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Monopole Antennas Melvin M. Weiner (retired) The MITRE Corporation Bedford, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
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10 9 8 765 43 21 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
in memory of
Jack H. Richmond (19221990) Piofessor Emeritus, The Ohio State University and James R. Wait (19241998) Regents Professor, University of Arizona
Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Preface
The primary intent of this book is to provide an industry standard for the modeling, testing, and application of airborne and groundbased monopole antennas. This standard is intended for engineers, scientists, practitioners, and students in the communication, radar, navigation, and government service industries. Most of the book is based on the original stateoftheart work performed by the author at The MITRE Corporation in Bedford, Massachusetts with sponsorship by the U.S. Air Force and MITRE Independent Research Program. I did the work on surfacewave fields in Sec. 9.3 after my retirement from MITRE. Part I is concerned with monopole antennas in free space. In this part of the book Earth parameters do not affect the antenna's electrical properties but do affect propagation losses (denoted as basic transmission loss Lb(d) in Eq. (6.4.1)). This characteristic is realized if the base of the antenna is more than a quarter wavelength above the earth's surface. The propagation mode is assumed to be the sum of direct and indirect waves through the troposphere by line of sight, reflection, refraction, and/or scattering—a typical mode and paths at frequencies above 30 MHz (see Sec. 6.5). An overview of the models, numerical results, applications, and computer programs in Part I is given in Chapter 1. Part II is concerned with monopole antennas in proximity to flat earth. In Part II, Earth parameters do affect the antenna's electrical properties This
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Preface
characteristic is realized if the base of the antenna is below the earth's surface or within a quarterwavelength above the earth's surface Propagation modes are assumed to be a space wave within the radio horizon (with no earth dependent propagation losses), a space wave over the horizon by reflection from the ionosphere (with no earthdependent propagation losses but with ionospheric propagation losses), or a surface wave through the earth (with earthdependent propagation losses)—typical modes and paths at frequencies below 30 MHz (see discussion preceding and following Eq ( 1 3 1 3)) An overview of the models, numerical results, applications and computer programs in Part II is gi\en in Chapter 7 This book is a greatly expanded version of an earlier book (MM Weiner, SP Cruze, CC Li, and WJ Wilson, Monopole Elements on Cucular Ground Planes,
Norwood, MA Artech House, 1987) that was restricted to discussion of structures in free space only The present book discusses structures in proximity to flat earth in addition to those in tree space Chapters 15 and Appendices A 1 A 5, and B 1B "5 are partially revised from the previous book except that the computer programs in Appendices B 1 B 5 are now provided on CD rather than as program printouts Entirely new material is in Chapters 613 and Appendices A 6A 8, B 6B 12, C and D Although the monopole antenna is one of the oldest of antennas, its properties are neither well understood nor standardized, particularly for ground
plane radii that are small or comparable to a wavelength Most treatments idealize the monopole antenna by assuming a ' perfect" ground plane (of infinite extent and conductivity) Other treatments utilize asymptotic models that give
approximate results only In this book, these deficiencies are addressed by providing an in depth treatment oi the influence of both the finite extent and proximity to earth of the ground plane State of the art numerical methods, including Richmond s method of moments for disk ground planes and Lawrence Eivermore Laboratory s Numerical Electromagnetics Code for radialwire ground planes are featured to provide accurate results and an industry standard that were previously unavailable for monopole antennas A vertical cylindrical monopole element at the center of a horizontal circular ground plane has the simplest monopole antenna geometry because its structure and radiation pattern are both invariant m the azimuthal direction Such a structure is convenient for modeling, testing, and standardization The electrical properties of monopole antennas with nonperfect ground planes in free space can be substantially different from those with a perfect ground plane For perfectly conducting structures in free space, the radiation efficiency is 100% However edge diffraction by the ground plane can reduce the input resistance (equal to the radiation resistance) by a factor of two peak directivity b> as much as 3 3 dB and directivity in the plane of the ground plane by as much as 3 3 dB and increase the magnitude of the input reactance by an
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Preface
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infinite percentage from the value for a perfect ground plane (see Table 4 in Sec. 4.5). Furthermore, the direction of peak directivity can be tilted as much as 58 degrees above the plane of the ground plane compared with zero degrees for a
