Mycenaean Trade and Interaction in the West Central Mediterranean 1600-1000 B.C. 9780860544791, 9781407346472

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Mycenaean Trade and Interaction in the West Central Mediterranean 1600-1000 B.C.

Thyrza R. Smith

BAR International Series 371 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S371, 1987: 'Mycenaean Trade and Interaction in the West Central Mediterranean' @ Thyrza R. S mith, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544791 paperback ISBN 9781407346472 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544791 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age A cknowledgements

i v

L ist o f T ables L ist o f I llustrations

v i

I ntroduction

1

C HAPTER 1

H ISTORICAL B ACKGROUND

5

C HAPTER 2

S YMBOLS O F T RADE - T HEIR I DENTIFICATION A ND C HARACTERIZATION

1 1

C HAPTER 3

T HEORETICAL A PPROACHES T O T RADE

5 3

C HAPTER 4

G AZETTEER O F W EST C ENTRAL M EDITERRANEAN S ITES W ITH A EGEAN B RONZE A GE M ATERIAL

6 9

C HAPTER 5

P ATTERNS I N T HE D ISTRIBUTION O F T HE M YCENAEAN P OTTERY I N T HE W EST C ENTRAL M EDITERRANEAN

13

C HAPTER 6

T HE O RGANIZATION O F C ROSS-CULTURAL L ONG D ISTANCE M ARITIME T RADE

1 45

C HAPTER 7

C ONCLUSIONS

1 63

B ibliography

1 67

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his m onograph h ad i ts o rigins i n a n M .Litt. t hesis a t t he U niversity o f C ambridge. I t i s t herefore c onfined t o r esearch u ndert aken i n t he t hree y ears 1 982 t o 1 985. D r. J ohn F . C herry, m y s upervisor, w as a c onstant s ource o f e ncouragement a nd a dvice d uring t he p eriod o f t he r esearch a nd t o h im I e xtend m y g rateful t hanks. M y t hanks a re a lso e xtended t o D r. A nthony F . H arding, w ho k indly g ave a dvice i n c onnection w ith p ublication. M y w ork i n I taly w as g reatly f acilitated b y t he B ritish S chool o f R ome a nd t he t hen D irector, D r. D avid -Whitehouse. I n p articular, I m ust m ention t he p ractical h elp o f A manda C laridge, A ssistant D irector, i n a rranging p ermessos. D r. G orgoglione a t t he T aranto M useum , D r. T rachina a t t he S yracuse M useum a nd D r. D e S iena a t t he M etaponto M useum k indly a llowed m e a ccess t o r elevant m aterial. M uch h elpful i nformation a nd a dvice w as r eceived i n c orrespondence a nd c onversations w ith D r. A nna M aria B ietti S estieri, P rofessor M adeleine C avalier, M iss E lizabeth F isher, D r. J ohn R iley, D r. D avid T rump, D r. S ebastiano T usa a nd P rofessor L ucia V agnetti. I o we a n i ncalculable d ebt o f g ratitude t o m embers o f s taff a nd f ellow s tudents a t t he F aculty o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, U niversity o f C ambridge, a nd a t L ucy C avendish C ollege, C ambridge. T his m onograph i s d edicated t o m y p arents, a nd s upport, a s a lways.

i v

f or t heir e ncouragement

L IST O F T ABLES T able

P age

1

C hronological t able

3

2

I mported A egean p ottery i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 4

3

S ummary o f s cientific a nalysis o f L ate B ronze A ge p ottery o n W est C entral M editerranean s ites

1 9

4

W est C entral M editerranean k ites w ith c eramica g rigia

2 7

5

I talian b ronze a rtefacts i n t he A egean

3 6

6

A egean b ronze a rtefacts i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

3 8

7

O xhide i ngots o n S ardinia

4 3

8

T he c ontext o f a mber o n W est C entral M editerranean s ites

4 8

9

T he c ontext o f f aience o n W est C entral M editerranean s ites

5 1

1 0

T he m ajor L ate B ronze A ge t rading s ettlements i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 29

1 1

S ummary o f a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he m ajor L ate B ronze A ge t rading s ettlements i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 30

V

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS F igure

P age

1

M ap o f t he W est C entral M editerranean

2

W est C entral M editerranean s ites w ith A egean i mported p ottery

1 2

3

D istribution m ap o f c eramica g rigia a nd d olii c ordonati

2 6

4

M ap o f t he C olline M etallifere s howing o re s ources

3 3

5

D istribution m ap o f n orthern m etal t ypes i n s outhern p eninsular I taly a nd t he a djacent i slands

3 7

6

D istribution m ap o f A egean m etal a rtefacts i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

3 9

7

M ap o f S ardinia s howing o re s ources

4 1

8

D istribution m ap o f o xhide i ngots o n S ardinia

4 2

9

S hapes o f o xhide i ngots

4 5

1 0

D istribution m ap o f a mber i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

4 7

1 1

D istribution m ap o f f aience/glass b eads i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

5 0

1 2

M ilazzese c ulture o val h uts o n L ipari

7 2

1 3

I ndigenous p ottery f rom L ipari

7 3

1 4

P ottery f rom S coglio d el T onno , A pulia

8 3

1 5

A egean i mported p ottery a mong T hapsos c ulture g rave g oods f rom s outh e ast S icily

1 03

1 6

P ossible M iddle H elladic v essel f rom M onte S allia, S icily

1 07

1 7

D istribution m ap o f M H/LHI a nd L HII p ottery i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 14

1 8

D istribution m ap o f L HIIIA p ottery i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 17

1 9

D istribution m ap o f L HIIIB p ottery i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 20

2 0

D istribution m ap o f L HIIIC p ottery i n t he W est C entral M editerranean

1 24

v i

2

F igure

P age

2 1

P ossible t rade r outes f or t he d issemination o f A egean o bjects

1 26

2 2

S hapes o f A egean i mported v essels

1 27

2 3

S chematic d iagram o f m ovement o f g oods t hrough W est C entral M editerranean t rading c entres t o t he A egean w orld

1 36

2 4

D efended s ites i n L ate B ronze A ge p eninsular I taly

1 37

2 5

S ettlement h ierarchy i n s ou hern p eninsular I taly a ccording t o a bility t o a ttract A egean i mports

1 39

v ii

I NTRODUCTION T his m onograph a ttempts t o e xamine t he a rchaeological e vidence f or t rade a nd i nteraction b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est C entral M editerranean d uring t he B ronze A ge. F or t he p urpose o f t his s tudy, t he W est C entral M editerranean i s d efined a s t he g eographical a rea c omprising p eninsular I taly a nd t he a djacent i slands - S icily, t he A eolian I slands, t he P hlegrean I slands a nd S ardinia ( Figure 1 ). C hronologically, t his s tudy i s l imited b roadly t o t he 2 nd m illennium B C - t he p eriod w hich w itnessed t he r ise o f t he M ycenaean p alace c entres, t heir f lorescence a nd e ventual d ecline ( Table 1 ). L ord W illiam T aylour's m onograph M ycenaean p ottery i n I taly a nd a djacent a reas ( Taylour 1 958) r emained u ntil q uite r ecently ( and w as w hen I b egan t his r esearch) t he o nly c omprehensive r eview i n E nglish o f A egean o bjects i n W est C entral M editerranean c ontexts. S ince t he d ate o f t hat p ublication, a g reat d eal o f n ew a rchaeological e vidence h as c ome t o l ight, i ncreasing t he l ist o f r elevant s ites f rom s ome 2 0 s ites t o m ore t han 6 0. R ecent e xcavations ( notably a t A ntigori o n S ardinia a nd a t T ermitito a nd B roglio d i T rebisacce o n t he G ulf o f T aranto) h ave a dded c onsiderably t o t he c orpus o f o bjects o f A egean d erivation ( largely M ycenaean, b ut a lso M inoan a nd C ypriote) a nd a t t he s ame t ime o ur k nowledge o f t he i ndigenous B ronze A ge c ultures h as a lso i ncreased. T wo s eminal s tudies A rcheologia d ella P uglia p reistorica ( Peroni 1 967) a nd M eligunis-Lipära ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 960-1980) a re p articularly n oteworthy i n t his r espect. T he p ublication o f t wo i mportant p apers o n t he I talian L ate B ronze A ge m etal i ndustry. A g roup o f b ronzes f rom S urbo: n ew e vidence f or A egean c ontacts w ith A pulia d uring M ycenaean I IIB a nd C ( MacNamara 1 970) a nd T he m etal i ndustry o f c ontinental I taly, t hirteenth t o t he e leventh c entury B C , a nd i ts c onnections w ith t he A egean ( Bietti S estieri 1 973), p resented d etailed e vidence o f t he m etal k oine e ncompassing t he W est C entral M editerranean a nd t he A egean f rom t he 1 3th c entury B C . A dditionally, t he d evelopment o f t heoretical a pproaches t o t rade a nd i nteraction ( and a lso t he a pplication o f s cientific a nalytical t echniques f or t he c haracterization o f r aw m aterials) o ver r ecent y ears h as r esulted i n n ew i nsights i nto t hese h ighly c omplex m atters. M arazzi a nd T usa 's p aper, D ie m ykenische p enetration i m w estlichen M ittelmeerraum ( 1979), a dopts t heoretical m odels o f s ocio-economic s tructures i n a n a ttempt t o a nalyse t he c ontact b etween t he t wo r egions. T wo r ecent b ooks I taly a nd t he A egean 3 000-700 B C ( Holloway 1 981) a nd T he M ycenaeans a nd E urope ( Harding 1 984) h ave i ncluded t his a rea a nd p eriod i n w ider t emporal a nd g eographical s urveys. I n v iew o f t he d iscovery o f a c onsiderable q uantity o f n ew a rchaeological m aterial o ver t he l ast f ive y ears, a r eappraisal o f t he e mpirical d ata f or t rade a nd i nteraction b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est C entral M editerranean d uring t he 2 nd m illennium B C, a nd t he i nterpretation o f s uch d ata i n t he l ight o f r ecent t heoretical a pproaches, s hould p rove b oth u seful a nd w orthwhile. T his w ork i s c omprised o f s even c hapters. C hapter 1 s ets o ut a c oncise s ynthesis o f t he h istorical b ackground t o t he s ubject o f t he r esearch a nd d eals c hronologically w ith t he d iscovery o f t he e mpirical d ata. C hapter 2 d escribes t he s ymbols o f t rade a nd d iscusses t he c haracterization s tudies w hich h ave b een c arried o ut. C hapter 3 d iscusses r ecent t heoretical a pproaches t o t he s ubject o f t rade a nd i nteraction . T he

1

•: . N I

s t ä

P ENINSULAR I TALY

P HLEGREAN I SLANDS

S ARDINIA

A EOLIAN I SLANDS . .

01

4

2 0O

1

kms

F ig.

1 .

M ap o f t he W est C entral M editerranean .

2

• .0 6 .

22 ?4 M ALTA

Z :ZZ)

z w i 1

>4

r 1

e o

t 1 . C " ? C 3

Z


r d

E

• • 4

a s

C O 0

e S . a .

1 . . 1

.. , ec E „ .> ,Q . t I C , 1 0

0

C

0 • f 4

r n

0

. , .4 „ . . 4

•H

( 1 , )

i , . t — i

4 ) •,-.1 0 ) CC a ,. . .

•r I

4 -,

C . )

0

C . ?

0

E

4 -,




s cale p roduction c entres

0 0 = c ollection p oints

I I = gateway

F ig .

2 3 .

S chematic d iagram o f m ovement o f g oods t hrough W est C entral M editerranean g ateway c ommunities t o t he A egean w orld . ( After H irth 1 978) .

1 36

• a c ropo l is o r d e fended s i te ave o r m inor • c o pen s i te

N

9

1 90 km

F ig. 2 4. D efended s ites i n L ate B ronze A ge p eninsular I taly. ( after P otter 1 979).

