would place bait on one of the lumber-camp another, ready to shoot with the camera. As the picture shows, the bird had no fear of the revolver. The bird ate a little and then would carry off a large piece. He gave a sort of whining tone as he returned from one tree and then another. Picking up an acquaintance with city B lue Jays is easier than one would suppose. Last spring one sunflower seed was planted near our grape-arbor. The B lue Jays came regularly to get the sunflower seeds. To take a picture I placed the camera near th e grape-arbor and had a thread leading into the house. When the Jays came I pulled the thread. Next year we plan to have a row of sunflowers by the arbor for the B lue Jays. My last experience was in a Providence park, while taking the picture of a B lue Jay's nest. An old gate was used for a ladder, and after I had climbed up into the tree, a Jay came and perched over­ head. Soon I saw another Jay coming down the path. B oth Jays had a sort of military bearing, with their blue uniforms, white collars, and black belts. The patrol of the branches , however, was more alert than his mate below, and I was not called upon to explain my presence in the tree. I

stools and sit eight feet away on

Bird-Study

49 1

III. Blue Jay Economics. (Debit and Cr edit A ccou n t) My early impression of Jay morals was that they were not as 'true blue' as the bird's dress. I am not so sure now but what the Jay had a right to some of the corn. Audubon pictures a Jay sucking an egg and writes : "I have seen it go its round from one nest to another every day, and suck the newly laid eggs. " B arrows, how­ ever, in 'Michigan Bird-life, ' says that these robberies are restricted to particular Jays and are not general. Forbush , in 'Useful B irds and Their Protection ' says that "Jays eat the eggs of the tent cater­ pillar moth and the larvae of the gipsy moth and other hairy cater­ pillars . " He concludes that it should not be allowed to increase at the expen se of smaller birds. Prof. F. E. L. B eal, in the bulletin entitled, 'The Blue Jay and its Food' (published by U. S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture) , says : "Jays do not eat the seeds of the poison ivy (Rhus radicans) or poison sumac (Rhus vernix) . " The Blue Jay helps in forestation by planting seeds of various trees , such as nuts and the like. Thus , on the whole, an d aside from th e enj oyment we get from his beautiful color, his neighborliness and cheery call, we may say that there is a great deal to be added to his credit ac­ count, and that he is a good friend to man.

IV. The Blue Ja y in Literature What facts do the different poets tell us about the Blue Jay ? Could you appreciate what they write if you had not heard and seen the Jay ? Pick out the words th at describe him . This is what a few writers think the Jay says : Flagg- Dilly-lily. Hoffman : Djay djay, tee-ar tee-ar teerr, too-wheedle too-wheedle, which suggests the creaking of a wheelbarrow. Matthews : J-aa-y j-aa-y, ge-rul-Iup, ge-rul-Iup, heigh-ho Samuels : Wheeo-wheeo-wheeo. Seton : Sir-roo-tle, sir-roo-tle , sir-roo-tle. "Blue Jay , Clad in blue with snow-white trimmmgs. " -Frank Bolles. The Blue Jay "Blows the trumpet of winter. " - Thoreau. " The brazen trump of the impatient Jay . " - Thoreau. "The Robin and the Wren are flown , but from the shrub the Jay, And from the wood-top calls the Crow through all the gloomy day . " -Bryant.

49 2

Nature Guiding "Proud of cerulean stains From heaven ' s unsullied arch purloined, The Jay screams hoarse . "

-Gisborne. "He who makes his nati\�e wood Resound his screaming, harsh and rude , Conti nuously the season through ; Though scarce his painted v;ing you'll view 'With sable barred, and white and grey , And varied crest , the l o nely Jay ! "

-Bishop Mant. ECONOMIC ASPE C T S O F OUR KATIONAL PARKS POLICY By R O B E R T S . YARD, NATIOKAL PARKS ASSOCI.H I OK, vYASHI)[GTON , D . C . " The popular museums a n d school-rooms which constitute our national parks system, with their millions of waiting student s , are not yet utilized. The system may b e compared to a school equipped with every educational device, fiiled with eager pupils and with no teachers , " " B ut w e are nearing a danger limit . So rapid i s the increase o f travel t o the parks that it i s none too early to anticipate the time when their popularity shall threaten their primary purpose. " " The reorganization o f the administrative departments o f the government which the president will urge upon the next Congress contemplates the creation of a Department of E ducation and Public IVelfare. . . . Our national park service is in its best and fullest sense a service in the interest of education and public welfare, nothing less and nothing else . "

Quoted from a n article i n " The Scientific }'fonthly, " A pril, [923 .

Fig. I . Camping in the heart of the Rockies is the real thing. Father and son made this poncho tent as a protection from rain and snow while they gunned along the peaks with their cameras.

CHAPTER L THE D IARY OF A NATURE GUIDE ' S SON I N THE YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, SUMMER OF 1 9 2 4

Sunday, June 2 9 . Daddy and I went in tonight just before supper and washed up . The water was pretty cold but it was there anyway. I staid longest besides beating him in. He had to splash it up onto him for about five minutes after I got in. I didn 't go right in , I 'll admit that . Monday, June 3 0 . Well I like it already. The birds and squirrels come right up into the ou tside tent , giving us a good chance for pictures. I 'm going to try my luck tomorrow. I got up and put my gym suit on, because my trunk hasn ' t come, and went to the river and waited for my feet to get cold so I couldn 't feel the water. Then I was all right. I went in for a good swim . Daddy can 't get cold feet so he doesn 't go in. He says he might go in Sunday afternoons if he is dirty enough . He just said now that he will write his own diary. Tuesday, July ISt. We saw 1 3 deer within five minutes on the trip with Mr. Nichols today. One of the deer comes around the camp and is very tame. I got a picture of Daddy feeding it from his hand. I got within 1 2 493

Nature Guiding

49 4

or I S feet of one this afternoon but it always edged away. Dr. Bry­ ant has a feeding table for the birds right in front of the tent . There are a lot that come, such as, black-headed grosbeak, hermit thrush , junco, chickadee, robin, and Western chipping sparrow. vVe put crumbs on a rock but intend to put a table out so that we can take pictures. Wednesday, July 2. Tomorrow there will be a special bird trip which both of us are intending to go on. These trips go at 8 and 4 o'clock each day, alter­ nating \vith Camp Curry and The Lodge. On Saturday an all day trip is taken around different points on the Rim . Daddy is already snoring and I think that I will join him. Thursday, July 3 . I fed Mabel Doe (The deer) green apples. She seemed to like them. Today she took bread with syrup from me, instead of bread with salt that Dr. Bryant ' s children offered him. I 'm trying to take a picture of him (rather, her) with a natural background but she won ' t get in the right position or in the sun. I guess I 'll have to have patience. Friday, July 4. Last night after the entertainment and Dr. Bryant talked on birds at Camp Curry we saw the Fire Fall . A man spends all day collect­ ing wood after which he builds a large bon fire. After the entertain­ ment a man hollers, "Hello Glacier 1" (A point on the rim of the valley) .

After

a

few moments an answer comes back, " H ello Camp

Curry 1 " Then our man hollers , "Let the Fire Fall 1 " To which the man proceeds to push coals over the cliff for a I S O foot drop to a cliff. This lasts about three minutes when the man on the point hollers , "The Fire has Fallen 1 " During this a male quartet sang. "Without the color and light it looks just like a water fall . You can just barely hear the man on the point but they claim that he can hear better be­ cause of some currents. This is all very pretty. Saturday, July 5 . Today, Dad and I went on a twenty mile hike, climb , and descen­ dance all combined. We went to the Little Yosemite. On the way we passed Vernal and Nevada Falls. Nevada Falls is supposed to be the second best for beauty. It drops over 3 00 feet. B ridal Veil Falls is called the prettiest. The trip started off with over thirty. Eleven did the whole trip , and four of these were women . It was a pretty stiff trip . Even though I wouldn 't want to do it again I am glad we did it. Sunday, July 6. Daddy expects to start in regular duties this week. He has been on all of the trips and at the museum between times this last week. Today we walked five miles to Mirror Lake. Daddy is writing to mother. He isn 't so much of a writer as an artist so he draws most

The Diary oj a Nature Guide's Son

49 5

of his words. He has just finished drawing the tent , stove etc . The thrushes have very pretty songs. They whistle like a coiled aerial wire looks. We sleep good after our day's occupations. Monday, July 7. Dad took his first trip alone. It was a children 's trip which took the record with an attendance of 2 2 . One little girl was taken around on her father' s back. They all enj oyed it. Mabel hasn 't been around for a few days but tonigh t she appeared while we were eating supper. I sat in my chair and fed her bread and apples while Dad tried to shoot her (with the camera) . He did it from inside the tent. It was quite dark so the results are not promising. He took it with the bulb and would click it just before he thought Mabel would move but he thinks that she beat him every time. It is hard to get many apples as there are two or three deer at the orchard most of the time eating the windfalls . That is where I saw thirteen in five minutes . We have seen a wea­ sel twice on the path to the Lodge. The same day that Daddy took the children 's trip he gave Fig . 2 . " M abel Doe" is a friendly vis­ itor. This boy is seen attending to a a lecture at a boys ' camp and a social call . How to win the friendship geology talk at the museum. of animals in the wilderness is in­ This is pretty strong for his tensely exciting and highly educa­ tional . first day. Tuesday, July 8. Tonight we walked to the bear pits (Garbage disposal area) . Just as we branched off the road a bear came running across the road in front of u s . It was quite a large one and presented the funniest sight in the style it ran in. We then reached the pits. There was one bear there. Some men tried to feed it but were scared to approach it. They would scale crackers up to it. Another man dumped some sugar on a board and pushed it up to within a dozen feet of the bear, when a braver man took up the board and walked up and reached out as far as he could and let the bear lick the sugar. A still braver man fed the bear with his outstretched arm. The bear was as scared as he was as he snatched the bone and ran away with it. It came back and started to eat from the garbage but was pretty

Nature Guiding

wary. He kept looking around on each side of him. He evidently didn 't like to have anyone in back of him. I heard a man say that they would turn and woof at you if you approached from the rea.l but if you come in front of him he was all right except he might keep backing away. We saw two others on the way back to the road. Probably a mother and quite old cub . These kept running or rather galloping away on our approach. Wednesday, July 9. Dad gave his first lecture before a crowd of 2 00 0 . He did well. Even the announcer complimented him. Dr. B ryant is in the back country with a party of 2 2 on a six day trip around the Hiker's Camps. They receive meals and beds for 7 5c each. Pretty cheap as it has to be hauled up on pack trains. I haven't found a j ob yet . I have asked in the store and answered an ad at the bakery but they wanted a truck driver. You have to be eighteen to do that but they advertised for a boy. This afternoon at four o 'clock Dad and I both have the privilege, although it is Dad's job, to go with some Rangers to distribute some trout fry in some streams. Thursday, July 1 0 . Yesterday I sat here at the table and watched a Western Tanager come to the feeding table quite regular so I got my camera out and got ready for his next trip . It so happened that a black-headed gros­ beak came at the same time. I think I got a good picture of them both . I could have duplicated the picture the next trip but didn ' t want the same picture. The female tanager lit o n t h e tree beside i t but would n o t step o n the table. She had been on it in the morning but wasn 't very hungry I guess. Friday, July 1 1 . Dad started a t two o'clock for a two day trip t o Glacier Point. He took his party up the Ledge Trail which is a little over a mile but takes about four hours to ascend. He didn 't have a very good brand of hikers so they dragged most of the way . Saturday, July 1 2 . I staid here at the tent overnight alone and went up to Glacier Point today with the one day party. We went up the Ledge Trail also. We ate lunch at the Point after which a few of the ambitious ones , of which I was one, went on to Sentinel Dome. Mr. Nichols led our party. Dad and I went in for a bath. Dad though t it was awful cold but I think it was the warmest it has been. Sunday, July 13 . This morning Dad and I went to the Cascades with Dr. Lehenbauer and a friend to take pictures of some nutmeg trees. We walked about fifteen miles, stopping at the B ridal Veil Falls to eat lunch. We saw one little nutm eg tree.

The Diary of a Nature Guide's Son

49 7

Dad and I stopped an hour and a half at the Bear Pits on the way home. We saw six bears , three of whom were up in trees. Two of these were a brown bear chasing a black bear cub which would keep one branch away from the brown one whether it went up or down . I took two pictures but am in doubt as to the outcome as it was just before sunset and the second just after. Monday, July I4. This morning Mabel came while Dad was eating breakfast . He cut up apples for her as they are too hard otherwise and fed her as I watched from bed. When he wouldn' t give her any more she coughed. She was a better shot than I as she was right in front of him and coughed over his plate and face. She coughs every once in a while after eating anyway. We make oatmeal now with raisins in it. It is pretty good and goes good when we can 't get home in time to get milk . The river is getting awful low. We need three blankets apiece. I wore two jerseys over my pajamas . Sunday, July 2 0 . Haven 't written for quite a while. I have built a table out of some old lumber which will take the place of the table we rented. We might as well bought it . While I am writing I have my camera set for any birds that come to the feeding table. I have just taken a russet backed thrush . A blue fronted j ay just came to the table but was in the shade so I didn 't get a chance at him . Female grosbeak on the table but I have a picture of her already. She has only two feathers on her tail. Haven 't written as I have been to Tuolomne Meadows. We packed all our blankets , ponchos, and sweaters in a duffle bag. We went out by the B ig Oak Flat Road which takes at least 4 5 minutes to reach the top . The road from here on sh.-u n Bowker Street and its hill twenty times. We were going up and down 90% of the time. The road was awful rough again leaving B owker Street in the dust. A big event on the way was when we went through the Tuolomne Grove of Big Trees. We stopped and ate dinner there. We ate supper with the men putting up the telephone line. They were a very nice bunch of men, about eigh t carrying their own cook. We had dandy meals with a big variety. We expected to sleep out of doors but the ranger was on a trip so we occupied his tent . Jack Emert slept on the ranger' s cot. We ate breakfast with the men and started to climb Lambert 's Dome. It looked all right but it wasn 't. We started up easily but it began to get steeper. It was clean rock. There were very few places to cling to. Dad sat down and backed up . When we reached the top we could see Mt. Lyell and the glacier very plainly. Monday, July 2 I . Dad gave a ten minute lecture a t Camp Curry last night o n " De­ natured Children. " The following day he had as a result 3 0 children

Nature Guiding

and five or six school teachers . Lucky the teachers were along as they helped a lot. I haven 't seen Mabel for a week. The bear came yesterday to Mrs. Nichols tent and was the cause of the vanishing of a five pound bag of sugar. I saw him as he came down to take a bath in the river near where we were swimming . Also a skunk visited Mrs. Bryant and relieved her of two or three melons . We have yet to see, hear, and feel the results of one of these robber visitors. Dad has quit for good, swimming, I guess . Friday, A ugus t I . Indian Field Day starts today. Dad and Mr. Russell will dress as miners and march in the parade with some burros. I went down and watched some cowboys practice yesterday. One cowgirl was there practicing Roman riding. She works as a guide taking parties on horseback around the valley and rim . You wouldn 't know her in civilian 's clothing after seeing her at first in her cowgirl costume. There was a very beautiful array of baskets covered with beads. The prize went to an old Indian who had only entered two large baskets. One was designed with a butterfly while the other had the old tribal design. They finally gave the decision to the basket with the old tribal design because the other design was taken from the white man. Harry Tom won the saddle by scoring the most points . He had a dandy horse. The cowboy 's chaps and spurs race was a sight. None of them could run . They put their chaps, spurs, and hats in different piles and raced to p ut them on again. On the way back to the line they looked like cripples trying to gallop . Sunday , A ugust 3 . W e started o ff for Tenaya Canyon a t 8 :3 0 a. m . They say only five people have been through . The canyon is awful narrow and some of the drops were so bad we had to find our way along ledges up above . This was rather ticklish i n places . I caught m y first two fish i n a pool at the foot of a cascade. We hit the Tenaya Lake Trail at seven o 'clock which gave us a half hour before dark. \Ve had fourteen miles ahead of us. We had a walking stick and you will have to imagine us going through a dark forest and down the zigzag trail with over r oo turns. It wasn' t very pleasant as you will imagine. Animals kept running off in the bushes and one, which was probably a coyote , followed us part way down the zigzag. We did think of plastering pitch on a stick which served us to good advantage in two very dark places in finding the trail. The last time we must have used it ten minutes through a dark wooded part of the canyon. The street lights were out when we came to the Valley. We got back after one a. m. Our neighbors were worried a b out u s. Monday, A ugust 4 . I have been taking it easy today and do not feel any the worse for our experience. I would not like to do it again, no matter how many

The Diary of a Nature Guide's Son

499

years between time. Once was hard enough but we are both glad we attempted and accomplished this feat . Tuesday, A ugust 5 . A large cub paid u s a visit. I was coming home just before sunset. The bear walked out from behind a tree and scared me. I followed him over to the B ryant 's tent , which he walked right into , mounted the bed and sniffed at the baby who was just awaking, and then went

Fig. 3 .