perfect ground plane (see Fig. 5 in Sec. 4.5 and Table A222 in App. A.2). Those same structures in proximity to earth can be substantially different from those in free space and from those with a perfect ground plane. Fresnel reflection causes a directivity null of minus infinity dB in the plane of the ground plane (see App. A.8). An electrically short monopole element in close proximity to dielectric earth can have a radiation efficiency of almost 0% and a peak directivity below earth of approximately +15 dB at a critical angle of approximately 20 degrees from the nadir direction (see Fig. 75 in Sec. 9.2.2 and Figs. 76 and 77 in Sec. 9.2.3). For quarterwave elements on electrically small ground planes resting on most types of earth except sea water, the peak directivity in the High Frequency (HF) band is not substantially different from that of a perfect ground plane but is tilted approximately 30 degrees above the plane of the ground plane compared to 0 degrees for a perfect ground plane (see Fig. 91 in Sec. 10.2 4) The input impedance is not as severely affected by edge diffraction (because the earth softens the edge of the ground plane) but is now affected by the decreased radiation efficiency (see Figs. A657 and A658 in Appendix A.6). Part I is based on work performed for the U.S. Air Force SINCGARS radio program. The radio is a frequencyhopping antijamming radio in the Very High Frequency (VHP) band and utilizes an electrically short antenna to minimize aerodynamic drag on airborne platforms. The development of optimally efficient, electronically tunable antennas for this radio is of interest. Although the antenna ground plane is platformdependent, it is usually small compared with a radio frequency (RF) wavelength. A circular ground plane provides a standardized groundplane geometry with which to model and evaluate candidate antennas. Accordingly, a VHP antenna range with an eightfoot diameter ground plane was constructed at The MITRE Corporation and a theoretical study was initiated to evaluate candidate antennas. The system margin parameters of the SINCGARS radio were also investigated. The results are reported in technical reports ESDTR86241, ESDTR85 136, ESDTR88270, and ESDTR82400 prepared by MITRE for the Electronic Systems Division, Air Force Systems Command, Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts under Project 6480, Contracts F1962382C0001, F19628 84C0001 and F1962886C0001. The book Monopole Elements on Circular Ground Planes and the present book's Chapters 15, Apps. A.1A.5, and Apps. B.1B.6 are from report ESDTR86241. Sections 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 are from reports ESDTR88270, ESDTR85136, and ESDTR82400, respectively. Sec. 6.1 is from MITRE report M9093 prepared under the MITRE Independent Research Program, Project 91260.
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Part II is based on work sponsored by the MITRE Independent Research Program, Project Nos 91260 91030, and 91740, in support of the Advanced OvertheHonzon (AOTH) radar program of the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) and the U S Air Force The proposed radar operates in the HF band with overthehonzon space wave mode of propagation made possible by reflection from the ionosphere It would utilize a groundbased receiving array comprising hundreds or thousands of randomly spaced antenna
elements Although an array with electrically large ground planes is desirable to increase radiation efficiency and reduce the elevation angle of peak directivity, they are prohibitively expensive to construct and maintain One approach is to use elements with electrically small ground planes A monopole element at the center of a circular ground plane provides a standardized geometry tor evaluating candidate elements and ground planes Accordingly, a theoretical study was initiated to understand the electrical properties of monopole elements with circular ground planes in proximity to earth The results are reported in MITRE reports MTR10989 (Project 91260), M9092 (Project 91260), M91104 (Project 91030), MTR92B0000089 (Project 91260), MTR 92B0000090 (Project 91260), MTR11277 (Project 91030), MTR11278 (Project 91030), MTR11169 (Project 91030), MTR93B000016 (Project 91740), and M91 82 by LW Parker (Project 91260) Sec 9 is in part from MTR11277, Sec 10 and App A 6 are from M90 92, MTR92B0000089, and MTR92B0000090 Sec 11 and App A 7 are from M91104 and MTR11278, part of Sec 12 is from M9182, Sec 1 3 1 is from MTR10989 and MTR93B0000169, Sec 132 is from MTR11169, and Sec 133 is from MTR11277 The above technical reports are in the public domain and are obtainable from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) The discussion of surface waves in Sec 9 3 represents new work I performed specifically for this book It includes approximate expressions for the case when the index of refraction is approximately unity, complementing work of earlier investigators for the case when the index of refraction is large Melvm M Wemer
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Acknowledgments
Several MITRE technical staff members and cooperative students contributed to this work. SP Cruze contributed to Sec. 3.5, wrote program LEITNERSPENCE in App. B.03, and performed some of the early modeling m Sec. 6.3. CC Li contributed to Sec. 4.2, edited programs RICHMONDl and RICHMOND2 in
App. B.02, program AWADALLA in App. B.05, and wrote program BARDEEN in App. B.04. WJ Wilson contributed to Sec. 2 3 and Sec. 3.3.