1 37

c raft a ctivity i s r eported f rom t he s ite - g lass m aking, m etalworking a nd h orn , b one a nd i vory w orking - a nd m any t ypes o f a mber b ead , i ncluding T iryns t ype , w ere f ound. T here w ere o nly t wo s herds o f L HIIIC p ottery ( Bietti S estieri 1 984 , p ers . c omm .), b ut w ider t rade c ontacts a re c lear i n t he o strich e ggshell f ragment, t he e lephant i vory a nd t he b ronzes o f " Ionian i sland a nd C retan t ype" f ound o n t he s ite ( Bietti S estieri 1 982a , 2 03). F rattesina i s i deally p laced ( i.e. b etween t he P o a nd A dige a t t he h ead o f t he A driatic) f or t he o nwards t ransmission o f g oods f rom a cross t he A lps . T he b lue g lass b eads f rom t he P rotovillanovan c emetery a t T orre C astelluccia a nd t he T iryns t ype a mber b eads a nd g lass b eads f rom t he c emetery a t P iazza M onfalcone o n L ipari m ay w ell h ave b een m anufactured a t F rattesina a nd t ravelled s outhwards w ith n orthern m etal t ypes. T o s ummarize, i t c an b e e nvisaged t hat d uring t he L HIIIA p eriod, S coglio d el T onno ( and p ossibly e ven B roglio d i T rebisacce) w as a n e arly f orm o f g ateway c ommunity a t t he a pex o f a n ' immature d endritic n etwork ' ( i.e . an etwork c omprising o ne l arge s ettlement a nd m any s mall s ettlements , w ith n o m arked f unctional d ifferentiation) ( Kelley 1 976, 2 32-233). D urin g t he L HIIIB p eriod, s everal g ateway c ommunities i n t he G ulf o f T aranto w ere e ngaged i n w holesaling a ctivities i nvolving t he m ovement o f g oods f rom t he i nterior t o t he A egean ( Figure 2 3). T here i s m ore e vidence f or a s ettlement h ierarchy a t t his t ime b ut d iscrimination b etween s ettlements o n t he b asis o f d iminishing s ize a nd i mportance w ith d istance f rom t he g ateway c ommunities i s n ot y et p ossible w ith t he d ata a vailable . I n L HIIIC, t he d endritic n etwork s eems m ore a pparent i n t he s pread o f A egean p ottery i nland, b ut b y t he e nd o f t he p eriod c ross-Adriatic c ontact h ad i nvolved m ore s ites i n b oth A egean a nd i nter-regional t rade, a nd t he s outhern g ateways i ncreasingly u se l ocäl c raft p roducts t o m aintain t heir p osition i n t he t rading n etworks. F igure 2 5 a ttempts t o d emonstrate a p ossible h ierarchy o f s ites i n s outhern p eninsular I taly d uring t he l ater B ronze A ge a ccording t o t heir a bility t o a ttract i mports. T he i mportant p osition o f L ipari i n N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge i ndigenous t rading s ystems i s w ell e stablished. T he w estern b ias e xhibited b y t he d istribution o f M H/LHI a nd L HII s herds s uggests t hat t he A egean t raders w ere p lugging i nto l ong-established t rade n etworks t hat w ere a lready i nvolved i n t he d issemination o f l ocal p roducts, n o d oubt i ncluding m etal o bjects , o n a s mall s cale ( Dickinson 1 977, 5 55 6). T he l ocational a dvantages o f L ipari a re s elf-evident. A s a n i sland p ositioned o n t he s ea r outes t o b oth m ajor W est C entral M editerranean m etalliferous z ones , i t w as i deally p laced t o a ct a s a n eutral t ransshipment c entre. T raders f rom s everal a reas s eem t o h ave v isited t he s ite: p ottery f rom S icily , p eninsular I taly a nd, i n t he l ate 1 3th c entury, f rom S ardinia i s p resent, a s w ell a s l arge q uantities o f e arly M ycenaean p ottery. S ome e vidence f or t he r esidence o f A egean t raders e xists ( see C hapter 6 ). T here i s l ittle e vidence f or c entralized s torage, t hough p ithoi f ragments w ere f ound o n t he a cropolis s ite. H owever, t he u se o f p otters ' m arks m ay i ndicate t he n eed t o i dentify t he o wnership o f c ommodities c ollected f or t rade. T hus, L ipari s eems t o h ave p erformed t he f unction o f a t ransshipment c entre, a nd p ossibly a s econdary d istribution c entre, f or i mported A egean o bjects, a nd m ay b e s een a s a n e arly v ariant o f t he p ort o f t rade. L ipari p ossessed n o r ecognizable l ocal r esources t o a ttract

1 38

A pulia a nd B asilicata 1 . 2 .

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

7 . 8 . 9 .

1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6. 1 7.

1 8 . 1 9.

I sola d i V arano G rotta P ippola G rotta M anaccora M onte S araceno G rotta d i O cchiopinto C oppa N evigata C upola S alapia C anne C anosa L avello T oppo D aguzzo M elfi C apo C olonna ( Trani) B ari M adonna d i G rottole E gnazia O stuni S . S abina

2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5 . 2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2.

3. 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6.

3 7 .

T orre G uaceto P unta L e T errare R einzano S urbo G rotta d ei D iavoli G rotta Z inzulusa G rotta d el D iavolo P orto C esareo C averna d ell'Erba T orre C astelluccia P orto P erone/Satyrion S coglio d el T onno M ottola T immari C ozzo P resepe O liveto L ucano S . M aria D 'Anglona T ermitito

C alabria 3 8.

3 9 . 4 0 . 4 1. 4 2 . 4 3. 4 4.

A mendolara B roglio d i T rebisacce F rancavilla G rotta S . A ngelo I II C erchiara d i C alabria T orre M ordillo R ossano C alabro

4 5 . 4 6.

4 7 . 4 8.

4 9 . 5 0.

C astellace T orre G alli T ropea L aino B orgo G rotta d ella M adonna G rotta d i L atronico

C ampania 5 1. 5 2.

5 3 . 5 4 . 5 5 . 5 6.

5 7 . 5 8.

M onti A lburni G rotta d ella M adonna d el G ranato P aestum G rotta d i P olla G rotta P ertosa G rotta d ello Z achito E boli B isaccia

K ey t o F ig.

2 5. a nd 2 5.1.

1 39

5 9 . 6 0 . 6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 4. 6 5. 6 6.

L acedonia L a S tarza G rotta N icolucci C apri I schia V ivara C uma M .Tifata a nd S . A ngelo i n F ormis ( Capua)

F ig.

2 5.

S ettlement

h ierarchy

i n

s outhern

p eninsular

a bility t o a ttract A egean i mported p ottery : ( after B ietti S estieri

1 984 ,

r evised) .

M I=

m ore t han 5 0 s herds

A=

a bout 2 0 s herds l ess t han 2 0 s herds s ites w ith n o i mported p ottery .

k= •=

1 40

I taly a ccording

t o

i n t he L HIIB p hase .

F ig.

2 5.1.

S ettlement

h ierarchy

i n s outhern

p eninsular

a bility t o a ttract A egean i mported p ottery : ( After B ietti S estieri 1 984 , r evised) . M I=

m ore t han 5 0 s herds

A l k=

a bout 2 0 s herds

=

l ess t han 2 0 s herds

*= s ites w ith n o i mported p ottery.

1 41

I taly

a ccording

t o

i n t he L HIIIC p hase .

s uch a q uantity o f M ycenaean i mports, a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat, a t l east u ntil t he l ater 1 3th c entury B C , c ommodities ( no d oubt p rimarily m etals) f rom t he T yrrhenian c oastal s ources, p erhaps v ia V ivara , a nd f rom S ardinia w ere t ransshipped a t L ipari f or o nwards t ransmission t o t he M ycenaean w orld. T he d estruction o f t he p rosperous M ilazzese s ettlements i n t he l ater 1 3th c entury B C b y i nvaders f rom p eninsular I taly i s w ell a ttested. M ycenaean a ctivity u ndoubtedly d isrupted t he l ocal i nterr egional e xchange s ystems b ringing n ew a reas i nto p rosperity a nd a dversely a ffecting o thers. I t p rovided t he i ndigenous p opulations w ith a n ew f orm o f w ealth - m etals - w hich h ad p reviously b een o f l ittle i nterest i n t he s outh , b ut w hich c ould b e e asily s tored a nd e xchanged f or a n ew f orm o f ' primitive v aluables '. T he a bility t o c ontrol t he f low o f t his n ew h igh-value c ommodity t hus b ecame i mportant, a nd t he g rowing g ateway c ommunities o f p eninsular I taly m ay h ave d ecided t o e liminate t heir c ompetitors i n t he A eolian I slands. B y t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury B C , t here i s i ncreasing e vidence f or t he b ypassing o f t he s maller i slands o f t he T yrrhenian S ea i n f avour o f m ore d irect ' a ccess t o m etalliferous a reas. L ipari 's m ajor t ransshipment f unction s eems t o h ave d eclined a lthough i ts i nvolvement i n t he t rading n etworks c ontinued. N ot o nly a re t here s mall q uantities o f L HIIIC p ottery o n t he a cropolis s ite, b ut , i n t he l ater A usonian I I ( Protovillanovan) c emetery a t P iazza M onfalcone, n orthern m etal f orms a nd a lso T iryns t ype a mber b eads a nd g lass b eads w ere f ound a mong t he g rave g oods. T he f unction o f T hapsos i n t he t rading s ystem i s e ven m ore e quivocal. S ettlement e xisted o n t he s ite a t l east a s e arly a s t he E arly B ronze A ge, b ut t here i s l ittle e vidence o f d irect A egean c ontact w ith S icily u ntil t he 1 4th c entury B C. T here a re n o r ecognizable l ocal r esources w hich w ould a ttract t raders t o t he s outh e ast c orner o f t he i sland , w here A egean i mports a re c oncentrated. H owever, t rade w ith t he A eolian I slands a nd M alta i s e videnced f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge, a nd T hapsos m ay h ave p rovided a s heltered h arbour f or p rovisioning s hips b efore t hey c ontinued o n t o t he G ulf o f T aranto o r t o L ipari, o r b efore t heir l onger r eturn j ourney t o t he A egean. T he T hapsos s ettlement h as n ot y et b een c ompletely e xcavated, b ut t he a pparent a bsence o f i mported A egean m aterial o n t he s ettlement s ite ( where M altese p ottery h as b een f ound) i s a t s trange v ariance w ith t he ' Aegean ' n ature o f t he b uilding c onstruction , w hich m ight b e s een a s i ndicating a t raders ' e nclave. T hat M ycenaean i nfluence o n t he S icilian B ronze A ge c ommunities w as c onsiderable i s s een n ot o nly a t T hapsos, b ut a t t he l ater s ite o f P antalica. A lthough o nly o ne i mported L HIIIC v essel o ccurs a t P antalica, t he m anufacture o f w heelmade p ottery, t he a doption o f A egean f orms i n p ottery a nd m etalwork a nd t he b uilding t echniques u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he ' anaktoron ' a re a ll i ndicative o f A egean/Sicilian i nteraction . I t i s p ossible t hat T hapsos r eceived M ycenaean i mports a s a r esult o f i ndigenous i nter-regional t rade , t hough t he ' Aegean ' t ype b uildings s uggest a m ore d irect c ontact . T he ' prestige ' e lement i mplicit i n t he t ype o f i mport f ound o n S icily ( i.e. f ine p ainted s mall c ontainers) a nd t he e xclusive d eposit ion o f s uch i mports i n b urial c ontexts s uggest t hat a ccess t o i mported g oods m ay h ave b een r estricted t o s pecific i ndividuals o r g roups. T his

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s uggests a n e xchange m echanism o f g ift g iving b etween e lites. H owever, t he p ractice o f c ollective b urial i n r ockcut t ombs b y t he B ronze A ge c ultures o f S icily m akes i t d ifficult t o a ssign s pecific g rave g oods t o s pecific b urials. I n t he 1 2th c entury B C , t here i s l ittle e vidence o f t he p articipat ion o f T hapsos i n A egean t rade. A lthough c oastal s ites c ontinued t o b e o ccupied, t he m ajor S icilian s ites o f t he L ater B ronze A ge a re n ow s ituated i n h ill-country w ith d efensive p otential. T hese l arge ' protou rban ' s ettlements, s uch a s P antalica , C altagirone a nd t he s lightly l ater s ite o f D essueri, c ontinued t o f lourish i nto t he 8 th c entury B C ( Bernabb B rea 1 957, 1 62-169). T he c oncentration o f A egean t rade o n p eninsular I taly f rom t he 1 3th c entury B C a nd t he d ecline i n t he w ider A egean c ontacts f rom t he 1 1th c entury B C i n f avour o f c ross-Adriatic c ontacts a pparently r endered o bsolete t he c oastal t rading e nclaves a nd/or p rovisioning c entres o f s outh e ast S icily. O ur k nowledge o f V ivara 's p osition i n t he A egean t rading s ystem i s v ery i ndistinct, a s l ittle h as y et b een p ublished a bout t he s ites o n t he i sland. L inks w ith t he A eolian I slands a re w ell-attested ( Cazzella e t a l., 1 982, P 41-154) a nd i t m ay h ave f unctioned a s ab ulking c entre e n r oute f rom t he C olline M etallifere/Monte A miata r egion t o L ipari. I n t his c ase , t he c onsiderable q uantity o f M ycenaean p ottery o n V ivara ( which i s t ypologically s imilar t o t hat o n L ipari) m ay b e s een a s f lowi ng i n t he r everse d irection f rom L ipari, w hich a cted a s a s econdary d istribution c entre. A lternatively, i ts p roximity t o t he m etal s ource a rea m ay h ave r esulted i n d irect A egean c ontact. I n a ny e vent, t he i sland 's i mportance s eems t o h ave d eclined i n t he 1 3th c entury B C a s t he s outhern p eninsular s ites a chieved g reater p rominence. A ntigori, o n S ardinia , i s s imilarly a s y et r ather a n u nknown q uantity. I t s eems t hat d irect c ontact b y A egean t raders d uring t he 1 3th c entury B C i s e videnced n ot o nly b y t he l arge q uantity o f i mported A egean s herds b ut b y t he c ultural i nfluences i mplicit i n t he o xhide i ngot s hapes a nd t he A egean s igns o n t hem , t he l ocal c opies o f A egean p ottery t ypes a nd t he p ossible ' Aegean t ype ' r itual a ctivity r evealed b y r ecent e xcavations ( Ferrarese C eruti a nd A ssorgia 1 982, 1 76). A ntigori i s l ocated o n ah ill o verlooking a c oastal p lain a nd i s a t t he c onfluence o f r iverine r outes t o t he i nland S ulcis-Iglesiente a nd F untana R aminosa m etalliferous z ones. T hus, i t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a g ateway c ommunity t hrough w hich m etals w ere c hannelled f rom t he i nterior t o t he M ycenaean w orld.