Negotiating with a Brown B ear in the High Sierras.

out the side of the tent which was raised. I then thought of taking a

I had to put a film in the camera so I was delayed but the bear staid also. He came up and started to eat a graham cracker that I had in my hand but decided he didn 't like it. Just after I had taken the picture he came up and sniffed of the camera in a hungry fashion, then opening his mouth around my leg, and got his claw caught in my shoe. I felt pretty comfortable. Yes, after he started away. Wednesday, A ugust 6. Just before dinner the cub appeared again . I got one picture with a natural background with good sunlight. Dad came along then with some candy he had just got in the mail. He opened the box and the bear got a taste of it. He rose on his hind feet and walked after Dad into the sunlight where I got another picture of him in this pose. We got a glimpse today, for the first time, of Mabel and her two fawns. One stopped in the middle of the river, while crossing, and began to nurse. The fawns are very small and avviully cute.

picture.

Saturday, A ugust 9. Dad took a party of 2 6 to Eagle Peak. The trail was particularly steep going up to Yosemite Falls. It was about fifteen miles for the

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Nature Guiding

round trip . We had a very good but not a fast party. Twenty three reached the top . One lady did not intend to do the whole trip so that leaves two who failed. Sunday, August I O . We started on a three day trip carrying food but sleeping at the Hiker' s Camp at Merced Lake. We went right to Merced Lake the first day covering 1 7 miles. The next day we reached about I I , 000 feet at Vogelsang Pass . This trail was very good though slightly used. We had wonderful views from here. All we could see was mountainous country. We took our time and lots of pictures and part of a bath at Vogelsang Lake. We covered at least 1 6 miles. Tuesday, August I 2 . We only had one pack going home so went much easier. Climbing Cloud 's Rest was very steep . It was an altitude of 9 , 9 2 5 feet. "\Ve then descended and had our dinner at 4 o 'clock. We had hidden some food on the first day out. We didn 't want to eat before climbing Cloud s Rest . We built a fire and had hot corn and beans and cocoa and washed the dishes all in 3 0 minutes . We could not see far as the smoke from fires dimmed the view. We had covered 7 I miles in four days . This does not mean as much as the heights we went up and down. The last day we saw 40 deer. We also saw three broods of quail which were the first we had seen. We enjoyed ourselves very much the whole trip. Friday, August I 5 . We are having Dr. Branoun , whom we met at the· Grand Canyon , to supper. I am chief cook for this occasion. We will have smashed potatoes, sausage, and peas with pie as desert. I suggested prunes but Dad wouldn 't agree. Saturday, A ugust I 6 . Dad had another trip into Little Yosemite. The party consisted of six men. I went with him as usual. Sunday, A ugust I 7 . Dad was getting his breakfast this morning and I was still asleep when he called me and I looked out and there was Mabel with her two fawns. He got some apples and began to feed her. It was Sun­ day so nobody had gotten up in the other tents or she wouldn ' t have brought them . They were very cute. They got behind their mother and peeked around at Dad. One of them got scared and ran off into the bushes. The other looked at Mabel and at its brother (or sister) and finally trotted off with the other fawn. Mabel wouldn' t stay long after that . We went to see Mr. Sonn, who feeds the birds. He has a very neat tent. His profession is making funny animals out of pine cones and other pieces of wood. We then went to Glacier Point via the Ledge Trail. We went into Illilouette Canyon where I caught two rainbow trout . We came

The Diary of a Nature Guide's Son

501

down the eleven mile trail to Nevada and Vernal Falls getting home before dark for some beef stew. We then went to a camp fire for the Nature Guides. Mr. Hall told about his experiences abroad. Monday, A ugust 18. Mr. Russell is in the Tuolumne Meadows collecting material for the new $ 7 5 , 000 museum. He has asked me to come up and help him. I will send my bedding up in a truck and walk. I am anticipat­ ing a dandy time. Dad will be rather alone the next week or so. He will have to eat some to get rid of all our supplies. Monday, August 25. I just got back from Tuolumne Meadows last night. Mr. West kindly took two or three miles off of my mind by giving me a ride in his machine to Mirror Lake where the trail starts. We passed a mule train just before Mirror Lake. Mr. West wanted me to ask the two Indians taking it for a ride as they would probably pass me going up the 1 0 2 zigzags. I had my doubts as to whether I would or not. I didn 't like to for one reason and I would rather walk anyway. As it happened I reached the top a few minutes before them and felt fine. The rest was mostly level ground except for a few ups and one down. This was the trail we walked down in the dark so you can imagine how I enj oyed myself in the light of day. I hit the Tioga road about ten minutes ahead of the pack train. They passed me while I was eating my lunch on the shore of Lake Tenaya. The next day we got up at 6 :3 0 and went to the beginning of the Mono Pass Trail. We carried traps, two guns and our lunch. We set the traps and started for Mono Pass. We saw several deserted cabins along the trail . At the Pass we could look down on Mono Lake and forests of Pinon Pine (Which is a one needle pine) . On the way up we shot four conies. A cony is something like a Guinea Pig, and is found in most every rock slide. He would shoot and keep his eye on it while I would go and get it. They usually slide down behind a rock so you couldn 't find them, but we didn 't miss one. We got up to a patch of snow. Just below it Mr. Russell found a mountain sheep skull and I found a horn. These are both very rare. Helen Lake was very pretty. There were thunder clouds all about us and we were afraid we would get wet . We could see where it had snowed on a shoulder way off. When we hit the trail we hit snow. It really started to snow but we were very low and getting lower so we had it for only a few minutes. It was small chunks instead of flakes . It had neither rained or snowed, or looked that way, back in the meadows. The next day I trapped five picket pins which are something like a prairie dog, and a Tahoe Chipmunk. Mr. Russell skinned the

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Nature Guiding

conies while I trapped. In the afternoon I skinned about a half of a picket pin, and salted the skin down. Mr. and Mrs . Harwood invited us to supper. He is the checking ranger for the autos coming into the park over that road. I had fresh corn that night for the first time this summer. It tasted mighty good. The next morning we packed and started for the valley at 9 o'clock. We got home about six after a hard days trip over a thousand B owker Hills and a worse road. Tuesday, A ugust 26. The Nichols went the morning I left for Tuolumne Meadows . There are fewer people every day. Cannot write any more until I get to Estes Park to the B oy Scout Conference.

Fig. 4. " Thar she blows. " The Timber Line is always a fairy land of enchantments.

CHAPTER LI NOTES

BY

A YOSEMITE NATURE GUIDE

Well here we are at the bottom of a trench-nearly a mile down. Our tent is in a group of large evergreens that tower high overhead. We are in Camp 1 9 which is a nature guide colony. The M erced River is near by and we have had our first real bath for a week. The

tent is I 2

x

I4 feet with a large fly extending out front as a veranda .

It is here that we cook and eat. We spent today, which is the Lord 's Day, in building a shallow tray with four legs, for our stove. The tray is filled with soil and the stove rests on top. This is a scheme to prevent fire. Through an opening in the trees we can see Yosemite Falls. It is getting rather small due to the lack of rain. Nearly all the birds, trees and flowers are new so I am going on all the trips in order to get acquainted. The people ask so many ques­ tions about heights, trails, distances etc . , that I have to study a great deal. We are learning a heap and being paid for it while the tourists are paying a heap and learning a little. It is their fault though as the Nature Guide service is free. There are several trips every day. The thing that strikes me most forcefully about Yosemite is that it exhibits the whole history of the west in a nut shell. It was not dis­ covered until 1 8 5 1 and the fi rst road entered the valley in 1 8 7 4 . The man who drove the old stage coach , that is now front of the museum, is chief here in the American Express Company. It has been so recently opened up to the automobilist ( 1 9 1 3 ) that it possesses a 5 03

Nature Guiding Plimitive charm wanting in many places. Here nature is seen in her .orim itive moods. The Indians have a reservation near the southern wall. On Indian Field Day they come over the mountain trails, often a buck, squaw, and papoose on one horse. It is very picturesque. The oldest Indian in the valley is Lucy. One of the favorite questions of tourists is, " How old is Lucy ?" In front of the Musewn there is a Chuckas or granary. It is a large twig woven basket to store acorns from mice and chipmunks. On our trips to the southern wall we always point out granite slabs which have mortar holes where th e squaws pounded the meats. We often speculated as to what the conversation around these old mortar holes could have been. The tannin was leached out with hot water and then cooked in a basket. You will say, "How in the world could they cook acorn mush in a basket ? " They dropped hot rocks, the size of my fist , into the basket with wooden tongs. I have often thought that this would be a fine thing for scouts to try. The necessities of the Indian, like the trail, canoe, wii,,'wam , m occasin, medicinal plants, and wild foods are becoming the recreation of the present da y camper. On Indian Field Day we decided to represent the old mining days. It was due to the Indians killing some miners on the lower Merced that Yosemite was discovered. The soldiers chased the refugees into the valley. While talking about our costumes a man went by who looked like a miner. We hailed him and told our plans. He opened his shirt and showed a whole row of gold nuggets on his under shirt. There was not much more difficulty in finding a second miner. We fitted up two burros and they marched in the parade. "How did Yosemite form ? " is told in the museum twice a day in story form . The formation of any region is the key to all that comes after. It used to be said that the devil held his hands together and cleft the ground and then spread his hands apart to form the valley. It has always been characteristic of the race to blame the unex­ plainable onto the devil. A more recent explanation is that after the Merced had cut the valley down about a thousand feet the glacier began to move down from the high Sierras . Think of a snowflake alighting way up there in the mountain, hardly conceivable in weight and sound, and then another snowflake, and another until we get perhaps a foot of snow. In a few days there is another snow storm. ·When these have accumulated for several centuries they may get heavy enough to begin to move down the mountain. It is thought tha t this ice sheet came down the slopes of M t. Lyell at the time of the glacier pushed over the face of northeastern United States . This was perhaps 1 0 , 000 years ago. This great ice plow polished the granite walls and plowed out the valley. The scenery of the Yosemite was made by the ice. One of the great attractions of the park is the bear. They have been taught to come to a feeding ground every night. Automobiles park across the river and watch the bears eat. He is very timid and

Notes by a Nature Guide

505

not ferocious as in story books where he is pictured as eating naughty children. Of course it would not do to offer him a piece of candy and then snatch it away. In such a case he might slap your face. The deer are very tame and some of them come around the tents to be fed . Thousands of people get more sport feeding them and hunt­ ing with the camera than with the gun. The example of the national parks in the preservation of deer and other wild life might well be emulated by state parks. It is better to have many deer that are seen and enj oyed by the whole community than to have a few which are never seen. We kept a rattle snake in the museum. He is very particular and will only eat live food. One day we put in a mouse. The mouse sat on the snake and began to wash . He did not realize that he was sitting on dynamite. The snake slowly moved his head to the right and then to the left to investigate. The mouse ran across the cage and one thrust of the snake 's fangs caused the mouse to tremble and pass away. A great mass of tradition has grown up around the rattle snake. In Rhode Island there is a place called Snake Den. The farmers use to go out there each spring and take a jug of whiskey as a remedy for snake bites. They never saw any rattle snakes and never brought back any whiskey. Rattle snakes cannot jump from the ground and only roll like a hoop in folklore. The other day I heard a mother tell her little boy not to go into the reptile room as the snakes would get him. People still persist in spreading irrational ideas. The Big Trees should be included in the seven wonders of Yosemite. They are the greatest of living things. They have not been visited by the glacier but all have been burnt and struck by lightning. At one time they were threatened with extinction but the Redwoods Asso­ ciation did much to create a public sentiment to save them. Sir Joseph Hooker well says that they are the "Noblest of a noble race. " Trout fishing is one of the great assets of Yosemite. The govern­ ment thinks of this as bait for sportsmen. The park is a vast play­ ground. It pays to lure people into the wilderness. It is not the number of fish that they catch, but the fascinations, reminiscences , and adventures that make the vacation worth while. In the six day trips in the high country the party is always given time to fish and in the evening the fish story is an important part of around the camp fire. A man was fishing back of the museum lately and made as much fuss over his catch as a hen over a new laid egg. He held up his fish and said , "Get me a string quick, before he gets away. My gracious but he is a brute. Can you get me a string ? " He was running around like a hen with her head cut off. "My gracious, it ' s all I can do to hold him . " I wondered if he thought the fish would bud legs and run for he was two hundred feet from the river. I helped him tie the prize. Then to be doubly sure he

Nature Guiding

506

put the fiSh in a paper bag. About a third of the fish protruded. "My gracious I didn't come prepared to catch such a big fish . " ( I t was I 9 inches long by the yard stick but immensely bigger, and with promises of a good healthy growth, in the mind of the sports­ man.) He was as tickled as a barefoot boy. About half an hour afterwards I heard him whistle to some men crossing by the museum, and he held up the fish for them to see. The next morning he was in early to find out about the kinds of trout. If anyone has any doubt about the policy of the government he should have seen how this fish saved both body and mind. We have a Loch Leven Trout at the museum that weighs 9 pounds and I S ounces. I. My First Nature Guide Party This started Friday afternoon , July I I , from Camp Curry. Twelve people assembled for the mighty climb up the Ledge Trail to Glacier Point. Glacier Point is at an elevation of 7 2 I 4 feet or about 3 2 00 feet above the Valley Floor. This meant about a mile and a half walk but going nearly up, like a flight of stairs. One gentleman delayed the party a little, while he left his coat. He came around the corner, patted his bay window-which protruded somewhat for a mountain­ eer. I smiled to myself-and a lady said , "Why are you smiling. " M y answer was : "For the same reason that you are. " The gentle­ man was most vivacious. His daughter accompanied him. She had hobble skirts that were hobbled at the knees. This was new to me but being a green guide I asked nothing but tried to look wise to it all. A doctor-who teaches in New York City was along. There was also an ex soldier with his French wife, a lady from California, a man and lady with daughter and two friends of the family. Let me say that a Mountain Trail is a wonderful place to bring out the inner man . It soon developed that the stout gentleman was near sighted. He would say : "Which way do we turn now, " and I would have to show him . I would say : "Look at that beautiful Yellow Mimulus. " He never could see it. I pointed out two deer. He changed his glasses and slammed the case as though it was a wood shed door. Then I had to point dextrously and by sheer effort he saw the hulk of the deer We came to a slope of granite which was rather smooth. There was no particular danger in crossing it. If one had slipped he would have slid about the length of the roof of an ordinary Cape Cod house. It would have sandpapered his trousers to a thin edge but the coaster would have passed down but not out. Well sir we had some time getting our party across. Mr. Russell held out his arm as one step­ ping place. Miss could not stride because of her hobble. It finally resulted in her pulling her dress up so that she could stride. B eing a nature guide I was utterly impervious to anything unusual. Said Father -- - had great difficulty in seating himself and reaching the proper foot over to the extended arm . He persisted in turning himself the other way up. Finally after gentle persuasion we got ---

Notes by a Nature Guide his frame over. He said afterwards that he was not a coward but that he was scared. He is going to complain to the government. He thinks it absurd not to have steps carved in the granite and an iron rail. I had a free lecture for half an hour on the subj ect the next day. Dr. showed off in another way. He shook like a quakiug aspen. I did not dare look at Mr. Russell for fear of smiling and a Guide should never smile at the wrong time. One lady balked. Said that she could not do it. She didn't have to do it the last time she visited the park which was 3 0 years ago. After each one had showed off his innerself ,ve got the party under way again. Evidently none of these people had had the summer camp training. Do you think that they would be any better sailors ? I don't. It took just four hours to bring up the rear to the summit. At the top there is a hotel called Glacier Point Hotel. Mr. Russell told me that Nature Guides are given all they want for 5 0 cents. It is on the cafeteria plan so my mind was all made up to have a square meal. This after two weeks of my own cooking. My meals remind me of Mrs. Cram they are so different. I took roast pork and mashed potato, side dishes of succotash, corn, rolls, lemonade, pie, and pud­ ding. It was some lay out. Then I saw in the middle of operations that I had a big contract before me. I just smiled at the man and said that I was awfully hungry. That was a darn lie at that stage but I was ashamed not to eat it. After tucking the meal away "en toton the proprietor came around and invited me to lecture in the lobby for half an hour. Couldn 't do anything then but say that I would be the happiest man on earth to talk to his guests. They had a roaring fire and I backed up to the fire and talked about the geology of the region. I talked overtime as usual and the man­ ager had to bring a clock out and show it to me. This is the point where they push the fire over for the fire fall. The hostess came along and wanted to know if I would like to have a wonderful place to see it. Of course I said YES. She disappeared. I wandered out to the rim and thought I saw her. I walked up and trying to be sociable said : On which rock were you going to drape me ? The lady said ; "W-H-A-T ? n I repeated but believe me I did not repeat again. It was the wrong lady. Finally the real hostess came along and said : Come down to photographer' s rock. You have to lie down and peer over the edge. (Note accompanying diagram of the way I peered and the others. ) I t was some sight t o look down into the valley and see the lights. Finally we heard : "Hello Glacier" rolling up from the Valley. "Hello Camp Curryn was sent back. Then : " Let the fire fall. " They had built a huge bonfire and the man then pushed the coals over the rim. The hostess said to hang over the edge and watch the large coals until they hit the bottom. Did you see that one she said : Yes, said 1. That was my second lie. Well I was stretched out on that rock lying galore for about ten minutes. My feet never felt so light. This being over, the Nature Guide received more attention by --­

