Mindful Education: Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions 9789811614057, 9811614059

Citation preview

Encounters between East and West: Intercultural Perspectives

Charlene Tan

Mindful Education Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions

Encounters between East and West Intercultural Perspectives

Series Editor Fred Dervin, The University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

This book series publishes volumes problematizing the issue of East versus West. The topics covered in the series represent past, current and future trends in intercultural encounters and communication between the East and West, including: - The role of language in such encounters, for example plurilingualism and English as a global language. - The impact of digital technologies in East/West interactions. The construction of the East/West in different kinds of discourses, such as in media, fiction, educational products and services, marketing and tourism. - Diachronic examinations of encounters between the East/West. - The impact of mobility/migration. - Comparison of different but similar populations in the East/West (e.g. migrants, teachers, etc.). - Redefinitions of the East/West, in terms of changing frontiers, political terms. The series also demonstrates innovative ways of conducting intercultural research. It has now become a cliché to say that intercultural encounters have increased over recent decades. Interculturality is not new – far from it! Encounters between people from different backgrounds speaking different languages have always taken place, but the difference today is the speed and ease with which they occur. Research on interculturality and intercultural communication dates back to the 1950s with different paradigms emerging over the years. However, we have now reached a mature stage of scientific development and discussions on this topic. While initially a simple understanding of ‘national culture’ was used to explain what happened when people from different countries met, today analyses of interculturality are more complex and also take into account elements such as gender, religion, social class and age. The last decade has seen major changes in the way interculturality is studied, with a shift from an overemphasis on culture to a focus on identity. Global politics has also changed since the 1950s and some countries that used to be colonies or ‘closed’ societies have (re-)emerged and in some cases taken on economic, political and symbolic positions. The dichotomy of the East vs. West has also reappeared after the collapse of the Soviet Union. This largely imaginary and political characterization of our world now deserves more attention, especially in relation to intercultural encounters and communication between these two spheres.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13823

Charlene Tan

Mindful Education Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions

Charlene Tan The University of Hong Kong Pokfulam, Hong Kong

ISSN 2364-6721 ISSN 2364-673X (electronic) Encounters between East and West ISBN 978-981-16-1404-0 ISBN 978-981-16-1405-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Series Editor Foreword

I have been following Charlene Tan’s groundbreaking work for many years and I was extremely honoured that she chose my book series to publish this new book entitled Mindful Education: Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions. I consider this book to be a major achievement and a magnificent accomplishment, which could not come at a better time. A dream come true for a book series editor. Like many other systems of beliefs and thoughts, Confucianism and Christianity have exerted the most profound and enduring influences on human beings. At times, they have both been misunderstood, simplified, stereotyped, misused, and sometimes abused. They have also served the purpose of contributing to intercultural dialogue while creating divisions and tensions between their followers. Scholars and educators have not been immune to these phenomena. In an article that I published back in 2012, I had shown how some “Western” scholars had made use of simplified versions of Confucianism to describe the experiences of Chinese students abroad—creating stereotypical, ethnocentric and patronizing images of these students. Although probably well-intentioned, their vision of Confucianism turned it into a “ridiculous” monolith (“fortune-cookie style”), which emptied it of its complexity, hybridity, and own interculturality. In a post-pandemic world, we will need to correct such unproductive analytical habits and find serious ways of creating dialogues between the different (changing) belief and thought traditions of the world. Tan’s book represents, in my opinion, an excellent example of such an endeavour. What she brings to the table is a complexified image of both belief systems and an attempt at reconciling some of their aspects. While these can appear to be divergent at first, they are not irreconcilable. As the scholar asserts rightly: “It should be added that although Confucianism and Christianity have come to be identified with Eastern and Western cultures, these two belief systems are not parochial and are in fact universal traditions”. Tan’s book offers a critical and reflexive “universality” around Confucianism and Christianity, which is much needed to allow dialogue between “East” and “West” to take place. While reading her book, I often had the following words from the Argentine writer Borges (1984: 12) in my head: “We love overemphasizing our little differences, our hatreds and that is wrong. If humanity is to be saved, we must focus on our affinities, the points of contact with all other human beings; by all means, we must avoid accentuating our differences”. In my v

vi

Series Editor Foreword

own work on interculturality in education (Dervin, 2012, 2016), I have insisted on revising our obsession with a difference by shifting the focus to a continuum of difference-similarity. In 2020–2021, beyond the human tragedy that we all experienced, we have seen many examples of how the COVID-19 crisis has disrupted intercultural dialogue between and within countries. Scholars and educators now have a duty to make amends by finding new ways of unthinking and rethinking both education and (intercultural) dialogue. Charlene Tan’s book is one of the first stepping stones. Helsinki, Finland

Fred Dervin

References Borges, J. L. (1984). Facing the year 1983. In Twenty-four conversations with Borges, including a selection of poems. Housatonic, MA: Lascaux. Dervin, F. (2012). A plea for change in research on intercultural discourses: A ‘liquid’ approach to the study of the acculturation of Chinese students. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 6(1), 37–52. Dervin, F. (2016). Interculturality in Education. London: Palgrave MacMillan.

To Lim Pin (twb)

Preface

2020 will always be remembered as the year of massive educational disruptions in human history. The COVID-19 infection has been the biggest threat to humanity since World War II. The pandemic has generated healthcare crises, economic recessions, massive lockdowns, social distancing, human conflicts, and a worsening digital divide in all parts of the world. It is now a common sight to see students wearing masks and seated far apart in the classroom, as shown in Photo 1. The students in the photo are considered the fortunate ones; many of their peers could not even attend school due to school closures and lockdowns. In many developed countries, students continue their studies through online learning arranged by their schools. But this alternative mode does not work for students who do not own electronic devices, are deprived of internet connection, or lack the skills to learn independently. Coupled with a loss of

Photo 1 Students wearing masks and observing social distancing ix

x

Preface

normalcy, curtailed social connections, and heightened anxiety and stress, the wellbeing of students has been seriously impaired. How can schools help their students experience total wellness in the aftermath of the pandemic? To achieve the goal of student well-being, school leaders and teachers need to, first and foremost, be mindful. This means stepping back from rolling out more initiatives, and choosing instead to be (more) aware of the present moment. It entails taking time to be still, take stock, and reflect on what has been done, what is going on, and what should be done. These two questions are particularly helpful for educational leaders: (1)

(2)

How much of what we have done has contributed to wholeness in all students, allowing them to flourish physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, and spiritually? What else can—and should—we do to promote and sustain wholeness in all students?

The current crisis has prompted educators to (re)turn to fundamental questions such as the above, which revolve around the aims of education, functions of school, and the purposes of teaching and learning.1 The thesis of this book is that school leaders and teachers should seize this opportunity to promote wholeness in every student through mindful education. Although there is a growing body of literature on mindful education, little has been written on this topic from the perspectives of wisdom traditions, with the exception of Buddhism-based mindfulness programmes. Such an omission is regrettable as other spiritual and cultural systems also have much to say about mindfulness and mindful education. In response to this research gap, this book aims to draw insights from Confucian and Christian traditions. There are two main reasons why these two traditions have been selected for this study. First, both traditions have much to say about wholeness, mindfulness, and mindful education. The Analects portrays Confucius as someone who paid constant and respectful attention to people, things, and events; he shared that he mindfully followed the desires of his heart and mind at the age of seventy (Analects 2: 4). Likewise, the Bible exhorts human beings to be still and acknowledge God’s presence and power (Psalm 46:10). Valuable ideas and practical suggestions on mindful education can be gleaned from both Confucian and Christian traditions, as this book describes in the subsequent chapters. The second reason for this book’s focus on Confucian and Christian traditions is that they are widely seen to represent Eastern and Western civilisations respectively.2 1 Likening

the COVID-19 challenge to a supernova, which is the explosion that takes place at the end of a star’s life, Azorín (2020) posited that the post-pandemic schooling universe has heralded a “transformation towards another education” (p. 2). Trombly (2020) added, “During these atypical times (and later, as they eventually resume some semblance of routine), educators should keep paramount their schools’ core values, vision and mission” (p. 4). 2 At the outset, I should clarify what I mean by “East(ern)” and “West(ern)”. On the one hand, treating the two terms as antipodal and unrelated may be reductionist, ignoring the past and present interactions and overlaps between cultures. On the other hand, these two terms remain useful as broad categories that describe the general historical, geographical and cultural patterns found in human civilisations (Tan, 2016). I follow Niu and Sternberg (2006) in understanding “the West” as

Preface

xi

Confucianism is one of the oldest and most influential belief systems in the world. Propagated by Confucius in the sixth century BCE, Confucianism has shaped the developments of East Asia, and continues to influence the thinking and behaviour of over one billion East Asians today.3 As with Confucianism, Christianity—based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ—has also left an indelible mark on Western civilisation since its genesis in the first century CE. A representative view is articulated by Oliver Davies, Professor Emeritus at King’s College London, who called for cross-cultural dialogue: There are few encounters as important in the world today as that between Confucianism and Christianity. The reasons for this are evident. Each has been at the centre of the political, social, and cultural evolution of a major civilisation. Neither modern China nor the Western world as it exists today can properly be understood without understanding also the role of Confucian and Christian thought and practice in the formation respectively of modern Chinese and Western identities (Davies, 2014, p. 651).4

Chinese culture has been, and continues to be, conditioned by Confucianism to a large extent. One Chinese scholar averred that studying Confucianism is “indispensable to understanding Chinese culture” (Li, 2016, p. 538). In like fashion, researchers have identified Christianity with the West. Winell (1993), addressing fellow Westerners, claimed that “Christianity is so much a part of our culture” (p. 1). For centuries up to the Enlightenment, the word “Christendom” was popularly used by people in the West to refer to their own civilisation (Kurth, 2003). The history of Western societies, up until the Romantic era (late eighteenth to early nineteenth century), has been shaped by Calvinism and Puritanism, which defined human fulfilment as

“the culture of Europe and the people who share the same root or have religious link to Europe”, and this “includes most parts of Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand” (p. 20). The term “the East” typically refers to Asian cultures and people, but for the purpose of this study, I have confined it to East Asia, i.e., countries in the eastern region of Asia such as China, Japan, and Korea, which share a Confucian heritage. 3 It is interesting to note that the Latinised name “Confucius” (Kongzi) was coined by Christian missionaries in China who also introduced him to Europe (Creel, 1949). 4 Historically, the association of Confucianism with the East and Christianity with the West was taken for granted by the majority of Chinese intellectuals in imperial China. As explained by Keung (2003), they “referred to Chinese culture as Confucian culture, and to Western culture as Christian culture. They saw China’s feudal backwardness originating in Confucianism, and the West’s openness and affluence as attributable to Christianity. In their view, Christianity was the spiritual pillar of Western civilisation and the progenitor of the democracy, science, human rights and rule of law so coveted by Chinese people” (p. 29). It needs to be added that Eastern (Chinese) civilisation is constituted and moulded by not only Confucianism but also other Chinese traditions such as Daoism, Buddhism, and Legalism. Similarly, Western civilisation also predates the advent of Christianity to Greek and Roman traditions, among others.

xii

Preface

gaining heaven and avoiding hell (Baumeister, 1987).5 The sixteenth-century Reformation further cast light on these values in the Anglophone world: a break with tradition, societal renewal, an affirmation of the individual, and the expansion of the curriculum beyond the traditional areas of study (Pazmino, 1997). The system of capitalism that powered the economic success in the West has also been attributed to Calvinist Protestant Christianity (Weber, 2009).6 It should be added that although Confucianism and Christianity have come to be identified with Eastern and Western cultures respectively, these two belief systems are not tied to a specific culture and are in fact universal traditions. Confucianism, as envisioned by Confucius and other Confucian thinkers, was intended not just for China but for the whole world. The ancient Chinese believed that China was at the centre of human civilisation; “China” (zhongguo) literally means “middle kingdom” in the Chinese language.7 Confucianism, as the ideal normative tradition, was meant to be propounded to “all under heaven” (tianxia). Similarly, although Christianity is associated with the West, its cardinal doctrines of sin, salvation, hell, and heaven are intended for all human beings regardless of cultures. Interestingly, Mungello (1978) reminded us that “Christianity began as an Asian, not a European, religion” (p. 123).8 Notwithstanding the universalistic aspirations and constituents of Confucianism and 5 The relationship between Christianity and the Enlightenment during the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries was not always complementary and harmonious; in particular, the belief in God was a point of contention. The Enlightenment, grounded in Greek logic and causality, downplayed religiosity in favour of reason and science. Clark (1990) observed that the belief in God has suffered since the eighteenth century due to the Enlightenment’s support of evidentialism. Evidentialism holds that “a belief is rational for a person only if that person has sufficient evident or arguments or reasons for that belief” (Clark, 1990, p. 3). Luetz, Buxton, and Bangert (2018) agreed that Enlightenment thinking “ushered in the supremacy of human reason and progress, with its attendant anthropocentric emphasis on the instrumental value of nature” (p. 57). In response to evidentialism, some Christian philosophers such as Alvin Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff have developed an alternative conception of rationality known as “Reformed epistemology”. Clark (1990) explained this as “a theory of knowledge, belief, and rationality influenced by the Reformation theologians, especially John Calvin. Defenders of this position reject the evidentialist objector’s first principle that it is irrational to maintain belief in God without the support of evidence or argument” (p. 8). 6 McGraw (2012) noted that “it is widely accepted that the ‘Protestant Ethic,’ as it is called, was a major reason why capitalism originally developed in the West, especially in its strong form in the U.S., and not other places in the world” (p. 2). Weber’s theory about Protestant ethics is not uncontroversial and has had its fair share of critics. For further details, see Crowell (2006), Etzrodt (2008), Jost (1971), and McGraw (2012). 7 Chang (2011) elaborated, “A centrepiece of the classical Confucian worldview is its universalistic aspiration; the Emperor is to preside over a terrestrial domain wherein all people across the four seas should coexist in harmony” (p. 44). 8 Other scholars have also challenged the view that “Christianity equals the West”. Liu Xiaofeng, a professor at Renmin University and a professed cultural Christian, attempted to de-link Christianity from Western culture by differentiating between “Christness” and “Christianity”. As noted by Jochim (1995), “[Liu] distinguished ‘Christness’ from “Christianity,” using the former term to represent something that transcends culture; the latter, for a religious institution formed within Western culture. On the basis of this distinction it was possible for him to imagine how he could be Christian (manifest “Christness”) without becoming Western” (p. 54). The China Council of the Presbyterian Church in the USA has also notably distinguished between Christian and Western elements in its missionary activities (Xu, 1997). In 1924, it announced that it was “unquestionably

Preface

xiii

Christianity, these two traditions have impacted the historical, political, economic, and socio-cultural developments in Eastern and Western civilisations, respectively, for millennia. It is therefore pertinent to examine and compare these two traditions for the purpose of cross-cultural exchange and mutual learning. The subject of this comparative study on Confucian and Christian traditions is mindful education. The purpose is to draw insights into both traditions on the concept of mindfulness, and harness mindful education to advance wholeness in persons. The primary focus of “education” in this study is on formal education or schooling. That said, the arguments, findings, and recommendations pertaining to mindful education would also apply to informal and non-formal education, albeit in different ways and forms.9 The mention of “insights” in the book’s subtitle signifies that this study is not a mere presentation or comparison of facts. It is pertinent that the English word “insight” is related to the Aristotelian principle of nous, which suggests the light of consciousness or the highest capacity of mind bestowed by God (Davies, 2014). Making a similar point, a Chinese translation of insight is huiyen, literally “eyes of wisdom”. To gain insight into something, it follows, is to have the ability to accurately perceive a situation. The objective of this study, therefore, is to shed light on the notion of mindful education by delving into the wisdom traditions of Confucianism and Christianity, thereby extending the existing research on this topic. Given the diversity of thinkers and schools of thought within the Confucian and Christian traditions, a plurality of views are presented in this book. Special attention has been devoted to the teachings and conduct of Confucius and Jesus Christ, since they are the founders of Confucianism and Christianity respectively.10 Hence, a substantial portion of this book explores the Analects and the Bible, as they are the primary texts on the lives and educational thought of Confucius and Jesus respectively. All desirable, especially in view of the present Chinese sensitiveness toward the West, to magnify the distinctively Christian and minimise the distinctively Western elements in all departments of our work” (cited in Xu, 1997, p. 31). By decoupling Christianity from the West, Chinese Christians were free to embrace the Christian faith while retaining their Chinese culture, thus diverging from Mao Zedong’s conflation of Christianity and Western imperialism. Xu (1997) wrote, “Communist leader Mao Zedong categorically called the missionary enterprise in China ‘spiritual aggression’ by Western imperialism and condemned the “reactionary cultural alliance” between imperialism and the Chinese “semi-feudal system” that included ‘the worship of Confucius, the study of the Confucian canon, the old ethical code and old ideas’” (p. 38). I revisit this topic in Chap. 3 and explain how Chinese Christians in Imperial China attempted to reconcile their faith and culture. 9 Ward (2001) identified three modes of education: formal, informal, and nonformal (p. 121): (1) Formal education: many different forms of organised, planned, budgeted, staffed, and deliberate teaching and learning. (2) Informal education: the wide range of situations and relationships that result in important socialisation. … a natural process of learning from surroundings, people, and experiences. (3) Nonformal education: resembles formal education because it is deliberate, structured, planned, and staffed. But it is rarely linked to the credentialing system of credits, diplomas, and degrees represented in formal education. 10 Strictly speaking, Confucius was not the founder of Confucianism as the latter already existed before his time. Known in Chinese in ruxue (literati learning), Confucius organised and disseminated it by highlighting the beliefs, values, and examples of sage-kings such as King Wen, King Wu, and the Duke of Zhou (Tan, 2020).

xiv

Preface

citations from the Analects in this book have been translated into English by me unless otherwise stated; all quotations from the Bible were taken from the New International Version (NIV). As this book is intended for a wide readership, the main text has been largely written in an accessible and jargon-free fashion. Discussions of a more academic nature have been placed in the footnotes. The book begins with an overview of the key educational challenges in a postpandemic world. The next two chapters introduce Confucian and Christian traditions. Chapter 3 explains the analytical construct of tradition and gives details on the key features of Confucianism and Christianity as traditions. It also delineates the notion of mindfulness based on a literature review, with a focus on Confucian and Christian perspectives. Chapter 4 outlines the comparative philosophical method of bridgebuilding and illustrates it using the historical encounters between Confucian and Christian traditions. Chapters 5 and 6 expound on a school vision of student wellbeing and the core values of ren (humanity) and agape (love). The rest of the chapters (Chaps. 7–10) identify and elucidate insights from Confucian and Christian traditions for a mindful curriculum (Chap. 7), mindful teaching (Chap. 8), mindful teachers (Chap. 9), and mindful learning (Chap. 10). The last chapter concludes the discussion by showing how mindful education, informed and inspired by Confucian and Christian traditions, contributes to educating the whole person in a post-pandemic world. Pokfulam, Hong Kong

Charlene Tan

References Azorín, C. (2020). Beyond COVID-19 supernova. Is another education coming? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 381–390. Baumeister, R. F. (1987). How the self became a problem: A psychological review of historical research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 163–176. Chang, P. (2011). Confucian china and Jeffersonian America: Beyond liberal democracy. Asian Studies Review, 35(1), 43–62. Clark, K. J. (1990). Return to reason: A critique of Enlightenment evidentialism and a defense of reason and belief in God. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Creel, H. G. (1949). Confucius, the man and the myth. New York: Publisher. Crowell, E. (2006). Weber’s ‘Protestant ethic’ and his critics (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://rc.library.uta.edu/uta-ir/bitstream/handle/10106/309/umi-uta-1247.pdf?sequence= 1&isAllowed=y Davies, O. (2014). Meister Eckhart’s ethical universalism, Confucianism, and the future of Christianity. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 41(S1), 651–668. Etzrodt, C. (2008). Weber’s Protestant-Ethic thesis, the critics, and Adam Smith. Max Weber Studies, 8(1), 49–78. Jochim, C. (1995). The contemporary Confucian-Christian encounter: Interreligious or intrareligious dialogue. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 32(1), 35–62. Jost, K. (1971). An explanation and critique of the Weber thesis: The Protestant ethic and the rise of capitalism. Journal of Thought, 6(3), 153–162. Keung, K. L. (2003). Cultural Christians and Christianity in China. China Rights Forum, 4, 28– 31. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/040127KaCulturalChristiansChri stianityChina.pdf

Preface

xv

Kurth, J. (2003). Western civilization, our tradition. Intercollegiate Review, 39(1/2), 5–13. Li, C. (2016). Comparative philosophy and cultural patterns. Dao, 15, 533–546. Doi:10.1007/s11 712-016-9519-5 Luetz, J. M., Buxton, G., & Bangert, K. (2018). Christian theological, hermeneutical and eschatological perspectives on environmental sustainability and creation care—the role of holistic education. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 51–73). Singapore: Springer. McGraw, B. A. (2012). Moral economy in global perspective: Protestant Christianity, Confucianism, Islam and Hinduism. Purushartha, 5(2), 1–16. Mungello, D. E. (1978). Sinological torque: The influence of cultural preoccupations on seventeenthcentury missionary interpretations of Confucianism. Philosophy East and West, 28(2), 123– 141. Niu, W., Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The philosophical roots of Western and Eastern conceptions of creativity. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 26(1–2), 18–38. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Tan, C. (2016). Educational policy borrowing in China: Looking West or looking East? Oxon: Routledge. Tan, C. (2020). Confucian philosophy for contemporary education. New York, NY: Routledge. Trombly, C. E. (2020). Learning in the time of COVID-19: Capitalizing on the opportunity presented by the pandemic. Journal of Professional Capital and Community,5(3/4), 351–358. Weber, M. (2009). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Trans. By S. Kalberg. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1905). Winell, M. (1993). Leaving the fold. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Xu, X. (1997). The dilemma of accommodation: Reconciling Christianity and Chinese culture in the 1920s. The Historian, 60(1), 21–38.

Recommended Reading on Confucianism and Christianity in Chinese

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. Fred Dervin for his kind support and foreword, Ms. Melody Zhang, Ms. Sophie Li, Ms. Vidyaa Shri K. and Mr. Gowtham Chakravarthy and his team for their wonderful assistance, Mr. Solomon Koo for permission to reproduce the photos of Life International School, Ms. Alice Tan and Ms. Ruth Neo for permission to reproduce the painting, Ms. Tan Bee Leng for her extensive research, and Ms. Elizabeth Tan for her excellent and meticulous proofreading. This book is dedicated to my husband Lim Pin, my valley of Achor. April 2021

Charlene Tan

xvii

Contents

1

Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Educational Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Disrupted Learning Especially for Students from Low Socioeconomic Home Backgrounds . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Widening Digital Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Limited Effectiveness of Emergency Remote Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 A Neglect of Holistic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Educational Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 An Opportunity for Educational Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2

4 5 6 18 19 19

2

Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The Notion of Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Plurality of Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Canonical Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Religion and Spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Truth Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23 23 24 24 27 27 28 29 31 32 33

3

Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Comparative Philosophy and Bridge-Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Comparative Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Bridge-Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions in Imperial China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 35 36 36 38

3 3

40 xix

xx

Contents

3.3.1

Identifying Common Ground Between Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Adapting Christian Teachings to Prevailing Confucian Ideas and/or Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Synthesising Selected Confucian and Christian Teachings Through New or Modified Ideas and/Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5

6

Introduction to Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 The Three “A”s of Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 First-Generation and Second-Generation Mindfulness Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Benefits of Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Student Well-Being as Wholeness: He (Harmony) and Shalom (Peace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Student Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Confucian Traditions: He (Harmony) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Christian Traditions: Shalom (Peace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Mindfulness, He (Harmony), and Shalom (Peace) . . . . . 5.4 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41 43

43 45 47 51 51 53 53 55 58 60 63 64 69 69 71 75 75 77 80 81 84 85

A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 6.1.1 Ren (Humanity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 6.1.2 Agape (Love) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.2 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.2.1 Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.2.2 A Major Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 6.3 Conclusion and Implications for a Mindful School Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Contents

7

8

9

A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Dao (Way) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Imago Dei (God’s Image) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Comparing Confucian and Christian Curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself in the Other’s Place) and the Golden Rule (Do to Others as You Would Have Them Do to You) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 The Concept of Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Teacher Empathy and Empathic Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Empathy as Shu and the Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Shu (Putting Oneself in the Other’s Place) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 The Golden Rule (Do to Others as You Would have them Do to You) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Comparing Shu and the Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Dialogic Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 The Example of Confucius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 The Example of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Comparisons and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Xiuji (Self-cultivation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Spiritual Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Comparing Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation: Towards Self-directed Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Promoting Mindful Learning Through Design Thinking . . . . . . . . 10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxi

107 107 109 109 112 115 119 120

123 123 125 126 128 128 131 133 135 136 141 141 142 143 148 155 156 157 161 161 162 165 168 168 170 172 173 175

xxii

Contents

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Revisiting the Two Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Mindful Teaching and Learning Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Mindful Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.2 Mindful Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Conclusion: East and West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

179 180 185 185 189 192 194

About the Author

Charlene Tan (Master of Religious Education, Ph.D. in Philosophy) has more than two decades of experience as a schoolteacher and teacher educator in Singapore. She is currently a professor at the Faculty of Education, the University of Hong Kong.

xxiii

List of Photos

Photo 1.1 Photo 2.1 Photo 2.2 Photo 3.1 Photo 3.2 Photo 4.1 Photo 4.2 Photo 5.1 Photo 5.2 Photo 6.1 Photo 6.2 Photo 7.1 Photo 7.2 Photo 8.1 Photo 8.2 Photo 9.1 Photo 9.2 Photo 10.1 Photo 10.2 Photo 11.1 Photo 11.2

Disinfecting a classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A student making a wish at a Confucius Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . A board displayed at the garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photo of Confucian scholar Xu Guangqi and Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A red packet with the Chinese character fu (blessing) and a cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A group of people taking part in a meditative exercise . . . . . . . A painting by a teenager titled “Me and my Lord” . . . . . . . . . . Students playing traditional musical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . An amphitheatre in a Catholic school in South Korea . . . . . . . . A group of Chinese educators with their design titled “School of love” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An image of Jesus Christ on the cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An inscription with the words “Dao (Way) runs through ancient and modern times” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Christian curriculum designed by a group of Christian teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The words in a school in China read, “Calm down to teach” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A painting of Jesus displayed in a Christian university . . . . . . . A statue of Confucius at a Canadian university . . . . . . . . . . . . . A mural in a Christian school depicting Jesus with children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A student reflecting on a passage from a Confucian classic . . . A Chinese man receiving Holy Communion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Children and their parents with their masks on . . . . . . . . . . . . . Students taking a break in between lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 25 31 36 46 52 63 70 79 92 95 109 113 124 131 144 149 162 167 180 187

xxv

xxvi

Photo 11.3 Photo 11.4

List of Photos

The words in a classroom in China read, “Your reward is where your heart–mind is” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christians participating in Via Dolorosa (The Way of Sorrows) in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

192 192

List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 11.1

The three “A”s of mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian traditions . . . . . . . . . . . Confucian and Christian mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . He (Harmony) and Shalom (Peace) in a mindful school . . . . . . . Vision, mission, and core values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A mindful curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mindful education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54 62 81 83 90 108 182

xxvii

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 4.1 Table 11.1 Table 11.2

A summary of educational responses in a post-pandemic world (written by Tan Bee Leng) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two generations of mindfulness programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fixed mindset and growth mindset (Dweck, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . Examples of mindful lessons that promote a growth mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 56 190 190

xxix

Chapter 1

Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Abstract The major educational challenges generated by the COVID-19 pandemic are disrupted learning especially for students from low socioeconomic home backgrounds, a widening digital divide, limited effectiveness of emergency remote learning, and a neglect of holistic education. Consequently, the pandemic has contributed to and intensified the physical, mental, social, and emotional stress experienced by students and impaired their overall well-being. In response, schools around the world have, to varying degrees of success, experimented with blended learning and alternative teaching modes, utilised technologies, and collaborated with educational stakeholders to meet the students’ needs. A silver lining in the midst of the difficulties is an opportunity for policymakers and educators to review, rethink, and reimagine the existing educational theories, models, and practices to improve student well-being. Keywords Blended learning · COVID-19 · Digital divide · Educational challenges · Educational responses · Technologies · Emergency online learning · Post-pandemic world · Stress · Student well-being

1.1 Introduction In a post-pandemic world, disinfecting common areas such as classrooms is no longer an option (see Photo 1.1). COVID-19, also known as the 2019 novel coronavirus or 2019-nCoV, is highly contagious.1 COVID-19 belongs to the family of coronaviruses that also includes the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARSCoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). At the point of writing, the virus has infected 142 million people and caused more than three million deaths worldwide. The devastating economic damage of the pandemic 1 Toquero

(2020) reported, “This new virus can be transmitted just in minutes through droplets or even touching surface metals or other materials which have been infected from a person who has respiratory problems. Even though the elderly and the very young children are easily affected, nobody is immune to this new infectious disease once it hits the body, so all people are susceptible to its devastating effects” (p. 1). For further details on the virus, see Bender (2020), Evans et al., (2020), Meng, Hua, and Bian (2020), Toquero, (2020), and Velavan and Meyer (2020). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_1

1

2

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Photo 1.1 Disinfecting a classroom

has been likened to the aftermath of World War II (Nicolaa et al., 2020). This global health emergency has also disrupted the education of more than 1.6 billion students worldwide. This chapter gives an overview of the major educational challenges engendered by the pandemic as well as the accompanying educational responses and opportunities. The first part of this chapter summarises the major obstacles faced by students and teachers. The second part surveys the educational reactions from decision-makers, educators, and other educational stakeholders. The last section highlights the educational transformation needed in a post-pandemic world.

1.2 Educational Challenges Professor Fernando M. Reimers at Harvard Graduate School of Education and Andreas Schleicher who is the Directorate of Education and Skills at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) describe the COVID19 pandemic as the generator of “the greatest disruption in educational opportunity worldwide in a generation” (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020, p. 2). Leading scholars have been unanimous in highlighting the massive and injurious impacts of the pandemic on schooling across the globe.2 The significant educational challenges created by the 2 Harris

(2020) posited that the virus is “a colossal ‘supernova’ interrupting human existence in every conceivable way” (p. 2). Other researchers have also discussed the educational effects of the pandemic (e.g., Daniel, 2020; Hall et al., 2020; Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020; Izumi et al., 2020).

1.2 Educational Challenges

3

COVID-19 pandemic are disrupted learning especially for underprivileged students, a growing digital disparity, the unsatisfactory outcomes of remote learning, and diminished holistic education.

1.2.1 Disrupted Learning Especially for Students from Low Socioeconomic Home Backgrounds The pandemic has resulted in a reduction or even elimination of learning time (i.e., time spent on learning) for many students in the world. This should cause concern for policymakers and educators as learning time is a major predictor of the opportunity to learn. In the USA, for example, “summer learning loss” due to school closure has led to the loss of the equivalent of 1 month of the academic year learning for children with low socioeconomic status (Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020). Another study on students in Australia reported that the 7 weeks of school closure translated to a loss of 1.1 weeks of reading and 1.9 weeks of mathematics for Year 5 students, and 1.6 weeks in reading and 2.3 weeks in mathematics for Year 9 students (Baker, 2020). Disrupted learning is detrimental not only to students’ acquisition of knowledge and skills in school but also to their income earned after they graduate (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). In the long run, the inadequate learning time could also adversely affect human capital and economic opportunities for countries (Netolicky, 2020). Even for cases where the learning time is not reduced, student engagement is compromised when students cannot attend school and have to learn from home. Sixty per cent of teachers and district leaders in the USA surveyed commented that student engagement has declined (Yetick & Kurtz, 2020). A report for the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) noted that a third of students in England were not engaged with their lessons, with students in the most disadvantaged schools being the least likely to benefit from remote learning (Weale, 2020). Children from low socioeconomic home backgrounds have been particularly hard hit by the pandemic. The adverse effects borne by these children go beyond academic learning. Nicolaa et al. (2020) explained, COVID-19 has had an impact on social mobility whereby schools are no longer able to provide free school meals for children from low-income families, social isolation and school dropout rates. It has also had a significant impact on childcare costs for families with young children. Additionally, there exists a wide disparity amongst populations with a higher income who are able to access technology that can ensure education continues digitally during social isolation (p. 186).

1.2.2 Widening Digital Divide A related challenge is the widening digital divide caused by school closure and the adoption of emergency remote teaching and learning, also known as agile

4

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

distance learning. Data from the Programme in International Student Assessment (PISA) showed that most education systems are ill-equipped to substitute face-toface learning with online learning within a short time.3 Online learning environments require, at the minimum, personal electronic devices such as computers and smart phones, as well as a reliable internet connection. These, however, are luxuries for students from developing countries or those from low-income households in developed countries. For example, students who live in mountainous areas in China have to walk for hours in search of stable network signals; about 2% of students in China also have no access to online live teaching (Zhang et al., 2020). A survey by the University College London (UCL) Institute of Education reported that 3% of students from private schools had access to a computer at home as compared with 20% for students in state schools who were on free school meals; 7 out of 10 state school children (71%) also had no online lessons at all, or less than 1 lesson a day (Weale, 2020). In cities such as New York, 1 in 10 students are homeless or face severe housing instability, making learning from home an impossibility for them (Nicolaa et al., 2020).4 Closing the digital gap requires not just the “what”, i.e., appropriate access to technology, but also the “how”—effective utilisation of technology in teaching and learning (Hall et al., 2020; also see US Department of Education, 2016). The “how” is another roadblock for students and teachers, as explained in the next section.

1.2.3 Limited Effectiveness of Emergency Remote Learning Even if students are provided with the basic equipment and learning environment to engage in emergency online learning, many do not adapt well to this mode of learning. The key struggles are staying focused on learning without distraction, having the learning motivation and independence, finding suitable online learning materials, and coping with the difficulties in virtual group work (Izumi et al., 2020; Zureick et al., 2018). An oft-cited shortcoming of online learning is social isolation, as students are deprived of teacher immediacy, interpersonal interactions, and social cues (Slagter van Tryon & Bishop, 2009). As articulated by a student, “I tried to apply online learning in my course, but I felt it was still ineffective because of the elements of humanism, namely the interaction between lecturers and students was less humane” (Abidah et al., 2020, p. 47). Compounding the difficulties with online learning is low 3 This

information was taken from Reimers and Schleicher (2020). Also see Doucet (2019), Hollweck and Doucet (2020), and Van Lancker and Parolin, (2020). For more information on “education in emergencies”, see Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies [INEE] (2004) and UNICEF (2020). 4 Nicolaa et al. (2020) elaborated, “In Europe, a substantial number of children live in homes in which they have no suitable place to do homework (5%) or have no access to the internet (6·9%). Furthermore, 10·2% of children live in homes that cannot be heated adequately, 7·2% have no access to outdoor leisure facilities, and 5% do not have access to books at the appropriate reading level. In the USA, an estimated 2.5% of students in public schools do not live in a stable residence” (p. 244).

1.2 Educational Challenges

5

media literacy among students. The PISA 2018 assessment reported that only one in nine 15-year-old students was capable of distinguishing between fact and opinion, based on implicit cues regarding the content or source of the information (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). In other words, many students are not discerning when using screen time and online tools, and inept at protecting themselves from online threats, especially for minors (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020).5

1.2.4 A Neglect of Holistic Education School closures and social distancing have also imperilled holistic education that aims to cater for all aspects of a child’s growth. Educating the whole person means attending to the physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual components of life experiences. Beyond cognitive development, other aspects such as food, shelter, and financial support are also needed by students, especially those from low-income families (Nicolaa et al., 2020). School closure has reduced the levels of physical and mental well-being of students because they are deprived of face-to-face assistance and cannot obtain adequate support via virtual medical counselling and mental health teleconferencing (Toquero, 2020). For the same reason, students’ social and emotional wellness is jeopardised when they are cut off from their teachers, school counsellors, peers and the rest of the school community.6 Schools function not only as a site for academic learning but also as a social network; online meetings, no matter how frequent and sophisticated, simply cannot replace on-site encounters and physical touch. Students and their families are not the only ones who have suffered from the pandemic. Teachers around the world have also been adversely affected by the pandemic. A survey conducted by the Alberta Teachers Association in 2020 reported that the majority of teachers experienced exhaustion, missed the emotional connection with their students, and worried about their students’ digital access and learning challenges (Alberta Teachers Association, 2020, cited in Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020).7 On top of designing and implementing emergency online learning, teachers 5 To be sure, online learning is not entirely negative; it has its advantages too. A student commented

that “the concept of free learning gives a breath of fresh air that students can develop themselves including independent learning with existing online learning resource facilities” (Abidah et al., 2020, p. 47). That said, online learning is beneficial only if the students are already self-directed learners. As such, a priority for education in the post-pandemic world is to nurture students towards possessing high media literacy and becoming independent learners. 6 As noted by Colao et al. (2020), a school “provides a structured setting in which children can learn and develop social competencies, such as self-confidence, friendship, empathy, participation, respect, gratitude, compassion, and responsibility. Social and emotional learning is important for young people to become conscious members of a solidarity-based community” (p. 370). 7 Illustrating the challenges faced by teachers in a post-pandemic world, teachers in Australia “have been hailed as heroes and rock stars and also denigrated as child minders or selfish cowards too self-centred or afraid to teach in classrooms during a pandemic” (Netolicky, 2020, p. 1).

6

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

are saddled with the additional duties of taking care of students who lack access to electronic devices, wireless internet, or a place to study (Nicolaa et al., 2020). In summary, the pandemic has brought about and worsened an array of educational challenges that endanger the well-being of students and teachers.8 In particular, students have been deprived of sufficient learning time, student engagement, digital provision, teacher support, and human connection, increasing their physical, mental, social, and emotional stress.

1.3 Educational Responses In response to the aforementioned educational challenges, policymakers, school leaders, and teachers have introduced a host of strategies, initiatives, and programmes. As mentioned earlier, a prerequisite for the smooth implementation of emergency online learning is access to electronic devices and internet connectivity. Decisionmakers from different countries have taken steps to provide the technological wherewithal needed by students. In Cyprus, the authorities gave free internet connection to all households with children who engaged in distance learning; schools were also given 2,000 tablet computers, free use of MS TEAMS (Office 365), and teacher training in distance learning (Hall et al., 2020). In Australia, the authorities arranged for drones to deliver USB drives of curriculum materials to students living in farflung farms and cattle stations (Fishburn, 2020). Some school districts in Canada provided Wi-Fi in their empty schools for parents to download the learning materials onto their devices in the school parking lots (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2020). Schools in countries such as China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, and Latvia were given additional teaching plans, materials, and resources; teachers also received training on online learning tools, platforms, and strategies (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020).9 Teachers have also risen to the occasion to design and enact alternative teaching strategies and resources. Worthy of special mention are innovative and hybrid teaching approaches that employ technologies and foster student engagement. For example, teachers in the Netherlands adapted their conventional classroom practices for online learning, by producing instructional videos, organising webinars, and uploading the learning materials and assignments for their students (Hall et al., 2020). Another strategy is to broadcast educational programmes on television, as evident in Belgium, China, and Costa Rica (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). A novel approach is “pre-teaching” for K-12 education: the teacher produces instructional videos that come with oral explanation, worked examples, 8 Well-being

refers to a state of wholeness, where a person’s total needs—physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual—are met. The notion of well-being will be fleshed out in subsequent chapters. 9 A case in point is the New South Wales (NSW) State Government that has developed a “Learning from Home” section on its website, which contains digital tools and resources for students, teachers, and parents. (Hall et al., 2020).

1.3 Educational Responses

7

and worksheets for students to view on their own (Hall et al., 2020).10 Teacher collaboration is also encouraged; in China, teachers access an online teaching feedback system to share their teaching experiences and discuss pandemic pedagogies with their peers (Zhang et al., 2020). Schools and universities have also worked closely with parents and other educational stakeholders to meet the students’ holistic needs. There is evidence of networking that facilitates the flow of knowledge and information between the educational institutions and with local governments, the private sector, civil society organisations, and communities (Izumi et al., 2020). Schools in the Netherlands during the period of school closure remained open for children whose parents were unable to take care of them in the day as they were working in critical jobs such as health and policing (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). Stone-Johnson and Weiner (2020) reported that school principals “serve[d] as essential, frontline workers, handing out food to families, bringing laptops and tablets to students, keeping up the morale of students through email blasts, parades through students’ neighborhoods and continuous messaging and communication to parents” (p. 1).11 Some teachers delivered learning resources to families at their homes and maintained close contact with students through various means such as email, video chat, and phone calls (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020). As part of helping students to learn independently at home, teachers also helped parents to develop learning competencies for their children, such as by reading to their children or discussing their children’s portfolios of work (Goodall, 2018). Schools have also tapped on informal networks with community organisations and faith-based groups to provide the necessary resources and services. An example of a partnership between the schools and the private sector is Romania: Google and Microsoft worked with the national television channel to produce a “Teleschool programme” so that students could continue to learn during the school year without disruption (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). Students were not the only recipients of assistance during the pandemic. Some schools also arranged for their students to distribute food and supplies to vulnerable families or write letters to elderly residents in care homes (Daniel, 2020). Residents in Detroit capitalised on a network of social favours and informal car sharing to send their children to school; faith leaders from the Chasidic network of Chabad provided spiritual support to believers by reading the Megillah at the door of locked homes in Westchester (Heller, 2020). In Los Asperones of Spain, where 90% of the residents live in extreme poverty, the Asperones Avanza project helped families by distributing pens, notebooks, and school materials to families who lacked computers, printers, or internet access (Netolicky, 2020). Further information of the educational responses around the world is provided in Table 1.1.

10 Hall and colleagues (2020) suggested that pre-teaching “might be beneficial for the development of autonomous learning and therewith students’ self-regulatory skills” (p. 436). 11 For more details, see Hollweck and Doucet (2020), Hollweck and Janes, (2020), and Kamenetz (2020).

Table 1.1 A summary of educational responses in a post-pandemic world (written by Tan Bee Leng)

(continued)

8 1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

1.3 Educational Responses 9

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

10

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

1.3 Educational Responses 11

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

12

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

1.3 Educational Responses 13

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

14

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

1.3 Educational Responses 15

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Table 1.1 (continued)

(continued)

16

Table 1.1 (continued)

1.3 Educational Responses

17

18

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

1.4 An Opportunity for Educational Transformation The preceding shows that the pandemic has given rise to not only educational challenges but also avenues for schools to enact novel and alternative ways of teaching and caring for their students. Notwithstanding the good efforts put in by the authorities and educators, they are insufficient to overcome the multitude of obstacles faced by students and their families. A primary concern is the effectiveness and sustainability of the existing post-pandemic responses. It is critical that school leaders do not rely on policy measures, programmes, and activities that are reactive, piecemeal, and short-term. What should not be neglected, in the midst of fighting the pandemic, is the education of the whole person, where all aspects of human experiences are catered to. The pandemic has exposed the deficiency of a dominant schooling paradigm that privileges academic learning, didactic teaching, and passive learning. A report by the World Economic Forum (2020) noted that “many education systems in developed and developing economies alike still rely heavily on passive forms of learning focused on direct instruction and memorisation, rather than interactive methods that promote the critical and individual thinking needed in today’s innovation-driven economy” (p. 5).12 The pandemic has opened the door for policymakers, educators, and other stakeholders to rethink the existing educational ideals and practices, and explore new or improved ways of teaching and learning. A number of scholars have urged policymakers, school leaders, and teachers to mindfully evaluate what they have done, are doing and intend to do in the future.13 The transformation of education should serve to further the best interests of the students. In other words, the school vision should be geared towards the well-being or wholeness of every child. In the midst of reacting to mounting and relentless educational challenges generated by the pandemic, school leaders, and teachers need to take time to consider these two fundamental questions (Netolicky, 2020, p. 4)14 :

12 It is a salient point that despite the enthusiastic implementation of online/blended/hybrid learning by teachers, the emphasis is on direct instruction and knowledge transmission. Hall and colleagues (2020) noted that “[m]ore student-centred online activities, such as applying knowledge in practice tasks, organising peer review or using collaborative learning, seem to be less used by teachers” (p. 439). 13 To put it simply, the pandemic “gives us the opportunity to re-assess what type of school we want for the future” (Colao et al., 2020, p. 370). Reimers and Schleicher (2020) described the pandemic as “the quintessential adaptive challenge, creating opportunities for rapid learning and continuous improvement” (p. 7; also see Hollweck & Doucet, 2020; Jandri´c, 2020; Kerres, 2020; OsmondJohnson et al., 2020; Winthrop, 2020). Hargreaves and Fullan (2020) concurred that the pandemic “has unleashed a wealth of energy in innovative, collaborative and laser-focused problem-solving” (p. 8). 14 Similar to Netolicky’s first question, Sahlberg (2020) has raised questions that prompt policymakers and educators to re-imagine the prevailing educational model (p. 5): Could teaching and learning in schools be organised so that students can study according to their own speed, style and even interests, more often than they do now? Also, should we better acknowledge what students learn outside school, for example, through hobbies?.

1.4 An Opportunity for Educational Transformation

(1)

(2)

19

What is it that we have missed that we want to bring back into schooling and education? For example, how do we reignite and build on the distanced connectedness of our school communities and the relationality of teaching? What is it that has been removed that we do not want to return to? For example, how do we want to measure and judge the effectiveness of education? What is the role of schooling and of teachers?

It is evident that the answers to these two questions are not straight-forward and require mindful reflection and dialogue among educational players.

1.5 Conclusion This chapter has provided an overview of the key educational obstacles produced by the COVID-19 pandemic for schools around the globe. The pandemic has deprived students of holistic learning and intensified the physical, mental, social, and emotional stress felt by students. Credit should be given to school leaders and teachers who have responded to these challenges in various ways, such as utilising online and blended learning methods, adopting learning technologies, and partnering with educational stakeholders to meet the students’ needs. Nonetheless, more can be done. Ultimately, the vision of education should be the attainment of wholeness in students. Education in a post-pandemic world takes place in a complex system where the future is unpredictable. Resolving problems in such a system requires, among other things, an attention to patterns. As explained by Berger and Johnston (2015), “if we gather enough perspectives and try to see the system, we can identify some of the patterns and see which ones are keeping the system stable (either in a way we like or in a way we don’t) and which are creating the conditions for potentially massive change (again, either to a better place or to collapse)” (p. 45 italics added). To identify which are the patterns that constitute the cornerstone of education and which are the patterns that trigger educational transformation, it is helpful to both look back and look forward. What insights can we glean from wisdom traditions regarding well-being, mindfulness, and mindful education? What implications can we draw from these traditions that could help us transform education? The rest of this book answers these questions by referencing Confucian and Christian traditions.

References Abidah, A., Hidaayatullaah, H. N., Simamora, R. M., & Fehabutar, D. (2020). The impact of Covid19 to Indonesian education and its relation to the philosophy of “Merdeka Belajar”. Studies in Philosophy of Science and Education, 1(1), 38–49. Alberta Teachers Association (2020). Alberta teachers responding to coronavirus (COVID-19): Pandemic research study initial report. Retrieved from https://www.teachers.ab.ca/SiteColle ctionDocuments/ATA/News%20and%20Info/Issues/COVID-19/Alberta%20Teachers%20Resp onding%20to%20Coronavirus%20%28COVID-19%29%20-%20ATA%20Pandemic%20Rese arch%20Study%20%28INITIAL%20REPORT%29-ExSum.pdf

20

1 Educational Challenges in a Post-pandemic World

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD]. (2020). Advantage: Low tech– no tech. Available at: https://www.dropbox.com/s/rzwzn7qm2z9f5bn/Matheson%20R edmond%20Collaborating%20to%20Ensure%20Access%20for%20ALL%20Students%20D uring%20a%20Global%20Pandemic%204.22.mp4?dl50. Baker, J. (2020, March 25). Disadvantaged kids “fell further in maths, reading due to COVID”. Sydney Morning Herald, pp. Bender, L. (2020). Key messages and actions for COVID-19 prevention and control in schools. Retrieved from UNICEF website: https://www.unicef.org/romania/documents/key-messagesand-actions-covid-19-prevention-and-control-schools Berger, J. G., & Johnston, K. (2015). Simple habits for complex times: Powerful practices for leaders. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Colao, A., Piscitelli, P., Pulimeno, M., Colazzo, S., Miani, A., & Giannini, S. (2020). Rethinking the role of the school after COVID-19. Lancet Public Health, 5(7), 370. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2468-2667(20)30124-9. Daniel, J. (2020). Education and the COVID-19 pandemic. Prospects. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3 Doucet, A. (2019). Teaching life: Our calling, our choices, our challenges. Philedelphia: Routledge. Evans, D. J. R., Bay, B. H., Wilson, T. D., Smith, C. F., Lachman, N., & Pawlina, W. (2020). Going virtual to support anatomy education: A STOPGAP in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic. Anatomical Sciences Education, 13, 279–283. Fishburn, D. (2020). Contribution to Webinar 9, “An international perspective: What’s happening in other countries?”. May 29, Teaching Council of Ireland, Cork. Retrieved from: https://www. teachingcouncil.ie/en/about-us1/learning-for-all-webinar-series/ Goodall, J. (2018). Engaging parents. Retrieved from the Learning Foundation website: https://lea rningfoundation.org.uk/5680-2/. Hall, T., Connolly, C., Ó Gradaigh, S., Burden, K., Kearney, M., Schuck, S., … & Kosmas, P. (2020). Education in precarious times: A comparative study across six countries to identify design priorities for mobile learning in a pandemic. Information and Learning Sciences, 121(5/6), 433–442. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2020). Professional capital after the pandemic: revisiting and revising classic understandings of teachers’ work. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 327–336. Harris, A. (2020). COVID-19 –school leadership in crisis? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 321–326. Heller, M. (2020). Why informal networks will be key to the COVID-19 recovery. Retrieved from World Education Forum website: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/covid-19-why-inf ormal-networks-will-be-key/ Hollweck, T., & Doucet, A. (2020). Pracademics in the pandemic: Pedagogies and professionalism. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 295–305. Hollweck, T., & Janes, L. (2020). ARC education project: Rapid response report. Retrieved from http://atrico.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2020/05/ARC-Rapid-Response-Report_March_2020.pdf. Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies [INEE], 2004 Izumi, T., Sukhwani, V., Surjan, A., & Shaw, R. (2020). Managing and responding to pandemics in higher educational institutions: Initial learning from COVID-19. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijdrbe06-2020-0054 Jandri´c, P. (2020). Postdigital research in the time of Covid-19. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(2), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00113-8. Kamenetz, A. (2020, March 26). The biggest distance-learning experiment in history: Week one. In All things considered. Washington, D. C.: National Public Radio. Retrieved from https://www. npr.org/2020/03/26/ 821921575/the-biggest-distance-learning-experiment-in-history-week-one

References

21

Kerres, M. (2020). Against all odds: Education in Germany coping with Covid-19. Postdigital Science and Education: Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-001 30-7. Meng, L., Hua, F., & Bian, Z. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Emerging and future challenges for dental and oral medicine. Journal of Dental Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034520914246 Netolicky, D. M. (2020). School leadership during a pandemic: Navigating tensions. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 321–326. Nicolaa, M., Alsafib, Z., Sohrabic, C., Kerwand, A., Al-Jabird, A., Iosifidisc, C., et al. (2020). The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19): A review. International Journal of Surgery, 78, 185–193. Osmond-Johnson, P., Campbell, C., & Pollack, K. (2020, May 6). Moving forward in the COVID-19 era: Reflections for Canadian education. Retrieved from EdCan Network website: https://www. edcan.ca/articles/moving-forward-in-the-covid-19-era/ Reimers, F. M., & Schleicher, A. (2020). A framework to guide an education response to the COVID-19 Pandemic of 2020. Paris: Author. Sahlberg, P. (2020). Will the pandemic change schools? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 359–365. Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2009). Theoretical foundations for enhancing social connectedness in online learning environments. Distance Education, 30(3), 291–315. https://doi. org/10.1080/01587910903236312. Stone-Johnson, C., & Weiner, J. M. (2020). Principal professionalism in the time of COVID-19. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 367–374. Toquero, C. M. (2020). Challenges and opportunities for higher education amid the COVID19 pandemic: The Philippine context. Pedagogical Research, 5(4), em0063. https://doi.org/10. 29333/pr/7947 UNICEF (2020). Education in Emergencies, UNICEF. Retrieved from: https://www.unicef.org/edu cation/emergencies US Department of Education (2016). Future ready learning: Reimagining the role of technology in education. (2016 National education technology plan). Retrieved from https://tech.ed.gov/files/ 2015/12/NETP16.pdf Van Lancker, W., & Parolin, Z. (2020). COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: A social crisis in the making. The Lancet Public Health, 5(5), 243–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S24682667(20)30084-0. Velavan, T. P., & Meyer, C. G. (2020). The COVID-19 epidemic. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 25(3), 278–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13383. Weale, S. (2020, Jun 15). Four in 10 pupils have had little contact with teachers during lockdown. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/jun/15/2m-children-inuk-have-done-almost-no-school-work-in-lockdown?CMP=share_btn_tw Winthrop, R. (2020, March 31). COVID-19 and school closures: What can countries learn from past emergencies? Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/research/covid-19-and-school-clo sures-what-can-countries-learn-from-past-emergencies/. World Economic Forum. (2020). Schools of the future: Defining new models of education for the fourth Industrial Revolution. Cologny/Geneva: Author. Yetick, B., & Kurtz, H. Y. (2020, May 11). Teachers work two hours less per day during COVID-19: 8 Key EdWeek Survey Findings. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/ articles/2020/05/11/teachers-work-an-hour-less-per-day.html. Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Yang, L., & Wang, C. (2020). Suspending classes without stopping learning: China’s education emergency management policy in the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(3), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055. Zureick, A. H., Burk-Rafel, J., Purkiss, J. A., & Hortsch, M. (2018). The interrupted learner: How distractions during live and video lectures influence learning outcomes. Anatomical Sciences Education, 11(4), 366–376.