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C HAPTER 6 T HE O RGANIZATION O F C ROSS-CULTURAL L ONG D ISTANCE M ARITIME T RADE

T rade i mplies o rganization w hich n ecessarily r egulates " human a ctivities b oth i n t erms o f p rocurement ( movement o f g oods i ncluding r aw m aterials) a nd o f s ocial r elations ( human e ncounters w ith e xchange o f i nformation a nd g oods)" ( Renfrew 1 975, 4 ). I n a ll c ases o f c rossc ultural l ong d istance m aritime t rade, s ocial r elationships i nevitably a rise b etween t he t raders a nd t he i ndigenous i nhabitants. W ith t he e xception o f i nstances w here r aiding i s c arried o ut, t he r elationship b etween t hose c ontrolling t he m aterials s ought a fter a nd t he t raders w ould b e c rucfäl t o t he s uccess o f a m aritime t rading v enture. X enophobia i s p robably a n atural h uman i nstinct. E xchange b etween p eople w ith c ommon c ultural t raditions c an t ake p lace i n a n a tmosphere o f c onfidence, w hile a liens a re a lways a l ittle m ysterious a nd p robably d angerous. A s o utlined a bove, i n C hapter 3 , t rade b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est C entral M editerranean i n t he 2 nd m illennium B C i nvolved t rade a cross c ultural b oundaries a nd i nteraction b etween t wo v ery d ifferent s ocio-economic s ystems. T his c hapter s eeks t o e xamine t he m echanisms b y w hich t he p roblems o f c ross-cultural i nteraction i n m aritime t rading s ituations m ay b e o vercome. T he p roblems o f e stablishing t he a rchaeological c orrelates o f t hese m echanisms w ill t hen b e d iscussed a nd s ome s uggestions a dvanced a s t o t he m echanisms b y w hich c ross-cultural t rade b etween t he A egean a nd W est C entral M editerranean c ommunities w as a ccomplished. M echanisms f or m aritime t rade

t he

o rganization

o f

c ross-cultural

l ong

d istance

A ccounts o f ' silent t rade' w hich a re s een i n a ncient l iterature, a nd a lso m edieval a nd l ater d ocuments, r epresent a f orm o f s olution t o t he p roblem o f t rade b etween d iffering c ultures. T hey i magine t rade o n a f rontier b etween t wo c ultures, w here n othing c hanges h ands e xcept t he t rade c ommodities t hemselves. H erodotus' a ccount o f ' silent t rade' i s w ell-known . H e w rites ( Herodotus, H istories, I V , 3 07). T he C arthaginians a lso t ell u s t hat t hey t rade w ith a r ace o f m en w ho l ive i n a p art o f L ibya b eyond t he P illars o f H eracles. O n r eaching t his c ountry, t hey u nload t heir g oods, a rrange t hem t idily a long t he b each , a nd t hen, r eturning t o t heir b oats, r aise a s moke. S eeing t he s moke, t he n atives c ome d own t o t he b each, p lace o n t he g round a c ertain q uantity o f g old i n e xchange f or t he g oods, a nd g o o ff a gain t o a d istance. T he C arthaginians t hen c ome a shore a nd t ake a l ook a t t he g old; a nd i f t hey t hink i t r epresents a f air p rice f or t heir

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w ares, t hey c ollect i t a nd g o a way; i f, o n t he o ther h and, i t s eems t oo l ittle, t hey g o b ack a board a nd w ait, a nd t he n atives c ome a nd a dd t o t he g old u ntil t hey a re s atisfied. T here i s p erfect h onesty o n b oth s ides; t he C arthaginians n ever t ouch t he g old u ntil i t e quals i n v alue w hat t hey h ave o ffered f or s ale, a nd t he n atives n ever t ouch t he g oods u ntil t he g old h as b een t aken a way. T hus, s ilent t rade d enotes a n i mpersonal f orm o f t rade w ithout o ral c ommunications o r c lose f ace t o f ace c ontact b etween t he p arties i nvolved. T here i s a lso n o t hird p arty p resent t o m ediate i n t he e xchange. T here i s a n e xtensive l iterature o n s ilent t rade. G rierson ( 1903) m ade a d etailed s tudy o f h istorical i nstances o f s ilent t rade a nd c oncluded t hat i t r epresented a n e arly s tage i n t he e volution o f c rossc ultural t rade - a w ay o f d ealing w ith x enophobia a nd l anguage b arriers. R ecently t he h istorical e xistence o f s ilent t rade h as b een c alled i nto q uestion . M ost a ccounts o f s ilent t rade a re r eported b y s cholars a nd t here i s a n a bsence o f e ye w itness a ccounts b y t raders. R ecent r esearch i nto h istorical i nstances o f s ilent t rade h as s hown t hat t hey a re u sually f ictional a nd s tereotypic s tories b ased o n h earsay a nd s uperstition a nd h ave l ittle b asis i n f act ( de M oraes F arias 1 974, 1 0-24). H owever, o ther s cholars s uggest t hat l ong d istance s ilent t rade i s a h istorical r eality, b ut o f l imited o ccurrence i n i ts t rue f orm ( i.e. w ithout o ral c ommunication , c lose f ace t o f ace c ontact o r m ediators) ( Price 1 980, 7 5-96; K urimoto 1 980 , 9 7-108). M any o f t he h istorical i nstances o f s ilent t rade c ome f rom A frica , a nd a re q uoted w idely i n t he l iterature o n t he s ubject. P rice ( 1980 , 8 3) c ites t he r eport o f A rab-Nigerian t rade b y S haw i n 1 757, w hich s tates t hat t he A rabs ..still c ontinue t o c arry o n a t rade w ith s ome b arbarous n ations b ordering u pon t he r iver N igar, w ithout s eeing t he p ersons t hey t rade w ith, o r w ithout h aving o nce b roke t hrough t he o riginal c harter o f c ommerce w hich f rom t ime i mmemorial h as b een s ettled b etween t hem . T he m ethod i s t his: a t a c ertain t ime o f t he y ear ( in t he w inter, i f I a m n ot m istaken) t hey m ake t his j ourney i n a n umerous c aravan, c arrying a long w ith t hem c oral a nd g lass b eads, b racelets o f h orn , k nives , s cissors, a nd s uch l ike t rinkets. W hen t hey a rrive a t t he p lace a ppointed, w hich i s o n s uch a d ay o f t he m oon , t hey f ind i n t he e vening s everal d ifferent h eaps o f g old-dust l ying a t a s mall d istance f rom e ach o ther, a gainst w hich t he M oors p lace s o m any o f t heir t rinkets a s t hey j udge w ill b e t aken i n e xchange f or t hem . I f t he N igritians, t he n ext m orning, a pprove o f t he b argain t hey t ake u p t he t rinkets, a nd l eave t he g old-dust, o r e lse m ake s ome d eduction f rom t he l atter. A nd i n t his m anner t hey t ransact t heir e xchange w ithout s eeing e ach

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o ther, o r w ithout t he l east i nstance o f o r p erfidiousness o n e ither s ide.

d ishonesty

O ther e xamples a re k nown f rom A sia a nd f rom E urope a lso. ( 1903, 4 2) q uotes t he f ollowing i nstance. ' The l and o f a pparently r efers t o R ussia.

G rierson d arkness '

T hus, I bn B atuta i nforms u s t hat h e w as t old i n B olghar o f a l and o f d arkness, a t a d istance o f f orty d ays' j ourney, w here, w hen t he t ravellers h ave a rrived, e ach o f t hem l ays d own a t a c ertain s pot t he w ares w hich h e h as b rought w ith h im , a nd t hen r etires. N ext d ay h e r eturns a nd f inds p laced o pposite t o h is g oods s ables, e rmines, a nd o ther f urs. I f s atisfied w ith w hat h e f inds, h e t akes i t a way. I f n ot, h e l eaves i t, a nd t he i nhabitants o f t he c ountry a dd s omething m ore t o i t. S ometimes, h owever, t he n atives t ake b ack t heir g oods, a nd l eave t hose o f t he m erchants. T he l atter d o n ot k now w hether t hose w ith w hom t hey d eal a re g enii o r m en, f or t hey n ever s ee t hem . S ilent t rade h ad s ome l ocational f eatures. " A c ustomary t rading p lace s eems t o b e u niversally u sed a nd t o b e p atterned b y t ransportat ion r outes, t he n eed f or a c leared a rea t o d eposit g oods i n p lain s ight a nd t hen r etreat t o s afety, a nd c onventional u se s o t hat a p articular p lace a cquired a r eputation a s a t rading p lace" ( Price 1 980, 9 3). S ilent t rade " was a lmost e xclusively u tilitarian e xchange, s omet hing t hat w as v ery u nusual t o t he p rimitive a nd f avored b y t he l ong d istance t rader" ( ibid., 9 0). I t w as a lso v ery d ifferent f rom t he u sual p rimitive f orm o f e xchange, b ecause t he s ocial r ituals s o o ften a ssociated w ith e xchange i n p rimitive e conomies w ere k ept t o a n a bsolute m inimum . T hus, P rice ( ibid., 8 8) s uggests t hat s ilent t rade w as a p ractical t echnique o f l ong d istance t raders w ho c reated t he m echanism f or t heir a dvantage, r ather t han a n e xotic a nd e nigmatic c ustom o f p rimitive p eoples, a s i s o ften e nvisaged. O nce t he t rading r elationship h ad b een e stablished, i t w ould b e c ontinued i f b oth p arties s o w ished a nd i f b oth p arties r efrained f rom s tealing t he g oods o r k idnapping m embers o f t he o ther g roup i nvolved. B y f ollowing t he p rocedures o f s ilent t rade t he l ong d istance t raders c ould a void t he d ifficult, t ime c onsuming a nd p otentially d angerous f ace t o f ace e xchange w ith a lien p eoples. G rierson ( 1903, 4 9-56) c ites m any i nstances o f p eripheral/ t ransitional f orms o f s ilent t rade w here c ontact i s f ace t o f ace b ut d ifferences i n l anguage n ecessitate t he u se o f s igns o r w here a f ew w ords m ay b e u sed. I n o ther t ransitional c ases, a m iddleman i s u sed a nd t he t rader a nd p roducer n ever m eet ( ibid., 5 1-52, 6 1-62). T rading f rom s hips w as a nother w ay i n w hich l ong d istance m aritime t raders a nd i ndigenous g roups c ould e ngage i n t rade i n r elative s afety a nd w ith l ittle c ross-cultural c ontact. S hip t rade m ight b e e nvisaged a s a d evelopment o f l ong d istance m aritime s ilent t rade. T wo v ariants, a t l east, a re n oted. I n o ne, t he t raders a pparently s tay o n b oard s hip a nd t he i ndigenes c ome o n b oard. I n t he s econd t ype, t he t raders g o a shore t o l ay o ut t heir g oods a nd c ollect o thers. U nfortunately, m ost

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a ccounts d o n ot s pecify t he p recise m echanisms e mployed, b ut t he f ollowing e xamples i ndicate t he w ays i n w hich i t c ould v ary. O dner ( 1972, 6 45), d escribing s hip t rade i n I celand i n t he e arly I ron A ge, s tates t hat " the s hips a nchored i n t he r iver e stuaries, a nd t he t rade w as c arried o ut f rom t here." T he l ocal c hieftains a dministered t he t rade, i mposed s et p rices a nd r efused t o d eal w ith m erchants w ho d id n ot c omply w ith t heir r ules. P rice ( 1980 , 8 7) q uotes a n i nstance o f C hinese t rade i n t he P hilippines a round t he 1 3th c entury A D , w hich s eems t o p rovide f or a ll e ventualities. W hatever f oreign t raders ( that i s C hinese o r A rabs) a rrive a t a ny o f t he s ettlements t hey l ive o n b oard s hip... T he s hips a re m oored i n m idstream , a nd t hey a nnounce t heir p resence t o t he n atives b y b eating d rums. U pon t his t he s avage n atives r ace f or t he s hips i n s mall b oats , c arrying c otton, y ellow w ax, n ative c loth a nd c oconut-husk m ats , w hich t hey o ffer f or b arter. I f t he p rices c annot b e a greed u pon, t he c hief o f t he t raders m ust g o i n p erson i n o rder t o c ome t o a n u nderstanding .. t he f oreigners s till r etain o n b oard o ne o r t wo n atives a s h ostages. A fter t hat t hey g o o n s hore t o t raffic, a nd w hen t hey h ave f inished, t hey r eturn t he h ostages. A s t rade b ecame m ore r egularized a nd i ncreased i n s cale, t he m echanism b y w hich c ross-cultural t rade w as a ccomplished w as t hat o f t he c ross-cultural b roker. T he c ross-cultural b roker w as a n i ndividual ( or p erhaps s everal i ndividuals) w ho c rossed t he c ultural f rontier, s ettled i n a n a lien t erritory a nd l earned a bout i ts c ulture s o a s t o b e a ble t o a ct a s am ediator b etween t he t wo c ultural g roups i nvolved i n t he t rade. T he c hange f rom s hip t rade t o s hore b ased t rade b y t he P ortuguese o n t he W est A frican c oast i n t he 1 5th c entury A D h as b een d escribed b y C urtin ( 1975, 9 5-100). A fter a n i nitial p hase o f r aiding, t he P ortuguese r ealized t hat t rading w as m ore p rofitable t han r aiding. A t f irst, t hey t raded f rom t heir s hips, w here t he s hip 's p ersonnel t ried t o m ediate b etween t he d iffering c ultures, b ut t hey q uickly s hifted f rom s hip t rade t o s hore b ased t rade. I nitially, t hese s ettlers w ere i solated i ndividuals. C alled ' Lancados ' ( a c ontraction o f ' Lancados e m T erra ' - ' put o n s hore') t hey c ame t o b e i mportant a s m ediators b etween t he A fricans a nd t he P ortuguese. T his c hange f rom s hip t o s hore b ased t rade w as n ot a lways w elcomed b y t he i ndigenous p opulation, a lthough t hey w ere e ager t o e xchange g old f or E uropean p roducts. B oxer ( 1969, 3 2) d escribes t he d oubts w hich t he l ocal c hief f elt a bout s uch a c hange i n t he r elationship b etween t he t wo g roups. W hen D iogo d e A zambuja c ame a shore w ith a r ichly c lad a nd w ell-armed s uite t o l ay t he f oundation s tone o f M ina C astle i n J anuary 1 482, h e w as n ot w elcomed w ith o pen a rms. T his c hief p ointed o ut t hat t he o nly P ortuguese h e h ad m et h itherto w ere t hose w ho c ame a nnually i n t he c aravels t o b arter f or g old. T hese s ailors, h e s aid, " were r agged a nd i ll-dressed m en, w ho w ere s atisfied w ith w hatever w as g iven t hem i n e xchange f or t heir m erchandise. T his w as t he s ole r eason f or t heir c oming t o t hese p arts, a nd t heir m ain