508

Nature Guiding

being invited to see the bears. It was moonlight and four of us pro­ ceeded to the garbage pit. When almost there we heard a mad jangle of tin cans. A big bruiser heard us coming and dashed off into the wilderness. After waiting on a rock some twenty minutes we heard something that sounded like voices up in a large yellow pine. I was told that that was mammy bear and her cub . Then followed the descent of mammy and the cub . We could see the tree plainly but not the bears. It sounded like I 4 bears. Never heard such a breaking of twigs and scratching. Soon we saw the old bear and the cub coming along the trail. The cub was certainly cute. Mammy kept looking all around and at the cub to see that all was well. The porter had brought along some gum drops. Mammy came up and took one from his hand. Then would not listen. Finally he hollered : MAMMY ! She reared right up on her hind legs and he threw the whole of the candy at her and said : "Take 'em all . " He was scared. After this they wanted to know if I wanted to see the sun rise. I said : SURE. So I was called at 4 :4 5 a. m. I got to bed at I I p . m . after feeling all around for a button or string to put on the light­ which I found not. The sun coming up over the Sierras was wonderful. I tried several photographs and hope that they come out O. K. I then learned the names of as many of the 4 9 9 peaks as I could. Everyone comes along and asks the Guide questions and of course it does not pay not to know about them. One lady on the way up said : Have you been up here often. I said : "I am climbing all the time. " The people eat on the porch and toss crumbs over to the squirrels and birds. There were California Ground Squirrels, the Golden Mantle Ground Squirrel, the Chickoree and three species of Chipmunks Some Sierra Partridges came along. They are as large as a hen. There were all kinds of birds. You can imagine the education that I am getting by being on a hotel piazza and having the guests quizz me. It does not do to say that you know a thing if you don 't because you will get caught. My students will swear to that. It keeps me on the hump to learn all this and to keep ahead of the multitude. At 7 :3 0 a . m . I had the party under way. Mr. Russell had left me the night before. We were to follow the Pohona Trail along the southern rim of the Valley. It was a 16 mile hike to the Bridal Veil checking Station where a buss was to meet us and bring us back to the Vallev. The trail led through wonderful isles of huge trees and upland meadmvs of beautiful flowers. On top of Sentinel Dome we saw a curious shaped Jeffrey Pine. We ate dinner on B ridal Veil Creek. I took many pictures which I shall make into lantern slides and hope to show them to you some day. I had a contour map and compass. You remember that I have ahvays told you how important they are. I had never been over the trail before and you can imagine the hundreds of questions , especially : "How much farther is it ? " How far is it to Taft Point ? Which way .

Notes by a Nature Guide

do we tum next ? What peak is that ? I was the guide and could not say : "I have never been here before. I come from the little state of R. 1 . and don ' t know. " My knowledge of topographic maps came in handy. It was shaky business sometimes. We arrived home footsore, dusty, and tired-at about 7 p. m. I took a swim or dip rather-in the Merced-and retired. This will give you an idea of Nature Guiding. It is fascinating work. I am enclosing a copy of my talk at Camp Curry. There were about 2 , 000 people there. One man came to the museum the next day and was talking with me. By and by he said : "Are you the man that lectured at Curry last night ? " I assured him that I was . Well, he said , you look younger then you did last night. You may remember that in som e lectures I imitate the way robins, herons, etc . , walk. I did that in my Curry talk. The man said that he turned to his wife and said : "My God, but that man is limber I " I will let you guess whether that was complimentary or not. I do not know yet . One meets some very interesting people guiding. At Glacier Point I met a lady with whom I had spent a half hour the day before trying to identify a flower that she described to me. It turned out to be the Sky Pilot or Polemonium which she found near Mt. Dana in the high altitudes . This was at the Museum and by chance we met the next day on the rim . I also met her husband . Their names were Knibbs and he is a famous western story writer. He went to Harvard where Barrett Wendell and Dean Briggs and others were interested in him . He never obtained a degree because at the end of three years they told him that he had better get out before they spoiled his style. He has a style his own and they did not want to destroy his individuality. I think that they were pretty broad minded to do that . The French lady used to be in the French Red Cross. She knows Mme. Pellissier and knew Bob. She did not know that they were brother and sister. She knew about the Robert Pellissier ambulance and said some very fine things about B ob . It made tears come to my eyes to think that I should meet someone in the High Sierras that knew him . It was a remarkable coincidence. Here endeth the first trip . II. A Nature Guide Party to Yosemite Falls and Eagle Peak A nature guide party usually consists of a large number of college and university graduates . Tourists are usually appreciative and very intelligent. On this trip there was a Professor of Economics from the University of Nebraska and his brother-in-law, who owns a big ranch. He said that he has a bam that holds 1 00 head of cattle and also had 4 0 , 000 tons of prunes ripening. There was a professor from Wellesley, an M . D . from the University of Chicago, a chiropractor, a nurse from Los Angeles, and three kitchen helpers from the east who had been at Yosemite Lodge. The lady with the red parasol, the porch hound who plays Mah Jong in the afternoon and Jazzes in the evening, and the scenic bus riders who tour the park like an art gallery

5 10

Nature Guiding

with a rubber-neck megaphone artist were absent. There were twenty-six of us all told. A nature guide has to be a good psychologist to keep his party to­ gether. There are those who want to make the peak in so much time and there is the saunterer who is unconscious of the miles ahead. In a summer camp the leader could command but here he must in­ veigle. It was rather hot climbing but none of the party blamed the guide for the weather. There is usually someone in every party who does. In the upper country we passed through several wild flower gardens. In the midst of every glacial meadow there is usually a 2 foot stream

Fig . 2 .

T h e Snow Plant with its ruddy complexion is one of the most fascinating inhabitants of the Sierras.

trimmed with moss and violets. The water is always cool and the party enjoyed the drink. The crisp weather was qUIte a contrast to the dusty mule tracks on the way up . The garden spots were crowded with blue lupine, the Indian Paint Brush , and Rudbeckia. When we came to the fire-red snow plant the party had to be reminded that the flowers are not to be picked. Some people always persist in loving flowers by pulling them up. At noon we stepped off the trail by a pool to eat. We took stock of our experiences coming up the trail. One member of the party was missing. I sent my son on to find her but he did not have success. It seems that she had been told some stories about bears and coyotes and was making such a high speed to catch us that she missed the stopping off place and had gone on up . The naturalist must pacify

Naies by a N aiure Guide

SIt

people a s t o the imaginary ferocious animals. I t was also up t o the guide to entertain the party while they were resting. This he did by telling stories. In turn he had to hear about blisters, pay attention to some, and last to see that all fires were completely out. Some were advised to wait by the trailside for the return of the party. The silence of fatigue finely fell over the party and it was fully 3 0 minutes before the guide whistled them up. At the summit of Eagle Peak the climbers sat down and reveled in the panorama outspread. When the last puffing member crawled wearily up , I was called upon to give a talk on the geology of the peaks. Literally hundreds of questions were answered. After feasting upon the scene and firing the blood with the idea that "A thing of beauty is a j oy forever, " the deepening shadows of the virgin forest below us beckoned that it was time to descend. A last click of the camera and a last look and we were soon beneath the darkening foliage of the evergreens. III. As Viewed by an Eastern Naturalist A Rhode Island Nature Guide in the Yosemite experiences a succession of sensations . H e finds himself in a park larger than his own state. He is "shut in" by canyon walls, and every time he looks up he thinks that a thunder cloud is rising. He remembers that he left the folks at home complaining about the daily rains rotting the crops. But the complaint here is "no rain. " T he Belichened cliffs may resemble a thunder head but offer little in the way of moisture. Then comes the humiliation of not knowing the life that he sees, for exceedingly few eastern plants and animals have crossed the Sierras. H e may be greeted with a clear whistled song of three notes. How queer ! It must be a chickadee. Yet, in the East his call is two notes, " Phoebe. " Perhaps he knows that I am puzzled and so says, "Oh, dear me. " Then from overhead comes a dry, wheezy drone. It must be a flycatcher, for the bird is perched on the outside of the tree to get a clear view. Yes, it darts off for an insect, snaps his mandibles together as though he meant business, and returns to his perch in true style. But it takes a little imagination to believe that he is saying, " Pewee. " We certainly know Mr. Jay even if he has put on a blue front for he has his crest, noise, and distrust. Look behind us ! While we are gazing about, someone is stealing our butter. His large beak gives him away. H e is a B lackheaded Grosbeak. I wonder if the butter made his song clearer than his eastern cousin. The Western Tanager has caught a cold and sings like the Scarlet Tanager of the East, but how different with his yellow colors. Here comes a camp visitor that makes us feel at home,-the Western Robin. We now know how the Pilgrim exiles felt when they saw the robin. Quite different from their English robin, but being a home loving people they said, "Why ! Here is robin red breast. " And so he has been called ever since, not because of the color of his breast for it is not red, but because he was a friendly bird that reminded them of

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Nature Guiding

home. The Western Robin is larger than the New England Robin but just as "homely. " Is that why we all love him ? And thus it goes. As we take to the trail, we find birds that "remind us " like the Russet-backed Thrush , and the B and Tailed Pigeon, and then we find others that are real old friends like the Chipping Sparrow with his red cap and dry chips, or the Yellow Warbler seeking the willow banks. Mark Twain says that the best place to collect weather for an exhibition is in New England . Weather is the most talked about subj ect. If we are introduced to a stranger, ten to one we start right in on weather gossip . The weather is never just right . No one apparently admits that a rainy day is a good day for all concerned . Naturers rightly maintain that we are all concerned . When this weather steeped naturer gets to Yosemite, he finds himself greeting everyone, not this morning but at all times, with "This is a fine day. " Then he feels sort of like a prevaricator for he realizes that every day is sunny along the San Joaquin Valley. The announcement is un­ necessary. Strangest of all , he soon discovers that Westerners are weather wise too and talk about it like real Cape Codders . Just at present it is too dry. The rainfall , o r the lack o f it , i s o f course un­ usual. I wonder if they and their K ew England ancestors brought the habit along in their covered wagons ; So here is another vveek of Yosemite sunlight with which to retl.ect and vvrite. The fineness of the weather has a decided effect on the plant life. B etween the moist banks of the l\lerced and the dry talus slopes there is a n army of interesting tl.owers . A few are the same as in the East . Yarrow and sorrel have traveled here from their European homes. I saw one plant of our daisy or whiteweed near Camp Curry this week and wonder if it is a late arri,·al. At least the meadows are not dotted with it, as we know daisies back home. Then there are some plants which are the same but different . Queen Anne's Lace grmvs on a much smaller scale and has no central purple tl.oweret . The natives are worrying about the disappearance of the Evening Prim­ rose. It once grew in abundance, but the deer have developed a liking for it and nip off the tl.owers, thereby preventin(! seed forma­ tion . It is considered a pest east of the Appalachians . There are Columbines , White Violets , and Fire 'Yeeds in blossom now ; the Azaleas are just passing, all being a little later than our Atlantic flowers, probably because of the higher altitude. And then come the real gems of the Yosemite. the flm,'ers that are different . The famous blood-red Snow Plant , the White ::'I Iariposa Lily, the Indian Paint Brush , the tinted Pussy 's Paws, the handsome Sierra Primrose, and we might go on ad infinitum naming these remarkable tl.owers , upon which a stranger, in his mute ignorance , can only stand and gaze. It is here that the visitor can call upon the Nature Guide Service, which is furnished free by the Government . I t i s with deep appre­ ciation that we welcome the Nature Guide who comes to our assist­ ance to teach us the wonders of the Yosemite Trailside.

Nates

by

IV.

a Nature Guide

5I3

Ah-Wi-Yah!

Ah-wi-yah or "Quiet Water" is much more musical than the white man's version "Mirror Lake, " The word mirror is much in keeping with the chewing gum tokens and the paper trail of the kodak that fringes the lake. We need simplicity, quietness, and the natural in our language and life. It is the quietness of the lake that enables us to see the reflection of Clouds ' Rest. To see over a mile of granite ledge reflected in a small sheet of water is sufficient cause for musing. It is not until midday

Fig. 3 . This Avalanche fi l led the whole Yosemite Valley with a cloud of rock dust . A whole forest was brushed oneside. This is only a passing show in the dramatic story of the Mountains.

that the image is brushed away by the gentle, canyon breeze, which ripples the surface. And this may give cause for further meditation. Our reverie may take us back to the beginning of the lake. It was born long after the Glacier had scoured out the U-shaped walls of Tenaya Gorge. Geologists tell us that about three hundred years ago a severe earthquake shook the loose material from the walls of the cliffs of this region, forming the maj or part of our talus slopes. It is possible that during such a disturbance the gravel debris was thrown across Tenaya Creek to form Ah-wi-yah . Ah-wi-yah was no sooner b orn than the creek set in to destroy it. Granite born soil, sand from the quartz, and clay from the feldspar, were dropped into the lake. As the deposits accumulated , the vege­ tation began to march into the shallow stretches of the upper end. A close study of this conquest of the lake will probably picture the filling of the post-glacial Yosemite Lake.

5 14

Nature Guiding

Chara and burr-reed are practically the only aquatics that have found this recent lake. This is probably due to the youthfulness of the lake and to the fact that there are very few aquatic plants in the lakes of the upper Tenaya Creek. The sand plain, which has accumulated at the entrance of the creek into the lake, is being laid down faster than the vegetation can seed it . Sorrel is in the front ranks. This plant probably did not grow on the shores of Yosemite Lake, as it is a recent weed arrival from Europe. The next plant settler is a native 4rtemesia, which could have been the first colonist on the ancient lake. Willow is in the front ranks of the woody battalion. B ehind it in close formation are marching the lodgepole pines. In the open spaces are lupine, mint, pussy paw, and manzanita-pioneer plants of dry areas and the chaparral, which have been well trained to meet the drought con­ ditions of this sand desert. Incense Cedar is not quite so venture­ some but appears in the back ranks of the leafy cover. As soon as the willows stabilize the stream banks, the black cotton wood and the creek dogwood take up the stand, each plant preparing the way for the one in back of it. Coming down to the shores of the old lake are the black oak, yellow pines, and the firs. They have not yet ventured onto the lake plain but are evidently preparing to do so. The tree colonization is so rapid that the meadow stage is very brief. The animals which accompany lakes are very few in Ah-wi-yah. This, too, is probably due to its youthfulness. During this season it is unusually low. Along its clay margin are autographed the tracks of the spotted sandpiper, deer which come down to drink, and summer folks . In its deeper recessives are the native rainbow trout. A few water striders walk along its surface. Taken all in all, its life is a solitary one. Not a frog to break the silence nor a turtle to sun him­ self upon a log. Herein is being enacted in a short space of time the history of the Yosemite Valley. V-shaped valley, Glacier, U-shaped valley, dam, lake, meadow, shrubs, forest march in succession like a great play­ the sand plain a stage, and the trees the actors. Visitors to Yosemite should go to Ah-wi-yah , for therein is breathed the spirit of the Great Valley. Y. The Flora oj Yosemite and Cape Cod It would seem that if one start ,'lith a fair knowledge of the plants in his backyard he would find either the same species or their counter­ parts the world over. Such at least is the experience of a nature guide venturing from the sand dunes of Cape Cod on Massachusetts B ay to the Sierras of the Yosemite Kational Park. The marked similarities have awakened so many pleasant surprises-so many trains of remin­ iscences along the trailside-the writer has been tempted to put his random notes down as a permanent reminder. Our story must date back to the end of the glacial period, some 2 0 ,000 years ago , when both Yosemite and Cape Cod started with a clean slate. The soil in both places is of granite origin-in Yosemite