Chapter 2

Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

Abstract A tradition is comprised of discourses that seek to instruct communities of people on the correct forms and purposes of given practices. Through the social processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings, Confucian and Christian traditions establish and sustain their own communities of faith, identification, and interpretation. Four observations of Confucian and Christian traditions are noted: (1) there is a plurality of Confucian and Christian traditions; (2) both traditions are based on and find legitimacy in their respective canonical texts; (3) Confucian traditions tend to be more religiously untethered whereas Christian traditions tend to be more religiously tethered; and (4) the comparison between Confucian and Christian traditions in this book is not of their truth claims but of how their respective adherents (re)interpret, appropriate, and apply the teachings in their lives. Keywords Canon · Communities of faith · Communities of identification · Communities of interpretation · Confucianism · Christianity · Culture · Faith · Religion · Spirituality · Tradition · Worldview

2.1 Introduction In the midst of addressing the educational challenges in a post-pandemic world, school leaders and teachers should prioritise the well-being of every child. Specifically, schools should value the attainment of wholeness where every student experiences completeness, balance, and security. To achieve this goal, new ideas and approaches are needed to transform the existing educational models, leadership styles, pedagogical methods, learning patterns, and assessment formats. In this regard, mindful education, where the teaching and learning processes in a school community are oriented towards wholeness, is key. The extant literature on mindfulness has predominantly focused on Buddhism, prompting a researcher to describe this trend as “Buddho-neuroscientific hegemony” (Komjathy, 2018, p. 25). What has been relatively overlooked are ideas and practices related to mindfulness from other

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_2

23

24

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

wisdom traditions. This chapter explores the traditions of Confucianism and Christianity, beginning with an exposition of the notion of tradition. The second section then elucidates and compares Confucian and Christian traditions by highlighting their salient features.

2.2 The Notion of Tradition The struggles of living in a post-pandemic world have inflicted a substantial psychological toll on many. For many students, their anxiety over schoolwork—already high—has intensified. It is therefore not surprising to find young people in East Asia turning to supernatural help outside school. Photo 2.1 shows a student in China visiting a Confucius Temple to pen her wish on a piece of paper and display it. Addressed to Confucius (Kongzi)—some even call him “Grandpa Confucius”— these wishes are invariably about stellar grades and good health. It is obvious that Confucius is treated like a deity with supernatural powers. Although the practice of petitioning to Confucius is not taught or encouraged by Confucius in the Chinese classics, this practice shows how much Confucianism has evolved, adapting itself to meet the needs of the people and staying relevant to changing times. Confucianism is interpreted by its adherents not as a millennia-old system that is static and obsolete but rather as a tradition. The next section gives details on the notion of tradition.

2.2.1 Tradition The English word “tradition” is formed from the Latin verb “trader” that denotes a transfer or handing over. Hence “tradition” suggests that “something distinctive and of particular importance has been passed on from one person or group to another.” (Smid, 2009, p. 2, italics in the original). In simple terms, a tradition is comprised of discourses that seek to instruct communities of people on the correct forms and purposes of given practices (Tan, 2011).1 A discourse is a social process of constructing and transmitting shared meanings, through both the text and context. Within a tradition, communities of people function on at least two levels: (1) as

1 Besides

the one adopted in this book, there are other definitions of “tradition”. According to Berling (1992-1993) as cited in Jochim (1995, p. 56), there are at least six conceptions of traditions: (1) tradition as the unchanging authority of the past, and thus the enemy of modernisation; (2) tradition as sealed, closed off from other traditions; (3) tradition as a canon, comprising a set of books and writings; (4) tradition as a lineage, a genealogy of thought, practice, and wisdom; (5) tradition as neatly bound within geographical or cultural enclaves; and (6) traditions as embedded in social institutions and practices and enforced by them. This book has chosen to define “tradition” as comprising discourses as this understanding drives home the social, historical and evolving processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings in Confucianism and Christianity.

2.2 The Notion of Tradition

25

Photo 2.1 A student making a wish at a Confucius Temple

communities of faith and identification, and (2) as communities of interpretation (Berling, 1992–1993). First, as communities of faith and identification, members are bound by the same commitment, locus, and connections to the past, and express their faith through shared texts, values, practices, and ways of life. What binds the members together are “the rich resources of written records of the past, the experiences, insights and statements

26

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

of doctrine and faith of the present, and community described in hopes passed on from generation to generation” (Hey, 2018, p. 153). The dimensions of faith and identification remind us that a tradition is not abstract but embedded in culture.2 A tradition does not view human beings as living in a state of suspended objectivity from their cultural context. Instead, a tradition positions humans as interacting with each other and making choices in life within their circumscribed cultural environments (Carr, 1995; Haste, 1996). Li (2016) drew attention to “cultural pattern”, which refers to a constellation of interrelated traits comprising shared motives, emotions, and values held by people in a culture. A cultural pattern includes social norms and understandings of rationality and autonomy within the community.3 Referring back to Photo 2.1, the petition cards are testament to a community of people who revere Confucius and identify themselves as his followers. The communal act of presenting their desires to Confucius expresses their faith in the venerable sage, and their close relationship with him and with each other. Such an act also informs them regarding what are “good”, “right”, and “reasonable” thinking and actions for themselves and others. Second, as communities of interpretation, members engage in the “reappropriation of the tradition for understanding and application to life, adapting the way of being in the world and spiritual realisation to the contemporary setting” (Berling, 1992–1993, cited in Jochim, 1995, p. 56). An understanding of a tradition as discourse enables us to see that tradition is not complete, static, and predetermined. Rather, it is socially constructed and contested over space and time.4 A tradition foregrounds human beings as the creators of their own historical, political, religious, linguistic, institutional, and sociocultural narratives. Integral to understanding tradition is to appreciate the ways in which practices and resources are interpreted and passed on to others. This requires not just knowledge of the contents within a tradition but also how traditions themselves form and change. The formation of a tradition involves the “ways of preserving that which is valuable from the past, integrating this with transformed understandings of the present, and developing a greater understanding of likely future scenarios and the roles traditions will play in these” (Hey, 2018, p. 153). With reference to Photo 2.1, the practice of writing and displaying one’s petition card is an example of a reappropriation of Confucianism. The act signifies that Confucius and his teachings remain relevant in modern times, albeit with a reinterpretation of him as having the power to grant wishes.

2 In

this book, culture refers broadly to “the idea of a life form and being as a symbolic dimension present in all action, a historically structured repertoire, an ensemble of styles, abilities and schemes that, incorporated into the subjects, are used in a more or less conscientious manner to organise their practice, both individual and collective” (Picotti, 2009, p. 185). 3 The cultural pattern functions as a worldview that encompasses “beliefs, intentions, experiences, principles, values, social norms, self-evident truths, logical and empirical presuppositions” (Lauer, 2009, p. 124). Gadamer (2004) added that tradition “in large measure determines our institutions and attitudes” (p. 282) and is “always part of us, a model or exemplar” (p. 283). 4 As noted by Gadamer (2004), we generate tradition when “we understand, participate in the evolution of traditions, and hence further determine it ourselves” (p. 293).

2.2 The Notion of Tradition

27

In sum, a tradition is composed of discourses—social processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings—for communities of faith, identification, and interpretation. Individuals (re)act according to their “tradition-formed story” that shapes and is shaped by their affiliation and contribution within a community (Smith, 2009, p. 18). Having explicated the notion of tradition, the next segment discusses Confucian and Christian traditions.

2.3 Confucian and Christian Traditions Confucian and Christian traditions are composed of discourses that serve to direct communities of people on the correct forms and purposes of given practices. Each tradition offers its adherents faith, identification, and interpretation through shared texts, values, practices, and ways of life, as well as resources for them to reappropriate the tradition to contemporary settings. Four observations of Confucian and Christian traditions are noted: (1) there is a plurality of Confucian and Christian traditions; (2) both traditions are based on canonical texts and find legitimacy in them; (3) Confucian traditions tend to be more religiously untethered whereas Christian traditions tend to be more religiously tethered; and (4) the comparison between Confucian and Christian traditions in this book is not of their truth claims but of how their respective adherents (re)interpret, appropriate, and apply the teachings in their lives.

2.3.1 Plurality of Traditions The first observation is the use of the plural form of “tradition” for Confucianism and Christianity. Within the broad category of Confucianism and Christianity, a multitude of traditions co-exist, complement, or compete with one another. In other words, beliefs, values, and practices from within the same tradition are not always in harmony with each other and may instead have conflicting claims, factions, and contestations. Acknowledging the diversity within Confucianism, scholars have noted variants such as early Confucianism, neo-Confucianism, and new Confucianism. Throughout the history of Confucianism, Confucian philosophers have disagreed on and debated over key concepts and issues (Tan, 2020). Examples are the opposing views between Mencius and Xunzi on whether human nature is good or bad (Confucius is famously silent on this topic), and the contrasting theories forwarded by Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming on the meaning of gewu (reaching of things). In the same vein, Christianity comes in different forms such as Calvinist Christianity, evangelical Christianity, Catholicism, and Protestantism. As a case in point, the doctrine of sola fide, as conceptualised by Martin Luther, is accepted by most Protestants but rejected by the

28

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

Catholics.5 Pazmino 1997 also differentiated between the reformed, reforming, and liberation perspectives within the Christian traditions; each has its own understanding of human nature and destiny, human relationships, and the role of humans in society. Notwithstanding the plurality, I will be using the terms Confucian and Christian traditions broadly to cover all the variations, but will specify the thinker or school of thought when necessary.6

2.3.2 Canonical Texts The second point concerns the authoritative texts that facilitate the social processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings for the communities. A key similarity between Confucian and Christian tradition is that the tenets of both systems are based on their respective canonical texts, and find legitimacy in them. These texts embody “strong, substantive criteria of truth and rationality” (MacIntyre, 1988, p. 384). Within the canon, the most authoritative texts for Confucian and Christian traditions are Lunyu (Analects) and the Bible respectively. Although the Confucian canon consists of a number of classics, the Analects is undoubtedly the most wellknown and influential.7 Comprising 20 chapters, the Analects is a collection of the sayings and conduct of Confucius and his disciples, which was compiled shortly after Confucius’ death (Ames & Rosemont, 1998; Tan, 2017).8 As for Christianity, the Christian Bible is upheld as “the final authority and serve[s] as the grid through 5 For

details, see Huang (2006). Issler (2001) added that there are three general families within Christianity: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Despite the differences, Christians share the core belief in a Triune God, as explained by Issler (2001): “God is one divine Being, but not one person, for he is an eternally existing ‘divine society’ of three persons – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit – who love each other dearly and who comprise the one Christian God” (p. 37; for Bible references, see for example Isaiah 48:16, 61:1; Matthew 28:19; 2 Corinthians 13:14). 6 An example of the usefulness of making a distinction is noted by Huang (2006): “Jacques Gernet and other researchers, who have taken the Neo-Confucians as the representative of whole Confucianism, have made a constructive error, since they did not pay enough attention to the difference between Ancient Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism. In fact, Ancient (original) Confucianism has generated many Confucian schools more or less different from one another, and choosing only one of them as a representative is like taking the Vietnamese as a representative of all Asians” (p. 36). 7 Traditionally, the Confucian canon, known collectively as the Four Books and Five Classics (Sishu Wujing), came into existence in the Early Han dynasty (202 BCE-8 CE). The Four Books are Daxue 大學 (Great Learning), Lunyu 論語 (Analects), Mengzi 孟子(Mencius), and Zhongyong 中 庸 (Harmonious Balance in Everyday Affairs). The Five Classics are Book of History 尚書, Book of Songs 詩經, Book of Rites 禮記, Book of Changes 周易, and Book of the Spring and Autumn Annals 春秋. 8 Given that the Analects was completed a few centuries after the death of Confucius, some researchers have questioned its authenticity. For a good discussion, see Slingerland (2001). The controversy over the veracity of the Analects does not pose a problem to this study. As this book has interpreted Confucianism as a tradition, i.e., a socially constructed process of constructing and transmitting shared meanings, it views the Analects as providing a coherent and authoritative text for the Confucian communities. As noted by Li (2007), “if such attempts [to read the text in a

2.3 Confucian and Christian Traditions

29

which all other truths are examined for their consistency with a Christian world and life view” (Pazmino, 1997, p. 56).9 The Bible is divided into the Old Testament (39 books) and New Testament (27 books), written by around 40 authors in Hebrew and Greek over a period of approximately 1500 years. Issler (2001) explained that the Bible “speaks as one complete unit, having one ultimate divine author” who guided the human authors in their writing (p. 35).10 Given that both Confucians and Christians are instructed by their respective canonical texts, it is essential to pay attention to these texts when interpreting and applying the beliefs of both systems. But it should be added that the canon is not self-explanatory or self-interpreting. As averred by Angle (2009), “canonical texts must be interpreted, […] they therefore supply standards of right and wrong only together with the styles of reasoning and traditions of interpretation that have grown up around them” (p. 8). The multiple interpretations of the canon—whether by those within or outside the communities—show that Confucianism and Christianity are not fossilised systems but living and evolving traditions.11

2.3.3 Religion and Spirituality The third observation on Confucian and Christian traditions concerns whether these two traditions should be regarded as religions.12 This question is more pertinent to Confucianism as Christianity is generally and unproblematically classified as a religion.13 A common definition of religion is a faith system that centres on a deity and coherent manner] cannot be taken as a reduction to Confucius’ own thought, they at least can be seen as reconstructions that may help us understand Confucianism” (p. 324). 9 The Bible remains influential today, as observed by Angle (2006): “Many speakers of internationalised English, by no means limited to so-called fundamentalists, still look to the Bible, for instance, as expressing ‘strong, substantive criteria’ of right and wrong” (p. 8). Benson (2001) added that although the Bible is not an educational handbook per se, “its principles will always be contemporary and relevant because they are transcultural when adapted properly” (p. 27). 10 Drawing attention to 2 Timothy 3:16-17 that teaches that the Scripture is inspired by God, Newton (2001) wrote that inspiration “related to this initial act of God sharing his truth in the original writings of Scripture”, thereby making it “the final test of truth by which believers distinguish truth from error” (p. 128). 11 To help believers understand the Bible and settle doctrinal disputes among themselves, Christians have produced and relied on various creeds, confessions, and catechisms. For a good summary of the major confessions and catechisms in the sixteenth century from Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Anabaptist, and Roman Catholic sources, see Noll (1991). 12 Apart from these two categories, Confucianism and Christianity have also been described as philosophies, cultures, worldviews, orthodoxies, and traditional religious communities (Rule, 1972; Yearley, 1979). 13 That Christianity is regarded as a religion is seen in the definition of “Christian”. Sawyer (2001) defined “Christians” as “people who would say of themselves that they follow or adhere to the Abrahamic and monotheistic religion, based on the life, example and teachings of Jesus Christ as the Messiah and ‘expected or longed-for saviour’” (p. 195). Also see Luetz, Buxton, and Bangert (2018).

30

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

is regulated by institutionalised organisations, dogmas, regulations, conversion, and membership (Minney, 1991; Tan & Zhang, 2014). Standaert (2001) pointed out that the etymology of the English word “religion” is about the “careful and even fearful fulfilment of all that man owes to God or to the gods”. This understanding of religion is not applicable to Confucian traditions, as Confucianism is not an organised system with appointed leaders, official membership, and governing rules.14 Significantly, Confucianism is not classified as a religion in mainland China as well as other East Asian countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Singapore (Gan & Zhou, 2013). The Chinese word for religion (zongjiao) does not even exist in Confucian writings and discourses (Huang, 2006). Given the debate on the description of Confucian traditions as a religion, this study prefers the term “spirituality” to “religion” for Christian and Confucian traditions. Spirituality is about reflecting on and appreciating facets of human life; these facets include the mundane and material as well as the transcendent and enduring (Carr, 1995). Spirituality invites individuals to experience self-transcendence towards the ultimate value one perceives (Schneider, 2006). Examples of spiritual ideals are mindfulness, a search for meaning, a sense of awe, self-knowledge, and prayer. It is evident that both Christian and Confucian traditions value and foster spirituality. Confucianism is replete with spiritual terms such as heaven and dao (way) (Gan & Zhou, 2013). Likewise, Christian themes such as the love of God, forgiveness, and good works are spiritual in nature. Another reason why spirituality is favoured over religion is that the former is a broader term that encompasses religious beliefs and values. Alexander and McLaughlin’s (2003) concept of tethered and untethered spiritual ideals elaborates on this. A tethered ideal is linked to a supernatural power, dogmas, and/or formal membership; it “takes its shape and structure from various aspects of religion with which it is associated and that make[s] it possible for us to identify criteria for ‘spiritual development’” (Alexander & McLaughlin, 2003, p. 359). Untethered ideals, on the other hand, are not associated with any named supernatural power, institutionalised doctrines, or religious affiliations. These ideals present themselves as unstructured, less specific, more open-ended, and diffused (Alexander & McLaughlin, 2003). Confucian traditions tend to be more religiously untethered whereas Christian traditions tend to be more religiously tethered. Confucian ideals such as dao (way) and ren (humanity) are religiously untethered ideals whereas Christian ideals such as “salvation” and “heaven” are religiously tethered. Photo 2.2 illustrates religiously tethered ideals in the Christian traditions by showing a board displayed at the garden of Gethsemane in modern-day Jerusalem. According to the Bible, the garden of Gethsemane was where Jesus spent time in prayer before he was arrested, the night before his crucifixion. The board includes two prayers—one made by Jesus (the passage from Matthew 26:39) and another by 14 Peterson

et al. (2003) proposed an alternative definition of religion as “a set of beliefs, actions, and experiences, both personal and corporate, organised around a concept of an Ultimate Reality” (p. 19). If we follow this definition, it is arguable that Confucian traditions (and similarly Christian traditions) are religions. The “Ultimate Reality”, in this case, is dao (Way), which is a vision of human excellence. I shall elaborate on this term in subsequent chapters.

2.3 Confucian and Christian Traditions

31

Photo 2.2 A board displayed at the garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem

Christians. As shown in the photo, the prayers include a number of spiritual ideas such as trust, surrender, love, and gratitude. In the Christian context, these ideals are religiously tethered; for example, surrender refers to the submission of Jesus to the Father’s will for him to be crucified for the sins of the world, and trust refers to faith in God. But spiritual ideals that originate from the Christian tradition can also be religiously untethered. An example is the Golden Rule in the Bible about loving one’s neighbour, a spiritual ideal that can be discussed and applied without any reference to religious doctrines. Another instance of a religiously untethered spiritual ideal derived from Christianity is the Puritan work ethic, which revolves around values such as diligence and frugality. By the same logic, spiritual ideals from the Confucian traditions can be religiously tethered. An example is shown in Photo 2.1 where Confucius is elevated to the level of a deity, capable of granting wishes to the common people. It is also not uncommon for people to offer incense to the statue of Confucius and other Confucian sages in a Confucius Temple, and prostate before them—practices that suggest religious beliefs. All in all, Confucian and Christian traditions help their respective communities to ponder on and respond positively towards dimensions of human experience that are meaningful and enduring.

2.3.4 Truth Claims The last observation of Confucian and Christian traditions is that the focus of this study is not on the truth claims of both traditions. In other words, the question is not whether, or which of, the doctrines of Confucianism and Christianity are (more)

32

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

accurate, credible, and reliable.15 Rather, the attention is on how the adherents of Confucian and Christian traditions (re)interpret, appropriate, and apply the teachings in their lives. To amplify this point, it is helpful to refer to the two meanings of worldview identified by Lauer (2009, pp. 104–105, italics added): Worldview (1): connotes the sense in which certain belief states or belief contents are presumed to constitute a primordial and ineliminable foundation for interpreting perceptual experiences and forming intentions. Worldview (2): connotes an intentionally produced “ideal construction”, which undergoes purposeful revision in the light of ongoing experience. The concept of tradition as used in this book is compatible with both worldviews. The objective of this study is on how professed Confucians and Christians subscribe to what they presume to be true about a set of beliefs that underlie, organise, and shape their lived experiences (Worldview (1)).16 At the same time, this study is interested in how Confucians and Christians identify themselves with their respective traditions, and how the traditions themselves transform the believers and are in turn transformed through time and space (Worldview (2)). The concept of tradition adopted in this book is aligned with a metal model that sees a tradition not as static, homogeneous, and complete but as evolving, heterogenous, and a work in progress.

2.4 Conclusion This chapter has explicated the notion of tradition as comprised of discourses that seek to instruct communities of people on the correct forms and purposes of given practices. As traditions, Confucianism and Christianity are marked by social processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings, thereby establishing and sustaining their respective communities of faith, identification, and interpretation. Their respective communities appreciate and reflect on themes of positive moral evaluation and dimensions of human experience that are meaningful, transcendent, and eternal. In both traditions, there is a plurality of sub-traditions that are premised on and legitimised by their respective canonical texts. Both traditions are regarded as spiritual rather than religious systems. Confucian traditions tend to be more religiously untethered whereas Christian traditions tend to be more religiously tethered. Finally, the 15 This does not mean that truth is unimportant when we examine Confucianism and Christianity. Important as this question may be, it requires an extended discussion that includes, among others, the definitions and theories of truth and methods to evaluate truth claims. These topics are beyond the objective and scope of this book. For useful readings on the comparative study of the religious/spiritual doctrines of Confucianism and Christianity, see Huang (2006) and Ren and Lambert (2010). 16 This book is interested in the “orienting and explaining” functions of Confucianism and Christianity as interpreted by the respective followers, which “are ultimately responsible for all the different governance structures, architectures, cuisines, kinship arrangements, educational and legal systems, mythologies, types of divinity, styles of worship and rituals of courtship, that comprise the different social realities sustained objectively by distinct cultural traditions” (Lauer, 2009, p. 106).

2.4 Conclusion

33

pivot is not on truth claims, but on the (re)interpretation, appropriation, and application of the traditions by their adherents. Having sketched the notions of Confucian and Christian traditions, the next chapter turns to the historical encounters between the two traditions.

References Alexander, H., & McLaughlin, T. H. (2003). Education in religion and spirituality. In N. Blake, P. Smeyers, R. Smith, & P. Standish (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of education (pp. 356–373). Blackwell: Malden. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, Jr., H. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Angle, S. C. (2009). Sagehood: The contemporary significance of Neo-Confucian philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Benson, W. S. (2001). Philosophical foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 35–44). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Berling, J. (1992–1993). The role of tradition. Pacific Theological Review, 25-26, 23-24. Carr, D. (1995). Towards a distinctive conception of spiritual education. Oxford Review of Education, 21(1), 83–98. Gadamer, H. G. (2004). Truth and method (2nd ed.). Translated by J. Weinsheimer and D. G. Marshall. London: Continuum. Gan, C., & Zhou, Y. (2013). The religious nature of Confucianism in contemporary China’s “Cultural Renaissance Movement”. Contemporary Chinese Thought, 44(2), 3–15. Haste, H. (1996). Communitarianism and the social construction of morality. Journal of Moral Education, 25(1), 47–55. Hey, S. (2018). The Wesleyan Quadrilateral as an aid to formation in tertiary education. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 145–161). Singapore: Springer. Huang, P. (2006). Confronting Confucian understandings of the Christian doctrine of salvation: A systematic theological analysis of the basic problems in the Confucian-Christian dialogue.. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004177260.i-320. Issler, K. (2001). Theological foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 35–44). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Jochim, C. (1995). The contemporary Confucian-Christian encounter: Interreligious or intrareligious dialogue. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 32, 35–62. Komjathy, L. (2018). Introducing contemplative studies. Hoboken: Wiley. Lauer, H. (2009). A worldly view of worldview metaphysics. In N. Note, R. Fornet-Betancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 103–127). Dordrecht: Springer. Li, C. (2016). Comparative philosophy and cultural patterns. Dao, 15, 533–546. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11712-016-9519-5. Li, C.-Y. (2007). Li as cultural grammar: On the relation between li and ren in Confucius’ Analects. Philosophy East & West, 57, 311–329. Luetz, J. M., Buxton, G., & Bangert, K. (2018). Christian theological, hermeneutical and eschatological perspectives on environmental sustainability and creation care – The role of holistic education. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 51–73). Singapore: Springer.

34

2 Confucianism and Christianity as Traditions

MacIntyre, A. (1988). Whose justice? Which rationality?. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Minney, R. (1991). What is spirituality in an educational context? British Journal of Educational Studies, 39(4), 386–397. Newton, G. (2001). The holy spirit in the educational process. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 125–129). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Noll, M. A. (Ed.). (1991). Confessions and catechisms of the Reformation. Leicester: Apollos. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education: An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Peterson, M., Hasker, W., Reichenbach, B., & Basinger, D. (2003). Reason & religious belief: An introduction the philosophy of religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Picotti, D. V. (2009). Towards an intercultural construction of rationality. In N. Note, R. FornetBetancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 181–190). Dordrecht: Springer. Ren, J., & Lambert, A. (2010). A sense of awe: On the differences between Confucian thought and Christianity. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 5(1), 111–133. Rule, P. A. (1972). K’ung-tzu or Confucius? The Jesuit interpretation of Confucianism. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from *insert website* Sawyer, J. F. A. (2001). Messiah. In B. M. Metzger & M. D. Coogan (Eds.), The Oxford companion to the Bible (pp. 195–196). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Schneider, 2006 missing Slingerland, E. (2001). Virtue ethics, the “Analects,” and the problem of commensurability. Journal of Religious Ethics, 29(1), 97–125. Smid, R. W. (2009). Methodologies of comparative philosophy: The pragmatist and process traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press. Smith (2009). missing Standaert, N. (2001). Christianity as a religion in China: Insights from the handbook of Christianity in China Volume One (635-1800). Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie, 12, 1-21. Retrieved from https:// www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2001_num_12_1_1163 Tan, C. (2011). Islamic education and indoctrination: The case in Indonesia. New York: Routledge. Tan, C. (2017). Chinese responses to Shanghai’s performance in PISA. Comparative Education, 53(2), 209–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2017.1299845. Tan, C. (2020). Confucian philosophy for contemporary education. London: Routledge. Tan, C., & Zhang, K. C. (2014). Spiritual education in Singapore and Hong Kong: Issues, challenges and prospects. In J. Watson, M. de Souza, & A. T. Trousdale (Eds.), Global perspectives on spiritual education (pp. 192–203). New York: Routledge. Yearley, L. H. (1979). Confucianism and Christianity: A comparative study by Julia Ching. Philosophy East and West, 29(4), 509–512.

Chapter 3

Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

Abstract Historically, a major obstacle faced by Christian missionaries and Confucians in China was the reconciliation of foreign/“Western” Christian beliefs with indigenous/Confucian ideas, values, and practices. The comparative approach of bridge-building was used by Confucians and Christians to facilitate dialogue and promote congruence between the two traditions. Bridge-building maps the properties, ideas, and tools from one tradition onto those of another tradition. Three strategies for bridge-building that seek to harmonise Christian doctrines with Confucian ideas, values, and practices are highlighted: (1) identifying common ground between Confucian and Christian traditions; (2) adapting Christian teachings to prevailing Confucian ideas and/or practices; and (3) synthesising selected Confucian and Christian teachings through new or modified ideas and practices. Keywords Bridge-building · Catholicism · China · Christianity · Comparative philosophy · Confucianism · Confucian christian · God · Matteo ricci · Shangdi · Tian · Xu guangqi

3.1 Introduction Photo 3.1 shows Confucian scholar Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) and Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) against the backdrop of a cross. Xu converted to Catholicism and was a chief advocate of Confucian–Christian dialogue and collaboration. He was the bridge for the Christian missionaries to understand China and persuade the Chinese to embrace the Christian faith. The photo exemplifies the historical encounters between Confucian and Christian traditions that stress mutual understanding, respect, and cooperation. This chapter begins by detailing the field of comparative philosophy and bridge-building. The next segment illustrates the application of bridge-building by sketching the historical encounters between Confucian and Christian traditions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_3

35

36

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

Photo 3.1 Photo of Confucian scholar Xu Guangqi and Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci

3.2 Comparative Philosophy and Bridge-Building 3.2.1 Comparative Philosophy The exploration of Confucian and Christian traditions in this book is located within the field of comparative philosophy. Comparative philosophy dates back to the nineteenth century with the publication Objet et méthode de la philosophie comparée (1911) by the French Indologist Paul Masson-Oursel (1882–1956) (Weber, 2013). Comparative philosophy refers to the task of philosophising across two or more traditions (Li, 2006); it moves across the boundaries of otherwise distinct traditions

3.2 Comparative Philosophy and Bridge-Building

37

that are separated by historical and cultural distances (Smid, 2009). The process of comparative philosophy involves examining, questioning, extending, combining, and reconstructing ideas, theories, worldviews, and presuppositions across traditions. Comparative philosophy also entails understanding the problems faced by the proponents of the traditions, as well as the methods and standards used by them to resolve puzzles (Douglas, 2003). The work of comparative philosophy goes beyond analysing the similarities and differences between traditions to challenging established knowledge. Comparative philosophy aspires to seek truth, obtain wisdom, question and synthesise, among other things (Angle, 2006). Besides generating academic discourse, comparative philosophy also provides a window to the histories, cultures, and societies of peoples in the world. The task—and challenge—for comparativists is to traverse, make sense of, and connect the historical and cultural distance between traditions, while remaining faithful to the traditions being studied (Smid, 2009). Doing so broadens our horizons by giving us diverse perspectives and presuppositions, thereby producing new and creative insights (Li, 1999). Through constructive engagement, traditions undergo self-criticism and internal renewal, as they receive as well as integrate the conceptual and explanatory resources from different traditions (Mou, 2009).1 When engaging in cross-cultural studies especially East–West comparisons, it is important to guard against what Smid (2009) termed “intellectual ethnocentrism”, where cultures are “(mis-)understood in terms often surreptitiously smuggled in from the West” (p. 86).2 Other scholars have also noted that comparative philosophy is dominated by Western perspectives, frameworks, and assumptions, thereby perpetuating them.3 Cautioning against “mental colonisation” that refers to “an integration of foreign world-views into our own one-sided Weltanschauung [worldview]” (p. 1), Libbrecht (2009) reasoned, 1 Mou

(2009) defined constructive engagement as “a general philosophical approach that inquires into how, via reflective criticism and self-criticism, distinct modes of thinking, methodological approaches, visions, insights, substantial points of view, or conceptual/explanatory resources from different philosophical traditions, and/or from different styles/orientations of doing philosophy in a global context, can learn from each other and make joint contribution to the common philosophical enterprise and a series of commonly concerned issues or topics of philosophical significance” (p. 70). Adopting a comparative philosophical method means rejecting the position of an apologist who criticises another tradition based on a preconceived set of commitments (Yearley, 1979). Arguing that comparative philosophy is necessarily intercultural, Burik (2009) posited, “Being between different cultures suggests not the Western metaphysical ideal of objectivity, but it does suggest the openness toward what is other and the willingness to step outside one’s own comfortable sphere” (p. 2). 2 Smid (2009) stated that “it is all too easy to allow Western biases to pervade these terms and ideas; whether this is done intentionally or unintentionally, it nonetheless distorts one’s understanding of non-Western traditions” (p. 121)” (p. 342). Additionally, “[t]he idea that the West has something important to learn from the East is no revolutionary hypothesis; it is even standard fare among comparativists, stemming back at least as far as Hocking and Northrop, if not further to Leibniz, Hegel, and Schopenhauer” (Smid, 2009, p. 96). 3 For example, see Libbrecht (2007, 2009); Milligan, Stanfill, Widyanto, and Zhang (2011); and Mungello (1978).

38

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions Those who maintain that Eastern thought does not know ‘concepts’ are saying that the Chinese and Indians are not able to think. They are inspired by the prejudice that there is only one type of philosophy, viz. the Western type. In that scenario, Western thinking provides all the criteria for comparative philosophy and other philosophies are only valuable in as far as they have an intersection with the Western world-view (pp. 36–37, italics added).

Cultural learning in general and comparative philosophy in particular, therefore, need to be two-way, involving mutual learning. To put it in another way, cultural learning does not necessarily take place “from the West to the rest”. Nonetheless, a challenge when comparing two traditions, which stem from different cultural origins and possess occasionally conflicting worldviews, is how to bridge the perceived incompatibility. A recommended response is bridge-building.

3.2.2 Bridge-Building The comparative approach of bridge-building maps the properties, ideas, and tools from one tradition onto those of another tradition (Miller & Boix-Mansilla, 2004). A bridge is an appropriate metaphor as it acknowledges the existence of two or more separate entities and depicts the smoothening of the communication process. Bridges, as Li (1999) pointed out, do not eradiate the gap but connects people on both sides, allowing them to meet and learn from each other. To build bridges between traditions, comparativists have employed various methods for their study. The three main strategies for bridge-building, as adapted from Miller and Boix-Mansilla (2004), are as follows: (1) (2)

(3)

Creating compound concepts: Constructing existing terms or neologisms that link traditions and foster integrative understanding. Providing complex explanations and solutions: Synthesising concepts and findings from more than one tradition to understand causes, build complex explanations, and solve problems. Advancing through checks and balances: Engaging in mutual scrutiny and learning that involves multiple and/or conflicting perspectives from various traditions.

An example of the creation of compound concepts is “Boston Confucianism” coined by Robert Neville at Boston University (Neville, 2000). This unique term advocates the relevance of Confucianism for modern-day American life through its adaptation of Western/global perspectives.4 An instance of providing complex explanations is Huang Yong’s neo-Confucian explanation for the question of whether one can know the right thing to do yet fail to do it (Huang 2014).5 Finally, the 4 Naming

his approach “integrative philosophy”, Neville (2002) argued that “vital and creative philosophy today needs to operate within a public that integrates reflections from as many of the world’s philosophic traditions as possible” (p. 20). 5 This point is taken from Li (2016) who noted: “Huang utilises insights from the Cheng Brothers in order to solve philosophical problems in Western philosophy. For example, in the case of weakness

3.2 Comparative Philosophy and Bridge-Building

39

strategy of advancing through checks and balances is demonstrated through the Confucian idea of correlative thinking by Ames (2012), which challenges the Western notion of causal thinking. Unlike causal thinking which is linear, binary, and rational, correlative thinking is analogical, dialectical, and aesthetic.6 The introduction of correlative thinking is a useful problem-solving tool to resolve paradoxes such as the co-existence of didactic teaching and student engagement in East Asia (Tan, 2016). Turning to the procedure of bridge-building, the first step is to identify common points for dialogue; these may include a shared core of beliefs (Lukes, 1982) or a translation of ideas or presuppositions from one tradition into the context of the other (Libbrecht, 2007). Donald Davidson, in his foreword for the book Two Roads to Wisdom? Chinese and Analytic Philosophical Traditions, argued for the importance of recognising underlying agreement between traditions: A first exposure to a new tradition seems to reveal an unbridgeable gap. What experience shows, though, is that, as in other areas, differences are to be understood only as seen against a background of underlying agreement. The underlying agreement may be largely unspoken and unnoticed, but it is always available. Sometimes we need help in appreciating how philosophy builds on what we all know. No world views or conceptual schemes are truly incommensurable (cited in Mou, 2001, p. v, italics added).

While highlighting the convergence between traditions, it is also important to clarify how the same word or phrase is interpreted in each tradition. This is paramount as it is possible for two parties to assume erroneously that they are referring to the same thing just because the same descriptive term is used (Ramberg, 1989). A fruitful dialogue would therefore “require each discourse to restate itself so as to be hearable by the other, translating its own vocabulary into terms that the other can recognise as appropriate to its own concerns” (Charry, 2017, p. 38, italics added). Having delineated the comparative approach of bridge-building, the next section illustrates its application by examining the historical encounters between Confucians and Christians in Imperial China.

of the will, the common question is whether one can know what is the right thing to do yet fail to do it. Huang borrows the Cheng Brothers’ insight on two kinds of knowledge, knowledge from the intellect and knowledge from the heart. While knowing the right thing from the intellect does not necessitate action accordingly, knowing the right thing from the heart does (Huang 2014, ch. 3)” (p. 538). Fingarette (1972) and Hall and Ames (1987) also utilised a problem-centred approach when they addressed a philosophical problem in one tradition using the resources from another tradition (Smid, 2009). 6 As explained by Li (2016), “Roger Ames and his collaborators, notably David Hall and Henry Rosemont, Jr., for example, have identified the difference between Chinese thinking and Western thinking in terms of “reductive rational” versus “more holistic aesthetic sensibilities,” or “dialectical” versus “correlative thinking,” or “causal” versus “analogical thinking” (e.g., Ames, 2012, p. 641), “reductive rational” versus “more holistic aesthetic sensibilities,” or “dialectical” versus “correlative thinking,” or “causal” versus “analogical thinking”” (p. 544).

40

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

3.3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions in Imperial China The Confucian–Christian encounter has had a long history, tracing back to the Tang dynasty (618–907) when Christianity reached China through a Nestorian monk named Aluoben. Despite an early start, Christianity only gained widespread public attention during the Ming dynasty through the works of Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci (Gan & Zhou, 2013).7 Ricci distinguished himself for his bridgebuilding efforts that advanced cultural learning between Confucians and Christians. Researchers have noted how adjustments, adaptation, creative interpretations, and selective applications were adopted by missionaries, proponents and adherents in imperial China.8 A dominant strategy for bridge-building between the Confucians and Christians at that time was the provision of complex explanations and solutions (Fu, 2018; Gan & Zhou, 2013; Mungello, 1978; Rule, 1972; Seo, 2012). A major problem that confronted both Christian missionaries and Chinese/Confucians in China was how to reconcile Christian beliefs, which were widely seen to be foreign and “Western”, with Confucian ideas, values, and practices. Bridge-building meant that both Confucians and Christians (re)interpreted their own beliefs and those of others to find commonality between both traditions. Specifically, three main strategies of bridge-building were utilised: • Identifying common ground between Confucian and Christian traditions • Adapting Christian teachings to prevailing Confucian ideas and/or practices • Synthesising selected Confucian and Christian teachings through new or modified ideas and/practices All three strategies contributed towards the creation of a Confucian Christian—a “double belonger [who] seeks mutual enrichment and transformation” (Fu, 2018, p. 71). The next section elaborates on each strategy.

7 For

a good review of Confucian-Christian dialogue, see Jochim (1995). For a good account of interpretations of Confucianism by the Jesuit missionaries in China from 1580 to 1773, see Rule (1972). 8 Li (1999) highlighted the usefulness of bridge-building for East–West dialogue: “The Chinese and the West are like two green lands separated by a river. The best way to connect them is to build bridges. While bridges do not eliminate the gap, they make it easier for people on both sides to communicate with and learn from each other; they make it possible for explorers from one side to reach the other side. After crossing the river over a bridge, one can extend one’s explorations further on the other side” (p. 6).

3.3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian …

41

3.3.1 Identifying Common Ground Between Confucian and Christian Traditions The first strategy adopted by Christians and Confucians was the identification of a common ground between Confucianism and Christianity. A prominent example is Confucian scholar Xu Guangqi, whose photo was shown at the start of this chapter. Xu argued that the ultimate aim of Confucianism was to worship and serve God who was able to save one’s soul (Seo, 2012). He highlighted the compatibility between Confucian and Christian beliefs; for instance, he cited the Ten Commandments in the Bible to show that Christianity supported filial piety in Confucianism.9 Xu offered himself as an example of a respectable official who “was not required to abandon his cultural heritage; to redefine it, perhaps, but not to reject it” and “remained a ju, a Confucian scholar” (Rule, 1972, p. 153). Adopting the same approach, Christian missionaries in imperial China capitalised on the core beliefs found in both Confucian and Christian traditions. A prominent example is the concept of a deity. The missionaries drew attention to how the Chinese/Confucian notions of Shangdi (Lord on High) and tian (heaven) were similar or even equivalent to the Christian conception of God. Matteo Ricci, in particular, was zealous in drawing parallels between the Christian God and the ancient Chinese notions of a supreme deity. Other seventeenth-century missionaries such as Antonio Caballero and Joseph de Premare also used the Chinese terms Shangdi, tian, and tianzhu (Lord of heaven) to refer to God (Mungello, 1978). Another Jesuit missionary, Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, even asserted that Confucian classics contained “a mysterious and prophetic summary of the principles and of the whole economy of the Christian religion” (cited in Gan & Zhou, 2013, p. 207). Another Jesuit missionary during the Qing dynasty, Philippe Couplet, underlined the alignment between Confucianism and Christianity through his translation of Confucian classics such as the Analects (Lunyu), Great Learning (Daxue), and Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong). For example, Couplet referred to the Christian concept of sin when he rendered the phrase “who offends against Heaven” in the Confucian classics as “who sins against Heaven” (Rogacz, 2018).10 The thrust of the Christian missionaries was that the Confucian classics, namely Shangshu (Book 9 On

filial piety, it is pertinent to note that Korean Christians also faced challenges in reconciling filial piety and the prohibition of ancestral worship. Park (2000) explained: “Reaffirming that they were the true followers of God, Christians found belief in and worship of ancestral spirits incompatible with their determination to act in accordance with God’s will. The reverence for parents was acknowledged, but it was not without limits. Such a view of ancestral worship or filial piety shows dramatically the new value orientation of the Christian community. The imported faith held that parents should be revered only in a way compatible with the commands of God, and its attitude toward polygamous relations, work habits, and intemperance differed markedly from traditional attitudes” (p. 515, italics added). 10 Rogacz (2018) added, “Couplet’s comment also synchronises China’s history with sacred history and, in a sense, the world history, e.g., ‘Yi Yin decided to open goldmines in order to relieve the people who had been greatly afflicted by poor harvests and hunger for seven years there, in Egypt, and on all of earth (as the Bible attests)’ (Meynard, 2015, p. 388). In a similar vein, he tried to treat the Chinese golden age as a state before the original sin (Meynard, 2015, p. 424). The compromise

42

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

of History, also known as Shujing), Shijing (Book of Odes), Analects, as well as the oracle bones and pottery shards all pointed to an ancient Chinese belief in a supreme, omnipotent, transcendent and personal deity (Clark, 2005). This deity, which was known as Shangdi in the Shang dynasty and tian in the Zhou dynasty, is one supreme and omnipotent Being, who, in the likeness of human or ancestral spirits, has its own will. The nature of Shangdi’s punishments and rewards indicates that Shangdi’s will and authority are moral. Shangdi’s decrees are executed through the implementation of human activity (especially the king’s) and religious duties. It is precisely this conception of divinity that was used by early Zhou kings to justify their actions to topple the Shang Dynasty (Clark, 2005, p. 122).11

Even the tricky issue of innate human nature is perceived by the Confucians and Christians as unproblematic for both traditions. Although Confucius was silent on whether human nature is good or bad, the dominant view in the Confucian traditions follows Mencius’ position that human nature is good. This interpretation clashes with the Christian doctrine of original sin that teaches that human beings are born evil. The Christian missionaries in late Ming China reconciled the diametrically opposing teachings by noting that the Chinese word ben could mean “root” or “original”. Cognisant of the influential Confucian teaching of innate goodness in humans, the missionaries interpreted “basic goodness” not in an ontological sense (benshan = “fundamentally good”), but as denoting a sin-free condition at the time of creation and before the Fall (benshan = “originally good”) (Zürcher, 1997). Giving details to the Jesuits’ interpretation of innate goodness was an interesting exchange between Jesuit missionary Giulio Alenis and Confucian scholars in Fujian in 1625. At that meeting, they discussed the meaning of a well-known saying from a Confucian classic Zhongyong (traditionally translated as Doctrine of the Mean): “What Heaven has ordained is called human nature” (tianmingzhiweixing). Alenis reasoned, ‘Heaven’ must not be taken to mean an impersonal principle or mechanism; it means the Lord of Heaven. ‘Nature’ here does not refer to our present debased state that is beset by sin, but to the perfect Nature that God has ‘ordained,’ i.e., given to man, before the Fall. That Nature has degenerated, but since it is endowed with the knowledge of good and evil, it can choose the right way, and with God’s help be restored to its original perfection (cited in Zürcher, 1997, pp. 626–627).12 solution of the Jesuits was to show that Chinese morality and chronology are secular, in fact the perfect product of the natural reason, but nevertheless provide a confirmation of both moral and historical validity of the Revelation” (p. 72). 11 Supporting the identification of the Confucian notion of a supreme being with the Christian concept of God, Frank Rawlinson, an American Protestant missionary to China from 1902 to 1937, declared that “God has not left Himself without witness in China” (cited in Xu, 1997, p. 31). 12 There is another way to reconcile the Confucian idea of innate human goodness with Christian beliefs. Berling (2015), a self-professed “Confucian Episcopalian”, wrote, “I was struck by the Confucian commitment to the innate goodness of heavenly-endowed human nature. It seemed to me to parallel the Christian notion of imago dei. Imago dei had always, in my experience, been overshadowed by the Christian notion of original sin and a Calvinist sense of the profound sinfulness of human nature that requires an unmerited gift of grace. Confucians, by contrast, held to the notion of innate goodness (the four seeds of virtue), believing that humans were educable and that selfcultivation could lead to virtue. It was not that they were naïve or turned a blind eye to human foibles

3.3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian …

43

3.3.2 Adapting Christian Teachings to Prevailing Confucian Ideas and/or Practices Turning to the second strategy, researchers have noted how the adaptation of Christian teachings to suit the existing Confucian ideas and practices was a key factor for the spread of Christianity in China. Matteo Ricci strongly believed that “if Christianity was ever to have any large place in China either the culture and institutions of the country must be modified or the Church must in part adjust its teachings and practices to Chinese life” (Fried, 1987, p. 97).13 Ricci’s presentation of Christianity was readily accepted by Confucian officials during the Ming dynasty because of their strategy of accommodation (Chan, 2003). Ricci linked the Confucian teaching of filial piety to piety towards God who is “the great Father and Mother”. He relied on analogical thinking that was used by Confucius, which his Confucian audience was familiar with: Our parents give us the various parts of our bodies, and we ought, therefore, to be filial towards them. Our sovereign and his ministers gave us land, places to live, trees and animals so that we can practise filial piety towards our elders, and instruct and nurture our children. We ought therefore to honour them as well. But how much more should we honour the Lord of Heaven who is the great Father and Mother, the great Sovereign, the first Cause of all first ancestors, the One from whom all sovereigns derive their mandate and the Producer and Sustainer of all things? (cited in Chan, 2003, p. 276, italics added).

Ricci also likened Jesus to a Confucian sage who lived a perfect ethical life with “power which comes from the Lord of Heaven” (cited in Chan, 2003, p. 276). The accommodative stance of the Christian missionaries assured the Chinese that they would not be any less Confucian by becoming Christians.

3.3.3 Synthesising Selected Confucian and Christian Teachings Through New or Modified Ideas and/Practices The third strategy was to synthesise selected Confucian and Christian teachings through new or modified ideas and practices. This involved the combination of Confucian and Christian traditions based on their respective strengths, for example, by bringing together the this-world orientation of Confucianism with a more holistic and evil. The four seeds represented human potential, and had to be cultivated and nurtured at every turn to develop into full-blown virtues. But the Confucian notion of seeds meant that education and moral self-cultivation could be transformative, even if it was impossible to maintain the good at every moment. Human fallibility could be diminished, but not eliminated. The Confucian view, it seemed to me, motivated one to seek goodness continually while acknowledging that failures were inevitable” (p. 91). 13 For a good historical review of the development of Christianity in imperial China, see Fried (1987).

44

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

and transcendental vision of the human person (Jochim, 1995). Another way was to rely on Christian teachings to supplement the perceived inadequacy of Confucian traditions. For example, the Christian teaching of a supreme God of the universe, coupled with a central message of hope and transformation, provided the Confucian literati with the transcendent help that redresses human fallibility and shortcomings (Chan, 2003).14 The product was an original, hybridised, and monotheistic brand of Confucianism (Standaert, 2001). Standaert (2001) described this strategy of harmonising selected Confucian and Christian teachings as “texturing a textile”, where different threads and fibres were interwoven in many possible ways.15 He explained, For instance, an existing fibre (concept of shangdi, tian), is disrobed of its different layers of interpretations (e.g., li or taijî) and reestablished in its (so-called) original state (personal God), while it is also linked with a new thread partly constructed on fragments of the existing textile (concept of tianzhu, constructed on tian). Or a new thread may be integrated, only after some parts have been removed: e.g., some Chinese Christians accept the moral but not the eschatological dimension of the Christian notion of heaven and hell. Or an existing and a new thread are juxtaposed: cf. morality books in which Confucian and Christian stories are juxtaposed to (p. 7).

Outside China, other East Asian Christians have also endeavoured to formulate a hybridised system that draws from both Christian and indigenous teachings. A syncretised approach was adopted by Japanese Christians. A prominent example is Ebina Danj¯o (1856–1937), a Japanese theologian and Christian leader during the Meiji era (1868–1912). He pioneered a Japanese version of Christianity that merged the Confucian beliefs of filial piety and Japanese patriotism with the Christian faith (Iwai, 2009). The same strategy was employed by Korean Christians in their attempt to remove the “idolatrous” element of Confucian ancestral rites. An outstanding instance was a Korean Christian who devised a Christian ritual called ch’udo yebae (Grieving Rite), which was conducted on the death date of his mother in 1897 (Grayson, 2009). This ritual, which was subsequently incorporated into the book of liturgy in every major Christian denomination, allows for Korean Christians to show their respect towards their late parents without worshipping them.16 14 The Chinese military and political leader Chiang Kai-shek illustrated this complementary approach: “For the Chinese people Confucianism is the authentic source of morality and ethics, and the ancestry of political philosophy, while religion, or Jesus Christ’s spirit of service and sacrifice ought to be the spiritual doctrine” (cited in Bae, 2009, p. 7). He combined Confucian and Christian teachings in his New Life Movement, where he promoted the Confucian concepts of li (rites), yi (righteousness), lian (incorruption), chi (sense of honour), and the Christian virtue of self-sacrifice to affect social reforms (Bae, 2009). 15 Mungello (1978) used a different metaphor, namely the “torquelike effect” where physical forces are combined to produce a twisting motion. This effect serves to “create interpretations of Confucianism that differed from the originals but which came to acquire a reality of their own” (Mungello, 1978, pp. 123–124). 16 Another hybridised model is Christian higher education in South Korea, which follows “formal authoritarianism and traditional collectivism based on Confucian moral norms, as well as open democratism and Western individualism based on Christian paradigms” (Lee, 2002, p. 98). Park

3.4 Conclusions

45

3.4 Conclusions This chapter has delineated the comparative approach of bridge-building that facilitated the historical exchanges between Confucian and Christian traditions. It should be clarified that the focus of this study is on Confucianism and Christianity as traditions and not religious systems. In other words, the spotlight is on how Confucians and Christians, situated within a particular historical, social, and cultural milieu, interpret their own beliefs and those of another tradition. As explained in the previous chapter, a tradition is comprised of discourses—social processes of constructing and transmitting shared meanings—for communities of faith, identification, and interpretation. A tradition enables members to share their commitment, locus, and connections to the past; express their faith through shared texts, values, practices, and ways of life; and reappropriate their tradition based on changing needs (Berling, 1992–1993). An examination of Confucianism and Christianity as traditions sidesteps the truth claims of the respective systems, and concentrates instead on how communities of both traditions attempt to resolve the philosophical and cultural incompatibility between the two traditions through empathic dialogues.17 It follows that the conclusions drawn by the Confucians and Christians cited in this chapter are by no means definitive interpretations of Confucianism and Christianity. Although the Christians and Confucians mentioned in this chapter were keen to bridge the differences between Confucian and Christian traditions (hence “bridge-building”), there were others who held different views and even saw the two traditions as incompatible (Huang, 2006). Turning to present times, it is interesting to note that bridge-building continues to be employed by Confucians and Christians. The creation of Boston Confucianism by Robert Neville also falls within the strategy of finding common ground. This version of Confucianism has been adopted by professed Confucians in the USA who “consider the possibility that Westerners can also be Confucian, i.e., Confucianism and Christianity are not always in conflict” (Huang, 2006, p. 27). Hall (2006) reported that Chinese American college students accept Christianity as they appreciate the congruence between the Confucian emphasis on hard work and the Protestant work ethic. Yang (1998), in her article on the Chinese conversion to Christianity in the USA, observed how Christianity in the West has increasingly assumed a “Chinese (2000) noted that “Protestantism offered a vision of how society should be transformed by introducing new political ideas, such as freedom, equality, human rights and democracy, and offering various social services to Koreans, irrespective of class and gender” (p. 507). Christianity also injected new ideologies and practices into the educational arena. In the case of South Korea, the change amounted to what Park (2000) called a “radical transformation of Korean education” where schooling was open to everyone regardless of the student’s home background, social status and gender (p. 515). 17 In this regard, my comparative method is in concert with Hall’s (1982) approach. As explained by Smid (2009), “Hall’s main argument […] was that philosophy is not primarily—nor even properly— concerned with questions of truth or falsity; to the contrary, ‘[p]hilosophy is the critic of posited value, or it is nothing worthwhile’ (1982a, 41). That is, the philosopher should be concerned not with which theories are true but rather with which theories are worth having in a given cultural context” (p. 87).

46

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

Photo 3.2 A red packet with the Chinese character fu (blessing) and a cross

look”, with their own Chinese preachers, evangelists, and church members.18 A modern-day example of synthesis is illustrated in Photo 3.2. The photo shows a “red packet” which is an envelope containing money, usually given during Lunar New Year by an older person to children and unmarried adults. It symbolises a form of blessing to the recipient—hence the word “blessing” on the red packet. This red packet exemplifies how Chinese Christians have integrated their Christian faith with their Chinese culture by combining the Chinese character for “blessing” (fu) with the sign of a cross. The red packet also includes a Bible verse that exhorts the recipient to trust God. There is therefore a double blessing—material and spiritual. This example shows how these contemporary Chinese Christians see no issue with harmonising their traditional Chinese/Confucian beliefs and practices with their Christian faith in Jesus. The strategy of bridge-building is also useful in addressing apparent differences between the Confucian and Christian traditions. An example is a view that Confucian traditions are oriented towards immanence whereas Christian traditions are characterised by transcendence (Libbrecht, 2009). Confucian thought is known for its this-worldly and material focus, with Confucius famously declaring his agnosticism regarding spirits. Christian thought, on the other hand, stresses a transcendental God who is not part of the physical world. The comparative approach of bridge-building does not ignore these differences; instead, it explores diverse perspectives as part of mutual understanding and learning. Responding to the claim that Confucian traditions are antipodal to transcendence, Gan and Zhou (2013) pointed out that New Confucian scholars in the 1950s singled out the transcendental aspect of Confucianism and its impact on the spiritual lives of Chinese people. Likewise, Christians have challenged the idea that Christian traditions lack immanence. Kelly (1989) pointed out that the 18 Yang

(1998) wrote, “Because most Chinese regard Confucianism not as a religion but as a traditional philosophy of life, evangelical Chinese Christians can retain Confucian moral values without falling into a stigmatised syncretism” (p. 253).