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d esire w as t o d o b usiness q uickly a nd r eturn h ome, s ince t hey w ould r ather l ive i n t heir o wn c ountry t han i n f oreign l ands". H e a dded t hat t he P ortuguese a nd t he N egroes g ot o n a ll t he b etter f or s eeing e ach o ther a t r egular i ntervals, i nstead o f l iving a s c lose n eighbours, a nd i t w ould t heref ore b e b etter i f t he t rade w as c arried o n b y v isiting s hips a s h itherto. A zambuja p ersisted u ntil h e o btained t he c onsent h e r equired, a nd, g enerally, a greements w ere m ade f or t he E uropeans t o s ettle, a nd t hey t raded u nder p eaceful c onditions a nd f ormed a s et o f e nclaved m erchants o n t he A frican c oast. T hese e nclaves w ere e conomically a nd d emographically d ependent o n t he s urrounding A frican s ocieties - t he g round o n w hich t he e nclaves w ere e rected w as r ented f rom t he A fricans a nd t hey d epended f or f ood a nd l abour o n t he i ndigenes ( Curtin 1 975, 19-120). M aritime t rade, e specially t hat o ver l ong d istances , n ecessitates c onsiderable o rganization a nd r esource i nvestment ( in m anpower, s hipp ing, g oods f dr t rade e tc.). T he r isks o f s hipwreck a nd p iracy a re g reat, s o t hat l ogically s teps w ould b e t aken t o e nsure, a s f ar a s p ossible, t he p rofitable f ulfilment o f a t rading v enture. T he e fficient c onduct o f m aritime l ong d istance t rade w ould r equire s uch p hysical p roperties a s g ood h arbours, p rovisioning f acilities ( i.e. f resh w ater s upplies a nd f resh f ood s upplies), b ulking f acilities ( i.e. s torehouses a nd p ossibly w orkshops f or f inishing m aterials), a nd s hip r epair f acilities. L ess t angible f eatures w ere a lso o f g reat i mportance, s uch a s t he r egular e xchange o f i nformation a bout t he c ond itions o f s upply a nd d emand a nd t he c reation a nd m aintenance o f r elations o f t rust b etween t hose i nvolved i n t he t rading s ystem . W ith t he e stablishment o f t rade e nclaves i n i ndigenous c ommunities, t hese f acilities c ould b e o rganized f or t he b enefit o f t he l ong d istance m aritime t rader. T he t rade e nclave i s e ssentially t he p eaceful s ettlement o f f oreign t raders i n a n i ndigenous c ommunity. I t i s s een a s p roviding b enefits f or b oth g roups, a nd, t hough i t m ay b e s trictly c ontrolled b y t he i ndigenes, i t i s a ccepted -a t b est w elcomed a nd a t w orst t olerated. I t i s o ften t he r esult o f " a s ocial c ontract" b etween t he t wo p arties, r ather t han c onquest ( Maunier 1 949, 3 ). T he c haracteristics o f t rade e nclaves w ill d iffer b ecause o f aw ide v ariety o f p olitical, c ultural, e conomic a nd s ocial v ariables ( Curtin 1 975, 5 96 6). T he m ost i mportant p olitical v ariables w ill o ccur i n t he r elations hip b etween t he t rading e nclave a nd t he i ndigenous c ommunity. T his r elationship m ay r ange f rom c omplete d omination b y t he i ndigenous c ommunity, t hrough v arious s tages o f a utonomy a nd d ependence, t o c omplete d omination o ver t he i ndigenous c ommunity b y t he t rade e nclave. C ultural v ariables w ould s imilarly c over a b road s pectrum o f p ossibilities. P erhaps t he m ost i mportant w ould b e t he d egree o f c ultural d ifference b etween t he t rading c ommunity a nd t he i ndigenous s ociety w hich w ould d ictate t he d egree o f c ontact b etween t he i ndigenes a nd t he e nclave. T hus, s ome e nclaves w ould b e s ealed o ff b y t heir h osts f rom t he i ndigenous c ommunity, w hilst, i n o ther c ases, c lose

1 49

i nteraction b etween t he t wo g roups w ould l ead t o i nter-marriage a nd a ssimilation o f t he i ndigenous s ociety 's c ulture r esulting i n a b lendi ng o f c ultures o ver t ime. T he r ange o f e conomic v ariables w ould b e s imilarly w ide, d epending o n t he s ize a nd s cale o f t he t rading o perat ion. S ocial v ariables w ould r esult f rom t he t ype o f p eople c omprising t he e nclave , t heir n umbers a nd t he l ength o f t ime i nvolved. Av ast l iterature o f h istorical i nstances o f c ross-cultural t rade e xists , p articularly c oncerning E uropean m aritime t rade w ith A frica a nd t he E ast . C urtin ( 1975; 1 984) h as p ublished t wo i mportant w orks w hich d eal w ith t rade e nclaves a s m echanisms f or c ross-cultural t rade i n c onsiderable d etail. I n ab rief s urvey s uch a s t his, e xtensive u se o f e xamples i s o ut o f p lace. H owever, e xamples h ave b een s elected w hich i t i s h oped w ill s erve t o i llustrate h ow t rade e nclaves f acilitated l ong d istance t rade b etween d iffering c ultures a nd h ow t he c haracteristics o f t rade e nclaves m ay v ary. T wo w ell-documented e xamples o f t rade e nclaves r elate t o v ery d ifferent h istorical p eriods. T hey a re t he t rade e nclaves o f t he A ssyrians i n A natolia d uring t he 2 nd m illennium B C a nd t hose o f t he P ortuguese o n t he W est C oast o f A frica f rom t he 1 5th c entury A D . B oth t hese e xamples w ill b e u sed e xtensively t hroughout t hi . e s c hapter f or i llustrative p urposes. T he m ore r ecent e xample i s c onsidered f irst. T he P ortuguese w ere t he e arliest E uropean t raders o n t he W est A frican c oast. I nspired b y H enry t he N avigator, t hey f irst u ndertook t he s ystematic m aritime e xploration o f t his a rea i n t he 1 5th c entury A D i n a n e ndeavour t o c ircumvent t he o ld b ullion r outes a cross t he S ahara t o t he M editerranean ( Ashtor 1 983) a nd t o c reate " a n ew a nd d irect c onduit f or t he p assage o f g old" ( Wilks 1 982 , 3 35). D uring t he f our c enturies f rom c . 1 450 A D t o t he E uropean i nvasions i n t he 1 880s, E uropean m aritime . t raders a ppeared a long t he W est A frican c oasts . T hus, f or 4 00 y ears, t he A fro-European r elationship w as b ased o n t rade. A s m entioned a bove , a b rief p hase o f r aiding , f ollowed b y s hip t rade , p receded P ortuguese t rade e nclaves. T he m otives b ehind t hese e nclaves w ere t o p rotect a nd e xpand t rade a nd t o e xclude o ther E uropean c omp etitors. T he t rading e nclaves v aried f rom a h ouse o r l odge t o a f ort o r e ven a c astle ( e.g . E lmina) ( Lawrence 1 969 ; B lake 1 937; W ood 1 967 , 3 9-64). T hey c ontained r esidential q uarters , o ffices, s torerooms a nd w orkshops . M any o f t he l odges w ere m ade i n t he l ocal m anner w ith m ud w alls a nd t hatched r oofs a nd h ave l eft n o i ntelligible r emains. P olitically, t he P ortuguese m ade a greements w ith t he l ocal r ulers f or p ermission t o s ettle a nd t rade. T he e arliest e nclaves w ere h oused i n u nfortified l ocal d wellings. F orts a nd c astles w ere c onstructed a s d efences a gainst E uropean c ompetitors r ather t han t he l ocal p eople. W hen t he P ortuguese a ppeared o n t he c oast t hey p artly a ssimilated t he p osition o f t he o ther A frican j uula ( i.e . t rading c ommunities). T he P ortuguese t raders a ccepted A frican t rade m ainly o n A frican t erms, a nd t rade p atterns w ere g overned b y l ong-standing c ustoms t hat b oth s ides r espected, t hough i n m any i nstances t he E uropeans ' i nterpretation o f A frican c ustoms w as e rroneous. T he E uropeans w ere r eadily a llowed a utonomy i n r eturn f or a s eries o f p ayments . T he E uropeans c onsidered t hese p ayments ( made t o r ulers i n t he f orm o f e xotic g ifts - b ars o f i ron , w ine, r um a nd c ider, a nd E uropean m anufactures s uch a s k nives , s cissors a nd g unpowder) t o b e a nchorage f ees o r g round r ent, b ut A frican s ocieties r ecognized t hem a s t he e tiquette o f g ifts t o

1 50

e stablish a s ocial r elationship b etween s trangers ( Curtin 1 975, 2 862 90). O ther p ayments w ere e xtracted f rom t he E uropeans i n t he f orm o f ' protection ' m oney o r a s t olls c ollected o n t he v olume o f t rade. T he P ortuguese h ad n o d esire t o p enetrate i nland. I n t he e arly s tages t hey w ere n ot i nterested i n c ontrolling l ocal t rade, a nd t he A fricans a lready h ad w ell-established i nland l ong d istance t rade n etworks ( ibid., 6 2). T he t raders w ere n ot s egregated f rom t he i ndigenous p opulation. T he e nclaves w ere c omprised o f s mall g roups o f a dult m ales ( in t he m ost v estigial c ases, o nly o ne o r t wo i ndividuals), a nd t hey o ften t ook A frican w ives a nd o ver g enerations m any b ecame l ess P ortuguese, t hough t hey r etained E uropean d ress a nd d eveloped a c reolized P ortuguese l anguage. D isease w as r ife o n t he c oast a nd t he d eath r ate w as e xtremely h igh a mong E uropeans. M any o f t he i nhabitants o f t he e nclaves w ere o utsiders f rom t heir o wn c ulture - i n m any c ases, p risoners w ere s ent o ut t he t o c oast ( ibid., 9 2-95). E uropean c ultural i nfluence w as m inimal u ntil t he e nd o f t he 1 8th c entury A D , w hen t hey d emanded a v ariety o f p olitical a nd c ommercial p rivileges w hich e ventually l ed t o c olonization. E xternal t rade p layed a m inor r ole i n t he i ndigenous e conomy a nd s ociety. I nternal t rade h ad d ifferent e conomic a nd s ocial f oundations w hich g ave i t g reater s tability. E xternal t rade w as n ever a s ubstitute f or i nternal t rade a nd p robably n ever e xceeded i t i n v olume. R elatively f ew E uropean g oods t ravelled f ar i nland, a nd m ost o f t hose t hat d id t ravelled b y w ay o f t he a ge-old t rans-Saharan r outes. T he m ost m arked e ffect w as n aturally u pon t he c oast. U nder t he s timulus o f t he E uropean t rade e nclaves, t here w as s ome r ealignment o f t he i nterior l ong d istance n etworks. T he n ew m aritime e lement i n t he A frican t rade r esulted i n c oastal f ishing v illages b ecoming t ransformed i n a f ew y ears i nto p rincipal s uppliers o f b ullion t o t he w orld m arket ( Wilks 1 982, 3 37). T hese v illages, w ith t heir r esident t raders, b ecame g atew ay c ommunities f acilitating t he m ovement o f g oods f rom t he i nterior t o t he i nternational m arket. t he E uropeans s ought g old, h ides, i vory, s laves, g um a nd b eeswax. T he m ajor A frican i mports w ere m etals a nd m etalware ( iron b ars, c opper r ods, c oins, b rassware a nd p ewterware), g lass a nd a mber b eads ( and a lso c oral a nd c rystal b eads), b randy, c utlery a nd w eapons ( notably s words), r ed w oollen c loth a nd s mall q uantities o f I ndian t extiles ( Curtin, 1 975, 3 11-334). A frican e xport g oods w ere p roduced i n s mall q uantities i n t he i nterior a nd w ere b rought f rom m any l ocal m arkets t o t he p orts b y r iverine a nd l and r outes ( ibid., 9 7 , F igure 3 .1). G oods w ere a lso m oved a long t he c oast. B ulking a t t he e nclaves p recluded t he t imec onsuming b usiness o f p iecemeal b artering. S ome o f t he i nitial p rocess ing, l ike t he c leaning o f b eeswax, w as a lso c arried o ut a t t he p orts. T he c ross-cultural b rokers a t t he p orts r eceived i nformation a bout m arket c onditions a nd e nsured t hat a c argo o f e xport g oods a waited t he a rrival o f s hips. T hese, a nd o ther f acilities, s uch a s t he p rovisioni ng a nd r epairing o f s hips, p rovided b y t he t rade e nclave, e nsured a f ast t urnaround o f s hips - w hich s aved n ot o nly t he h igh c ost o f h aving s hips l ying i dle i n p ort ( while c rews t ried t o n egotiate w ith l ocal t raders), b ut a lso l ives o n t he d isease-ridden A frican c oast. T here