Notes by a Nature Guide

from the granite mountains of the Sierras and on Cape Cod from the granite coast of Cape Ann. The glacial streams sorted out and de­ posited some of the materials in lowlands but left large masses of un­ sorted gravel in hills, those pushed up at the end of the glacier being known as terminal moraines and those parallel to its course as lateral moraines. If the terminal moraine dammed a river course, lakes were left in the moraine formed in back of it. There were often ice masses · material ; as they melted they left kettle holes which now hold lakes. The shallower ice basins became sphagnum bogs without inlets to cover the plant growth with sand. The vegetation in both Yosemite and Cape Cod is mostly on this moraine material, the cliffs and domes of Yosemite and the cliffs and dunes of Cape Cod being scarcely planted as yet . The distribution of plants on the moraine deposits is determined by the moisture. B oth regions have fine glacial meadow gardens. The dry sand areas of ancient lake bottoms and the recent talus slopes are populated by drought resistant plants. The polished domes and wind swept dunes scarcely hold moisture enough for pioneer plants. The comparison of plants in these similar areas merely scratches the sur­ face of possibilities. These introductory notes may serve to remind others of how they have renewed plant acquaintances as they traveled from east to west or west to east. If the chain of evidences can some day be gathered into one story, it may make a fascinating chapter in plant annals . A rctostaphylos: Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi or the B earberry of Cape Cod covers whole hillsides and indeed serves as the lawn for many summer homes. It was almost a thrill to meet what at first appeared to be the same species at a 7 , 000 foot elevation on the rim of the Yosemite. We now know that the Sierra form is Arctostaphylos Nevadensis or the Dwarf Manzanita . B oth plants form loose mats in dry sunny open ground. They are evergreens with zigzag branches and peeling red bark. Their arbutus like blossoms come early in the season and mature into red acid berries, which are scarcely edible because of their many large seeds. After sending for a Cape Cod specimen, we were still impressed by the similarities rather than the differences. The leaves of both are thick, entire, and glabrous. The main difference in leaves is the presence of a minute tooth on the apex of the Manzanita leaf. It is also broader in proportion to its length, being on the average about one-eighth inch longer than its Atlantic cousin. The Manzanita berry is about one-eighth inch smaller in diameter, the persistent sepals being acute rather than ovate as in the B earberry. The differences in these two members of the Heath Family are quite minute when we think of one growing within ten feet of sea level and then suddenly appearing from 7 , 000 feet to timberline some 3 , 000 miles away. I have seen Bearberry in the White Mountains growing under similar conditions. As the Appalachians are older, I am wondering if Arctostaphylos appeared there first ? If it did, how did it get to the high Sierras ? Did it come

5 I6

Nature Guiding

by a gramte route or by a moraine road ? Where is it found in be­ tween, and what are its variations ? If we knew all about B ear­ berry, we might be able to answer other enigmas of the plant world. Drosera Rotundijolia. Here is another plant that grows near sea level on Cape Cod and is found in Tenaya Canyon at an elevation of about 6 , 000 feet. Here it grows on the north wall of the gorge in the seam of a moist granite cliff some thirty feet above the river bed. A comparison of the two plants shows a persistent difference in leaves. The alpine plant has a rotund blade averaging about one­ fourth inch in diameter, whereas the leaf of the coast plain plant is broadly elliptic , being transversely I I / 1 6 inches wide and 7 / 1 6 inches i n length. A n examination o f the flowers o f the two plants may show them to be separate species. There is no consistent differ­ ence in the height of the flower stalk or in the number of flowers. A study of this plant according to its geographic range across the Great Lake region and Montana to California might give interesting data in variation. When the glaciers swept it south , how did it march back ? Heath-Like Plants. We have been speaking of plants that are most closely related. It is also possible to have totally unrelated plants meet the same conditions in a like manner. On Cape Cod there are two heath-like plants covered with awl-shaped leaves-Hudsonia ericoides and Hudsonia tomentosa. They are locally known as Poverty Grass as they can grow on dry sandy hills. These low shrubs are members of the Rockrose Family (Cistaceae) . On the granite rocks of the Sierra summits, above 6, 000 feet, is found the beautiful

Alpine Phlox (Phlox douglasii) , a member of the Gilia Family (Pole­ moniaceae) . These homologous plants of the East and West form dense mats in dry open situations and bear flowers on the upper part early in the season before the soil is completely dried out. The re­ duced awl-shaped leaves prevent excessive loss of moisture, and the matting of the leaves may tend to hold the dampness in the soil. Sedum. Plants may also meet dry situations by storing water in fleshy leaves. A Cape Cod representative of this genus is Sedum acre, the Mossy Stonecrop. The Yosemite counterpart is Sedum obtusatum. B oth species spread moss-like on the ground with thick leaves and yellow blossoms. The Sierra form is common on rocks. Artemisia or Wormwood is a most bitter, aromatic plant. The typical western representative is A rtemisia tridentata or Sagebrush , and the prevailing Beach vVormwood on Cape Cod is commonly known as Dusty Miller (A rtemisia stelleriana) . The dense gray wool which covers these plants assists in retaining moisture and enables them to grow in exceedingly dry situations. The Dusty Miller is often used as a border plant in Cape Cod gardens and, although in­ troduced from Asia, has taken naturally to sand beaches. These perennials are dominant wherever they grow and attract more atten­ tion by their whitened foliage than they do by their less showy yellow-

Notes by a Nature Guide

ish flowers . B itter concoctions were made from these plants by the settlers . Robinia Pseudo-A cacia. The Common Locust or False Acacia was named for John Robin and his son Vespasian , who first cultivated the Locust tree in Europe. The colonist loved the tree for its fragrant white flowers and its value as an ornamental tree. This may be the reason that it was carried to Yosemite and also to Cape Cod. We find it growing in both places wherever the early homesteaders lo­ cated and since those times it has established itself in waste places. It proved to be durable as a fence post. One old farmer said that it would last a hundred years. He knew that it would as he had tried it several times. The coast people found it useful in ship building. Ulmus Americana. If we think of the Common Locust as a home­ stead tree, we can think of the Elm as a street tree. The American Elm was introduced as a village shade tree both in Yosemite and on Cape Cod. Its wide-spreading branches make it particularly suitable for this purpose , and it seems to thrive in its new home. Why the tree did not find these localities of its own accord is rather puzzling. Possibly these glaciated areas were so remote that the tree had not had time to get there. Such trees as the hickories, beeches , birches, and the chestnut (Castanea dentata) are not native to the Yosemite or Cape Cod, and with the exception of the Gray B irch on Cape Cod have not found their way to these regions. Is it because they will not grow there or because they have not been introduced ? It is certainly not because they are shy of the mountains or of the lowlands nor is it because they are not of general distribution. Wind Blown Trees. One example in the Yosemite is the Jeffrey Pine (Pinus ponderosa var. jeffreyi Vasey) on top of Sentinel Dome. It grows at a higher and bleaker altitude than the true \Vestern YeHow Pine. The typical Cape Cod evergreen, and only pine, is the Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) . It also is able to grow in dry, exposed areas and responds to the wind by growing to the leeward and at other times forms deep carpets. B oth of these pines are three needled with the scales of the cones bearing a short prickle. It is the same force at work that distorts them. The prevailing wind blows up the San Joaquin , and a southwestern prevails from the Atlantic . Near timber line in Yosemite the Sierra Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) becomes much gnarled and stubby. The only Juniper on Cape Cod is the Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) , which occurs occasionally near old dwellings and was probably introduced to the lower part of the Cape. Unlike its western namesake, it does not venture into ex­ posed situations but simulates it by never growing into a forest, in­ stead remaining alone and independent. (It does form thickets in other parts of Massachusetts and Kew England , especially in old, abandoned pastures) . Populus Tremuloides. The Quaking Aspen is one of the first broad­ leaved trees to march out into the open meadows of the Yosemite rim.

Nature Guiding Its trim greenish-white bark and leaves, which tremble in the slightest breeze are sure to attract attention. The tree is not found in the Valley yet grows in light, open areas on Cape Cod. Is the fact that so many Cape Cod plants are found in the High Sierras and not in the Valley where the elevation is about 4 , 00 0 feet due to the latitude ? It is doubtful if such an explanation is sufficient, as this species ranges from Hudson Bay to Mexico. The two other poplars of Cape Cod grow around old houses and were brought in by the settlers , the Silver­ leaved Poplar (Populus alba) being introduced for its shade and the B alm of Gilead (Populus balsamijera) for the medicinal qualities of its sticky buds . The Silver Poplar is the most wide-spread of the Cape Poplars and has spread widely by its roots about old house lots. The Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) is the most con­ spicuous poplar along the rivers in the Yosemite and neighboring valleys. It has a slight varnish on its buds, which reminds one of the fragrance of the Balm of Gilead. Black Cottonwood thickets are quite sim ilar to the Silver Poplar groves of the Cape except that the latter grow in dry situations. A lder. The common Alder of Cape Cod is A lnus rugosa or the Smooth Alder. The Yosemite relative is A lnus rhombijolia or the White Alder. The interesting surprise to a New Englander is to find an Alder which is a tree 3 0-8 0 feet high , for to him all alders are shrubs. However, in the yards of Dr. Fred Canady and Captain Howe at Wellfleet on Cape Cod there are Alder Trees. These trees are not native but came ashore in the wreck of the British ship Frank­ lin about r 8 7 0 . Other Plants common t o both localities are Brome Grass , which grows in exceedingly dry situations ; the Eagle Fern or B rachen (A teris aquilina) being commonest in both places ; certain Bur-reeds (Sparganium) and Pond weeds (Potamogeton) of undetermined species ; Fire Weed (Epilobium augustijolium) ; and Shadbush. VI. Impressions There are two kinds of impressions, as related to Yosemite visitors. One is the impression made on the visitor, and the other is the im­ pression left on the Valley. This note refers to the impressions left by the visitors Most visitors come in an automobile. The machine stirs up a cloud of dust and is gone. The dust settles in a new place, and the record is soon rewritten bv another machine. A hundred thousand tourists may leave no grea ter impression than this. There is the Mariposa B atallion, which came up here in 1 8 5 r ­ the first white men to visit the region. This was only about seventy­ five years ago , yet any record of their visit is a curiosity and is on exhibition at the Yosemite Museum. And the Yosemite Indians ! What of them ? The only evidences written in the Valley are the mortar holes where they used to grind acorns for meal. Here and there one may find a chip of obsidian that

Nates by a Nature Guide flaked off when they were fashioning arrow heads. The rest is handed down in myth and story. May it not be said of Yosemite, "What is man that Thou art mind­ ful of him ? " The visitor which made the greatest impression came some 2 0 , 000 years ago. It appeared silently without the sound of a trumpet or the glare of steel. There was a snow storm up on the summit of Mt. Lyell. Then there was another snow storm, and they kept adding to

Fig. 4.

Reflections, with a B eaver Dam as a frame and a B eaver Pond as a Canvas, Nature presents a remarkable scene. Photo­ graphed by the author on a Rocky Mountain Trail.

the accumulation until a great snow field covered Lyell, Clark, Hoff­ man, and the others. It became nearly a thousand feet thick and so massive that it moved down the mountain sides to the valleys. This huge ice sheet picked up the loose granite debris from these summits and quarried the sides of Tenaya and Litt1� Yosemite. It polished Liberty Cap and Mount B roderick and hewed out granite rock basins for Emerald Pool, Merced, and B oothe, and other summit lakes . All markings on the granite were erased, and , when the great glacier retreated, the walls were as new. The first post glacial visitors were descendants of the old inhabitants. They marched into the valley in single file. At the head of the oak column cam e the huckleberry oak because it was more congenial for it to live nearest the glacier. Then up out of the dry country came the Golden Cup Oak and, when the talus formed , it took a stand near the cliffs. The Kellogg Black Oak came about the same time and stood sentinel-like on the open plain of the old lake bottom . The march of

5 20

Nature Gu£ding

the oaks was up hill work and was accomplished with the assistance of squirrels who buried the acorns. The pines came by the wind express usually on the afternoon up­ valley schedule-each seed being a monoplane. The foremost in rank of the pine battalion was the white bark pine. Then came the mountain pine, with the Jeffrey close on its heels. The sugar, lodge pole, and yellow were later arrivals. The conifers are only now beginning to etch their record upon the granite cliffs and domes. ·With the acid secretion of their roots they make sketches upon the rocky walls and with the expansion of growth they flake off new pages. The story that they are writing is one of plant succession and today is but the first chapter of their impressions. The glacier coaxed some plants, like the Alpine willow and the sorrel , up into the high spots and then went off and left them . The weather is still congenial to these cold-seeking plants, and they live in islands, so to speak, way up in the high Sierras. They do not visit and mingle back and forth because the valleys are too warm for cross roads. vVhen the refrigeration was more general, these plants may have paved the valleys . Now they are marooned mountain high-stranded as it were-on a stern and rock bound coast. And we must not go on with our description of plant impressions unmindful of the lichens and mosses . Their work goes back to the time of the first Yosemite plants, curious growths that crept upon the rocks for a long time before man appeared. The lichens may have re­ mained like magic when only the top of Half Dome and a few others broke the ice waves . It must have been a cheerless period of cold, yet these tiny plants may have carried on during the age of the ice and rock giants, and their wee writings are still going on preparing the way for less hardy followers . The latest arrivals have only lately ventured onto the valley floor. They take up the coarse soil, live their span of life, and then die. They add a little bit of humus and thereby are slowly darkening the top layer. The common locust and the elm are such and were brought by the colonist . The curly dock, sorrel, and knotweed of the yards stole in with the garden seeds. So came the common plantain and red clover. And there are others like the white daisy, chickory, and bouncing bet that haye not reached here. Some like the burdock, beggars tick, and cocklebur are always hooking rides. They have not yet stolen into the Yosemite. Let it be hoped that they will not be allowed within the park limits. May Yosemite be one place where the native granites may be written upon by natiye plants in a native tongue. For herein may visitors come and see history being written in the American way-as it was before America was known to Europe.

CHAPTER LII NATURE-STUDY O N THE PLAYGROUND*

How many playground leaders are country born ? The country is wonderful place to come from . Possibly some of you think that it is a great place to come from . Can you do all the things in a play­ ground that you as a child could do in the fields and forests ? I do not refer to stealing bird' s eggs and shooting gray squirrels for that is out of date. Of course I realize that blueberrying is impossible in a city playground. A city park is saturated with don 'ts. Don 't spit on the walk, Don't walk on the grass , Don't pick the flowers. Many know the Park Dont ' s in Nature better than the do 's. The caretaker can see no sense in watering the grass to make it grow and then having to cut it down again. I know of a teacher who recently had a class out in the park. She bent a limb down for the little tots to see the leaves. She received a call down from the Superintendent of Parks . I heard of some children over in our city who were climbing a pine tree and trying to swing in it. Those of you from the country know the fun of swinging in a birch tree. Two Boy Scouts saw them and immediately went over and told the children that they would break the tree. They must not do it. Those scouts had a forest sense. They were right. There is a long list of Don'ts for your playground and parks. If there were time and you were feeling in the mood I would like to have you make a list of "Do's" and " Don'ts" in nature experiences in your particular playground area. It would be en­ lightening to us all. I suspect that the liabilities would outnumber

a

*An address given at the Twelfth National Recreat ional Congress, Asheville, North Carolina.