3.4 Conclusions

47

life of God is not a life of impervious transcendence from the world, as manifested in the incarnate Christ. The term “the incarnate Christ” refers to God becoming a human being in the form of Jesus Christ who is the second Person of the Trinity. God was therefore present in the material world through Christ and not outside of time and space. It follows that Confucians and Christians recognise and appreciate both immanence and transcendence, to varying degrees and in different ways. The comparative approach of bridge-building is adopted for the exploration of Confucian and Christian traditions and comparison of them in this book. The categories and criteria for comparison are the educational ideas, presuppositions, and practices that pertain to mindful education in a post-pandemic world. The next chapter shall commence the bridge-building project by analysing the concept of mindfulness in the existing literature as well as from the perspectives of Confucian and Christian traditions.

References Ames, R. (2012). Author’s reflections and responses. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 7(4), 640– 661. Angle, S. C. (2006). Making room for comparative philosophy: Davidson, Brandom, and conceptual distance. In B. Mou (Ed.), Davidson’s philosophy and Chinese philosophy: Constructive engagement (pp. 73–102). Retrieved from http://works.bepress.com/stephen-c-angle/28/ Bae, K. (2009). Chiang Kai-shek and Christianity: Religious life reflected from his diary. Journal of Modern Chinese History, 3(1), 1–10. Berling, J. (1992–1993). The role of tradition. Pacific Theological Review, 25-26, 23-24. Berling, J. (2015). A Confucian Episcopalian. Spiritus: A Journal of Christian Spirituality, 15(1), 9–96. Burik, S. (2009). The end of comparative philosophy and the task of comparative thinking: Heidegger, Derrida, and Daoism. Albany: State University of New York Press. Chan, C.-Y. J. (2003). Commands from heaven: Matteo Ricci’s Christianity in the eyes of Ming Confucian officials. Missiology: An International Review, 11(3), 269–287. https://doi.org/10. 1177/009182960303100302 Charry, E. T. (2017). Theology and psychology in conversation. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 35–38). Cham: Springer. Clark, K. J. (2005). The Gods of Abraham, Isaiah, and Confucius. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, V (I), 109–136. Douglas D. W. (2003). Walter Benesch. An introduction to Comparative Philosophy: A travel guide to philosophical space. Comparative Civilizations Review, 48(13), 104–107. Fingarette, H. (1972). The secular as sacred. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press Inc. Fried, M. H. (1987). Reflections on Christianity in China. American Ethnologist, 14(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1987.14.1.02a00060. Fu, A. Y. (2018). Living-in-between: Rethinking “dual belonging” and a Confucian Christian’s struggle in late Ming China. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 53(1), 70–93. Gan, C., & Zhou, Y. (2013). The religious nature of Confucianism in contemporary China’s “Cultural Renaissance Movement”. Contemporary Chinese Thought, 44(2), 3–15. Grayson, J. H. (2009). The emplantation of Christianity: An anthropological examination of the Korean church. Transformation, 26(3), 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265378809104833.

48

3 Bridge-Building Between Confucian and Christian Traditions

Hall, B. (2006). Social and cultural contexts in conversion to Christianity among Chinese American college students. Sociology of Religion, 67(2), 131–147. Hall, D., & Ames, R. (1987). Thinking through Confucius. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Huang, P. (2006). Confronting Confucian understandings of the Christian doctrine of salvation: A systematic theological analysis of the basic problems in the Confucian-Christian dialogue. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004177260.i-320. Huang, Y. (2014). Why be moral? Learning from the Neo-Confucian Cheng Brothers. Albany: State University of New York Press. Iwai, S. (2009). The perspective of Ebina Danj¯o’s Japanized Christianity: A historical case study. Exchange, 38, 21–33. Jochim, C. (1995). The contemporary Confucian-Christian encounter: Interreligious or intrareligious dialogue. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 32, 35–62. Kelly, A. (1989). The trinity of love: A Christian theology of God. Wilmington, DL: Michael Glazier. Lee, J.-K. (2002). Christianity and Korean education in the late Choson period. Christian Higher Education, 1(1), 85–99. Li, C. (1999). The tao encounters the West: Explorations in Comparative Philosophy. Albany, NY: SUNY. Li, C. (2006). The Confucian ideal of harmony. Philosophy East & West, 56(4), 583–603. Li, C. (2016). Comparative Philosophy and cultural patterns. Dao, 15, 533–546. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11712-016-9519-5. Libbrecht, U. (2007). Within the four seas: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. Libbrecht, U. (2009). Comparative Philosophy: A methodological approach. In N. Note, R. FornetBetancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 31–67). Dordrecht: Springer. Lukes, S. (1982). Relativism in its place. In M. Hollis & S. Lukes (Eds.), Rationality and relativism (pp. 261–305). Cambridge: MIT Press. Meynard, T. (2015). The Jesuit reading of Confucius: The first complete translation of the Lunyu (1687) published in the West. Leiden; Boston: Brill. Miller, M., & Boix-Mansilla, V. (2004). Thinking across perspectives and disciplines (GoodWork™ Project Report Series, No. 27). Retrieved from http://evergreen.edu/washingtoncenter/docs/res ources/millerboix.pdf Milligan, J. A., Stanfill, E., Widyanto, A., & Zhang, H. (2011). Philosophers without borders? Toward a comparative philosophy of education, Educational Studies, 47(1), 50–70. Mou, B. (Ed.). (2001). Two roads to wisdom? Chinese and analytic philosophical traditions. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. Mou, B. (2009). A methodological framework for cross-tradition understanding and constructive engagement. In N. Note, R. Fornet-Betancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 68–85). Dordrecht: Springer. Mungello, D. E. (1978). Sinological torque: The influence of cultural preoccupations on seventeenthcentury missionary interpretations of Confucianism. Philosophy East and West, 28(2), 123–141. Neville, R. C. (2000). Boston Confucianism: Portable tradition in late-modern world. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Neville, R. C. (2002). Beyond comparative to integrative philosophy. APA Newsletter on Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies, 2(1), 20–23. Park, Y.-S. (2000). Protestant Christianity and its place in a changing Korea. Social Compass, 47(4), 507–524. Ramberg, B. T. (1989). Donald Davidson’s philosophy of language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Rogacz, D. (2018). The birth of enlightenment secularism from the spirit of Confucianism. Asian Philosophy, 28(1), 68–83.

References

49

Rule, P. A. (1972). K’ung-tzu or Confucius? The Jesuit interpretation of Confucianism. (Doctoral Dissertation). Australian National University. Seo, A. (2012). Xu Guangqi’s thought on supplementing Confucianism with Christianity. Lingua Cultura, 6(1), 108–116. Smid, R. W. (2009). Methodologies of comparative philosophy: The pragmatist and process traditions. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Standaert, N. (2001). Christianity as a religion in China: Insights from the handbook of Christianity in China Volume One (635–1800). Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie, 12, 1-21. Retrieved from https:// www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2001_num_12_1_1163 Tan, C. (2016). Educational policy borrowing in China: Looking West or looking East?. Oxon: Routledge. Weber, R. (2013). “How to compare?” – On the methodological state of Comparative Philosophy. Philosophy Compass, 8(7), 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12042. Xu, X. (1997). The dilemma of accommodation: Reconciling Christianity and Chinese culture in the 1920s. The Historian, 60(1), 21–38. Yang, F. (1998). Chinese conversion to evangelical Christianity: The importance of social and cultural contexts. Sociology of Religion, 59(3), 237–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/3711910. Yearley, L. H. (1979). Confucianism and Christianity: A comparative study by Julia Ching. Philosophy East and West, 29(4), 509–512. Zürcher, E. (1997). Confucian and Christian religiosity in late Ming China. The Catholic Historical Review, 83(4), 614–653.

Chapter 4

Introduction to Mindfulness

Abstract Summarising the existing research and literature, mindfulness can be understood as an orientation towards wholeness that involves the three “A”s: awareness, attention, and attitude. Mindfulness can be classified into first-generation and second-generation mindfulness-based programmes. First-generation mindfulness programmes are more individualistic, instrumental, therapeutic, non-judgmental, cognitive, and secular; second-generation mindfulness programmes tend to be more collective, substantive, ethics-driven, evaluative, contemplative, and spiritual. Research has attested to the benefits of mindfulness for mental, physical, emotion, and social well-being. Mindfulness is central in both Confucian and Christian traditions as both systems value personal and collective reflection, introspection, meditation, and rejuvenation. Practices from both first- and second-generation mindfulness programmes are advocated in Confucian and Christian traditions. Keywords Attention · Attitude · Awareness · Confucian mindfulness · Christian mindfulness · First-generation mindfulness programmes · Mindfulness · Mindful education · Second-generation mindfulness programmes · Wholeness

4.1 Introduction In East Asia, it is increasingly common to see people taking part in meditative exercises such as tai chi and qigong (see Photo 4.1). These two exercises are ancient Chinese systems that promote holistic health through breathing and body movements. They are a reminder of the utility and popularity of mindfulness, where people seek solace and peace in a world ravaged by the COVID-19 pandemic. Even before the pandemic, mindfulness was already embraced as a stress-buster in our fast-paced and digital age. Modern-day anxiety has been termed the “New Black Death” (Becker, 2013). The arrangement of learning and working from home due to the lockdown has accentuated human dependence on digitalisation. The pressure to respond to every message or request as soon as possible, also known as “telepressure”, has contributed

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_4

51

52

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

Photo 4.1 A group of people taking part in a meditative exercise

to burnout and other health problems (Ehrlich, 2017).1 Multi-tasking that has become the norm in many workplaces has ironically reduced, not increased, human attention and efficiency. In the USA, for example, more than one trillion dollars in productivity are lost each year as a result of work interruptions and the inability of employees to concentrate (Ehrlich, 2017).2 Busyness not only induces irritability and worries but also increases interpersonal conflicts. Adding to the stress is the fact that leaders themselves do not have all the answers in a complex world. Calling this a “leadership paradox”, Sethi (2009) wrote, “To arrive at better answers they need to really think out of the box, but past success (and the hubris that comes with it) has imprisoned them in the box” (p. 10). Against a backdrop of psychological toll from the Covid-19 pandemic, mindfulness has become a valuable resource. In 2007, Americans spent around US$4 billion on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and other mindfulnessrelated alternative medicine (Pickert, 2014). In the educational contexts, a report titled Mindful Nation UK in 2015 advocates mindfulness for schools, among other learning and professional sites.3 There is a proliferation of conferences such as Wisdom 2.0, meditation apps such as Headspace, and educational programmes such as Mindful Schools that has trained educators in 43 countries and reached at least 300,000 pupils (Pickert, 2014). But what exactly is mindfulness? 1 We

live in a “PAID reality”: Pressured, Always-on, Information Overloaded, and Distracted (Hougaard, Carter, & Coutts, 2016, p. 49). Davenport and Beck (2002) coined the term “attention economy” to highlight the scarcity of attention in an information-flooded world. 2 A study of Microsoft managers showed that they were interrupted, on average, 10–30 times per hour; they needed between 10 min and more than 30 h to get back on task (Ehrlich, 2017). 3 A report in Mindful Nation UK in 2015 underlined the notion of “mental capital”, which refers to “the cognitive and emotional resources that ensure resilience in the face of stress, and the flexibility of mind and learning skills to adapt to a fast-changing employment market and longer working lives” (cited in Levey & Levey, 2019, p. 2).

4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness

53

4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness The English word “mindfulness” is a translation of “sati” in the Pali language, which denotes awareness and attention (Germer, 2006). It is difficult to define mindfulness as it has been interpreted in diverse ways by different researchers and practitioners.4 A literature review of the notion of mindfulness shows an emphasis on Buddhism. A spiritual system that has existed for over 2,500 years, Buddhism essentially interprets mindfulness as a moment-by-moment awareness (Jagannathan & Rodhain, 2016). A well-known proponent is the Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh who taught that individuals need to be aware of what is going on in their bodies, emotions, and minds, as well as their surroundings. Grounding mindfulness on Buddhist doctrines, Thich (2011) introduced “The Five Mindfulness Trainings” that covers Buddha’s teachings on the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Another prominent advocate is Jon Kabat-Zinn who was a professor at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. Kabat-Zinn (1994, 2005), although inspired by Buddhism, adopted a more secular reading of mindfulness. He saw it as “a way of looking deeply into oneself in the spirit of self-inquiry and self-understanding” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 12).5 Although mindfulness in the West is primarily derived from ancient Buddhist philosophy, the concept and practice of mindfulness predate Buddhism.6 Mindfulness is also taught in other Eastern traditions such as Hinduism, Confucianism, and Daoism.7 Confucian scholars such as de Bary (1981) and Hwang (2013) have translated the Confucian notion of jing as “mindfulness”. I have elsewhere also proposed a Confucian interpretation of mindfulness (jing) as “respectful attention”, based on a textual study of the teaching and conduct of Confucius (Tan, 2020b).

4.2.1 The Three “A”s of Mindfulness Mindfulness has been variously understood as, among others, an awareness, a state of mind, an ability, a skill, a process, a technique, and an outcome. A survey of the extant literature on mindfulness reveals that this concept revolves around one or more of the three “A”s: awareness, attention, and attitude (see Fig. 4.1). 4 The

word “mindfulness” is a “floating signifier” (King & Badham, 2020) that “serves almost as a cipher into which one can read virtually anything we want” (Bodhi, 2011, p. 22). 5 Contrasting the religious and secular understandings of mindfulness, Wongkom, Sanrattana, and Chusorn (2019) explained the key difference between Buddhist mindfulness and that which is prevalent in the West: “In Buddhism, the goal of meditation is salvation, as Thai people are familiar with, but for the Western academics, meditation is used in management, individual’s potential development, and organisation development” (p. 135). 6 See Sethi (2009) and Komjathy (2018). Huppert (2017) rightly noted that mindfulness has been “the [concern] of many wisdom traditions” (p. 226). 7 For a good discussion of mindfulness from a Hindu viewpoint, see Jagannathan and Rodhain (2016); on Daoist views on mindfulness, see Ambler (2007); on Confucian perspectives of mindfulness, see Tan (2019, 2020a, 2020b).

54

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

Fig. 4.1 The three “A”s of mindfulness

Awareness: Self and Situational

The Three "A"s of Mindfulness Attitude: Openness, Nonjudgment and Kindness

Attention: Selfregulation

Huppert’s (2017) summary of the concept of mindfulness captures the three “A”s: The most basic is awareness—bodily awareness and self-awareness. This is brought about through a perceptual shift, the ability to stand back from our experience, and this shift promotes emotion regulation and our ability to distinguish between our thoughts and reality (Shonin et al., 2015). Attention training is another basic process intrinsic to mindfulness, i.e. learning how to focus, maintain, and shift attention—a form of self-regulation. But mindfulness is more than ‘bare awareness’ or ‘bare attention’. Intrinsic to mindfulness training is a particular attitude towards awareness and attention—an attitude of openness, curiosity, interest, non-judgment, and kindness, as in gently refocusing attention when it has been hijacked (p. 227, italics added).

The component of awareness in mindfulness can be further divided into selfawareness and situational awareness (Huppert, 2017). The former comprises awareness of one’s bodily sensations and flow of breath, feelings, and thoughts. Situational awareness, on the other hand, “increase[s] our ability to understand the physical and social environment, which is likely to lead to better relationships, decision-making and job performance” (Huppert, 2017, p. 228). As for the attitude in mindfulness, it is about having a mindset of openness, non-judgment, and kindness towards people, circumstances, and changes. All the three “A”s are found in Kabat-Zinn’s (2003) working definition of mindfulness: “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally [i.e., denoting attitude] to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (p. 145, italics added). Also pointing to the three “A”s is Harvard Business School professor Bill George, who interpreted mindfulness as “a state of being fully present, aware of oneself and other people, and sensitive to one’s reactions to stressful situations” (cited in Silverthorne, 2010, p. 1). McKee and colleagues

4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness

55

(2008) similarly described mindful people as those who are “consciously self-aware and self-monitoring; they are open and attentive to other people and to the world around them” (p. 45). Van Dam and colleagues (2018) also anchored upon the three “A”s when they defined mindfulness as “an umbrella term used to characterise a large number of practices, processes, and characteristics, largely defined in relation to the capacities of attention, awareness, memory/retention, and acceptance/discernment” (p. 37). Other researchers focused on two “A”s. An example is Huppert’s (2017) accent on awareness and attention: “the ability to notice what is going on around us and inside us, and to shift or maintain our attention at will” (p. 227). In the same vein, Sethi (2009) highlighted awareness and attention in his definition of mindfulness as “focus, awareness, and living in the moment” (p. 9). Another example—this time, attention and attitude—is provided by Pipe and Bortz (2009) who conceived mindfulness as the self-regulation of attention that rests in the present experience, a curious, open, and accepting attitude towards one’s current experiences. Bishop and colleagues (2004) likewise conceptualised a mindful person as one who takes control of one’s attention with a non-judgmental, open, and curious frame of mind. Others chose to spotlight one “A”. Rested upon attention, Brazier (2013) explained mindfulness as “a set of techniques in which one gives deliberate sustained attention to presently occurring ambient, somatic or subjective phenomena” (p. 117). Also highlighting attention are King and Badham (2020), who defined mindfulness as “a state or quality of mind that attends to experience by giving full and proper attention to presence, context, and purpose” (p. 167). Weick and Sutcliffe (2001), on the other hand, emphasised attitude when they described mindfulness as the “willingness and capability to invent new expectations that make sense of unprecedented events, a more nuanced appreciation of context and ways to deal with it” (p. 516).

4.2.2 First-Generation and Second-Generation Mindfulness Programmes We can further understand the notion of mindfulness by taking note of its evolution in the West. Mindfulness can be classified into first-generation and secondgeneration mindfulness-based programmes (see Table 4.1).8 The two categories are not distinct, mutually exclusive, and sequential; instead, they are related, overlapping, and co-existing. Another clarification is that the terms “first-generation” and “second-generation” should not be taken normatively. In other words, secondgeneration mindfulness programmes are not superior to, or an improved version of, first-generation mindfulness programmes. In general, first-generation mindfulness programmes are individualistic, therapeutic, and largely instrumental in nature. Such a programme is geared towards 8 King

and Badham (2020) and Van Gordon, Shonin, and Griffiths (2015) introduced the terms “first-generation” and “second-generation” mindfulness programmes or interventions.

56

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

Table 4.1 Two generations of mindfulness programmes

First-Generation Mindfulness Programmes

Second-Generation Mindfulness Programmes

Individual

Collective

Instrumental

Substantive

Therapeutic

Ethics-driven

Non-judgmental

Evaluative

Cognitive

Contemplative

Secular

Spiritual

enhancing personal performance, health, and well-being through courses such as mindfulness-based stress relief [MBSR] and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy [MBCT] (King & Badham, 2020). Individual-oriented mindfulness is set on “immediate personal experience, emphasising awareness and attention to the present moment, stress reduction, emotion regulation, overcoming habitual thought and behaviour, etc.” (King & Badham, 2020, p. 167). Second-generation mindfulness programmes, in contrast to first-generation mindfulness, go beyond individual benefits to attend to collective, ethical and broader-based concerns. Collectiveoriented mindfulness centres on human relationships, social interdependence and group support for collaborative and careful thought and action (King & Badham, 2020). King and Badham (2020) explained the difference between instrumental and substantive mindfulness: Mindfulness perspectives are characterised in instrumental terms when they are focused on how individual performance and well-being might be improved through mindful thought and behaviour and how organisational sustainability and success might be enhanced. Mindfulness has a more strongly substantive focus when the viewpoint is mindful (re)consideration of purpose, the value of transcending self-centered concerns of individuals and organisations, and attending to the meaning of individual action and collective endeavours (p.167, italics added).

On instrumental mindfulness, some researchers have cautioned against reducing mindfulness to merely a means to an end. Purser and Loy (2013) coined the term “McMindfulness programmes” to call out the instrumentalisation of mindfulness as a technique to deliver quick results. The danger with McMindfulness is that it is predominantly utilitarian, targeting technical solutions while overlooking broader concerns and ethical considerations (Brazier, 2013). Another distinction between first- and second-generation mindfulness programmes is therapeutic and non-judgmental versus evaluative and ethical orientation. An example of a non-evaluative understanding of mindfulness is KabatZinn’s (2003) conception of this term as giving attention on purpose in the present moment in a non-judgmental manner. Also underscoring a neutral position are Sauer and colleagues (2012) who positioned mindfulness as “the ability to dispassionately observe the experience of the present moment with non-judgmental openness” (p. 3). Expressing their dissatisfaction with therapeutic and non-judgmental models of mindfulness, other scholars have adopted a more evaluative and virtue-based formulation of mindfulness. A case in point is the Mindfulness-Based Business

4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness

57

Ethics Education proposed by Lampe and Engleman-Lampe (2012), which is designed to help business students refrain from unethical practices. Scholars have maintained that a purely therapeutic and values-free conception of mindfulness may engender or reinforce self-centred values where individuals privilege their personal well-being over care and love for others (Hyde & LaPrad, 2015; O’ Donnell, 2015). It is noteworthy that second-generation mindfulness programmes are also more spiritual or religious in nature, which complement the emphasis on values inculcation (Van Gordon et al., 2016).9 Another divergence between first- and second-generation mindfulness programmes is whether mindfulness is geared towards cognitive or contemplative developments (Adriansen & Krohn, 2016). On the one hand, mindfulness may refer to a cognitive process that is antithetical to mindlessness. A mindless person operates on an autopilot mode, is inattentive to one’s surroundings and purpose, and depends on others to do the thinking.10 Such as person holds on to their perspective blindly that could lead them to make fallacious assumptions and quick judgments about others (Langer, 2005). Standing apart from mindless persons are mindful people who take charge of their thinking and actions by actively assessing situations and searching for new ideas and solutions (Daft, 2005). Mindfulness, in this case, is concerned with the active construction of novel categories and distinctions, a learning agenda, goal orientation, and problem-solving (Langer, 1989, 1993, 1997). On the other hand, mindfulness can be conceptualised as a state of mind that is developed through contemplative activities such as yoga. Another example of the meditative approach is Hadot’s (1995) idea of spiritual exercise that focuses on self-dialogue, meditation, and imagination.11 Integrating the foregoing definitions and theories of mindfulness, this book proposes a definition of mindfulness as an orientation towards wholeness. There are two main reasons why the word “orientation” has been chosen to encapsulate mindfulness. First, the meaning of “orientation” is broad, including not only what is outward (the activity of orienting oneself, someone, or something) but also what is inward (certain attitudes, emotions, and beliefs). Second, orientation encompasses all the three “A”s, namely awareness, attention, and attitude. To orient oneself is to be conscious of one’s position in relation to the surroundings—a process that involves self-awareness and situational awareness. The orientation of self also signifies the effort to focus, adjust, and familarise oneself with something. Such an effort 9 Highlighting the moral teachings of Buddhism, Gethin (2011) maintained that a non-ethical version

of mindfulness is a “distortion of traditional Buddhism that loses sight of the Buddhist goal of rooting out greed, hatred and delusion” (p. 268). 10 On mindlessness, Levey and Levey (2019) cautioned against “unchecked mindlessness of distressed leaders [that] ripples around the globe in tsunamis of reactive Tweets and torrents of information/disinformation” (p. 2). Hopper (2010) added that mindless identification narrows one’s thinking and favours the status quo, whereas mindfulness welcomes multiple points of view and focuses on both the processes and outcomes. 11 Hadot (1995) explained that spiritual exercise is about “meditation, dialogue with oneself, examination of conscience, exercises of the imagination, such as the view from above on the cosmos or the earth, or in the order of action and of daily behaviour, like the mastery of oneself, indifference towards indifferent things, the fulfilment of the duties of social life in Stoicism, the discipline of desires in Epicureanism” (p. 31).

58

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

requires self-regulation in terms of monitoring and directing one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions towards one’s target. In short, a mindful person is one who orients oneself towards wholeness by positioning and adjusting oneself physically, cognitively, emotionally, socially and spiritually in a purposeful and ongoing manner. Mindfulness, as an orientation towards wholeness, may manifest as first- and/or second-generation mindfulness programmes, depending on the person and their specific needs, conditions, and circumstances. As for “wholeness”, the first point to note is that it encompasses the attitude of openness, non-judgment, and kindness towards oneself and others. But wholeness goes beyond the before-mentioned attributes to include also the dispositions and virtues espoused by a moral person. A moral attitude—towards oneself, others, and one’s surroundings—is essential so that one’s awareness and attention are not purely motivated by self-care but also by genuine care and kindness. There remains more to be said about wholeness; this topic is revisited in Chap. 5.

4.2.3 Benefits of Mindfulness Studies have affirmed the positive effects of mindfulness on wholeness, i.e., physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual well-being (Pipe & Bortz, 2009).12 In terms of physical health, mindfulness practices help individuals strengthen their immunosuppression, improve their cardiovascular integrity, build strength and flexibility, and prevent depression relapse (Gazella, 2005; Pipe & Bortz, 2009; Tan, 2020a). Cognitively, research shows that mindfulness practices enhance memory and innovative thinking (Langer, 2009). Research on mindfulness in schools has shown that it improves the mental functions of students such as attention, close observation, drawing novel distinctions, information-processing, self-referential processing, perspective-taking, and working memory (Adriansen & Krohn, 2016; Bush, 2011; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2001). Mindfulness is particularly salutary for the development of creativity. Burmansah, Rugaiyah, and Mukhtar (2019) noted, “Mindfulness provides an experience to be calm and spacious that directs the balance of mental qualities in the present and now (clarity), peaceful and focused so as to allow the current situation for ideas and creativity to flow and we are in this process of creativity as a whole—a reduction in excessive thinking and mental rejection” (p. 59). Gazella (2005) noted that “the imaginative approaches that are being taken and researched are truly inspiring, and bode well for a more mindful and more heartful medicine and healthcare in the future” (p. 64). In the midst of the anxieties, uncertainties and stresses induced by the pandemic, mindfulness is particularly pertinent in helping individuals to obtain emotional wellness through stress management and psychological relief. Mindfulness programmes 12 Levey

and Levey (2019) reported, “With large companies, such as insurance giant Aetna sharing data confirming that since rolling out their mindfulness programme, it has saved $2,000 per employee in healthcare costs, and gained $3,000 per employee in productivity, there is a growing recognition that the quantifiable return on investment helps explain why the mindfulness industry grew to nearly $1 billion in 2015” (p. 3).

4.2 The Concept of Mindfulness

59

help students in their emotional regulation by building resilience and reframing stressful events as “beneficial, meaningful, or benign” (Hölzel et al., 2011, p. 544). Langer (2009) reported from her three decades of research that people who practise mindfulness increase their productivity and reduce burnout. The Langer Mindfulness Scale has been shown to foster psychological well-being such as life satisfaction and humour (Tan, 2020a). As for social development, research has shown that mindfulness increases one’s empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviour (Huppert, 2017). Mindfulness promotes empathy by enabling a person to think and feel how others think and feel. Such a person is open, non-judgmental, and does good to others (Davidson et al., 2003). Jagannathan and Rodhain (2016) maintained that mindfulness deepens intersubjectivity because a suffering person will naturally empathise with another person who experiences the same suffering and tries to escape from it. After explaining that mindfulness involves sharp focus and open awareness, Hougaard, Carter, and Coutts (2016) elaborated, As we are developing greater self-awareness we are simultaneously cultivating the ability to have greater empathy for others. Once we can see and understand our own struggles and challenges, we have a greater ability to recognise those in people around us. Therefore, moving from a high degree of mindfulness of self toward mindfulness of others is a natural transition (p. 55).

Mindfulness contributes not only to individual but also collective well-being. A mindful person attends to what is outside oneself: people, happenings, surroundings, and the natural world. Such a person is “fully present, aware, accepting, and non-judgmental” with “patience, listening, and compassion” (Saviano & Prete, 2018, p. 643). Organisations, including Fortune 500 companies, that have introduced mindfulness practices to their employees also reported the following benefits (Ehrlich, 2017, p. 234)13 : • • • • •

focus, decision-making, memory, creativity, and learning; communication, collaboration, and productivity; emotional intelligence, well-being, and internal and client relationships; job satisfaction and engagement; and reduced stress, absenteeism, and turnover.

Mindfulness contributes to spiritual well-being too—an essential dimension of being a human being. A mindful person is fully aware of all “that one experiences inside the self —body mind, heart, spirit” (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005, p. 113; italics in the original). The concept of spirit refers to non-material sources of meaning that encompass the following: responding to a calling that contributes to the greater 13 Sethi (2009) extrapolated the benefits of mindfulness as openness to new ideas for an organisation:

“Mindfulness helps us get rid of the tendency to cling to our own ideas and makes us more open to new ideas. Disagreement and even conflict can now be brought into the open and addressed without defensiveness. This is so much better than shoving them under the carpet as often happens, especially in executive teams. This authentic team behaviour in turn encourages giving and receiving of candid but caring feedback. Teams can now look at the reality of the marketplace and competition as it truly exists, listen to what customers and employees have to say without rationalising, and develop sharper strategies and deliver more coordinated and precise execution” (p. 10).

60

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

good; seeing oneself as part of a cosmopolitan world; and experiencing deep emotions such as love, loss, or gratitude (Ehrlich, 2017). To amplify the relationship between mindfulness and spiritual well-being, the next section turns to mindfulness in two wisdom traditions.

4.3 Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian Traditions Mindfulness is central in both Confucian and Christian traditions. Both traditions value personal and collective reflection, introspection, meditation, and rejuvenation. Practices from both first- and second-generation mindfulness programmes are supported by Confucian and Christian traditions. For first-generation mindfulness programmes, a person can engage in Confucian or Christian mindfulness individually for cognitive development as well as turn to mindfulness to relieve mental and emotional stress. Ethics-driven, contemplative, and spiritual mindfulness from second-generation mindfulness programmes are also underscored in Confucian and Christian traditions. Confucius supports mindfulness as an orientation of the self towards wholeness. He taught that we should practise jing not only when performing our duties (Analects 15.38) but also in everything that we do, including standing and riding in one’s carriage (the modern-day equivalent would be driving a car). In Analects 12.1, he called for all human beings to “restrain the self and return to li (normative behaviours)” (all citations of the sayings of Confucius are taken from this text and translated by me). The expression “restrain the self” signifies regulating one’s thinking, feelings, and conduct so that one always conforms to the virtue of ren (humanity). Confucius declared, “If a person can restrain oneself and return to li for one day, the whole world would regard such a person as ren” (12.1). Accordingly, we should be mindful by practising self- and situational awareness, whether in speaking (16.10), keeping our word (15.6), or building relationships with others (13.19). Paying attention also implies exercising caution (shen) in what one says and does (1.6, 1.14, 2.18). The Analects also records instances where Confucius was mindful, such as when showing deference in his home village (10.1), speaking respectfully with higher officials (10.2), and maintaining the right posture when standing (15.6). As for the Christian traditions, Christians are called to orient themselves towards wholeness by “taking every thought captive” (2 Corinthians 10:5) and living with an awareness of the present (Philippians 2:1–5) (Focus on the Family, 2019). Alluding to mindfulness by referring to the “deliberate positioning of one’s self”, Murison and Benson (2018) wrote, “Attention is a deliberate positioning of one’s self to be alert to God’s fingerprints on every moment—every interaction with another, every thought, every reaction, every comment or gesture” (p. 81).14 14 Murison

and Benson (2018) emphasised the importance of attentiveness for Christians: “God’s revelation to us at any specific moment in our lives, in fact across all moments of our lives, is only received by us if we are paying attention. […] God reveals Himself through all of creation” (p. 81).

4.3 Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian Traditions

61

Blanchard and Hodges (2008) gave details on how they facilitated the practice of solitude for participants at their workshops: [W]e ask participants to take forty-five minutes of solitude—a time when they do not talk to anyone, use their computer or BlackBerry, or allow any other distractions. We ask them to begin by putting their hands palm-down on their knees and thinking of anything they are concerned about. As a concern appears in their mind, they ceremonially put it down at the foot of the cross. When they have completed thinking about their concerns, they turn their hands upward in a posture of receiving and contemplate some aspect of the character of God, such as His mercy, His love, His grace, or His power. We instruct them to listen without any agenda. Before we send people off for their period of solitude, we have them recite with us Psalm 46:10 in this way15 :

Be still and know that I am God. Be still and know. Be still. Be. When people return from their time of solitude, they have big smiles on their faces. While many of them found it difficult to quiet their mind, they say it was a powerful experience (pp. 158–159). Two representative passages from the Analects and Bible illustrate Confucian and Christian mindfulness: Analects 2:4: At seventy I could follow my heart-mind’s desires without overstepping the line. Bible Psalm 46:10: Be still and know that I am God.

Figure 4.2 explains how the three “A” s are emphasised in the above passages. Analects 2.4 was articulated by Confucius. In Confucian parlance, the term “heart– mind” (xin, can also be rendered as “heart–and-mind”) is the site where the cognitive and affective faculties are synthesised. To follow one’s heart–mind is to be aware of how one thinks and feels, i.e., be conscious of one’s physical, emotional, and cognitive states. Being heartful and mindful, according to Confucius, begins with 15 Swindoll

(2012) explained that the expression “be still” comes from the Hebrew imperative verb that means “sink down, let drop, relax”. He maintained: “Most people quote this verse in a soothing, reassuring tone, like a serene invitation to enjoy the fellowship of God. It is, in fact, a rebuke. Some scholars say it’s addressed to the nations attacking God’s covenant people. Others say God is rebuking the Hebrews for their lack of rust in Him. It’s most likely both” (p. 139). Notwithstanding the corrective tone of Psalm 46:10, this verse is still applicable for mindfulness as the Hebrew meaning of “be still” means the cessation of striving. The message of the verse is, therefore, consistent with Blanchard and Hodges’ (2008) objective of using this verse to remind the participants to stop feeling anxious and turn to God. As elaborated by Blanchard and Hodges (2008), “Solitude is being completely alone with God away from all human contact for extended periods of time. It is like stepping out the back door of your noisy life of to-do lists and demanding relationships to breathe in some fresh air. Solitude is being refreshed and restored by the natural rhythms of life that are not impacted by your strivings or those of anyone else (1 Kings 19:12 KJV)” (pp. 155–156).

62

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

At seventy I could follow my heart-mind’s desires without overstepping the line.

Attention

Awarenes

Attitude

Be still and know that I am God. Awarenes

Attention

Attitude Fig. 4.2 Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian traditions

merging one’s thought and emotions. The expression “overstepping the line” refers to transgressing li (normative behaviours), i.e., doing what is morally wrong. Not overstepping the line, to put it another way, is to have an attitude of diligence, commitment, and integrity to do, think, and feel what is right. This attitude is manifested through one’s attentiveness—to focus, shift, and maintain one’s attention on the norm. Overall, this passage paints a picture of a mindful person who is spontaneously aware, attentive, and possesses an open and accepting attitude. Such a person thinks, feels, and performs according to their natural self as a moral person and lives in concord with everyone. In a word, this is a whole person from a Confucian standpoint. Likewise for Psalm 46:10, people are called to be mindful by being still. This involves the awareness of one’s physical, emotional, and cognitive states. The reference to knowing God’s presence points to an attitude of reverence, love, and trust in God. Notably, the word “know” denotes not just a theoretical cognisance of a supreme being but also an experiential knowledge of him, i.e., having a personal relationship with God. In sum, this passage exhorts human beings to cease from their restlessness or anxiety, focus their thoughts, and channel their emotions to God so as to experience his comfort, assurance, and joy. Photo 4.2 depicts Christian mindfulness through a painting by a teenager to express her experience of mindfulness.

4.3 Mindfulness in Confucian and Christian Traditions

63

Photo 4.2 A painting by a teenager titled “Me and my Lord”

Titled “Me and my lord”, it shows a big tree that represents God and a small tree that represents herself flourishing in the midst of serenity. It depicts someone who consciously orients themself to focus on God and ultimately experiences intimacy with God.

4.4 Conclusion This chapter has reviewed the existing research and literature on mindfulness. It has been noted that mindfulness can be understood as an orientation towards wholeness that involves the three “A”s: awareness, attention, and attitude. Mindfulness can be classified as first-generation or second-generation mindfulness-based programmes. Mindful education, it follows, is a form of teaching and learning that is oriented towards wholeness and fosters student well-being. The practise of mindfulness in schools has been described as a “quiet revolution” (Shirley & MacDonald, 2016). Mindfulness is increasingly promoted in schools through initiatives such as “Mindfulness in Schools Project” (MiSP) in the UK and “Association for Mindfulness Education” in the USA (Reveley, 2015). The enactment of mindful education requires a whole-school approach where wholeness is underlined and infused in and across

64

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

the curriculum, permeates the teaching and learning processes, and is fortified by everyone in the school community. Lest school leaders rush into implementing mindfulness in schools, it is important for them to consider this question raised by O’Donnell (2015): “Given the increasing interest in mindfulness in schools, how ought we think about, conceptualise, and critically reflect upon the promotion of mindfulness interventions in educational settings?” (p. 188). I have elsewhere highlighted the pitfalls of advocating a form of mindful education that over-emphasises first-generation mindfulness programmes, particularly individual, instrumental, therapeutic, and non-judgmental approaches. In particular, there is a need, in the context of schooling, to foreground the broader concerns and ethical dimensions of mindfulness. Researchers such as Brazier (2013), Ergas (2014), and Hyde and LaPrad (2015) have underscored the danger of inadvertently promoting self-centredness and turning a blind eye to moral ills and social justice when the ethical and social dimensions of mindfulness are marginalised.16 As school leaders and teachers review, reinvent, and transform teaching and learning in a post-pandemic world, they need to also stay focused on their calling as educators. Education, after all, is more than just knowledge transmission or information giving.17 As Kegan and Laskow (2001) described, “In-form-ation increases the store of knowledge in ‘the form’; e-duc-ation ‘leads us out of’ the form itself” (p. 234, italics in the original). Trombly (2020) reminded educators that “[s]chools’ collectively articulated core ideals exist to help educators prioritise their efforts, either when (as is typically the case) they are buffeted by competing demands, or when (as now) they endeavour to lead student learning when resources such as time, instructional tools or technology are inadequate or inconsistently available” (p. 4, italics added). What are the core ideals that undergird and inspire educators to enact mindful education for the purpose of achieving wholeness in students? This question is answered in the rest of this book.

References Adriansen, H. K., & Krohn, S. (2016). Mindfulness for group facilitation: An example of Eastern philosophy in Western organisation. Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal, 13, 17–28. Ambler, G. (2007, July 18). The practice of mindfulness [Web log post]. Retrieved from http:// www.thepracticeofleadership.net/2007/07/18/the-practice-of-mindfulness/. Becker, D. (2013). One nation under stress: The trouble with stress as an idea. New York: Oxford University Press.

16 Alluding

to “McMindfulness programmes”, Hyland (2014) pointed to “the rise to prominence of a perversely utilitarian and one-sidedly economistic conception of the educational enterprise in general” (p. 279). 17 Education is “the deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to transmit, evoke, or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, skills, or sensibilities, as well as any learning that results from that effort, direct or indirect, intended or unintended” (Cremin, 1988, p. x).

References

65

Blanchard, K., & Hodges, P. (2008). Lead like Jesus: Lessons for everyone from the greatest leadership role model of all time. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Bodhi, B. (2011). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 19–39. Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant leadership: Renewing yourself and connecting with others through mindfulness, hope, and compassion. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Brazier, D. (2013). Mindfulness reconsidered. European Journal of Psychotherapy and Counselling, 15(2), 116–126. Burmansah, B., Rugaiyah, R., & Mukhtar, M. (2019). A case study of mindful leadership in an ability to develop focus, clarity, and creativity of the leader of Buddhist higher education institute. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(6), 57–69. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n6p57. Bush, M. (2011). Mindfulness in higher education. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 183–197. Cremin, L. A. (1988). American education: The metropolitan experience. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Daft, R. L. (2005). Leadership. New Delhi: Cengage Learning India. Davenport, T. H., & Beck, J. C. (2001). The attention economy: Understanding the new currency of business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S., et al. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness mediation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 564–570. de Bary, W. T. (1981). Neo-Confucian orthodoxy and the learning of the mind-and-heart. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Ehrlich, J. (2017). Mindful leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 46(4), 233–243. Ergas, O. (2014). Mindfulness in education at the intersection of science, religion, and healing. Critical Studies in Education, 55(1), 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2014.858643. Focus on the Family. (2019). Mindfulness: A Christian approach. Retrieved from https://www.foc usonthefamily.com/family-qa/mindfulness-a-christian-approach/ Gazella, K. (2005). Bringing mindfulness to medicine: An interview with Jon Kabat-Zinn, PhD. Advances, 21, 22–27.Germer, C. K. (2006). Mindfulness: What is it? What does it matter? In C. K. Germer, R. Siegel, & P. Fulton (Eds.), Mindfulness and psychotherapy (pp. 3–27). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Gethin, R. (2011). On some definitions of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 263–279. Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life: Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. Oxon: Blackwell Publishers. Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., et al. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 191(1), 36–43. Hopper, L. (2010). Mindful leadership. Georgia Library Quarterly, 47(2). Retrieved from http:// digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/glq/vol47/iss2/6 Hougaard, R., Carter, J., & Coutts, G. (2016). Mindful leadership: Achieving results by managing the mind. Leader to Leader, 2016(79), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.20218. Huppert, F. A. (2017). Mindfulness and compassion as foundations for well-being. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 225–233). Cham: Springer. Hwang, K. (2013). Educational modes of thinking in Neo-Confucianism: A traditional lens for rethinking modern education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14, 243–253. Hyde, A. M., & LaPrad, J. G. (2015). Mindfulness, democracy, and education. Democracy & Education, 23(2), 1–12. Hyland, T. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions and the affective domain of education. Educational Studies, 40(3), 277–291. Jagannathan, S., & Rodhain, F. (2016). What is mindful leadership? Compendium on Integrating Spirituality & Organizational Leadership, 5, 94–100.

66

4 Introduction to Mindfulness

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Dell Publishing. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion. Kegan, R., & Laskow, L. (2001). How the way we talk can change the way we work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. King, E., & Badham, R. (2020). The Wheel of mindfulness: A generative framework for secondgeneration mindful leadership. Mindfulness, 11(1), 166–176. Komjathy, L. (2018). Introducing Contemplative Studies. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. Lampe, M., & Engleman-Lampe, C. (2012). Mindfulness-based business ethics education. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 16(3), 99–111. Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Langer, E. J. (1993). A mindful education. Educational Psychologist, 28(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/ 10.1207/s15326985ep2801_4. Langer, E. J. (1997). The power of mindful learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Langer, E. J. (2005). On becoming an artist: Reinventing yourself through mindful creativity. New York: Ballantine Books. Langer, E. J. (2009). Counterclockwise: Mindful health and the power of possibility. New York: Ballantine Books. Levey, J., & Levey, M. (2019). Mindful leadership for personal and organisational resilience. Clinical Radiology, 74, 739–745. McKee, A., Boyatzis, R., & Johnston, F. (2008). Becoming a resonant leader: Develop your emotional intelligence, renew your relationships, sustain your effectiveness. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. Murison, C. B., & Benson, D. M. (2018). Reimagining Christian schools as revelatory communities. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 75–88). Singapore: Springer. O’Donnell, A. (2015). Contemplative pedagogy and mindfulness: Developing creative attention in an age of distraction. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 49(2), 187–202. Pickert, K. (2014, Jan 23). The mindful revolution. Time. Retrieved from https://time.com/1556/ the-mindful-revolution/ Pipe, T. B., & Bortz, J. J. (2009). Mindful leadership as healing practice: Nurturing self to serve others. International Journal for Human Caring, 13(2), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.20467/10915710.13.2.34. Pipe, T. B., Bortz, J. J., Dueck, A., Pendergast, D., Buchda, V., & Summers, J. (2009). Nurse leader mindfulness meditation program for stress management: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nursing Purser, R., & Loy, D. (2013, July 1). Beyond McMindfulness. Huffington Post. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/beyond-mcmindfulness_b_3519289 Reveley, J. (2015). School-based mindfulness training and the economisation of attention: A Stieglerian view. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(8), 804–821. Sauer, S., Walach, H., Schmidt, S., & Hinterberger, T. (2012). Assessment of mindfulness: Review on state of the art. Mindfulness, 4(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0122-5. Sethi, D. (2009). Mindful leadership. Leader to Leader, 51, 7–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.311. Shirley, D., & MacDonald, E. (2016). The mindful teacher (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University. Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., & Griffith, M. D. (2015). Buddhistderived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systemic review. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1161–1180.

References

67

Silverthorne, S. (2010, Sep 7). Mindful Leadership: When East Meets West, Working Knowledge. Retrieved from: https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/mindful-leadership-when-east-meets-west Swindoll, C. R. (2012). Living the Psalms: Encouragement for the daily grind. Brentwood, TN: Worthy Publishing. Tan, C. (2019). Rethinking the concept of mindfulness: A Neo-Confucian approach. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 53(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12343. Tan, C. (2020a). Confucius and Langerian mindfulness. Educational Philosophy and Theory: Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1814740. Tan, C. (2020b). Mindfulness and morality: Educational insights from Confucius. Journal of Moral Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2020.1779045 Thich, N. H. (2011). True love: A practice for awakening the heart. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications Inc. Trombly, C. E. (2020). Learning in the time of COVID-19: Capitalizing on the opportunity presented by the pandemic. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 351–358. Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C, D., Oledzki, A., … Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Towards a second-generation of mindfulnessbased interventions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 591–593. Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Lomas, T., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Corporate use of mindfulness and authentic spiritual transmission: Competing or compatible ideals? Mindfulness and Compassion, 1, 75–83. Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2001). Managing the unexpected. San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass. Wongkom, S., Sanrattana, W., & Chusorn, P. (2019). The structural relationship model of indicators of mindful leadership for primary school principals. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(5), 135–142.

Chapter 5

Student Well-Being as Wholeness: He (Harmony) and Shalom (Peace)

Abstract In a post-pandemic world, schools need to achieve a vision of well-being for all students. Confucian and Christian traditions offer two versions of wholeness: he (harmony) and shalom (peace). He is comprised of both internal harmony, through joy within oneself in accordance with dao (Way), and external harmony, through contribution and collaboration. As for shalom (peace), it is both personal and collective, and brings about reconciliation and restoration. Personal shalom refers to the peace, completeness, and security one obtains after being reconciled with God. Collective shalom points to the restoration and togetherness humans experience with one another and with nature. Linking the concepts to mindfulness, Confucian mindfulness denotes an orientation towards he (harmony) by abiding in dao (Way); Christian mindfulness indicates an orientation towards shalom (peace) by focusing on and finding rest in God. Keywords Confucius · Eudemonia · God · Harmony · He · Peace · Reconciliation · Restoration · Shalom · Student well-being · Wholeness

5.1 Introduction Photo 5.1 shows some students in China attending a lesson on traditional Chinese culture. Besides studying Confucian classics such as the Analects, they were also introduced to traditional musical instruments. The lesson was conducted in an interactive and collaborative manner, where students had the chance to play the instruments. As shown in the photo, there were different types of instruments, and each student was assigned one. The tune produced by each student was plain and unimpressive. But when the students came together to perform a song, the melody produced was soothing and heavenly. This example illustrates a Confucian interpretation of well-being: he (harmony or harmonisation), where wholeness is achieved when the individual parts are combined. The topic of well-being is part and parcel of positive education. Positive education seeks to create and sustain an all-encompassing learning environment that promotes the well-being of students and other educational stakeholders. The task of attaining wellness should not be left only to the school counsellors or certain teachers, or © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_5

69

70

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

Photo 5.1 Students playing traditional musical instruments

target only students who experience health, mental, or socioemotional problems. A more proactive rather than reactive approach is needed to foster student well-being, as there may be students who do not exhibit warning signs but nonetheless require help.1 What is championed is a whole-school approach, what Alford (2017) termed a “proactive well-being model”, where educators “are expected to teach the wholestudent, meaning teaching academic as well as well-being skills (either explicitly or implicitly)” (p. 8, italics added). Student well-being is, therefore, about wholeness, encompassing all dimensions of human life. How can schools work towards a vision of student well-being as wholeness? To answer this question, this chapter draws insights from Confucian and Christian traditions. The first part of the chapter reviews the existing literature on well-being and student well-being. The second section turns to two relevant concepts from Confucian and Christian traditions to shed light on the notion of wholeness and its relevance to mindfulness.

1 As

Alford (2017) noted, this model “tended to be reactive to those in distress or crisis, usually focused on the individual’s deficits, and typically reached a minority of the school population”, neglecting “students that were not displaying warning signs, or demonstrated fewer help-seeking behaviours” (p. 8).

5.2 Student Well-Being

71

5.2 Student Well-Being Student well-being is gaining attention in schools and universities. An example of a well-being initiative is “The Desk” (www.thedesk.org.au), an online portal developed by the University of Queensland and Queensland University of Technology, which provides practical strategies and resources for students (Slemp, 2017). Despite a growing body of literature on well-being, there is no universal definition of this term; it is an example of a “fuzzy catch-all” word (Mannion et al., 2011, p. 1). For instance, the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate [UCLES] (2018) has interpreted well-being as “a state of overall mental and physical health, strength, resilience and fitness to function well at work and personally” (p. 75). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2017), however, has conceptualised well-being not as a state but as an ability to do something: specifically, “the psychological, cognitive, social and physical functioning and capabilities that students need to live a happy and fulfilling life” (OECD, 2017, p. 61). In Huppert’s (2017) literature review of well-being, she identified two broad categories: the hedonic view and eudemonic view. Briefly, the former associates wellbeing with positive emotions such as happiness, whereas the latter focuses on positive functioning. An example of a hedonic view of well-being is Seligman’s (2011) PERMA that stands for Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Achievement. A eudemonic view of well-being is “optimal psychological functioning and experience” by Ryan and Deci (2001, p. 142). Ng (2020) similarly described well-being as “the state of successful performance of physical, cognitive, and socialemotional functions, which results in productive activities, fulfilling social relationships, transcendence of problems, and a sense of satisfaction associated with fulfilling one’s potential” (p. 2). A third option is to combine both views by underlining the importance of feeling good and functioning healthily. For example, the Australia Catholic University and Erebus International (2008, p. 20) described well-being as “the combination of feeling good and functioning effectively”, including “the experience of negative emotions and managing them successfully” (p. 20). This book proposes a formulation of student well-being that is more aligned with the eudemonic view. Accordingly, student well-being describes a state of wholeness where students function optimally in the school community. Two preliminary comments are noted about this definition. First, its association with the eudemonic rather than the hedonic view of well-being does not mean that emotions are unimportant. In a post-pandemic world, it is vital for students to experience happiness and not be weighed down by stress and negative emotions. Also, feeling good and functioning well are not distinct and mutually exclusive. Notwithstanding the significance of positive emotions, a eudemonic orientation of well-being is favoured, as well-being should not be tied to one’s feelings. In fact, feeling happy can sometimes endanger one’s well-being. As noted by Ryan and Deci (2001), The term eudaimonia is valuable because it refers to well-being as distinct from happiness per se. Eudaimonic theories maintain that not all desires—not all outcomes that a person might value—would yield well-being when achieved. Even though they are pleasure producing,

72

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness … some outcomes are not good for people and would not promote wellness. Thus, from the eudaimonic perspective, subjective happiness cannot be equated with well-being (pp. 145– 146, italics added).

The point here is that happiness, no matter how desirable, cannot be an end in itself. Research has shown that people who set their minds on experiencing happiness are least likely to get it (Huta, 2017).2 The eudemonic conception of well-being, in contrast, shifts one’s attention away from positive emotions to reaching for and achieving one’s daimon or true nature (Waterman, 1993). It is about living virtuously and functioning well in accordance with one’s calling in life. Happiness, in this case, becomes a by-product and not the goal of living well.3 The second comment is that student well-being is approached as a state of wholeness that is manifested through optimal functioning. The reference to optimal functioning makes it easier for educators to be informed of, and ascertain, the extent to which students demonstrate wholeness—a state of completeness and balance within oneself and between oneself and others—in the school community. It is paramount that we do not interpret functioning narrowly as referring only to what is observable or measurable. Rather, functioning, as used in this book, signals both the performance of specific actions as well as the fulfilment of the desired outcome of wholeness. Beyond behaviour that attests to a whole person are beliefs, values, dispositions and presuppositions related to wholeness that are less observable but equally important in students. Wholeness is realised through five broad and overlapping domains of well-being: physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and spiritual. The physical component of student well-being refers to students’ health and the extent to which they have a healthy lifestyle (OECD, 2017). The second aspect is cognitive wholeness. The cognitive dimension comprises “students’ proficiency in using academic knowledge to solve problems alone or in collaboration with others, and high-order reasoning skills, such as critical thinking and being able to confront ideas from various perspectives” (OECD, 2017, p. 63). It is evident that well-being programmes are not oppositional to academic achievement. The Australia Catholic University and Erebus International (2008, p. 20) highlighted four key mechanisms by which the furtherance of student well-being can indirectly improve academic achievement: • By increasing student motivation to participate and achieve; • By increasing student engagement with, and participation in, learning; 2 As

noted by Huta (2017), “people have lower well-being if they want well-being so much that their mindset is tinged with insecurity …, or if they spend a lot of time evaluating whether they’ve achieved happiness (“Am I happy yet”) rather than being engaged in the process of life” (p. 177). 3 Ryan and Deci (2001) also noted, “Despite the currency of the hedonic view, many philosophers, religious masters, and visionaries, from both the East and West, have denigrated happiness per se as a principal criterion of well-being” (p. 145). In my view, Confucian and Christian traditions do not necessarily denigrate happiness. The Analects is replete with passages about the importance of joy, and the Bible also exhorts believers to rejoice. But these two traditions converge on seeing joy as more than just the feeling of happiness; positive emotions are the by-products, not the goal, of fulfilling one’s purpose and calling in life.

