135 95 14MB
English Pages 313 [324] Year 1951
M I C H I G A N COPPER A N D B O S T O N D O L L A R S
STUDIES IN ECONOMIC HISTORY
PUBLISHED IN COOPERATION WITH THE COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH IN ECONOMIC HISTORY
WILLIAM Β. GATES, JR.
Michigan Copper and Boston Dollars AN ECONOMIC HISTORY OF T H E MICHIGAN COPPER MINING INDUSTRY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
• 1951 ·
COPYRIGHT, 1 9 5 1 BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE
DISTRIBUTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
TO MARGARET D. GATES WITHOUT WHOSE COURAGE AND DEVOTION THIS BOOK — AND THE LONG YEARS OF INTELLECTUAL APPRENTICESHIP
OUT OF WHICH
MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE.
IT GREW —
Preface During the century following 1845 copper evolved from a metal of secondary importance — mainly useful for household utensils, sheathing material for ships, some lines of the engineering trade, and the fine arts — to become a requisite of the expanding electrical industries and a basic material of modern warfare. World production of new copper rose from an annual total of 50,000 short tons in the 1840's to more than 500,000 around the turn of the century when the electrical industries began to hit their stride, and finally to over 3,000,000 short tons per annum during World War II. For the last years of the nineteenth century and almost three decades of the twentieth (1894-1926), United States mines contributed more than 50 per cent of the world total, and even during recent years domestic properties have produced a third of the new copper mined. The Michigan deposits were the first major United States field to be developed and, until the railroads were extended to the Montana and Arizona fields around 1882, consistently produced three-quarters or more of United States output. As late as 1907 one-quarter of domestic copper came from the Michigan lodes, and in spite of a gradual decline to virtual insignificance following World War I, the industry can boast of having produced 14.6 per cent of all copper mined in the United States since 1845, a total of some 9.6 billion pounds, valued at $1.5 billion. At the peak of the district's development, around 1907, the companies furnished employment for more than 21,000 workers and provided the economic core for a community of 95,000 people. That same year the stocks of the six significant producers were valued at $185 million in the market. During the whole century of production, shareholders in the two-dozen-odd Michigan copper mining companies which did better than break even received $350 million in dividends.
viii
PREFACE
Not only has the history of the industry significance for its own sake; it may also prove useful in understanding developments which are likely to take place in the evolution of other United States extractive industries. The Michigan copper district was one of the first major domestic non-ferrous metal mining fields to be opened up, and its history provides a full century of development for study, including an almost complete cycle of growth and decline. The problems of each extractive industry will certainly differ in accordance with peculiar conditions of time, locale, and other special circumstance, but it seems probable that many will show a similar pattern of growth and decline, each phase of which may present a number of parallel problems. A period of establishment may be expected in which risks are very great, profits are small — or nonexistent — for all but a few concerns, and the flow of capital into the industry is heavy and is very largely lost to the immediate investor. The next period will be one of substantial growth, both in scale of enterprise and number of successful units, and again the flow of capital is likely to be toward the industry, but this time primarily in the form of reinvestment of earnings, rather than new market flotations. Growth is followed by maturity, a period when new investment opportunities are unpromising and output remains fairly stable. An increasing interest in consolidation schemes may be expected, and earnings are likely to be exceptionally high and to be paid out as made. Finally, decline of the industry brings with it inability to earn enough to meet depletion and even depreciation charges,1 and an effort to rescue as much sunk capital as possible, often through planned shifts by the companies into other stages of the metals industry. The history of Michigan copper mining is rich in more general laboratory materials. It has its monopoly elements, constantly reappearing in one form or another. It forcefully underlines the importance of technological change in economic 1 Since these charges are expenses, but not expenditures, failure to cover them does not necessarily indicate financial stringency; it does indicate an unfavorable change in total asset values.
PREFACE
ix
evolution; presents three sets of war control problems; and provides an interesting example of the operation of the free enterprise profit incentive system in opening up difficult natural resources. Finally, it includes a case study of the critical problem of labor reallocation in a declining industrial area, and poses the problem of the effects of benevolent paternalism upon industrial relations and the general pattern of life in a oneindustry community. The author is a firm believer that all too little economics has been used in approaching problems in economic history. The rewards from such application of theoretical tools are likely to take the form of much clearer insights into economic development and a much more meaningful over-all historical picture. This is a limited objective, and the real revolution in the analysis of economic history, and even in economics as a whole, will probably be wrought by that much abused — often justifiably so — advance guard of social scientists who are attempting to develop methods of analyzing the dynamics of institutional change. It is the first of these methodological objectives which has been set as a goal in this study. The economic techniques used are by no means complex, but the author has attempted to write an economic history with the idea constantly in mind that he is, first of all, an economist. So many people have contributed time and ideas to this study that it is all but impossible to make adequate thanks in a preface. The study began when the author ran across a splendid book entitled Boom Copper by Angus Murdoch and later had occasion to talk with him and absorb some of his feeling for the Copper Country. At the University of Chicago, where most of the work was done, I am deeply indebted to Professors Chester Wright, Gregg Lewis, Melvin de Chazeau, and Frank Knight — all of whom spent long hours going over early drafts of the manuscript and taking me to task on its deficiencies. My greatest debt, perhaps, is to my many friends in the Copper Country who unstintingly made available to me their knowledge of the locality, the historical documents they had collected, and, above all, their understanding of technological
χ
PREFACE
aspects of the industry. Among those who gave freely of their time are Professor James Fisher of the Mining College, John W. Rice of the Mining Gazette, Benjamin D. Noetzel, long associated with the Isle Royale and other Lake copper companies, and Gene Saari, local representative of the Mine Workers Union. Without the wholehearted cooperation of President Endicott R. Lovell and numerous officers of the Calumet and Hecla Consolidated Copper Company (including J. H. Elliott, C. H. Benedict, A. E. Petermann, and Ocha Potter), the research for the study would not have been possible. The company saw to it that the author spent several days going through the Copper Country works, did special statistical studies at his request, made available to him its magnificent files at the Boston office, provided photographs from its collection, and had an early draft of the manuscript read and criticized by a number of company officers. I am particularly grateful to Professors Arthur H. Cole and Edward C. Kirkland who read the manuscript, made suggestions for its improvement, and were its sponsors for publication by the Committee on Research in Economic History. Without the constant encouragement and guidance of Professor Cole, completion of the last draft might have been delayed for years. Finally, my sincere thanks are due to Helene P. Gans, who read the manuscript for matters of style and typed one of the early drafts, and to my wife, Nancy Gans Gates, who constantly encouraged me in this endeavor and somehow remained patient when I gave way to temperament at the more difficult stages. W. B. G., Williamstown, Massachusetts March i, 1950
JR.
CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS I OPENING T H E MICHIGAN LODES, 1845-1866 Discovery and Exploration · The Challenge and the Accomplishment · The Copper Cake beneath the Icing · Roads and Canals or Bust · An Early Technological Revolution · Financial and Managerial Organization and Controls II MICHIGAN DOMINATES T H E U N I T E D STATES MARKET, 1867-1884 The Postwar Depression, 1867-1871 · The Rise of Calumet and Hecla · The Protective Tariff and the Pooling Arrangements · Revival of the Industry, 1873-1884 III T H E STRUGGLE FOR DOMESTIC AND WORLD LEADERSHIP, 1885-1904 Twenty Years of Continued Vitality · Consolidation and Integration · Attempts at Market Control and the Price Boom at the Turn of the Century · The Competitive Position of the Michigan Industry at the Turn of the Century IV LABOR A N D T H E COMMUNITY T O 1904 A Frontier Mining Community · A Settled Mining Community and Benevolent Paternalism V T H E INDUSTRY AND MATURITY, 1905-1918 The Pattern of Maturity · The Battle to Hold Costs Down · The Labor Shortage Problem and the Strike of 1913-1914 · War Controls — the Allocation Problem — and the Question of Profiteering
xii
CONTENTS
VI M I C H I G A N COPPER M I N I N G I N DECLINE, 1919-1938 The Pattern of Decline · Decline of Michigan Copper Mining in a Period of General Business Prosperity, 1919— 1929 · Decline of Michigan Copper Mining in a Period of General Business Depression, 1930-1938 • The Impact of the Decline upon the Community VII W O R L D WAR II A N D T H E F U T U R E
143
170
Michigan Copper Mining on the Eve of United States Entry into the War · War Controls and the United States Copper Mining Industry · Operations of the Michigan Industry during the War Years · The Michigan Copper Companies Face the Future · The Michigan Copper District Faces the Future EPILOGUE
188
APPENDIX
193
NOTES
235
BIBLIOGRAPHY
273
GLOSSARY O F M I N I N G TERMS
284
INDEX
287
TABLES Ι.
U N I T E D STATES FOREIGN T R A D E IN U N M A N U F A C T U R E D
COPPER,
1870-1882 2.
MONTHLY
47 MICHIGAN
WAGES
FOR C O P P E R
MINERS
COMPARED
W I T H W A G E S FOR IRON M I N E R S IN THE E A S T , 1 8 4 5 - 1 8 6 6 3.
MONTHLY
MICHIGAN
WAGES
FOR
COPPER
MINERS
101
COMPARED
W I T H W A G E S FOR IRON M I N E R S IN THE E A S T , 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 0 4 4.
108
M I C H I G A N COSTS C O M P A R E D W I T H T H O S E OF THE R E S T OF T H E D O M E S T I C INDUSTRY, 1 9 0 9 — 1 9 1 8
5.
121
M I C H I G A N COSTS C O M P A R E D W I T H T H O S E OF THE R E S T OF THE D O M E S T I C INDUSTRY, 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 3 0
6.
WORLD,
UNITED
STATES,
AND
154 MICHIGAN
OUTPUT
OF
NEW
COPPER, 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 4 6 7.
197
U N I T E D STATES FOREIGN T R A D E IN AND C O N S U M P T I O N OF
NEW
COPPER, 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 4 6
202
8.
M I C H I G A N O U T P U T OF C O P P E R AND V A L U E OF O U T P U T ,
1845—
9.
M I C H I G A N C O P P E R M I N I N G C O M P A N I E S CLASSIFIED BY S I Z E OF ANNUAL OUTPUT, 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 4 5
207
10.
MICHIGAN COPPER MINING C O M P A N Y EMPLOYMENT, 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 4 6
208
11.
P O U N D S OF C O P P E R PRODUCED A N N U A L L Y PER M I C H I G A N C O P P E R
12.
DIVIDEND PAYMENTS — A L L
13.
ANNUAL
1946
203
MINING COMPANY EMPLOYEE, 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 4 6 MICHIGAN
212
COPPER
MINING
COM-
PANIES, 1 8 4 5 — 1 9 4 6
14. 15.
215
HIGH-LOW
STOCK
Q U O T A T I O N S OF S E V E N
MICHIGAN
COPPER M I N I N G COMPANIES, 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 4 6
223
COPPER COUNTRY POPULATION D A T A , 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 4 0
228
O U T P U T OF THE C A L U M E T AND H E C L A
COPPER MINING
COM-
P A N Y , AND PERCENTAGE OF M I C H I G A N O U T P U T , 1 8 6 7 — 1 9 4 6 16.
FREIGHT COPPER
RATES
FOR
BETWEEN
WATER
LAKE
TRANSPORTATION
OF
SUPERIOR
AND
LOWER
ASSESSED V A L U A T I O N —
ALL
PERSONAL
COAL
LAKE
230 AND
PORTS,
1887-1940 17.
EQUALIZED
231
P R O P E R T Y OF H O U G H T O N C O U N T Y , 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 6
AND
REAL 232
ILLUSTRATIONS M A P OF THE M I C H I G A N C O P P E R C O U N T R Y
2
C O P P E R M I N I N G IN M I C H I G A N DURING THE C O P P E R M I N I N G IN M I C H I G A N ABOUT
1915
1850's
Following page Following page
16 48
CHARTS ~ÖENERAL W A G E S AT C A L U M E T , M I C H I G A N , C O M P A R E D W I T H T H O S E AT D E T R O I T , 1 9 0 8 — 1 9 1 9
137
W A G E T R E N D AT C A L U M E T C O M P A R E D W I T H U . S . W H O L E S A L E P R I C E TREND, 1 9 0 8 - 1 9 1 9
137
M I C H I G A N PRODUCTION AND PERCENTAGE M I C H I G A N OF U . S .