52 I

522

Nature Guiding

the assets in the accounting of nature possibilities on playgrounds. I want also to distinguish between the artificial playground and the natural playground. An artificial playground has ladders to climb instead of birches, awnings instead of shade trees , a dust laying preparation instead of green grass, an iron fence instead of shrubs, an Italian-tiled wading-pool instead of a frog pond. Up to this point the artificial playground might just as well be in a shed or base­ ment . The artificial playground is a very uninteresting place for the enj oyment of nature. The tendency today is as much as possible toward the natural playground. A natural playground is an outdoor neighborhood area on which are associated fresh air and sunshine ; trees, flowers, and animal life ; and play apparatus . There may be such a thing as too many swings and too much apparatus . When it means the removal of nature 's furnishings it becomes an outdoor gymnasium . A playground is not an outdoor gymnasium . A playground is not a parking place. It is not simply an amusement area. It is an outdoor school room and should supplement but not duplicate school activities . B irds and flowers are as essentially a part of the leaders equipment as graveled areas an d artificial equipment . He should utilize all the resources of the area. The playground which has been fortunate enough to have had its trees and weed s tolerated has therein a great n atural resource in a crud e state. The development and utilization of this resource is in a pioneer stage. Mention has been made that this work is under an organized di­ rector. A playground leader is more than a nurse maid. H e is not necessary to push someone in a swing. Children will play on appa­ ratus without leadership . Give the boys a bat and ball and they will organize at once. Often times they know more about it than the leader. A playground leader is not a junior policeman. Children in healthy play do not need one. It is just as essential to train leaders for the outdoor school room as for the four-walled room , and the playground that counts most is going to be educational. The leader is going to give children a habit of seeing and doing. He is going to teach them to protect life. He is going to develop habits that will make for the enrichment of leisure time. He is going to bring out the best that is in them. We have made a big sacrifice to get our parks and playgrounds and now we must make a big sacrifice to save them. It is just like getting democracy and then having to make a second struggle to make the world safe for democracy. One way to save a playground is to get iron apparatus that cannot be destroyed but this does not teach the finer contacts. The most attractive side of playground work includes the enjoyment of the natural life . Our parks are here but they repre­ sent undeveloped mines . They are in the hands of the people. An uneducated park republic can destroy the park. If people do not learn good park manners at home they will not know them in our state or national parks. The acts of people in our large recreation

Nature-Study on the Playground areas is a good indication of their early training. How will your community be represented ? What are some of the ways in which we may utilize the natural resources of our parks and playgrounds ? This, I take it , is the reason for my being invited here-to suggest what may be done in this fertile field. If there is anything that I say which suggests discussion make a note of it and if there is a demand and time we will hold a discussion group , or possibly have a field demonstration. I am anxious to be of service while here. First of all, do not publish a list of birds or trees in the area. That would be no more interesting than a list of dates in history. An ideal book on the natural history of a park is that published by Ansel F. Hall in 1 9 2 1 on Yosemite National Park. If possible, get a similar book for your community. Enlist the active support of your community bird or field club . Have them meet at your park. Have some of their members take children on field trips altho these leaders will have to be selected with great care as they will tend toward the catalogue style. Get a naturalist champion for your park, as was John Muir for Yosemite and Enos Mills for the Rocky Mountain Park. Encourage this naturalist to get out nature publications written in a simple and interesting way. Foresee the nature guide movement. Every community, along with its physician, teacher, and parson is going to have its nature guide. There is no better way to introduce that work than through the park or playground system. The nature guide is not only able to lead trips but has been trained to tell nature stories and to give nature talks. The field excursions will develop closer friendship and com­ radeship than is possible with the swing or shute. Nature guide trips should be given for adults. Playgrounds are usually thought of for children. Why not have a little play that can be carried over into old age. How many of you are now playing the games that you are making possible on the playground ? What recreation do you take ? A survey of the recreation of recreation leaders would be enlightening-possibly amusing. Here again, I would like to take time for paper and pencil. If it is true in your case-that there is no provision for the early enjoyment of the games that carry over into later life-how much more so may it be in the case of those not interested in recreation. Theirs is wreck-reation. What is sadder than an old person without capacity for recreation ? The man who has forgotten how to play is a sad spectacle. He who gets into the great game of life \vith the plants and animals has met a lifetime of interests. Have a Park Museum. One of the best city park museums is the Roger Williams Park Museum in Providence. In the past they have gotten out some very valuable publications. One of the best books on the subj ect is by Harlan 1. Smith , called Park Museum Handbook of the Canadian Rocky Mountain Park. The museum

Nature Guiding should, of course, deal with local material-local historical material, minerals and rocks of the locality, have pictures or specimens of flowers and birds in season, monthly star maps, insects that are likely to appear, a model of the water system, etc. The children, themselves, will enj oy making the museum and many of their nature activities may center around this project . This is not the case in the artificial playground . The only geology that they then get is dust and possibly stone bruises. The only plant may be the green scum from the wading or swimming pool, and the only personal contact may be with the mosquito. They cannot get much appreciation from such acquaintances but if these be the nature opportunities I would at least have them understand that many. If possible, sur­ round the children with the best friends of the wild that you can collect . Some parks have lions and elephants. How much more wonderful is the grasshopper. He is much cheaper to feed. Pick him up and he spits tobacco. He is noted for his ability to jump . He has five eyes­ one right in the middle of his forehead. He sings with his hind leg. H e breathes through his abdomen and has ears on the sides of his abdomen. If any such individual were advertised for the next com­ edy you would surely get a ticket yet you pass by these shows every day because no one has pointed them out. Another source of nature inoculation is through celebrating special days. Make a special program for Arbor Day and for May Day. The State of Rhode Island publishes an Arbor Day Bulletin for each one of its public school children, an enterprise worthy of emulating. Nature-study as a form of play does not mean clearing the field for action but quite the contrary-keeping the wild places wild for nature activities. I fully realize that you have asked me to speak about Nature play. It seems to me, however, that vve cannot play checkers until we get the checkerboard-in other words we cannot utilize this form of playground activity unless we prepare the way. I have suggested some ways of getting the entering wedge.

CHAPTER LIII WINTER NATURE-STUDY : VVAS AND I s

Some folks think that Nature-study retires for the winter with the ground hog or perhaps that it goes to Palm Beach along with the bird migrati on. This is just as imaginary as the belief that pussy willows are only here when they have pussies. Many people eat a big turkey dinner and retire for the winter. They are said to be housed up. With the fear of pneumonia as an alibi, others take their last bath of the season. Some neighbors, southern European we are told, sew up their children in several layers of shirts topped off with a red sweater. These people believe that everyone else does the same thing. This also is a supposition. Thanksgiving marks the retiring time of nature crops. The leaves have fallen, the insects have had their last medley and the beavers have gone to their winter cabins to live on aspen bark. Everything, in the style of M oby Dick, is stored down and cleared up . This again is not so. With the retiring of the chipping sparrow comes the junco. Although the American silkworm is hanging in a cocoon , the woolly bear still roams. It is spawning time for the codfish . Winter nature­ study is as interesting as summer nature-study. There is every indication that there are those who are being aroused to the possi­ bilities of winter interests.

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Nature Guiding

December opens the season of unnatural winter. When business i s poor with editors the old timer i s made to observe squirrels storing a n extra large crop o f nuts and their fur i s reported as unusually thick. On the strength of this the prophet predicts a hard winter. But large crops are due to past weather rather than future and a thick coat of fur is the result of good food rather than what is to come.

Winter Camping at B ear Mountain Park.

This ann u al disp lay of current unnatural events is being censored by our young naturalists. The classical Old Farmers' Almanac always pr edicts a snow storm along in the first two weeks in January. The write rs assume that if the period was long enough there would be sure to be a snow storm. lf a winter sport party is going to Jaffrey in the White Mountains, however, the members are apt t o consult the weather -man as to whether there will be a snow storm over the week-end. Ground hog weather is giving away to the weather bureau. The almanac has also been found to be a wonderful advertising medium for patent medicines , probably to prevent the ill effects of winter. Horse chestnuts and muskrat furs are still used to kee p away rheumatics and the rabbit ' s foot is carried for good luck. Th e fear of winter has sentenced more people to close confinement than is commonly realized. But there is an uprising. Modern youth is show­ ing an utter disregard for winter ailments. They are insisting in ever increasing numbers upon opportunities for winter sport. Bear Mountain , the largest camping park in the world, is opening its annu al se ason of winter camping. The commission has constructed

Winter Nature-Study an outdoor skating rink, two toboggan slides, and rents skis, sleds and snowshoes. The old fashioned straw ride is being revived. The winter hiker is getting a genuine thrill following snow clad streams and animal trails. They insist on seeing the tracks of the fox and the snowshoe rabbit which before have been limited to book nature . . The Girl Scouts of Rochester are interested in a plan suggested by the National Plant, Flower, and Fruit Guild, of distributing to

A Boy SCOUT

IS

P RE PARED :

These scouts have cut a long pole to use

case someone breaks thru the ice.

in

shut-in people small Christmas trees in pots. If these trees are kept alive in the winter they are to be transplanted in the spring. This project is being carried on in cooperation with the New York State College of Forestry. Th is shows not only a fine way of carrying out the scout laws, but the broad policy of the Forestry College in not discouraging the Christmas Tree. It is the Christmas Tree brought up to date and in harmony with all laws of conservation. An interesting source of enjoyment with potted plants from the out-of-doors is with the winter rosettes of biennials. The mullein plant is sold as the American Velvet plant in London. Queen Ann's Lace suggests the beauty of the leaves of that plant and the cultivated carrot when grown in flower pots becomes a close rival of our ferns. Even the dandelion and primrose will blossom when brought to a warm room. The green colors of these weeds are as refreshing as that of the laurel, Prince's Pine, and Christmas fern. While getting an up-to-date winter view-point why not get better acquainted with our

Nature Guiding

weeds and stop the extennination of these rarer plants of the wood­ lands ? The Massachusetts State Girl Scout Camp at Cedar Hill, Waltham , is getting ready for winter scouting parties. Early mornings will find merry girls hiking through snow flurries to hemlock hill or the cedar swamp to see the footprints of the partridge, or to watch the nuthatches and myrtle warblers. Many a rollicking group has decided that the lean-to is the favorite shelter in winter. They build their lean-tos of evergreen boughs and have a reflector fire built in front with a log or stone back to reflect the heat into the shelter. These scouts sleep inside as wann as toast, and with an absolutely clear conscience, for the snow eliminates the forest fire menace. Another sign of a busy time outdoors this winter comes from the schools. The observer recently saw a group at the State School of Agriculture at Alfred, New York, on a nature trip in a heavy snow stonn. Upon inquiry he learned that they were prospective teachers learning nature that they in turn might take their pupils into the open. The forests and snowfields are our natural playgrounds in winter. The gap between play in summer and hibernating in winter is becom­ ing remarkably narrow. People are going to the woods in winter in greater numbers. If a half million participated in winter play last year we may expect a million this season . Shall we uphold the Ameri­ can standards for recreation in the winter ? Progressive cities are beginning to point with pride to their winter playgrounds.

" Clearly the place to seek for the nature-study that is true to human life is first of all in the historic development of man's relations toward nature.-Hodges. "Nature-study not only educates, but it educates nature-ward ; and nature is ever our companion, whether we will or no. Even though we are determined to shut ourselves in an office, nature sends her messengers. The light, the dark, the moon, the cloud, the rain, the wind, the falling leaf, the fly, the bouquet, the bird , the cockroach-they are all ours. Few of us can travel. \Ve must know the things at home. "-L. H. Bailey in " The Nature-Study Idea. " "As from a hidden organ-10ft upsoaring, The rare song-rapture rises through the hush ; So from the topmost boughs outpouring Flows all the liquid silver of the thrush. " -Mrs. Merritt E . Gates.

CHAPTER LIV NATURE -LoRE : A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY There is an abundance of nature literature. The following list has been arranged that there may be economy of effort and time. Books have been selected to represent the different phases of nature­ study . It is obvious that no two would select the same list . Special attention has been given to Nature Stories . The author believes that all books included in the list are accurate. Wherever it has been known that the story personifies or has the animals doing unheard of things it has been omitted . The list is not complete. In the collec­ tion of dog stories, for example , the list has been limited to the gener­ ally recognized standard stories . It is also true that there may be many other dog stories that should be added. There are many nature books that are wholly informational and these also are ar­ ranged alphabetically according to subj ect. It is often difficult to say that a book is either informational or in story form but they have been limited to one list to save space . It is also well known that prices frequently change. I.

Methods

B ailey , L. H . , Nature-study Idea, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Berry, James B . , Teaching Agriculture, World Book Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bigelow, E . F . , Spirit of Nature study, A. S . Barnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burbank, Luther, The Training of the Human Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comstock, Anna B . , Handbook of Nature-study, Comstock Pub. Co . . . . . Comstock and Vinal, Field and Camp Notebook, Comstock Pub. Co . . . . Cooper, Lane, Louis Agassiz as a Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hodge, C . F . , and J . Dawson, Civic B iology, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keller, Helen, The Story of My Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MacCaughey , The Natural History of Chautauqua, H . W. Huebsch . . . . Mills , Enos, The Adventures of a Nature Guide, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . Palmer, E. L . , Nature Landscapes and Life History Charts, Comstock . Roosevelt, Thea . , Letters to His Children . . . . . . . . . . . Rousseau, Emile, Appleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skilling, W. T . , Nature-study Agriculture, World Book Co . . . . . . . . . Skinner, M. P . , The Yellowstone Nature B ook, A . C . M cClurg . . . . . . . . . Spillman, W . J., Farm Science (Teaching) , World Book Co . . . Wiggam, Albert E . , The New Decalogue of Science, Bobbs-Merrill . . . . . . -

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Stories

A nimals in General (See Mamm als) . Austin, Mary, The Trail Book, Houghton Miffiin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B eard, Dan C . , American Boys Book of Wild Animals, Lippincott . . Beebe, Wm. , Jungle Peace (Guiana ) , Henry Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bostock, F. C . , Training of Wild Animals, Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brearley, Harry C . , Animal Secrets Told . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brunner, Josef, Tracks and Tracking, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burroughs, John, Camping and Tramping with Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . Winter Sunshine Ways of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Songs of Nature, McClure Phillips . . . . .. ..... Wakerobin, Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Nature Guiding

Chapman, W . , Green Timbered Trails, Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cooper, Courtney R . , Under the Big Tops (Circus Animals) , Little . . . . Creighton, Kath . , Nature Songs and Stories, Comstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dixon, R . , F. A. Stokes, Human Side of Animals, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Donald , C. H . , Companions, Feathered, Furred, and Scaled, J ohn Lane . . DuChaillu, Paul, Wild Life Under the Equator, Harper . . . . .. .. . Eaton, Walter P., On the Edge of the Wilderness, Wilde . . . . . . Fabre, J . H., The Story Book of Science, Century . . . . . . . . Frentz, Edward , Uncle Zeb and His Friends, At!. Mo. Press . . . . . . . . . . . . Gould, A. W . , Mother Nature's Children, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Groos, Karl , The Play of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hawkes, Clarence, The Way of the Wild, Jacobs . . . . . . . . Hornaday, Minds and Manners of Wild Animals . . ... Houssay, Frederick, The Industries of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hudson, VV. H . , The Book of a Naturalist, Dutton . . . . . . . .. Ingersoll, Ernest, Wit of the Wild, Dodd, Mead . . . . . . .. ...... Jenkins, Oliver, Interesting Neighbors, Blakiston . . . . .. . . Long, W. J . , Ways of Wood Folk, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wood Folk Comedies, Harper . . . . . . . . . . . ... Maeterlink, Maurice, Mountain Paths . . . . . . . . Unknown Guests Our Eternity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . McNally, Geo. M . , Babyhood of Wild Beasts, Doran . . . Mills, Enos, Wild Life of the Rockies, Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wild Animal Homesteads, Doubleday . . . . . . . . Mukerji , Dhan G . , Jungle B easts and Men, Dutton . .. . . . . . Muir, John, Steep Trails . . . . . . . . . . ... . . T h e Cruise of t h e Corwin . . . . . . . . . . . A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf . . . . . . Travels i n Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Story of l\Iy Boyhood and Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . My First Summer in the Sierra Murrill, Wm. A . , B illy the Boy Naturalist , Bronxwood Park, N . Y. City Pellett, Frank C . , Our B ackdoor Neighbors, The Abingdon Press . . . . . . Roberts , C . G . D . , The Backwoodsman, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neighbors Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ... Secret Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rogers, J. E . , Wild Animals Every Child Should Know, Doubleday . Seton, E. T . , Wild Animals at Home, Grosset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharp , Dallas Lore, \Vhole Year Round, Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sqnier, Emma L . , On Autumn Trails, Cosmopolitan . . . .. .. . Thompson, E. S . , \Vild Animals I Have Known, Scribners . . . .. Animal Heroes, Grosset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Thoreau, H. D . , Walden, Houghton, 2 vol . each . . . . Ward, F . , Animal Life Under Water, Funk and Wagnalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washburne, S. W . , and H. C . , Story of the Earth, Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weed, C. M . , Seeing Nature First, Lippincott . . . . . . . ... White, Gilbert, Natural History of Selbourne . ........ . . . Wiggam, Decalog of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wilcox, Alice Wilson, Treasured Nature Lyrics, R. G. Badger . . . . . . . . . . Wright, Mabel Osgood, Four Footed Americans, Macmillan . . . . . . Zavarziger, Animal Kingdom, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . .

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A nts. McCook, Henry ]\'1. , Ant Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vamba, The Prince and His Ants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bears Carter, M. H . , Bear Stories (Retold from St. Nicholas) , Century . 65 Hittell, Theo . , Adventures of James C. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major, Chas. , The Bears of Blue River, Macmillan . . . . . 1 . 50 .

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A Nature-Lore Bibliography

53 !

Mills, Enos, The Grizzly, Houghton Mifflin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seton, E. T . , The Biography of a Grizzly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .50 Wright, W . H . , The Black Bear, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .00 .

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Beaver Dugmore, A. R . , The Romance of the Beaver, J. B. Lippincott . . . . . . . . . . Hawkes, Clarence, Shaggycoat, Jacobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .25 Mills, Enos, In Beaver World, Trail Bkstore, Long 's Pk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 .