5.2 Student Well-Being

73

• By increasing student attendance and hence increasing school completion; and • By decreasing problem behaviour at school and hence decreasing levels of suspension and exclusion from school. The third dimension of wholeness is social and emotional wellness. Researchers have reported how the cultivation of character strengths in students such as temperance, perseverance, judgment, self-regulation, and love of learning contributes to students’ academic progress and test scores (Weber & Ruch, 2012). A high level of well-being enables a person to improve one’s health, be more creative and productive, learn more effectively and enjoy stronger relationships (Huppert, 2017). Next, the social dimension refers to the quality of the students’ social lives, i.e., their relationships with teachers, friends, and family members, and their feelings towards them (OECD, 2017). Students’ emotional and social well-being is enhanced when they acquire dispositions and competencies through Social and Emotional Learning [SEL) as follows (CASEL, n.d.)4 : (1)

Self-awareness • • • • •

(2)

Identifying emotions Accurate self-perception Recognising strengths Self-confidence Self-efficacy

Social awareness • Perspective-taking • Empathy • Appreciating diversity

4 The

Australia Catholic University and Erebus International (2008, p. 27) elaborated on the five components: • Self -awareness: Accurately assessing one’s own feelings, interests, values, and strengths; understanding one’s own thinking and learning processes; and maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence; • Self -management: Regulating emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; and expressing emotions appropriately; • Social awareness: Being able to take the perspective of others and empathise with them; recognising and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; and recognising and using family, school, and community resources; • Relationship skills: Establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; and seeking help when needed; and • Responsible decision-making: Making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; and contributing to the well-being of one’s school and community.

74

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

• Respect for others (3)

Self-management • • • • • •

(4)

Relationship skills • • • •

(5)

Impulse control Stress management Self-discipline Self-motivation Goal setting Organisational skills

Communication Social engagement Relationship building Teamwork

Responsible decision-making • • • • • •

Identifying problems Analysing situations Solving problems Evaluating Reflecting Ethical responsibility

Finally, spiritual wholeness is integral to students’ overall well-being. Human beings have spiritual needs that comprise two aspects: the search for personal meaning, purpose, and identity in life; and connectedness with others, whether divine or human (Zhang & Tan, 2010). Adolescent spirituality is about perceiving life and living in new and better ways, taking something to be of great value, and defining self and one’s relation to others in ways that move beyond petty or material concerns to genuine concern for others (Dowling et al., 2004). Spiritual needs direct an individual to search for personal meaning, purpose, and value; explore the sacred; and situate one’s identity within a greater context. Spiritual well-being involves transcending the self and moving towards something greater; it is embedded within “an ecological context of family, peers, community, and, in many cases, a religious tradition and community” (Benson, Roehlkepartain, & Rude, 2003, p. 208). Spiritual development contributes to a sense of well-being with the self, others, and nature,

5.2 Student Well-Being

75

encouraging individuals to shape their own growth as a human being.5 This development, according to Love and Talbot (1999, p. 364), is an internal process of identity development involving the following: • a greater connectedness to self and others through relationships and union with the community; • deriving meaning, purpose, and direction in one’s life; and • increasing openness to exploring a relationship with an intangible and pervasive power or essence that exists beyond human existence and rational human knowing. Having discussed the notion of student well-being, the next section clarifies the ideal of wholeness from Confucian and Christian viewpoints.

5.3 Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions 5.3.1 Confucian Traditions: He (Harmony) He (harmony) is a fundamental concept in the Confucian traditions. Harmony is described in the Analects 1:12 as “most valuable” and “a guiding standard in all things great and small” (all passages are taken from this text and translated by me unless otherwise stated). The word he is etymologically related to cooking—the art of bringing together different items for mutual benefit and enhancement, without losing the separate and particular identities of each element (Ames & Rosemont, 1998). Harmony, from a Confucian perspective, is not just a noun, i.e., a complete and static state, but also a verb, i.e., a continuous process of harmonisation. Harmony also connotes wholeness: “A person can harmonise various parts of his or her body, the mind-heart, and various pursuits in life into a well functioning, organic whole” (Li, 2006, p. 588). A person who desires and seeks to achieve harmony (13.23) is known as a junzi—historically denoting a person of noble birth but redefined by Confucius to refer to an ideal or exemplary person. 5 FitzSimons

(2017) described how her Christian school fostered spiritual development through an interdisciplinary approach. The four broad subjects are English and literature, visual and performing arts, history, and religious and value education. There are four strands in the programme: what it means to be human, human connection, resilience and integrity, and aspiration and prospecting. FitzSimons (2017) gave details: “Important for the efficacy of all well-being programmes, each subject will also have an experiential component, such as viewing public art, listening to a live performance, interviewing members of the community, and reflective writing. Students will then be invited to compare and contrast what they have found across the subjects. The content of the programme may draw on both religious (if appropriate for the school) and secular works, people and thinking. In assessing the students’ learning and skills, the final assignment can be theoretical (such as a written assignment or essay); research-driven (such as compiling data from interviews or offering a literature review); personal (such as a series of written reflections or goals)l or applied (such as a collaborative project-based learning task). The choice can suit the learning needs of the school and the prescribed curricular outcomes” (p. 56).

76

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

Another distinctive characteristic of harmony is that it is a multi-level concept involving the self, other human beings, and the natural world.6 Harmony is realised when human beings are at peace with themselves, one another, and their surroundings (Tan, 2013). We can categorise he into internal harmony (joy within oneself in accordance with dao [Way]) and external harmony (contribution and collaboration) (Tan & Tan, 2016). First, inner harmony takes place when a person enjoys a state of tranquillity and joy, where one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions accord with dao. Such a person is not burdened with internal conflicts or negative emotions such as fear, guilt, and anxiety. An exemplary person who realises he (harmony) is “calm and relaxed” (7.37), “at ease” (13.26), and “free from anxieties and fears” (12.4). Dao is the Way of tian (heaven) and a guiding discourse for human beings. Dao is expressed through li that refers to normative behaviours with corresponding attitudes, values, and dispositions. More will be said about dao in Chap. 6. At this juncture, it suffices to note that inner harmony, from a Confucian standpoint, is intrinsically normative; it is about conforming one’s total being to the tradition one inherits from cultural predecessors. It is a significant point that a junzi loves and rejoices in dao (6.20). There is therefore a strong eudemonic component to Confucian harmony where one is driven by a moral purpose in life. Optimal functioning, in this case, is about learning, embracing, and extending dao as a vision of human excellence. Such a person not only “experience[s] joy, beauty, and wonder” but also “develop[s] effective ways of expressing thoughts, knowledge, and feelings” (Upitis, 2011, p. i). External harmony, on the other hand, is experienced when one contributes to overall unity and collaborates with others. Returning to the analogy of cooking, each person is like an ingredient, which when put together, produces a palatable dish. Harmony amalgamates parts, differences, and contradictions to form a consistent whole (Tan, 2019). It follows that harmony is neither about homogeneity nor about ignoring or castigating individual differences. Rather, as Confucius pointed out, we should “seek harmony, not sameness” (13:23). Harmony produces “mutual benefit and enhancement without losing [individuals’] separate and particular identities” (Ames & Rosemont, 1998, p. 56). External harmony is depicted in Photo 5.1, shown at the start of this chapter, where different students played diverse musical instruments and collectively produced a stirring and inspiring melody. An example of someone who manifests internal and external harmony is Confucius’ disciple, Zengxi (Tan, 2013). The Analects records a conversation between Confucius and his four disciples (Zilu, Ranyou, Zihua, and Zengxi) about their aspirations. The first three disciples shared their grand ambitions on ruling a state and becoming a minor official in charge of protocol. When it came to Zengxi’s turn, he strummed a few final notes on his zither, set the instrument aside and rose to his feet. “I would choose to do something different from the other three.” 6 As explained by Li (2006), “Harmony, as understood in Confucianism, can occur at various levels.

It can take place within the individual. […] Harmony can take place between individuals at the level of the family, the community, the nation, and the world. This may include harmony between societies, harmony within a society with different ethnic groups (or political parties), harmony within the same ethnic group with different kin, and harmony among the same kin. Harmony also can take place between human beings and the natural universe” (p. 588).

5.3 Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions

77

The Master said, “What harm is there in that? Each of you is talking about your aspirations.” “At the end of spring, after the spring clothes have been made, I would like, together with five or six adults and six or seven children, to bathe in the Yi River, to enjoy the breeze on the Rain Altar, and then return home singing.” The Master sighed deeply and said, “I am with Zengxi!” (Analects 11.26)

Zengxi’s aspiration stood in contrast to the ambitious and even boastful desires of the other three disciples. Confucius shared and supported Zengxi’s aspiration because the latter, in his spontaneous way, manifested internal and external harmony. Zengxi was content with finding harmony in nature (spiritual), human relationships (ethical), and music, through singing and zither-playing (aesthetic). His desire to wear spring clothes, be with friends, bathe in the river, enjoy the breeze, and sing showed a state of harmony with self, people, and nature. In addition, his natural and almost effortless display of contentment and appreciation of beauty illustrated a beautiful picture of mindfulness. Chong (1998) commented, “Music and the Odes have instilled in him [Zengxi] not only knowledge of the rites, but delight in their form, and this finds expression in his harmonious relation with others” (p. 87). It was no wonder that Confucius praised Zengxi for playing his zither meditatively; the latter epitomised someone who was oriented towards wholeness (11.26).

5.3.2 Christian Traditions: Shalom (Peace) The notion of wholeness is a major theme in Christian traditions. To educate the whole person is to “promote human flourishing, the living out of what God intended His created image bearers to be” (MacCullough, 2013, p. 31).7 A central concept in Christian traditions that is closely linked to wholeness is shalom. Usually translated as “peace”, shalom suggests completeness and security in God who is the source of peace or Yahweh Shalom (Crawford, 2018). There are two broad aspects of shalom: personal and collective. First, personal shalom refers to the peace one obtains after being reconciled with God. The word “reconcile” signals that human beings are estranged from God because of their sins and need to return to Him. St Augustine (trans. 1955) succinctly captured humans’ inability to be satisfied without God: “Thou hast made us for 7 MacCullough

(2013) added that the aim of Christian education is “pursuing truth about God, His universe, and humankind (ourselves and others); by knowing, understanding, and effectively using knowledge and skills for wise living; and by acting ethically; thereby growing personally and serving and benefitting society—all to the glory of God, the ultimate aim and first principle or summum bonum of LIFE!” (p. 31). It is pertinent that research has shown the benefits of Christianity for a person’s well-being. Nicholi (2002) found from his research with Harvard undergraduates who experienced a religious conversion to Christianity that they overcame existential despair and enjoyed improved relationships, communication with parents, and academic performance. But for individuals to reap the benefits of religious conversion, they have to internalise their beliefs so that they become the chief motivating factor in their lives, rather than simply confessing their faith without genuine conversion.

78

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

thyself, O Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds its rest in thee”. Sin, from a Christian perspective, is a failure to meet God’s standard of holiness and a transgression of his commandments. The Bible teaches, “For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23, the New International Version [NIV] throughout the chapter). Another verse reads, “Put to death, therefore, whatever belongs to your earthly nature: sexual immorality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed, which is idolatry” (Colossians 3:5). The presence of sin is why the world, according to Christian teachings, needs Jesus Christ as their Saviour, who is the mediator between God and humans: “But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Romans 5:8). Jesus became the incarnation of Yahweh Shalom (God of peace). Crawford (2018) pointed out, “As the prophesied ‘Prince of Peace’ (Is 9:6, 7), Jesus introduced mankind to the Kingdom of God, instilling the hope of reconciliation into a world fractured by broken relationships with God, self and others” (p. 129).8 From a Christian perspective, peace can only come from God. Humans cannot be reconciled with God, even if they want to, by their own efforts. All persons need to depend on Jesus who is the mediator between humans and God. The peace promised to Christians is one that surpasses human understanding, and takes the form of wholeness with which God created us (Numbers 6:24–26; Philippians 4:6–7) (Graham, 2009). Although the peace described in the Bible is always from and of God, this does not mean that humans are mere passive recipients. The following passage is informative (Philippians 4:8–9, italics added)9 : Finally, brothers and sisters, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy— think about such things. Whatever you have learned or received or heard from me, or seen in me—put it into practice. And the God of peace will be with you.

The above passage means that inner peace can be experienced only if the person goes beyond thinking about the positive to acting on it. As asserted by Pazmino (1997), “This is an agenda that encompasses all the areas of human intellectual endeavour” so that it will “shape their attitudes and lives” (p. 42). Besides shalom for the individual, where one is reconciled with God through Jesus, there is also collective shalom. The latter is about the restoration and togetherness humans experience with one another and nature. Shalom does not have a passive 8 Crawford (2018) elaborated on the peace provided by Jesus: “The Gospels also give us a glimpse of

the deeper meaning of shalom. For example, in Jesus’ encounter with the woman caught in adultery (John 8), the grace and unconditional acceptance that He extended to this outcast not only brought resolution to the immediate situation but also transforming goodness was released to all involved in the encounter that day” (pp. 129–130). 9 Charry (2017) claimed that western Christian theology “has abjured positive emotions and virtues fearing that advancing them might detract from dependence on God that should promote humility that it believes is the surest path to advance the common good” (p. 38). Although some Christians subscribe to this view, it is questionable that Christians are exhorted to avoid positive emotions and virtues. In the Bible, Christians are instructed to “rejoice in the Lord always” (Philippians 4:1) and fill their thoughts with virtues such as goodness, justice, purity, and praise (Philippians 4:8).

5.3 Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions

79

Photo 5.2 An amphitheatre in a Catholic school in South Korea

connotation; it speaks of healed, complete, and harmonious relationships (Crawford, 2018; Elwell, 1997).10 The envisaged outcome of wholeness is not limited to that between humans. It also extends to humans’ relationships with the natural environment. Graham (2009) posited, “Our concern for the welfare of the environment as part of God’s creation should keep us from simply using the environment for our own convenience” (p. 105). Care for the environment extends to how we design structures in ways that promote harmonious co-existence; this is illustrated in how a Catholic school in South Korea made use of the land it was given (see Photo 5.2). Instead of levelling the hill and clearing the forest to construct a modern building, the school chose to build an amphitheatre that conformed to the contour of the hill. Shalom entails human duties and responsibilities that further the common good of humanity and help all of creation to thrive (Benson, 2018).11 Graham (2009) provided a useful summary of shalom: 10 Benson (2018) proposed reimagining education as a journey towards shalom: “This Hebrew word,

translated as ‘peace’, exceeds the absence of hostility to embrace the completeness of life abundant” (p. 25). Described by Benson (2018) as “the most comprehensive purpose for humanity as a whole” (p. 25), shalom denotes the wholeness and peace of God’s creation. 11 Shalom “comprises duty and delight through right relatedness with God, represents the common good of humanity and the holistic flourishing of all creation” (Benson, 2018, p. 25). Shalom is therefore necessarily relational. Pazmino (1997) noted that “Christian education centres upon relationships with the triune God, with other persons, and with the entire creation” (p. 42).

80

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness … The biblical term is ‘shalom,’ which means dwelling in harmony and peace with God, others, self, and the surroundings. It reflects the wholeness and togetherness God intended and not simply a cheap coexistence. This wholeness should be evident in our work, families, church life, and personal outlook on life (p. 105, italics added).

The promotion of shalom, from a Christian worldview, requires schools to function as revelatory communities that shed light on the fallen state of humans, their incompleteness, and the way for them to be restored with God, each other, and nature. The education curriculum for shalom should centre on responsibility (practising creativity), critical thinking (practising discernment), understanding (practising dialogue), care (practising compassion), inclusion (practising virtue), and integration (practising gratitude). An implication from the notion of shalom is that teachers should not only craft a curriculum that makes it possible for students to obtain peace with God but also enables them to be peace-makers in their daily life and relationships (Crawford, 2018; Roux, 2007).12

5.3.3 Mindfulness, He (Harmony), and Shalom (Peace) To further understand and compare he (harmony) and shalom (peace), it is instructive to relate both concepts to what we know of mindfulness. Recall that mindfulness is an orientation towards wholeness, with “orientation” expressed through the three “A”s: awareness, attention, and attitude. Confucian and Christian mindfulness can be represented by the following two passages taken from the Analects and Bible respectively: Analects 7.6: The Master said, “Set your heart and mind on dao (Way)”.13 Isaiah 26:3: You will keep him in perfect peace, whose mind is stayed on You, because he trusts in You.

We have earlier noted that an exemplary person is one who desires and seeks to achieve he (harmony) (13.23). Confucius taught that such a person is “anxious about dao” (15.32) and “learns in order to reach that dao” (19.7). Putting harmony and Way together, an exemplary person sets one’s heart and mind on the Way in order to realise harmony. Confucian mindfulness denotes an orientation towards he (harmony) through one’s commitment to dao. As for Christian mindfulness, it indicates an orientation towards shalom (peace) by focusing on God’s presence and trusting in him. For both Confucian and Christian traditions, mindfulness is about experiencing 12 A graduate of a Christian college shared about wholeness: “What is my body and what are my experiences in my emotions and what my spirit says, and when all of those are in alignment and agreement, that’s the place that I can live out of” (cited in Alexander, 2018, p. 119). 13 The expression in Analects 7.6 is 志於道 (zhi yu dao) that literally means “set … unto dao”. As the subject is not mentioned, translators have variously rendered the subject as, among others, “your mind”, “your heart”, and “your sights”. I have translated it as “your heart and mind” as this is consistent with Confucius’ teachings throughout the Analects about channelling one’s heart-mind to realise dao.

5.3 Insights from Confucian and Christian Traditions

81

Mindful of Dao (Way) "Set your heart and mind on dao (Way)" (Analects 7:6)

Mindful of God "Whose mind is stayed on You" (Isaiah 26:3)

Attain He (Harmony)

Attain Shalom (Peace)

Fig. 5.1 Confucian and Christian mindfulness

he (harmony) and shalom (peace) by being aware of and paying attention to dao (Way) and God respectively. As for the attitude, Confucians should maintain an attitude of loving and finding joy in dao (6.20); Christians, on the other hand, need to maintain an attitude of trust in God (Isaiah 26:3). Figure 5.1 summarises Confucian and Christian mindfulness.

5.4 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions The foregoing has presented two versions of wholeness. Both the Confucian notion of he and the Christian ideal of shalom stress wholeness in terms of completeness. Both concepts also extend beyond the self to other people and one’s surroundings. The common theme is how one should coexist with others in a harmonious, peaceful, and secure manner. Despite the parallels between Confucian and Christian wholeness, there are significant dissimilarities between them. Two key differences are noted here. First, both traditions have contrasting explanations of incompleteness. A shared assumption in both concepts is an absence of wholeness—that human beings are not born whole and are originally in a state of incompleteness, which makes wholeness a desired outcome. For Christian traditions, human beings lack peace due to inborn sin that separates them from God and from each other. That is why shalom revolves around the forgiveness of sin, which can only be obtained when a person accepts Jesus as their personal Saviour. So pivotal is sin to shalom that “the whole message of the cross is irrelevant to the one who thinks he or she has no sin” (Root, 2001, p. 56).14 For Confucian traditions, there is no concept of sin as understood

14 The

eminent Christian writer C. S. Lewis (1970) contended that “our continual effort must be to get their [peoples’] mind away from public affairs and ‘crime’ and bring them down to brass tacks—to the whole network of spite, greed, envy, unfairness and conceit in the lives of ‘ordinary decent people’ like themselves (and ourselves)” (p. 96).

82

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

in the Christian sense.15 The incompleteness for Confucians refers to the yet-to-beattained state of moral goodness when one becomes an exemplary person (junzi) or sage (shengren). It is worthy of note that Confucians are not in agreement on the natural state of human beings. Different Confucian thinkers have contrasting views on whether human beings are born with innate goodness or evil. Confucius himself is silent on this topic. Mencius is famous for teaching that all human beings are equally endowed with innate goodness: everyone has a heart–mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others (Mengzi 2A:6). Mencius proposed the innate goodness of all human beings in the form of four seeds (also translated as four beginnings) (Mengzi 2A:6, adapted from Van Norden, 2008): The heart-mind of compassion is the seed of ren (an achieved state of humanity); the heartmind that is ashamed of evil in oneself and hates it in others is the seed of yi (appropriateness); the heart-mind of humility and deference is the seed of li (normative behaviours); the heartmind of right and wrong is the seed of zhi (wisdom). People have these four seeds just as they have the four limbs.

Another philosopher, Xunzi, disagreed with Mencius and posited that human nature is bad: “By birth, people are originally petty people” and “people’s nature is bad” (Chap. 4, lines 202–203, Chapter 23, line 1; translated by Hutton, 2014). Xunzi described his theory of the inborn nature of human beings and the consequences as follows (Chapter 23 lines 2–10, translated by Hutton, 2014): Now people’s nature is such that they are born with a fondness for profit in them. If they follow along with this, then struggle and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein. They are born with feelings of hate and dislike in them. If they follow along with these, then cruelty and villainy will arise, and loyalty and trustworthiness will perish therein. They are born with desires of the eyes and ears, a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If they follow along with these, then lasciviousness and chaos will arise, and normative behaviours and appropriateness, proper form and order, will perish therein.

Xunzi was not maintaining that human beings delight in doing evil and are totally corrupt and incorrigible. Rather, his argument was that human beings are predisposed from birth to seek personal pleasure and gain, which can easily lead to competition, strife, and anarchy (Tan, 2020). Likewise, Mencius was not asserting that human beings are completely or already good. Rather, as suggested by the word “seed”, human goodness needs to be cultivated to attain a state of perfection or completeness. In this sense, regardless of whether human beings are born good or evil, Confucians generally believe that they are incomplete and not whole yet. As such, well-being as a state of wholeness is an ideal that all human beings should aspire to. As far as their view of human beings as lacking wholeness and needing to attain well-being is concerned, Confucian and Christian traditions are on the same page. The second variance between he and shalom is that the former focuses on coherence and contribution whereas the latter underlines reconciliation and restoration. 15 A

related question is whether there is the notion of God in the Confucian traditions. I have noted in Chapter 3 that there are Confucians and Christians who identify the Christian God with Shangdi (Lord on high) mentioned in the Confucian classics. As for whether Confucius himself believed in God, I address this in Chap. 7.

5.4 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions

He (Harmony): Contribution & Collaboration

A Mindful School: An orientation towards wholeness

83

Shalom (Peace): Reconciliation & Restoration

Fig. 5.2 He (Harmony) and Shalom (Peace) in a mindful school

He as harmony is analogous to an orchestra where coherence and cooperation are needed for the whole group to perform the musical work well. Li (2006) informed us that “the original meaning of he as harmony comes from the rhythmic interplay of various sounds, either in nature or between human beings, that is musical to the human ear, and […] the prototype of he is found in music” (p. 584). Each musician cannot play as they wish, but has to play their specific part for the whole orchestra to perform well. Whereas an orchestra symbolises he, the analogy for shalom is the parable of the prodigal son in the Bible (Luke 15:11–32). Jesus told a story of a son who left his family and squandered his inheritance that he took from his father when he was still alive. After much suffering, he came to his senses and decided to return home to seek his father’s forgiveness. He was warmly received by his father who proclaimed: “we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found” (Luke 15:32). Shalom, therefore, indicates the restoration of broken relationships and the renewal of ties and bonds. The prodigal son’s return demonstrates his inner healing and reconciliation with others. The different emphases of he and shalom complement each other to illuminate the idea of wholeness. Well-being as wholeness is both positive and negative: it calls for humans to contribute to and cohere with the common good by utilising their respective strengths (he) and taking steps to restore and renew damaged relationships, whether in relation to God, others, or self (shalom). A school that wishes to realise a vision of wholeness could choose to focus on either he (harmony) or shalom (peace), or combine facets from both, depending on the profile and needs of the students.16 Figure 5.2 illustrates the application of both concepts to a mindful school. A related comment is on he and shalom as spiritual ideals. As noted in Chap. 3, spiritual ideals invite humans to reflect on and appreciate facets of human life that 16 Some educators may raise the concern that shalom (peace) as a religiously tethered spiritual ideal may not be appropriate for non-faith schools and universities. But shalom is a multi-faceted term and can also be understood as being religiously untethered, for example, in the restoration of broken relationships.

84

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

include both the mundane and material as well as transcendent and enduring. Most Confucian spiritual ideals are religiously untethered in the sense that they are not associated with any named supernatural power or institutionalised doctrines, or have any religious affiliations; they also tend to be unstructured, less specific, more openended, and diffused. But Confucian ideals can be religiously tethered too, such as the notion of tian (heaven) or Shangdi (Lord on High). It is also worthy of mention that an exemplary person—one who seeks to attain he (harmony) (13.23)—“is in awe of the mandate of heaven” (16.8). So critical is an exemplary person’s relationship with heaven that Confucius averred that “one who does not understand the mandate [of heaven] has no way of becoming an exemplary person” (20.3). Most Christian spiritual ideals, on the other hand, are religiously tethered; they are linked to or housed within the tradition of a religious faith. That said, it is also possible for Christian spiritual ideals to be religiously untethered. An example is shalom as peace and connectedness between humans and nature. Photo 5.2 of the amphitheatre built in harmony with the natural landscape illustrates the religiously untethered aspect of shalom. The amphitheatre and its quiet surroundings invite all—regardless of religious affiliation—to value and respect nature and engage in peaceful coexistence with it.

5.5 Conclusion We have noted that mindfulness is essentially an orientation towards wholeness; a mindful person is aware of, attends to, and maintains an attitude of wholeness. Mindful education, it follows, refers to the teaching and learning processes that promote student well-being as wholeness. This understanding of mindful education is inclusive as it considers “the whole person including physical, mental/psychological, emotional and spiritual/transpersonal/existential dimensions of life experience” (Gause & Coholic, 2010, p. 2). Two versions of wholeness are delineated in this chapter: wholeness as he (harmony) and wholeness as shalom (peace). Schools that wish to promote wholeness in their students (and staff) may turn to either version or both, depending on their contexts and the needs of the target audience. Wellbeing and mindfulness are closely related. Research has shown that youth who are mindful tend to experience greater well-being, as evident in a decrease in negative emotions and stress, and an increase in positive emotions and stronger friendships (UCLES, 2018). Applying Confucian and Christian perspectives, a mindful student functions optimally in the school community by experiencing he (harmony) and shalom (peace). He (harmony) underscores internal harmony through joy within oneself when in accordance with dao (Way), and external harmony through contribution and collaboration. Shalom (peace) encompasses the peace, completeness, and security one obtains after being reconciled with God, as well as the restoration and togetherness humans experience with one another and with nature. He and shalom are two sides of the same coin: the former focuses on contribution and collaboration, the latter on reconciliation and restoration. Together, they address the needs of all

5.5 Conclusion

85

students: if they are healthy but need more encouragement to flourish, he is more applicable; if they are experiencing personal and interpersonal struggles, shalom would more applicable. The avalanche of educational needs, problems, and challenges in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic has impeded the education of the whole person in schools. It is therefore imperative for schools to prioritise wholeness through mindful education. Subsequent chapters give details on how student well-being as wholeness can be enacted through the school community, curriculum, teaching, and learning.

References Alexander, I. (2018). Modelling our teaching on the Jesus of the gospels. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 111–121). Singapore: Springer. Alford, Z. (2017). Positive education: Developing skills for school life and beyond. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 7–11). Cham: Springer. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, Jr., H. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Australia Catholic University & Erebus International. (2008). Literature review: Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing. Report to the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. Brisbane: Author. Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/system/ files/doc/other/appendix_1_literature_review.pdf Benson, D. M. (2018). God’s curriculum: Reimaging education as a journey towards shalom. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 17–38). Singapore: Springer. Benson, P. L., Roehlkepartain, E. C., & Rude, S. P. (2003). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Toward a field of inquiry. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 205–213. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL]. (n.d.). CASEL’S SEL framework: What are the core competence areas and where are they promoted? Retrieved from https://casel.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/CASEL-SEL-Framework-11.2020.pdf Charry, E. T. (2017). Theology and psychology in conversation. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 35–38). Cham: Springer. Chong, K.-C. (1998). The aesthetic moral personality: Li, yi, wen and chih in the Analects. Monumenta Serica, 46, 69–90. Crawford, A. (2018). Teaching as relationship. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 123–134). Singapore: Springer. Dowling, E. M., Gestsdottir, S., Anderson, P. M., von Eye, A., Almerigi, J., & Lerner, R. M. (2004). Structural relations among spirituality, religiosity, and thriving in adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 8(1), 7–16. Elwell, W. (Ed.). (1997). Peace. In Evangelical dictionary of biblical theology. Online dictionary entry. Retrieved from https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/bakers-evangelical-dic tionary/peace.html FitzSimons, E. (2017). Positive education’s new frontier: Curriculum integration. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 53–57). Cham: Springer.

86

5 Student Well-Being as Wholeness …

Gause, R., & Coholic, D. (2010). Mindfulness-based practices as a holistic philosophy and method. Currents: New Scholarship in the Human Services, 9(2), 1–23. Graham, D. (2009). Teaching redemptively. Bringing grace and truth into your classroom (2nd ed.). Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Huppert, F. A. (2017). Challenges in defining and measuring well-being and their implications for policy. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 163–167). Cham: Springer. Huta, V. (2017). Meta-positive-psychology. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 175–180). Cham: Springer. Hutton, E. L. (2014). Xunzi: The complete text. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Lewis, C. S. (1970). Christian apologetics. In W. Hooper (Ed.), God in the dock: Essays in theology and ethics (pp. 89–103). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Li, C. (2006). The Confucian ideal of harmony. Philosophy East & West, 56(4), 583–603. Love, P., & Talbot, D. (1999). Defining spiritual development: A missing consideration for student affairs. NASAP Journal of Student Affairs, 37, 361–375. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1097. MacCullough, M. E. (2013). By design: Developing a philosophy of education informed by a Christian worldview. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Mannion, G., Biesta, G., Priestley, M., & Ross, H. (2011). The global dimension in education and education for global citizenship: Genealogy and critique. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9(3–4), 443–456. Ng, P. T. (2020). The paradoxes of student well-being in Singapore. ECNU Review of Education, 3(3), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531120935127. Nicholi, A., Jr. (2002). The question of God. New York, NY: The Free press. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2017). Students’ Well-Being. Paris: OECD Publishing. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Root, J. (2001). Evangelism and discipleship. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 53–59). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Roux, J. (2007). Empowering destitute people towards shalom: A contextual missiological study (Doctoral dissertation). South Africa: University of South Africa. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: Free Press. Slemp, G. R. (2017). University settings: A new frontier for positive education. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 141–145). Cham: Springer. Tan, C. (2013). Confucius. London: Bloomsbury. Tan, C. (2019). Comparing high-performing education systems: Understanding Singapore, Shanghai, and Hong Kong. Oxon: Routledge. Tan, C. (2020). Confucian philosophy for contemporary education. New York, NY: Routledge. Tan, C., & Tan, L. (2016). A shared vision of human excellence: Confucian spirituality and arts education. Pastoral Care in Education, 34(3), 156–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2016. 1167109. University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate [UCLES] (2018). Developing the Cambridge learner attributes. Retrieved from https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/Images/ 417069-developing-the-cambridge-learner-attributes-pdf Upitis, R. (2011). Arts education for the development of the whole child. Toronto: Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario.

References

87

Van Norden, B. W. (2008). Mengzi: With selections from traditional commentaries. Indianapolis, ID: Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678. Weber, M., & Ruch, W. (2012). The role of a good character in 12-year old school children: Do character strengths matter in the classroom? Child Indicators Research, 5, 317–334. Zhang, K. C., & Tan, C. (2010). Exploring the spiritual needs of adolescent girls. Religion and Education, 37(2), 146–161.

Chapter 6

A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

Abstract A mindful school community is underpinned by the core values of ren (humanity) and agape (love), which are derived from Confucian and Christian traditions respectively. Ren is the overarching and general quality that encompasses all virtues such as reverence, sincerity, empathy, tolerance, trustworthiness, diligence, and generosity. Love (agape) refers to the unconditional love of God as exemplified in the sacrifice of Jesus. The key similarities between ren (humanity) and agape (love) are a convergence on love, a synthesis of the heart and mind, a community of adherents, and an attention to social justice. A major difference between the two traditions is that ren in the Confucian traditions is human-centred that is rooted in filial piety, whereas agape in the Christian traditions is God-centred with an accent on salvation through Christ. A whole-school approach is needed to create and sustain a mindful school community that is premised on and powered by ren (humanity) and agape (love). Keywords Agape · Confucius · Filial piety · Heart–mind · Humanity · Jesus · Love · Mindfulness · Ren · School community · Social justice · Whole-school approach

6.1 Introduction Thus far, this book has proposed a mission of mindful education, which refers to teaching and learning that are oriented towards wholeness. Drawing on Confucian and Christian traditions, wholeness is understood as he (harmony) and shalom (peace). A mindful student is aware of, pays attention to, and maintains the attitude of harmony and peace. The school vision is the attainment of student well-being, where all learners experience wholeness as manifested in their optimal functioning in the school community. Having elucidated the mission and vision of a mindful school, this chapter turns to the core values that form the basis of a mindful school community.1 This chapter explains how a mindful school community is one that is 1 The

focus of this chapter on the functions of school is aligned with Trombly’s (2020) call for educators to prioritise and bring to fruition the schools’ core values, vision and mission in a postpandemic world. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_6

89

90

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

Fig. 6.1 Vision, mission, and core values

Core Values: Ren (Humanity) Agape (Love)

Mission: Mindful Education

Vision: Student WellBeing as Wholeness

oriented towards wholeness through two cardinal values derived from the Confucian and Christian traditions, namely, ren (humanity) and agape (love) (see Fig. 6.1). This chapter begins by expounding on ren (humanity), and subsequently agape (love).

6.1.1 Ren (Humanity) Dear Teachers, I am a survivor of a concentration camp. My eyes saw what no person should witness: Gas chambers built by learned engineers, children poisoned by educated physicians, infants killed by trained nurses, women and babies shot and burned by high school and college graduates. So I am suspicious of education. My request is: Help your students to become more human. —An anonymous retired principal2

This segment discusses how a mindful school community can orient all parties— students, staff, parents, and other educational stakeholders—towards wholeness as he (harmony) through ren (humanity). Essentially, ren revolves around helping everyone to be more fully human—which is in tandem with the request of the retired principal in 2 Cited

in MacCullough, 2013, p. 25, italics added.

6.1 Introduction

91

the quotation above. Ren is the overarching and general quality that encompasses all virtues such as reverence, sincerity, empathy, tolerance, trustworthiness, diligence, and generosity (see Analects 12.1 and 17.6; all passages are taken from this text and translated by me unless otherwise stated). So important is ren that Confucius contended that “the common people need ren more than water and fire” (15.35); a ren person is prepared to “give up one’s life to achieve ren” (15.9). He also commended those who were prepared to sacrifice their lives in order to achieve humanity (15.9). Everyone can achieve ren based on personal hard work. This is because “human beings are similar in their nature, but differ as a result of their practice” (17.2). Besides “humanity”, ren can also be translated as, among others, benevolence, humaneness, goodness, perfect virtue, and authoritative conduct (Tan, 2017).3 This book has chosen to render ren as “humanity” as this word is closest to the Chinese character for ren 仁, which is comprised of “person” 人 and “two” 二. Ren entails co-humanity—it is located within, and perfected in and through, interdependent and mutually reinforcing relationships (Tan, 2020). Ren, therefore, presupposes the external aspect of he (harmony), where humans preserve interpersonal ties and bonds through ren. Highlighting the webs of human relationships, Confucius explained how one can cultivate ren though the different spheres of human interaction: “A young man should be filial at home and respectful towards his elders in public, be cautious in speech, be trustworthy, love the multitude broadly, and be intimate with those who are ren” (1.6). Implied in the co-humanity of ren is love for others. When asked by a disciple what ren was, Confucius replied that it was about “loving others” (12.22). Confucius added that “a ren person, in helping oneself to take a stand, helps others to take their stand; in desiring to reach a goal, helps others to reach their goals” (6.30, also see 8.8, 16.13, 20.3). To “take a stand”, in Confucian parlance, is to conduct oneself normatively by performing one’s social roles appropriately. This is linked to the internal aspect of he (harmony), where one regulates one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. From a Confucian viewpoint, the performance of social roles is an indispensable component of what it means to be human. The Confucian concept here is zhengming (rectification of names), which refers to understanding and carrying out specific responsibilities and expectations that are commensurate with one’s name or title (c.f. 4.5, 13.3). A person of ren who practises zhengming loves others in accordance with their social roles, for example, as a ruler, minister, father, and son.4 The thesis of interdependence through ren (humanity) is clearly manifested in Photo 6.1. The photo depicts me (in the centre) with some of my students who are school leaders and teachers from China. As part of learning about the philosophy of education, my students had to create a collage that showcased their school vision and motto. As shown in the photo, this group named their school “School of Love” (aixin 3 The

term ren predates Confucius’ time, but it was originally a relatively unimportant word used to describe a person’s visage. Confucius borrowed this word and infused moral meanings into it, thereby elevating it to a cardinal virtue. 4 Gier (2001) clarified zhengming using a musical analogy: “Confucian virtue aesthetics is also role specific just as these examples from the fine arts are. … violin players do not switch to the French horn while performing their concertos” (p. 286).

92

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

Photo 6.1 A group of Chinese educators with their design titled “School of love”

xuexiao) with the school motto “liji daren”, which means “helping oneself to take a stand, helping others to reach their goals” (Analects 6.30). The school they created, illustrated through pictures that celebrate multiculturalism, people with disabilities, and holistic education, exemplifies ren as an achieved state of humanity for the school community. The link between zhengming and ren reminds us that ren is not a fuzzy feeling but is love in action. This brings us to the relationship between ren and another cardinal Confucian concept, li, which is traditionally translated as “ritual” but more accurately interpreted as “normative behaviours”. Confucius asked rhetorically, “What has a person who is not ren got to do with li?” (3.3). When his disciples asked what ren was, Confucius replied, Restraining the self and returning to li is ren. If a person can restrain oneself and return to li for one day, the whole world would regard such a person as ren (12.1).

As noted in Chapter 3, “restraining the self” points to mindfulness where one orients oneself by regulating one’s thinking, feelings, and conduct. Simply put, li is the means to attain ren. The goal is to ensure that one’s total being always conforms to ren. It can be concluded that ren is not only about one’s attitudes and values but also includes one’s actions that reflect one’s predispositions and moral character. Elaborating on this point, Confucius gave the example of a political ruler who appeared to observe li but lacked ren (3.26): “How could I bear to look upon a person who in occupying high office is not tolerant, who in observing li is not respectful, and who

6.1 Introduction

93

in overseeing the mourning rites does not grieve?” This ruler had ostensibly done what was correct in public. But he was not really observing li as he was not tolerant, respectful, and genuine—moral qualities that are part and parcel of li. The example of the ruler shows the intertwined relationship between li and ren: the presence of ren determines whether one is adhering to li in an authentic manner.5 More needs to be said about the multi-dimensional and all-inclusive scope of ren and how it relates to wholeness as he (harmony). Confucius drew attention to different aspects of ren on different occasions. An instance is the following passage: When in public, behave as though you are receiving important guests; when employing the services of the common people, behave as though you are overseeing a great sacrifice. Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire. In this way, you will have no ill will in public or private life (12.2).

We find here three moral attributes of ren: respect (“receiving important guests”), reverence (“overseeing a great sacrifice”), and empathy (“do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire”). In other passages, additional qualities of ren include freedom from evil (4.4), courage (14.4), tolerance, trustworthiness, diligence, generosity (17.6), strength, decisiveness, simplicity, and deliberateness in speech (13.27) (Tan, 2020). A paradigmatic figure of humanity is a junzi (exemplary person), as Confucius described: How could a junzi who abandons ren merit that name? A junzi does not leave ren even for the space of one meal; such a person is certain to be with ren even if one is in a hurry or distress” (4.5).

Overall, Confucius’ ideal of ren transcended outward behaviours to encompass “one’s entire person: one’s cultivated cognitive, aesthetic, moral, and religious sensibilities” (Ames & Rosemont, 1998, p. 49). Confucius called on leaders to possess ren so that they would not turn to oppressive structures, policies, and practices to control the people. Instead, leaders should aspire to be role models who “lead the people with virtue” (2.3). Only when leaders are themselves fully human can they inspire the common people to likewise cultivate ren (8.2). This results in internal and external harmony where one experiences joy within oneself in accordance with dao (Way) and lives in peaceful co-existence with others and the natural world.

5 Chan (2000) explained that “the Confucian formulation of li

stipulates that it must be informed by ren, which at a minimum signifies the presence of certain ethically significant attitudes, emotions and motivations (e.g. respect, conscientiousness, sincerity and care)” (p. 250).

94

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

6.1.2 Agape (Love) Dear friends, let us love one another, for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God (1 John 4:7, the New International Version [NIV] throughout the chapter).6

This segment discusses how a mindful school community, from a Christian worldview, orients all within the community towards wholeness as shalom (peace) through agape. Love—agape refers to the unconditional love of God—is pivotal in the Christian traditions. 1 John 4:8 declares: “Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love” (also see 1 John 4:16). Nygren (1998) delineated four aspects of agape in the Christian tradition (pp. 85-89): • Agape is spontaneous and unmotivated—in Jesus this love was clearly demonstrated as He refused to be controlled by the value of the objects of His love, freely ministering to the righteous and sinner alike; • Agape is indifferent to value—it is only when all thought of worthiness of the object is abandoned that we can understand what agape is; • Agape is creative—agape creates, loves and imparts value by loving; and • Agape is the initiator of fellowship with God—not only does agape determine the essential and characteristic content of Christian fellowship with God, but in virtue of its creative nature it is also important for initiation of that fellowship. Agape enables humans to experience personal shalom through the love and sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The Bible records how Jesus displayed his love for his disciples and people around him by meeting their physical, emotional, and spiritual needs. Zuck (1995) observed that Jesus’ ministry was marked by tenderness, compassion, and empathy; he responded to everyone with care and concern. An example of the love of Jesus is recorded in Matthew 14 where over 5000 people had no food and Jesus’ disciples wanted to send them away. Jesus, however, had empathic concern for the people and did not want them to go hungry. Thus he performed a miracle to feed them so that they “all ate and were satisfied” (Matthew 14:20). Jesus also exhibited his love by washing his disciples’ feet (John 13:1, 5). Another occasion was Jesus’ love to his disciple Peter who denied that he knew Jesus thrice. Rather than reprimanding Peter, Jesus forgave Peter and gave him the honour of leading other disciples to care for other believers and nurture them (John 21:15– 19). The same patience and love were demonstrated to another disciple, Thomas, who doubted that Jesus had resurrected from the dead. Instead of chastising Thomas for his lack of faith, Jesus appeared before Thomas and encouraged the latter to verify the evidence for himself (John 20:24–29). Zuck (1995) pointed out that Jesus’ love for his disciples is seen in his addressing them as “children” (teknon) (Mark 10:24), 6 Commenting on

1 John 4:7, St Augustine wrote: “The train of thought makes it clear enough, that this same brotherly love (the love wherewith we love another) is being proclaimed with apostolic authority to be not only ‘of God,’ but ‘God.’” (cited in Burnaby, 1955, pp. 52–53).

6.1 Introduction

95

Photo 6.2 An image of Jesus Christ on the cross

which means “a born one”, signifying an intimate parent-child relationship.7 The Bible teaches that agape is exemplified in Jesus’ sacrificial death to save all human beings (see Photo 6.2). According to John 3:16, “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life”. For Christians, the crucifixion of Jesus on the cross is the epitome of unconditional love, because he who has no sin chose to die for all sinners who are in need of salvation.

7 Pazmino (2001) added that “Jesus loved his students, his disciples, in a way that indicated the deep

longings of every heart for an intimate relationship with another person and with God” (p. 114).

96

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

Arising from agape, Christian love is not only about the love between God and humans but also among humans themselves. This brings us to the collective component of shalom. The relational aspect of the Christian life is expressed in Jesus’ instruction regarding the two greatest commandments: to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and mind; and to love one’s neighbour as oneself (Matthew 22: 3739). Being a Christian is not just about one’s relationship with God but also one’s inter-connectedness with and influence over people around them (Crawford, 2018). 1 John 4:7, which is cited at the start of this segment, teaches all Christians to love one another because doing so bears witness of them as followers of God.8 Packer (1993) described the essence of loving one another as follows: “Neighbour-love seeks the neighbour’s good, and the true measure of it is how much it gives to that end” (p. 182). This love is translated into deeds of mercy and compassion, as manifested by Jesus when he healed the sick, fed the hungry, and taught the masses (Packer, 1993).9 Christian togetherness is embodied in the term koinonia that refers to fellowship with God and with other Christians, for the purpose of being nurtured and receiving instruction for spiritual growth (Pazmino, 1997). Christians, therefore, comprise the church, which, in this context, does not refer to a building used for public worship but a family of people with Jesus Christ as their Head, Saviour, Teacher, Chief Shepherd, and Lord (Messmore, 2018).10 Both personal and collective aspects of shalom are foregrounded and preserved in the church. Issler (2001) noted that the church has a three-fold focus (p. 40): • Upward to God—to glorify, worship, love, and be in communion with God; • Inward—to grow and nurture itself in love and community and to care for the needs of the saints; and • Outward—to bring the good news to a world without God and to do good in the world. Issler (2001), drawing upon Erickson (1985), identified 10 attributes for the Christian community: holiness, righteousness, justice, genuineness, veracity, faithfulness; 8 Another passage is John 13:35: “By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love

one another.”. theologians have linked the relational dimension of personhood with the Christian doctrine of the Trinity—God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. St Basil taught, “The unity of God lies in the communion [koinonia] of the Godhead” (cited in Ware, 2010, p. 114). Moltmann (1981) explained: “The three Divine Persons exist in their particular, unique nature as Father, Son and Spirit in their relationships to one another, and are determined through these relationships. It is in these relationships that they are persons. Being a person in this respect means existing-in-relationship” (p. 145). 10 Messmore (2018) wrote, “Christians therefore comprise the church that denotes, in this case, not a place of worship but a people who embody God’s presence and identity and mission. This means that the life of the Christian faith is inescapably social and communal—not just a private relationship between me and Jesus. It does include a personal relationship with God, but because God is love, the relationship He calls us into is one that, by definition, must include others” (p. 44, italics in the original). For relevant Bible passages, see Ephesians 1:20-23 (Christ as Head), Ephesians 5:25-27 (Christ as Saviour), Matthew 23:8 and John 13:13 (Christ as Teacher), 1 Peter 5:4 (Christ as Chief Shepherd), and John 13:13 (Christ as Lord) (Issler, 2001). 9 Christian

6.1 Introduction

97

benevolence, grace, mercy, and persistence (p. 36). The desired outcome is the provision of “unconditional love and an atmosphere of grace” and “a place of safety and acceptance” especially for young people looking for direction and identity (Taylor, 2001, p. 94).

6.2 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions The preceding has explained how a mindful school community orients its members towards wholeness—whether as he (harmony) or shalom (peace)—through ren (humanity) and agape (love). As with the concept of wholeness, schools may adopt ren (humanity), agape (love), or both as the foundational value(s) for their school community, depending on the nature, needs, and goals of the community. To further explicate the core values of ren (humanity) and agape (love), this section highlights their similarities and differences.11

6.2.1 Similarities There are four key similarities between ren (humanity) and agape (love). The first is the common emphasis on love. Both ren and agape are concerned with the manifestations of love in everyday life and in a myriad of relationships and roles (Berling, 2015). When comparing the idea of loving fellow human beings between the Confucian and Christian traditions, scholars have argued that ren is the counterpart to neighbourly love in the Christian traditions. The Golden Rule is found in Luke 6:31: “Do to others as you would have them do to you”. Huang (2005) argued that the Confucian version of the Golden Rule is Analects 6:30, which instructs that a person of ren, wishing to be established oneself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged oneself, seeks also to enlarge others.12 The second similarity that is related to the first point of love is the unity of the heart and mind. Loving someone or something entails setting one’s heart–mind in the right direction, and being guided by one’s heart–mind to constantly reflect on and improve oneself (Shun, 2004).In Confucian traditions, the word xin (heart–mind) captures the integration of the cognitive activities and affective activities. To put it another way,

11 Some educators may raise the concern about agape (love) being a religiously tethered spiritual ideal, which may not be appropriate for non-faith schools and universities. This question has been noted in our previous discussion of shalom (peace) too. However, agape and shalom are multifaceted terms and are not necessarily religiously tethered. For example, both concepts can be viewed as religiously untethered when we focus on sacrificial, servant-leadership type of love between human beings (agape) or the restoration of broken relationships between them (shalom). 12 For a different view that argues that the Golden Rule in Confucian traditions is negative, see Allinson (1992).

98

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

the heart–mind harmonises one’s thoughts and feelings.13 The Confucian scholar Tu Wei-ming noted that the “mind” in the Confucian context always involves the heart (Tu, 1984). The heart–mind has desires and emotions, deliberates about a situation, directs attention to and ponders about certain things, keeps certain things in mind, sets directions that guide one’s life, and shapes one’s person as a whole. The heart–mind is capable of being independent of external control by holding on to the directions it sets without being swayed by external forces (Shun, 2004). To know something, in the Confucian worldview, is to realise something—knowing is not only intellectual but also involves one’s emotions and mood (Ames, 2011). The integration of the heart and mind in the Confucian traditions is also underscored in the Christian traditions. From a Christian perspective, the heart encompasses both the affective and cognitive domains, an interpretation that is strikingly similar to the Confucian notion of heart–mind (xin). As explained by Graham (2009), the heart is “that place in which our understandings, commitments, beliefs, and actions reside and from which they arise”; it is “the seat of emotion, will, thought, sin, regeneration, and the processes that involve our spiritual renewal, faith, and practice of Christian virtues” (p. 137). Jesus harmonised the heart and mind, as epitomised in his injunction to love God with our heart, mind, soul, and spirit (Matthew 22:37).14 Jesus’ encounter with two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:1335) illustrates the integration of the heart and mind. Jesus’ dialogue with them was 13 Fredrickson

(2017) reported that participants who attended a workshop on an ancient mindtraining practice on lovingkindness (“metta”) altered their vagal tone, which is a key part of their cardiovascular system, when they experienced positive emotions and social connections. This experiment shows that one’s emotions are linked to one’s thinking because a person’s brain is tied to one’s heart by the vagus nerve. An increase in one’s vagal tone increases one’s capacity for human relatedness, bonds, and empathy for others. A major implication, according to Fredrickson (2017), is that “the more attuned to others you become, the healthier you become, and vice versa. This mutual influence also explains how a lack of positive social context diminishes people. Your heart’s capacity for friendship also obeys the biological law of ‘use it or lose it.’ If you don’t regularly exercise your ability to connect face to face, you’ll eventually find yourself lacking some of the basic biological capacity to do so” (p. 60). 14 Libbrecht (2009) argued that the Christian traditions subscribe to body-soul dualism: “[W]ith Plato the problem of death, and subsidiarily also mystical experiences, resulted in the conception of an everlasting soul. This soul was the real part of man, the body only the temporary dwelling of the soul. After death, the soul remains alive. The place where it then finds abode is heaven. However, the soul cannot be material, it was conceived as a spiritual principle, a nous. The consequence was a fundamental dualism: the soul—because it was connected to God, to [an] eternal being and truth—could not be free and happy within the mortal body, its jail and also its tool. This means that a transcendent principle became the real core of human beings and that the phenomenal world was inferior. This dualism was inherited by Christianity and is still a paradigm of western thought” (p. 55). This claim of dualism in the Christian traditions, however, is questionable if we look at the teachings of the Bible, which speak instead of the integration of the heart and mind. An example, cited in the text, is Matthew 22:37 about loving God through the unity of one’s mind and heart. Noting that the Christian view of persons is holistic, Pazmino (1997) maintained that “Christian educators are challenged to correct an overemphasis on the body/soul dualism and the theory/practical dichotomies which confront educational efforts, and work for integration. […] Western cultures, while emphasising intellectual analysis, have fostered the fragmentation of human personality and the disembodiment of life” (pp. 69–70).

6.2 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions

99

not an intellectual discourse but rather a cognitively stimulating and heart–warming conversation involving their wills, affections, and behaviour.15 Christian academics have echoed the views of Confucian thinkers on the integration of one’s heart and mind. The Confucian scholar James K. A. Smith, for example, rejected the model of the human person as primarily “the thinking thing” or “brains on a stick”; he disagreed that the aim of education should revolve around the depositing of facts “into the intellectual receptacles of thinking things in order to equip them for various tasks” (cited in Norsworthy, Dowden, & Luetz, 2018, p. 5). Congruent with the Confucian understanding of knowledge as realisation, the Christian conception of knowledge entails being committed to something and living out what one knows. To know something implies a responsibility to act on the knowledge (Graham, 2009). The types of knowledge promoted by Jesus—reasoned, relational, experiential, contemplative, and inner—reject the over-emphasis on academic or cognitive knowledge. The Christian notion of knowledge is distinct from the Greek understanding that views knowledge as something that exists outside a person, is static, and largely theoretical. Alluding to the synthesis of the mind and heart in the Christian traditions, Niemiec (2017) introduced the notion of heartfulness that refers to taking meaningful action with our character strengths. Heartfulness presupposes mindfulness as it “involves ‘doing,’ taking over where mindfulness leaves off” (Niemiec, 2017, p. 125). Examples of heartfulness are becoming a more focused worker or being aware of the needs of others and taking steps to help them. The third similarity between ren (humanity) and agape (love) is that both are relational concepts that point to a community of adherents. As noted earlier, the Confucian notion of ren is inherently interpersonal. The stress on human connectedness, community, and interdependence is also underlined in the Confucian traditions. The development of ren requires the self to interact with and depend on others within a community. The self, far from being obliterated, is broadened and deepened in an ever-expanding circle of human relatedness (Tu, 1985). A Confucian educational approach starts with a child loving one’s parents, then gradually learning to love other people beyond the family, such as one’s neighbour, friend, colleague, leader, and people from other countries. As taught by Confucius, “A young man should be filial at home and respectful towards his elders in public, be cautious in speech, be trustworthy, love the multitude broadly” (1.6, italics added). Likewise, for the Christian traditions, God created humans to be social beings as a reflection of God’s relationships within the Trinity. Jesus’ incarnation reinforced humanity and community when he became one of us and one with us (Graham, 2009). Jesus built and lived within communities by selecting 12 disciples to be with him, encouraged team ministry relationships by sending the disciples out two by two, and established close personal friendships with three disciples—Peter, James, and John (Issler, 2001). Messmore’s (2018) description of the Christian construal of human beings as not “autonomous, self-enclosed and self-defining individuals, but 15 The Bible records the disciples as having their eyes opened, which suggests “a sense of joy and the burning of the heart that parallels a birth experience in terms of its personal impact” (Pazmino, 1997, p. 38).