TOTAL
PRODUCTION, 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 4 6 MICHIGAN
COPPER
MINING
195 COMPANY
DIVIDEND
PAYMENTS
COM-
DISTRICT COMPARED
WITH
PARED W I T H A V E R A G E A N N U A L C O P P E R PRICES - P O P U L A T I O N OF THE M I C H I G A N C O P P E R
195
MINING COMPANY EMPLOYMENT, 1860—1946
196
P R O D U C T I O N OF C O P P E R PER M A N - Y E A R OF L A B O R E M P L O Y E D IN THE M I C H I G A N C O P P E R M I N I N G INDUSTRY, 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 4 6 U N I T E D S T A T E S C O P P E R PRODUCTION, C O N S U M P T I O N , N E T
196 IMPORTS
AND E X P O R T S , 1 8 4 5 - 1 8 8 0 U N I TAND E D STATES COP PE CONSUMPTION, N E T EXPORTS, 18 8R 0 - 1PRODUCTION, 933
201 IMPORTS
201
MICHIGAN COPPER AND BOSTON DOLLARS
CHAPTER
I
Opening the Michigan Lodes, 1845—1866 Were it not for the chance of some great prizes, all this necessary work of exploration would not have been undertaken. Under such conditions a high return on the lucky venture does not constitute a true surplus. Nor is it easy to say whether, on the whole, the gains in successful mining ventures suffice to offset the losses in the unsuccessful. Prizes often have an undue effect on the imagination. The unfailing attraction of a lottery (in which it is obvious that the speculators as a body must lose) proves that where there is a chance of great gain from a lucky stake, men will often pay for the chance more than its actuarial value. 1 — Frank William
Taussig
The Michigan Copper Country is located on Keweenaw Peninsula which reaches out like an index finger from the southern shore line of Lake Superior. As shown by the map on page 2 all of the known copper deposits lie along a mineral range which runs a hundred miles through what today are the Upper Peninsula counties of Ontonagon, Houghton, and Keweenaw. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION
Early exploration. The deposits were known to the Indians at the time the French began to explore the Lake Superior region and had been worked by a forgotten race of miners long before Columbus discovered America. 2 The Indian tales were passed along with embellishments by the early French explorers and missionaries, but it was not until 1771 that an Englishman, Alexander Henry, organized the first mining expedition of modern times to reach the Copper Country. The enterprise failed after a long winter spent in the southern section of the Peninsula, and interest in the district lapsed until 1800 when the United States Congress directed the President
2
MICHIGAN
COPPER AND BOSTON
DOLLARS
to appoint an agent to investigate the copper deposits of Lake Superior. N o action was taken under the bill, and the next authentic report of the existence of copper on the shores of the lake came from Henry R. Schoolcraft in 1820, who found the indications so promising that he suggested the government should work the deposits. Twenty years more elapsed before scientific exploration was undertaken by Douglass Houghton, first geologist of the newly admitted state of Michigan.
Fig. i. Michigan Copper Country The surveys and land laws. In 1840 Houghton began a careful examination of the district and by late 1841 had issued two reports to the State Legislature in which he gave a cautious but encouraging appraisal of copper mining potentialities of the Peninsula. Congress showed sufficient interest in 1841 to appropriate funds for the purchase of the lands from the Indians, and in the summer of 1842 a treaty was negotiated with the Chippewas by which they ceded some 25,000 square miles of territory to the Federal government. 3 Shortly thereafter an agreement was concluded with Houghton to take charge of a
OPENING THE MICHIGAN
LODES
3 linear survey for the United States in addition to the topographical and geographical survey upon which he was already engaged for the state of Michigan.4 Work on the surveys went forward rapidly, and by 1843, when the first mining permit was issued, locations and boundaries could be designated in something resembling an orderly fashion. By that year interest in the district had become intense, particularly in the East, and the federal government was under pressure to throw the area open and designate rules under which the deposits might be worked. Following the precedent set in leasing early western lead lands,5 permits were issued by the War Department — first for nine square miles, and, later, in March, 1845, reduced to one square mile. After a location had been made the permit holder was to apply to Washington for a lease and forward surety bonds amounting to $20,000.® The lessee was "allowed one year for exploration, and three more years to mine, with the privilege of two renewals of three years each, making the whole term ten years." 7 He was required to send in returns to the Mineral Agency giving the amount of copper raised and to pay the government 6 per cent royalties for the first three-year mining period and 10 per cent thereafter. The first major United States mining boom. A few hardy souls came overland into the district from the Wisconsin lead lands as early as the summer of 1843, but it was not until the spring of 1844 that the real boom began. Several schooners owned by the fur companies were operating on Superior at that time, and during the following two years, a half dozen more, including the propeller Independence and the sidewheeler Julia Palmer, were hauled over the portage at Sault Ste. Marie to carry explorers, miners, speculators, and their supplies up to Keweenaw, and small quantities of copper and hundreds of disillusioned failures back. Twenty to twenty-five days were required to send mineral from the mines to Buffalo and thence to Boston — the cost running from $ 1 8 to $20 per long ton.8 (At about this same period the rate on a long ton of ore from Chile to Boston was
4
MICHIGAN COPPER AND BOSTON DOLLARS
$ 1 5 ; from Cuba to Boston, $6.) 9 Cargoes had to be hauled by human or animal labor almost a mile across the portage at the Soo and then reshipped on the other side. Even worse, navigation was impossible for at least five months of the year as a result of winter storms and ice formations along the shore of Lake Superior, and was apt to be risky even during the summer season. Although there were a number of harbors at the Peninsula, most were blocked by sand bars to all but the smallest vessels, and passengers and supplies often had to be transferred to lighters before shore could be reached. Finally, the phrase bandied about among returning prospectors of " a howling wilderness" was perhaps a harsh generalization but was, nonetheless, a fitting description for some of the conditions encountered once the Copper Country had been reached. The Peninsula was heavily wooded, swampy in many places, and cut off by land from the outside world by over 200 miles of virtually uninhabited wilderness. Only experienced woodsmen or those fortunate enough to have at their command a sleigh and dog team could reach civilization once the snows began in November. During the first two years of prospecting and mineral land speculation, there was little that could be dignified by the term "mining." Hundreds of men tramped the wilderness, each equipped with a pick and a few pounds of gunpowder, and with one eye on speculation in land permits where the real money lay. What little copper they found was lying on the surface or easily blown loose from outcropping rocks. But even in these early days there were a few beginnings at real mining, and by 1847 the main outlines of prevailing technology are discernible. In general discarded methods drawn from the earlier history of other mining fields of the world, particularly Cornwall, were employed. Drilling was by hand, one man holding the drill and one or two others driving it into the rock with sledges. Blasting was done with ordinary gunpowder, and both processes required much skill to get effective results. As the shaft went down into the vein, rock and copper masses were