JE Kriegel derived the correct form of the continued fractions given in Eqs. (3.5.4) and (3 5.5), contributed to the evaluation of the limits in Eqs. (3.3.22 3.3.24), and confirmed the partial differential equation solution given in Eq. (C27b). WC Corrieri (deceased) skillfully performed the measurements discussed m Chapter 5. K Pamidi contributed to the development of Eq. (3.3.16). LW Parker (deceased) developed the program for the computer plots in Sec. 6.1 and contributed Sec. 12.3.2. CR Sharpe obtained the computer plots in Sec. 6.1 and edited the R1CHMOND3, RICHMOND4, RICHMOND5, RICHMOND6, and WAITSURTEES programs in App. B.06 and B.09 B.10. G Ploussios directed the design and development of electronically tuned helical monopole elements discussed in Sec. 6.2.9 and contributed Fig. 38. RD Parsons wrote the computer program SONF which produced the numerical results m Sec 6 4. C Korbani and SF McGrady wrote the computer program that produced the numerical results in Sec. 6.3. E Jappe and NJ Johnson ix Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
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Acknowledgments
contributed to the numerical results in Sec 65 DJ Violette wrote the MODIFIED IMAGES program in App B 11 and obtained the numerical results in App A 8 L Giandomenico performed the computer runs that produced the numerical results in Sec 11 1 2 E Vlashi produced the computer plots in App
A 6 S Zamoscianyk performed the computer runs and produced the computer plots in App A 7 JL Pearlman performed the MITRE code extensions of the NEC3 NEC GS and NEC31 programs discussed in Sec 1 1 1 JDR Kramer contributed Eq (D 3) in Appendix D GA Robertshaw, contributed to the discussion in Sec 9 2 1 RL Lagace contributed to the discussion in Sec 1 1 1 3 and obtained extensive NEC 31 numerical results for electrically short elements
and radial wire ground planes with a feed cable, including Table 42 in Sec 13 3 RI Millar WJ Wilson D Lamensdoff, and LJ Tieg reviewed the original manuscripts O Gray J Kalkert, SA Lamoureux, MP Lonergan M Massmger and EA Trottier typed most of the original manuscripts LC Nocca produced the photos in Figs 54 and 57 In Part I I am grateful to A Leitner of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute for helpful conversations regarding his method of oblate spheroidal wave functions, JH Richmond (deceased) of Ohio State Lmiversity for htlpful conversations and magnetic tapes of his RICHMOND!, RICHMOND2 RICHMOND5, and RICHMOND6 method of moments programs K Awadalla of Menoufia University (Egypt) for helpful correspondence, including a listing of his program for the methodofmoments combined with the geometric theory of diffraction, GH Hufford, ME Johnson and WA Kissick of the Institute for Telecommunica tion Sciences (ITS) for software of the LongleyRice and JohnsonGierhart troposphenc propagation programs and GJ Burke of Lawrence Lnermore National Laboratory (LLNL) for the NEC numerical results of Chapter 5 After I had obtained results by using the integral equation method and the method of oblate spheroidal functions it was possible to confirm the correctness of Richmond s methodof moment results, which were subsequently published (Ref 2) In Part II, I am grateful to RP Rafuse of MIT s Lincoln Laboratory for helpful discussions on antenna structure fabrication remifications in Sec 8 3, RWP King of Harvard University for the Sommerteld numerical results in Figs 76 and 77 in Sec 9 2 3 GJ Burke of LLNL for NEC 3 numerical results (in Figs 7577 of Sec 922 Table 19 of Sec 9 2 3 and Table 29 of Sec 1222) Mathematica numerical results (in Figs 8085 of Sec 9 3 3 ) and helpful discussion concerning the surface wave and the use of the NEC 3 and NEC GS programs GH Hagn of SRI International for Figs 6669 and contributing to the feed cable discussion in Sec 1 1 1 3 JH Richmond (deceased) of Ohio State University for contributing his RICHMOND3 and RICHMOND4 methodof moments programs and WAITSURTEES Program, JR wait (deceased) of the University of Arizona for preparing MITRE Report M90 79
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Acknowledgments