Bee Fabre, Jean Henri, The Mason Bees, Dodd Mead . . . . . . Bramble Bees and Others, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lovell, John H . , The Flower and the Bee . . . . . . . . . Maeterlink, Maurice, Life of the Bee, Dodd M ead . . . . . Morley, M. W., The Bee People, McClurg . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Birds Bralliar, Floyd, Knowing Birds through Stories, Funk and \Yagnalls . . . . . . Burgess, Thornton, The Birdbook for Children, Little . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burroughs, John, Bird and Bough (Poems) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birds and Poets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Durand, Herbert, Taming the Wildings, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eckstrom , Fannie H . , The B ird Book, Audubon Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grinnell, E. and J . , B irds of Song and Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hudson, W. H . , Adventures among B irds, Dutton . . . . .. . . .......... Lanier, Sidney, Bob, The Story of Our Mockingbird, Scribner . . . . . . . . . . . Mathews, F . Schuyler, The Book of Birds for Young People, Putnam . . . . . Miller, Olive Thorne, True B ird Stories from my Notebooks, Houghton . . . Myers, Harriet W . , The B irds Convention, Out West Magaz. , Los Angeles . . Pearson, T . Gilbert, Tales from B irdland, Mass . , Aud. Soc. 66 Newbury, Boston, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stories from B ird Life, Aud. Soc. 66 Newbury, Boston, l\Iass . . . . . . . . . . Porter, Gene Stratton, Homing with the Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rolt-Wheeler, Francis, The Boy with the U . S . Naturalist, Lothrop . . . . . . . . Stratton-Porter, Gene, The Fire B ird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Friends in Feathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Homing with the Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Song of the Cardinal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. Torrey, Bradford, B irds in the Bush . . . . . Walker, M . C . , Our Birds and Their I\estlings, Am . Bk. Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Buffalo Dimock : Wall Street and the Wilds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Butterflies and Moths Porter, Gene Stratton , Moths of the Limberlost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scudder, S. H . , Life of a Butterfly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cats Carter, M. H . , Cat Stories (Retold from St. t\icholas) , Century . . . . . . . . . . .65 Jackson, Cat Stories, Little . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .00 Kipling, Just So Stories, The Cat That Walked by Himself . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .20 .

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Conservation Fairbanks, Harold W . , Conservation Reader, 'World Book Co . . . . . . . . . . . . Dogs Atkinson, Eleanor, Greyfriars Bobby, Harper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B aynes, Ernest H . , The Story of an Eskimo Dog , Macmillan . . Caldwell, Frank, Wolf, The Storm Leader, Dodd . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carter, Iv1. H . , ed . , Stories of Brave Dogs, Century . . . . . . . . . . . Darling, Esther B . , Baldy of Nome, Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Nature Guiding

53 2

Davis, Richard Harding, The Bar Sinister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Derieux, Samuel , Frank of Freedom Hill, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . Fitspatrick, James P., Jock of the Bushweld, Longsman . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gask, L., True Stories about Dogs, Crowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. London, Jack, Call of the Wild, Grossett . . . . . . . . . . Maeterlinck, M . , Our Friend the Dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mills, Enos, The Story of Scotch, Longs Pk., Bkstore . . . . . . Muir, John , Stickeen Olivant, Alfred, Bob, Son of Battle, Doubleday . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . Ramee (Ouida ) , The Dog of Flanders . . . Roberts, C. G. D . , J im-Story of the Backwoods Police Dog, Macmillan Saunders, Marshall, Beautiful Joe, Various Publ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 'Wandering Dog, Doran . . . . . . . . . Terhune, Albert P., Buff, A Collie, Doran . . .... Lad, A Dog, Dutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Dunes Reed, Earl H . , The D une Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Townsend, Chas. W . , Sand Dunes and Salt Marshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elephants Eardley-Wilmot, S . , Life of an Elephant, London, Ed. Arnold . . . . . . . . . . . Mukerji, Dhan G . , Kari the Elephant, Dutton .. . . . . . . . . 2 .00 .

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Fish . ... . . . . Baskett, James N . , The Story of the Fishes . . . . . Jordan, David Starr, Science Sketches (Stories about Fish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Flowers Mathews, F. Schuyler, The Book of Wild Flowers for Young People, Putnam 3 .00 Stratton-Porter, Gene, Freckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Forests ( See Trees) Noyes , \Ym . , \Vood and Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pack, A. N . , Our Vanishing Forests . . . . . Rolt-Wheeler, Francis, The Boys with the U . S . Foresters , Lothrop . Schwartz, G. H., Forest Trees and Forest Scenery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Fox Roberts, C. G. D . , Red Fox , L. C. Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .90 Seton, E. T . , Biography of a Silver Fox . . .

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Horses B aldwin, Story of Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saunders, l\larshall, Bonnie Prince Fetlar, Doran . . . . . ... . . 2 .00 Sewell, Black Beauty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Insects Badenock, L. N . , Romance of the Insect ·World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brailliar, Floyd, Knowing Insects through Stories, Funk and Wagnalls . . Clark, G. Glenwood, Tiny Toilers and Their \Yorks, Century . . 1 .75 Comstock, Anna B., The Way of the Six-footed, Comstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 Cragin, Our Insect Friends and Foes, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .75 Fabre, Jean Henri, Life of the Fly, Dodd Mead .. . . . . . . . 2 .50 Hunting Wasps, Dodd ]\lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life of the Caterpillar, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life of the Grasshopper, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sacred Beetle and others, Dodd l\Iead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Mason Wasps, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glow-worm and other Beetles, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . More Hunting Wasps, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life of the Weevil, Dodd Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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A Nature-Lore Bibliography

5 33

More B eetles, Dodd Mead Insect Adventures, World Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairchild , David and M arian, The Book of Monsters, Nat 'l Geog. Soc Fell, E . P . , Insects on the Farm, Outing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kellogg , Vernon, Insect Stories, D . Appleton . . . . . . . . . . McCook, H. C . , Nature's Craftsman . . . . . . . . . . . Morley, M . W- . , Will 0 ' the Wasps, lvIcClurg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patch, E dith M . , Hexapod Stories, At!. lvI o . Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selous, E . , The Romance of Insect Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratton-Porter, Gene, Moths of Limberlost . .. . . . . . . Swartz, J ulia A . , Grasshopper Green 's Garden, Little Brovm . . . . . . . . . .

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Fossils

Lucas, F . A . , Animals of the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rolt-\Yheeler, Francis, The IVIonstcr Hunters, Lothrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1 .75

Lion G n d Tiger

Carter, M. H . ,

ed . , About Animals (Retold from

St.

N icholas ) , Century .

.65

ivIan

Baitsell, G . A . , ed. , The Evolution of l\lan . . . . . . . . . . . . Conklin, E . G . , The Direction of Human Evolution . . . . Fiske, John, The Destiny of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patten , Wm . , The Grand Strategy of Evolution . . " . . Shaler, N . S . , Man and the Earth . . " . . . Thomson , J. Arthur, \Vhat is Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Minerals

Kelley , Jay G . , The Boy Mineral Collectors, Lippincott . . . . . Rolt-\Yheeler, Francis, The Boy with the U . S . Miners, Loth:-op .

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Burgess, T . Vi . , Burgess Animal Book for Children, Little . . . . . . . . Ingersoll, Ernest , The Life of Animals : the Mammals, Macl\Iillan . .

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2 . 00

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AIG u n i c in s

Abraham, Geo. F . , The Complete Mountaine2r . . . . . . . . . Jeffers, LeRoy , The Call of the Mountains, Dodd , :Mead . King, Clarence, Mountaineering in the Sierras . . . . . . . . . . Maeterlinck, Maurice, Mountain Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meany, Edmund S . , Mount Rainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mills, Enos, Wild Life of the Rockies , Hough ton . . . . . . . . Muir, John, My First Summer in the Sierra . . . . . . . . . . . .

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f-· cribner . . .

J .60

Pebbles Hawksworth ,

Hallam, The Strange Adventures of a Pebhle,

Pigeons

Seaman , Augusta H . , Jacqueline

o f the

Carricr

J\ :acmillan .

P i geons,

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1 . 50

Sea

Crowder, vVm . , Dwellers of the Sea and Shore , l\=acmillan . . . . Duncan, F . Martin , vVonders of t h e Shore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hardy , 1\1rs . A . S . , Sea Stories for Wonder E y es, G inn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verrill, A . Hyatt , The Ocean and its Mysteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Seal

Jordan, David Starr, The Story

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Sq uirrels

B urroughs, John, Squirrels and Other Fur B earers , Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . Morley, I\1. W., Little Mitchell, McClurg .

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1 .25

Nature Guiding

53 4

Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 50 Johnson, Gaylord, The Star People, Macmillan . . . .. . .. 1 . 50 The Sky Movies, l"Iacmillan Warren, G. C . , Star Stories for Little Folks, Pilgrim Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 .

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Trees Dixon and Fitch , The Human Side of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Huntington, Studies of Trees in Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . McFarland, J. H . , Getting Acquainted with the Trees . . . . . . . . . . Mills, Enos, The Story of a Thousand Year Pine, Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thoreau, Henry D . , The l\Iaine · W oods White, Stewart Edward, The Magic Forest, The Juvenile Library .

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Whales Beddard, F. E . , Book of Whales, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 50 Bullen , Cruise of the Cachalot round the \Vorld after Sperm \Vhale, Dodd , Mead 1 . 50 Melville, Herman, Moby Dick or the Great White Whale, Dodd, Mead . .70 Verrill , A . , Hyatt, The Real Story of the Whaler . Appletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .5 0 "

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Wolf Wallace, Dillon, The Gaunt Grey Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sources of Information A nimals (See Mammals) Adams, C. C . , Guide to the Study of Animal Ecology, Macmillan . . . . 1 .90 Champlin , J . D . , Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Natural History, Holt . . . . . . . 3 .00 Gibson, W. H . , Sharp Eyes, Harper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.00 Hornaday, W. T . , The American Natural History , Scribner . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 00 Shelford, Victor E . , Animal Communities in Temperate America . . . . . . . \Vood, Theodore, K atural History for Young People, Dutton . . . . . . . . . . 3 .00 , Gold Fish Breeds and Other Aquarium Fishes, Innes and Sons . ----

A quaria Brind, W. L . , The Practical Fish Fancier, W. L. Brind. N . Y . . . . . . . . . . . Osborne, Raymond C . , Care of Home Aquaria, N . Y . Zool . Soc . . . . . . . . . Smith, Eugene, The Home Aquarium and How to Care for it, Dutton . . .

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Bacteria Conn, H. W . , Bacteria, Yeasts and l\Iolds, Ginn . Birds National Assoc. of Audubon Societies, 1 9 7 4 Eroadway, N . Y . , Secure list of Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B irds of New York, State Museum , Albany , bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 50 Book of Birds, 250 colored Illust. Nat. Geog . Mag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 40 B ailey, Florence M . , Handbook of Birds of \Yestern U . S . , Aud. Soc . . . . . . 4. 1 5 Birds of Village and Field, Aud . Soc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 B aynes, Ernest Harold, Wild Bird Guests, Dutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .00 B lanchan, N eltje, B irds Worth Knowing, Doubleday Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .60 Bird Neighbors, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.00 Bowdish , B . S . , Putting up B ird Boxes, Aud . Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5c Doz. Chapman, F . M . , What Bird is That ? Appleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .00 Dugmore, A. R . , Bird Homes, Doubleday, Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 .00 Eaton, E. H . , Birds of New York, 2 Vol . , State .i\luseum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .00 Finley, W. L . , American B irds, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .50 Forbush, Edward Howe . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer. Game Birds of California, Univ. of Cal . Press . 6 .00 Henshaw, H. W . , Book of B irds, Kat. G eog . Soc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .00 Hoffman, Ralph, Guide to Birds of N. Eng. and E. Kew York, Houghton . 3 .00 Job, Herbert K . , Propogation of Wild Birds, Doubleday, Page . . . . . . . . . . The Sport of Bird Study, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 50 .

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A Nature-Lore Bibliography

53 5

Keeler, C . , Bird Notes Afield, Paul Elder Co. , San Fr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathews, F. Schuyler, Wild Birds and Their Music, Putnam . .. . . . . Miller, Olive Thorne, First Book of B irds, Houghton Miner, Manley F . , Jack Miner and the Birds, M. F. Miner, Kingsville, . . . . . . ........ Myers, H. W . , Western Birds, Macmillan . . Ontario, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson, T. Gilbert, The B ird Study Book, Doubleday, Page . . . . . ... Reed, Chester A., Pocket Handbooks, Each, Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Land Birds East of Rockies, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Birds East of Rockies, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Land Birds West of Rockies, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Siepert, Albert F . , B ird Houses Boys can Build , B radley Institute, Peori . . Trafton, Gilbert H . , B ird Friends, Houghton, l\Iifflin . . . . . .. . Wright, Mabel 0 . , Birdcraft, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 .00 2 .00

Butterflies (See Moths) Coloration Beddard, F . E . , Animal Coloration, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Poulton, E. B . , The Colours of Animals, Appleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thayer, G. H . , Concealing-coloration in the Animal Kingdom, Macmillan . 7 .00 .

Domestic A nimals Burkett, C. W . , ed. , Our Domestic Animals, Ginn .

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3 . 50

Earth's Beginning Ball, Sir R. S . , The Earth's Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chamberlain, T. C . , The Origin of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gregory, J . W . , The Making of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

Evolutwn Bickerton, A. W . , The Romance of the Earth . Clodd, Edward, The Story of Creation . . . . . . . Metcalf, M . , Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schmucker, S . C . , The M eaning of Evolution . Thomson, J. Arthur, The B ible of Nature . . . .

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Ferns Beecroft, W. I . , Who 's Who Among the Wild Flowers, and Ferns, Moffat . Clute, vV . N . , Our Ferns and Their Haunts , Stokes . . . . .. Eastman, Helen, New England Ferns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parsons, F . T . , How to Know the Ferns, Scribners . . . . . Tilton, Fern Lovers' Companion, Little, Brown . . . . . . . . . Underwood, L. M . , Our Native Ferns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Woolson, G. A . , Ferns and How to Grow Them, Doubleday, Page . . . .

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1. 50 3 .00

I . JO

Fishes (See A quaria) Holder, C. F . , The Fishes of the Pacific Coast, Dodge Pub . Co . . . . . . . . . . . Innes, VV. T . , Goldfish Varieties, Innes . . . . . . . . . 3 .00 Jordan and Evermann, American Food and Game Fishes, Doubleday , Page 4.00 Nichols, J . T . , Fishes of the Vicinity of N . Y. City . , Am . Mus. Nat. Hist. . 7 5 Rhead, L . J . , Book o f Fish and Fishing, Scribner .. . . .... . . . . 2 .00 .

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Flowers Armstrong, Margaret, Field Book of Western Wild Flowers, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . Blanchan, Neltje, Nature's Garden, Doubleday . . . Burgess, Thornton, Flower Book for Children, Lothrop . Creevey, Caroline, Guide to Wild Flowers, Harper . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dana, Mrs. W. S., How to Know the Wild Flowers, Scribners . . . . ... House, H. D . , Wild Flowers of New York, State Museum, Albany, 2 Vol . . Keeler, H . L . , Wild Flowers, 3 Vols. , Scribners, each . . . . . . . . . Lounsberry, Alice, A Guide to the Wild Flowers, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . . Southern Wild Flowers and Trees, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Nature Guiding Maeterlinck, M . , Old Fashioned Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathews, F . Schuyler, Field Book of American Wild Flowers, Putnam . Reed, C . A . , Flower Guide (Pocket E dition ) , Doubleday . . . . . . Saunders, \Yestern Flower Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walton , G . L . , The Flower Finder, Lippincott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

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Forestry Berry , James B . , Farm \Voodlands, \Vorld Book Co . . . .. Gifford, J. C . , Practical Forestry, Appleton . . . .. . . . . . . . Moon, F. F . , The Book of Forestry, D. Appleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pack, C. L . , The School Book of Forestry, Amer. N ature Assoc. , Pinchot, G . , The Primer of Forestry, U. S . Bureau Forestry . . . Roth, Filebert, First Book of Forestry, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Frogs Bureau of Fisheries, Document 888 , Bulletin on Frogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dickerson, Mary E . , The Frog Book, Doubleday Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ·00 Fruits Peterson, l\L G . , How to Know the Wild Fruits, 11acmillan . . . . \Valton, Geo . L . , Wild Flowers and Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Fungi Duggar, B . M . , Fungous Diseases of Plants, Ginn . . . . . . . . . McCubbin, 'IV. A . , Fungi and Human Affairs, \Vorld Book Co . . . . . .

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Gardens Burkett, Stevens and Hill, Agriculture for B eginners, Ginn . . . . . . Croy , M. S . , Putnam' s Garden Handbook, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . Duncan, Frances, When Mother Lets us Garden, Dodd, Mead . . . Durand, Herbert, Taming t h e \Vildings, Putnam . . . . . Keeler, H . L . , Our Garden Flowers, Scribner . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meier, School and Home Gardens, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shaw, E . E . , Garden Flowers o f Spring, Summer, Autumn and .

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4 Vol . , Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 50

Geology Burroughs, John, Time and Change Fabre, Jean Henri, This Earth of Ours, Century . . . Geikie, James, Geology (Small Book) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hopkins, T . C . , Elements of Physical Geography, Sanborn . Salisbury , B arrows, Tower, Elements of Geography, H olt . . . Seers, A . \V. , Earth and Its Life, World Book Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . Shaler, N . S . , First Book in Geology, H eath . . . .