OPENING THE MICHIGAN
LODES
5
hauled to the surface in an iron bucket, known as a "kibble," which was attached to a heavy chain and powered by men at a windlass or by one or more horses at a whim. The whim was a seventeenth-century Cornish invention, used for both hoisting and pumping, which had been very largely replaced in England by steam power. 10 Copper rock was transported underground to the shafts by wheelbarrows rolled along boards, in contrast with the carts pushed along wooden or iron rails which had been adopted in older fields of the world. Finally, Michigan miners, trammers, and laborers climbed in and out of the shafts by ladders, whereas their Cornish counterparts were already beginning to use man-engines as early as 1841. 1 1 The main items of surface equipment usually consisted of a small farm, a blacksmith shop, a carpenter shop or small sawmill, a log bunkhouse or two, a storehouse, a rockhouse, and sometimes a stamp mill. The early prospectors searched for lodes made up of copper masses, almost pure chunks of metal, often weighing ten tons or more, which were laboriously cut up underground and usually shipped directly to the smelter. Barrelwork, copper in very small masses which was detached from its rock matrix by hammering at the rockhouse, was also valued, in part because it did not require milling. But even in 1847 a certain amount of stamp work, or low copper content rock, was considered worth treating. During the summer and fall of 1845, a stamp mill operated by an overshot water wheel was working at Eagle River. 12 These early stamps were of Cornish design with wooden stems and iron heads weighing around 200 pounds, which dropped on the rock some twentyodd times per minute. Copper mineral 13 was extracted from the resultant sands by hand treatment — the washing and jiggling on boards being about the same technique as that used in the early gold fields.14 Mass copper was often roasted in kilns or small ovens in order to eliminate waste rock. The rock was piled upon a layer of crossed cordwood, allowed to burn for several days, and then cooled by water which helped to complete the splintering of the matrix. But during this initial boom period serious mining attempts
6
MICHIGAN
COPPER
AND BOSTON
DOLLARS
were the exception rather than the rule. N o t only was the district difficult to reach, even worse to open up, and conspicuously lacking in easily discoverable, rich lodes, but the leasing system soon proved extremely detrimental to successful establishment of the industry. B y M a y , 1846, approximately 1,000 permits had been issued, and claims had been staked on every spot that showed signs of copper and even, for speculative purposes, on locations where the existence of the metal was known to be impossible. As one old-timer put it in speaking of permit speculators, "Some of their permits are located where they can't touch land up, nor down, nor sideways — and others ain't nowhere." 15 Having a permit turned into a lease was an expensive step, particularly with the surety bond requirement, and there is evidence that a good deal of politics entered into approval at Washington. 16 Finally, a ten-year maximum leasing period did not represent secure enough tenure to justify the heavy capital investment required to open up a mine. T h e net result was a wild speculative spree in the selling and buying of permits, very little serious mining, and a marked absence of royalties for the government. In M a y , 1846, the President suspended further issue of permits, and by late 1847 the speculative bubble had burst, and the district was all but deserted. Congress came to the rescue in that year with an act which shifted custody of the mineral lands from the War to the Treasury Department and authorized outright sale of the full extent of a lease for $2.50 an acre and of a 40-acre lot within a lease for $5.00 an acre. 17 In September, 1850, the minimum price was reduced to $1.2 5, 18 and that same year a United States geological survey was completed which provided the first adequate geological maps of the district and enough basic scientific knowledge to permit rational exploration and development work. 19 The feverish prelude to the history of the Michigan copper mining district was over. An enormous amount of work remained to be done before the industry could be placed on a paying basis, but at least the initial task of developing favorable land laws and of providing basic geological knowledge had been accomplished by 1850.
OPENING
THE MICHIGAN
LODES
7
THE CHALLENGE AND THE ACCOMPLISHMENT
Domestic and world copper background. Before turning to a consideration of developments after the initial speculative boom, it will be useful to sketch the more general domestic and world copper picture of the period, particularly since some of these outside developments tended to make the task of opening the Michigan lodes an even more difficult one. In the early forties, just before mining began in Michigan, United States output of copper was running around 200,000 pounds per annum. Scattered, sporadic producers in the East — namely in Connecticut, Vermont, and Maryland — were the only domestic sources of the metal. Theirs was an insignificant production eveii in terms of the copper needs of that day, and the United States annually imported some 3,300 short tons of unmanufactured pigs and bars, plates and sheets, and various manufactures of brass and copper. Since raw copper could enter free of duty and manufactured articles were subject to high rates, over three-quarters, by value, of these imports took the form of pigs, bars, and old copper from the United Kingdom, Chile, and Peru, and plates and sheets from Britain for the domestic shipbuilding industry.20 The major sources of world copper of the period were Cornwall and Devon which had reached their peak by the 1840's and were entering a period of gradual decline.21 Substantial increases elsewhere, notably from Chile, which was soon to surpass England as a copper producer, and from Spain, Australia, and the United States more than doubled world annual production in the two decades following 1845, and had begun, by the mid-fifties, to exert a downward pressure upon world copper prices. During the forties and early fifties consumption of copper increased rapidly for sheathing wooden ships and for use in the expanding engineering trades, but shortly thereafter the red metal began to run into competitive difficulties in a number of old established lines. Application of steam power to the manufacture of iron and steel, as well as improvements in
8
MICHIGAN
COPPER AND BOSTON
DOLLARS
foundry technology, had cheapened iron to a point where it was offering serious competition in the pot and pan trade, brewery equipment, sugar refining machinery, and similar lines.22 Engineering demands continued to increase, but by the early sixties, iron ships had begun to supplant wooden vessels which resulted, a few years later, in a reversal of the rising demand trend for copper sheathing.23 These developments not only tended to dampen the demand for copper but temporarily increased the amount of scrap flowing back into the supply stream. After 1855 there was a gradual weakening in the world price of the metal — the situation reaching crisis proportions in the London market by late 1865. The domestic economy was partially protected by the passage of a tariff in 1861 of two cents a pound on pigs, bars, and ingots, and of 5 per cent ad valorem on copper ores. Civil War needs for the metal also proved a boon, but gradually weakening world prices hung like a dark cloud over the newly established industry throughout much of its developmental period. Internal problems involved in opening up the Michigan lodes. Internal problems were quite serious enough without the complication of a world copper glut. The Peninsula comprised approximately 3,000 square miles of territory within which were scattered some 400 lava flows and conglomerate and sandstone beds which the early prospectors might have discovered. And of these 400 possible locations, not more than a dozen or so were destined to yield copper in commercial quantities.24 Careful exploration of the range had barely begun, and it was still not known that the mass deposits, which, in the forties, had been considered the only lodes worth mining, were geological freaks representing little more than icing of the main copper cake. The really significant deposits were of finely disseminated metal in amygdaloid and conglomerate rock,25 running to great depth, and seldom outcropping in a fashion which would make proving of potentialities rapid or inexpensive. Past mining and metallurgical experience of the world had little to offer in the way of adequate methods for handling these new problems, and