100

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

rather persons as beings constituted by relationships with others” (p. 42) could well have been uttered by Confucius himself. The final similarity between ren (humanity) and agape (love) is a shared focus on furthering social justice. Zhao (2013) contended, Confucius promotes social justice and equity that was modeled on individual morality and virtuous people who could be examples to others and bring good to the world. He looked for a society of harmony and peace with a virtuous leader and self-cultivated people (p. 21).

A ren person is one who works towards a just and humane society by upholding human dignity, potential, and capabilities. The social justice advocated by Confucius is relational justice, which is marked by the principles of recognition and mutuality. This means respecting the varied identities, duties, and attachments of human beings, as well as valuing human connectedness and balancing autonomy and collectivity (Tan, 2020). Demonstrating relational justice, Jesus paid attention to people who were neglected and living on the fringe of society. The majority of people helped by Jesus were not the rich, educated, powerful, and respected. Instead, they were the disenfranchised such as women and children, the sick, the mentally ill, and the despised such as tax collectors and prostitutes. It is noteworthy that Jesus himself came from Galilee, which was looked down upon as a cultural backwater by the Jews (Pazmino, 2001).16 Explicating the Christian meaning of service (diakonia), Pazmino (1997) explained that Christians are called to be channels of “Christ’s transforming power” by pursuing “justice and righteousness in various economic, political, educational, and ecclesiastical structures” (p. 47).

6.2.2 A Major Difference The similarities between ren and agape do not mean that there is no significant variance between them. A major difference is that ren in the Confucian traditions is human-centred that is rooted in filial piety, whereas agape in the Christian traditions is God-centred with an accent on salvation through Christ. Confucius taught that “being ren lies with the individual; how could it come from others?” (12.1). This means that human beings have the natural capacities to achieve ren without divine help. Although Confucius also taught that tian (heaven) is the author of virtue (7.23), he also posited that heaven has given humans the responsibility to cultivate 16 Jesus “broke through the bonds that prevented disenfranchised people groups such as women, children, sinners, and Gentiles from appropriating the new life offered freely by his heavenly Father” (Pazmino, 2001, p. 112). Zuck (1995) added that the miracles of Jesus “revealed his love and compassion for people in need, many of whom were ostracised socially or religiously from the community. These included the sick, the mentally ill, the blind, dumb, and deaf, tax collectors, Gentiles, and women. He had compassion on a leper (Matt. 8:2-3; Mark 1:41) whom he touched and healed. When he saw the crowds of people coming to him, “he had compassion on them because they were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd (Matt. 9:36; Mark 6:34)” (p. 83).

6.2 Comparing Confucian and Christian Traditions

101

themselves morally according to li (normative behaviours). Humans, therefore, do not need to lean on supernatural powers to learn and practise ren. It is telling that the Analects records that Confucius “did not speak of strange happenings, physical force, disorder and spirits” (7.21). When asked by a disciple about serving ghosts and spirits, Confucius said, “You are not yet able to serve human beings, how would you be able to serve the ghosts? (11.12). Confucius also asserted, “It is human beings who are able to broaden dao (Way), not Way that broadens human beings.” (15.29). As noted in earlier chapters, dao is a vision of human excellence—the normative tradition inherited from one’s cultural predecessors. Dao is shaped and extended by human beings who are, by and large, masters of their own destiny. Not only is ren human-centred, it is also closely associated with filial piety. The love propagated by Confucius and other Confucian thinkers is not a universal love but a differentiated one. Confucius taught that “being filial and respectful to one’s elders could be said to be the root of ren!” (1.2). This means that ren is cultivated progressively, starting with the family. A child learns to be ren by showing affection and respect towards one’s parents. Gradually, the person would learn to extend ren beyond one’s family members to others in one’s neighbourhood and community, and eventually to the whole world. Filial piety is, therefore, the starting point of ren and has a multiplier effect on society; Confucius stated that “when the junzi (exemplary person) is affectionately committed to one’s parents, the masses will be inspired towards ren” (8.2). Graded love means that a person should love one’s parents more than, for example, strangers because of the stronger familial bonds. To disregard filial piety is to destroy the root of ren and ultimately hinder the extension of ren to all people (1.2). In contrast, agape is necessarily God-centred. We have noted that agape originated from God, who, according to the Bible, displayed his love for human beings by sacrificing his only son to save us. The love of God was revealed in “Jesus Christ as the act of giving oneself for another’s good” (Messmore, 2018, p. 41, italics in the original). John 15:13 states, “Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one’s life for one’s friends”. The Christian worldview is that human beings, on their own, are incapable of loving God because of their sins. God, therefore, needed to make the first move by sending his son Jesus to earth. As noted in 1 John 4:10, “This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins”. Rather than the differentiated love as advocated in Confucian traditions, agape is universal. Christianity teaches that God’s love is extended to all sinners: “But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Romans 5:8). The Bible even exhorts Christians to love their enemies. Jesus taught, “But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew 5:44). Commenting on this injunction to love one’s enemies, Huang (2005) pointed out the contrasting responses that Confucians and Christians would have towards good and evil people: Confucius believed that one’s love for virtuous people should be different from one’s love for evil people. Thus when asked whether we should return good to evil, as Christians would advocate, Confucius asked, if so, ‘with what would you return to good?’ So in his view, ‘we should return uprightness to evil and return good to good’ (Analects 14:34) (p. 37).

102

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

Morality for the Christian traditions is, therefore, “thin” in the sense that it comprises a narrow set of universal principles that broaden when applied in specific circumstances (Walzer, 1994). In contrast, morality in the Confucian traditions “is thick from the beginning, culturally integrated, fully resonant, and it reveals itself thinly only on special occasions, when moral language is turned to specific purpose” (Walzer, 1994, p. 4).17

6.3 Conclusion and Implications for a Mindful School Community This chapter has detailed the core values of ren (humanity) and agape (love) that are derived from Confucian and Christian traditions. These core values serve as the bedrock of a mindful school community. The goal is for students to be socialised into a tradition that is undergirded by humanity and love, and inculcates these traits. In a school community inspired by Confucian and Christian traditions, students internalise and display, in diverse forms and settings, the values and practices of humanity and love. Students and all stakeholders in the school community identify themselves with, demonstrate, and are united by personal virtues and love for each other. This chapter has explained that ren is found within and is perfected in and through interdependent and mutually reinforcing relationships. Agape points to sacrificial and unconditional love, whether from God or with fellow humans. Examples of ren and agape in the school community include small but meaningful acts such as being there for someone, active listening, and acts of kindness.18 In creating and sustaining a mindful school community, it is essential to adopt a whole-school approach. Levey and Levey (2019) identified two main approaches to promoting mindfulness in organisations. The first approach comes in the form of mindfulness training programmes, where attendees receive a short training and thereafter are left to practise mindfulness on their own without support from the organisation. This approach is not ideal as mindfulness is reduced to something that is optional, tangential, and private, rather than an integral, widespread, and 17 Huang

(2005) explained, “Here we can see that, as universal moral principles, Confucian love and Christian love actually have represented two very different models of moral development. Christianity represents the approach from universal to particular: first to determine a universal moral principle and then apply this universal principle to all particular cases without any discrimination. In contrast, Confucianism is the approach from particular to universal: first to learn how to love one’s family members and then gradually expand this love to other people and living beings. Of course, since different people and beings are different, it is important to find the appropriate ways of love when we expand our family love to other humans and living beings. Michael Walzer calls the one followed by Christians ‘thin morality’ and the one followed by Confucians ‘thick morality’, since the former is abstract, while the latter is concrete” (p. 47). 18 Teachers are motivated to love their students, as represented by the following comment from a Christian teacher: “[W]e show Jesus’ love, [then] when we do start talking about Jesus’ love we have some credibility, otherwise it is hollow” (cited in Chalwell, 2018, p. 223).

6.3 Conclusion and Implications for a Mindful School Community

103

inclusive component of a school (Levey & Levey, 2019). The second approach is more sustainable and inclusive, as explained by Levey and Levey (2019): This approach involves introducing mindfulness as an essential life skill for developing the organisational operating system necessary to sustain a thriving healthy organisational culture populated by well, caring, and wise people. In such organisations, virtually every moment, activity, interaction, procedure, and encounter is encouraged to be imbued with the mindful, caring presence of all of the employees involved. Once established, such a mindful organisation operating system approach has proven to be more far reaching in its beneficial impacts and more enduring and sustainable over time (p. 5, italics added).

School leaders, therefore, need to collaborate with all education stakeholders to champion ren (humanity) and agape (love). A mindful school is one where students are given ample opportunities in a loving environment to reflect on personal meaning, belonging, and the ultimate answers in life—an endeavour that is central to the task of identity exploration for adolescents. The desired outcome is wholeness, where the learners’ personal identities are developed by combining intellectual knowledge and abilities with personal values and convictions, leading to a lasting and holistic experience (Dalton, 2001). A mindful school community is also inclusive; it embraces diversity that transcends identity markers such as ethnicity, religion, language, and gender. It also promotes social justice by reaching out to and caring for the underprivileged such as children from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and the sick in the school and society. Educators should, therefore, create and sustain school communities that are grounded in and distinguished by humanity and love. This would promote wholeness in students as they learn, interact, and grow in safe and loving environments. Some guidelines on engendering a supportive and caring school community are as follows (Australia Catholic University & Erebus International, 2008, p. 24): • Positive school and classroom climates; • A sense of connectedness and belonging to a school of which students are proud; • Caring, supportive, and respectful relationships with their teachers who also hold high expectations of them; • Positive relationships with other students; and • Involvement by their parents with the school. A mindful school that seeks to foster student well-being is an educational institution that eschews law in favour of grace. Rather than being preoccupied with control, punishment, evaluation, and grading, such a school focuses on liberating love and encourages self-evaluation in students (Graham, 2009). In concrete terms, expressing mindfulness to students includes remembering students’ names, engaging with students outside the classroom such as during breaks, developing relationships with students, and welcoming parents as partners (Chalwell, 2018). A school community that is filled with humanity and love is a school that promotes wholeness. After all, spirituality and human flourishing are about “becoming fully human” (Norsworthy, Dowden, & Luetz, 2018, p. 6; also see Macquarrie, 1972).

104

6 A Mindful School Community: Ren (Humanity) and Agape (Love)

References Allinson, R. E. (1992). The golden rule as the core value in Confucianism & Christianity: Ethical similarities and differences. Asian Philosophy, 2(2), 173–185. Ames, R. T. (2011). Confucian role ethics: A vocabulary. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Ames, T. R., Rosemont, H., Jr. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Berling, J. (2015). A Confucian Episcopalian. Spiritus: A journal of Christian Spirituality, 15(1), 9–96. Burnaby, J. (Ed. & Trans.). (1955). Augustine: Later works. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press. Chalwell, K. (2018). You are welcome: Hospitality encounters in teaching. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 209–232). Singapore: Springer. Chan, A. K. L. (2000). Confucian ethics and the critique of ideology. Asian Philosophy, 10(3), 245–261. Crawford, A. (2018). Teaching as relationship. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 123–134). Singapore: Springer. Dalton, J. C. (2001). Career and calling: Finding a place for the spirit in work and community. In M. A. Jablonski (Ed.), The implications of student spirituality for student affairs practice (pp. 17–25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Erickson, M. (1985). Christian theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. Fredrickson, B. (2017). Your phone vs. your heart. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 53–57). Cham: Springer. Gier, N. F. (2001). The dancing Ru: A Confucian aesthetics of virtue. Philosophy East and West, 51(2), 280–305. Graham, D. (2009). Teaching redemptively. Bringing grace and truth into your classroom (2nd ed.). Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Huang, Y. (2005). Confucian love and global ethics: How the Cheng brothers would help respond to Christian criticisms. Asian Philosophy, 15(1), 35–60. Issler, K. (2001). Theological foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 35–44). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Levey, J., & Levey, M. (2019). Mindful leadership for personal and organisational resilience. Clinical Radiology, 74, 739–745. Libbrecht, U. (2009). Comparative Philosophy: A methodological approach. In N. Note, R. FornetBetancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 31–67). Dordrecht: Springer. MacCullough, M. E. (2013). By design: Developing a philosophy of education informed by a Christian worldview. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Macquarrie, J. (1972). Paths in spirituality. London: SCM. Messmore, R. (2018). The trinity, love and higher education: Recovering communities of enchanted learning. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 39–50). Singapore: Springer. Moltmann, J. (1981). The trinity and the kingdom: The doctrine of God (M. Kohl, Trans.). San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. Niemiec, R. (2017). On heartfulness. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 123–128). Cham: Springer. Norsworthy, B., Dowden, T., & Luetz, J. M. (2018). Learning and loves envisaged through the lens of James K. A. Smith: Reimagining Christian education today. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, &

References

105

B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 3–15). Singapore: Springer. Nygren, A. (1998). Agape and eros. In A. Soble (Ed.), Eros, agape, and philia: Readings in the philosophy of love (pp. 85–96). St Paul, MN: Paragon. Packer, J. I. (1993). Concise theology: A guide to historic Christian beliefs. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Pazmino, R. W. (2001). Jesus: The master teacher. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 111–116). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Shun, K. (2004). Conception of the person in early Confucian thought. In K. Sun & D. B. Wong (Eds.), Confucian ethics: A comparative study of self, autonomy, and community (pp. 183–199). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. St Augustine. (trans. 1955). The trinity. Book VIII. The search for God by the understanding. In J. Burnaby (Ed. & trans.), Augustine: Later works (pp. 37–55). Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press. St. Basil the Great. (trans. 1980). On the Holy Spirit (D. Anderson, Trans.). Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press. Tan, C. (2017). Confucianism and education. In G. Noblit (Ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of education (pp. 1–18). New York: Oxford University Press. Tan, C. (2020). Confucian philosophy for contemporary education. New York, NY: Routledge. Taylor, N. (2001). Spiritual formation: Nurturing spiritual vitality. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 91–98). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Trombly, C. E. (2020). Learning in the time of COVID-19: Capitalizing on the opportunity presented by the pandemic. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 351–358. Tu, W.-M. (1984). Confucian ethics today: The Singapore challenge. Singapore: Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore and Federal Publications. Tu, W.-M. (1985). Confucian thought: Selfhood as creative transformation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Walzer, M. (1994). Thick and thin: Moral argument at home and abroad. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Ware, K. (2010). The Holy Trinity: Model for personhood-in-relation. In J. Polkinghorn (Ed.), The trinity and an entangled world: Relationality in physical science and theology (pp. 107–129). Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. Zhao, J. (2013). Confucius as a critical educator: Towards educational thoughts of Confucius. Frontiers of Education in China, 8(1), 9–27. Zuck, R. B. (1995). Teaching as Jesus taught. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.

Chapter 7

A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

Abstract The vision of realising wholeness is achieved through a mindful curriculum. Informed by Confucian and Christian traditions, a mindful curriculum is transformational; it calls for human beings to broaden dao (Way) and presupposes that human beings are made in God’s image (imago dei). Such a curriculum is all-encompassing, applied, and mindful, enabling students to function optimally in the school community. When we compare the Confucian and Christian curricula, significant similarities are the shared affirmation of the worth and potential of human beings, the common reference to “way”, and the same emphasis on the importance of habituated dispositions and practices for students. A major difference is that while spirituality is noticeable in both curricula, the notion of imago dei (God’s image) is a more religiously tethered form of spirituality. Keywords All-encompassing · Application · Confucius · Curriculum · Dao · God’s image · Humanity · Imago dei · Jesus · Mindfulness · Mindlessness · Transformation · Salvation · Sin · Spirituality

7.1 Introduction This book began by noting that the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the schooling of more than a billion students worldwide. Key educational challenges such as the loss of learning time in schools, reduced human connection and support, coupled with physical, mental, social, and emotional stress, necessitate a rethinking of the purposes of education. Thus far, this book has sketched the recommended school mission, vision, and core values in a post-pandemic world from Confucian and Christian perspectives. It is proposed that the mission of a school is to promote mindful education that revolves around the teaching and learning of the three “A”s, namely awareness, attention, and attitude. The vision is student well-being—a state of wholeness that enables optimal functioning in the school community. The core values are ren (humanity) and agape (love), which form the basis of a school community. This chapter shifts our focus to a mindful curriculum that is oriented towards the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_7

107

108

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

A Mindful Curriculum: 3 "A"s of Wholeness (awareness, attention and attitude)

Confucian Traditions: Wholeness as He (Harmony)

Attained by following dao (Way) based on ren (Humanity)

Christian Traditions: Wholeness as Shalom (Peace)

Attained by following Jesus (the Way) based on agape (Love)

Fig. 7.1 A mindful curriculum

attainment of wholeness, specifically, he (harmony) and shalom (peace).1 Figure 7.1 shows the salient features of a mindful curriculum. This curriculum is a transformational one as the desired outcome is not only to give information to students but also, and more crucially, to bring about their transformation. As this chapter explains, Confucian education seeks to empower all learners to become junzi (exemplary persons) who broaden dao (way), which is a vision of human excellence. Also anchoring on transformation, Christian education aspires to restore and renew all human beings as the creation of God who bear his image (Imago dei, literally “God’s image”). The first part of this chapter introduces and elaborates on the two concepts that comprise the foundation of the curriculum: the Confucian notion of dao (Way) and the Christian idea of imago dei (God’s image). Following the exposition of both terms is an exploration of their implications on curriculum. The second section compares the two concepts by identifying their views and assumptions about humans and spirituality.

1 The

word “curriculum” as used in this book refers to the totality of learning experiences provided to students; it includes not only the content to be studied but also all planned activities, programmes, events, and functions that take place in and across various learning sites (Tan, 2017).

7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

109

Photo 7.1 An inscription with the words “Dao (Way) runs through ancient and modern times”

7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image) Drawing on Confucian and Christian traditions, a mindful curriculum is premised on the Confucian teaching of human beings broadening dao (Way) and the Christian belief that human beings are made in God’s image (imago dei). This section elaborates on the two concepts.

7.2.1 Dao (Way) A mindful Confucian curriculum is a transformational one that empowers learners to realise he (harmony) through dao (Way). A brief introduction is needed on the notion of dao. In ancient China, dao is understood in three main ways in the wisdom traditions. First, it denotes a metaphysical idea such as “the source of all being, the governor of all life, human and natural, and the basic, undivided unity in which all the contradictions and distinctions of existence are ultimately resolved” (de Bary & Bloom, 1999, p. 78). Second, dao can refer to a set of practices devised to guide human conduct for the purpose of realising a targeted outcome such as personal contentment or social harmony (Ziporyn, 2009). Finally, dao can be rendered as “way-making”— a process of “leading-forth, guiding and manipulating of experience through which we participate in educing the future” (Ames & Hall, 2003, p. 58).2 Regardless of which interpretation of dao one adopts, a commonality is that the ancient Chinese believed that all human beings should obtain and transmit dao down the generations. This belief is captured in Photo 7.1 that shows an inscription in a Confucius Temple. The words daoguan gujin mean “dao runs through ancient and modern times”. The 2 It is pertinent that the etymology of dao is “primarily gerundive, processional, and dynamic” (Ames

& Hall, 2003, p. 57).

110

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

message is the enduring nature of dao that is to be preserved and transmitted via the Confucian traditions. Confucius offered a form of curriculum that was novel and ground-breaking for his time. The rest of this section elaborates on Confucius’ understanding of dao and its relation to he (harmony). For Confucius, dao was the “guiding discourse” (Hansen, 1989) and “vision of human excellence” (Cua, 1989) inherited from one’s cultural predecessors (Tan, 2017). Modelled by sage-kings such as Yao, Shun, and Yu of the first three dynasties of China, dao has been preserved in Confucian ideals and symbolic resources such as texts, cultural artefacts, and ceremonies (Chan, 2000). Dao is closely related to he (harmony); Analects 1:12 points out that he (harmony) was used by the sage-kings as “a guiding standard in all things great and small” (all passages are taken from the Analects and translated by me unless otherwise stated). The Zhou dynasty (1100–221 BCE) was praised by Confucius as the embodiment of dao through cultural elements such as its rulers, institutions, and rituals. Confucius taught that human beings could experience wholeness when they “set one’s heartmind on Way” (7.6). So important is dao that Confucius taught that we should “hold fast to the good Way till death” (8.13). To realise he (harmony), Confucius urged all to broaden dao (15.29): “It is human beings who are able to broaden dao, not dao that broadens human beings”. The word “broaden” signifies the process of realising, perpetuating, and promoting dao on earth to future generations. Ames and Rosemont (1998) commented that to “broaden dao” is “to experience, to interpret, and to influence the world in such a way as to reinforce and extend the way of life inherited from one’s cultural predecessors” (p. 45). Broadening dao is, therefore, making sense of and (re)making appropriate ways of living for ourselves, on the basis that there is no foreordained path set for humans (Kim, 2004). As humans exercise their agency to shape their tradition, they are extending and unfolding dao in human history (Chan, 2000). That is why the curriculum envisaged by Confucius is not merely informative but transformative, with humans taking the lead. A dao-centred curriculum is all-encompassing, applied, and mindful. First, a Confucian curriculum is a broad-based one that requires the student to learn widely (e.g., 6.27, 9.2, 19.6) and enrich oneself with culture (wen) (9.11). Culture in ancient China was comprised of the “six arts”, namely li (rituals, normative behaviours), music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy or writing, and mathematics (Tan, 2013). It was a holistic curriculum that promoted wholeness in every student.3 The learning objectives included the cognitive (mathematics) physical (archery, charioteering), as well as social, emotional, and spiritual (music, calligraphy, li) development of the learner. Moral values played a central role in the curriculum, as evident in the learning of li. Confucius advocated that we need to broaden dao mindfully by doing all things in accordance with li. He underscored the pervasiveness of li: 3 Learning

within the Confucian traditions is also grounded in one’s culture. It is about “the acquisition and appropriation of the meaning invested in the cultural tradition by those who have done before” and “provides persons in a society with a shared world on the basis of which they can communicate and interact” (Hall & Ames, 1987, p. 46).

7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

111

Do not look unless it is in accordance with li; do not listen unless it is in accordance with li; do not speak unless it is in accordance with li; do not move unless it is in accordance with li (12.1).

Li originally referred to religious rites and ritual propriety in ancient China. Confucius appropriated this term and extended it beyond prescribed rules and ceremonies. A more accurate interpretation is to see li as encompassing all normative human behaviours that stem from and are accompanied by desirable values, attitudes, and dispositions (Tan, 2013). To broaden dao is to think, feel, and act in accordance with li. The desired outcome is a balanced person who is not only learned but also virtuous. Second, a Confucian curriculum links theory to practice. Confucius rejected mindlessness, which came in the form of rote memorisation and indoctrination. Underlining the combination of receiving new information and mulling over it, Confucius noted, “Learning (xue) without reflection (si) leads to bewilderment; reflection without learning leads to perilousness” (2.15). Confucius asked rhetorically, “If a person can recite three hundred poems but is incapable of performing an entrusted official duty and exercising one’s initiative when sent abroad, what good are the many poems to that person?” (13.5). Instead of memorisation and regurgitation, learners should conscientiously apply the lessons derived from the poems to all of life’s circumstances and challenges. The curriculum should, therefore, provide diverse opportunities for students to be aware of, attend to, and maintain an attitude of wholeness so that they can function effectively in the school community. The third feature of a Confucian curriculum is its accent on mindfulness. Recall that mindfulness is comprised of three “A”s: The most basic is awareness—bodily awareness and self-awareness. This is brought about through a perceptual shift, the ability to stand back from our experience, and this shift promotes emotion regulation and our ability to distinguish between our thoughts and reality (Shonin, Van Gordon, Compare, Zangeneh, & Griffith, 2015). Attention training is another basic process intrinsic to mindfulness, i.e., learning how to focus, maintain, and shift attention—a form of self-regulation. But mindfulness is more than ‘bare awareness’ or ‘bare attention’. Intrinsic to mindfulness training is a particular attitude towards awareness and attention—an attitude of openness, curiosity, interest, non-judgment, and kindness, as in gently refocusing attention when it has been hijacked (Huppert, 2017, p. 227, italics added).

The Analects is replete with accounts of mindful practices where Confucius and others were aware of their own bodies while sitting (10.12), eating (10.10), and even sleeping (10.24). They were also conscious of the situations they were in and knew how to act appropriately, such as when and how to offer appropriate greetings (3.7). Paying attention by focusing, shifting, and maintaining one’s observation in everyday activities is also stressed in the Analects. An example is when Confucius commended exemplary persons for not neglecting li while being engaged in archery: “They bow and make way for each other before ascending the hall, they offer up toasts after descending the hall” (3.7) (Tan, 2020). Accompanying one’s awareness and attention is the attitude of harmony where one promotes and preserves peace and unity with others. A mindful person, in short, is one who thinks, feels, and acts

112

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

with grace and ease, following one’s “heart-mind’s desires without overstepping the line” (2.4), i.e., without transgressing li.

7.2.2 Imago Dei (God’s Image) A mindful curriculum, from a Christian viewpoint, is geared towards the realisation of shalom (peace) through human transformation. The Bible teaches in 2 Corinthians 5:17, “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, the new creation has come: The old has gone, the new is here!” (the New International Version [NIV] is used throughout). A foundational belief in Christian education is that all human beings are made in the image of God (imago dei). Christian theism recognises the unique individuality of each person who bears God’s image (Ayling, 2018). To be made in God’s image does not mean that humans possess all the attributes of God such as his omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. Rather, being created in God’s image signifies both structural and functional aspects for human nature (Hoekema, 1986; Issler, 2001). Structurally, humans are endowed with gifts and capacities for them to fulfil their calling and establish relationships. These gifts and capabilities include the creative, moral, and aesthetic aspects as well as the need and potential for freedom and responsibility (Pazmino, 1997). Functionally, being created in God’s image means that humans are God’s representatives on earth and can enjoy communion with Him (Issler, 2001). In sum, humans are responsible and accountable choice-makers, communicators with external verbalisation of thoughts, possessors of consciousness and self-consciousness, and vice-regents who are stewards to care for God’s creation (MacCullough, 2013).4 Focussing on creativity, Graham (2009) posited that humans are called to produce, for example, works of art, books, scientific theories, philosophies, bridges, airplanes, and films.5 It is pertinent that a Christian school in Australia incorporates imago dei into its core values by celebrating “the rich diversity and inherent worth of every person as a carrier of the Imago Dei and our desire […] to

4 Asserting

that all truth is God’s truth, Bush (1991) called upon Christians to make use of “our God-given minds; in order to make us clarify our ideas and viewpoints”; the goal is that “we are more informed about the nature of truth, as we clarify the ‘why’ questions of life, we express our God-created uniqueness” (pp. 29–30). Human beings have been endowed with the rationality to “perceive and understand, to conceptualise, to form and evaluate, and to relate intellectually to what is around us”; and the autonomy to “make choices and judgments according to our purposes”, and are “accountable for our choices and behaviours, not simply victims of the environment and circumstances” (Graham, 2009, p. 89). 5 Cunningham (2001) elaborated on the importance of creative teaching for Christians: “Included in the group of warriors who joined David and helped him in battle were ‘men of Issachar, who understood the times and knew what Israel should do’ (1 Chronicles 12:32). They were not described as carrying shield or bow but as people with a knowledge of the times and a grounding in truth so that they knew how to act. Creative teaching methods create cultural warriors and equip learners to handle a changing culture, to wrestle with understanding the times, and to discover how to respond as followers of God” (p. 140).

7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

113

encourage, support, and develop human flourishing and service across our community” (cited in Hills, Andersen, & Davidson, 2018, p. 250). Illustrating the idea of imago dei is Photo 7.2 that shows a Christian curriculum designed by a group of Christian teachers. At the centre of the curriculum is “God”, who forms the basis of all the content, teaching, and learning that take place in the school. Alluding to students as created in the image of God, the outer circle of the curriculum lists these desired attributes of students: rationality, emotional intelligence, community, creativity, accountability, and responsibility. A point of clarification is that imago dei does not mean that humans are sinless and perfect; rather, it celebrates human worth and capabilities while acknowledging their fallibility and sinfulness. As noted by Pearcey (2008), imago dei implies that we are all “redeemable by Christ, creative, a little less than angels, but fallen, flawed and floundering” (p. 95). The task of educators, therefore,

Photo 7.2 A Christian curriculum designed by a group of Christian teachers

114

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

is to restore human potential through a curriculum that aims to eliminate the flaws in every student and bring out the best in them. A Christian curriculum, like a Confucian curriculum, is all-encompassing, applied, and mindful. First, the curriculum is holistic, integrating the cognitive, affective, and behavioural domains. This means that while academic performance is important, the curriculum transcends intellectual development to enhance wholeness in each learner, whether cognitively, physically, emotionally, socially, or spiritually. The commandment for Christians to love God with all their heart, soul, and mind is diametrically opposed to the Cartesian mind-body dualism that pervades secular Western education.6 The eminent Christian educator Comenius notably advocated the education of the whole person, which balances “the senses and the intellect, knowing and doing, the inner and outer, [and] deduction and induction” (cited in Lebar, 1995, p. 53).7 Second, a Christian curriculum places an emphasis on application. Recognising that all learners are made in God’s image means that passive learning and indoctrination are rejected. Any pedagogical method that advances mindlessness contradicts the belief of humans as made in God’s image, possessing rationality, autonomy, and creativity. Instead of didacticism and rote memorisation, a variety of learner-centred methods that link theory to practice are warranted.8 Cognitive interactive learning is recommended by MacCullough (2016) where students are encouraged to construct the meanings of facts in the world. This approach values the internal and external factors equally in the learning event; it underlines the need for knowledge from an objective world as well as the innate capacity of a person to make sense of the knowledge (MacCullough, 2016).9 6 As

noted by MacCullough (2013), “Head and heart are both vital considerations in education informed by a Christian worldview: ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind’” (MacCullough, 2013, p. 33). 7 The purpose of learning in the Christian curriculum is to see God in and across the disciplines. As expressed by Marsh (n.d.), “Know history, and experience the history of redemption. Study geography, and learn the way to the River of Life and the City whose Builder and maker is God. Study geology, and plant your feet upon the Rock of Ages. Study zoology, and bow in reverence before the majesty of the Lion of the tribe of Judah. Study biology, and begin now the Life Eternal. Study botany, and yield your soul to the sweet influence of its Rose of Sharon and Lily of the Valley. Study astronomy, and follow the gleam of your soul’s Bright and Morning Star that has risen with healing in His beams. Study psychology, and sit at the feet of Him who knew what was in man” (p. 16, cited in Lebar, 1995, p. 20). 8 Pazmino (1997) averred, “If Christians affirm the value of individuals as created in the image of God, they must adapt or adjust teaching styles to enable various persons to learn and apply God’s truth in ways that are both consistent with God’s demands and with their own learning styles” (p. 235). 9 An example of a cognitive interactive lesson is Jesus’ conversation with a lawyer (Luke 10). When asked by the lawyer who was his neighbour, Jesus told a parable of a good Samaritan. As explained by MacCullough (2016), “In this learning event, the Teacher was saying, ‘I’ll give you some information (the story), but you need to process it and draw a conclusion!’ His overall approach is interactive. He challenged the mind (inside) with outside information and questions. On this occasion Jesus used several methods: questioning, storytelling, listen-to-find-out, direct instruction from outside, and processing from the story and prior knowledge (the student already

7.2 Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

115

Third, a Christian curriculum promotes mindfulness. Mindfulness exercises should be introduced in and across the curriculum, where students are given the space and time to reflect individually and collectively.10 Blanchard and Hodges (2008) highlighted the importance of solitude, meditation, and prayer. Calling solitude as “being truly alone with God without an agenda”, they described it as “taking time to listen for the ‘still small voice’ in which God speaks to your soul and tells you that you are His beloved” (p. 156). It is significant that Jesus not only practised solitude but also encouraged his disciples to do likewise. In Mark 6:31, when the disciples were surrounded by many people clamouring for their attention, Jesus instructed his disciples, “Come away by yourselves to a lonely place and rest a while”. Schools can develop mindfulness in students by adapting the spiritual exercises introduced by Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556). The founder of the Jesuits or Society of Jesus, Ignatius formulated Spiritual Exercises, a manual of reflective exercises promoting mindfulness. Mindful activities recommended by him include solitude and having a conversation with a spiritual director; these activities are to be carried out for around a month so as to help a believer “open up to God’s cleansing and refining work” (Lawson, 2001, p. 21). Graham (2009) explains how a Christian school weaves mindfulness into its school curriculum: [S]tudents are regularly given time to ponder, wonder, and reflect on what is going on around them, on who they are, on who God is, and on what He is doing in the world. Sometimes, they write in journals; sometimes they simply go outside to sit under a tree and wonder. Sometimes they have silent chapels or silent classes. Reflection time may occur before, during, or after a particular learning activity. It sometimes results in psalms of praise or cries of consternation (p. 219).

7.3 Comparing Confucian and Christian Curricula There are three main parallels between Confucian and Christian curricula. First, a significant similarity between the Confucian notion of dao (Way) and the Christian idea of imago dei (God’s image) is their common affirmation of the worth and potential of human beings. Confucius’ teaching that it is humans who broaden dao and not the other way round highlights his faith in the capabilities of humans. The possibility of broadening dao suggests that dao is not predetermined or transcendental; human beings are empowered to realise dao through their collective actions on earth. Human beings “have to set boundaries for themselves and for other things as they move forward in the world” (Li, 2006, p. 594). Confucius’ trust in the ability of human beings to extend dao and transform history explains why Confucianism is knew the scriptural command to love his neighbour). These were used to activate inside processing and the drawing of conclusions” (p. 70). 10 Graham (2009) also alluded to Christian mindfulness when he suggested how Christians can look at nature through God’s eyes: “As we think about the tree’s role in God’s creation, we might notice the beauty of its rough bark and contrast it with the smooth bark of another tree, appreciating the wonderful diversity of God’s creation and praising Him for it” (p. 121). Also see Blanchard and Hodges (2008).

116

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

regarded as humanistic. Likewise for the Christian tradition, the belief that humans are made in God’s image gives weight to the value and potential of humans. Graham (2009) maintained that educators should abstain from “means that require [students] to passively absorb what we tell them, allow no input from them concerning what they will study about human beings or how they will study it, allow discussion of only the ‘correct’ biblical thoughts, and reward them with good grades and privileges for reproducing [the information] well” (pp. xi–xvi).11 The second convergence is that both the Confucian and Christian curricula refer to the idea of “way”. Interestingly, the root word of “curriculum” is “race” in Latin, denoting a course or path. For the Confucian traditions, dao refers to the way of heaven and embodies a vision of human excellence. “Way” in the Bible (daolu, literally “way” or “path” in the Chinese Bible) refers instead to the person of Jesus Christ. This is exemplified in John 14:6: Jesus answered, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.”

Unlike Confucius, Jesus did not just point humans to the right dao. Rather, Jesus proclaimed that He is the Way or the only means for human beings to go to the Father, i.e., be acceptable before God. The Bible teaches that Jesus who was sinless took on the sins of humanity by dying on the cross. This is so that God, who is both just and merciful, can forgive humans on the basis of Christ’s redemptive work.12 The Christian curriculum is, therefore, one that enables human beings to be joined to God through Jesus. The desired outcome is reconciliation with God so that human beings can be made whole and experience shalom (peace) with God. The third similarity is the common emphasis on habituated dispositions and practices for students. It is noteworthy that Smith (2016) proposed the enactment of liturgies in schools, which is similar to the Confucian notion of li (normative behaviours). He wrote about “ways of being” that are intentional routines for students to be exposed to “liturgies”; the latter involve repetitive participation that leads to a habitual disposition. Noting that “liturgies make us certain kinds of people”, Smith (2009) called for the cultivation of habits, which “shape and constitute our identities by forming our most fundamental desires and our most basic attunement to the world” (pp. 17, 25). 11 Graham

(2009) distilled the educational implications of viewing human beings as made in the image of God in his rhetorical question: “If we subject them to an educational process that treats them as objects rather as God’s image bearers, what will we have?” (p. xvi). 12 From a Christian perspective, Jesus’ claim that He is the truth reveals that he is the source who holds all things together. Messmore (2018) wrote, “The unity of knowledge—the rationality that holds together all things that can be known—lies this Logos, the Word of God, the second person of the Trinity” (p. 46). Vroom (1989) explained the significance of Jesus as the truth: “Since Jesus is the ground of what has been created as well as the content of the Gospel, one can understand why He Himself is called the truth in the Gospel of John: “I am the truth, the way, and the life” (John 14:6). In Him, both the reality of the world as well as the reality of God are revealed. Communion with God embraces life, and therefore the conduct (the way) and the knowledge of this life. If it is said that it is determinative for the Christian concept of truth that Christ is the truth, this may be so understood, in our opinion, that, on the one hand, Jesus Christ reveals God, and on the other, he reconciles and joins God and man as humanity’s Redeemer” (pp. 234–235).

7.3 Comparing Confucian and Christian Curricula

117

An example is the intentional routines practised in a Christian college in Australia, such as singing the doxology at the start of class and serving one another food in the college hall (Messmore, 2018). These intentional routines perform the same function as li (normative behaviours) propounded by Confucius. Through everyday actions such as the correct form of greeting and offering food to another person, li embodies the “ways of being” that make a person a “certain kind of person”—in the case of Confucianism, a junzi (exemplary person). That said, liturgies and normative behaviours should not be taught and learned in such a way that strips them of their moral and spiritual meanings, turning students into people possessing only an outward form of propriety without the corresponding virtues within.13 As for the differences, a major divergence between dao and imago dei is that the latter is a more religiously tethered approach to spirituality. Unlike the Christian curriculum which is a God-centred one, there is usually no reference to a supreme being in the Confucian curriculum. A debatable issue is whether there is a belief in a supernatural power in Confucianism. On the one hand, some scholars have argued that ancient Chinese had no notion of a God. Libbrecht (2009) wrote, “When Confucius says that Heaven commands, he says also that Heaven does not speak” (p. 43; also see Hall & Ames, 1987). Libbrecht’s claim is contestable as tian (heaven) is described in anthropomorphic terms in the Analects (Tan, 2013). Heaven is depicted as being capable of understanding and interacting with human beings, as well as revealing its mandate or ordinance (ming) to them.14 Confucius professed that he understood the mandate of heaven at the age of 50 (2.4). He also taught that it was possible for one to offend heaven (3.13), that heaven was the author of his virtue (7.23), and that only heaven understood him (14.35).15 In an incident when Confucius’ life was endangered, the Analects recorded (9.5), When the Master was surrounded in Kuang, he said, “With King Wen long dead, does not our culture reside here in us? If heaven were going to destroy this legacy, we latecomers would not have had access to it. If heaven is not going to destroy this culture, what can the people of Kuang do to me!”

13 Ransford

and Crawford (2018) noted, “Although the rituals, sacraments and doctrines of the Church were designed to guide the pilgrim through life to a deeper understanding of self and God and the other, when these rituals, sacraments and doctrines become ‘prescribed dogma, ritual, and practices for membership and spiritual wholeness’ that are imposed upon the church goer rather than integrated into the on-going growth and maturity of the Christian, they are no longer life-giving but stifling” (p. 202). 14 According to Nikkilä (1992), “There are 16 references to heaven in the Analects, two of ‘Son of Heaven’ (Tianzi 天子), one of ‘Way of Heaven’ (Tiandao 天道), four of ‘The Mandate of Heaven’ (Tianming 天命), altogether 23 cases. The 16 references to Heaven fall into several categories of which the largest describes the mutual relationship between Confucius and heaven. These relationships include the positive and negative attitudes of Heaven towards Confucius, and secondly his communication with Heaven” (p. 22). 15 The concept of virtue (de) in 7.23 refers to the power given by heaven to a person, which makes them worthy and empowers them to influence others towards goodness.

118

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

On the other hand, some scholars have posited that Confucius subscribed to a personal deity. Asserting that Confucius had a profound sense of a vocation from Heaven, Raguin (1972) maintained, Confucius found security in the sense of a personal vocation from Heaven. There are other texts in the Analects which perhaps show more explicitly what was Confucius’s attitude to Heaven. When Yen Yuan, his favourite pupil, died aged thirty-two, Confucius said: ‘Alas, Heaven is destroying me! Heaven is destroying me!’ (p. 36). This recalls another text full of the idea of a personal relationship (p. 140, italics added).16

Refuting the claim that there was no ancient belief in a personal deity, Clark (2005) drew attention to the classical texts, bronze inscriptions, and oracle bones, which dated from the early Zhou period, as evidence. Although a strong case can be made that Confucius believed in a personal deity, it should be added that tian (heaven) is unlike the Christian God who reaches out to save human beings from their sins. As explained by the Chinese philosopher Wing-tsit Chan, although heaven and the spiritual beings were revered during Confucius’ time, their personal power was gradually replaced by a faith in humans’ ability to determine their own fate through human effort and virtue (Chan, 1963).17 In contrast to the Christian approach that focuseson God and his relationships with human beings, Confucius adopted a more humanistic and less supernatural approach. Huang (2006) clarified the difference between Christian and Confucian traditions using the terms “external transcendence” and “internal transcendence”. Accordingly, the Christian doctrine of salvation reflects external transcendence as the means of deliverance from sin and entrance into heaven is external to human beings. The Christian doctrine of sola gratia/sola fide captures the idea of justification through the grace of God alone, by 16 On Confucius’ belief in heaven, Slingerland (2003) added that “heaven is viewed as the source of

normativity in the universe, the all-powerful Being who, when pleased with proper ritual conduct, charges its representative on earth with the Mandate to rule, as well as the power of virtue that made realising the Mandate possible” (p. 239). Huang (2006) agreed that “Confucius’ Heaven is an autonomous functioning subject which maintains the whole of the natural world. Confucius did not talk about Heaven so much, but he felt strongly that his identity was based on Heaven, in the sense that Heaven recognises him and has given him the mission to preach his doctrines to those in authority” (p. 96). The Chinese philosopher Lin Yu-t’ang noted Confucius’s spiritual attitude: “Confucius had a deep religious sense and feeling of awe before the gods whom he frankly declared that he could not know. He was, in any case, deeply concerned over the ceremonies or religious worship and he also prayed, not in words, but apparently by a silent attitude. For when he was seriously ill and one of his disciples asked him to pray by going to the temple, he replied that he had been praying for a long time” (Lin, 1938, p. 93). 17 The Chinese philosopher Wing-tsit Chan explained the notion and evolution of the belief in a supreme being in Chinese history: “Similarly, the belief in the Lord underwent a radical transformation. In the Shang he was the supreme anthropomorphic deity who sent blessings or calamities, gave protection in battles, sanctioned undertakings, and passed on the appointment or dismissal of officials. Such belief continued in the early Chou but was gradually replaced by the concept of Heaven (T’ien) as the supreme spiritual reality. This does not mean that either Heaven or spiritual beings did not continue to be highly honoured and greatly respected. But their personal power was supplanted by human virtue and human effort, and man, through his moral deeds could now control his own destiny” (Chan, 1963, p 4).

7.3 Comparing Confucian and Christian Curricula

119

faith in Jesus alone. In contrast, Confucianism is predicated on “internal transcendence”, where humans can save themselves through self-cultivation and performing their social roles. The variance between external and internal transcendence is the reason why the Christian curriculum stresses a vertical relationship between God and human beings whereas the Confucian curriculum concentrates on the horizontal relationships between human beings.

7.4 Conclusion This chapter has expounded on a mindful curriculum based on insights drawn from the Confucian and Christian traditions. In both cases, the curriculum is designed to enable students to experience wholeness, whether as he (harmony) or shalom (peace). A curriculum that is underpinned by wholeness is driven by and reflects the Confucian teaching of human beings broadening dao (Way) and the Christian belief that human beings are made in God’s image (imago dei). Such a curriculum eschews mindlessness; instead, it is all-embracing, applied, and mindful. It inspires students to be aware of, attend to, and maintain an attitude of wholeness, enabling them to function optimally in the school community. Significant similarities between the Confucian and Christian curricula are the affirmation of the worth and potential of human beings, the reference to “way”, and habituated dispositions and practices for students. The transformational curriculum in Confucian and Christian traditions challenges the view that both traditions are anti-educational. Some researchers have claimed that Confucian education engenders passive learning and even indoctrination (Han & Scull, 2010). By the same argument, some researchers have criticised Christianity for its allegedly detrimental effects. For example, Lebar (1995) observed that “early church instruction degenerated into formal lectures and catechetical questions and answers”, with methods that “grew transmissive, repressive, and stereotyped” during the “ascetic and ecclesiastical formalism of the Middle Ages” (p. 38).18 A wholeness-oriented curriculum also stands in contrast to a functionalist view of education that is marked by a testing culture. As a result of neoliberal influences, education systems, schools, school leaders, teachers, and students are increasingly appraised and ranked through data that “capture” their potential and performance (Tan, 2019). The mindful curriculum in both Confucian and Christian traditions, although not neglecting cognitive development, focuses on the holistic needs of students. The form of mindfulness advocated by both Confucian and Christian curricula as delineated in this chapter encompasses both first- and second-generation mindfulness programmes. As explained in Chap. 2 of this book, first-generation mindfulness programmes are individualistic, therapeutic, and largely instrumental in 18 Kazepides

(1983) also argued that religious beliefs cause people to live under “an absolute, palpable tyranny” (p. 264). However, research has shown a close connection between morality and religion as well as the morally educative and socially beneficial dimensions of religious education (for details, see Tan, 2008). Carr (1995) averred that religions promote “less pragmatic and utilitarian attitudes and dispositions as faith, hope, charity, forgiveness, chastity and so forth” (p. 95).

120

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

nature, whereas second-generation mindfulness programmes go beyond individual benefits to attend to collective, ethical, and broader-based concerns (King & Badham, 2020). The preceding has shown that the mindful curricula in both Confucian and Christian traditions encourage individual learners to practise the three “A”s of mindfulness (awareness, attention, and attitude) in their everyday life. Doing so enables students to experience wholeness so that they are able to function optimally in the school community. Research has shown that students who are imaginative and open to trying new things adjust more readily and successfully to abrupt changes in their environment (Koutstaal & Binks, 2015). It is therefore crucial to develop critical thinking, an innovative mindset, and adaptive expertise in students—advanced dispositions and thinking that affirm humans as being made in God’s image and who are capable of broadening dao.19

References Ames, R. T., & Hall, D. L. (2003). Daodejing: “Making this life significant”. A philosophical translation. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, Jr., H. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Ayling, D. (2018). Measured reflection to assist in dealing with conflict: Can an educative approach improve reflection and cultivate a healthier classroom community? In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 175–196). Singapore: Springer. Blanchard, K., & Hodges, P. (2008). Lead like Jesus: Lessons for everyone from the greatest leadership role model of all time. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Bush, L. R. (1991). A handbook for Christian philosophy. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. Carr, D. (1995). Towards a distinctive conception of spiritual education. Oxford Review of Education, 21(1), 83–98. Chan, A. K. L. (2000). Confucian ethics and the critique of ideology. Asian Philosophy, 10(3), 245–261. Chan, W.-T. (1963). A source book in Chinese philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Clark, K. J. (2005). The Gods of Abraham, Isaiah, and Confucius. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, V (I), 109–136. Cua, A. S. (1989). The concept of li in Confucian moral theory. In R. E. Allison (Ed.), Understanding the Chinese mind: The philosophical roots (pp. 209–235). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Cunningham, S. (2001). Creative teaching method. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 140–146). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. De Bary, W. T., & Bloom, I. (1999). Sources of Chinese tradition: From earliest times to 1600 (2nd ed., Vol. 1). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Graham, D. (2009). Teaching redemptively. Bringing grace and truth into your classroom (2nd ed.). Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications.

19 In particular, schools need to nurture adaptive expertise in students which “involves learning not only how to perform procedural skills more efficiently but also how to flexibly adapt or change those skills to meet new situations” (Koutstaal & Binks, 2015, p. 199).

References

121

Hall, D., & Ames, R. (1987). Thinking through Confucius. Albany, N: State University of New York Press. Han, K., & Scull, W. (2010). Confucian culture in the mainstream classroom: A case study of an Asian American student. International Journal of Learning, 17, 601–616. Hansen, C. (1989). Language in the heart-mind. In R. E. Allison (Ed.), Understanding the Chinese mind: The philosophical roots (pp. 75–124). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Hills, K., Andersen, K., & Davidson, S. (2018). Personalised learning and teaching approaches to meet diverse needs: A prototype tertiary education programme. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 233–257). Singapore: Springer. Hoekema, A. (1986). Created in God’s image. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Huang, P. (2006). Confronting Confucian understandings of the Christian doctrine of salvation—A systematic theological analysis of the basic problems in the Confucian-Christian dialogue. Th.D. dissertation. Department of Systematic Theology, University of Helsinki. Huppert, F. A. (2017). Challenges in defining and measuring well-being and their implications for policy. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 163–167). Cham: Springer. Issler, K. (2001). Theological foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 35–44). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Kazepides, T. (1983). Is religious education possible? A rejoinder to W. D. Hudson. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 17, 259–265. Kim, K. H. (2004). An attempt to elucidate notions of lifelong learning: Analects-based analysis of Confucius’ ideas about learning. Asia Pacific Education Review, 5(2), 117–126. King, E., & Badham, R. (2020). The Wheel of mindfulness: A generative framework for secondgeneration mindful leadership. Mindfulness, 11(1), 166–176. Koutstaal, W., & Binks, J. T. (2015). Innovating minds: Rethinking creativity to inspire change. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lawson, K. E. (2001). Historical foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 17–25). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Lebar, L. E. (1995). Education that is Christian. Colorado Springs, CO: Chariot Victor Publishing. Li, C. (2006). The Confucian ideal of harmony. Philosophy East & West, 56(4), 583–603. Libbrecht, U. (2009). Comparative philosophy: A methodological approach. In N. Note, R. FornetBetancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 31–67). Dordrecht: Springer. Lin, Y.-T. (Ed.). (1938). The wisdom of Confucius (Y. Lin, Trans.). New York: Modern Library. MacCullough, M. E. (2013). By design: Developing a philosophy of education informed by a Christian worldview. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. MacCullough, M. E. (2016). Undivided: Developing a worldview approach to biblical integration. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Messmore, R. (2018). The trinity, love and higher education: Recovering communities of enchanted learning. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 39–50). Singapore: Springer. Nikkilä, P. (1992). Early Confucianism and inherited thought in the light of some key terms of the Confucian analects. Helsinki: The Finnish Oriental Society. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Pearcey, N. (2008). Total truth: Liberating Christianity from its cultural captivity. Wheaton, IL: Crossways Books. Raguin, Y. E. (1972). Divine call and human response: God in Confucianism. Retrieved from https:// www.theway.org.uk/back/22Raguin.pdf (accessed 12 Jan 2021).

122

7 A Mindful Curriculum: Dao (Way) and Imago Dei (God’s Image)

Ransford, K. R., & Crawford, A. (2018). Narrative possibilities and potential for understanding a twenty-first century Christian spiritual journey. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 197–206). Singapore: Springer. Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., & Griffith, M. D. (2015). Buddhistderived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systemic review. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1161–1180. Slingerland, E. (Trans.). (2003). Confucius Analects: With selections from traditional commentaries. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Smith, J. K. A. (2009). Desiring the kingdom: Worship, worldview and cultural formation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. Smith, J. K. A. (2016). Higher education: What’s love got to do with it? Longings, desires and human flourishing. In X. X. Chairperson (Chair), Learning and loves: Reimagining Christian education. Symposium conducted at the meeting of CHC higher education research, Brisbane, Australia. Tan, C. (2008). From moral values to citizenship education: The teaching of religion in Singapore schools. In A. E. Lai (Ed.), Religious diversity in Singapore (pp. 321–341). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies & Institute of Policy Studies. Tan, C. (2013). Confucius. London: Bloomsbury. Tan, C. (2017). Confucianism and education. In G. Noblit (Ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of education (pp. 1–18). New York: Oxford University Press. Tan, C. (2019). Conceptualising social justice in education: A Daoist perspective. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2019. 1660144. Tan, C. (2020). Beyond high-stakes exam: A neo-Confucian educational programme and its contemporary implications. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 52(2), 137–148. Vroom, H. M. (1989). Religions and the truth: Philosophical reflections and perspectives (J. W. Rebel, Trans.). Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Ziporyn, B. (Trans.). (2009). Zhuangzi: The essential writings with selections from traditional commentaries. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company.