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Grasses Francis, Mary E . , Book of Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 .00 Knobel, Edward, Grasses, Sedges , and Rushes, Bradlee \Vhidden . . . . . . . . . .

Insects (See Moths) Beard, Dan C . , American Boys' Book of B ugs, Lippincott . . . . . . . . . . 2 .00 Comstock, J. H . , M anual of the Study of Insects, Comstock Pub . Co . 3 . 75 Insect Life, Comstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 75 3 .00 Howard, L . 0., The Insect Book, Doubleday Page . . 5 .00 Kellogg, V. L . , American Insects, H . Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lutz, Frank E . , The Field Book of Insects, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 50 I . 75 Miall, L. C . , The Natural History of Aquatic I nsects, Macmillan . \Vashburn, F . L., Injurious Insects and Useful Birds, Lippincott . .

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Invertebrates Holder, C. F . , Half Hours with thc Lower Animals, American Book Co . . . . Landscape Hamblin, Stephen , Man's Spiritual Cont act with the Landscape, Badger . Waugh , Frank, The Natural Style in Landscape Gardening, Badger .

.60 2 . 50 3 .00

53 7

A Nature-Lore Bibliography Mammals

Knight, C. R . , Animals of the World for Young People, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . Miller, Garret S . , Key to Land Mammals of N . E . , N . Amer . , N . Y . State Museum, Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Nelson, E. W., Wild Animals of N. America, Nat. Geog. Soc . . . 3 .00 Seton, E . T., Life History of Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone, W. & Cram, W. E . , American Animals, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 00 Westell, W. P . , The Book of the Animal Kingdom : Mammals, Dutton 2.50 .

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Meteorology Archibald, E. D . , The Story of the Earth 's Atmosphere . Buckley, A. B . , The Fairy Land of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . Gilberne, Agnes, The Ocean of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Huntington, Ellsworth, Civilization and Climate Moore, W. L . , The New Air World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thompson, J. M . , Water Wonders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .

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Minerals Clapp , Observation Lessons in Minerals, Heath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dana, E . S., Minerals and How to Study Them, Wiley . . : . . . . . . . . Fairbanks, H . W . , Rocks and Minerals, Educ. Pub!. Co . . . . . . . . . . . Loomis, F . B., Field Book of Common Rocks and Minerals, Putnam Pirsson, Louis V . , Rocks and Rock Minerals Spencer, L . J . , The World's Minerals, Stokes . .. . . . . . .. .

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Mosses Dunham, Mrs. E. M . , How to Know Mosses, Ho ughton . . . . . . . Grout, A. J . , Mosses with Hand Lens and Microscope, Grout . . Marshall, N . L . , Mosses and Lichens, Doubleday, Page . . .

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Moths and Butterflies Ballard, Julia P . , Among the Moths and Butterflies, Putnam Dickerson, M . C., Moths and Butterflies, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holland, W . J., The Butterfly Guide, Doubleday . . . . . The Moth Book, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miller, E . R . , Butterfly and Moth Book, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weed, C. M . , Butterflies Worth Knowing, Doubleday . . . . . . .

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Mountains Geikie , James, Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Mushrooms Atkinson, Geo . , Mushrooms, Henry Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marshall, N . L . , The Mushroom Book, Doubleday, Page . . . 3 .00 Patterson and Charles, Mushrooms and Other Common Fungi, Bulletin 1 75 , U . S . Dept . o f Agric . , Washington . . . . . . . . . . . .

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National Parks Mills, Enos, Your National Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 1 .7 5 Muir, J ohn, Our National Parks . . . . .

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Natural Philosophy Thomson, J. Arthur, The Outline of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Pets Com stock, Anna B . , The Petbook, Comstock Pub . Co . .. . . . 2 . 50 Crandall , Lee S . , Pets : Their History and Care, Henry Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . Johnston, Constance, When Mother Lets us Keep Pets, Dodd, Mead . . . . . 1 .25 MacSelf, A . J., Pets for Boys and Girls, Dutton . . . . . . 2 .00 .

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Photography Dimock, J ulian, Outdoor Photography, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dugmore, A. R . , Nature and the Camera, Doubleday . . . . . 1 .3 5 Jenks, Tudor, Photography for Young People, F . A. Stokes . . . . . . 1 .5 0 Snell, F . C., The Camera in the Fields, T . Fisher Unwin , London . . . . . . . .

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Nature Guiding onds Needham and Lloyd, Life of Inland Waters, Comstock Pub. Co . . . . . . . . . Reptiles Baskett, J. N. and Ditmars, R. L . , The Story of Amphibians and Reptiles , Appleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dit!TI ars, Raymond L . , The Reptile Book, Doubleday Page . . . . . . . . . . Ste]negr, Leonhard, Poisonous Snakes of N. Amer . , Gov't Printing Office Sea-Shore (See Shells) Arnold, A. F . , Sea-Beach at Ebb Tide , Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duncan, F . Martin , The Sea-shore, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dy craft , W. P . , The Sea-shore, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. Flattely , F . W. , Biology of the Seashore, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . Holder, C. F . , Half Hours with Lower Anim als, Amer. Pook Co . . . . . . . . . . Mayer, A. G . , Sea-shore Life, Laidlaw . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Wood, Theodore, Sea-shore Shown to the Children, Dutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sea-weeds Murray, G . , Sea Weeds .

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4.50 1 .75 5 .00 .75 1 .20 1 .2 5

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Sex Cady, B . C. and V. M . , The Way Life Begins, American Social Hygiene, 105 W . 48 St . , N. Y . C ity . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 1 .00 .

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Shells Baker, F. C . , Shells of Land and Water, Mumford . . . . . . . . . .. . 2 .50 Keep , J., West Coast Shells, Whitaker and Ray-wiggin, San Francisco . . 2 .00 Rogers, Julia, The Shell Book, Doubleday, Page . . . . . .. . . . 4.00 .

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Shrubs Apgar, Ornamental Shrubs of the U . S . , Amer. Bock Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeler, Harriet L . , Our Northern Shrubs, Scribners . . . . . . . . . 3 .00 Newell, C. S . , Shrubs of Northeastern America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Spiders Comstock, J. H . , Spiders, Comstock Pub . Co . . . . . . . . . 5 .00 Emerton , Spiders, Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabre, Life of the Spider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . 7 5 Patterson, A. J . , The Spinner Family , McClurg . . ... .. .. . 1 .50 .

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Stars Brown, Louise, Nature-Study Pamphlets, Woman's Press, Y. W. C. A . , 600 Lexington Ave . , N. Y. City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clarke, E . C . , Astronomy from a Dipper, Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collins, R . F . , The Book of Stars, D. Appleton . . . . . . . . Irving, Edward, How to Know the Starry Heavens, Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kippax, J . R., Call of the Stars (Poems and M) ths) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin, M . E . , Friendly Stars, Harper . . . . . . . . . . McReady, Kelvin, A B eginners Star Book, Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Newcomb , Simon, Astronomy for Everybody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olcott, Wm. T . , A Fleld Book of Stars, Putnam . . . . .. . Serviss, Around the Year wi th the Stars , Harpers . . . .. '. . . . . Astronomy with an Opera Glass, P,ppl eton . . . . . . . . . . . . Sundell, E. W . , Radium Sta r Map , E. W . Sundell, 643 Ontarioa St . , Oak Park, Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Trees Blakeslee and Jarvis, Trees in VV-inter, Macmillan . ... . Britton, N . L . , North American Trees , Holt . . . . . . . . . Brown, H. P . , Trees of N . Y. State, N . Y. State College of Forestry . Collins and Preston, Key to the Trees, Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dame and B rooks, Handbook of Trees in N . Eng . , Ginn . . . . . . . . . . . Emerson and Weed, Our Trees, How to Know Them , Lippincott . Hough, R . B . , Handbook of T rees, Hough . . . . . . . . . . .

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1 .25 1 . 50 2 .00 2 .00 3 .00 1 .00 2 .50 8.50

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A Nature-Lore Bibliography

53 9

n1ic, Joseph, Trees of Pennsylvania, Dep't of Forestry, Harris . . . . . . . Keeler, Our Native Trees, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M athews, F. S . , Fieldbook American Trees and Shrubs, Putnam . . . . . Pettis, C . R., Practical Tree Planting, Outing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rogers, Julia, The Tree Guide, Doubleday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sargent, C . S., Manual of Trees of N. Amer . , Houghton, Mifflin . . . . . Webster, A. P . , Tree Wounds and Diseases, Lippincott . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Weather . . . . . Bulletins, U. S. Weather Bureau . . . . The Earth and Its Weather, Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol . I 92 2 , NO· 3 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Barnard, Charles, Tales About the 'Weather, Funk, vVagnalls . . . . Longstreth, T. M . , Reading the Weather, Outing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin, Edward C . , Our Own 'Weather, Harper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . McAdie, Alexander, Wind and Weather, Macmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . Moore, W. L . , The New Air World, Little, Brown . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Weeds G eorgia, Ada E . , A Manual of 'Weeds , ?vIacmillan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .00 Woodcraft Beard, Dan, Amer. Boys Handy Book of Camp Lore and Woodcraft . . . . . . 3 .00 Seton, E. T . , The Woodcraft Manual for Boys, Lippincott , . . . . . . . . . . . . The Woodcraft Manual for Girls, Lippincott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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I V.

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Myth and Humor

Branner, How and Why Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Farrar, F. A . , Old Greek Nature Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hawthorne, N . , The Great Stone Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holmes, O . W . , The Dorchester Giant . . . . . . . . . . . . Judson, Katharine B . , Old Crow and His Friends (Indian Stories) , Brown Kipling , Jungle Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qui Quern (Eskimo Dog) Ricki Ticki Tarvi Story of the Sea Cow Linderman, Indian Why Stories, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muller, J. VV. , First Aid to Naturers, The Platt and Peck Co . . . . . . Toogood, Hector B . , The Outline of Everything, Little, Brown . . . . . Wells, Carolyn, Nonsense Anthology, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '

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V. Philosophy Burroughs, J ohn, The Summit of the years. Carman, B liss, The Breath of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Kinship of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dixon, Royal, The Human Side of Plants . . . . . . . . Long , Wm. ] . , Briar Patch Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . Mabie, H. W . , Essays on Nature and Culture . . . . Shaler, N. S . , The Interpretation of Nature . . . . . . Smith , Mary 0 . , The Autobiography of a Tree . . . . Thoreau, H. D . , Excursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Whitman , W . , In Leaves of Grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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VI. Poems Badger, Clark, Sun and Saddle Leather (Cowboy Poems and Songs ) , Badger 2 . 50 Bartlett, Brooks, Pine Tree Verse, Badger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .00 Browning, Pippa Passes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burroughs, John, Songs of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carman, Bliss, The Joys of the Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 40

Nature Guiding

Chapman , Arthur, Out 'Where the West B egins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clark , B adger , S un and Saddle Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drummond, Habitant Poems in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . Emerson , R. VV . , Rhodora and O ther Poems . . . . . . . . . . . Herford , Oliver, A Chil d ' s Primer of N atural History and More Animals, Scribners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holmes , O . W . , The Chambered Nautilus, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Longfellow, H. VV . , Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lowell, J . R . , Vision of Sir Launfal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N eihardt, John , The Song of Hugh Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Richards, IvIrs . Waldo , High Tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Service, Robert W . , The Spell of the Yukon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smith, Horace, Hymn to the Flowers . . . . . . . . . Tennyson, Flower in the Cranied Viall , etc. , Houghton, Mifflin . . . . . . . . . . Thompson, James, The S easons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Van Dyke, Henry , God of the Open Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wordsworth, The World is too Much with us, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII. Religions B urr, Around the Fire Stories , Assoc . F ress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B urroughs, John , Accepting the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Light of Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clo dd, Edw. , The Childhood of Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cobb , Cora S . , God ' s vVonder World, B eacon Press, Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fiske, John, The I dea of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Through N ature to God . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grosser, S cripture N atural History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Huntington , Ellsworth , Palestine and i t s Transformation, Houghton, M ifflin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jefferies, Richar d, The Story of lVIy Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jefferson , Chas . E . , Nature Sermons , Revell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 50 M attoon and Brayton , Services for the Open , Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quayle, Wm. A . , Out-ot-doors with J esus, Abingdon Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smith , Geo . Adams, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land . . . . . . . . . . Tristram , The Natural History of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VIII.

Nature-study jvIagazines

$ 1 .00 p cr year B ird-Lore (Bi-monthly ) ; ]\;ational Association of Audubon Societies, N. Y . Cornell Rural School Leaflets (Quarterly ) ; N . Y . State College o f Agriculture a t Cornell University . Free to rural teachers N . Y . State only . The Guide to Nature (Monthly) ; The Agassiz Association , Sound B each, Con­ necticut . $ 1 . 5 0 per y ear . N atural History (Bi-Monthly) ; American Museum of Natural History ; New York City . $3 .00 per year . N ature J\Iagazine (Monthly ) ; American Nature Association, Washington , D . C . $2 .00 p er y ear. Our Dumb Animals (J\ Ionthly ) ; Massachusetts Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Boston , l\I ass. ;::' 1 .00 per year. IX .

Suggested $ID.OO Nat me Library

Comstock-Handbook of Nature· study Reed-B ird Guide and Flower Guide kog crs-Trees Bl akeslee and J arvis-Trees in 'Winter P i n chot-·Primer of Forestry ' Hodge and Dawson-Civic Biology

A Nature-Lore Bibliography x.

Suggested A dditions for a $25 000 Nature Library Nature Magazine Bigelow's Spirit of Nature-study Parsons-How to Know the Ferns Burgess-Bird Book Mills-Story of Scotch Story of a 1 000 Year Pine Fabres-Insect AdventUloes Dickerson-Moths and Butterflies Muir-Our National Parks Serviss-Around the Year with Stars Seton-Woodcraft Manual Branner-How and Why Stories Comstock-Petbook

54!

INDEX PAGE

A achievements . . . . . . . . . .

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athletics .

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3 . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6�. 329

Audubon cb arts authors . . . . . . . . autumn colors . . avalanche . . . . . . avocet . . . . . . . . . axe . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 . . . . . . . . . . 1 46 , 339 .

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50

bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = S � Bailey , L . H . . 1 8 5 , 1 94, 223, 22 5 , 2 4 , 2 .�O , 420 balan ce of nature . . . . . . . 7 5 , 2 6 S , 2 6 6 II hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . basketry . . . . . . . . . . . . , � ,� , 99 . 1 2 6 , 2 5 2 bat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 , . 1 3 5 , 1 53 . . . . 1 26 bath tub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bayberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2C>3 . 2 ," 2 , 2 ; 6 . 392. 4 5 8 bean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9 5 . 504, 5 0 8 bearberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 5 B ear Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 5 2 6 b ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 26

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193 . . . . . . . . . acorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7 , 1 2 6 activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Adams, Charles, Dr . . . . . . . . 1 79 , 1 80 adaptation . . . " . . . . . . . . 264, 29 1 , 3 °3 adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 44 adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 4 adventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 2 agar . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 AgaSSIZ . . . 1 70, 1 7 9 , 1 80, 1 82 , 1 8 5 , 2 1 0 72 aggressive resemblance . . . . . . . . . . alder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 8 American holly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 227 . . . . . . . . . . amoeba . . . . . . . . . 1 79 anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . Anderson, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 79 animal . : . . . . . . . . . . 1 40, )' :' 1 , 2 1 6, 396 animals, fur-bearing . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 1 annual . . . . . . . . . . . I �O, 344, 446 annual ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 ant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 1 52 , 344 apple . . . . . . . . . . 64 , 1 20, 2 97 , 345, 4 62 aquarium . . . . . . . . 1 9 , 3 1 , 2 2 7, 2 6 5 , 3 2 3 Arbor D a y . . . . . . . . . 309, 43 1 , 46 8 Arctostaphylos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 5 Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 8 21 arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . artemisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I 6 arts and crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2" 5 ash, mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 63 aspen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aspen, quaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1 7 .

PAGE

93 . . . . " . . . . . . . . . bed-reck . . bee . . . . . . 20, 64, 1 4 2 , 2 06, 3 °5 , 3 °6 beech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 , 400, 460, 463 3I bee-hives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . beetle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 , 1 9 2 forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 56, 2 (; 9 , 4 3 7 forest census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 forest fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 3 , 270 forest good turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 forest recrcatic:J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 7 forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328, 43 I form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 53 formaldehyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 free express:on work . . . . . . . . . . . 370 frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 .