OPENING THE MICHIGAN
LODES
9
tremendous uncertainty, springing from technical and geological ignorance, was the greatest handicap to be overcome. Only a little less important were transportation difficulties which were closely associated with those of obtaining an adequate labor supply. For many years the problem of getting copper out and supplies in at something less than prohibitive cost was too much for many of the infant companies and a severe handicap for all except the two or three with bonanza finds. Copper content of all shipments had to be high; in 1847 the trustees of the Copper Falls Company were advising their agent that his first consignment of some 7,000 pounds of mineral had not paid costs. As a result of high transportation charges, nothing yielding less than 40 per cent metal should be shipped.26 The industry approached these problems with a number of factors in its favor. Bad as the transportation problem was, the Great Lakes waterway represented an incalculably great asset, as did the fact that the copper discoveries were of pure metal, uncontaminated by sulphur or other undesirable elements which greatly complicated the refining of copper ore found in other parts of the world. In addition the corporate form of enterprise was available from the beginning, as well as stock exchanges in the East which tapped the meager store of speculative capital available in the young nation. Finally, there came to the district a steady stream of high-class labor from older mining and industrial centers of the world. The immigrants brought to Michigan not only their youth and skill, but a highly favorable incentive wage system and the best mining knowledge the world had to offer.27 The accomplishment by 1866. From a production standpoint the accomplishment in this first period of 22 years was an impressive one. B y the early 1860's the new district was producing about 14 million pounds of copper per annum,28 an amount equivalent to 60 per cent of domestic requirements, which had tripled since the early forties.29 Actually, since 1855 the United States had become an exporter as well as an importer of refined copper. The Lake product was of particular value for
10
MICHIGAN
COPPER
AND
BOSTON
DOLLARS
military and artistic purposes and sold at a premium in foreign markets. From 1855 to 1861, 30 to 80 per cent of annual Michigan output was shipped abroad. T h e less expensive fire refined metal from Chilean and other foreign and domestic mines continued to be good enough for the requirements of most domestic manufacturers. The most rapid increases in output were made between 1854, when production stood at about four million pounds, and 1861, when it topped 15 million. B y the peak inflationary year of the Civil War, some $5.8 million worth of copper was flowing Eastward from the distant shores of Lake Superior where five thousand men worked for the mining companies in a community which now numbered 19 thousand. 30 In marked contrast with the production record, the financial operations of the industry can hardly be called a success. From 1845 through 1865, 94 Lake copper companies made capital calls on their stockholders for a total of over $13.1 million. During the same period these companies paid in dividends $5.6 million. 31 It seems probable that there had been at least 20 other enterprises whose bitter history is not included in this statistical summary as well as hundreds of prospectors and miners who came to the district, lost their savings, and were obliged to leave. A few companies were established which paid substantial sums in later years and whose capital investment in 1865 represented a real asset for stockholders, but they numbered at most three or four, and their total assessments had amounted to about half a million dollars. But such an accounting leaves the whole nature of the problem in obscurity. Eight out of the ninety-four companies paid dividends at one time or another, and six of the eight were successful in the limited sense of paying out more money than they took from stockholders in the form of assessments. 32 Five of the six paid over 300 per cent on invested capital; one of the five paid almost 500 per cent; and the bonanza of the day almost 2,000 per cent. It is extremely important to understand in terms of dollars and cents just what it meant to get in on the ground floor of an exceptionally rich mine.
OPENING
THE MICHIGAN
LODES
II
Let us suppose that an investor was fortunate enough to own 500 of the 6,000 shares of the Cliff mine in 1845. I n the course of the next few years, he would have been assessed $9,170. By 1866, the mine would have paid him $175,000 in dividends, or even better, he might have been astute enough to have sold out at the stock market peak in 1859 for $167,000, having already received a little more than $88,000 in dividends. Thus, it is conceivable that an investor might have maximized his return at $255,000 on a 13-year investment of a little over $9,000 — or more than a 200 per cent return per annum. In any case, this was the stuff men's dreams were made of. It proved incentive enough for a more or less continuous flow of capital into the Copper Country. The gambling element is the key to understanding, and it is even a mistake to measure pecuniary success of individual stockholders chiefly in terms of dividends. The game was so uncertain, and there was such a substantial lapse of time between the day a mine was opened and the day it was finally proven a success or failure that there were plenty of opportunities to make (or lose) a fortune by speculating in the securities of even those companies which ultimately ended completely bankrupt. Nor can the extent of the accomplishment be measured adequately in terms of an immediate dollar-and-cent accounting. This was a period of spade work on a grand scale — of capital loss for all but a few of the early shareholders, which represented, in large part, a capital investment for the more fortunate shareholders who followed them. B y 1866, the three major types of copper rock formation of the Peninsula had been discovered, and a beginning had been made in exploiting two out of the three richest copper bearing lodes. An adequate water route to the East had been developed, and during the last few years of the period, real progress was made in solving the problem of internal land transportation. Years of trial-and-error fumbling were required to gain detailed geological knowledge and to adapt the technology of other mining fields to new mining and metallurgical problems. T h e financial record to the contrary, the accomplishment had been an enormous one, and
12
MICHIGAN
COPPER AND BOSTON
DOLLARS
it will be discussed in more detail in the remainder of this chapter. THE COPPER CAKE BENEATH THE ICING