Chapter 8

Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself in the Other’s Place) and the Golden Rule (Do to Others as You Would Have Them Do to You)

Abstract Mindful teaching, which has gained traction in recent years, is illuminated through the Confucian quality of shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Christian principle of Golden Rule (do to others as you would have them do to you). Shu is closely related to empathy as it denotes, among other meanings, reciprocity, mutuality, consideration, and understanding. Empathy in the Christian traditions is encapsulated in the Golden Rule: “Do to others as you would have them do to you”. Both shu and the Golden Rule privilege empathic concern and analogical thinking, which advance wholeness in students. Teacher empathy points to the degree to which educators work to deeply understand their students’ situations, care about students’ emotions, and communicate their concern to students through their behaviour. Empathic pedagogy, it follows, is about the sharing of thinking and feeling states to foster personal and societal growth. Keywords Analogical thinking · Confucius · Empathy · Empathic concern · Empathic pedagogy · Golden rule · Jesus · Mindful teaching · Reciprocity · Teacher empathy · Wholeness

8.1 Introduction Photo 8.1 shows a banner displayed in a school compound in China that reads, “Calm down to teach” (jingxia xin lai jiaoshu). The literal translation is “still the heart–mind (xin) to teach”. Following the Confucian understanding of heart–mind, the exhortation is for teachers to slow down and take time to clear their distracting thoughts and negative emotions, so that they are ready to educate their students. The message, essentially, is a call for mindful teaching. Teachers need to enact mindful teaching that is “informed by contemplative practices and teacher inquiry that enables teachers to interrupt their harried lifestyles, come to themselves through participation in a collegial community of inquiry and practice, and attend to aspects of their classroom instruction and pupils’ learning that are ordinarily overlooked in the press of events” (Shirley & MacDonald, 2016, p. 5). The pandemic has made the role of teachers more important than ever, in supporting their students’ learning and overall well-being. As noted in Chap. 1, new pedagogies and assessment modes © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_8

123

124

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

Photo 8.1 The words in a school in China read, “Calm down to teach”

beyond traditional classroom teaching and pen-and-paper evaluation are needed to assist students affected by the pandemic. At the heart of pandemic-ready education is a strong teacher–student relationship, which goes a long way to help students to function optimally in the school community. This chapter spotlights mindful teaching that furthers wholeness in students. A mindful teacher channels their energies towards enabling their students to experience wholeness—whether in the form of he (harmony) and/or shalom (peace). Given that mindful teaching has been conceptualised in diverse ways, it is not possible to cover all formulations in this chapter. This chapter has thus chosen to focus on empathic teaching based on insights from the Confucian and Christian traditions. Empathy

8.1 Introduction

125

is an essential component of mindfulness, as it enables a mindful person to extend the attitude of openness, non-judgment, and kindness to others (Williams & Penman, 2011; also see Chap. 4). It follows that empathic teaching is aligned with secondgeneration mindfulness programmes as it is rooted in and empowered by moral values. Furthermore, while empathic teaching helps the teacher to meet the individual needs of students, this approach goes beyond personal and therapeutic concerns to collective-oriented mindfulness. The mindfulness that is promoted in empathic teaching brings to the fore “interdependence, group mind, relational mindfulness, and organisational support for cooperative and heedful thought and action” (King & Badham, 2020, p. 167). To shed light on empathic teaching, this chapter turns to two qualities in the Confucian and Christian traditions that are closely related to empathy: the Confucian quality of shu and the Christian maxim of the Golden Rule. The first part of the chapter introduces the concepts of empathy, teacher empathy, and empathic pedagogy. This is followed by an understanding of empathy from the Confucian and Christian traditions and a comparison between them.

8.2 The Concept of Empathy The idea of empathy was first alluded to by the German philosopher Theodor Lipps in 1883; he referred to the German word Einfühlung that means “feeling with” the physical stimuli in aesthetic appreciation (Sutherland, 1986). It was the psychologist Edward Titchener, however, who coined the English word “empathy” in 1909, denoting “feeling one’s way into another” and “taking up another’s perspective, feeling another’s emotions, or feeling into another’s emotion and perceptions” (Horsthemke, 2015, p. 63). Since then, many researchers have written on the concept, theories, and practices of empathy. As it is difficult to give a single definition of empathy, it is more fruitful to approach it from four dimensions: physical, affective, cognitive, and moral, with overlaps in between. First, physical empathy refers to the bodily reactions one experiences when observing the action of others.1 Affective empathy, also known as emotional contagion, is basically about the capacity to share others’ emotional states.2 The third way to conceptualise empathy is cognitive empathy. Also known as perspectivetaking, this is where a person makes an effort to place oneself in the shoes of another person so as to understand what the latter thinks or feels (Decety & Yoder, 2016). Finally, empathic concern underscores the moral component of empathy by attending to “the motivation to care for another’s welfare” (Decety & Yoder, 2016, p. 2).3 1 Sutherland

(1986) explained that physical empathy refers to the “reproduction of physical responses, usually muscular, when watching actions carried out by others—e.g., in watching an athletic performance, some tensing of appropriate muscles” (p. 147). 2 The capacity to share involves becoming “affectively aroused by others’ emotional states at least in valence and intensity” (Decety & Yoder, 2016, p. 2; also see Strayer, 1987). 3 Prinz (2011) explained that concern is “a fellow-feeling that arises when we consider another’s plight” (p. 230). Kim and Kou (2014) noted that individuals with high empathic concern are “more

126

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

Linking empathy to mindfulness, Stein (1964) posited that empathy is the awareness and recognition of moral experiences such as sympathy and compassion. Empathic concern can be demonstrated through small, everyday acts such as a word of encouragement, a concerned look, and a warm touch.4 These acts speak of our ethical responsibility towards one another (Thompson, 2001). The various dimensions of empathy are not unrelated; they often complement each other in diverse ways. For example, Persson and Kajonius (2016) combined the affective and moral dimensions of empathy by viewing it as “other-oriented feelings elicited by the perceived welfare for others” (p. 610). Some researchers have critiqued empathy on the basis that human beings cannot adequately or fully understand or feel how another person feels (Goldie, 2014). Researchers such as Code (1995) even cautioned against false empathy where one fallaciously assumes to understand how another person feels. In my view, although empathy revolves around sharing another person’s physical, mental and/or emotional states, it is not necessary for two parties to experience the bodily reactions, thinking, or feelings in the same way or to the same intensity. What is needed is simply sufficient similarity in emotions or thought for one to identify with another.5 Furthermore, empathy is not an all-or-nothing experience. As noted by Sutherland (1986), “empathy takes place with different degrees of completeness or with different amounts of ‘goodness of fit’” (p. 148). Having expounded on the notion of empathy, the next section applies the concept to teachers and teaching.

8.3 Teacher Empathy and Empathic Pedagogy The term “teacher empathy” was coined by the psychologist Carl Rogers (1969), who conceptualised it as the sensitive awareness of the student’s responses from the inside, including the latter’s reception to the learning process.6 Teacher empathy, according to Meyers and colleagues (2019), is “the degree to which instructors likely to feel warmth and concern for others who are in need and tend to be spontaneously moved to donate out of their altruistic concerns for others” (p. 329). They added that empathic concern “is the tendency to experience feelings of warmth and concern for others who are having negative experiences … . This component stresses the affective facet of empathy, focusing on the feelings of sympathy for unfortunate others (Kim & Kou, 2014, p. 315). 4 Dutton (2017) noted that “small acts of caring at work through interaction have immense lasting power, building people’s attachment to each other and to the work organisation and strengthening people from within” (p. 113). In the context of Christian ministry, empathic concern is critical for cross-cultural missionaries who “understand that they need to immerse themselves in the lived experience of other cultures, understanding these communities from the inside out, and then translate their own beliefs and wisdom about life into the contexts symbols and languages of the people they want to influence” (Jenkins, 2018, p. 292). 5 As articulated by Campelia (2017), “in order to understand someone else’s sadness, I must be able to feel or recall the feeling of the same (or sufficiently similar) sadness” (p. 532). 6 Rogers (1969) wrote: “When the teacher has the ability to understand the student’s reactions from the inside […] the likelihood of significant learning is increased […] This attitude of standing in

8.3 Teacher Empathy and Empathic Pedagogy

127

work to deeply understand students’ personal and social situations, feel caring and concern in response to students’ positive and negative emotions, and communicate their understanding and caring to students through their behaviour” (p. 161). Meyers and colleagues (2019) clarified that teacher empathy is not limited to the negative emotions experienced by students which is the scope of compassion, but also their positive emotions. The teacher should take note of occasions where one’s student is joyful, relieved, and contented, among other emotions. Teacher empathy is also distinct from sympathy as the latter does not require relational understanding (Sinclair et al., 2017). Teacher empathy is shown through affective and cognitive empathy, as explained by Meyer et al. (2019): Cognitively , teacher empathy involves taking students’ perspectives and understanding their personal and social situations. Students’ personal situations include their feelings about the course and any learning or emotional disabilities they have. […] Whereas the cognitive component of empathy focuses on thoughts, the affective component focuses on feelings and is typically defined as feeling what another person feels. … teacher empathy involves feeling similar, but not necessarily identical, emotions. When a student is anxious, an instructor high in teacher empathy does not feel anxious, but does feel a negative emotion that is then translated to concern and compassion (p. 161, italics added).

Empathic pedagogy is closely linked to teacher efficacy which indicates a teacher’s confidence in one’s ability to make an educational difference to student engagement and learning (Tan, 2017). Teacher efficacy is seen in how educators make decisions, act intentionally, monitor effects, and respond critically to day-to-day activities as well as problematic situations (Watkins, 2005).7 Research has testified to the benefits of teacher empathy, such as helping students to view their learning positively, improving their academic performance, and enhancing their affective and behavioural outcomes (Meyers et al., 2019). Meyers et al. (2019) gave three recommendations for educators to increase their teacher empathy (p. 162): • Develop a deep understanding of students’ social contexts so they can generate non-pejorative explanations for undesirable student behaviours; • Make time to learn more about their own students’ personal contexts; and • Design course policies that reflect a deep understanding of students’ personal and social situations. Whichever strategy the teacher adopts, empathic pedagogy necessitates the sharing of thinking and feeling states to generate personal and societal growth (Schertz, 2007). An empathic teacher practises mindfulness through the three “A”s: awareness, attention, and attitude. Empathic pedagogy enables teachers to experience self- and situational awareness, direct, sustain, and shift one’s attention, while being guided by an attitude of harmony and peace. Such a teacher is aware of how one’s teaching and interactions with students cultivate wholeness in the school community. the other’s shoes, of viewing the world through the student’s eyes, is almost unheard of in the classroom” (pp. 111–112). 7 An empathic teacher practises “personalisation through reflecting on what we have learned and the application of this learning in an appropriate way to the business of the day”, as well as “inheriting, reauthorising, and transmitting one’s cultural legacy” (Ames & Rosemont, 1998, pp. 59–60).

128

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

Another feature of empathic pedagogy is that the teacher should be an evaluativist rather than an absolutist educator. The latter is one who suppresses independent thinking in learners by adopting a transmission teaching approach. The former, in contrast, fosters independent thinking in students by encouraging students to construct knowledge and justify their knowledge commitments (Feucht & Bendixen, 2010; Tan, 2020). In addition, a teacher who enacts empathic pedagogy treats knowledge as both declarative and functional. According to Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2009), declarative knowledge is found in books and transmitted by the teacher, whereas functional knowledge refers to the application of theory by the learner through the active construction of ideas. Declarative knowledge is usually acquired through knowledge transmission and tested in exams. Although this type of knowledge is essential for content mastery, it should be complemented by functional knowledge, particularly in a post-pandemic world. As noted in Chap. 1, the pandemic has engendered a complex system that is unpredictable and volatile (Berger & Johnston, 2015). Students need to be able to explore and experiment with innovative ideas, initiatives, methods, strategies, and practices. As such, experiential learning that connects theory to practice is crucial.

8.4 Empathy as Shu and the Golden Rule Having introduced the notion of empathy and its relevance to the educational settings, this section sheds light on these terms by drawing insights from the Confucian and Christian traditions. Two core ideals—shu and the Golden Rule—are expounded in this section.

8.4.1 Shu (Putting Oneself in the Other’s Place) Empathy is not new in the Confucian traditions as it was taught by Confucius himself in Analects 15.24 (all citations are taken from this text and translated by me unless otherwise stated)8 : Zigong asked, “Is there one word that can be a guide for a person’s entire life?” The Master replied, “It is shu! Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.”

Confucius clarified in 12.2: “Do not do unto others as you would not have them do unto you”. A disciple of Confucius affirmed shu in 5.12: “What I do not desire others to do to me, I also desire not to do to others”. We see in 15.24 the utmost importance of shu; Confucius viewed it as a guide for a person’s entire life. Shu has been translated, 8 Slote

(2010) observed that “Confucian thinkers seem to have had something like our present concept of empathy long before that notion was self-consciously available in the West” (p. 303).

8.4 Empathy as Shu and the Golden Rule

129

among others, as reciprocity, consideration, altruism, understanding, and mutuality in human relations. This book follows Ames (2011) in rendering shu as “putting oneself in the other’s place” as it captures precisely Confucius’ exhortation in 12.2 that we should not do unto others what we do not wish for ourselves. Ames further explained the usefulness of parsing shu as “putting oneself in the other’s place”: Understood as ‘putting oneself in the other’s place,’ it is the most fundamental gesture of a concrete, contextualising moral disposition. It entails a recognition of the importance of ‘deference’ both in the sense of deferring action until we overcome uncertainty in our moral inquiry, and in the sense of taking under consideration the interests of others in that process (pp. 195–196).

The translation of shu as “putting oneself in the other’s place” pivots on using oneself as a gauge of the wishes of others. Shu is based on analogical thinking (also known as correlative thinking or simply correlation). This form of thinking takes the current situation and links it with other correlates that one is aware of. A key passage is 6.30: “Drawing analogies to what is near at hand can be said to be the method of ren (humanity).” This principle means taking what one desires oneself and extrapolating it to others on the basis that they desire the same thing; in doing so, one extends to others what one desires (Lippiello, 2010). Central to shu is empathic concern that is demonstrated in one’s deference towards another. Ames (2011) noted that the etymology of shu denotes “as to, like, as if, to resemble” and “heart–mind”, suggesting that the concept is concerned with “consideration: a thoughtful and heartfelt deference to others in what we do” (p. 195). The affective and cognitive dimensions of empathy are also emphasised; putting oneself in the other’s place entails knowing and feeling how another person thinks and feels. Shu inspires and guides one towards experiencing he (harmony) as a form of wholeness—where everyone enjoys (inter)personal peace and concord out of mutual consideration for one another. What is distinctive about shu, as a Confucian interpretation of empathy, is that it does not separate cognitive and affective empathy but integrates both dimensions. More than mere knowledge or feelings, shu is “a knowing through feeling—that requires a weighing of the circumstances with empathy and concern” (Ames, 2011, p. 196). The actualisation of shu involves not only outward moral acts but also corresponding inward feelings and dispositions— what Cua (1992) termed an “attitude of caring” (p. 52).9 Confucius exhibited this caring attitude when he hosted a blind musician (Analects, 15.42, translated by Ames & Rosemont, 1998): The blind Master of Music, Mian, had an interview with Confucius, and, on reading the steps, the Master said, “Here are the steps,” and on reaching the mat, the Master said, “Here is the mat.”

9 As

“a virtue in persons rather than a quality of correctness in acts”, shu is “a maxim to guide one in shaping and cultivating a character of ideal human kindness in oneself” (Nivison, 1996, p. 91).

130

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

When they had all sat down together, the Master informed him of who was present: “Soand-so is here, and so-and-so is there.” When Master of Music Mian had departed, Zizhang asked Confucius, “Is this the way (dao) that one should speak with a blind music master?” Confucius replied, “Indeed, this has been the traditional way of assisting a music master”.

Confucius’ actions were premised on and motivated by shu in the sense that he placed himself in the position of the blind musician so as to meet the latter’s needs (Tan, 2019).10 Pointing out that shu is not about imposing one’s tastes or inclinations on another, Lippiello (2010) asserted that “to assess the situation appropriately in deciding what I would want, I must not only imagine being in your place, I must do this in such a way as to see it through your eyes (p. 87, italics in the original).11 In demonstrating shu, one needs to act according to li (normative behaviours). Confucius highlighted the pervasiveness of li in our lives by asserting, “Do not look unless it is in accordance with li; do not listen unless it is in accordance with li; do not speak unless it is in accordance with li; do not move unless it is in accordance with li” (12.1). It is not enough to feel and think in accord with another and be motivated to do good to that person; one also needs to empathise in ways that conform to li.12 The exercise of shu, therefore, requires discretion (quan) where a person possesses the cognitive flexibility to adapt and respond to specific and changing circumstances (Slingerland, 2003). A person of shu is capable of going beyond standard answers or technical knowledge to original and inventive sense-making that reflects purposeful and ethical deliberations. An example is this exhortation from Confucius (15.8): To fail to speak with someone who can be engaged is to let that person go to waste; to speak with someone who cannot be engaged is to waste your words. The wise do not let people go to waste, but they do not waste their words either.

In short, we need to be guided by shu to comprehend the readiness of other human beings so as to respond imaginatively according to the situation. Confucius’ empathy facilitates cross-cultural sensitivity, akin to a skilful envoy who exercises one’s initiative when interacting with different people abroad (13.5).

10 Lippiello

(2010) noted that “Confucius perceived in shu a basic requirement for anyone setting out to lead a virtuous life, in conformity with the mores of the sages of ancient times, as inherited and elaborated by Confucius and his followers” (p. 74). 11 Ames (2011) explained how shu—and, I would add, the Golden Rule—as “the evolving patterns of deference necessary for a flourishing community” is essential in the educational context: “When students in the classroom defer to the wisdom of their teacher, it activates the possibilities of their learning. When the teacher defers to important interventions on the part of the students, the class is further motivated, and everyone including the teacher is the beneficiary” (p. 200). 12 As Ivanhoe (1990) described, “Without a firm commitment to li, the ‘kindness’ of shu can collapse into vague, formless sentimentality” (p. 28).

8.4 Empathy as Shu and the Golden Rule

131

8.4.2 The Golden Rule (Do to Others as You Would have them Do to You) Shu has often been compared with what is now known as the Golden Rule in the Bible. Jesus taught in Luke 6:31, “Do to others as you would have them do to you” (the New International Version [NIV] throughout the chapter). This principle underpins and motivates all to eschew hostilities and conflicts and work towards shalom (peace)— both with God and with other people. Christian empathy stems from an empathic God. Isaiah 63:9 writes that “In all their distress He [God] too was distressed”. Jesus is portrayed in the Bible as one who empathises with human struggles. Hebrews 4:15 described Jesus as such: “For we do not have a high priest who is unable to empathise with our weaknesses, but we have one who has been tempted in every way, just as we are —yet he did not sin”. The image of a suffering Saviour who has experienced and therefore understands human frailty, pain, and struggles is captured in paintings that show Jesus in agony. An example is Photo 8.2 that was displayed in a Christian university. The basis of the Golden Rule is neighbourly love, which is essential for collective shalom where humans experience restoration and togetherness. Loving one’s neighbour is found in another passage where Jesus exhorted his disciples to adhere to it

Photo 8.2 A painting of Jesus displayed in a Christian university

132

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

as the second greatest commandment in Matthew 22:35–4 (also recorded in Luke 10:25–27 and Mark 12:28–31): Master, which is the greatest commandment in the law? Jesus answers: “‘Love thy Lord your God, with all your soul, and with all your mind.’ That is the greatest commandment. It comes first. The second is like it: ‘Love your neighbour as yourself.’ Everything in the Law and the prophets hangs on these two commandments.”

Smith (2016) posited that the goal of Christian education is to help students discover what they were made for and love what they were made to love.13 Jesus illustrated the application of the Golden Rule when he told the story of the Good Samaritan in his conversation with an expert in the law (Luke 10: 29–37): But he [an expert in the law] wanted to justify himself, so he asked Jesus, “And who is my neighbour?” In reply Jesus said, “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away, leaving him half dead. A priest happened to be going down the same road, and when he saw the man, he passed by on the other side. So too, a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan, as he traveled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper. ‘Look after him,’ he said, ‘and when I return, I will reimburse you for any extra expense you may have.’ “Which of these three do you think was a neighbour to the man who fell into the hands of robbers?” The expert in the law replied, “The one who had mercy on him.” Jesus told him, “Go and do likewise.”

We see from the above how the Samaritan exhibited the affective and cognitive dimensions of empathy as well as empathic concern. His affective empathy is seen in him taking pity on the victim. The Samaritan’s affective response to another person is vicarious to the extent that it makes the former have feelings commensurate with the latter’s situation more than with one’s own situation (Hoffman, 2000). The emotional dimension of empathy is reflected in the Samaritan showing an otheroriented emotional reaction upon seeing the victim’s suffering: feelings of sympathy, compassion, and tender-heartedness (Batson, 1991). There is also cognitive empathy in terms of placing oneself in the shoes of another person so as to understand what the latter thinks or feels. In this case, the cognitive empathy of the Samaritan was perceptual, based on his observation of the victim. Finally, the Samaritan went beyond feeling pity for the victim to taking concrete actions to help him. His empathy 13 Chalwell

(2018) reported from her empirical study on Christian teachers that they “acted hospitably towards their students because of their belief that all students are made in the image of God, and that God calls Christians to love one another” (p. 223).

8.4 Empathy as Shu and the Golden Rule

133

“evoke[d] altruistic motivation directed toward the ultimate goal of reducing the needy person’s suffering” (Batson & Shaw, 1991, p. 114).14 It needs to be clarified that the Golden Rule, despite its name, is not a rule or law. As noted by Burton and Goldsby (2005), Jesus’ teaching was more of a guide to treat others with respect and not a normative law operated in a value vacuum. Drummond (2006) added that empathy is the condition for the respectful encounter of another.15 As in the case of shu in the Confucian traditions, the Golden Rule requires individuals to be cognisant of the specific context and people’s needs so that what is enacted results in and reflects love and care.16 Benson (2018) extrapolated the implications of Christian empathy: Jesus confronts us with the Golden Rule: Do unto others as we would have them do unto us. Reciprocity demands even-handedness for the inclusion of diverse perspectives in a pluralistic educational space. Like their Messiah, Christ-followers are to take the lead in sacrificially giving up our grasping for control and clinging to rights. Our vocation is to listen to and radically love our neighbour, irrespective of creed (p. 31).17

8.5 Comparing Shu and the Golden Rule For both shu and the Golden Rule, empathy is brought to the fore where a person goes beyond self-interest to advance he (harmony) and shalom (peace). Both shu and the Golden Rule have a common emphasis on love, concern, and an altruistic motivation to help others—attributes that advance wholeness for the self and others.18 For both Confucian and Christian traditions, the empathy that is underlined is not limited to sharing the same sensations, thoughts, or feelings as the other person. Instead, the empathy is intrinsically moral, what scholars call empathic concern. Noting 14 In other words, his empathic concern is seen in his “feelings of warmth and concern for the other, as well as a strong motivation to help” (Huppert, 2017, p. 229; also see Boler, 1997). 15 Respect is “the recognition of the irreducibility of the other [as] a conscious, free being in her own right –[it] creates the moral space in which we can locate respect” (Drummond, 2006, p. 17). Magrì (2019) agreed that “the moral significance of empathy lies in the feeling of respect that makes another’s experiential standpoint worthy of attention and discernment” (p. 343). 16 Kim, Fisher, and McCalman (2009) stated that “Christian ethics is not a set of isolated moral principles”; it “requires the use of reason to derive from Scripture certain precepts and narratives that guide human action and bring about certain consequences, primarily to pursue the ideals of love and service to others” (p. 119). 17 Benson (2018) also linked the Golden Rule to the promotion of harmony and common good: “Through this metaphor [of the Golden Rule], we can reimagine subjects like Civics and Citizenship as inculcating empathy for the Other; teachers model to pilgrims the way of the cross, preserving difference and fostering harmony through self-giving that advances the common good” (p. 31). 18 Küng (1989) wrote, “[I]n both Confucianism and Christianity, the ethic of humanity culminates in the love of the fellow human being. A half century before the Sermon on the Mount (and the great Rabbi Hillel, who lived twenty years before Christ), the Analects of Confucius already gives that famous Golden Rule: ‘What you do not wish others to do to you do not do to others’ (15:23). Jesus was to accent this positively as ‘whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to them’ (Mt. 7:12)” (p. 118, cited in Huang, 2005, p. 36, italics in the original).

134

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

that empathic concern centres on other-oriented emotions and inspires prosocial moral actions, Kim and Kou (2014) noted that such a concern “tends to stimulate altruistically motivated behaviour, because individuals who feel empathic concern share the feelings of the people in need and tend to offer help in order to reduce the distress of others” (p. 316). Both Confucius and Jesus also employed analogical thinking to encourage their followers to internalise and practise shu and the Golden Rule, respectively. Analogical thinking starts with something that a person is familiar with and then relates that experience to another similar context. Analogical thinking, according to Tiwald (2011), proceeds from shared psychological responses to shared feelings and thinking.19 This form of thinking prompts a person to be sensitive to common emotions and details, which enables one to identify and connect with another. As for the difference between shu and the Golden Rule, an issue of contention is whether shu implies passivity whereas the Golden Rule implies activity. The Analects 15.24 gives the impression that shu is about acts of omission (“do not …”) as contrasted with acts of commission in the Golden Rule (“do unto others”). Challenging the view of shu as a negative rule, Allinson (1992) countered, Commentators on the Analects in the last eighteen centuries have never understood the Golden Rule to be negative. In his Lun-yu cheng-i (Correct Meanings of the Analects) for example, Liu Pao-Nan (1791–1895) made this comment: “Do not do to others what you do not want others to do to you. Then by necessity we must do to others what we want them to do to us” (p. 178).

Mou (2004) concurred that shu and the Golden Rule “share the same core idea to the effect that one can use one’s own desires as a guide to how to treat others” (p. 221). The injunction of not doing to others what one does not desire for oneself presupposes and entails that all our actions, whether passive or active, should be directed by a sensitive and thoughtful consideration of others.20 Other scholars, while acknowledging the parallels between shu and the Golden Rule, have argued that there are essential differences. For example, Ames (2011) argued that shu, unlike the Golden Rule, is not meant to be an objective and universal standard. He reasoned as follows: Shu is defined negatively as ‘do not impose on others what you yourself do not want.’ This ‘negative’ version of the Golden Rule is modest; it does not presuppose that one has access to some objective and universal standard that would serve as warrant for ‘doing unto others as you would have them do unto you.’ (Ames, 2011, p. 198) 19 Tiwald’s comments were targeted at Confucian teaching but I think that his comments are applicable to Christian teachings too. 20 Comparing Christian empathy recorded in Matthew 22:35–4 with Confucian empathy, Fingarette (1979) argued that zhong (loyalty), which refers to allegiance to dao (Way), corresponds to the first commandment’s injunction to love God; shu, which points to a love for one’s fellow human beings, parallels the second commandment’s instruction to love others. Lippiello (2010) further clarified that “shu is a virtue that must constantly be cultivated, while zhong completes its meaning, leading man to transfer his natural feelings and attitudes to the community level, pouring his whole self into the relation that identifies him as socially subordinate or similar” (p. 92).

8.5 Comparing Shu and the Golden Rule

135

Pace Ames, both shu and the Golden Rule function as moral guides to motivate all to display empathic concern and practise reciprocity. In other words, shu and the Golden Rule are not intended to be applied in a uniform or mechanical manner: what we should or should not do to another person is not fixed and depends on many contingent factors and conditions. As noted earlier, the Golden Rule should not be treated as a moral law to be applied in a moral vacuum. For both shu and the Golden Rule, we need to consider carefully the configurations such as the event, needs of the person(s) involved, and the sociocultural context. Offering a different argument is Wong (2012), who contended that Confucian empathy is more obligatory than the Golden Rule. He cited Analects 6.28: “Wanting to establish oneself, one establishes others; wanting to reach there oneself, one helps others reach there” (Wong’s translation). He elaborated that this passage speaks of “transference (with others)” (gantong) that reflects ren (humanity); he claimed that “the person with ren should be able to appreciate, or transfer into oneself, other’s aspirations, desires, ideals and preferences, and then try his/her best to help them achieve their goals” (Wong, 2012, p. 135). Such a person has transcended the divide between oneself and others, thereby facilitating selfless moral judgments. In my view, the Golden Rule as taught by Jesus is as obligatory as shu, as indicated in Jesus’ instruction to the expert in the law: “Go and do likewise” (Luke 10:37). However, Wong is correct to point out that the transference in shu, when compared with the Golden Rule, places a greater emphasis on co-humanity. From a Confucian viewpoint, humans are intrinsically interdependent; to be more fully human is to establish oneself as well as others. Christians are called to “love your neighbour as yourself” (Matthew 22:39) but they can accomplish this without practising the transference implied in shu.

8.6 Conclusions Applying empathy to the teaching context, a mindful teacher is an empathic teacher who practises shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Golden Rule. Empathic teaching in both Confucian and Christian traditions underscores the primacy of experiential rather than mere theoretical knowledge. Instead of truth-seeking that characterises the Greek/Enlightenment thought, Confucian thought is way-seeking (Tan, 2017). The focus in Confucian traditions is the application of generalised knowledge, norms, and procedures to personalised and unpredictable situations, with insight and flexibility. Lao (1989) termed this an “orientative” worldview; he posited that Confucians aim to bring about changes in the self or in the world by asking not only “what it is” but also “where should we go”. Elliot and Tsai (2008) added that Confucian teachers seek to inspire students to apply knowledge to their lived experiences, thereby modifying and broadening their tradition. Experiential knowing was similarly highlighted by Jesus when he sent his disciples out and then debriefed them based on their experience (Alexander, 2018). The act of learning, it follows, is not simply theoretical but applied as well. Commenting on two other types of knowing

136

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

foregrounded by Jesus, Alexander (2018) explained, “Contemplative knowing is the way of being present, waiting on God, receiving in stillness and silence; while inner knowing involves intuition, self-reflection and experimentation in response” (p. 118). Encouraging the practices of self-reflection, contemplation, and meditation has been shown to help college students in the USA grow in spiritual qualities such as the ethics of caring and charitable involvement (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011).21 Research has shown that the quality of teaching is one of the most important criteria that shapes students’ positive learning outcomes. As noted by Hattie (2009), teacher effectiveness “is less about the content of the curricular and more about the strategies teachers use to implement the curriculum so that students’ progress upwards through the curricula content” (p. 159). Noble (2017) agreed that evidencebased, high-impact teaching strategies are those that maximise learner engagement, attain the learning objectives, and include avenues for students to acquire socioemotional competencies. This chapter has expounded on the notion of mindful teaching by referring to the concepts of shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Golden Rule from the Confucian and Christian traditions respectively. The focus on mindful teaching is fundamental to advancing the well-being of students. An empathic teacher promotes mindfulness by orienting one’s students towards wholeness in a school community filled with reciprocal care and kindness. When we compare shu and the Golden Rule, we can identify a common accent on empathic concern and analogical thinking that advance wholeness in students. Applied to the schooling context, teacher empathy is concerned with the extent to which educators work to deeply understand their students’ situations, feel the care in response to their emotions, and communicate their concern to students through their behaviour. Empathic pedagogy, in conclusion, is directed at the sharing of thinking and feeling states to foster personal and societal growth and transformation. It is, therefore, important for teachers to demonstrate empathy in teaching by providing a variety of ways for students to reflect on and articulate their feelings. More needs to be said about mindful teaching and empathic pedagogy in the Confucian and Christian traditions. The next chapter continues our exploration by examining the examples of Confucius and Jesus as mindful teachers.

References Alexander, I. (2018). Modelling our teaching on the Jesus of the gospels. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 111–121). Singapore: Springer. Allinson, R. E. (1992). The golden rule as the core value in Confucianism & Christianity: Ethical similarities and differences. Asian Philosophy, 2(2), 173–185. 21 Murison

and Benson (2018) noted, “Thus, students might visit the elderly, do chores for those who cannot do them for themselves, run events to contribute to the broader community, and so on. Through such practical activities, revelatory communities can practically express God’s love towards others. These practical experiences, in turn, stimulate further learning and theoretical/theological reflection, a dance between theory, reflection and action” (p. 85).

References

137

Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. Paris: UNESCO. Ames, R. T. (2011). Confucian role ethics: A vocabulary. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, H., Jr. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm, J. A. (2011). Cultivating the spirit: How college can enhance students’ inner lives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a socialpsychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Batson, C. D., & Shaw, L. L. (1991). Evidence for altruism: Toward a pluralism of prosocial motives. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 107–122. Benson, D. M. (2018). God’s curriculum: Reimaging education as a journey towards shalom. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 17–38). Singapore: Springer. Berger, J. G., & Johnston, K. (2015). Simple habits for complex times: Powerful practices for leaders. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Boler, M. (1997). The risks of empathy: Interrogating multiculturalism’s gaze. Cultural Studies, 11(2), 253–273. Burton, B. K., & Goldsby, M. (2005). The golden rule and business ethics: An examination. Journal of Business Ethics, 56(4), 371–383. Campelia, G. D. (2017). Empathic knowledge: The import of empathy’s social epistemology. Social Epistemology, 31(6), 530–544. Chalwell, K. (2018). You are welcome: Hospitality encounters in teaching. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 209–232). Singapore: Springer. Code, L. (1995). Rhetorical spaces: Essays on gendered locations. New York: Routledge. Cua, A. S. (1992). Competence, concern, and the role of paradigmatic individuals (Chün-tzu) in moral education. Philosophy East and West, 42(1), 49–68. Decety, J., & Yoder, K. J. (2016). Empathy and motivation for justice: Cognitive empathy and concern, but not emotional empathy, predict sensitivity to injustice for others. Social Neuroscience, 11(1), 1–14. Drummond, J. J. (2006). Respect as a moral emotion: A phenomenological approach. Husserl Studies, 22, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10743-006-9001-z. Dutton, J. E. (2017). Let’s bet on high quality connecting as a path for fostering well-being at work. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 111–115). Cham: Springer. Elliot, J., & Tsai, C. (2008). What might Confucius have to say about action research? Educational Action Research, 16(4), 569–578. Feucht, F. C., & Bendixen, L. D. (2010). Personal epistemology in the classroom: A welcome and guide for the reader. In L. D. Bendixen & F. C. Feucht (Eds.), Personal epistemology in the classroom: Theory, research, and implications for practice (pp. 3–28). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Fingarette, H. (1979). Following the ‘one thread’ of the Analects. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 47, 373–405. Goldie, P. (2014). Anti-empathy. In A. Coplan & P. Goldie (Eds.), Empathy: Philosophical and psychological perspectives (pp. 302–317). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge. Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Horsthemke, K. (2015). Epistemic empathy in childrearing and education. Ethics and Education, 10(1), 61–72.

138

8 Mindful Teaching: Shu (Putting Oneself …

Huang, Y. (2005). Confucian love and global ethics: How the Cheng brothers would help respond to Christian criticisms. Asian Philosophy, 15(1), 35–60. Huppert, F. A. (2017). Mindfulness and compassion as foundations for well-being. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 225–233). Cham: Springer. Ivanhoe, P. J. (1990). Ethics in the Confucian tradition. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. Jenkins, J. (2018). Hope, faith and love: Engaging in heart in the world of business. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 283–294). Singapore: Springer. Kim, S.-J., & Kou, X. (2014). Not all empathy is equal: How dispositional empathy affects charitable giving. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 26(4), 312–334. Kim, D., Fisher, D., & McCalman, D. (2009). Modernism, Christianity, and business ethics: A worldview perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 115–121. King, E., & Badham, R. (2020). The Wheel of mindfulness: A generative framework for secondgeneration mindful leadership. Mindfulness, 11(1), 166–176. Küng, H. (1989). Confucianism: Ethical humanism as religion? A Christian response. In H. Küng & J. Ching (Eds.), Christianity and Chinese religion (pp. 93–129). New York, NY: Doubleday. Lao, S.-K. (1989). On understanding Chinese philosophy: An inquiry and a proposal. In R. E. Allison (Ed.), Understanding the Chinese mind: The philosophical roots (pp. 265–293). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Lippiello, T. (2010). A Confucian adage for life: Empathy (shu) in the Analects. In R. Malek & G. Criveller (Eds.), Light a candle: Encounters and friendship with China (pp. 73–98). https://core. ac.uk/download/pdf/41121953.pdf. Magrì, E. (2019). Empathy, respect, and vulnerability. International Journal of Philosophical Studies, 27(2), 327–346. Meyers, S., Rowell, K., Wells, M., & Smith, B. C. (2019). Teacher empathy: A model of empathy for teaching for student success. College Teaching, 67(3), 160–168. Mou, B. (2004). A methodological framework for cross-tradition understanding and constructive engagement. In N. Note, R. Fornet-Betancout, J. Estermann, & D. Aerts (Eds.), Worldviews and cultures: Philosophical reflections from an intercultural perspective (pp. 69–86). Dordrecht: Springer. Murison, C. B., & Benson, D. M. (2018). Reimagining Christian schools as revelatory communities. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 75–88). Singapore: Springer. Nivison, D. S. (1996). Motivation and moral action in Mencius. In B. Van Norden (Ed.), The ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese philosophy (pp. xx–xx). Chicago: Open Court. Noble, T. (2017). Positive education at the cross roads: Important sign points for going in the right direction. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 87–91). Cham: Springer. Persson, B. N., & Kajonius, P. J. (2016). Empathy and universal values explicated by the empathyaltruism hypothesis. Journal of Social Psychology, 156(6), 610–619. Prinz, J. (2011). Against empathy [Spindel Supplement]. Southern Journal of Philosophy, 49, 214– 233. Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Ohio: Bell & Howell Company. Schertz, M. (2007). Avoiding ‘passive empathy’ with Philosophy for Children. Journal of Moral Education, 36(2), 185–198. Shirley, D., & MacDonald, E. (2016). The mindful teacher (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University. Sinclair, S., Beamer, K., Hack, T. F., McClement, S., Bouchal, S. R., Chochinov, H. M., et al. (2017). Sympathy, empathy, and compassion: A grounded theory study of palliative care patients’ understandings, experiences, and preferences. Palliative Medicine, 31(5), 437–447. Slingerland, E. (Trans.) (2003). Confucius Analects: With selections from traditional commentaries. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

References

139

Slote, M. (2010). The mandate of empathy. Dao, 9, 303–307. Smith, J. K. A. (2016). Higher education: What’s love got to do with it? Longings, desires and human flourishing. Learning and loves: Reimagining Christian education. Symposium conducted at the meeting of CHC higher education research, Brisbane, Australia. Stein, E. (1964). On the problem of empathy (W. Stein, Trans.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Strayer, J. (1987). Affective and cognitive perspectives on empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 218–244). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Sutherland, M. B. (1986). Education and empathy. British Journal of Educational Studies, 34(2), 142–151. Tan, C. (2017). Teaching critical thinking: Cultural challenges and strategies in Singapore. British Educational Research Journal, 43(5), 988–1002. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3295. Tan, C. (2019). A Confucian interpretation of creativity. The Journal of Creative Behaviour, 54(3), 636–645, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.398. Tan, C. (2020). Confucianism. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (3rd ed., pp. 195–198). London: Academic Press, Elsevier. Thompson, E. (2001). Empathy and consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8(5–7), 1–32. Tiwald, J. (2011). Sympathy and perspective-taking in Confucian ethics. Philosophy Compass, 6(10), 663–674. Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities. London: Routledge. Williams, M., & Penman, D. (2011). Mindfulness: An eight-week plan for finding peace in a frantic world. New York, NY: Rodale. Wong, W.-Y. (2012). Ren, empathy and the agent-relative approach in Confucian ethics. Asian Philosophy, 22(2), 133–141.

Chapter 9

The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

Abstract Mindful teaching in the Confucian and Christian traditions is exemplified by Confucius and Jesus respectively. As mindful teachers, Confucius and Jesus promote wholeness in their followers primarily through dialogic teaching. Dialogic teaching involves ongoing talk between the teacher and student to help the latter in their learning. Confucius’ dialogic teaching illustrated differentiated instruction (yincai shijiao) where he responded judiciously to different students and contextual needs. Likewise, Jesus adopted dialogic teaching as part of discipling his followers; he used a variety of teaching methods such as asking questions, having conversations, giving demonstrations, telling stories, and engaging in arguments. Despite their similar pedagogical approach, a key difference is the aim of teaching: for Confucius, it was to nurture a community of junzi (exemplary persons) whereas for Jesus, it was to offer salvation to everyone and build up their faith. Keywords Confucius · Differentiated instruction · Discipling · Empathic concern · Exemplary person · Dialogic teaching · Faith · Jesus · Mindful teacher · Questions · Salvation

9.1 Introduction A mindful teacher promotes mindfulness by orienting one’s students towards wholeness—whether as he (harmony) or shalom (peace). A mindful teacher does not teach on an auto-pilot mode nor does such a teacher encourage rote learning in their students. Instead, they desire to nurture mindful learners who learn actively by being aware of, paying attention to, and maintaining an attitude of wholeness for oneself and others. A mindful teacher, it follows, is other-regarding: such a one shows empathic concern by demonstrating shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Golden Rule (do to others as you would have them do to you). This chapter extends our discussion of mindful teaching by examining Confucius and Jesus as mindful teachers. Given space constraints, the focus is on how they employed mindful teaching by utilising a particular pedagogical approach: dialogic teaching. The chapter begins with an introduction to dialogic teaching, followed by a discussion of the dialogic teaching approaches of Confucius and Jesus respectively. The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_9

141

142

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

chapter also compares the educational aims of Confucius and Jesus and highlights the usefulness of dialogical pedagogy for mindful teaching.

9.2 Dialogic Teaching Despite diverse interpretations of dialogic teaching, the consensus is that it involves ongoing talk between the teacher and students as part of the latter’s learning. Kim and Wilkinson (2019), based on their review of the literature, defined dialogic teaching as “a pedagogical approach that capitalises on the power of talk to further students’ thinking, learning, and problem solving” (p. 71). Dialogic teaching, therefore, eschews passive learning, rote memorisation, and abstract knowledge in favour of active, personalised, and applied learning. Dialogic teaching requires teachers to mindfully equip themselves with a range of approaches such as teacher-directed discussion or group discussion among students to facilitate interaction. Alexander (2017) identified five principles of dialogic teaching: • Purposeful: the teacher plans and facilitates the talk according to specific learning objectives; • Collective: the teacher and students participate in the learning activities together rather than in isolation; • Reciprocal: the teacher and students practise active listening, taking turns to share and consider alternative viewpoints; • Supportive: students are open to each other’s ideas and help each other to reach common understandings; and • Cumulative: the teacher and students build on the ideas shared to arrive at coherent thinking and inquiry. It follows from the above that dialogic teaching is premised on cooperative thinking and is enacted using a variety of learner-centred methods. The underlying principle of dialogue and conversation is respect, which, according to its Latin root means “to look back, again and again, to find value in what one might have initially opposed or dismissed” (Nash & Baskette, 2008, p. 196). This form of teaching engenders a dialogical culture instead of an argumentative or adversarial climate (Shady & Larson, 2010). Arguing along the same line is Tu (2009) who advocated for “dialogical dialogue” instead of the hostile argumentation that pervades “dialectic dialogue”. The former requires “careful listening” and “experiential understanding” where a person “attends fully to the message and allows it to be completely delivered before any judgment is made” (Tu, 2009, p. 8). Durkin (2008) added that cooperative thinking values relationships and underlines the dignity of all participants through an “agnostic empathy” towards all perspectives. All the participants in the dialogue are expected to exhibit a sensitive openness to another’s viewpoint through active listening before arriving at an informed judgment (Durkin, 2008). Dialogic teaching

9.2 Dialogic Teaching

143

supports cooperative thinking by inviting participants to understand another tradition empathically, sharing with each other their own assumptions and reasonings, and seeking to learn from each other (Paul, 1987).1 It is evident that dialogic teaching—as well as dialogical dialogue and cooperative thinking—is not values neutral. This form of teaching is motivated by empathic concern—“the motivation to care for another’s welfare” (Decety & Yoder, 2016, p. 2). Dialogic teaching is a manifestation of an empathic teacher—one who works to deeply understand their students’ situations, feels care in response to their emotions, and communicates their concern to students through their behaviour. Empathic pedagogy, it follows, is aimed at the sharing of thinking and feeling states to foster personal and societal growth and transformation. Such a pedagogy is not self-centred but seeks instead to find a common ground between one’s own position and that of the other party. An educator who adopts dialogic teaching is “empathic, interpersonal, and connected” (Walters, 1994, p. 18), focusing on building on one another’s ideas so that everyone can benefit from the engagement. Dialogical thinking invites learners to approach an issue from more than one frame of reference in collaboration with others.2 Having introduced the concept of dialogic teaching, the next section illustrates this form of teaching by examining the teaching approach of Confucius.

9.3 The Example of Confucius “He [Confucius] is good at leading me on step by step. He broadens me with culture and restrains me with normative behaviour; I could not give up even if I wanted to” – A student of Confucius (Analects 9.11, italics added).3

Photo 9.1 shows a statue of Confucius at a university in Canada with the inscription, “An exemplary teacher of all ages”. Confucius lived during the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 722–468 BCE), which was full of political and social turmoil, with rulers of different states vying for power and control. Determined to restore order and harmony, Confucius propagated his teachings tirelessly to political leaders and the masses by drawing attention to the ways of the sage-kings before his time. The Confucian classic Analects (Lunyu), essentially a compilation of “ordered sayings”, records the life and 1 Paul

(1987) referred to mindful belief when he wrote that dialogical thinking is about entering “empathically into more or less alien belief systems” and bringing “our implicit ideas and reasonings into open dialogical conflict with opposing ones to decide rationally, as best we can, upon their merit as candidates for mindful belief” (p. 284). 2 An example of dialogic thinking is provided by Paul (1981): “Since I teach in the United States and since the media here as everywhere reflects, and the students have typically internalised, a profoundly ‘nationalistic’ bias, I focus on issues that, to be approached dialectically, require the student to discover that ‘American’ reasoning and the ‘American’ point of view on world issues is not the only dialectical possibility” (p. 5). 3 All citations in this chapter are taken from this text and all translations are by me unless otherwise stated.

144

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

Photo 9.1 A statue of Confucius at a Canadian university

9.3 The Example of Confucius

145

teaching of Confucius (Slingerland, 2003). In his conversations with people around him, Confucius highlighted the personal, social, and political issues around them.4 Confucius’ dialogues were purposeful as his ultimate goal was for his followers to become junzi: exemplary persons who loved and rejoiced in wholeness through he (harmony) (Analects 6.20). Rather than relying on didacticism and knowledge transmission, Confucius privileged dialogic teaching where his students were free to ask and respond to questions, clarify their doubts, form their own judgments, and ultimately cultivate themselves and others morally. An examination of the Analects reveals that Confucius’ dialogic teaching was motivated by his empathic concern for people around him. Confucius was an empathic teacher who felt warmth and care for his students, and did what was good for them out of altruistic concern (Kim & Kou, 2014). That Confucius preferred dialogue rather than one-way teaching is seen in his teaching philosophy (7.8): I do not enlighten a person who is not striving to understand; I do not provide the words to a person who is not already struggling to speak. If I have raised one corner and the person does not come back with the other three corners, I will not teach that person again.

We see from the above passage that Confucius expected his students to respond and contribute actively to the discussion (“three corners”) instead of waiting to be spoonfed by the teacher. The role of a teacher, according to Confucius, is only to provide the initial point of learning (“one corner”) and prompt the student to draw their own conclusions subsequently. The importance of asking questions was the reason why Confucius was disappointed with his disciple Yanhui for not articulating his thought. Confucius lamented that “Yanhui is of no help to me; he does not dislike anything I say” (11.4).5 Two other passages from the Analects illustrate how Confucius’ dialogic teaching was purposeful, collective, reciprocal, supportive, and cumulative. In both instances, Confucius’s employment of dialogue enabled both the teacher and students to talk to and learn from each other. The first passage is taken from 3.8: Zixia asked, “‘Her entrancing smile with dimples, Her beautiful eyes so clear, Unadorned upon which to paint’. What does this mean?” The Master replied, “The plain base comes first, then the colors are applied.” Zixia said, “Just like ritual propriety that comes after?” The Master replied, “Zixia, you have stimulated my thoughts. It is only with someone like you that one can discuss the Songs.” 4 Yang

and Yang (2016) observed that “there was no separation between classroom and society, Confucius’s classroom was the entire world ‘under the sky or heaven,’ and the process of his teaching was life itself” (p. 110). It is interesting to note that Socrates was known for using dialogues too. For a comparison between Confucius and Socrates, see Tan and Wong (2008). 5 Lest we think that Confucius concluded that Yanhui is a poor student, Confucius praised him for practising what he had learnt: “I speak with Yanhui the whole day, he never disagrees with me and seems stupid. When he withdraws and I examine what he does in private, I find that he is able to illustrate what I have said, Yanhui is not stupid at all” (2.9). The point here is that Confucius desired his students to be actively engaged in learning by asking questions as well as applying what they learnt in their lives.

146

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

In this passage, Confucius was helping Zixia to understand a line from the Book of Songs, which is a Confucian classic. After Confucius explained to Zixia the meaning of the passage, the latter responded with his own interpretation. Zixia’s novel response caught Confucius by surprise, prompting the latter to remark that Zixia’s comment was instructive and enlightening. This dialogue is an example of how a student builds upon the answer from their teacher so as to form their own creative insights. We see here that dialogic teaching is collective and reciprocal as the teacher and student address the same learning task (in this case, understanding a poem) and share their ideas freely. The dialogic teaching adopted by Confucius was also supportive; he did not chastise or embarrass his student for speaking up but instead praised him for his original views. The cumulative effect is seen in how both teacher and student learnt something new from the exchange. This episode illustrates that dialogic teaching is not a one-way street but an inter-subjective encounter marked by mutual learning and creation.6 As further evidence of Confucius’ utilisation of dialogic teaching for mutual learning, 17.4 records how Confucius, through a dialogue with another disciple, was corrected of his own mistake (translation by Slingerland, 2003): When the Master went to Wucheng, he heard the sound of stringed instruments and song. Smiling gently, he remarked, “Why use an ox-cleaver to kill a chicken?” Ziyou replied, “In the past, Master, I have heard you say, ‘If the gentleman learns dao (way) he will be able to care for others, and if the commoners learn dao they will be easy to manage.” [Addressing the disciples who had accompanied him to Wucheng,] the Master said, “Take note, my disciples! What Ziyou says is true. My earlier comment was meant only as a joke.”

Here, Confucius initially seemed to make light of Ziyou’s attempt to educate the masses in Wucheng by teaching them the music of the sage-kings. Confucius thought that it was inappropriate and a waste of time for Ziyou to introduce fine music and songs to the uneducated commoners. In response, Ziyou reminded Confucius of what he had taught him, that everyone, including the commoners, needed to learn the dao of the sage-kings. Confucius accepted Ziyou’s rejoinder, admitted that his comment was not to be taken seriously, and commended what Ziyou did. We see here how the dialogue is collaborative and constructive, with Confucius’ students freely offering alternative viewpoints and everyone gaining new perspectives. On another occasion, Confucius admitted he did not know everything and was keen to learn: “A peasant asked me something and my mind was empty; I attacked the question from both ends until I got everything out of it” (9.8). Elstein (2009) observed that Confucius is not presented in the Analects as infallible or authoritarian; neither are his students portrayed as completely submissive and accepting of Confucius’ opinions all the time. 6 Tu

(1985) noted that the Confucian tradition envisions “the dialogical encounter as an incessantly confirming and renewing process of self-understanding [that] always involves creativity” (p. 69). In this way, each participant in a relationship is “continually in the process of creating the other” (Hall & Ames, 1998, p. 273).

9.3 The Example of Confucius

147

Another feature of Confucius’ dialogic teaching is differentiated instruction (yincai shijiao). He employed what is known today as student-centred pedagogy to foster active learning, self-reflection, and self-evaluation (Tan, 2013). He valued thought-provoking questions, welcomed critical thinking, designed varied teaching strategies to suit the different needs of the students, and stressed the necessity to apply moral values in real life.7 A representative example is 11.22: Zilu asked, “Upon hearing something, should one act upon it?” The Master said, “Your father and elder brothers are still alive. So how could you, upon hearing something, act upon it?” Then Ranyou asked, “Upon hearing something, should one act upon it?” The Master said, “Upon hearing something, act upon it.” Gongxi Hua said, “When Zilu asked, ‘Upon hearing something, should one act upon it?’ You said, ‘Your father and elder brothers are still alive.’ But when Ranyou asked, ‘Upon hearing something, should one act upon it?’ You said, ‘Upon hearing something, act upon it.’ I am confused and I would like to ask about this.” The Master said, “Ranyou is diffident, and so I urged him on. But Zilu has the energy of two, and so I reined him in.”

The contrasting responses of Confucius to two disciples show how he customised his teaching to match the profile and personalities of individual students. His aim was to instil self-confidence and agency in Ranyou and patience and self-control in Zilu. Underlying Confucius’ approach of differentiated instruction was empathic concern; he was mindful of the different character traits and developmental needs of each student.8 A primary educational outcome for Confucius in utilising dialogic teaching was to promote si (thinking or reflection) in his students. The word si is a broad term that encompasses a range of thought processes such as understanding, reflection, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, making connections, drawing analogies, making inferences, and forming judgments. Simply put, it is a “taxonomy of thinking” (Ames & Rosemont, 1998; Tan, 2013). Confucius developed different types of thinking in his students, such as active reflection and inquiry, extending one’s learning through higher-order thinking, and self-examination. Alluding to active learning, Confucius stated, “I do not know what to do with a person who does not say, ‘What should I do? What should I do?” (15.16). At the same time, Confucius also knew when not to use dialogic teaching. He pointed out, “If someone is open to what you have to say, but you do not speak to them, this is letting the person go to waste; if, however, someone is not open to what you have to say, but you speak to them anyway, this is letting your 7 For further readings on Confucian pedagogies, see Elliot and Tsai (2008), Kim (2009), Tan (2013),

and Wang (2004). and Loy (2001) pointed out that Confucius “reshape[d] pre-existing material, responding to the particularities of the individual cases” (p. 221) (italics in the original).

8 Wong

148

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

words go to waste.” (15.8, translated by Slingerland 2003). It is, therefore, important to discern the readiness of the learner and the context before a teacher engages in a dialogue. An interesting observation about Confucius is that he did not view dialogue simply as a pedagogical tool. The Analects records many instances of Confucius talking to people around him on social issues, everyday concerns, morality, politics, human relationships, and self-cultivation (e.g., see 2.7, 2.19, 2.23, 5.4, 6.3, 6.8, 6.26, 11.7, 11.16, 12.3, 12.4). Dialogic teaching was very much part of his life, where he engaged different people in his everyday encounters. For him, dialogic teaching goes beyond formal instruction to seizing teachable moments. An example is seen in Confucius’ visit to the temple (3.15): When the Master went to the Grand Ancestral Hall, he asked questions about everything. Someone remarked, “Who said this son of a man from the Zou village understands normative behaviour (li)? On entering the Grand Ancestral Hall he asks questions about everything.” When the Master heard of this, he said, “The asking of questions is itself a normative behaviour.”