i s a rchaeological a s w ell a s d ocumentary e vidence

1 51

f or

t he

A ssyrian t rade e nclave o f Krum K anis, a t m odern K ultepe, i n A natolia. T his c ommunity, w hich o perated f or s ome 1 50 y ears, w as e stablished i n c . 1 940 B C f or t he p urpose o f a rticulating t rade. T he d ocumentary e vidence f or Krum K anis c onsists o f t housands o f c uneiform t ablets, w ritten i n A ssyrian d ialect, a nd d escribing t he d ay t o d ay b usiness a ctivities o f t he i nhabitants o f t he c ommunity. T he a rchaeological e vidence f or t his s ettlement e mphasises t he d ifficulties w hich h ave t o b e f aced w hen t rying t o i nfer f oreign s ettlement a broad f or t rade p urposes. I t i s o nly t he d ocumentary e vidence w hich c onclusively c onf irms K ärum K anis 's s tatus a s a n A ssyrian t rading e nclave ( i.e. a n a lien e nclave a midst t he A natolian c ommunities), t hough a rchaeol ogically t he s ettlement 's t rading r ole i s c lear o ver a l ong p eriod. A b rief s urvey o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he e nclave i s i lluminating. T he s ite o f K anis c onsisted o f t wo p rincipal a reas, a l arge m ound w hich r ises s ome 2 3m a bove t he s urrounding p lain, a nd a f lat t errace p latform ( 400 x 8 00m) s ome 2 .5m a bove g round l evel. Ad istance o f s ome 2 00m s eparates t he m ound f rom t he t errace . T he m ound i s t he s ite o f t he c ity o f K anis, o ne o f a s eries o f s mall i ndigenous p rincipalities s cattered t hroughout A natolia . I t w as a pparently o ccupied a t l east a s f ar b ack a s t he E arly B ronze A ge ( 3000 B C) ( Özg i ic 1 963, 1 00). T he e arliest o ccupation o f t he t errace o ccurred i n t he e arly M iddle B ronze A ge ( 2000 B C), ( i.e. s ome 1 000 y ears a fter t he c ity m ound w as f irst o ccupied). T he a rchaeological e vidence s uggests t hat i nitially t here m ay h ave b een a s mall i ndigenous t rading c ommunity o n t he t errace s ite b efore t he A ssyrian m erchants s ettled t here. M aterial f rom t he c ity m ound a nd t he t errace ( Levels I V a nd I II) s hows c ontacts w ith n orthern S yria , C ilicia a nd s outhern M esopotamia ( ibid., 2 ). L evel I I r eveals t he f irst o ccupation o f t he t errace b y A ssyrian t raders. I t i s t he r ichest o f t he t errace l evels i n a rchitectural r emains a nd m aterial o bjects. T he b uildings o f t he K ärum ( the A kkadian w ord f or ' quay ', w hich w as a lso a pplied t o m erchant e nclaves) w ere i ndicative o f a p rosperous c ommunity, c omprising m ulti-roomed, l avishly p lanned h ouses , s hops, s torehouses, a rchives a nd v arious a dministrative b uildings. A ll t hese w ere b uilt a ccording t o A natolian t echniques , u sing A natolian m aterials a nd r eflecting A natolian s tyles. W orkshops i n t he K ärum w ere u sed f or c asting m etal o bjects, a s i s e videnced b y t he c rucibles, o vens , f ireplaces a nd s tone m oulds f ound i n t hem ( Emre 1 963, 9 0). T he s treets a nd h ouses i n L evel I I w ere o riented d ifferently f rom t hose i n L evel I II, w hich s uggests t hat a c hange i n t he p lan o f t he r esidential q uarter t ook p lace ( Orlin 1 970, 2 06). A s w ell a s t he t housands o f c uneiform t ablets f ound i n t he h ouses o f t he e nclave , m any M esopotamian s tamp a nd c ylinder s eals ( and a lso A natolian s eals) a nd w eights w ere f ound. T he t raditional A ssyrian r ite o f b urial u nder t he h ouse f loors w as p ractised. T hese b urials w ere a ccompanied b y A ssyrian o bjects, s uch a s g old a nd s ilver d iadems, h eaddresses, p ins, b ronze w eapons, l ead, e lectrum a nd b one o bjects a nd p recious s tones ( Özg i ic 1 964 , 2 7-30). A ssyrian r eligious r itual w as a pparently m aintained i n t he e nclave a s n orthern S yrian a nd n orthern M esopotamian g oddess f igurines w ere f ound o n t he s ite ( Özg i ic 1 963, 1 06). T he t housands o f t ablets f ound i n L evel I I f ormed t he a rchives o f b oth t he A ssyrian m erchants, a nd o f t he n ative A natolian m erchants w ho w ere a lso r esident i n t he Krum . F ormal a greements a nd t reaty a rrangements w ere n egotiated w ith t he A natolian p rinces t o p ermit r esidence a nd t rade.

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T he c hief a im o f t he t rade s eems t o h ave b een t he p rocurement o f s ilver a nd g old f or t he A ssyrian g overnment ( Larsen 1 976, 8 6-105). I n e xchange, t he A ssyrians b rought t o A natolia ' annakun ' ( tin), t extiles a nd w ool. T he A ssyrian t rader a pparently p articipated a ctively i n A natolian t rade b oth f or n ational a nd f or p ersonal r easons - s erving b oth e conomic m otives o f t he s tate a nd h is o wn p urse. T he t ablets s uggest t hat t hree g enerations o f A ssyrian t raders o ccupied t he K ärum d uring L evel I I. S ome t raders w ere p ermanent r esidents i n t he e nclaves, o thers m oved b ack a nd f orth w ith t he c aravans. E mre ( 1963, 8 7-99) h as d ivided t he p ottery f rom t hree c ategories, e xcluding a ctual A ssyrian i mports:

L evel

I I

i nto

1 .

S hapes f rom t he t raditional i ndigenous A natolian p ottery r epertoire s howing d evelopments i n t he t echniques o f m anufacture.

2 .

C ompletely n ew p ottery s hapes, o ften i mitating b ronze v essels, a nd t he a doption o f p ainted p ottery, a t radition v ery c ommon i n n orthern S yria a nd n orthern M esopotamia a nd t herefore " perhaps i nfluenced b y t he A ssyrian m erchants."

3 .

V essels i mitating n orthern S yrian a nd n orthern M esopotamian f orms, b ut m anufactured u sing n ative t echniques. " This g roup, w hich i s a lien t o t he A natolian s hapes, o ccupies a m inor p lace i n c omparison t o o ther g roups" ( ibid ., 9 1).

I mported A ssyrian p ottery a lso a ppears o n t he s ite ( Özg i ic 1 967, 2 6). T hroughout i ts e xistence t he p ottery s equence o f t he e nclave d iffers f rom t hat o f t he c ity m ound. T he A ssyrian e nclave w as a bandoned a fter d estruction b y f ire - t he e arliest p hase o f L evel I s hows n o o ccupation. H owever, t he A ssyrian t raders a pparently r eturned t o t he s ite a s L evel I b s hows a t hriving n ew A ssyrian m erchant c ommunity. T he b uildings w ere o riented i n a d ifferent w ay f rom L evel I I a nd t he p attern o f b uilding w as m ore c rowded t han i n a ny o ther l evel. A t t his t ime b oth t he K ärum s ettlem ent a nd t he c ity m ound w ere w alled. T he i ndigenous p ottery a lso s hows d ifferences f rom L evel I I, b oth i n t he c lays u sed a nd i n t he t echniques o f m anufacture. An ew k ind o f s lip, c ontaining m ica , w as a pplied, p articularly t o v essels u sed a s b urial g ifts. T he q uantity o f p ainted p ottery d ecreased c onsiderably a nd d ifferent c olours a nd m otifs w ere u sed. N orthern S yrian a nd n orthern M esopotamian s hapes w ere i mitated. M any o f t he s hapes w ere c ompletely n ew a nd l asted o nly d uring t he l ifet ime o f t he e nclave. E mre ( 1963, 9 9) s ees t hese c hanges i n t he n ative p ottery a s " due t o n atural e volution , f oreign i nfluences, t he p assage o f t ime , n ew f ashions a nd t he g radual a bandonment o f t he o lder t raditions." I n m any h istorical i nstances, t he s uccess o f t he t rade e nclave, a s a m echanism t o f acilitate c ross-cultural t rade, r esulted i n t he d evelopment o f a ' trade d iaspora ' ( Cohen 1 971, 2 66-281). T he t rade d iaspora c omprised a n etwork o f t rade e nclaves s cattered a long t rading r outes, f orming a s eries o f a lien e nclaves w ithin i ndigenous s ocieties. I ts p urpose w as t o f acilitate t he p assage o f t rade. T he f unctions o f t he t rade d iaspora w ere a gency a nd m ediation, a nd i ts u sefulness c learly s temmed f rom t he f act t hat t rust a nd c ommunication a re f ar

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e asier b etween p eople w ho s hare v alues , l anguage, l egal s ystems, k inship t ies a nd o ther s ources o f s ocial s olidarity t han t hey a re a cross c ultural b arriers. C urtin ( 1975, 1 984) h as b een p articularly c oncerned w ith t he s tudy o f h istorical i nstances o f c ross-cultural t rade. I n h is r ecent c omparative s tudy o f c ross-cultural t rade, h e w rites ( 1984, 3 ): T rade c ommunities o f m erchants l iving a mong a liens i n a ssociated n etworks a re t o b e f ound o n e very c ontinent a nd b ack t hrough t ime t o t he v ery b eginn ing o f u rban l ife . T hey a re .. o ne o f t he m ost w idespread o f a ll h uman i nstitutions o ver a v ery l ong r un o f t ime, y et l imited t o t he l ong p eriod o f h uman h istory t hat b egan w ith t he i nvention o f a griculture a nd e nded w ith t he c oming o f t he i ndustrial a ge. T he c haracteristics o f a t rade d iaspora w ould v ary i n t he s ame w ay a s t hose o f a n i ndividual t rade e nclave ( i.e. a ccording t o p olitical, c ultural, e conomic a nd s ocial v ariables). H owever, C urtin ( ibid., 5 1 1) s ees t he t O o o m ost s triking v ariables i n t he c omparative s tudy o f t rade d iasporas a s " the w ide r ange o f p ossible r elationships b etween t he t rade c ommunity a nd t he h ost s ociety" a nd " relations b etween t he i ndividual n odes o f a t rade d iaspora ." I n b oth c ases t he r ange o f p ossibilities i s e xtremely w ide. T he f ormer h as b een m entioned a bove, t he l atter m ay r ange f rom a s catter o f s ettlements u nited o nly b y s entimental t ies o f c ommon r eligion , l anguage a nd d istant k inship, t o d iasporas f ounded a s p olitical e ntities, w ith e ach n ode u nder c entral c ontrol. T he c uneiform ' tablets f rom K ärum K anis d ocumentary e vidence o f a t rading d iaspora .

p rovide

t he

e arliest

I n t he 2 nd m illennium B C , a s eries o f s ome 2 0 A ssyrian t rade e nclaves w ere s cattered a mong t he A natolian p rincipalities. T he t ablets r eveal t hat t he i ndividual A ssyrian e nclaves w ere r anked h ierarchically a ccording t o i mportance f or t rade, w ith t he e nclave a t K anis h aving a uthority o ver t he o thers. T he K ärum K anis w as i tself u nder t he p olitical a uthority o f A shur, t he A ssyrian c apital. T he d egree o f a utonomy o f t he l esser e nclaves i s u nknown, t hough i t a ppears t hat t hey h ad a ssemblies, a s d id K ärum K anis . K ärum K anis s eems t o h ave h ad " direct a nd i mmediate p ractical s upervision" o ver t hem , s ent t hem d irectives a nd r eceived l etters f rom i ndividual e nclaves r equesti ng a id a nd a dvice o n p articular b usiness m atters ( Orlin 1 970 , 6 5). T he K ärum K anis n egotiated t reaties a nd a greements w ith t he l ocal r ulers ( independent p rinces) w ho g ranted t he A ssyrians t he r ight o f r esidence a nd t he r ight t o t rade . T he p rinces e xercised c onsiderable c ontrol o ver t he t rade, s etting p rices a nd h aving f irst o ption t o b uy i mports. T hey a lso a pparently e xacted ' protection ' p ayments. H owever, a p roportion o f t he A ssyrian g oods c ould b e s old o n t he o pen m arket. T he a rrangement a pparently s uited b oth p arties - i t s atisfied t he A natolian d esire f or t in a nd t he A ssyrian d esire f or s ilver a nd g old. T he t rade d iaspora a pparently l asted f or o ver 1 50 y ears. H owever, i t w as e vidently a p recarious e xistence f or t he t raders. T he Krum K anis w as t wice a bandoned a fter d estruction b y f ire ( though t his w as p robably t he r esult o f i nternecine w arfare r ather t han a ggression a gainst t he