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"Antenna Performance Influenced by the Finite Extent and Conductivity of Ground Planes A Collection of Reprints by JR Wait, et al" which presents asymptotic results typical of the earlier literature, Lt J Fortney of the Rome Air Development Center for detecting an error in one of Wait's repnnts, GA Thiele of the University of Dayton for his hybrid method of momentsgeometnc theory of diffraction program, CG Christodoulou of the University of Central Florida for his spectral domain conjugate algorithm for reflection from a planar mesh in free space, and GR Hand of ITS for permission to use the HFWIN32 lonosperic propagation programs
I am also grateful for the following MITRE management support
Project 6480 SINCGARS, GP Massa, Project Director GP Massa perceived and supported the effort on antennas, propagation, and system margin, He brought to my attention the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences propagation programs and the work of GH Hagn on system margin JF Sullivan (Department Head) supported the investigation of ways to reduce antenna Q without reducing antenna efficiency RA McCown (Technical Director) motivated me to begin a serious study of monopole antennas after correctly pointing out that the radiation patterns of Leitner and Spence in Reference 3 were not normalized to give directivity
Major R Sutler (Air Force SINCGARS Program Office) gave constructive support to the MITRE effort
Project 91260 HF Antenna Element Modeling, MM Weiner, Principal Investigator An outside Technical Advisory Group, organized by the Principal Investigator, assisted in refereeing technical issues and contributing to the results (see earlier acknowledgments) The Group comprised GJ Burke, CG Christodoulou, Lt J Fortney, GH Hagn, RWP King RP Rafuse, JH Richmond (deceased), GA Thiele, and JR Wait (deceased) JF Sullivan (Department Head) correctly pointed out that the Fresnel Reflection Coefficient Model in Sec 12 does not account for the intercormectivity of the individual wire meshes comprising d groundscreen RW Bush (Technical Director), CH Gager (Associate Technical Director), JDR Kramer (Consulting Engineer), RD Haggarty (Chief Engineer), and WE Sievers (Consulting Engineer) promoted the project effort Project 91030 Experimental Site, EA Palo, Principal Investigator
EA Palo supported the study of the impact of candidate antenna elements on the performance of the HF West Texas Experimental Facility
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Acknowledgments
Project 91740 High-Resolution Noise Mitigation Measurements, JDR Kramer, Principal Investigator JDR Kramer contributed his signal processing expertise to the channel calibration of the MITRE West Texas Experimental Facility Some of the material in this book has been published in book form and in refereed journals protected by copyright Receipt of waiver of copyright is gratefully acknowledged as follows
CHAPTERS 1-5 MM Wemer, SP Cruze, CC Li, WJ Wilson Monopole Elements on Circular Ground Planes, Norwood Artech House, 1987 (Copynght reverted to MM Wemer on Dec 29, 1998) MM Wemer Monopole element at the center ot a circular ground plane whose radius is small or comparable to a wavelength, IEEE Trans Antennas Propag, AP35(5) 488495, May 1987 MM Wemer Monopole element at the center of a circular ground plane of arbitrary radius, PIERS 1989 Proceedings, Boston July 2526, 1989, p 216
CHAPTER 6 MM Wemer Electricallysmall, quarterwave, and resonant monopole elements with disk ground planes in free space, PIERS 1991,Proceedings, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 15, 1991, p 690 MM Wemer Noise factor of receiving systems with arbitrary antenna impedance mismatch, IEEE Trans Aerospace and Electron Sys, AES24(2) 133140, March 1988 MM Wemer Tuning stability of a digitally tuned, electricallyshort monopole element on disk groundplanes of different radii Electromagn Waves Appl, 5(11) 11991215, 1991 MM Wemer Use of the LongleyRice and JohnsonGierhart troposphenc radio propagation programs 0 0220 GHz, IEEE J Selected Areas Commun, SAC4(2) 297307, March 1986
CHAPTER 8 Figures 6466 are reproduced from ITUR P 5273, Electrical Characteristics of the Surface of the Earth, (P Series—Part 1, 1997), International
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Telecommunication Union, Place des Nations, CH1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland.