Confucius’ act of asking questions in the temple was atypical; his action thus invited criticism about his ignorance. Confucius’ reply, however, revealed how he perceived the asking of questions as valuable in itself, as it expressed one’s respect for and interest in something, in this case, the temple. Here Confucius exemplified a mindful person who was aware of what was going on, paid attention to what he saw and heard in the temple, and maintained an attitude of reverence towards religious matters.9

9.4 The Example of Jesus I have discovered, I think, that Jesus used methods because He knew how humans learn because He is our creator. His ‘lesson’ design was not to use gimmicks or methods for the sake of creativity or to disguise a weak message, but rather to get the student thinking and deciding. – A student in a Christian college.10

Like Confucius, Jesus (c. 4 BCE–30/33 CE) lived during a politically and socially unstable period. The populace were oppressed by the Roman rule and taxation, and came under the strict regulations of the religious leaders known as the Pharisees 9 As

elaborated by Hagen (2010), “Confucius’s conduct was ritually appropriate (li) in the sense that this was a situation in which being inquisitive, and genuinely acting accordingly, expressed a proper sense-of-ritual. More generally, the point could be that one has to be deferential when one is in unfamiliar surroundings. Putting it this way usefully blurs the distinction between rule following and exemplifying a cultivated disposition” (p. 7). 10 This is cited in MacCullough, 2013, p. 25, italics added.

9.4 The Example of Jesus

149

Photo 9.2 A mural in a Christian school depicting Jesus with children

(Gangel, 1993). Relying on didactic pedagogy and oppressive laws, the Pharisees were fixated with observing the dos and don’ts and were bereft of compassion and humanity for the people.11 The unconventional teaching approach of Jesus—he was addressed as “teacher” over 70 times in the Gospels—was, therefore, a breath of fresh air (Newton, 2001). Like Confucius, Jesus was a mindful teacher who sought to empower his followers achieve wholeness through shalom (peace). He demonstrated empathic concern through agape (unconditional love) for all human beings and had a strong motivation to help all especially those who were down-trodden. Similar to Confucius, Jesus’ pedagogical approach was characterised by dialogic teaching. The Bible records how Jesus was constantly surrounded by people and conversed with them on a range of topics. In particular, he welcomed and loved children, stating, “Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these” (Matthew 19:14) (see Photo 9.2). O’Brien (2018) noted that Jesus, through his teaching that the Kingdom of heaven belongs to those who are like children, was urging adults to be driven by “the innate curiosity and courage of children to inquire about their world through questions” (p. 167). The Bible gives details on Jesus’ dialogic teaching. First, his teaching was purposeful as it was oriented towards shalom (peace) through the salvation of souls and discipling of his followers. To realise wholeness in everyone, Jesus employed dialogic teaching using a variety of learner-centred methods that were collective, 11 That is why Jesus chastised these religious leaders in Matthew 23:23: “Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You give a tenth of your spices—mint, dill and cumin. But you have neglected the more important matters of the law—justice, mercy and faithfulness. You should have practised the latter, without neglecting the former”.

150

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

reciprocal, supportive, and cumulative. An example of dialogic teaching is seen in how Jesus offered salvation to a Samaritan woman. This episode displays Jesus’ ability to restore broken lives, meet the real needs of people, and enable them to experience wholeness (John 4:7–9, the New International Version [NIV] throughout the chapter): When a Samaritan woman came to draw water, Jesus said to her, “Will you give me a drink?”. (His disciples had gone into the town to buy food.) The Samaritan woman said to him, “You are a Jew and I am a Samaritan woman. How can you ask me for a drink?” (For Jews do not associate with Samaritans.)

We see from the above passage that Jesus took the initiative to talk to the woman. His action was shocking as it was a social taboo for Jews to speak with Samaritans, more so if the conversation involved a Jewish man and a Samaritan woman. The Samaritans were despised by the Jews during that era; many Jews even took a detour when travelling up to Jerusalem so as to avoid coming into contact with the Samaritans. Furthermore, the Samaritan woman in John 4 was no ordinary woman. She was despised by her own community because of her lifestyle: she had been married many times and was, at that point in time, living with a man who was not her husband. Her background may explain why she chose to draw water at a time when no one was around (Gangel, 1993). Jesus, in his empathic concern for the Samaritan woman, deliberately stopped by the well to meet and converse with her. His aim was to shift her focus from her physical need (to draw water) to the socio-emotional and spiritual healing she desperately needed.12 John 4:7–15 records, Jesus answered her, “If you knew the gift of God and who it is that asks you for a drink, you would have asked him and he would have given you living water.” “Sir,” the woman said, “you have nothing to draw with and the well is deep. Where can you get this living water? Are you greater than our father Jacob, who gave us the well and drank from it himself, as did also his sons and his livestock?” Jesus answered, “Everyone who drinks this water will be thirsty again, but whoever drinks the water I give them will never thirst. Indeed, the water I give them will become in them a spring of water welling up to eternal life.” The woman said to him, “Sir, give me this water so that I won’t get thirsty and have to keep coming here to draw water.”

The above passage shows that Jesus, having caught the Samaritan woman’s attention, continued the conversation, listened to her without judgement, and offered to help her. Jesus promised to give her the living water of eternal life. When she asked Jesus to give that water, Jesus changed the topic to her personal struggles, pain and longing for salvation. Jesus asked her to bring her husband to see him. When she replied that 12 Alexander

(2018) commented, “When the Samaritan woman asked Jesus about living to the full, he answered by naming the centre of her woundedness, (p. 115). Gangel (1993) concurred that “Jesus knew her, loved her, moved her” (p. 16).

9.4 The Example of Jesus

151

she had no husband, Jesus told her, “The fact is, you have had five husbands, and the man you now have is not your husband” (verse 17). This revelation shocked the woman who commented that Jesus must be a prophet to know such intimate details of her life. She then tried to deflect attention from herself by changing the topic to the different worship practices between the Jews and the Samaritans. Jesus continued the dialogue in an open-minded and kind manner, gently pointing out to her that true worship came from one’s heart. The dialogue ended with the cumulative principle where the woman built on her own ideas and the ideas of Jesus by articulating her desire to meet the Messiah. John 4:7–15, 25–26 narrates how Jesus revealed to her that he was the Messiah she had been waiting for: The woman said, “I know that Messiah” (called Christ) “is coming. When he comes, he will explain everything to us.” Then Jesus declared, “I, the one speaking to you—I am he.”

So grateful and transformed was the Samaritan woman that she not only accepted Jesus as her Saviour but also went to the town to tell others about Jesus.13 The above episode shows how Jesus relied on dialogic teaching by not talking down to or imposing his views on his target audience. Instead, he practised active listening and empathic concern so that the other party formulated their own reasoning and conclusion. Bruce (1988) explained how Jesus demonstrated empathic concern: He deals with them as men compassed with infirmity, and needing sympathy, counsel, and help. And in supplying these, He comes down to their level of feeling, and tries to show that, even if things were as they seem, there is no cause for despair. He argues from their own thoughts of God, that they should still hope in Him (p. 62).14

Undergirded by empathic concern, Jesus adopted a learner-centred approach in his dialogic teaching. As in the case of Confucius, Jesus’ choice of pedagogy depended on who were in the audience, their backgrounds, inclinations, and the manner in which they perceived themselves (Gangel, 1993). Jesus also showed flexibility and sensitivity to the situation, relied on teachable moments, and adjusted his teaching according to the readiness of the students. Jesus’ reactions to people were not uniform and predictable but were dependent instead on the person, situation, and need at hand.15 An example is Jesus’ contrasting responses to two blind persons. In the first incident (Mark 10:46–52, Luke 18:35–43), a blind beggar by the name of Bartimaeus, 13 John 4:39 states, “Many of the Samaritans from that town believed in him because of the woman’s testimony, ‘He told me everything I ever did.’”. 14 Jesus’ empathic concern for his students is also illustrated in his prayer for His disciples (Matthew 6:5–13; 7:7–11; Luke 11:1–13; 18:1–5). 15 Lebar (1995) sketched Jesus’ pedagogy: “Each is individual because each learner was different, each need different. If Christ had considered content only, His words would comprise His teaching. But overt interaction with the pupils is the rule rather than the exception. Because he started where the pupil was and let the pupil’s response and readiness guide the process, the Gospel record is full of the sayings and doings of other people as well as His own words and deeds. What He did was determined by what His learners did” (p 93).

152

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

upon knowing that Jesus was passing by, cried out to Him: “Jesus, thou Son of David, have mercy on me”. Despite being told by the multitude to keep silent, he persisted and even intensified his plea. When Jesus turned to him and asked, “What do you want me to do for you?”, Bartimaeus replied, “Lord, that I might receive my sight.” Jesus responded by telling him, “Thy faith hath made thee whole”. Jesus swiftly healed the blind man because of the latter’s display of readiness and faith. Upon being healed, he glorified God and urged others to likewise give praise to God.16 The experience of Bartimaeus is contrasted with that of another blind person recorded in Mark 8:22–26. In this second case, Jesus chose to heal him in two stages instead of instantaneously. Unlike Bartimaeus, this anonymous blind person did not take the initiative to cry out to Jesus for healing, showing no evidence of faith in Jesus. Instead, he was brought to Jesus by Jesus’ disciples for healing. Lebar (1995) explained it thus: Since the blind man himself showed no signs of faith, the process through which Christ led him served to strengthen his faith because of personal contact with the Lord. He took hold of his hand, led him out of the village, spit on his eyes, laid His hands upon him, and questioned him. After the first stage of the healing, He again laid His hands upon his eyes, and lastly gave him an authoritative command. No doubt the faith of the disciples in bringing the blind man to Christ had done something to create readiness in him (p. 78).

The blind person in this instance needed a more intentional effort and a longer time for healing and personal contact with Jesus. In other words, he needed to develop his own knowledge of Jesus and recognise Him as his personal Lord and Saviour. From not knowing Jesus to finally believing in Jesus and worshipping him, he progressed from unbelief, doubt, and confusion to belief, faith, and joy.17 A variety of teaching methods were used by Jesus in his dialogic teaching. An often-used method was the asking of questions. Zuck (1995) identified a total of 15 types of questions utilised by Jesus (p. 241): • • • • • • • • • • • •

to petition for information or to recall facts; to promote conversation; to point out something contrary to fact; to procure assent; to push for an expression of faith; to prod for an opinion or an expression of a desire; to prove or to test faith or spiritual commitment; to promote thinking or reflection; to persuade critics of their errors; to pull person(s) up short; to pour out an emotion; to probe for motives;

16 Lebar

(1995) observed that “the blind beggar who was held in contempt, whom the crowd considered too low for Jesus to notice, now leads His train!” (p. 76). 17 Commenting on the two episodes, Lebar (1995) wrote that Jesus “used every occasion as it arose to reinforce the particular content that the learners needed” (p. 80).

9.4 The Example of Jesus

153

• to prick the conscience; • to pinpoint a topic; and • to press for application of the truth. Copenhaver (2014) added that Jesus’ questions, as documented in the gospels, included reframing the question asked, probing the questioner’s motives and desires, directing the question back to the question, and even questioning the question.18 Like Confucius who used questions to develop independent thinking in his students, Jesus encouraged problem-solving in his followers. As explained by Lebar (1995), He often used questions to get His learners personally involved in the teaching situation and to lead them on into the truth. He also used questions to reprimand, test, and silence His critics. He often answered a question with a question in order to make the learner think for himself. Requests that many teachers would consider interruptions, Christ looked upon as opportunities to counsel and guide (p. 94).

Other methods demonstrated by Jesus were “lecturing, discussions, questions, answers to questions, brief statements, conversations or dialogues, stories or parables, disputes, demonstrations, quotations, maxims, challenges, rebukes, comments, riddles, arguments, and even silence” (Zuck, 1995, p. 165). A representative example is Jesus’ Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24–25) where he used the visual of a temple (v. 1), captured the audience’s attention with a surprising statement (v. 2), responded to two questions (vv. 4–51), told two parables (25:1–30), and shared further insights (vv. 31–46) (Zuck, 1995; also see Lawson, 2001). Pazmino (1997), using the episode of Jesus’s encounter with two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–35), noted that Jesus employed discussion (v. 14), open inquiry (v. 19), correction and clarification (vv. 25–27), role modelling (vv. 30–31), and requirement of a response (vv. 33–35). Stressing applied knowledge, Jesus constantly linked theory to practice through reference to everyday life.19 An instance of applied knowledge is when Jesus sent his twelve disciples out to heal and to preach (Matthew 9:36–11:1). The feeding of the 5000 authenticated Jesus’ teaching on the Bread of Life. The people understood Jesus’ reference to himself as the light of the world, as they remembered the golden lampstands found in the treasury of the temple (Lebar, 1995). Another noteworthy teaching strategy privileged by Jesus was that of mentoring/coaching for the purpose of discipling. The word “disciple” in classical Greek denotes a learner who not only attends lectures but also enjoys a personal relationship with their teacher (Zuck, 1995). Jesus’ disciples were learners who followed and obeyed Jesus with

18 Alexander (2018) elaborated on Jesus’ questioning approach: “Questions are frequently not about

information alone, but about other ways of knowing—relational knowing, embodiment and inner knowing. […] Jesus told the story of the good Samaritan, asked the questioner to interpret it and told him to go and live in a way that reflected what he himself had just articulated. Answers are both ‘philosophical’ and grounded, and Jesus embodies the application” (pp. 115–116). 19 Taylor (2001) posited, “As Jesus taught in both the synagogue and on the sea, adults must see that learning is related to all of life, no matter when or where it is found” (p. 95).

154

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

loyalty, sacrifice, and service (Curry, 1993).20 Jesus built up the faith of his disciples by guiding them to do as he did.21 A case in point was letting the disciples take care of the people such as distributing and collecting the leftover food. A mentoring programme can be discerned when Jesus sent the disciples out; he gave instructions and specified the scope, nature, and results of the work (Luke 9:1–6) (Bruce, 1988). Jesus subsequently conducted a debrief with them after their mission, asking them about their experiences and lessons learnt. Jesus also gave feedback and encouragement after they completed their assignment. Another example of mentoring/coaching was one occasion when the disciples failed to cast out a demon. They brought the boy who was demon-possessed to Jesus (Matthew 17:18–21): Jesus rebuked the demon, and it came out of the boy, and he was healed at that moment. Then the disciples came to Jesus in private and asked, “Why couldn’t we drive it out?” He replied, “Because you have so little faith. Truly I tell you, if you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to this mountain, ‘Move from here to there,’ and it will move. Nothing will be impossible for you.”22

We see here how Jesus coached his disciples by pointing out not only their mistakes but also assuring them that they had the capabilities to improve and do better the next time. Jesus also seized teachable moments to guide and instruct his followers. For example, Jesus drew his disciple’s attention to a widow’s offering to teach them about true charity (Mark 12). He also used the analogy of physical birth to illustrate spiritual birth in John 3. Jesus also checked on their spiritual development by making them answer for themselves the question of his identity (“But what about you? Who do you say I am?”) and later confirmed their answer at the Transfiguration (Luke 9:28–36) (Gangel, 1993). Jesus also motivated them to experiment and take risks, such as encouraging Peter to walk on water (Matthew 14:22–31). In sum, Jesus harnessed dialogic teaching to make people realise their incompleteness, so as to lead them to reconcile with God and be restored to wholeness.

20 Curry

(1993) explained, “Discipling or mentoring simply requires the personal demonstration of the qualities that one hopes to see in the disciple and the willingness of the discipler to explain the reasons for his or her actions” (p. 315). Segovia (1985) added that discipleship entails not just behavioural changes but also a changed heart that follows the example of Jesus. Specifically, the three characteristics of discipling are “(1) leading people to follow Jesus and to pattern their lives after His; (2) providing personal examples of what it means to be like Jesus; [and] (3) designing a church context for fostering discipleship” (Curry, 1993, p. 312).. 21 Bruce (1988) wrote, “Having been for some time in Christ’s company, witnessing His miraculous works, hearing His doctrine concerning the kingdom, and learning how to pray and how to live, they were at length sent forth to evangelise the towns and villages of their native province, and to heal the sick in their Master’s name, and by His power” (p. 99). 22 Bruce (1988) noted that “after congratulating the disciples on their success, and expressing His own satisfaction with the facts reported, Jesus spoke to them the warning word: “Notwithstanding in this rejoice not, that the spirits are subject unto you; but rather rejoice because your names are written in heaven” (Luke 10:20).

9.5 Comparisons and Implications

155

9.5 Comparisons and Implications The dialogic teaching of both Confucius and Jesus was driven by empathic concern, reflected cooperative thinking, and enacted using a variety of learner-centred methods. In both cases, dialogic teaching was purposeful, collective, reciprocal, supportive, and cumulative. Both Confucius and Jesus mentored/coached their disciples using the growth mindset even before mentoring and coaching became a popular contemporary means to develop someone’s potential. They demonstrated the key ingredients of a good mentor/coach: being there for the protégé, sharing one’s experience and expertise, and supporting and communicating with the mentees/coachees (Curry, 1993). A key difference between Confucius and Jesus is the aim of teaching. For Confucius, it was to nurture a community of junzi (exemplary persons) who are virtuous leaders; for Jesus, it was to offer salvation to everyone and build up their faith. As noted earlier, Confucius was spurred on by his aspiration to restore dao, which is a vision of human excellence in ancient China. He exhorted everyone, especially political leaders, to become mindful persons who achieved he (harmony) by following dao. The dialogic teaching of Confucius is indispensable for the development of exemplary persons because this educational goal cannot be achieved via didactic teaching and passive learning. Exemplary persons become wise, humane, and peoplecentric not through the accumulation of facts but through internalising, practising, and perfecting ren (humanity) in their lives. This goal requires them to leave their ivory tower and interact and converse with people from all walks of life. Likewise, dialogic teaching was necessary for Jesus as he wished to offer salvation to and disciple whoever was willing. As it is a personal choice whether to accept or reject Jesus’ teachings, people need to be given the time and space to ask and respond to questions, discuss, and give their own opinions—all ingredients of dialogic teaching. Furthermore, discipling involves mentoring and coaching, where the disciple grows and learns from one’s mentor or coach in a safe, dialogical, and empathic environment. In sum, Confucius and Jesus applied dialogic teaching through learnercentred, mindful, and interactive approaches. Both demonstrated empathic concern by offering hope and alleviating distress, which points to altruistically motivated behaviour.23 A key educational implication from this chapter is the usefulness of dialogic teaching to facilitate and advance wholeness in the learner. Dialogue is particularly salutary for the cultivation of empathy as the former requires one to pay attention to the other party, and practise perspective-taking and active listening.24 A recommended pedagogical approach that promotes dialogic teaching is “Community of 23 Kim and Kou (2014) wrote that empathic concern “stimulate[s] altruistically motivated behaviour,

because individuals who feel empathic concern share the feelings of the people in need and tend to offer help in order to reduce the distress of others” (p. 316). 24 Advocating what he calls dialogical pedagogy, Schertz (2007) averred that dialogue is “necessary for the development of empathy because it supplies a medium for intersubjective exchange while simultaneously providing for the growth of the relational subject” (p. 192).

156

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

Inquiry” (COI). COI welcomes students to explore issues and experiences critically in a dialogical setting (Lipman, 1991; Lipman, Sharp, & Oscanyan, 1980). Typically, the discussion will be based on stimulus materials; participants will then articulate their views in a collaborative arrangement. Throughout the process, students will develop their own specific thinking competencies and dispositions such as empathy, meta-cognition, self-control, and humility. It is essential for educators to ensure that dialogic teaching is premised on respect and collaboration rather than condescension and criticism. Shady and Larson (2010) emphasised the primacy of listening to understand rather than to correct or argue. Drawing upon Nash, Bradley, and Chickering (2008), Shady and Larson (2010) outlined three steps for respectful and constructive dialogues (p. 95): (1)

Open conversational spaces through practising the “golden rule of moral conversation”: respond to others as we would be questioned and challenged;

(2)

Acknowledge that one does not have the monopoly of truth: give each idea at least a preliminary right to be heard and understood; and

(3)

Collaborate to look for commonality for contested issues: make a commitment to try to understand, not agree with, what is so important about alternative perspectives.

It is worth pointing out that dialogic teaching can be incorporated into online learning too. Hockridge (2018) reported from a study of an online theological degree programme in Australia how students had benefitted from online discussions. An example is the following feedback from a student who participated in the programme: Being a distance student has meant a lot of online interaction. There are skills I have been developing through this that have been beneficial, not only in my current work, but also in my broader life and ministry. These skills include: respect for the opinions of others, learning how to respond in grace, gentleness and love to those who oppose my thinking or who are difficult, patience with those who are slower to learn, the value of sharing ideas and learning from one another, reading between the lines, the need to encourage others and empathise with the frustrations and struggles of others, not dominating discussions, the humility of being corrected ‘publicly’, the balance between expressing what I know but not intimidating others (cited in Hockridge, 2018, p. 338).

9.6 Conclusion This chapter has explained how Confucius and Jesus, as mindful teachers, brought about wholeness in their followers through dialogic teaching. Through the use of ongoing talk between the teacher and student, dialogic teaching supports differentiated instruction and learner-centred teaching methods. Confucius and Jesus converged in their use of strategies such as asking questions, having conversations, giving demonstrations, telling stories, and engaging in arguments. A major contrast, however, is that Confucius aimed to nurture a community of junzi (exemplary persons) whereas Jesus sought to offer salvation to everyone and establish their faith. Teachers who wish to teach mindfully need to create and sustain a culture of inquiry and encourage the asking of questions in schools. Adopting learner-centred

9.6 Conclusion

157

pedagogies means that teachers need to stop monopolising the class time, and engage students in discussions, that they may consequently learn more.25 It is a significant point that the active learning strategies adopted by Confucius and Jesus are consistent with brain research. Wolfe (2001) concluded from her research on brain functioning that educators should make the curriculum meaningful through problems, projects, and simulations, which capitalise on the various sensory functions. In addition, research has reported that mentoring and coaching are critical in providing individualised attention, building character, and fostering spiritual well-being (Zhang & Tan, 2010). A mentoring/coaching relationship helps a learner acquire coping and decision-making skills, broaden their aspirations, and experience wholeness.

References Alexander, R. J. (2017). Towards dialogic teaching: Rethinking classroom talk (5th ed.). York, UK: Dialogos. Alexander, I. (2018). Modelling our teaching on the Jesus of the gospels. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 111–121). Singapore: Springer. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, Jr., H. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Bruce, A. B. (1988). The training of the twelve: Timeless principles for leadership development. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. Copenhaver, M. B. (2014). Jesus is the question: The 307 questions Jesus asked and the three he answered. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Curry, A. D. (1993). Mentoring and discipling. In K. O. Gangel & J. C. Wilhoit (Eds.), The Christian educator’s handbook on adult education (pp. 311–320). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Decety, J., & Yoder, K. J. (2016). Empathy and motivation for justice: Cognitive empathy and concern, but not emotional empathy, predict sensitivity to injustice for others. Social Neuroscience, 11(1), 1–14. Durkin, K. (2008). The adaptation of East Asian masters students to western norms of critical thinking and argumentation in the UK. Intercultural Education, 19(1), 15–27. Elliot, J., & Tsai, C. (2008). What might Confucius have to say about action research? Educational Action Research, 16(4), 569–578. Elstein, D. (2009). The authority of the master in the Analects. Philosophy East and West, 59(2), 142–172. Gangel, K. O. (1993). Biblical foundations for adult education. In K. O. Gangel & J. C. Wilhoit (Eds.), The Christian educator’s handbook on adult education (pp. 13–30). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Hagen, K. (2010). The propriety of Confucius: A sense-of-ritual. Asian Philosophy, 20(1), 1–25. Hall, D. L., & Ames, R. T. (1998). Thinking from the Han: Self, truth, and transcendence in Chinese and Western culture. Albany: State University of New York Press. 25 John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), a Christian bishop in Moravia who was known as the first modern educator, argued in his major work, The Great Didactic: “Let the main object of this, our Didactic, be as follows: To seek and to find a method of instruction, by which teachers may teach less, but learners may learn more, by which schools may be the scene of less noise, aversion, and useless labour, but of more leisure, enjoyment, and solid progress; and through which the Christian community may have less darkness, perplexity, and dissension, but on the other hand, more light, orderliness, peace, and rest” (cited in Lebar, 1995, pp. 50–51).

158

9 The Mindful Teacher: Confucius and Jesus

Hockridge, D. (2018). Reimagining Christian formation in online theological education. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 327–343). Singapore: Springer. Kim, T. (2009). Confucianism, modernities and knowledge: China, South Korea and Japan. In R. Cowen & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 857– 872). Dordrecht: Springer. Kim, S.-J., & Kou, X. (2014). Not all empathy is equal: How dispositional empathy affects charitable giving. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 26(4), 312–334. Kim, M.-Y., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (2019). What is dialogic teaching? Constructing, deconstructing, and reconstructing a pedagogy of classroom talk. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 21, 70–86. Lawson, K. E. (2001). Historical foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 17–25). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Lebar, L. E. (1995). Education that is Christian. Colorado Springs, CO: Chariot Victor Publishing. Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lipman, M., Sharp, A., & Oscanyan, F. (1980). Philosophy in the classroom (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. MacCullough, M. E. (2013). By design: Developing a philosophy of education informed by a Christian worldview. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Nash, R. J., & Baskette, S. M. (2008). Teaching about religious and spiritual pluralism in a professional education course. In M. R. Diamond (Ed.), Encountering faith in the classroom (pp. 188–202). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Nash, R. J., Bradley, D. L., & Chickering, A. W. (2008). How to talk about hot topics on campus. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Newton, G. (2001). The holy spirit in the educational process. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 125–129). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. O’Brien, G. J. (2018). Reimagining reflective practice as lifelong learning for professional development within Christian ministry. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 163–174). Singapore: Springer. Paul, R. (1981). Teaching critical thinking in the ‘strong sense’: A focus on self-deception, world views, and a dialectical mode of analysis. Informal Logic, 4(2), 2–7. Paul, R. (1987). Dialogical thinking: Critical thought essential to the acquisition of rational knowledge and passions. In J. B. Baron & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Schertz, M. (2007). Avoiding ‘passive empathy’ with Philosophy for Children. Journal of Moral Education, 36(2), 185–198. Segovia, F. F. (Ed.). (1985). Discipleship in the New Testament. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress. Shady, S. L. H., & Larson, M. (2010). Tolerance, empathy, or inclusion? Insights from Martin Buber. Educational Theory, 60(1), 81–96. Slingerland, E. (Trans.) (2003). Confucius Analects: With selections from traditional commentaries. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Tan, C. (2013). Confucius. London: Bloomsbury. Tan, C., & Wong, B. (2008). Classical traditions of education: Socrates and Confucius. In C. Tan (Ed.), Philosophical reflections for educators (pp. 3–12). Singapore: Cengage Learning. Taylor, N. (2001). Spiritual formation: Nurturing spiritual vitality. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 91–98). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Tu, W.-M. (1985). Confucian thought: Selfhood as creative transformation. Albany: State University of New York.

References

159

Tu, W.-M. (2009). Confucian humanism as a spiritual resource for global ethics. Peace and Conflict Studies, 16(1), 1–8. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/pcs/vol16/iss1/1. Walters, K. (1994). Re-thinking reason: New perspectives in critical thinking. New York: State University of New York Press. Wang, F. (2004). Confucian thinking in traditional moral education: Key ideas and fundamental features. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 429–447. Wolfe, P. (2001). Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wong, B., & Loy, H.-C. (2001). The Confucian gentleman and the limits of ethical change. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 28(3), 209–234. Yang, L., & Yang, J. (2016). The classical image of Confucian teachers from the Analects and Xueji. In X. Di & H. McEwan (Eds.), Chinese philosophy on teaching and learning: Xueji in the twenty-first century (pp. 97–120). Albany: State University of New York. Zhang, K. C., & Tan, C. (2010). Exploring the spiritual needs of adolescent girls. Religion and Education, 37(2), 146–161. Zuck, R. B. (1995). Teaching as Jesus taught. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.

Chapter 10

Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation

Abstract Mindful learning is encapsulated in the notions of xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual formation in the Confucian and Christian traditions respectively. Xiuji locates the individuals within social relationships, where humans work towards becoming junzi (exemplary persons) who demonstrate ren (humanity) and yi (appropriateness). Spiritual formation, on the other hand, is about a process of selfengagement whereby an individual grows spiritually and achieves an authentic maturity in Christ. In terms of similarities, both xiuji and spiritual formation underscore a personal readiness to be responsible for one’s learning. Both value personal agency while embedding individual growth within a community of like-minded learners. A key divergence is that self-cultivation emphasises moral development whereas spiritual formation attends more to religious growth. To support mindful learning, design thinking is a recommended approach, where students engage in service-learning and reflect on spiritual ideals. Keywords Appropriateness · Christ · Confucius · Design thinking · Exemplary person · Humanity · Moral development · Religious growth · Self-cultivation · Self-directed learning · Spiritual formation

10.1 Introduction Photo 10.1 shows a student in China reading a Confucian classic and reflecting on it. He was one of the increasing number of students across China who attended classes on traditional Chinese culture. Not only do these students get to appreciate their own heritage but they also take time from their heavy and stressful academic study to be mindful. Following what we have learned from earlier chapters, a mindful learner is aware of, pays attention to, and maintains an attitude of wholeness, whether in the form of he (harmony) or shalom (peace). What more can we learn about mindful learning from the Confucian and Christian traditions? This chapter begins with the Confucian notion of xiuji (self-cultivation) and the Christian concept of spiritual formation. The second part of this chapter compares the two conceptions with reference to the extant literature on self-directed learning. The last segment recommends design thinking as an approach to foster mindful learning. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_10

161

162

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

Photo 10.1 A student reflecting on a passage from a Confucian classic

10.2 Xiuji (Self-cultivation) In the Confucian traditions, mindful learning is embodied in the notion of xiuji (self-cultivation). A self-cultivated person seeks to attain wholeness. This means being aware of, paying attention to, and maintaining an attitude of internal and external he (harmony). Such a person enjoys inner joy and manifests spontaneous ease by aligning their thoughts, feelings, and actions with ren (humanity), developing interpersonal bonds, and being at one with nature. Self-cultivation in the Confucian traditions is not only about the acquisition of facts; it is also, and fundamentally, a selfdirected process where the learner actively, reflectively, and continuously internalises and demonstrates virtues as part of attaining wholeness. Cultivating oneself is a creative process involving authentic moral motivation and self-actualisation, where one reflects on and constructs the meaning of their lived experiences (Tan, 2020a, b).1 There are three major characteristics of self-cultivation. First, Confucius maintained that everyone can succeed in self -cultivation as long as one puts in the effort 1 The self “has the ever reflective self-conscious capacity of rational thinking, which articulates itself

in logical and moral reasoning and develops itself in terms of its interaction with world, culture, history, learning and knowledge” (Cheng, 2004, p. 125).

10.2 Xiuji (Self-cultivation)

163

and perseveres (14.42).2 He asserted that “human beings are similar in their nature, but differ as a result of their practice” (Analects 17.2; all passages are taken from this text and translated by me unless otherwise stated). Confucius underscored the primacy of cultivating oneself on the basis of self-reflection (1:4) and emphasised that learning should be for oneself and not for others (14:25). Modelling self-cultivation, Confucius shared that he was set on learning at the age of 15 (2.4), and that he “quietly stored up what was learnt and was insatiable in learning” (7.2; also see 7.17, 9.2). He underlined the importance of “learning culture broadly” (6.27), and “learning and practising what one has learnt from time to time” (1.1). A self-cultivated learner also needs to constantly revise what one has learnt. As Confucius put it, a learner should be “aware of what one lacks daily, and not forget what one has acquired monthly” (19.5). At the same time, the application of knowledge is underlined when a learner “selects what is good and follows it” (7.28). Second, self-cultivation centres on the development of ren (humanity) and yi (appropriateness). As ren was previously discussed in Chap. 6, this chapter does not rehearse the points here. It suffices to note that a self-cultivated person, from a Confucian perspective, aims to become a person who excels in ren. This means learning to “love others” (12.22) and “cultivating oneself in order to bring peace to the multitude” (14.42). In addition to humanity, self-cultivation includes other attributes such as independent thinking and prudence, which can be collectively classified as yi (rightness or appropriateness). Yi refers to thinking, feeling, and doing what is proper or fitting by exercising one’s individual discernment and discretion. Linking an exemplary person (junzi) to yi, Confucius noted that a “junzi, in one’s dealings in the world, is not for or against anything; such a person goes with what is yi” (4.10).3 Yi involves self-cultivation because a person needs to combine the subjective selfknowledge of dao (Way) with an objective assessment of a situation so as to arrive at an appropriate judgment or action (Cheng, 1972). Put otherwise, yi reflects a capacity to import an agent’s significance into the world through one’s flexibility to interact with and integrate into ever-changing situations (Hall & Ames, 1987). An important element of yi is critical thinking. Confucius exhibited yi when he expressed his disappointment in political leaders of his time and criticised them for their moral conduct. He lamented, “How could I bear to look upon a person who in occupying high office is not tolerant, who in observing li (normative behaviours) is not respectful, and who in overseeing the mourning rites does not grieve?” (3.26, also see 3.1, 3.2, 3.10). Confucius was equally critical of the values and conduct of the people of his time. For instance, he critiqued the masses’ view of filial piety: 2 Describing Confucianism as advocating a “utopian vision of a common humanity”, Chang (2011)

posited, “the Confucian sages envisioned an inclusive order in which all people would stand as moral equals under Heaven. This would become a key Confucian credo: that each person, by virtue of being human, is endowed with the natural potential to nurture virtues that would conform to the Heavenly principles. For this reason, every human being is deemed sanctified and entitled to human dignity” (p. 44). 3 Slingerland (2001) explained that “[t]his sort of situation-centered reasoning resembles Aristotelian phronesis, and ultimately ‘what is right’ in the ethical realm corresponds to what the gentleman (that is, the good person) [junzi] would do” (p. 103).

164

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

“Nowadays a person is considered filial if they provide for their parents. Even dogs and horses are provided for. If there is no respect, what is the difference?” (2.6). Rejecting the tradition of his time, Confucius sought to reinterpret that tradition through his teachings. Specifically, he envisioned a community of self-cultivated learners who collectively strive to “broaden dao” (15.29). The desired outcome of self-cultivation is to become a junzi, literally “son of a lord”. Confucius borrowed and reinterpreted this ancient term to refer to an exemplary or ideal person. Instead of defining a junzi by virtue of one’s noble birth, Confucius redefined it as an educational ideal that everyone could attain through self-cultivation (Tan, 2017). There are three main characteristics of a junzi. First, such a person is inspired to learn for the sake of broadening dao. As explained in earlier chapters, Confucius taught that dao is a vision of human excellence—the normative tradition and guiding discourse for human beings. Confucius described a junzi as being “anxious about dao” (15.32) and “learning in order to reach that dao” (19.7). Second, a junzi is a person of ren. Confucius asked rhetorically (4.5), How could a junzi who abandons ren (humanity) merit that name? A junzi does not leave ren even for the space of one meal; such a person is certain to be with ren if one is in a hurry or distress.

Third, a junzi is not “a vessel” (2.12), i.e., is “not inflexible” (15.37; also see 1.8). In ancient China, a vessel was a receptacle used in ceremonial rituals; it could only perform a specific designated function. To Confucius, a junzi, unlike a vessel, is versatile and imaginative enough to perform diverse tasks by using one’s discretion to respond creatively to a range of situations. The before-mentioned qualities of a junzi are the result of mindful practices where one is constantly aware of and regulates one’s thinking, feeling, and actions. As taught by Confucius (16.10), The junzi has nine considerations: when looking one thinks about seeing clearly, when hearing one thinks about hearing acutely, regarding countenance one thinks about appearing cordial, regarding demeanour one thinks about looking deferential, in speech one thinks about giving one’s best, when conducting affairs one thinks about respect, when facing doubt one thinks about asking for advice, when angry one thinks about repercussions, when confronted with potential gain one thinks about appropriateness.

The third characteristic of self-cultivation is that it is not solitary but communal. The targeted outcome of self-cultivation is “to bring peace to the multitude” (14.42). A junzi aspires to not only help others but also to spur others on in their self-cultivation. The symbiosis is summarised in Confucius’s assertion: “In helping oneself take a stand, one helps others to take their stand; in desiring to reach a goal, one helps others to reach their goal” (6.30). A presupposition of self-cultivation for Confucius is that human beings are not individualistic, atomistic, or pre-social, but social beings embedded in a community (Tan, 2017). This means that no one can cultivate themselves without carrying out their social roles and functioning as an active member of society.4 To sum up this section, self-cultivation in the Confucian traditions locates 4 Self-directed learners need to observe “traditional norms that govern people’s behaviour by virtue

of the social positions they occupy, such as being a son or an official, or in other kinds of recurring

10.2 Xiuji (Self-cultivation)

165

individuals within social relationships, where they work towards being junzi (exemplary persons) who demonstrate ren (humanity) and yi (appropriateness). Through self-cultivation, the self is broadened and deepened in an ever-expanding circle of human relatedness (Tu, 1985).

10.3 Spiritual Formation Mindful learning in Christian traditions is encapsulated in the notion of spiritual formation. Spiritual formation is the means by which a person achieves wholeness in the form of shalom (peace). Such a person is reconciled with God (personal peace) through Jesus Christ and experiences restored relationships with people and the environment (collective peace). Taylor (2001) pointed out that “formation” is from the root word morphe, from which we derive the word metamorphosis. This suggests that “spiritual formation” is not information or a superficial change but transformation (Alexander, 2018). Spiritual formation, simply put, is “a task of shaping and creating a certain kind of people” (Smith, 2009, p. 26). Transformation builds on the process of moulding a person in accordance with one’s vocation, by stressing wisdom and service to others in one’s journey with God (Alexander, 2018). This transformation that leads to an authentic maturity in Christ is not passive or instantaneous but an active and dynamic process of self-growth. A mindful learner, from a Christian standpoint, is not a complacent believer who does nothing after salvation. Rather, such a person partakes enthusiastically in spiritual formation, which begins at a person’s redemption. With the aim of personal transformation, a mindful learner works hard to liberate oneself from all internal and external infirmities, conflicts, and distractions (Wilhoit, 1993).5 Spiritual formation involves conversion, detoxification, and transformation (Hauerwas & Willimon, 1989). Beyond adherence to religious commandments and rituals, spiritual formation hinges on learning about God and loving him.6 Spiritual formation is contrasted with spiritual deformation; the latter is marked by outward religious behaviour and vocabulary that are not accompanied by inward faith in God and a love for him. Jesus castigated the surface religious piety of His day and cautioned His disciples not to pray like the hypocrites (Matthew 6:5). With reference to Isaiah 29:13 where believers worshipped God ostensibly but not from their heart, Taylor (2001) noted that God is not interested in mere religious acts of rulekeeping and is more concerned with a changed heart. The key to spiritual formation

social interactions … as well as the embodiment of certain attitudes appropriate to such behaviour” (Shun, 2004, p. 191). 5 A mindful person “is actively engaged in his or her own process and becomes equipped from within to grow and develop spiritually” (Taylor, 2001, p. 91). 6 Murison and Benson (2018) averred, “For Christian schools seeing their students grow into Christ, becoming effective contributors to the common good, is the greatest reward” (p. 80).

166

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

is, therefore, a transformed heart that is the outcome of spiritual formation.7 Spiritual formation, simply put, is about gaining “an authentic relationship with God” (Lawson, 2001, p. 17).8 Spiritual formation, therefore, includes but is not limited to religious activities such as attending church or reciting the Scripture. The spiritual formation should take place at all times (Deuteronomy 6:6–9). This means that a believer who engages in spiritual formation does not only learn during formal settings or during certain hours of the day. Rather, such a person sees learning as an ongoing process. As Taylor (2001) put it, “All of life is learning” (Taylor, 2001, p. 92). Wilhoit (1993) identified four principles of spiritual formation. First, there is a commitment that being a Christian means living a life that conforms to biblical teachings rather than acting in accordance with an anti-Christian culture. This may require, for example, that a Christian resists cheating, cursing, or dressing provocatively because doing so violates God’s commandments. Second, the learner guards against an inauthentic and hypocritical spiritual life. Wilhoit (1993) observed, “The likelihood of people living a shallow extrinsic faith is heightened in churches which place an emphasis on narrow behavioural or ritual conformity” (p. 58). The third principle is a need to provide spiritual support and challenge to learners through discipling (refer to previous chapter on how Jesus mentored and coached his disciples) so that the learner can grow in a nurturing environment. Finally, spiritual formation requires a repertoire of avenues such as congregational and small group meetings for people to enjoy deep fellowship with each other and with God. The above four principles for spiritual formation can be put into practice with the help of spiritual disciplines. The latter refers to ancient practices for spiritual growth and renewal such as prayer, Bible reading, silence, solitude, service, and worship (Issler, 2001). Taylor (2001), drawing upon Foster (1988), identified three categories of spiritual disciplines (p. 97): • The inward disciplines: meditation, prayer, fasting, study; • The outward disciplines: simplicity, solitude, submission, service; and • The corporate disciplines: confession, worship, guidance, celebration. Although all the spiritual disciplines presuppose mindfulness, inward disciplines particularly encourage a person to engage in activities in an introspective, attentive, and intimate manner. Among the corporate disciplines is the partaking of the Holy Communion where believers gather to commemorate the sacrifice of Jesus by taking 7 As explained by Taylor (2001), “Spiritual formation begins first in the changes of the heart, where

being begins. These changes primarily bring about relational depth with God and others. The byproduct, not the goal, is secondary change in behaviours and attitudes. Rules cannot create worship. Relationship[s] can. While the law provides a necessary form, it takes a heart connection to provide a meaningful encounter with God in worship” (p. 92). Wilhoit (1993) contrasted extrinsic faith that is “concerned with show, doing the right things, and with keeping rituals for personal benefit” with intrinsic faith that “comes from a well-integrated set of values personally owned and held together by devotion to God” (p. 53). 8 Stressing that true faith stems from the heart, Wilhoit (1993) averred that authentic spirituality is simply about loving Jesus and doing as He did.

10.3 Spiritual Formation

167

Photo 10.2 A Chinese man receiving Holy Communion

the wine (representing the blood of Christ) and bread (representing the body of Christ). In cases where members are too sick or frail to participate in the Holy Communion in church, the pastor will pay them a visit. Photo 10.2 shows one such occasion where the pastor (man on the right) administered the Holy Communion for an elderly man. Collectively, these spiritual disciplines help individuals to mindfully “grow relationally with God, overcome sin, gain spiritual insight and direction, and love [their] neighbours as [themselves]” (Taylor, 2001, p. 97). Anthony (2001) pointed out the importance of studying the Bible, applying the teachings to one’s daily living, and meeting regularly with other members in a caring community. It is clear that spiritual formation is not about individual development at the expense of social interaction. On the contrary, there is a need for Christians to cultivate positive relationships with each other and with God.9 Concluding this segment, spiritual formation in the Christian traditions is about transformation that leads to an authentic maturity in Christ, by learning about God and loving him. Spiritual formation is advanced through spiritual disciplines at the individual and collective levels such as prayer, Bible reading, silence, solitude, service, and worship. 9 Being

in communion implies Christian education is “the process by which those who have experienced a personal spiritual rebirth in their relationship with God partner with the indwelling Holy Spirit to grow in the image of Christ” (Anthony, 2001, p. 13). For a good historical account of Christian education, see Lawson (2001).

168

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

10.4 Comparing Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation: Towards Self-directed Learning 10.4.1 Similarities When we compare the concepts of xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual formation, we can identify two major similarities: a common emphasis on self-directed learning, and learning in a community of like-minded learners. First, both xiuji and spiritual formation stress the importance of self-directed learning. Self-directed learning, originating from the works of educators such as Knowles (1975, 1984) and Tough (1979), is often used in conjunction with learner-centred education. Although subject to various interpretations, self-directed learning generally describes an individual’s readiness to accept responsibility for one’s learning. As summarised by Guglielmino (2008), a self-directed learner “takes responsibility for his or her own learning, and more often chooses or influences the learning objectives, activities, resources, priorities, and levels of energy expenditure than does the other-directed learner” (p. 2). Selfdirected learning is a social process where a learner interacts with the learning materials, constructs meaning, reflects, and self-regulates (Simons, 2000). A key assumption of self-directed learning is that no one can learn meaningfully by receiving knowledge passively from an objective world and external reality (Lowenthal & Muth, 2008). In the case of both xiuji and spiritual formation, we see the shared accent on a self-directed learner who puts in the effort to work towards attaining wholeness, whether in the form of he (harmony) or shalom (peace). A mindful learner in the Confucian and Christian traditions exhibits a personal readiness to be responsible for their learning. A self-directed learner may choose to engage in one or more of the following activities (Towle & Cottrell, 1996, p. 357): • • • • • •

setting their own learning goals; identifying appropriate learning resources; selecting appropriate learning strategies; monitoring achievement of learning outcomes; integrating material from different sources, managing time; and monitoring effectiveness of own study habits.

It is important to note that self-directed learning is a continuum and not an allor-nothing position. Also, self-directed learning is not antipodal to and incompatible with teacher guidance. A helpful way to understand self-directed learning is to refer to Grow’s (1991) “Staged Self-Directed Learning” model. Accordingly, there are four stages of self-directed learning, each with its distinctive learner’s need and corresponding teacher’s style: • Stage 1: Dependent: characterised by drill, informational lectures, and coaching • Stage 2: Interested: characterised by inspiring lectures and guided discussion

10.4 Comparing Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation …

169

• Stage 3: Involved: characterised by student involvement, with the teacher functioning as a facilitator • Stage 4: Self-directed: characterised by students’ engagement in self-directed study groups and individual work It should be clarified that the various stages are not discrete or sequential; instead, they likely occur in an overlapping and iterative manner. For example, it is possible for a learner to be in both Stages 2 and 3 and oscillate between them, depending on the learning topics, tasks, and settings. The main difference between Stages 2 and 3 is that students in Stage 3 are relatively more well versed with the requisite competencies and knowledge to engage in deeper learning. The role of a teacher in Stage 3 may involve giving students open-ended, inquiry-based projects, and providing written criteria, learning contracts, and evaluation checklists to help learners monitor their own progress (Grow, 1991). Teachers are not redundant even in Stage 4 because a teacher’s guidance may still be required to mentor and motivate the students at some points. Learner autonomy does not make direct teaching redundant. As posited by Knowles (1993) who pioneered the theory of adult learning, “If I enrolled tomorrow in a course in the mathematics of nuclear physics, I would need a didactic instructor to teach me what the content was about, what language that particular specialty used, and where I could find resources” (p. 99). Knowles’ point was that no learner is able to take the initiative and be self-directed if they do not have a prior background knowledge of the subject matter. It follows that self-directed learning does not come automatically and involves instead deliberate planning on the part of the teacher. With respect to Grow’s (1991) model, the ideal stage for the self-directed learner in both the Confucian and Christian traditions is Stage 4 (self-directed). The goal for both traditions is a confident and mature learner—whether as a junzi (exemplary person) or a mature and transformed Christian—who is actively engaged in the self-directed study group and individual work. Another commonality between xiuji and spiritual formation as variants of selfdirected learning is that both underscore personal agency. Personal agency is about a person’s capacity to take intentional action, exercise choices, and monitor the effects (Watkins, 2005). Agency is especially evident when a person responds critically to problematic situations (Biesta & Tedder, 2006). Such a person makes a difference in one’s daily life by regulating the activities of oneself and others. Biesta and Tedder (2007) drew attention to the interaction between the actor and environment. They note that “actors always act by means of their environment rather than simply in their environment [so that] the achievement of agency will always result from the interplay of individual efforts, available resources and contextual and structural factors as they come together in particular and, in a sense, always unique situations” (Biesta & Tedder, 2007, p. 137, italics added). Applied to the Confucian traditions, agency means that a person is capable of exercising yi (appropriateness) by being mindful of their environment; this enables a person to demonstrate ren consistently in all circumstances. As for the Christian traditions, agency is manifested through selfdirected and purposeful spiritual disciplines such as prayer and worship in the course

170

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

of spiritual formation. An example of agency is this testimony from a student with special needs who overcame his learning difficulties to excel in a Christian school: I prayed to God to help me get through this unit. It has made me a stronger person and made me realise not to give up. It has helped me remember in my whole life not give up on your dream (cited in Hills, Andersen, & Davidson, 2018, p. 243).

Self-cultivation and spiritual formation are not solitary engagements. This brings us to the second parallel between Confucian and Christian traditions: both locate self-directed learners in a community of fellow learners. As noted earlier, Confucian traditions seek to balance between “self” and “others” as part and parcel of self-cultivation. The quality of a person’s relationship with others in the community indicates their stage of self-development (Yao, 1996). In the same fashion, the spiritual disciplines for the Christian traditions, as noted earlier, are not only inward and outward but also collective. Through corporate worship, confession and service, Christians congregate to celebrate their salvation, spiritual growth, and fellowship.

10.4.2 Differences As for differences, a key divergence is that self-cultivation emphasises moral development whereas spiritual formation focuses on religious growth. A junzi embodies ren (humanity) and demonstrates it by “cultivating oneself in order to bring peace to the multitude” (14.42). Learning in Confucianism, as asserted by the Confucian scholar Tu Weiming, is “basically moral self-cultivation”, where a person participates in “a gradual process of building up one’s character by making oneself receptive to the symbolic resources of one’s own culture and responsive to the sharable values of one’s own society” (Tu, 1985, p. 68).10 It is important to note that the term “morality” in Confucian traditions is not limited to ethical considerations of what is right or good, as is commonly understood in the Western literature. Rather, Confucian morality encompasses ethical, psychological, spiritual, metaphysical, and aesthetic significances (Ames & Rosemont, 1998). Moral values such as humanity (ren), normative behaviours (li), rightness (yi), trustworthiness (xin), and courage (yong) are the building blocks of self-cultivation in Confucian traditions. The emphasis on morality does not mean that there is no element of spirituality and spiritual development in the Confucian traditions. As noted in the previous chapters, spirituality refers to a distinctive effort to make sense of oneself within a wider framework of meaning and see oneself as part of a larger whole. Examples of spiritual ideals are mindfulness, tranquillity, a sense of awe, feelings of transcendence, and self-awareness. Confucianism is concerned with spiritual ideals such as love, harmony, and self-transformation. A junzi engages in spiritual development by drawing attention to non-material and transcendental (although not necessarily 10 Li

(2003) posited that the priority of Confucius “was not academic, not mind oriented, but moral in nature” and that “the Confucian model is about moral striving” (pp. 146–147).

10.4 Comparing Xiuji (Self-cultivation) and Spiritual Formation …

171

otherworldly) dimensions of life.11 The teaching of self-cultivation, which implies human effort and lifelong learning, is not incompatible with a concomitant belief in the spiritual ideal of heaven and the mandate of heaven in Confucianism. It is precisely because an exemplary person is “in awe of the mandate of heaven” (16.8) and “understands the mandate” (20.3) that such a one is driven to carry out heaven’s bidding. To perform the mandate of heaven is to “broaden dao” (15.29) by charting new paths of human developments and achievements.12 In contrast, the pivot of spiritual formation in the Christian traditions is religious development. As noted earlier, spiritual formation revolves around learning about God and loving him and others.13 Self-transformation takes place when a person is activated by the Holy Spirit to be transformed in Christ personally and corporately (Pazmino, 1997). Spiritual formation goes hand in hand with sanctification, the latter being another key concept in the Christian traditions. Sanctification is “the process by which God the Holy Spirit and the believer participate together in the project of the believer becoming Christlike experientially” (Issler, 2001, p. 39).14 Spiritual formation focuses on the human side of sanctification whereby a person reforms or restores oneself holistically, i.e., in spirit, mind, heart, emotions, will, and body (Dirks, 2001). Spiritual formation involves a synergistic arrangement where humans put in the effort while depending on God’s help and grace.15

11 An “independent, autonomous and inner-directed process”, self-cultivation stresses that “knowing oneself internally is the precondition for doing things right in the external world” (Tu, 1985, p. 56). 12 As averred by Ames and Hall (2001), the decree of Heaven should be “understood as requiring personal participation rather than being regarded as some determinative imposition on human experience”; correspondingly, one’s nature is not a “givenness” but brings with it an “expectation that one must continue to the construction of the road to becoming human” (p. 117). The focus of selfcultivation is not religious in the Christian sense of a steadfast fulfilment of God’s commandments (Standaert, 2001). 13 In the context of Christian education, Ransford and Crawford (2018) interpreted spirituality as “seeking and connecting with the Divine”, which “empowers acceptance and expression of all aspects of one’s humanity and the freedom to become all that one is uniquely created to be” (p. 203). 14 A sanctified person is one who becomes more and more like Christ (Graham, 2009). Sanctification begins after the person accepts Jesus as one’s personal Saviour and is thus justified. Justification is a Christian term that refers to a person being declared positionally righteous in Christ, based on the latter’s substitutionary death and atonement (Issler, 2001). Dirks (2001) added that sanctification is an all-encompassing process, affecting the whole person intellectually (Colossians 3:10), emotionally (Galatians 5:22), intellectually (Philippians 2:13), spiritually (2 Corinthians 7:1), and physically (1 Thessalonians 5:23). A sanctified life is one that displays the fruit of the Spirit: love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control (Galatians 5:22–23). Other Bible verses speak of compassion, humility, and forgiveness, among other traits (e.g., Colossians 3:12–15, Ephesians 4:2). Sanctification is not an isolated, individual process. As rightly noted by Pazmino (1997), “Maturation and growth, given the nature of Christian community and fellowship, include not only personal sanctification, but also corporate or mutual edification” (p. 46). 15 Issler (2001) explained, “Without our effort in response to God’s initiatives and divine resources, no sanctifying will occur. […] The classic text is 1 Timothy 4:7–8, in which Paul charges Timothy: ‘Train yourself to be godly. For physical training is of some value, but godliness has value [in every way], holding promise for both the present life and the life to come’” (p. 39, italics in the original).