The major discoveries. The first discoveries to be developed into paying mines were located in what later constituted Keweenaw County, or the northern third of the mineral range, and Ontonagon County, or the southern third. The section opened up last was Houghton County, lying between Ontonagon and Keweenaw, and containing the Pewabic amygdaloid lode near Portage Lake and the famous Calumet conglomerate, which was to prove one of the richest copper deposits in the world. The mining attempt in this forbidding country might well have been given up for another quarter of a century if two early prospectors had not stumbled upon lodes containing fabulously rich copper in an uncomplicated form, from both a mining and metallurgical standpoint. The Cliff lode, discovered in 1845, a n d the Minesota, discovered in 1848, were deposits of mainly mass copper. Similar formations were found elsewhere in the district, but nothing comparable in richness to these first two bonanzas.33 The Keweenaw section led in production until well into the fifties when the Minesota boosted Ontonagon into first place, and by 1856 the Ontonagon mines were accounting for a little less than 50 per cent of Michigan output, those of Keweenaw probably around 45 per cent, and the small properties near Portage Lake not over 5 per cent.34 That same year, the main body of the great Pewabic amygdaloid lode was discovered by one of several old companies which had been working relatively minor offshoots of it since the early fifties. Not only did a geographic shift in the production balance to the Portage Lake section result, but the shift was geologic as well. The new mines were working beds of amygdaloid rock containing some 2 to 4 per cent finely disseminated copper. Their rise was very rapid, and it was apparent as early as i860 that the future of the district depended upon exploitation of such low content rock. Houghton County estab-
OPENING
THE MICHIGAN
LODES
13
lished production superiority by 1865, when its output was ten tons more than that of Ontonagon and Keweenaw combined.35 A falling-off of production at the Cliff and Minesota brought with it not only a relative, but an absolute, decline for the two older sections of the district. As the period covered by this chapter was closing, a mine was being opened on the third main type of lode found at Superior — a mine which was soon to startle the copper world and make the mighty Minesota seem like a trivial discovery. In 1859, a surveyor named Edwin J. Hulbert had stumbled across a curious pit containing copper rock (apparently stored there by some forgotten race of miners) and a year later had bought a substantial piece of property near that site. On September 17, 1864, the main body of the Calumet lode was discovered on his property. The rock was conglomerate — a tough pudding stone, which, at the new mine, was still low in copper content, as compared with the mass lodes, but much richer than the softer Portage Lake amygdaloids. Throughout these first twenty-two years, silver was found along with the copper in many of the Lake mines. The Minesota and Cliff were famous for what Swineford calls "silver waifs." 3 6 Even the Portage Lake mines produced enough silver so that it paid to employ silver pickers at the stamp mills. But the gray metal was not significant enough to make or break a Michigan company, even when the company owned a marginal property. It did, particularly in the early days, add to the speculative aura which hung over the district. Until much experience indicated the contrary, the companies always hoped that the next blast of gunpowder would turn their copper into a silver vein. Growth in the size of enterprises. Discoveries of new lodes and the establishment of new producing companies (the number rose from eight in 1850 to twenty-three in i860) 37 was the most important factor in increasing output during these years. But there was also a trend toward larger scale of production of the individual enterprises making up the industry, particularly until the Civil War years. Whereas only one of the eight
14
MICHIGAN
COPPER AND BOSTON
DOLLARS
companies recorded as having a significant output in 1850 produced over 500,000 pounds of copper, nine of the sixteen producers in 1861 had outputs of over 500,000, and six of the nine produced between one and four million pounds. This represented a substantial change since the late fifties when the Minesota and Cliff had stood alone as giants in the industry with annual outputs of two to four million pounds, while the rest of the companies accounted for only a few hundred thousand each per annum. Growth of the Portage Lake mines was tending to place a half dozen enterprises on just about an output par. These new mines began to reach significant size around 1859-1860, and their continued growth through 1861 provides an interesting problem in output-price relationships. In spite of slowly declining copper prices after 1856 (which were accompanied by three years of gradually declining output) and the lowest copper prices in ten years in 1 8 6 1 , between 1859 and 1861 the Michigan field scored its heaviest gain in output of this 22-year period. The explanation of this phenomeno emphasizes the importance of the development of new prope ties, which on several occasions brought about rapid increas in Michigan production in spite of falling copper prices. About the time that the Minesota and Cliff began to declin in consequence of lower copper prices and depletion of copp< reserves, a half dozen new mines were opening up, mainly the Portage Lake section. (The most important of these ne enterprises were the Quincy, Franklin, and Pewabic.) Th( combined output increased rapidly between 1857 and 1859, spite of falling copper prices, but was still so small that th production increase was overbalanced by declines at the C and Minesota. The low copper content of the rock which 1 new mines were working and the depth of their lodes called f a large scale of operations if the ventures were to succeed. Bi tween 1859 and 1861 their combined output increased by ove two and one-half times, a substantial enough gain to raise tl Michigan total in spite of falling output at older, "mas; copper" properties.
OPENING
THE MICHIGAN
LODES
Copper for War. The initial impact of the Civil War upon the Michigan copper mining industry was very similar to that of the first World War over a half century later. T h e domestic copper market was completely disorganized, and trade lines with Europe were threatened by Confederate privateers. Alfred Swineford, writing in 1866, characterized those first few months of the war as "one of the darkest hours we remember for the copper mining interests." Everyone supposed the end had come — that the mines must close down —• that nothing was left to do but shoulder the musket and march to the South. Copper stocks fell to a zero point; nobody would want our copper . . . the price of copper fell to seventeen cents.38 But recovery came with amazing rapidity; government orders for brass buttons, copper canteens, bronze cannon, and naval equipment 3 9 replaced the foreign demand, and the annual average price of Lake copper went from 19.1 cents a lound in 1861 to 46.3 cents in 1864.40 Expressed in gold prices, per
DiviC ends
rices
I t
\
!
I 1
1
1
\
!
30 h 1
I '
\
•
V Λ
V
,/
A Λ
1850
ί κ
\ Λ •J
/ "V /ν
*
\
J/
I
20
If
>
W
1900
A
rη
Λ A /
1
ν ' 1925
JVy
l·/ f\j
Fig. 5. Michigan Copper Mining Company Dividend Payments Compared with Average Annual Copper Prices Source:
Tables 8 and 12.
[I9S]
0 1950
Fig. 6. Population of the Michigan Copper District Compared with Mining Company Employment, 1860-1946 Source'. Tables 10 and 14.
Thousands of Pounds of Copper
Fig. 7. Production of Copper per Man-Year of Labor Employed in the Michigan Copper Mining Industry, 1850-1946 Source:
Table
n.
[196]
TABLE 6 WORLD, U N I T E D STATES, AND M I C H I G A N O U T P U T OF N E W
COPPER,
1845-1946
(Thousands of Pounds)
Year
World"
1845
98,762 a
1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 I8S3 I8S4 IS55 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866
United. States" 224"
27"
12.1
336
58
17-3
672
477
71.0
1,120
i,033
92.2
1,568
i,505
96.0
1,456
1,281
88.0
2,016
i,745
86.6
2,464
i,744
70.8
4,48ο
2,905
64.8
A a a a 151,816 a a a a a a a a a 229,868 a η a a a
Michiganc
Percentage Michigan of U.S.