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t raders). A lthough t he A ssyrian t rade d iaspora w as f ormally o rganized a nd p olitically c ontrolled f rom A shur, i n o ther e xamples o f t rade d iaspora , i nformal l inks e xisted b etween t he i ndividual t rade e nclaves. C urtin ( 1984, 7 6-77) s uggests t hat t he P hoenician t rade d iaspora w hich s panned t he W est M editerranean b y t he 8 th c entury B C ( with s ettlements a t M otya o n S icily, o n M alta , o n S ardinia a nd a t C adiz i n S pain) m ay h ave b een l inked b y l ittle m ore t han t he s olidarity o f ac ommon c ulture , s omet imes a cting i n c oncert b ut o ften i ndependently. A c ommon r eligion ( i .e. I slam) w as a n o rganizational f eature o f s ome A frican d iasporas ( e .g. t he H ausa a nd M alinkes). " Indigenous t raders b ecame M oslems i n o rder t o p artake i n t he m oral c ommunity o f o ther t raders" ( Cohen 1 971, 2 78). A t t he o ther e nd o f s pectrum , t he g reat E uropean t rading c ompanies o f t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies A D ( such a s t he V ereenigde O ostingische C ompagnie a nd t he B ritish E ast I ndia C ompany) w ere v ery f ormally o rganized. T hey w ere c hartered b y E uropean s tates a nd g ranted c ertain t rading m onopolies. T hey w ere a lso e mpowered t o g overn a s w ell a s t rade a nd t o u se t heir o wn m ilitary a nd n aval f orces. T hus, i f t he i ndigenous p opulation r efused t o p ermit f oreign s ettlement, t rade e nclaves m ight b e e stablished b y f orce w ith p olitical a uthority e xercised f rom a c entral p oint, t his r esulted i n t he ' trading p ost e mpire ' w here t he c ontrol o f t rade w as i n t he h ands o f t he f oreign s ettlers . T he w ords o f t he E nglish G overnor o f B ombay, C harles B oone, i n 1 718, q uoted b y C haudhuri ( 1985, 3 ) s uccinctly e xplains t he p osition : " if n o N aval F orce n o T rade, i f n o F ear n o F riendship." S uch c ommercial i mperialism o ften d eveloped i nto p olitical i mperialism , a s t he c entral p olitical a uthority a cted t o p reserve i ts c ontrol o ver t raded g oods w hich h ad b ecome e ssential t o i ts e conomy. T he B ritish R aj i n I ndia a nd t he D utch c olonial e mpire i n t he I ndian O cean c an b e s een a s t he r esult o f e nforced t rading r elationships. H owever, n ot a ll t rade d iasporas d eveloped i n t his w ay. M any c eased w hen t heir r ationale a s am echanism f or f acilitating c ross-cultural t rade c ame t o a n e nd a s ar esult o f w idespread c ultural c ontacts. T he p ort o f t rade, w hich h as b een m entioned i n C hapter 3 , i s a lso a m echanism b y w hich l ong d istance t rade b etween d ifferent c ultures c ould b e c arried o ut. P olanyi ( 1963 , 3 0) s tressed t hat t he p ort o f t rade w as " often a n eutrality d evice, a d erivative o f s ilent t rade," w hich s hielded t he w ider i ndigenous c ommunity f rom t he t rader. A t a p ort o f t rade, t rade a nd t raders' m ovements a nd a ctivities w ere s trictly s upervised a nd c onfined t o o fficial c hannels. L ocal m arket t rade a nd l ong d istance t rade w ere k ept c ompletely s eparate. A lthough t his i ndigenous a dministration o f t rade r estricted t raders ' a ctivities, i t a lso r emoved t he p roblem o f t he t rader h aving t o d eal d irectly w ith t he p roducer ( Humphreys 1 969 , 1 94). T he p ort o f t rade h as b een s een a s a c haracteristic i nstitution o f e arly k ingdoms a nd e mpires ( Geertz 1 980 , 1 09). H owever, i t h as b een s uggested t hat a dministered s hip t rade w as a n e arly f orm o f t he p ort o f t rade ( Odner 1 972, 6 45). T hus, w hich t rade p roblems a s m echanism

h istorical s ources p rovide i nformation a bout t he w ays i n b etween d iffering c ultures m ight b e a ccomplished, a nd s uch t he f ear o f s trangers a nd l anguage b arriers o vercome. E ach e xhibits m any v ariations w hich m ilitate a gainst t he

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r ecognition o f a p articular a rchaeological r ecord.

t ype o f

T he a rchaeological c orrelates o f d istance m aritime t rade

c ross-cultural

m echanisms f or

t rade

i n

c ross-cultural

t he

l ong

T he d ifficulties i nherent i n e stablishing a rchaeological c riteria f or t he m echanisms b y w hich c ross-cultural t rade w as a ccomplished a re f ormidable. S o m any v ariations o f e ach t ype o f m echanism o ccur t hat o nly v ery g eneralized m odels c an b e c onstructed , w hich t ends t o r esult i n o ver-simplification . A lso , t he f ragmentary n ature o f m uch a rchaeol ogical d ata m akes i t d ifficult t o d iscriminate b etween m echanisms. S everal o f t he m echanisms, s een f rom h istorical s ources t o b e m ethods o f f acilitating t rade a cross c ultural b oundaries, c ould n ot b e r ecognized f rom m aterial r emains. S ilent t rade c an b e k nown o nly f rom e ye w itness a ccounts. W ithout d ocumentary e vidence, i t w ould b e i mpossible t o d istinguish t hose i nstances w here t raders s tay o n b oard s hip a nd t he n atives c ome a board f rom i nstances w here t he t raders g o a shore b riefly t o t rade. H owever, c omparative s tudies ( notably M aunier 1 949) s uggest t hat t rading c ontacts o ften f ollow a n e volutionary p attern . I nittal c ontact w ith d istant p eoples u sually t akes t he f orm o f e xplorations a nd e xpeditions, w ith t raders o ften r eappearing a fter l ong a bsences. E ventually, i f t he d esire t o t rade p ersists , t raders c ease b eing " fleeting b irds o f p assage" a nd t ake u p r esidence a mong t he i ndigenous p opulation ( ibid., 8 -13). T his e volutionary m odel f its t he e vidence f or P ortuguese t rading a ctivities o n t he W est A frican c oast a nd t he A ssyrians' a ctivities i n A natolia . T herefore, a lthough t he r ecognition o f t he e arliest t rading c ontacts b etween d iffering c ultural g roups p resents s eemingly i nsoluble p roblems f or t he a rchaeologist, t he m ore s ophisticated m echanisms o f c ross-cultural t rade , t he c ommunity o f f oreign t raders r esident a broad, s hould b e d iscernible i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord. S everal r ecent i mportant p apers ( Branigan 1 981, 1 984 ; S chofield 1 983, 1 984) h ave e xplored t he p ossibilities o f e stablishing a rchaeological c riteria f or s uch s ettlements. T he i mportance o f e stablishing a n a ccepted s et o f c riteria " which c an b e l egitimately a nd v alidly u sed a s ab ase o n w hich t o a rgue t he p resence o f af oreign m inority i n a n i ndigenous c ommunity" h as l ong b een r ecognized ( Merrillees 1 975, 3 3 ; D avis 1 979a, 1 43-157). R ecent w ork o n t his p roblem h as i nvolved t he c onstruction o f g eneralized m odels b ased o n t he e xamination o f t he m aterial r emains f rom c learly d ocumented f oreign s ettlements a broad, s o t hat p atterns i n t he e vidence m ight b e d iscerned w hich c ould b e t ested a gainst p rehistoric c ontexts. B ranigan ( 1981, 2 3-33; 1 984, 4 9-53) h as b een p articularly c oncerned w ith t his q uestion i n h is e xamination o f t he o rganization o f M inoan t rade i n t he A egean . B ranigan ( 1981, 2 5-27), i n h is ' preliminary s urvey ' o f t he p roblem , i solates t hree p rincipal t ypes o f c olony " which n eed t o b e d efined i n t erms o f t heir n ature , t heir p urpose, a nd t heir m aterial f eatures." T hese t hree t ypes a re : 1 .

G overned C olonies

T his i s B ranigan 's t erm f or e xisting s ettlements w hich h ave a f oreign a dministration o r g overnment i mposed u pon t hem b y f orce, e ither m ilitary o r e conomic, a nd a re t hen g overned f or, a nd i n t he i nterests o f, t he f oreign s tate. H e c ites H ong K ong a nd G ibraltar a s e xamples.

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S mall n umbers o f a liens w ould b e i nvolved i n t his r e-settlement, " only a ' governor ' ( whatever h is t itle), p erhaps a s mall a dministrative s taff, a nd s ome s ort o f g arrison t o e nsure t he s ecurity o f t he ' governor ' a nd t he a dherence o f t he c olony" ( ibid., 2 5). T he p hysical f eatures o f a g overned c olony w ould c onsist o f a g overnmental r esidence, o ften d efended, a nd p erhaps a ccommodation a nd e quipment f or ag arrison a nd o ffices a nd a ccommodation f or a dministrative s taff. T he s ocial a nd s patial d istribution o f i mports w ould b e d istinctly u neven b ecause t he g overnor a nd p ossibly h is s taff w ould i mport l uxuries f rom t he h omeland, b ut t he m ass o f t he p opulation w ould h ave n o a ccess t o i mports. ' Governed c olonies ' c an b e s een a s ad ominant c entre i n a t rading p ost e mpire . I f t he e stablishment o f t he s ettlement w as t o p rovide a m arket f or t he p roduce o f t he h omeland, l ocal i ndustries m ight b e c urtailed a nd f oreign i mports m ight b e s een i n q uantity. 2 .

S ettlement C olonies

T his t erm a pplies " to t ombs o r c ities f ounded o n u noccupied l and a nd p opulated b y p eople r esettled t here f rom t he f oreign h omeland." B ranigan c ites t he 8 th c entury B C G reek c olonies o f t he W est C entral M editerranean a d ' e xamples. T he p hysical f eatures o f s uch a c olony w ill i nclude t he s ettlement o f a n u noccupied s ite b y p eople o f a d istinctly f oreign m aterial c ulture. " Architecture t hroughout t he f irst s ettlem ent w ill b e s trongly r eminiscent o f t he a rchitecture o f t he h omeland, b ut m ay s how s ignificant m odification d ue t o t he a vailability o f d ifferent m aterials" ( ibid., 2 5). I nitially, t here w ould b e a h igh l evel o f i mported a rtefacts b rought a s p ersonal b elongings b y t he o riginal c olonists. T hese m ight d ecline i n q uantity o ver t ime u nless c lose c ontact i s m aintained w ith t he h omeland. T raditional r eligious c ults, b urial p ractices a nd p olitical s ystems w ould u sually p ersist f or m any g enerations . T he s ettlement m ay b e f ortified i f t he i ndigenous p opulation w ere h ostile. 3 .

C ommunity C olonies

B ranigan u ses t his t erm f or i nstances w here a s ignificant e lement o f a s ettlement 's p opulation i s c omprised o f i mmigrants f rom a f oreign p lace. " Their s ignificance m ay b e n umerical o r e conomic ; i t w ould n ot n ormally b e p olitical" ( ibid., 2 6). B ranigan e schews t he t erm ' enclave' t o d escribe s uch a p henomenon, a s h e s uggests t hat a lthough i t m ay r esult i n ad istinct s patial g rouping , t his i s n ot a lways t he c ase. I n f act, " the i mmigrant g roup m ay f orm a ' community' i n a s ocial, e conomic, a nd c ultural s ense r ather t han a s patial o ne" ( ibid., 2 6). B ranigan c ites t he A ssyrian c olonies i n A natolia a nd t he I ndian c olonies i n p resent d ay A frica a s e xamples o f c ommunity c olonies. T hese c ommunity c olonies u sually r esult f rom " the s elf-interests o f a g roup o f i ndividuals w ho a re a ble t o p romote t rade a nd c ommerce b y t heir r esidence i n af oreign s ettlement." T he s ettlement m ay b e a t t he i nstigation o f t heir g overnment f or t he b enefit o f t he s tate o r r esult f rom t he o pportunism a nd a mbition o f t he i ndividuals t hemselves. I n a l ater i mportant p aper, B ranigan ( 1984, 4 9-53) e xamined c ommunity c olonies ' m ore c losely i n a n a ttempt t o " establish t heir c haracteristics m ore c learly a nd f irmly" ( ibid ., 4 9). F or t his p urpose, h e l ooked a t e xamples o f c ommunity c olonies w hose e xistence w as d ocumented b y w ritten r ecords a nd t he c haracter o f w hich w as

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c learly r ecorded b y m aterial r emains a nd, i f p ossible, f urther d ocumentation. S uch e xamples p roved t o b e e xtremely l imited. F rom a d etailed a nalysis o f t he m aterial d ata f rom t he m odern C hinese c ommunity i n B angkok ( which h e k new w ell) a nd t he A ssyrian c olony o f K ärum K anis, a nd f rom g eneral i nformation a bout o ther e xamples , B ranigan i solated s everal f eatures w hich h e c onsidered c haracteristic o f c ommunity c olonies s ettled a broad i n t he i nterests o f t rade. T he e ssential c haracteristics a re: 1 .

T raditional r eligious a nd f unerary p ractices a re m aintained.

2 .

B usiness i s c onducted i n t he a lien l anguage ( i.e. t he l anguage o f t he f oreign t raders).

3 .

H ouse d esign a nd c onstruction i s e ssentially i ndigenous, i nterior f urnishings r eflect a lien t raditions.

4 .

P ersonal a nd m oveable b elongings o ften c ome f rom t he h omeland, b ut m any a re l ocal c opies o r l ocal p roducts d ecorated i n a s tyle i ntended t o a ttract t he a lien c ustomer.

5 .