172

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

10.5 Promoting Mindful Learning Through Design Thinking This section recommends the promotion of mindful learning through the pedagogical approach of design thinking. Despite its diverse meanings, design thinking generally refers to “all conscious activities to create artefacts” (Johansson-Sköldberg, Woodilla, & Çetinkaya, 2013, p. 124). This form of thinking is premised on the salient features of xiuji and spiritual formation; it shows up a personal readiness to be responsible for one’s learning, and combines individual growth and collaborative learning. Design thinking is a problem-solving framework that relies on experiential knowledge and empathy. Design thinking involves not only declarative and functional knowledge but also experiential knowledge, by focusing on problem-solving and innovation (Tan & Ng, 2020). Design thinkers are not confined to technological or material concerns; instead, they strive to meet real human needs in specific historical and sociocultural contexts. For example, a school in Singapore adopts design thinking, where students work collaboratively under the facilitation of their teacher “to research, brainstorm, design and co-create innovative solutions with the intent to address people’s needs” (Westwood Secondary School, 2015, para 3). Design thinking utilises empathy to understand the users’ needs, as noted by another school in Singapore that promotes design thinking in its students: Design Thinking uses the mindset of designers to produce innovations in products, processes and business and organisational models, with the core focus on deep understanding of and empathy with the people who use them. […] [it] integrates a designer mindset with a businessoriented value proposition. […] to make a meaningful and innovative impact in our society (St. Joseph’s Institution, 2018, para 1).

Design thinking also employs authentic assessment, which is needed in a postpandemic world. According to Wiggins (1989), authentic assessment tasks are intended to represent performance in the field through contextualised, complex intellectual challenges. By getting students to be involved in their own research and apply their knowledge in ill-structured or wicked problems, authentic assessment tasks develop the students’ higher-order competencies (Koh & Tan, 2016). Furthermore, students acquire meta-cognition when they assess their own work through prototyping and receiving feedback from the users in iterative ways. Design thinking empowers students to take the lead in designing or co-designing as part of youth participation. The latter refers to “a process where young people, as active citizens, take part in, express views on, and have decision making power about issues that affect them” (Farthing, 2012). Blanchard and Fava (2017) gave an example of how young people were invited to assess some apps that tracked alcohol use, and design the apps themselves. As a result, apps were created that effectively minimised harm, promoted safer drinking practices, and raised awareness of drinking limits for young people. Blanchard and Fava (2017), drawing on Hagen et al. (2012), suggested the following guidelines for youth participation (p. 200):

10.5 Promoting Mindful Learning Through Design Thinking

173

• Young people are involved as active participants (co-designers) throughout the design process from problem setting to problem-solving. • Young people contribute as design partners, participating in idea generation as well as providing opinions and feedback on existing design concepts. • Proposed interventions are understood and continually evaluated from the perspective of whether they are relevant, meaningful, and engaging to the young people who stand to benefit from them, as well as taking into consideration potential harm and their anticipated impact on mental health and well-being outcomes. Design thinking can be the platform to advance spiritual development in students too. I, together with a colleague, have reported how design thinking encouraged a group of high school students in Singapore to reflect on spiritual ideals such as humanity, frailty, and mortality through service learning (Tan & Wong, 2012). The service-learning project involved students reaching out to a group of elderly people who were living alone in an old housing estate. The students observed and interacted with the elderly people so as to empathise with the latter’s physical and psychological needs. A benefit of using the design thinking approach for spiritual education is that this approach recognises and welcomes the end users’ diversity in their understandings of spirituality. By encouraging students to ponder on issues relating to wholenesses such as harmony and peace, students engage in mindful learning. As my co-author and I have reported, [O]ne of the students reflected in his project journal that the elderly people’s need for independence is a manifestation of every human’s need to be in control of his or her own destiny and be in command of his or her own faculties. Such reflections prompt the students to reach beyond the mundane and the material towards deeper questions related to humanity, frailty and mortality. It is clear from this example that a well-chosen design thinking project can provide students with a rich well of experiences from which their teacher can later draw to facilitate an exploration of the spiritual ideal of one’s quest for meaning and purpose in life (Tan & Wong, 2012, p. 33, italics added).

Educators can also make use of design thinking to direct the students to projects involving spiritual ideals that are more tethered to Confucian and Christian traditions, such as he (harmony), dao (Way), prayer, and worship. Regardless of the spiritual ideals selected, what is central is that students are empowered to learn mindfully with an orientation towards their own wholeness, with adequate support from the teachers.

10.6 Conclusion This chapter has attended to the concept of self-directed learning by expounding on and comparing two related notions in the Confucian and Christian traditions: xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual formation respectively. Self-cultivation in the Confucian traditions locates the individuals within social relationships, where humans work

174

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

towards becoming junzi (exemplary persons) who demonstrate ren (humanity) and yi (appropriateness). Both self-cultivation in the Confucian traditions and spiritual formation in the Christian traditions place an emphasis on self-directed learning. In both cases, the learning goes beyond cognitive development to values inculcation. The learning is also not individualistic but rather interpersonal, residing in a community of like-minded learners. Another parallel is the stress on moral and spiritual growth, where students practise mindfulness by being aware of, paying attention to, and maintaining an attitude of harmony and peace. Beyond academic learning, a self-directed learner is mindful about one’s wellbeing. School closures have prompted teachers to turn to online learning. But online and blended learning is beneficial only if the students are already selfdirected learners. That is why a key mission of education in the post-pandemic world is to nurture students who possess media literacy and are capable of learning independently. Teachers, therefore, need to mentor and coach students to become self-directed learners, even as online learning supplements or replaces face-to-face learning. Schools should also ensure that students are well supplied with the necessary online learning devices and connectivity, either by providing for them directly or partnering with the community and/or private sector to do so (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). Hall and colleagues (2020) proposed a framework that comprises 21 mobile learning principles for designing innovative mobile pedagogies. Categorised under the five domains of adaptiveness, authenticity, collaboration, mobility, and student choice, the 21 principles are as follows: • Collaboration: peer review, co-construction, data sharing, co-design for mobile learning, and intergenerational learning • Authenticity: artefact construction, role-play, authentic environment, real-world processes, and real-world tools. • Student choice: reflection, digital play, student agency, and student autonomy • Mobility: community-based, bridging, and seamless learning • Adaptiveness: simulation, context-awareness, customisation, and gamification It can be observed from the above principles that self-directed learning—whether as xiuji or spiritual formation—is crucial for innovative mobile pedagogies to be effectively enacted in schools. Worthy of special mention is the category of “student choice” where learners are expected to exercise their agency and autonomy mindfully. In a post-pandemic world that reflects a complex system, schools can no longer be content with transmitting declarative knowledge found in books and lectures. Instead, functional knowledge is increasingly more important, where learners need to know how to apply what they have learnt to practical situations and solve problems (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009).16 Researchers have also reported how 16 Altbach,

Reisberg, & Rumbley (2009) wrote, “Until fairly recently, teaching meant “covering” a body of declarative knowledge—that is, knowledge that could be “declared” in books or in lectures—while assessment measured how well students received that knowledge based on their ability to regurgitate it [in] examinations. Less thought was given to functional knowledge-that is, knowing how to apply theory to practical situations. … Although under researched in a global context, today an emerging dialogue focuses on the need for more student-centered approaches to

10.6 Conclusion

175

self-directed learning complements and supports personal autonomy, learner-control, self-management, autodidaxy, self-monitoring, and motivation (see Tan, 2017 for details). A related point is that post-pandemic schooling has ushered in a corresponding change in the attributes of students and their expectations of them. No longer can students afford to remain passive and expect their teachers to fill them with facts and exam answers. Instead, they need to be fairly independent, self-motivated, and able to take charge of their own learning. In short, students in the new normal need to be mindful learners.

References Alexander, I. (2018). Modelling our teaching on the Jesus of the gospels. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 111–121). Singapore: Springer. Anthony, M. J. (2001). Introduction. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 13–14). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. Paris: UNESCO. Ames, R. T., & Hall, D. L. (2001). Focusing the familiar: A translation and philosophical interpretation of the Zhongyong. Hawaii, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Ames, T. R., & Rosemont, H., Jr. (Trans.). (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation. New York: Ballantine Books. Biesta, G. J. J., & Tedder, M. (2006). How is agency possible? Towards an ecological understanding of agency-as-achievement [Working paper 5]. Exeter: The Learning Lives Project. Biesta, G. J. J., & Tedder, M. (2007). Agency and learning in the lifecourse: Towards an ecological perspective. Studies in the Education of Adults, 39, 132–149. Blanchard, M., & Fava, N. (2017). Co-designing new solutions to support young people’s mental health and wellbeing. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 197–201). Cham: Springer. Chang, P. (2011). Confucian China and Jeffersonian America: Beyond liberal democracy. Asian Studies Review, 35(1), 43–62. Cheng, C.-Y. (1972). On Yi as a universal principle of specific application in Confucian morality. Philosophy East and West, 22(3), 269–280. Cheng, C. (2004). A theory of Confucian selfhood: self-cultivation and free will in Confucian philosophy. In K. Sun & D. B. Wong (Eds.), Confucian ethics: a comparative study of self, autonomy, and community (pp. 124–147). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dirks, D. (2001). Faith development. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 83–90). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Farthing, R. (2012). Why youth participation? Some justifications and critiques of youth participation using new labour’s youth policies as a case study. Youth and Policy, 109, 71–97. Foster, R. (1988). Celebration of discipline. San Francisco, CA: Harper and Row. Graham, D. (2009). Teaching redemptively. Bringing grace and truth into your classroom (2nd ed.). Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125– 149.

teaching, the “inputs,” and more meaningful assessments regarding student learning, the “outputs.” (p. 113, italics in the original).

176

10 Mindful Learning: Xiuji (Self-cultivation) …

Guglielmino, L. M. (2008). Why self-directed learning? International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 5(1), 1–14. Hagen, P., et al. (2012). Participatory design of evidence-based online youth mental health promotion, intervention and treatment. Melbourne: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. Hall, D. L., & Ames, R. T. (1987). Thinking through Confucius. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Hall, T., Connolly, C., Ó Gradaigh, S., Burden, K., Kearney, M., Schuck, S., … & Kosmas, P. (2020). Education in precarious times: A comparative study across six countries to identify design priorities for mobile learning in a pandemic. Information and Learning Sciences, 121(5/6), 433–442. Hauerwas, S., & Willimon, W. H. (1989). Resident aliens: Life in the Christian colony. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Hills, K., Andersen, K., & Davidson, S. (2018). Personalised learning and teaching approaches to meet diverse needs: A prototype tertiary education programme. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 233–257). Singapore: Springer. Issler, K. (2001). Theological foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 35–44). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Johansson-Sköldberg, U., Woodilla, J., & Çetinkaya, M. (2013). Design thinking: Past, present and possible futures. Creativity and innovation management, 22(2), 121–146. Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Chicago: Follet. Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Knowles, M. S. (1993). Contributions of Malcolm S. Knowles. In K. O. Gangel & J. C. Wilhoit (Eds.), The Christian educator’s handbook on adult education (pp. 91–103). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Koh, K., & Tan, C. (2016). Promoting reflection in pre-service teachers through Problem-Based Learning: An example from Canada. Reflective Practice, 17(3), 347–356. Lawson, K. E. (2001). Historical foundations of Christian education. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 17–25). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Li, J. (2003). The core of Confucian learning. American Psychologist, 58, 146–147. Lowenthal, P., & Muth, R. (2008). Constructivism. In E. F. Provenzo Jr. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education (pp. xx–xx). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Murison, C. B., & Benson, D. M. (2018). Reimagining Christian schools as revelatory communities. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 75–88). Singapore: Springer. Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational issues in Christian education. An introduction in evangelical perspective (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Ransford, K. R., & Crawford, A. (2018). Narrative possibilities and potential for understanding a twenty-first century Christian spiritual journey. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 197–206). Singapore: Springer. Reimers, F. M., & Schleicher, A. (2020). A framework to guide an education response to the COVID-19 Pandemic of 2020. Paris: Author. Shun, K.-L. (2004). Conception of the person in early Confucian thought. In K. Sun & D. B. Wong (Eds.), Confucian ethics: A comparative study of self, autonomy, and community (pp. xx–xx). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Simons, P. R. J. (2000). Towards a constructivistic theory of self-directed learning. http://dspace. library.uu.nl/handle/1874/6994. Slingerland, E. (2001). Virtue ethics, the “Analects,” and the problem of commensurability. Journal of Religious Ethics, 29(1), 97–125.

References

177

Smith, J. K. A. (2009). Desiring the kingdom: Worship, worldview and cultural formation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. St. Joseph’s Institution. (2018). Design thinking. https://www.sji.edu.sg/programmes/cognitive-dev elopment-programmes/design-thinking. Standaert, N. (2001). Christianity as a religion in China: Insights from the handbook of Christianity in China Volume One (635–1800). Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie, 12, 1–21. https://www.persee.fr/doc/ asie_0766-1177_2001_num_12_1_1163. Tan, C. (2017). A Confucian perspective of self-cultivation in learning: Its implications for selfdirected learning. Journal of Adult & Continuing Education, 23(2), 250–262. Tan, C. (2020a). Confucianism. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (3rd ed., pp. 195–198). London: Academic Press, Elsevier. Tan, C. (2020b). Digital Confucius? Exploring the implications of artificial intelligence in spiritual education. Connection Science, 32(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540091.2019.1709045. Tan, C., & Ng, C. S. L. (2020). Cultivating creativity in a high-performing education system: The example of Singapore. Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy. https://doi.org/10.1080/15505170. 2020.1808126. Tan, C., & Wong, Y.-L. (2012). Promoting spiritual ideals through design thinking in public schools. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 17(1), 25–37. Taylor, N. (2001). Spiritual formation: Nurturing spiritual vitality. In M. J. Anthony (Ed.), Introducing Christian education: Foundations for the twenty-first century (pp. 91–98). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Tough, A. M. (1979). The adult’s learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning (2nd ed.). Austin: Learning Concepts. Towle, A., & Cottrell, D. (1996). Self directed learning. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 74, 357–359. Tu, W. (1985). Confucian thought: Selfhood as creative transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press. Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities. London: Routledge. Westwood Secondary School. (2015). Distinctive programmes. http://westwoodsec.moe.edu.sg/cocurriculum/distinctive-programmes. Wiggins, G. P. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 703–713. Wilhoit, J. C. (1993). Christian adults and spiritual formation. In K. O. Gangel & J. C. Wilhoit (Eds.), The Christian educator’s handbook on adult education (pp. 51–63). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Yao, X. (1996). Self-construction and identity: The Confucian self in relation to some Western perceptions. Asian Philosophy, 6(3), 179–195.

Chapter 11

Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Abstract According to both Confucian and Christian traditions, students experience wholeness in the form of he (harmony) and shalom (peace) in a loving school community filled with ren (humanity) and agape (love). A mindful school is one where students flourish as self-directed learners through xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual formation. At the same time, teachers model and demonstrate empathic and dialogic teaching based on, and are motivated by, shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Golden Rule (do to others as you would have them do to you). In a postpandemic world, it is heartening to note that the fixation with academic performance and standardised testing, which contributes to an absence and neglect of wholeness, has been put aside for the better. Recommended strategies to enact mindful teaching and learning are: teacher role-modelling, mindful engagement, dialogic teaching, personalised and hybrid teaching, and Appreciative Inquiry (AI). Keywords Mindful education · Mindful learning · Mindful school · Mindful school community · Mindful teaching · Post-pandemic world · Standardised testing · Wholeness The pandemic has radically changed the educational landscape in almost all parts of the world. Although vaccines for COVID-19 have been made available, measures such as the wearing of masks, social distancing, and learning from home are likely to stay. For children who grow up in a post-pandemic world—like the boy in Photo 11.1—what kind of schooling can they expect? This chapter considers this question by summarising the main arguments, findings, and conclusions of this book. The first part of this chapter returns to and answers the two central questions raised in Chap. 1. The second segment proposes some strategies by which schools can promote student well-being through mindful education.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 C. Tan, Mindful Education, Encounters between East and West, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1405-7_11

179

180

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Photo 11.1 Children and their parents with their masks on

11.1 Revisiting the Two Questions The first chapter of this book has noted how the pandemic has generated major educational difficulties, namely disrupted learning especially for children from low socioeconomic backgrounds, a widening digital divide, the limitations of remote learning and diminished holistic education. In a word, the pandemic has contributed to and aggravated the physical, mental, social, and emotional stress experienced by students, thereby impairing their general well-being. A major task is for policymakers and educators to explore, (re)conceptualise, and transform their educational theories, paradigms, and practices to meet existing and new challenges. To provide a focal point for our discussion, it is helpful to return to the two questions raised by Netolicky (2020, p. 4): (1)

What is it that we’ve missed that we want to bring back into schooling and education? For example, how do we reignite and build on the distanced connectedness of our school communities and the relationality of teaching?

(2)

What is it that has been removed that we do not want to return to? For example, how do we want to measure and judge the effectiveness of education? What is the role of schooling and of teachers?

11.1 Revisiting the Two Questions

181

The first question: What is it that we have missed that we want to bring back into schooling and education? Putting together what we have learnt from the Confucian and Christian traditions, this book suggests that what humans have missed that we would like to—and should— restore is wholeness through mindful education. The priority of every school in a post-pandemic world should be the well-being of every student. All school leaders and educators should, therefore, seek to develop the whole child that encompasses all dimensions of life experience. To be sure, the issues of student well-being, educating the whole person, and mindful education are not new in educational research, discourses, and practices. The past and existing endeavours of schools to promote student wellness should be acknowledged. But the pandemic has made the desired outcome of wholeness more paramount than before, in light of the disrupted learning of over one billion students worldwide. Leading scholars have argued for student well-being to take centre stage in a post-pandemic world. For example, Reimers and Schleicher (2020) posited, “Educators and leaders of education systems should make explicit and visible their goals for well-being, and pursue strategies that help maintain well-being in the face of a global health event that will have a considerable toll in the lives and health of individuals, which may include members of the communities in which students live” (pp. 7–8). The trend of implementing mindfulness in schools is also not new and has, in fact, gained momentum and popularity in the aftermath of the pandemic. Despite commendable efforts to advance wholeness and mindfulness in students, there is insufficient research on the relations between wholeness and mindful education from a cross-cultural perspective. Transcending reactive, piecemeal, and temporary initiatives and activities is a whole-school approach, where mindfulness is integrated into the school’s curriculum, teaching, learning, and community. Furthermore, what has been underexplored is how insights into wisdom traditions can inform and inspire educators. As noted in Chap. 4, mindfulness in the extant research and literature centres on Buddhist teachings and tends towards individualistic, non-judgmental awareness of the present moment. Comparatively little is known of a form of mindfulness that goes beyond the self, therapeutic, and non-evaluative emphasis, and is collective, all-encompassing and ethical. Focusing on Confucian and Christian traditions, this book has proposed a conception of mindfulness as an orientation towards wholeness. Figure 11.1 shows an overview of mindful education based on the key concepts from Confucian and Christian traditions. Drawing on wisdom from Confucian and Christian traditions, this book has elucidated the contents and contours of the mission, vision, and core values of education for a post-pandemic world. Briefly, student well-being describes a state of wholeness that promotes optimal functioning in the school community. Mindful education refers to a form of teaching and learning that orientates students towards wholeness. A mindful curriculum provides students with ample opportunities and a safe learning environment to be aware of, pay attention to, and maintain an attitude of wholeness, whether as he (harmony) and/or shalom (peace). A mindful curriculum is also transformational, premised on enabling learners to broaden dao (way) as a vision

182

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Mindful Education: Teaching and learning of mindfulness Mindfulness: An orientation towards wholeness

Confucian Traditions: Dao (Way) Curriculum based on ren (humanity)

Teaching and Learning Empathic Teaching: Shu (putting oneself in another’s place) Dialogic teaching of Confucius Self-Directed Learning: Xiuji (selfcultivation)

Christian Traditions: Imago Dei (God's image) Curriculum based on agape (love)

Teaching and Learning Empathic Teaching: The Golden Rule Dialogic teaching of Jesus Self-Directed Learning: Spiritual Formation

Fig. 11.1 Mindful education

of human excellence and live up to their potential as imago dei (God’s image). A mindful school develops self-directed learners who engage in xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual formation. The learners are guided and supported by mindful teachers who model and utilise empathic and dialogic teaching, thereby exemplifying the virtues of ren (humanity), shu (putting oneself in the other’s place), agape (love), and the Golden Rule. In all, the arguments presented in this book support Netolicky’s (2020) thesis that “we must consider humans before outcomes, students before results and well-being before learning” (p. 3). To achieve the school vision of wholeness through mindful education, policymakers and educators cannot return to and rely on the pre-pandemic state of affairs. The latter refers to instances where student well-being, although mentioned in the school plans, remains mere rhetoric and is largely marginalised. In these instances, mindfulness, even if pursued, is mindlessly implemented and ultimately peripheral to the total school curriculum. This book also cautions against “McMindfulness” where wholeness, whether understood as he (harmony) and/or shalom (peace), is seen as a quick fix. McMindfulness is not only ineffective in contributing to the students’ wellness but also gives the illusion that all is well in school, and that any persistent problems are the fault of the students and their families. In Netolicky’s (2020) first question, he also asked how humans can reignite and build on the distanced connectedness of our school communities and the relationality of teaching. From the Confucian and Christian viewpoints, a school community should rest on and be conditioned by the core values of ren (humanity) and agape (love). Whether together or physically apart, such a school community is one where all its members—students, teachers, parents, and other educational stakeholders— identify themselves with, manifest, and are united by a common love for each other.

11.1 Revisiting the Two Questions

183

Members of a convictional community find a safe space to flourish through shared beliefs, values, worldviews, and lifestyles, as well as reappropriate their tradition based on changing needs. They also appreciate and reflect on themes of positive moral evaluation and dimensions of human experience that are meaningful, transcendent, and eternal. As for the relationality of teaching, the examples of Confucius and Jesus point to mindful teaching that is oriented towards developing wholeness in students. Applying humanity and love to the school context involves providing a variety of avenues for students to display neighbourly love to people around them. Good practices including getting students to distribute masks and food to the elderly or sick, offering free lessons for students who face school closure, and spending time with those who are lonely. Key to all these activities is the cultivation and demonstration of empathic concern. As noted by Jenkins (2018), “it is by connecting with the lived experience of another person, and walking a mile in their shoes, that we can gain both the insights that inspire the design of a better way of doing things, and the energy to do it” (p. 291). The second question: What is it that has been removed that we do not want to return to? As to the second question on what has been removed that we do not want to— and should not— return to, this book contends that schools should not go back to a fixation with academic performance and standardised testing that jeopardises student well-being. A silver lining of the pandemic is that it has disrupted the focus of many schools on measurable outcomes arising from high-stakes examinations (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020; Netolicky, 2020). Embodying global standardised testing are large-scale international assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).1 Compounding the trend of exam-driven teaching and learning is the adverse impact of neoliberal policies, strategies, and presuppositions on modern-day schooling. Some prominent effects of neo-liberal education are intense competition coupled with accountability measures and performance goals, which reduce schooling to a product (Davies & Bansel, 2007). It needs to be clarified that high-stakes, standardised testing, whether nationally or internationally, is not necessarily detrimental. Terminal examination systems can be a useful means of preparing students for certification and placement, providing data for school choice, evaluating the teachers’ professional capacity and performance, 1 Currently, the three prominent ILSAs are Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA),

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). PISA is a triennial survey that assesses the knowledge and skills of 15-year-old students in the primary domains of science, mathematics, and reading, with problemsolving and financial literacy added to the list in recent years. TIMSS monitors trends in mathematics and science achievement every four years at the fourth and eighth grades, whereas PIRLS tracks trends in reading achievement at the fourth grade every 5 years. While TIMSS and PIRLS focus on curriculum content, PISA adopts a literacy approach by evaluating the students’ application of disciplinary knowledge in real-life settings (Tan, 2019).

184

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

and appraising a school’s standard. In many countries, however, there is an excessive attention to test scores and examinations, leading to a culture of high-stakes testing. Standardised assessment has prompted educators to rely on didactic teaching, rotememorisation, and other passive forms of learning (World Economic Forum, 2020).2 Researchers have noted the deleterious effects of high-stakes testing such as inducing teachers to depend on exam techniques that undermine the students’ self-efficacy, confidence, and creativity while increasing academic stress (Amrein & Berliner, 2003; Au, 2009, 2016).3 Even pre-school education has not been exempted from “schoolification”, catalysed by the launch of the International Early Learning and Childhood Well-being Study (IELS), also colloquially referred to as the “baby PISA” since 2017.4 It is heartening to note that the pandemic has put a temporary stop to the testing, performative culture that has enveloped schooling in modern times. High-stakes assessments such as Australia’s NAPLAN and the United Kingdom’s GCSE have also been cancelled or postponed (Harris, 2020).5 Instead of returning to an obsession with standardised testing, policymakers and educators should concentrate on advocating a more balanced and holistic form of education that pivots on wholeness. An over-emphasis on academic performance and testing jeopardises the achievement of wholeness in students as it encourages mindlessness instead of mindfulness. A mindless person is locked within a simplistic and rigid mindset, incapable of personal deliberation and dependent on rules and routines (Langer, 2000).6 In the context of learning, mindlessness is manifested in upholding facts as indubitable truths and failing to question or consider the context and competing viewpoints. It is, therefore, 2 It

is pertinent that the same report by the World Economic Forum (2020) identified eight critical characteristics needed in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Global citizenship skills, innovation and creativity skills, technology skills, interpersonal skills, personalised and self-paced learning, accessible and inclusive learning (beyond the school and open to everyone), problem-based and collaborative learning, and lifelong and student-driven learning. 3 Alexander (2018) observed that Christian educational institutions are not immune to the effects of neoliberal education. He contended that “Christian universities and schools are also in danger of following the example of many of the secular universities around us, setting information above wisdom, disregarding the importance of relationship, tying assessment to regulatory practices, seeing individual learning and online learning as no different from the communal context of the classroom or the mentoring relationship” (p. 114). 4 The International Early Learning and Childhood Well-being Study (IELS) assesses 5-year-old children’s emergent literacy, emergent numeracy, and social and emotional skills using standardised measures. For details, see Wu and Tan (2020). 5 Scholars such as Harris (2020) have questioned whether international large-scale assessments such as PISA will have or should have any influence on the present and future policy decisions. 6 According to Langer (1992), mindlessness is “a state of mind characterised by an overreliance on categories and distinctions drawn in the past and in which the individual is context-dependent and, as such, is oblivious to novel (or simply alternative) aspects of the situation” (p. 289). In other words, such a person relies on “structures that have been built up over time or on structures that have been appropriated from another source (i.e., premature cognitive commitments)” (Langer, Hatem, Joss, & Howell, 1989, p. 140). Mindless learners cling onto a “single-minded reliance on information without an active awareness of alternative perspectives or alternative uses to which the information could be put” (Langer et al., 1989, p. 140).

11.1 Revisiting the Two Questions

185

important for school leaders not to be governed by high-stakes testing, which lowers students’ self-efficacy and induces academic stress. Schools, rather than being places of self-directed learning and empathic teaching, would then become neo-liberal sites that produce economic agents in an increasingly market-driven society. Therefore, school leaders need to be mindful of their moral purpose of prioritising wholeness in all students and other educational stakeholders. The welfare of the teachers should not be neglected too; teachers need to be reminded of the moral purpose of their work in order to sustain their well-being (Shirley, Hargreaves, & Washington-Wangia, 2020). The second question by Netolicky (2020) also raises the issue of how educators measure and judge the effectiveness of education as well as the role of schooling and teachers. With respect to the effectiveness of education, the school vision of wholeness through mindful education cannot be measured purely by quantifiable indicators. What is more informative is how students succeed in functioning optimally by living a virtuous life in pursuit of human excellence. To achieve this goal, schools need to empower students to become self-directed learners who thrive in a loving school community and contribute to it. Consistent with educating the whole person, schools should attend to the well-being of students and teachers, help students especially those from disadvantaged home backgrounds in their learning, equip students with independent study skills, and render professional support for teachers (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). The next section recommends some strategies for mindful teaching and learning based on the insights gleaned from Confucian and Christian traditions.

11.2 Mindful Teaching and Learning Strategies 11.2.1 Mindful Teaching Following what we have learnt from Confucian and Christian traditions, mindful teaching is oriented towards the promotion of wholeness in all students. A mindful teacher is an empathic teacher who demonstrates shu (putting oneself in the other’s place) and the Golden Rule (do to others as you would have them do to you). Such a teacher adopts empathic pedagogy and learner-centred approaches, including dialogic teaching. Teacher leadership that focuses on the influence and impact of teachers through their actions is critical for mindful education (Netolicky, 2020, p. 2). Five strategies that advance mindful teaching are discussed: teacher rolemodelling, mindful engagement, dialogic teaching, personalised and hybrid teaching, and Appreciative Inquiry. First, it is important for teachers to role-model the quest for and realisation of wholeness for their students. This requires going beyond content teaching and exam preparation to live out the moral purpose of teaching and empathic concern for their students. Tellingly, TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey) that surveyed teachers from over 60 countries reported that the large majority of teachers espoused the ethical goal of wanting to nurture students and improve society

186

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

(OECD, 2020; Schleicher, 2019). Empathic teachers display humility and inspire their students to desire attentiveness and wholeness for themselves (Murison & Benson, 2018). A student who graduated from a Christian college shared how she was impacted by the modelling of her lecturers: [T]hey not only taught but modelled authenticity and I was deeply touched by the vulnerability with which they lived out their own stories while I studied under them. […] I am on a journey of living my life in a way that is as authentically human as I can be—what I learned has enabled me to have the freedom to be me (cited in Alexander, 2018, p. 118).

Second, mindful teaching entails what Ashford and DeRue (2012) termed mindful engagement, where individuals go through their experiences reflectively and purposefully.7 The goal of mindful engagement is wholeness that takes the form of he (harmony) and/or shalom (peace). Ehrlich (2017) advocated self-acceptance where one builds one’s confidence from the inside out (within oneself) rather than outsidein (from others). Self-acceptance is essential for internal he (harmony) and personal shalom (peace), and a prerequisite for external harmony and collective peace. Central to self-acceptance is self-compassion, which refers to the intention to be kind to oneself through ways such as the following (Ehrlich, 2017, p. 240): • • • • • • • • • •

paying mindful attention to yourself; protecting and taking care of yourself; impeccability (doing your best by yourself); being curious and inquiring into yourself (seeking self-awareness); not second-guessing or criticising yourself; forgiving yourself and supporting experimentation; valuing, appreciating, and loving yourself; being positive and encouraging with yourself; being gentle and patient versus pushing yourself; and trusting yourself and taking yourself seriously (not denying your reactions, feelings, values, or dreams).

Mindful engagement encourages students to reflect on their feelings and articulate them in a safe environment (Shady & Larson, 2010). Students can express their thoughts orally and/or in writing, in a low-risk environment where they will not be judged or criticised. Examples of activities for students are journaling, meditation, expressing themselves creatively, enjoying friends, being in the natural world, and engaging in meaningful rituals for cultivating forgiveness and gratitude (Pipe & Bortz, 2009). Some educators may think that it is difficult, if not impossible, for them to carve out time to do the above in a crowded curriculum. But mindful engagement does not need to be time-consuming. An example is depicted in Photo 11.2 where schools in China included regular eye-exercise routines during the school day.

7 Through

a mindful engagement process, “individuals can approach, engage in, and reflect on their lived experiences in ways that promote learning and increase the developmental punch of any experience” (Ashford & DeRue, 2012, p. 147).

11.2 Mindful Teaching and Learning Strategies

187

Photo 11.2 Students taking a break in between lessons

These routines, which are mandatory for all classes, only take up a few minutes each time and allow students to pause and rest their eyes (and minds). It is recommended that mindfulness exercises be incorporated into these routines so that they become habituated practices for students. Other strategies to promote mindful engagement, which are more religiously tethered, include prayer, participating in the faith community, and performing religious rituals such as partaking in the holy communion (Pipe & Bortz, 2009). As to the format, mindful engagement can be enacted individually or collectively. For the latter, schools can implement what Levey and Levey (2019) termed “shared mindfulness”, which is “an embodied and relational practice that encourages Presence, Attunement, Resonance, and Trust (P.A.R.T.) in people’s work together” (p. 5). The third strategy, following the examples of Confucius and Jesus, is dialogic teaching, which develops self-directed learners within an empathic learning environment. Outlining the importance of dialogical pedagogy, Schertz (2007) averred that dialogue is “necessary for the development of empathy because it supplies a medium for intersubjective exchange while simultaneously providing for the growth of the relational subject” (p. 192). An extension of dialogic teaching is mentoring and coaching, which are critical in providing individualised attention, building character, and fostering wholeness. A mentoring/coaching relationship can also help a learner acquire coping and decision-making skills, broaden their aspirations, and experience wellness. Teachers also need to work closely with other educational stakeholders to help students grow and learn holistically, fortified by a strong(er) home–school community nexus (Netolicky, 2020). Hargreaves and Fullan (2020) drew attention to the greater interdependence between teachers and parents, which is built upon trust and relationships.

188

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

The fourth strategy is the primacy of enacting personalised and hybrid teaching, which reflects empathic teaching (Evans et al., 2020).8 To nurture self-directed learners, teachers may adopt what Hollweck and Doucet (2020) labelled “pandemic pedagogies”. These pedagogies require more powerful instructional innovations, as well as a shift to a more critical thinking, student-led, personalised and competency-based approach to curricular content. Student selfpacing guides, timing for self-reflection, clear and accessible lessons and learning activity instructions, as well as multiple and meaningful opportunities for formative feedback will need to be embedded in the learning experience. Finally, pandemic pedagogies must prioritise student health and well-being through more relational, culturally responsive and traumainformed approaches (Hollweck & Doucet, 2020, p. 3).

In light of school closures and social distancing, teachers need to turn to new pedagogical models that cater to the specific needs of students, synthesising the best of remote-learning and school-situated learning (Harris, 2020). Be it online or blended learning, the goal is to nurture students who possess the drive, capabilities, and resilience to learn independently and online, in partnership with their parents (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020).9 In conceptualising the curriculum, educators could find inspiration from “universal design”, i.e., diverse means of action, expression, and engagement in teaching that meet the needs of all users, whether it is in designing the course materials, representing the materials to students, communicating with students, and assessing them (Centre for Applied Special Technology, 2011). Even when the pandemic is over, online learning will continue to be implemented in many schools. Educators, having been compelled to turn to remote learning platforms, will likely retain elements of technology-based learning that they have found beneficial (Daniel, 2020; Hockridge, 2018). The pandemic, therefore, is “a catalyst to appreciating digital devices, online resources, social media technology and e-learning activities” (Mulenga & Marbán, 2020, p. 2). The fifth strategy is Appreciative Inquiry (hereinafter AI). AI is a strength-based, collaborative, and coevolutionary approach (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005). AI is learner-centred as it invites students to look inward to their own strengths and that

8 Evans

and colleagues (2020) suggested that online learning should be designed based on the following four pedagogical principles (p. 280): (1) (2) (3) (4)

knowing how to engage students in an online environment by providing them with intuitive interaction, enabling social learning connections with educators and their peers, promoting active facilitation and learning support (including feedback) through synchronous and asynchronous channels, and utilising appropriate smart technologies and digital learning assets that enhance the experience.

9 Sahlberg

(2020) advocated “flexible, diverse and self-directed ideas” led by diverse communities, particularly “successful ideas that have worked in various cultural settings and powerful networks that are spreading them without the mandate of the authorities” (p. 2).

11.2 Mindful Teaching and Learning Strategies

189

of others.10 It emphasises self-directed learning as well as cooperative learning. McQuaid (2017) reported how her school enacted AI, focusing on positive education based on the four components of AI11 : • Discover: the staff, students, and their families identified common strengths of the school and positive emotions; • Dream: they explored their shared visions and available opportunities; • Design: they considered pathways and priorities to achieve their common goals; and • Delivery: they developed and delivered the necessary changes.

McQuaid (2017) noted the following examples of students’ activities that showed their understanding of positive education: “Students have seized opportunities at a whole school level to practise their growth mindsets on ‘Have a Go Day’, perform random acts of kindness, say ‘hello’ to people they don’t know, write letters of gratitude (to each other and even their parents!), and spot the strengths in their teachers and fellow students” (p. 84).12

11.2.2 Mindful Learning The vision of realising wholeness in students means that schools need to go beyond cognitive learning to other developmental aspects of the students. The various chapters in this book have explained that mindful learning is self-directed learning that is oriented towards he (harmony) and/or shalom (peace). Fundamental to mindful learning is the adoption of a growth mindset. According to Dweck (2012), a growth mindset is contrasted with a fixed mindset (see Table 11.1). A growth-mindset environment involves the following: viewing skills as learnable rather than inborn, propagating that the organisation values learning and perseverance rather than pre-existing genius or talent, and providing evaluation and feedback that generate learning and future (Dweck, 2012).13 Rather than telling students to aspire 10 It is recommended that educators promote “epistemic virtues” in them. Rizvi (2009) explained that

these virtues are “habitual practices of learning that regard knowing as always tentative, involving critical exploration and imagination, an open-ended exercise in cross-cultural deliberation designed to understand relationalities and imagine alternatives, but always from a position that is reflexive of its epistemic assumptions” (p. 264). These are virtues that enable students to not only understand existing discourses and practices of global connectivity but also provide alternatives to the practices (Tan, Chua, & Goh, 2015). 11 Some include a fifth component, “define”, which seeks to clarify the focus of the inquiry. 12 Another example is a Christian institute in New Zealand that embarked on Appreciative Inquiry so as to address this question: “When we are at our best, as a Christ-following missional learning community, how do we journey together to nurture staff and students’ more conscious and intentional attachment with God, resulting in transformed lives and communities?” (Arkwright & Chihota, 2017, p. 261). 13 Related to a growth mindset is the promotion of a learning orientation. Ashford and DeRue (2012) explained, “A learning orientation describes an approach to experiences where individuals

190

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Table 11.1 Fixed mindset and growth mindset (Dweck, 2012) Fixed mindset

Growth mindset

Intelligence

Intelligence is static: it leads to a desire to look smart and therefore a tendency to …

Intelligence can be developed: it leads to a desire to learn and therefore a tendency to …

Challenges

Avoid challenges

Embrace challenges

Obstacles

Get defensive or give up easily

Persist in the face of setbacks

Effort

See effort as fruitless or worse

See effort as the path to mastery

Criticism

Ignore useful negative feedback

Learn from criticism

Success of others

Feel threatened by the success of others

Find lessons and inspiration in the success of others

Result

They may plateau early and achieve less than their full potential

They reach ever-higher levels of achievement

to “effortless perfection”, schools should nurture growth-mindset learners who are mindful about their own learning by asking themselves questions such as: “What can I learn from this? How can I improve? How can I help my partner do this better?” (Dweck, 2012, p. 215). To relate the growth mindset to concepts from the Confucian and Christian traditions, this section gives two examples of mindful lessons. One lesson illustrates a religiously untethered Confucian tradition, whereas the other lesson points to a religiously tethered Christian tradition (Table 11.2). Table 11.2 Examples of mindful lessons that promote a growth mindset Confucian tradition (Religiously untethered spirituality)

Christian tradition (Religiously tethered spirituality)

Topic

The growth mindset of embracing challenges

Stimulus

Photo 11.3: The words in a classroom in China read, “Your reward is where your heart–mind is”

Key passages

Analects Bible • 2:4: At 70 I could follow my heart–mind’s • Matthew 26:39: Going a little farther, he desires without overstepping the line. fell with his face to the ground and prayed, • 1.4: Master Zeng said, “Every day I “My Father, if it is possible, may this cup examine myself on three counts: Have I be taken from me. Yet not as I will, but as done my best in my undertakings on behalf you will. of others? Have I been trustworthy in my • Luke 23:34: Jesus said, “Father, forgive interactions with friends? Have I failed to them, for they do not know what they are put into practice what was passed to me?” doing.”

Object of mindfulness The notion of “heart–mind” (xin)

Photo 11.4: Christians participating in Via Dolorosa (The Way of Sorrows) in Jerusalem

The virtues of sacrifice and trust from the example of Jesus (continued)

are focused on acquiring new knowledge or skills, or attaining a deeper understanding of the particular task or subject. A learning orientation is associated with increased motivation to learn, the ability to maintain that motivation following initial failure or setbacks, and greater learning from experience” (p. 149).

11.2 Mindful Teaching and Learning Strategies

191

Table 11.2 (continued)

Key teaching points

Confucian tradition (Religiously untethered spirituality)

Christian tradition (Religiously tethered spirituality)

(1) Awareness: The teacher draws the students’ attention to the words that are displayed in the classroom. The words serve as a stimulus for students to link one’s achievements to one’s heart–mind. The teacher asks students whether they avoid or embrace challenges in their lives, and how learning about one’s heart–mind can help them to deal with challenges positively. (2) Attention: The teacher explains the Confucian notion of “heart–mind” (xin) where one’s cognitive and affective domains are harmonised. The goal is to be like Confucius, who shared that he had succeeded in following his heart–mind’s desires because of moral self-cultivation. (3) Attention/Attitude: The teacher invites the students to individually reflect on their own heart–mind as guided by Analects 1.4: (a) Have I done my best in my undertakings on behalf of others? (b) Have I been trustworthy in my interactions with friends? (c) Have I failed to put into practice what was passed to me? (4) Attention/Attitude: After personal reflection, the students will share their thoughts in their small groups, thus practising empathic listening and responding. (5) Awareness/Attention/Attitude: Each student will be given time to write a personal reflection, which will be displayed on the classroom board (see Photo 11.2).

(1) Awareness: The teacher draws the students’ attention to the photo of Christians taking part in Via Dolorosa (The Way of Sorrows). They retraced the path taken by Jesus after he was sentenced to be crucified. The walk starts at the Muslim Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem, covers 14 stations and ends at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Besides showing the photo, the teacher can also play a video clip or arrange for students to experience the path themselves, such as through a field trip or by using Virtual Reality technology. The teacher asks students whether they avoid or embrace challenges in their lives, and how learning from the example of Jesus can help them deal with challenges positively. (2) Attention: The teacher explains the virtues of sacrifice and trust from the example of Jesus. Each station of Via Dolorosa commemorates a significant event in the Passion of Christ, testifying to his sacrifice for human beings and trust in God the Father. Matthew 26:39 shows how Jesus did not avoid but embraced the challenge by submitting to the Father’s will to die on the cross. Luke 23:34 shows Jesus’ love for humanity through his forgiveness of those who hurt and killed him. (3) Attention/Attitude: The teacher invites the students to individually reflect on their lives based on these questions: (a) What challenges am I facing now? (b) Do I avoid or embrace these challenges? (c) How can I embrace these challenges from the example of Jesus? (4) Attention/Attitude: After personal reflection, the students will share their thoughts in their small groups, thus practising empathic listening and responding. (5) Awareness/Attention/Attitude: Each student will be given time to create a work that represents their personal responses. The end product can be an essay, poem, drawing, or performance, among others.

192

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Photo 11.3 The words in a classroom in China read, “Your reward is where your heart–mind is”

Photo 11.4 Christians participating in Via Dolorosa (The Way of Sorrows) in Jerusalem

11.3 Conclusion: East and West “Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet, Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God’s great Judgment Seat”. — Rudyard Kipling, The Ballad of East and West

11.3 Conclusion: East and West

193

The above lines have been often cited to drive home the cultural gap between East and West. Smid (2009a, 2009b), commenting on Kipling’s poem, posed this question: “If there are better and worse ways for diverse cultures to engage one another, what differentiates the former from the latter, and how can we more successfully bring about the former?” (p. 1, italics added). This book aims to suggest better ways for diverse cultures to engage one another by focusing on two representative traditions from the East and West. The spotlight of this book is on Confucian and Christian traditions because of their historical and cultural impacts on Eastern and Western civilisations respectively. This book has explained how a useful method for bridge-building—one that was used by Confucians and Christians in their historical encounter—is providing complex explanations and solutions. This method involves the synthesis of concepts and findings from more than one tradition to understand the causes, build complex explanations, and solve problems. Accordingly, this study has identified, analysed and proposed explanations and solutions for post-pandemic education. Informed and inspired by Confucian and Christian traditions, this book maintains that what humans have overlooked and should reinstate in education is wholeness through mindful education. Students experience wholeness through he (harmony) and shalom (peace) in a loving school community characterised by ren (humanity) and agape (love). Mindful education is enacted through a transformative curriculum that centres on dao (Way) and imago dei (God’s image); it involves selfdirected learning in the forms of xiuji (self-cultivation) and spiritual disciplines, and empathic teaching that is based on and motivated by shu (putting oneself in another’s place) and the Golden Rule (do to others as you would have them do to you). What has been removed that humans should not return to is a preoccupation with test scores and standardised assessment, which contributes to an absence and neglect of wholeness. Insights from Confucian and Christian traditions are useful for shedding light on the educational challenges confronting humanity and offering tenable solutions in a post-pandemic world. Li (1999) highlighted the importance of bridge-building for East-West dialogue: Crossing the bridge, a mindful person will want to find out how and why some things are similar and others are dissimilar. Either way, one can deepen understanding not only of one’s own culture and values but also of the culture and values of others (p. 6).

It needs to be clarified that the attention to these two traditions does not mean that they are the best among or superior to other wisdom and religious traditions. On the contrary, Confucian and Christian traditions, qua traditions, are expectedly imperfect; they are social constructions and works in progress. Moving away from the truth claims of Confucianism and Christianity as faith systems makes it easier for us to critique Confucian and Christian traditions. An example is a well-known criticism of a political variant of Confucianism, where precepts such as submission to authority have been instrumentalised to support dictatorship, the oppression of women, and cronyism (Bell & Chaibong, 2003; Ellwood & McGraw, 2009). As for Christian traditions, the teachings of the theologian John Calvin (1509–1564) on predestination have been interpreted by some people to justify the accumulation of wealth and

194

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

perpetuating social and economic inequities (Jackall, 1988; McGraw, 2012). The above criticisms, it should be added, are not levelled at Confucianism and Christianity as religious/spiritual systems. Rather, the charges are targeted at contingent and peculiar manifestations of Confucian and Christian traditions in specific historical, social, and cultural settings. It is recommended that future research extend the arguments noted in this book on mindful education by exploring other traditions such as Greek and Daoist systems. Empirical studies are also encouraged to examine how the theories pertaining to mindfulness, wholeness, and student well-being apply to diverse educational settings. Inquiries along these lines will enrich cross-cultural exchanges, debates, and mutual learning. New ideas, policies and strategies that contribute to student well-being are essential in a post-pandemic world where the future is unpredictable. Resolving problems in a complex system requires identifying patterns—a point that was noted in Chap. 1. As explained by Berger and Johnston (2015), “if we gather enough perspectives and try to see the system, we can identify some of the patterns and see which ones are keeping the system stable (either in a way we like or in a way we don’t) and which are creating the conditions for potentially massive change (again, either to a better place or to collapse)” (Berger & Johnston, 2015, p. 45). The contention of this book is that answering these questions requires both looking back and looking forward. Looking back at Confucian and Christian traditions, we see that the patterns that keep the educational system stable are millennia-old wisdom. Schools may have advanced technologically but what has remained unchanged is the vision of ensuring wholeness in every child. Looking forward, the insights from Confucian and Christian traditions on mindfulness and mindful education have the potential to bring about a transformation in education . Azorín (2020) claims that now is the time to redesign “a better education for all, where equity, excellence and student well-being will be the foundations on which to build” (pp. 1–2). Concurring with Azorín, this book has called attention to the desired outcome of wholeness, which can be achieved through mindful education, inspired by wisdom from the past.

References Alexander, I. (2018). Modelling our teaching on the Jesus of the gospels. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 111–121). Singapore: Springer. Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2003). The effects of high-stakes testing on student motivation and learning. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 32–38. Arkwright, J., & Chihota, C. (2017). Using appreciative inquiry and multimodel texts as transformative tools within a Christ-following, missional, learning community. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 259–269). Singapore.

References

195

Ashford, S. J., & DeRue, D. S. (2012). Developing as a leader: The power of mindful engagement. Organizational Dynamics, 41, 146–154. Au, W. (2009). Unequal by design: High-stakes testing and the standardisation of inequality. New York: Routledge. Au, W. (2016). Meritocracy 2.0: High-stakes, standardised testing as a racial project of neoliberal multiculturalism. Educational Policy, 30(1), 39–62. Azorín, C. (2020). Beyond COVID-19 supernova: Is another education coming? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 381–390. Bell, D. A., & Chaibong, H. (Eds.). (2003). Confucianism for the modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Berger, J. G., & Johnston, K. (2015). Simple habits for complex times: Powerful practices for leaders. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Center for Applied Special Technology. (2011). What is universal design for learning? Wakefield, MA: CAST. http://www.cast.org/udl/index.html. Cooperrider, D., & Whitney, D. D. (2005). Appreciative inquiry: A positive revolution in change. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Daniel, J. (2020). Education and the COVID-19 pandemic. Prospects. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11 125-020-09464-3. Davies, B., & Bansel, P. (2007). Neoliberalism and education. Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 20(3), 247–259. Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindset: How you can fulfil your potential. London: Constable & Robinson Ltd. Ehrlich, J. (2017). Mindful leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 46(4), 233–243. Ellwood, R. S., & McGraw, B. A. (2009). Many peoples, many faiths: Women and men in the world religions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Evans, D. J. R., Bay, B. H., Wilson, T. D., Smith, C. F., Lachman, N., & Pawlina, W. (2020). Going virtual to support anatomy education: A STOPGAP in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic. Anatomical Sciences Education, 13, 279–283. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2020). Professional capital after the pandemic: Revisiting and revising classic understandings of teachers’ work. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 327–336. Harris, A. (2020). COVID-19–school leadership in crisis? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 321–326. Hockridge, D. (2018). Reimagining Christian formation in online theological education. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 327–343). Singapore: Springer. Hollweck, T., & Doucet, A. (2020). Pracademics in the pandemic: Pedagogies and professionalism. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 295–305. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Jenkins, J. (2018). Hope, faith and love: Engaging in heart in the world of business. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 283–294). Singapore: Springer. Langer, E. J. (1992). Matters of mind: Mindfulness/mindlessness in perspective. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 1(4), 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-8100(92)900 66-J. Langer, E. J. (2000). Mindful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 220–223.

196

11 Mindful Education for a Post-pandemic World

Langer, E. J., Hatem, M., Joss, J., & Howell, M. (1989). Conditional teaching and mindful learning: The role of uncertainty in education. Creativity Research Journal, 2, 139–159. Levey, J., & Levey, M. (2019). Mindful leadership for personal and organisational resilience. Clinical Radiology, 74, 739–745. Li, C. (1999). The tao encounters the West: Explorations in comparative philosophy. Albany, NY: SUNY. McGraw, B. A. (2012). Moral economy in global perspective: Protestant Christianity, Confucianism. Islam and Hinduism. Purushartha, 5(2), 1–16. McQuaid, M. (2017). Creating whole-school positive education strategies that last. In M. A. White, G. R. Slemp, & A. S. Murray (Eds.), Future directions in well-being: Education, organisations and policy (pp. 81–85). Cham: Springer. Mulenga, E. J., & Marbán, J. M. (2020). Is COVID-19 the gateway for digital learning in mathematics education? Contemporary Educational Technology, 12(2), ep269. https://doi.org/10.30935/ced tech/7949. Murison, C. B., & Benson, D. M. (2018). Reimagining Christian schools as revelatory communities. In J. M. Luetz, T. Dowden, & B. Norsworthy (Eds.), Reimagining Christian education: Cultivating transformative approaches (pp. 75–88). Singapore: Springer. Netolicky, D. M. (2020). School leadership during a pandemic: Navigating tensions. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 321–326. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2020). Learning remotely when schools close: How well are students and schools prepared? Insights from PISA. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (Covid-19). http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/en/#policy-res ponses. Pipe, T. B., & Bortz, J. J. (2009). Mindful leadership as healing practice: Nurturing self to serve others. International Journal for Human Caring, 13(2), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.20467/10915710.13.2.34. Reimers, F. M., & Schleicher, A. (2020). A framework to guide an education response to the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. Paris: Author. Rizvi, F. (2009). Towards cosmopolitan learning. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 30(3), 253–268. Sahlberg, P. (2020). Will the pandemic change schools? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4), 359–365. Schertz, M. (2007). Avoiding ‘passive empathy’ with Philosophy for Children. Journal of Moral Education, 36(2), 185–198. Schleicher, A. (2019). Teaching and Learning International Survey, TALIS 2018: Insights and Interpretations. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). http://www. oecd.org/education/talis/TALIS2018_insights_and_interpretations.pdf. Shady, S. L. H., & Larson, M. (2010). Tolerance, empathy, or inclusion?. Educational: Insights from Martin Buber. Shirley, D., Hargreaves, A., & Washington-Wangia, S. (2020). The sustainability and unsustainability of teachers’ and leaders’ well-being. Teaching and Teacher Education, 92, 1–12. Smid (2009a) Missing—Is the the following? Smid, R. W. (2009b). Methodologies of comparative philosophy: The pragmatist and process traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press. Tan, C. (2019). Comparing high-performing education systems: Understanding Singapore, Shanghai, and Hong Kong. Oxon: Routledge. Tan, C., Chua, C. S. K., & Goh, O. (2015). Rethinking the framework for 21st-century education: Toward a communitarian conception. The Educational Forum, 79(3), 307–320.

References

197

World Economic Forum. (2020). Schools of the future: Defining new models of education for the fourth Industrial Revolution. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Schools_of_the_Future_ Report_2019.pdf. Wu, S., & Tan, C. (2020). Attentiveness for children: A neo-Confucian curriculum for preschool education. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 25(2), 124–140. https://doi.org/10. 1080/1364436X.2020.1821177.