5,040
4,075
80.9
6,720
5,808
86.4
8,960
8,212
91.7
10,752
9,53i
88.6
12,320
9,157
74-3
14,112
8,926
63-3
16,128
12,069
74.8
16,800
15,037
89-5
21,160
13,586
64.2
19,040
12,985
68.2
17,920
12,490
69.7
19,040
14,358
75-4
19,936
13,749
69.0
202,264
150,758
74-5
22,400
17,526
78.2
Subtotal 1845-1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877
3,489,940 a a a a 284,748 η
• a a a a
25,984
20,935
80.6
28,000
26,625
95·ΐ
28,224
24,622
87.2
29,120
26,748
91.9
28,000
24,553
87.7
34,720
30,090
86.7
39,200
34,332
87.6
40,320
36,039
89.4
42,560
38,370
90.2
47,040
39,025
83-0
[ 197
1
TABLE 6 (Continued)
Year 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 Subtotal 1867-1884 188S 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892
World* A
United Statesb
Percentage Michigan Michigan" of US. 82.4
48,160 51,520 60,480 71,680 90,646 115,526
39,691 42,849
144,947
69,353
51-7 47.8
5,587,460
948,527
690,753
72.8
506,242 482,176 501,076 589,608 582,036 610,668
165,876
72,148 79,891
43-5 51.0 41.7 38.2
337,924 346,696 362,686 404,074 448,614 490,010
1893 1894
633,344 704,500 669,856 706,986
189S 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904
737,9 2 6 845,676 909,062 961,808 1,038,672 1,090,878 1,160,018 1,228,872 1,312,960 1,454,432
156,735 180,921 226,361 226,776 259,763 284,122 344,999 329,354 354,188 380,613 460,061 494,078 526,513 568,667 606,117 602,073
49,737 53,573 56,983 59,702
75,472 86,472 88,176 101,410 114,223 123,198 112,605 114,309 129,331 143,524 145,282 158,492 147,400
83.2 82.2 74-7 62.9
38.9 39-0 40.2 35-7 34-2 32.3 34-0 31.2 29.4 30.1 25-9 24.0 26.0
659,509 698,045 812,537
145,461 156,289 170,609 192,401 208,309
16,726,796
8,337,308
2,565,002
30.8
1,570,802
888,784 916,971 847,151 956,841 1,126,521 1,088,237
230,288
25-9 25-1 25-5 23·4 20.7 20.3
25-9 27.6 25.6
Subtotal 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 0 4
190S 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910
i,S9S,SS4 1,589,410 1,640,200 1,824,476 1,922,636
[198]
230,525' 216,007 223,540 233,516 221,163
T A B L E 6 (Continued)
Year
World*
1911
1,993,014 2,205,012
1912 I9I3 1914
2,181,254 2,054,090
United States"
Michigan"
Percentage Michigan of U.S.
1,114,764
219,771
19.7
1,249,095 1,235,570
216,793
17-4
139,650 166,184
11-3
14-5 13-3
I9I5 1916
2,330,886
1,148,431 1,488,072
2,998,680
2,005,875
258,103 266,839
1917
3,149,186
1918
3,158,592
1,895,434 1,910,023
228,174
13-5 11.9
30,213,792
17,871,769
3,106,590
17.4
1919
2,191,372
1,212,334
178,366
1920
2,114,328
1,224,550
161,344
1921
1,229,266
466,191
92,262
14-7 13-2 19.8
964,584 1,477,740 1,606,165
121,387
12.6
137,957 138,160
9-3 8.6
154,799 175,442
10.2
177,538'
10.8
Subtotal 1905-1918
1922
256,037
17-3
1923
1,904,774 2,682,998
1924
2,987,224
192S 1926
3,093,054 3,216,512
1,678,118
1927
3,348,788
1928
3,756,638
1,649,959 1,809,797
1929
i,995,no
178,443 186,402
1930
4,199,764 3,530,240
1,410,147
169,382
9-3 12.0
I93I 1932
3,093,440 2,087,680
1,057,749 476,221
118,060
II.2
54,396
11.4
1933
2,322,880
381,285
1934
2,943,36ο
474,8io
46,854 48,216
12.3 10.2
1935 1936
3,422,720
760,996
64,108
8.4
4,032,000
1,229,031
95,968
7.8
5,252,800
1,683,996
4,580,800
1,115,525
94,928 93,486
8.4
61,990,638
24,399,584
2,487,498
10.2
1939 1940
4,869,760
1,456,638
87,970
6.0
5,602,240
1,756,172
1941
6,048,000
5-i 4.8
1942
6,272,000
1,932,144 2,160,122
90,396 92,880
1943
6,076,000
2,181,636
91,358 93,528
4-3
1937 1938 Subtotal 1919-1938
1,725,276
[199]
9.2
9.9
5-6
4.2
TABLE 6 (Continued)
Year
World *
United States
b
Michigan
c
Percentage Michigan of US.
1944
5,686,000
1,945,098
84,842
44
194S 1946
4,758,000
1,545,788
60,802
4,078,000
1,217,474
43,326
3-9 3-6
43,391,000
14,195,072
645,102
4-5
161,399,626
65,954,524
9>645»703
ι4·6
Subtotal 1939-1946 Grand Total
ft F i g u r e s for world o u t p u t u n t i l 1879 are annual averages calculated from total o u t p u t per decade as reported b y B r o w n a n d T u r n b u l l . A f t e r 1878 the figures refer to smelter o u t p u t as reported b y The Minerals Yearbook, various dates. W h e n e v e r possible, scrap production h a s been eliminated f r o m t h e smelter figures. ( F o r a definition of " s m e l t e r o u t p u t / ' see note b.) W o r l d o u t p u t figures are, a t best, reasonably a c c u r a t e estimates. b F i g u r e s for U n i t e d States o u t p u t are " s m e l t e r p r o d u c t i o n " for the y e a r s 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 0 5 and " m i n e p r o d u c t i o n " t h e r e a f t e r . ( M i n e production figures first b e c a m e available in 1906 and reflect more a c c u r a t e l y the q u a n t i t y of metal a c t u a l l y mined in a n y given y e a r . ) Smelter production is the o u t p u t of domestic mines as reported b y the companies w h i c h smelted the mineral, w h e r e a s mine production is o u t p u t as reported b y the m i n i n g companies on the basis of smelter reports to t h e m of the copper c o n t e n t of mineral shipped. T h e r e are three major causes of differences between the figures in a n y given y e a r . First, copper in transit f r o m mine to smelter around the end of a y e a r will be reflected in mine, b u t not in smelter figures. Second, smelter o u t p u t is in terms of refined copper produced in a n y given y e a r , a n d there m a y be variations in the q u a n t i t y of mineral in stock at the smelter. F i n a l l y , smelter is l i k e l y to be s l i g h t l y larger than mine production since the mines are not credited for u n u s u a l l y low copper content mineral. c F i g u r e s for M i c h i g a n o u t p u t are smelter production for the y e a r s 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 0 5 and mine production t h e r e a f t e r . 4 Source: The Minerals Yearbook. « F i g u r e s for M i c h i g a n o u t p u t f r o m 1845 t h r o u g h 1905 are f r o m various v o l u m e s of The Minerals Yearbook. ' M i c h i g a n figures for the y e a r s 1 9 0 6 - 1 9 2 6 are f r o m H o r e , p p . 2 0 3 - 2 2 0 ; a n d Pardee,
pp. 30-33. * Michigan Yearbook.
figures
for
the y e a r s
1927-1946
are f r o m v a r i o u s
[ 200 ]
volumes
of
The
Minerals
United States Copper Production, Consumption, Net Importe, Ei ports 1845-1880; Fiscal Years ending June30
€0
υ) 50 Ό C Ο
CL
40
Ο Ο Ο Ο 30 ο
/ Production βί/ster Copper from Domes f i e Ore. (fiscal year figures equal overage calendar year and preceding gear)· 2, Consumption (Production plus net imports minus exports). i 3. Net Imports (foreran imports minus foreign exports). Unmanufactured Copper (ore, mafte,piys, bars,plates joidj. . 07 Weights estimated from dollar values, J84S-/86I. ?' Ore estimated f845-1880. 4 1 4·. Domestic exports unmanufactured Copper: Weights estimated 1845-1863; One ft} 1880.