T raditional d ietary a nd f ood p reparation d ifferences, h ence t raditional d omestic i mplements, a re m aintained.

b ut

a nd

E lizabeth S chofield ( 1983, 2 93-301; 1 984, 4 5-47) h as a lso c onsidered t he q uestion o f M inoan s ettlement a broad i n t he A egean, a nd h as u sed s ociological s tudies o f m igrations o f g roups i n p re-industrial t imes a s a m eans o f g aining i nsight i nto t he f actors i nvolved. S he a lso s tresses t hat t raditional s ocial c ustoms a re l ikely t o b e m aintained, t hough c hanges w ill o ccur i n a dapting t o t he n ew e nvironment. S chofield ( 1983, 2 99) a lso s ees d ietary h abits a nd c ooking u tensils a s al ikely i ndication o f f oreign s ettlement a broad. A s m entioned a bove , t he f ragmentary n ature o f m uch a rchaeological d ata m ilitates a gainst t he r igorous t esting o f s uch m odels. H owever, a n e xamination o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he n odes i n t he A egean t rading s ystem i n t he W est C entral M editerranean ( see C hapter 5 ), i n t he l ight o f t he g eneralized m odels o utlined a bove , m ay p rovide s ome i ndications o f t he w ays i n w hich t rade b etween t hese d iffering c ultures w as a ccomplished. W e c annot s ay h ow t he f irst c ontacts b etween t he t wo g roups t ook p lace. P ossibly t hey i nvolved s ilent t rade o r t rading f rom s hips i n i ts v arious f orms. T he a bandonment o f t he C apo G raziano c oastal v illages a nd a m ovement i nland t o n aturally d efended s ites i s s ynchronic w ith t he i nitial f inds o f A egean s herds i n t he A eolian I slands ( Bernabö B rea 1 957, 1 05) a nd s uggests t hat t he A egean s eafarers w ere l ess t han w elcome. E ven i f t hey c ame a s b ona f ide t raders a nd n ot r aiders , t he n ewcomers w ere p erhaps c onsidered d angerous i nterlopers i nto a f lourishing i nter-regional m aritime t rading s ystem . T here i s n o e vidence f or a l arge i nflux o f i mmigrants t o u noccupied t erritory ( as f or B ranigan ts s ettlement c olonies) o r a ny e vidence f or g overned c olonies. T he s patial d istribution o f A egean i mports s uggests t hat t he M ycenaeans c ame t o t he W est C entral M editerranean t o t rade a nd t hat, i f t hey w ere r esident a mong t he i ndigenous c ommunities, i t w as i n t he i nterests o f t rade. T he

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c haracteristics o f B ranigan 's c ommunity c olonies w ill b e u sed t herefore a s a n a nalytical t ool t o e xamine t he a rchaeological e vidence f or s uch r esidence. T here i s s ome e vidence f or A egean r eligious p ractices i n t he W est C entral M editerranean. M ycenaean f igurines, w hich m ay h ave r eligious s ignificance ( French 1 971, 1 07-108), h ave b een r eported f rom S coglio d el T onno ( where t wo L HIIIA f igurines, a nd a lso l ocal c opies, w ere f ound) a nd f rom L ipari ( one L HIIIA f igurine). N o s hrines h ave b een f ound. H owever, a t A ntigori, o n S ardinia , t he d iscovery o f am iniature d ouble a xe o f l ead i n a r ock c left o n t he s ite h as b een s een b y t he e xcavator ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 982, 1 76) a s p ossibly d enoting a v otive d eposit i n a t omb. I t i s i nteresting t hat a r hyton h as a lso b een f ound a t A ntigori ( ibid., 1 72-173, T ay. L XIII. 5 ). R hytons w ere a pparently u sed a s c ult o bjects i n b oth M ycenaean a nd M inoan c ontexts ( Warren 1 975, 9 9; V ermeule 1 964 , 2 90). T here i s n o c lear e vidence f or A egean f unerary p ractices i n t he W est C entral M editerranean. T aylour ( 1958 , 6 7-69) h as s uggested t hat c ertain a rchitectural c haracteristics o f t he r ockcut t ombs o f S icily, w hich a ppear i n t he T hapsos c ulture p hase , w ere d erived f rom M ycenaean t ombs. T he u se o f w ell-constructed m asonry, b uttressing a nd t he b locki ng o f t he d oorway w ith m asonry, a nd a lso t he c omplete c overing o f s everal t ombs, w as s een b y T aylour a s i ndicative o f A egean i nfluence. S imilarly, t he t reatment o f t he b odies ( such a s t he p ushing a side o f e arlier b urials t o i nsert l ater o nes , a nd t he p ractice o f s uperimposed b urial) s uggested t o T aylour t he a doption o f M ycenaean b urial c ustoms. H owever, t he l ong t radition o f t he u se o f r ockcut t ombs i n I taly h as b een d emonstrated b y W hitehouse ( 1972, 2 69-274), a nd t he f eatures d escribed b y T aylour c an e qually b e s een a s l ocal d evelopments. A ' tholos ' t omb h as r ecgntly b een r eported f rom S an C alogero o n L ipari. T he v ault o f t he t omb w as i ncorporated i nto t he C lassical G reek b aths a t t he s ite. F irst i ndications ( provided b y p ottery) s uggest t hat t he t omb m ay d ate t o t he C apo G raziano p eriod. F urther d etails a re n ot y et a vailable, b ut i t w ould b e i nteresting i f t he t omb e xhibited A egean f eatures ( Cavalier 1 985, p ers. c omm .). A nother f eature o f ac ommunity c olony e stablished i n t he i nterests o f t rade i s t hat b usiness t ransactions a re c onducted i n t he l anguage o f t he a lien t raders . U nfortunately, t o d ate, -t i o L inear s cript t ablets h ave b een d iscovered i n t he W est C entral M editerranean. H owever, L inear s cript s igns h ave b een f ound o n o xhide i ngots o n S ardinia ( see T able 7 ). T he p ot m arks f ound o n i ndigenous p ottery o n L ipari a lso s eem t o d erive f rom A egean f orms. A lthough t he e vidence i s s canty, i t m ay s uggest s ome u se o f a n a lien l anguage f or t rade p urposes ( perhaps s imply t o d esignate g oods m eant f or e xport) b y g roups w ho w ere i lliterate. T he e vidence o f d wellings f rom t he m ajor n odes i n t he t rading s ystem r eveals a w ide r ange o f f orms, m ostly f ollowing i ndigenous t raditions. H owever, c ontrary t o B ranigan 's s uggested c haracteristics , t here i s s trong e vidence f or A egean t ype b uildings a t T hapsos, a t P antalica ( the ' anaktoron ') a nd p ossibly a t T orre C astelluccia ( the m egaron '-like s tructure). M uch o f t he s ettlement e vidence i s s o f ragmentary a s t o p reclude d etails o f i nterior f urnishings. H owever, t he A egean t ype p ithoi f ound i n m any d wellings m ay b e i ncluded i n t his

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c ategory ( for e xample, t hose a t B roglio d i T rebisacce, T orre d el M ordillo a nd P orto P erone). T o d ate, A egean i tems w ere f ound a mong l ocal a ssemblages , t hough n one o f t he p eninsular s ites h as y et b een d ug i n i ts e ntirety. E xcept f or t he s eparate A egean t ype b uildings a t T hapsos , t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest a s egregated e nclave o f t raders. Q uagliati ( 1900 , 4 16-417) r eported s eparate s tratigraphical c ontexts f or M ycenaean a nd i ndigenous m aterials a t S coglio d el T onno , t hough t his h as l argely b een d iscounted ( Taylour 1 958 , 1 33-134). T he p resence o f p ersonal b elongings b rought b y t raders f or t heir o wn u se i s a nother c haracteristic o f c ommunity c olonies. T he M ycenaean f igurines m ay b e i ncluded i n t his c ategory, a s m ay s ome o f t he i mported p ottery. H odges ( 1981, 9 0-91), i n h is a nalysis o f t he i mported p ottery f rom t he S axon s ite o f H amwih i n E ngland, s uggested t hat t he l arge q uantity a nd v ariety o f ' tablewares ' ( many c lasses o f w hich w ere a bsent f rom i nland s ites r eceiving t raded g oods t hrough H amwih) a nd t he s carcity o f s torage v essels i ndicated t hat r esident t raders w ere u sing m uch o f t he i mported p ottery t hemselves , r ather t han u sing i t a s a t rade c ommodity. Q uantification o f A egean p ottery f rom m any o f t he s ites i nvolved i n t he t rade i s n ot y et p ossible. H owever, a s imilar i mported p ottery a ssemblage m ay b e r epresented o n L ipari, w here a w ide v ariety o f A egean p ottery t ypes h as b een r eported w ith a p redominance o f f ine c ups a nd o ther ' drinking ' v essels ( Taylour 1 980, 8 16, F rench 1 985, 2 95-303). T he p resence o f l ocal c opies o f i mported o bjects a nd l ocal p roducts d ecorated i n a s tyle i ntended t o a ttract t he a lien c ustomer i s s een b y B ranigan a s a f eature o f c ommunity c olonies. T here i s c onsiderable e vidence a t t he s outhern p eninsular s ites, a t A ntigori a nd o n V ivara f or t he p roduction o f l ocal c opies o f M ycenaean p ottery ( see C hapter 2 ). T he l ocal p roduction o f v essels e choing M ycenaean s hapes a nd u sing M ycenaean t echniques o f m anufacture a nd d ecoration a lso t ook p lace. O n V ivara , a l ocal p ainted w are w as p roduced. T he c eramica g rigia a nd d olii c ordonati ( or p ithoi) f rom t he s outhern p eninsular s ites m ay h ave b een p roduced t o p rovide r esident ' t raders w ith a f ine t ableware a nd a t raditional m eans o f s torage. A t B roglio d i T rebisacce, t he m ainly c losed f orms o f A egean i mports a nd t he m ainly o pen f orms o f c eramica g rigia s eem t o f ulfil, t ogether, t he f unctional r ange s hown i n t he l ocal i mpasto w are ( Bergonzi 1 985, 3 62-363). T his s uggests t hat r esident A egean t raders m ay h ave b een u sing t he c eramica g rigia a s t ableware , a nd t hat i t m ay h ave b een m ade e specially f or t he a lien c ustomer. T he c eramica g rigia s mall c losed f orms f rom B roglio d i T rebisacce t end t o c opy A egean t ypes , p erhaps f or a s imilar r eason ( though t he o pen f orms f ollow i ndigenous p ottery t raditions) ( ibid., 3 62-363). I t i s n ecessary h owever t o p oint o ut t hat t hese l ocal c opies m ay i ndicate p roduction f or i ndigenous c ustomers w ho d esired A egean i mports b ut w ere d enied a ccess t o t hem . I t i s a lso a m oot p oint w hether s uch c opies w ere m ade b y t he a lien r esidents u sing l ocal c lays o r b y l ocal c raftsmen. I n a ny e vent, t he w ide r ange o f c hanges i n p ottery p roduction , i n s hapes, m anufacturing t echniques a nd d ecoration , s een o n t he W est C entral M editerranean f avoured s ites , s hows a s triking r esemblance t o t hose w hich w ere n oted b y E mre a t K hrum K anis d uring t he p eriods o f t he A ssyrian e nclave. T he f inal c haracteristic i s t hat t raditional d ietary a nd f ood p reparation t echniques a re m aintained a nd t herefore t raditional d omestic i mplements s hould b e f ound o n t he c ommunity c olony s ites. S herds r elating t o A egean ' cooking p ots ' h ave b een r eported f rom t wo

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p eninsular s ites, B roglio d i T rebisacce i n C alabria a nd S coglio d el T onno i n A pulia. T he c oncentration o n A egean f ine p ainted w ares i n p ast e xcavations m ay h ave r esulted i n s uch m aterial b eing o verlooked. A t p resent, u sing B ranigan 's c riteria f or c ommunity c olonies a s a n a nalytical t ool, a rchaeological e vidence f or f oreign t raders r esident o n W est C ental M editerranean s ites i s n ot e xtensive, b ut i t d oes e xist. T he d etailed p ublication o f p ottery, b oth i ndigenous a nd i mported, f rom s uch r ecent e xcavations a s V ivara , T ermitito, B roglio d i T rebisacce a nd A ntigori, a nd h opefully f rom t he o ld e xcavations a t T orre C astelluccia, t ogether w ith t he s ystematic e xcavation o f e ntire s ettlement s ites , w ill n o d oubt i ncrease t he e vidence f or m any o f t he a bove c ategories . F or t he p resent, w e h ave s een ( in C hapter 5 ) t hat, b y t he 1 3th c entury B C , a n e fficiently o rganized t rade b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est C entral M editerranean w as f lourishing. T he p roduction o f M ycenaean p ottery s pecifically f or e xport h as b een s uggested a t t his t ime ( Sherratt 1 982, 1 83). C ommodities, u ndoubtedly l argely m etals, w ere b eing c hannelled t o t he A egean w orld t hrough a s eries o f s ites w hich f ormed t he n odes o f t he t rading s ystem . T hese n odes s how l ong a nd i ntensive c ontact w ith t he A egean t raders , a nd, f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence, i t f as b een s uggested t hat t hey e xhibit m any f eatures o f g ateway c ommunities a nd t ransshipment c entres . W e h ave s een a bove t hat c ontinued l ong d istance m aritime t rade a cross c ultural b oundaries f requently r esults i n t he r esidence o f f oreign t raders a mong t he i ndigenous p opulation t o f acilitate t rade. I t i s d ifficult t o i magine s hips a rriving a t W est C entral M editerranean p orts , d uring t he m ost i ntensive s tage o f t he t rade , h oping t hat a c argo w ould b e a vailable d epending o n t he w him o f t he i ndigenous p eople. R ather, b ecause i t w as n ecessary t o e nsure a c onstant a nd a dequate s upply o f r aw m aterials t o f eed t he M ycenaean p alace e conomies, M ycenaean t raders w ould h ave b een r esident i n t he m ajor n odes o f t he t rading s ystem w here t hey c ould l iaise w ith t he l ocal l eaders a nd f acilitate t he c onduct o f t he t rade. T he a rchaeological e vidence d escribed a bove p rovides a t antalising g limpse o f t hese a lien t rade c ommunities.