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eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . 64 earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . 1 53 , 1 54 earthworm . . . . . 1 1 , 1 40 , 1 52 , 1 53 , 343 ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 79 economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 8 economic ir;sects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9.5 education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 eel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 elderbcrry fife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 26 elder twig . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 elementary science . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 elm . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 466, 5 1 7 Emile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 76 171 entomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . environment . . . . . . . 1 2 3 , I .� 9, 290, 303 eq'lator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 57 etlquettc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . 49 Europcan plant s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 evergreens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 1 , 341 evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6, 54, 227, 293 examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 324 exhaling . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . 396 experimcnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 3 55, 383 experiment sta t ions . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 exploring game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 2 2 1 .

5 45

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Froebel

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- . . . 1 78, 1 79 225 1 56 341 455 . . . . . . 27 1

frog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 1 20, 2 1 9 , frost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 93 , 9 5 , 1 46, fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 1 , 435, .

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fur bearing animals

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Index

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H handwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 1 9 7 hare and hound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0 Harris, W. T . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 78 , 1 87 hawk . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 35 heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 43 heath hen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 heath-like plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 6 hectograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325, 329 hedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428, 444 hedge bindweed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 hemlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 hen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 76, 341 Henry Barnard School . . . . . . . . . . 256 . . . 252 herb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herbartian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 hermit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 3 3 heron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 1 52 , 243, 479 heron, black-crowned night 16, 33, 479 .

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I identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 , Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " imagination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 26, Indian Field Day . . . . . . . . . . 498, individual proj ects . . . . . . . . . . . . . infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inhaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inoculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, I l 7 , 138, insect and flowers . . . . . . . . 62, insect breeding cages . . . . . . . . . . . insects , economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . intelligence list . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 8 , intelligence trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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herring . . . . . . . . . 1 52 Hessian fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 5 hickory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 hike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 8, 1 1 hiker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 4, 1 1 5 hiking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I I hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 5 hip-hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 7 hoarhound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 1 holly, American . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 home geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 80 honey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 42 honey bee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 1 hookworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 1 horsechestnut . . . . . . . . . . 464, 466, 5 2 6 horse-chestnut twig . . . . . 309, 3 I 8 , 3 9 9 house fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I S , 1 9 5 Hudsonia . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 6 humor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Huxley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 79, 263 hyacinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 .

gall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5 gall fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 gall, oak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Gallup, Anna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 2 games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5 game spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I I garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 4 5 7 garden, flower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 9 gardening 3 39, 3 40 , 3 4 1 , 3 42, 344, 3 9 1 Gardner, Mabel T . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 6 generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 general science . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 84, 383 general unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 , 1 80, 353 germ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 49 germination . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 392 , 395 ginkgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 girl scout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 0, 3 1 7 glacial boulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 92 glacial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459, 5 I 4 glacier . . . . . . . 93, 96, 9 7 , 504, 5 I 9, 5 20 Glacier National Park . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 1 God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 60 goldenrod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 I , 303 goldfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 goulash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 grafting fruit trees . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 1 , 346 grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 granite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 5 grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 64 grasshopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 340, 469 Gray, Asa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I SO green brier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 green horns . . . . . . . . . 49, 7 5 , I I 5 , l I S Green, S . S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 84 growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Guyot, Arnold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I SO gypsy hike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 .

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PAGE

G

jacana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jack-in-the-pulpit . . . . . . . . . jack-knife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lackman, Wilbur S . . . . . . J ewelweed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j imsom wced . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jordon, David Starr . . . . . . . judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . judgment questions . . . . . . . juniper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . juniper, Sierra . . . . . . . . . . . .

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324 1 80 304 ,504 5 04 327 433 433 396 59 454 1 94 272 32 1 95 39 1 73 237 64

. . . . . . . .

48"�. 201 10 182 297 297 1 79 7 244 468 . . 5I7

K Keller, H elen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 0 key for t h e trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 I .

54 7

Index Kilmer. Joyce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAGE 64 51

L laboratory . . . . . . . . 1 79. 225 . 288 . 391 lake . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 landscape gardening . . . 272. 428. 442 language lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 larch . . . . . . . .. .. .. 465 larkspur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 latrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 4 lawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428. 442 leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 1 0 leaf . . . . .. . . . . . . . 68 leaf miners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 leaf passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 leaf printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 leaf relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 leisure time . . . . . .. . . , 223 lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 lettuce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 298 life history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 lilies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 2 1 Linneaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 78. 227 lizard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 45 locust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266. 469 log cabins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 lombardy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 lumbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 lung-capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 40 lye 252 .

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M

man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 1 Manzanita . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 5 map . . . . . . . . . 3 2 . 325. 377 maple . . . . . . . . . . . 463. 465. 466 maple. norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 maple. red . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320. 400 maple. silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 maple. sugar . . . . . . . . . . 320. 466. 467 maple. sycamore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 mat . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99. l 2p. 252 Mathews. Schuyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 M cCloskey. Alice G . . . . . . . 1 87 meadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 49 mechanical aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99. 252 medullary rays . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Meyers. Ira B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r 83 migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 migratory bird law . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 milkweed . . . . . . . . . . 44. 296. 306 Mills. Enos 1 3 . 2 1 . 1 60. 1 64 . 1 90. 1 9 1 . 318 .

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PAGE

mineral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 mineral water . . . . . . . . . . I SS minimum essentials . . . . . . . . 263 mint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 1 Mirror Lake .. .. . " 513 mistletoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 model , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46. 326. 367 mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 molds and mildews . . . . . . 2 72 monkey . . . . . . . . . . . 1 45 monsoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 moral . . . . . ... . . . . 1 75 moral guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Mormons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 mosquito .. . . . . 16. 1 40. 272. 348 moth, gypsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 I Mother-Nature . . . . . . . 146. 229 moulds . . . . . .. . . 453 mountain . . . . . . . . . . · 57 , 64 Mountain. Bear . . . . . 192. 526 mounted specimen . . . . . . . . 328 movies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 Muir. John . . . . .... ... ." 21 mulberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 mullein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 museum . . . . . . . . . ix. 32. 1 8 9 . 22 8 , 523 muskrat furs . . . . . . . . . " 526 mustard seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 .

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N

nasturtium . . . . . . . . . 207. 303 National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 National Park. Glacier . . . . " 1 9 1 native plants . . . . 5 1 , 2 7 3 , 347. 462 naturalist champion . . . . . . . . . " 523 natural science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 69 nature club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 nature-conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 nature counsellors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 nature den . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 nature faking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 nature garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 nature guide . . . . . . . . . . iii, ix, 1 60, 503 nature guiding . . . . . . . . iii, ix. 1 90. 1 9 1 nature habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 nature hobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 3 nature instinct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x, 2 1 6 nature laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 nature' lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227. 23 1 nature locator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 nature lore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 , 1 5 . 1 8 nature iore experiences. . . . . . . . . . 2 1 nature lore school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 nature-patriotism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 nature readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 nature recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 nature room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 73 nature service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 .

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Index PAGE

nature stimuli 217 nature stories . . . . . 1 0 , 23 1 nature-study . . . 227, 23 1 , 237, 2 5 2 nature study departments . . . . 1 73 nectar . .. . . . . . 1 4 2, 207 nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 New England Primer . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 New York State . . . . . . . 1 86 nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 3 Normal School, Bridgewater . . . 188 .. .. Chicago . . . . . . . . 1 82 .. " Cook County . . 1 8 1 Oswego . . 1 83 , 1 85 north 1 54 north pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 55 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . 463 notebook . . . . 2 2 , 26, 3 1 , 32 nursery rhyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 .

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1 3 7, 526

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o

oak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 79, 465 , 5 1 9 oak, black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 403 oak, pin . . . . . . . . . 460, 468 oak, scrub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 60 oak, white . . . . . . . . 8 I , 86, 87 obj ect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 object teaching . . . 1 78 , 1 80, 1 83 , 1 84 observe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 2 2 8 observation 7 5 , 2 1 9 , 2 79 , 2 8 8 , 292 , 3 1 9, .

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339, 3 7 0 , 433, 4 8 2 , 4 8 3

observation game . . . . . . . . . , observation questions . . . . . . . . oi1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Old Farmer's Almanac . . . . 13, old sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . opposite and alternate . . . . . . . . . . oral language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . organization questions . . . . . orchard insects . . . . . . . . . , ornaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oswego Normal. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 83 , outdoor cooking . . . . III, outdoor minded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . outdoor theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oxygen . . . . ... . . ...., .

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72 244 396 526 1 33 71 471 244 348 126 185 1 32

8

47 . . . . . . . . 1 40 oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 1 40, 1 46 .

P

palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palmer, Dr. E . L . . pantomine . . . . . . papier mache. . . . . parables . . . . . . . . . . parasite . . . . . park citizenship . . . . Parker, F . W . . passenger pigeon . . . .

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pasteurized milk •

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•

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•

PAGE

pasture plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 pea . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 394, 456 pea, beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 pea family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 pear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Penikese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 79 peppermint . . . . . . . . 44, 2 0 1 perennials . . . . . . . . 344, 44 5 , 446 perch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 perch study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 Pestalozzi . . . . . . . . . . 1 77 , 1 80 pests introduced . . . ... 2 73 pets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Phelps, William F . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 4 photographing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 photo mount sheets . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . 273 physiography . . . . . . . . . 1 84 picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 , 326 picture study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 picture trailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8 pine . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 , 1 09 , 520 pine cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 , 7 5 pine, Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 7 pine needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 pine, pitch . . . . . . 2 8, 280, 5 I 7 pine seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 pine, umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 pine, white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 pioneer . . . . . . . .. 1 75 .

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64 1 87 317 367 53

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pitch pine tag .

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70

place' cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 23 plant breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 plant diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 plant decoration . . . . . . . 449 plant geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 plant introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 plants for the class room . . . . . . . . 329 plant societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 plaster paris model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 plasticine . . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 326 plasticine model . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . 1 96 playgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix, 5 2 1 play instinct . . . . . . 210 plovers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 plums, beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 poison ivy . . . . . . . . . . 209 poisonous plants . . . . . . . . . 2 74 pollination . . . . . . . . . . 206, 346 pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 polypody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 pond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 5 7 Poor Richard's Almanac . . . . . . . . 1 3 poplars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 poplars, silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 potato . . . " . . . . . . 345, 402, 407, 454 potato-beetle . . . . . . . . . . 412 .. geography . . . . . . . . . . 415 potted p lants 200, 52 7 .

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Index PAGE poultry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 primrose, evening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 1 printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 1 problem questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295, 383, 427 bayberry candle . . . . . . . . . 256 .. " community . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . 196 " individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 1 proteids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 protoplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 5 pruning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 psychological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 , 240 psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 7 public school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix pupil-questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 pupil teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x purity of seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 purslane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 pussy willow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 42 .

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201 III 246 251 245 245 244

questions organization . . . . . . . . . 244

quince . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

R rabbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 , 343 rabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 5 rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I , 358, 3 5 9 , 360 rainy day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 56 rainy day games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 reader . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 recapitulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 recipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 8 recreation congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 69 red bud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 1 75 review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Rhode Island State Tree . . . . . . . . 320 .. .. greening . . . . . . . . . . 462 rhymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Ritter, Carl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 80, 3 7 1 .

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371 380 32 5I I 212

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sacred natural history . . . . . . . . . . 1 76 salamander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 5 salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 salvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 464 sandbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 427 sandbox gardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 sand models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 sand tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 sandwich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 San Jose scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 scale of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 scenic locator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Schleiden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 school grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 schoolroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 5, 449 Schultze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 79 Schwann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 science . . . x, 1 69 , 1 7 8 , 225, 2 4 1 , 263 scientific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1 scientific background . . . . . . . . . . . 247 habit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 .. " method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 scouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix, 72 sea gulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 sedum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 6 seed I I , 208 , 285 , 299, 3 3 1 , 3 3 9, 3 9 2, 393 seed bud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 .. coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 " dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 . . dispersal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 , 3 9 6 . . farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 .. folk-lore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 .. germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 . . leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 . . leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 seedling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 .. stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 93 self-pollinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 .

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Queen Anne's Lace . . . . . . . . . . . . . question-answer . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, questions, adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . questions analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . questions, judgment . . . . . . . . . . . .

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river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . I SS, River City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . river mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . robin . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 , 29, 1 36, 282, Robinhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rock-tripe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rookery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7, 44, rootstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rotation of crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rousseau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 76, 1 78, rug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Russell, Marie Stillman . . . . . . . . . rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rustic toaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Index PAGE

sense of direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 shadowgraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 68 shagbark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Sharpe, Dallas Lore . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Sheldon, E . A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 83, 1 84 shell animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 shell divers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 shellfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 5 shell heap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I , I I 4 shower bath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39, 146, 443, 444 sign language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 silver grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54 sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I slips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 smelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 snake's I I , 1 43 , 144, 1 5 2, 1 53, 1 77, 276 snake's hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 42 snake's rattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 snipe hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 , 64, 1 56 snow plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 0 socialized project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 social quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 socks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I 4 soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I , 33 1 song . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 , 1 8 song interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 I sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 sound locator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 sour gum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 south . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54, I SS sparrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 78 spelling . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 47 spelling bees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Spencer, John W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 sphagnum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 spiders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 46, 1 76, 340 spines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 spore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 sportsman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 spring song . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I I sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 spruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 468 spruce, black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.'i9 spruce, �orway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 spying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 squash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 393 squirrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 37, 339. 526 squirrel, red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 standard scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 .

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stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 1 state tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 5, 320 stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 stereopticon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Stillman, Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 87 , 1 89 , 380 stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 1 2 6 stone crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 6 stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 5 , 301 , 303 stories, fairy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304, 307 story interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 4, I I 7, 1 2 6 Straight, H. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 82, 1 85 straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 52 strawberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 stunts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 suggestions for teaching � atureStudy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 sumach, poison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 5 sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 1 57 Sunday night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 sunlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39 sunrise . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 1 0, 1 57 , 508 sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 superstitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 3 survey, biological . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7, 1 8 swallows, barn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 swamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 42 sweetgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 52 swimming . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 , 5, 6 , 19, 20 sycamore . . . . . . . . . 82, 83, 400, 448 sympathetic heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 systema natura . . . . . . . . . . 1 78 .

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tact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 tan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I tanager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 496 taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 x teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . teacher-question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 teachers' colleges . . . . . . . . . X, 1 69 , 1 70 teacher training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6g teaching lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 tenderfoot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 tendrils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 textbooks of �ature-Study . . . . . . 230 thatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 thistle, bull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Thoreau . . . . . . . . I I , 1 3 , 21, 26, 63, 8 1 three R's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 timber lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 59 , 1 62 toads . . . . I I , 29, 46, 142, 1 52 , 276, 343 tomato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 tomato worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 tomboys . . . .. .. . . . . . . II .

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Index PAGE

topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 topographic map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 , 46 · i . trail hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 trailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 7 1 , 73 transplanting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 tree 32, 5 1 , 63, 66, 97, 1 39, 276, 309, 3 3 1 , 443 tree ailanthus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 " apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 callous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 catalpa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1 " chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 christmas . . . . . . . . . . 527 " coastaL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 cribbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 Kentucky Coffee . . . . . . . . . 46 1 leaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 maple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 5 " pantomine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 peach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 " scouting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 silhouettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 " stump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 " surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 1 , 433 survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 " tag day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 " trailing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 " worship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 trout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 "True to Nature" stories . . . . 302 , 307 truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 457 tuber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 tulip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Turner, Jonathan B . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 1 turtle dove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 twig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 twig diaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233, 296 typhoid fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 40

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W walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 walks and drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 walnut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 walnut, black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1 warbler, pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 warts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 42 Washington, G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 , 349 , 394, 396 water plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 2 weaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 weed . . . . . . I I , 143, 209 , 276 , 348, 528 weed extermination . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 whale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 35, 1 5 1 whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 white pine blister . . . . . . . 274, 3 1 3, 3 1 7 why . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 2 1 wicks and dipping rods . . . . . . . . . 258 wild flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 330 wild flower garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 wild life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I wild life areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 7 wind . . . . . . 83 , 1 64, 2 9 5, 353 , 396, 456 wind blown trees . . . . . . . . . . . " 5 1 7 winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 8 winter nature-study . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 winter tree list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 wood ashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 woodbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 5 woodchuck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l S I woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 wood-lily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 woodpecker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 , 473 woodpecker, downy . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 woodwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I , 1 52 wormwood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 6 written language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1 written papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 .

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U umbilicaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 us �l.ess questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 utIhty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 8

X xylophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " .

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valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vegetable garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V�nal, W . G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . violet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 1 , violet dog-toothed . . . . . . . . . . . vista : . . .. . 444, .

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375 276 428 1 92 445 207 2 24 448

yarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 , yellow wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 , "yes" and "no" answers . . . . . . . . Yosemite . . . ix, 1 9 1 , 192 , 493 , 503, Yellowstone Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

201 348 466 246 514 191

z

zoologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16