CHAPTER 9 RWP King. On the Radiation Efficiency and Electromagnetic Field of a Vertical Electrical Dipole in the Air Above a Dielectric or Conducting HalfSpace, Progress in Electromagnetic Research (PIER 4), New York: Elsevier, 1991, Chapter 1. pp 142. JD Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed, John Wiley and Sons, 1975, pp 316317.
CHAPTER 10 MM Wemer. Radiation efficiency and directivity of monopole elements with disk ground planes on flat earth. Electron Lett, 28(25)'22822283, Dec. 3, 1992.
CHAPTER 11 MM Wemer, S Jamosciank, GJ Burke. Radiation efficiency and input impedance of monopole elementswith radialwire ground planes in proximity to earth, Electroni Lett, 28(16) 15501551, July 30, 1992. Reply to JR Wait, ElectronLett, 28(25):2329, Dec. 30, 1992. MM Wemer. Validation of the Numerical Electromagnetic Code (NEC) for Antenna Wire Elements in Proximity to Earth, Applied Comput Electromagn Soc J, 28(2)4471, 1993 Figure 99 is reproduced from GJ Burke, EK Miller. Numerical modeling of monopoles on radialwire ground screens, Proceedings of 1989 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Symposium, 1:244247, 1989.
CHAPTER 13 MM Wemer. Noise factor and antenna gains in the signal/noise equation for overthehorizon radar. IEEE Trans Aerospace Electronic Sys, AES27(6):886890, Nov., 1991. Addendum, AES30(2):648. MM Weiner. Influence of nonhomogeneous earth on the performance of highfrequency receiving arrays with electricallysmall ground planes, Radio Sci, 29(1):5571, JanFeb., 1994 (published by American Geophysical Union).
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Acknowledgments
MM Weiner Performance of GroundBased HighFrequency Receiving Arrays with Electrically Small Ground Planes, Progess in Electromagnetics Research (PIER 8), Cambridge, MA: BMW Publishing, 1994, Chapter 4, pp 109159 The acquisition and production stages of this book were skillfully guided by BJ Clark and Brian Black of Marcel Dekker, Inc. The CD was resourcefully developed by H Rutledge of International Press, Inc.; S Mentzer of Objexx Engineering, and Y Kogan of Solid Applications, Inc.
Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Contents
Preface Acknowledgments Part I Monopole Elements on Disk Ground Planes in Free Space 1
n
Introductio
2 Circuit Representation
6
2.1 Geometry and Coordinate Systems 2.2 Directivity and Input Impedance
6 7
2 3 Relationship Between Radiation Resistance and Directivity on the Horizon 2.4 Characterization of Currents 3 Models in Which the Current Distribution on the Monopole Element is Initially Known
9 1
1
3.1 Boundary Conditions
1
3.2 Induced EMF Method, Ground Plane of Zero Extent 3.2 1 Concept of a Ground Plane of Zero Extent
1 1
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Contents
3 3 3 4 3 5
3 6 3 7 3 8
3 9
3 2 2 Near Fields 3 2 3 FarFields 3 2 4 Input Impedance 3 2 5 Summar> of Results Integral Equation 0 < ka < 2 75 Method of Moments 0 < ka