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C HAPTER 7 C ONCLUSIONS O ur f ailures a re a ll t oo o ften d ue t o o ur i nsistence o n a sking u nanswerable q uestions, o r p hrasing r easonable q uestions i n s uch a w ay t hat t he r eplies h ave t o b e e ither v ague a nd e lusive, o r c onsist o f i solated -a nd t herefore u seless s tatements o f f act. ..true k nowledge d oes n ot c onsist m erely i n a c ollection o f f acts; i t i s a p attern o f o bservations w hich a re i nterrelated a nd c onnected. ( Larsen 1 976, 1 7-18)

T he a ims o f t his s tudy w ere t wofold. F irst, i t h as a ttempted t o p rovide a b road r eappraisal o f t he a rchaeological d ata f or A egean t rade a nd i nteraction i n t he W est C entral M editerranean i n t he 2 nd m illennium B C. T he s econd a im w as t he i nterpretation o f p atterns r evealed b y t he e mpirical d ata i n t he l ight o f r ecent t heoretical a pproaches t o l ong d istance m aritime t rade. A s w e h ave s een ( Chapter 2 ), a c onsiderable q uantity a nd v ariety o f m aterial e vidence . f or t rade b etween t he t wo a reas n ow e xists. A s i s s o o ften t he c ase, p ottery c omprises t he m ajor p roportion o f A egean i mports, t hough m etal o bjects a nd a mber a nd f aience b eads a re a lso s ymbols o f t his t rade. I t m ust b e s tated t hat t he p resent s ynthesis i s n ecessarily p rovisional. T he d ynamic n ature o f c urrent I talian a rchaeological r esearch e nsures t hat t he c orpus o f A egean i mported m aterial i s c onstantly i ncreasing. T he a rchaeological e vidence t o d ate s hows t hat M ycenaean p ottery i s c oncentrated i n c oastal s ites o n p eninsular I taly, S icily, t he A eolian I slands, t he P hlegrean I slands a nd S ardinia. F inds o f M ycenaean p ottery i nland a re i solated, s mall i n q uantity a nd r estricted t o t he f inal p hase. T hus, l arge s cale e xchanges w ith t he p opulations o f i nland a reas w ere o bviously n ot a m ajor p art o f t he t rade. T his d istribution c learly i ndicates t hat t he t raded o bjects w ere t ransported b y s ea. U nfortunately, w e k now l ittle o f A egean B ronze A ge s hipping a nd s eafaring. T he l ittle i nformation w e h ave c omes f rom t he A egean ( Gray 1 974) a nd t he E ast M editerranean ( de G raeve 1 981), a nd d erives f rom d epictions o f s hips o n v ases a nd o ther o bjects, f rom t he s hip f rescoes o f A krotiri ( Casson 1 975, 3 -10) a nd f rom t he C ape G elidonya s hipwreck ( Bass 1 967). N o s hipwreck o f B ronze A ge d ate h as y et b een d iscovered i n t he W est C entral M editerranean a nd s o n o c oncrete a rchaeological e vidence f or t he t ypes a nd s izes o f s hips u sed i n t he t rade b etween t he t wo r egions e xists. H owever, t here i s n o r eason t o s uggest t hat t hey w ere d ifferent f rom t hose u sed i n t he E astern M editerranean . I n a ny e vent, t he s hips m ust h ave b een c apable o f t raversing t he 9 0 n autical m iles f rom t he w estern c oast o f G reece t o t he I talian p eninsular a nd p erhaps t he 3 00 n autical m iles f rom t he

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w estern P eloponnese t o S icily. T here i s m uch e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he i mpetus b ehind M ycenaean a ctivity i n t he W est C entral M editerranean w as t he a cquisit ion o f m etals. T he m aterial e vidence ( i.e . m etal o bjects a nd o xhide i ngots), t he d istribution p atterns o f m etal o bjects a nd t he c hanges i n t rade r outes ( Chapter 5 ) a ll p oint i n t his d irection. U nfortunately, t he s cientific a nalysis o f o xhide i ngots f rom S ardinia a nd e lsewhere d oes n ot a s y et p rovide u nambiguous e vidence o f p rovenience. T he e arliest A egean i mports a re c oncentrated i n t he A eolian I slands, t he c entre o f w ell-established i ndigenous t rade n etworks f rom t he N eolithic p eriod, w here t he A egean t raders w ere n o d oubt a ble t o l ink i nto e xisti ng t rading s ystems. P erhaps g rowing M ycenaean k nowledge o f W est C entral M editerranean o re s ources a nd t he r ealization b y p eninsular c ommunities t hat t hey c ould p articipate m ore d irectly i n t he p rosperity a ttendant o n t rading a ctivity r esulted i n t he s hift i n f ocus o f t rade d uring t he L HIIIA/B p eriod t o p eninsular I taly a nd S ardinia , a nd t he e ventual c onquest o f t he A eolian I slands b y m ainland g roups. T he w ays i n w hich t he i ndigenous t rade n etworks m ay h ave a rticulated w ith t he w ider i nternational s phere h ave b een d iscussed i n C hapter 5 . T he a pplication o f l ocational m odels d eveloped i n e conomic a nthropology a nd g eography p rovides a r ational e xplanation o f t he p atterns o bserved i n t he e mpirical d ata. I n t he c ase o f p eninsular I taly, i t i s s uggested t hat a s eries o f g ateway c ommunities d eveloped a t l ocations i deal f or t he m ovement o f c ommodities f rom t he i nterior t o t he M ycenaean w orld. O n L ipari, t he t ransshipment f unction w as a chieved b y am echanism r eminiscent o f a n e arly f orm o f t he p ort o f t rade. A t a ll t he m ajor t rading n odes t here i s e vidence f or A egean i nfluence o n t he i ndigenous c ulture. T he t raits w hich w ere a dopted v ary i n e ach a rea , t hough t he a doption o f M ycenaean t echniques o f p ottery m anufacture w as w idespread. T here i s a lso e vidence f or i ncreasing s ocio-economic c omplexity a t t hese m ajor n odes. T his i s s een i n t he g rowth o f c raft s pecialization , t he c onstruction o f m assive e nclosure w alls, a nd i ncreased d ifferentiation i n d wellings a nd b urials. I t i s s uggested ( Chapter 6 ) t hat , a t t hese m ajor n odes , A egean t raders w ere r esident t o l iaise w ith l ocal l eaders a nd m anage t he c onduct o f t he t rade. T he r easons w hy t he i ndigenous c ommunities w ere w illing t o t rade w ith t he M ycenaeans r emain s peculative. T here i s n o e vidence f or M ycenaean e conomic o r p olitical d omination. N or i s i t s uggested t hat t he M ycenaeans w ere d irectly c oncerned w ith t he p roduction o r p rocurem ent o f c ommodities a t t he o re s ources. H owever, o n S ardinia , i t s eems t hat M ycenaean i nfluence w as d irect e nough t o r esult i n t he i ntroduct ion o f A egean m etalworking t ools a nd i n t he p roduction o f m etals i n a f orm r eadily a cceptable t o A egean c ustomers ( i.e. t he o xhide i ngot). T here i s n o s ign o f a l essening o f s elf-sufficiency a mong t he i ndigenous c ommunities - t he g reat m ajority o f w hom w ere a ffected n o d oubt o nly i ndirectly, i f a t a ll, b y t he t rade. R ather, b y s timulating a d emand f or i mported g oods, t he M ycenaeans w ere a ble t o e nsure a r egular a nd a dequate s upply o f r aw m aterials. T wo p articularly n otew orthy p atterns o bserved i n t he d istribution o f i mported A egean p ottery p rovide s ome p ossible i ndications o f t he d ifferent s ocio-economic s trategies o perating i n t he i ndigenous c ommunities i nvolved i n t he t rade . F irst, a s w e h ave s een i n C hapter 5 , d ifferent p ottery t ypes

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were preferred by different communities. On Sicily, imports were apparently restricted to small fine painted vessels (such as three­ handled piriform jars and alabastra), which were possibly containers for exotic substances, such as perfumed oils or drugs. In the Tyrrhenian region, on Lipari, on Vivara and at Antigori on Sardinia, a wide range of shapes and types of imports occurred, ranging from coarse unpainted wares to fine drinking vessels. The latter appear to have formed the predominant part of the assemblage on Lipa�i. On peninsular Italy, large storage jars (possibly containers for oil and wine) com­ prised the majority of imported wares, with fine painted small vessels present in small numbers. Secondly, the contexts in which the imported vessels are found also differ. On Sicily, the imports are exclusively found in burial contexts, wheFe they appear with local pottery, amber and faience beads and metal objects. In the western islands, the imports were spread widely throughout the settlements, and were not reserved for tomb use. On peninsular Italy, the large storage jars and some smaller vessels were found spread widely throughout the coastal trading sites. However, small fine containers were also deposited in tombs. The evidence from Sicily suggests elements of a 'prestige goods economy', with access to imports, which apparently were considered high status goods, restricted to certain members of the community. Such limited access does not seem to fit the pattern for the Tyrrhenian islands, which suggests that most members of coastal communities had access to imported wares. On peninsular Italy, two spheres of exchange involving imported pottery seem to have operated. Imported pottery was available to most inhabitants at the major trading nodes, but small fine containers were treated as high status objects for tomb use at some sites which perhaps were not in direct contact with the Aegean traders. Although the data are rather limited at present, increased information from excavations now in progress should help us to under­ stand "how traded items are involved in internally generated strategies within societies" (Hodder 1982b, 204). Some of the most interesting questions raised by a study of Aegean trade and interaction in the West Central Mediterranean concern the different classes of pottery found on the sites which show the greatest evidence of contact between the two regions. The Aegean imported pottery itself presents many, as yet unanswered, questions. The precise source of origin of much of the imported wares is still unknown. The majority appears to be Mycenaean, but both scientific and stylistic analysis suggest a variety of regional sources in the Mycenaean world, especially by the 13th century BC. Characterization studies which could discriminate between Aegean pottery production centres would greatly help to clarify this problem. Much more scientific analysis also needs to be done to distinguish between local copies and genuine imported wares. The analyses so far carried out indicate that local production of Aegean type pottery. was a common feature of many of the major trading nodes. Information is so far largely lacking concerning the types of imported vessels which were copied locally. Could such information indicate not only aesthetic preferences, but also suggest how imported pottery may have been incorporated into indigenous social and economic strategies? Only recently has the importance of ceramica grigia 165

and dolii

c ordonati b een r ecognized, a s c urrent e xcavations ( notably a t B roglio d i T rebisacce) h ave r evealed t he m arked c orrelation b etween t hese c lasses o f p ottery a nd A egean i mported w ares d uring t he L HIIIB a nd L HIIIC p eriods. D etailed p ublication o f p ottery ( both i ndigenous a nd i mported) f rom o ther m ajor W est C entral M editerranean t rading s ites w ould e nable m ore d efinite s tatements t o b e m ade a bout t he r elationship b etween t he v arious c lasses o f p ottery. W e c an e xpect t hat t hese q uestions, a nd a lso t he q uestions s urrounding H andmade B urnished W are , w ill b e c onsiderably c larified o ver t he n ext f ew y ears , a s c urrent e xcavations a re c ompleted a nd d etailed a nalysis a nd p ublication o f t he a rchaeological d ata i s c arried o ut. O ur k nowledge o f t he o rganization o f M ycenaean t rade i s l imited. U nfortunately, n o L inear B t ablets h ave b een f ound w hich m ention t rade o r t raders. T he r ecords f rom K ärum K anis i ndicate t hat t he A ssyrian t raders a cted a s e ntrepreneurs i n t heir o wn i nterest a nd a lso a s a gents f or t he s tate. S uch a s ystem m ay h ave e xisted i n M ycenaean G reece. A nother f actor w hich i t w ould b e i nteresting t o c onsider i n e xamining M ycenaean t rade i s t he p ossibility o f t he e xistence o f a ' trade d iaspora ', a n etwork o f t rade c ommunities s cattered a long t he r outes o f t rade, f orming a s eries o f a lien g roups i n t he h ost s ocieties i n o rder t o f acilitate t rade ( Cohen 1 971, 2 67). T here i s m uch e vidence f or M ycenaean t rade c ommunities i n t he D odecanese a nd i n A natolia f rom t he 1 4th c entury B C ( Mee 1 982, 8 1-92). I t i s p ossible t o e nvisage a M ycenaean t rade d iaspora t raversing t he A egean a nd E ast M editerranean , w ith a s econdary b ranch s tretching i nto t he W est C entral M editerranean . T he m ovement o f t rade i tems a long t his d iaspora w ould p rovide a n a lternative e xplanation f or t he p resence o f E ast M editerranean o bjects i n t he W est C entral M editerranean , w hich h ave b een s een a s i ndicating t hat C ypriote t raders m ade t he l ong j ourney t o S icily a nd b eyond. I t w as t he k nowledge t hat t he c orpus o f a rchaeological d ata f or t rade b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est C entral M editerranean h ad g reatly i ncreased s ince L ord W illiam T aylour's m onograph w as p ublished a nd t he d esire t o s ee h ow t heoretical m odels f or t he o rganization o f l ong d istance m aritime t rade c ould b e a pplied t o t his d ata t hat e ncouraged m e t o b egin r esearch o n t his t opic i n 1 982. S ince t hen t he a mount o f d ata h as i ncreased y ear b y y ear. T his d ynamic s ituation h as m ade w ork o n t he s ubject p articularly e xciting a nd s timulating. T here i s n o d oubt t hat o ver t he n ext f ew y ears o ur k nowledge o f A egean t rade a nd i nteraction i n t he W est C entral M editerranean w ill i ncrease s till f urther. L ike a ll a rchaeological r esearch , t his s tudy t herefore f orms a r eport o n w ork i n p rogress . I t i s h oped t hat i t w ill p rovide a n a id f or f urther r esearch , p articularly f or E nglish-speaking s cholars.

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