#f"
ο.
20 -C σ> 10
1845
1850
1855
I860
1865
1870
1875
1880
Figure 8 Production,
United States Copper Consumption. Net Imports, /88o-1933 (Calendar Years)
£*ports
2000 • 1800 •O 1 6 0 0 c 3 a. 1400 Ο §
1200
θΟ" I00Ö ο. c · 800
/. Production from Domestic Ores(Sme!ter to /£W, Refinery I9I2-/933)· f 2. Domestic Consumption (Production plus /Set J Imports minus Domestic imports plus or minus n e t change in stocks). J (Stocks an copper 188* -1906, Refined copper j /90Ί-/333). Ί 3. Net Imports (foreign Imports minus Umijnitporm Unmanufactured Copper (Ore, Maffe, rigs,Bars^ 1 Ingots, Plates, Oldand Scrap) (Ore est: 1880-83, 1895-1903]. 4. Domestic Exports Unmanufactured ΓCopper (Same plus rods and Wire. ' 1915 f f ; Pipes and Tubes, 1921 ff.) (Ore est. i880 f> f
200
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
1910
1915
1920
1925
1930 33
Figure g Source: Robert B. Fettengill, "The United States Foreign Trade in Copper, 1790-1932," American Economic Review, XXV (1935), 428, 431,
TABLE
7
UNITED STATES FOREIGN TRADE IN AND CONSUMPTION O F N E W COPPER, 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 4 6
(Millions of Pounds)
Year
Imports
1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 I92S 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 I93I 1932 1933 1934 I93S 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 I94S 1946
8 7 38 35 109 69 103 161 146 100 171 102 85 134 86 174 168 10 55 36 9 15 4 32 137 694 803 80s 985 1,063 309
Exports
717 1.031 690 438 551 596 653 729 1,008 968 856 922 949 822 594 40S 222 249 525 521 441 590 741 746 713 207 263 355 138 107 105
Apparent Consumption
1,479 1,395 1,661 914 1,053 611 897 1,300 i,355 1,401 1,570 i,423 1,608 1,778 1,265
902 519 679 645 883 1,312 i,390 814 1,430 2,017 3,283 3,356 3,004 3,008 2,830 2,482
Source: The Minerals Yearbook, various dates. T h i s table is included as a supplement to Figures 8 and 9. T h e export-import figures in the table are not as inclusive as those in the charts since they cover only refined copper.
[ 202 ]
TABLE
8
MICHIGAN OUTPUT OF COPPER AND VALUE OF OUTPUT, 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 4 6
Year
Mine Output1 (Thousands of Pounds)
Smelter Outputb (Thousands of Pounds)
Average Pricec (Cents per Pound) 18.5 17.2
5 10
Tnf-fll X U Lai.
27 58 477 I,033 1,505 1,281
Ιΐ·5 19-5 22.3 22.0 16.6 22.0 22.0 22.0 27.0 27.0 25.0 23.0 22.0
50 200 340 280 290 380 640 900
184S 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 I8S3 I8S4 18SS 1856 1857
1858 I8S9 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 186s 1866
previous 10 1855: 13,419
I,745 1,744 2,905 4,075 5,808 8,212
13,749
32-9 46-3 36-3 31-8
I,570 2,220 2,380 2,110 1,960 2,690 2,870 3,5io 4,270 5,78ο 5,210 4,370
147,506
150,758
27.9
42,035
16,750 19,795 26,584 24,287
17,526
25-1 23.6
4,400 4,940 6,230
5,820 7,752 9,708 9,O 2 3 9,000 11,792
14,842 13,648 12,812 12,403 14,047 13,240
9,531 9,157 8,926 12,069 15,037 13,586 12,985 12,490 14,358
Subtotal 1845-1866
1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187S 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880
Estimated Value d ( Thousands of Dollars)
25,707 24,821 29,876 34,267 36,070 38,143 38,880 41,486 42,838 49,601
20,935 26,625 24,622 26,748 24,553 30,090 34,332 36,039 38,370 39,025 39,691 42,849 49,737 [ 203 ]
22.3β
I9.I 25-8
23-4 20.6 22.6 33-0 29-0 23-3 22-5 21.0 i8.6 16.5 17.1 20.1
5,070 6,050 8,100 8,730 8,000 8,110 8,060 7,260 6,550 7,330 10,000
TABLE 8 (Continued)
Year
Mine Output' (Thousands of Pounds)
Smelter Output" (Thousands of Pounds)
Average Pricec (Cents per Pound)
Estimated Value" ( Thousands of Dollars)
1881
53,872
53,573
18.1
9,700
1882
56,583
56,983
18.5
10,540
1883
59,257
59,702
15-9
9,490
1884
69,328
69,353
13-9
9,640
688,145
690,753
20.1
138,200
72,759 80,260
72,148
II.I
8,010
1886
79,891
II.0
8,790
1887
75,793
75,472
1888
86,503
86,472
ιΐ·3 16.7
14,440
1889
87,414 100,695
88,176
13.8
12,170
1890
101,410
15.8
16,020
1891
114,409
114,223
12.9
14,740
1892
107,540
123,198
IS93 1894
113,512
112,605
ιΐ·5 10.8
12,160
114,474
114,309
9.6
10,970
1895
129,676
129,331
10.8
13,970
1896
145,745
143,524
10.9
15,640
1897
142,703
145,282
147,966
158,492'
"•3 12.0
16,420
1898 1899
148,444
147,400
17.6
25,940
1900
142,078
145,461
16.5
24,000
1901
156,289
16.6
25,940
1902
155,617 170,176
170,609
11.9
20,300
1903
192,249
192,401
Ι3·4
25,780
1904
208,279
208,309
i3.o
27,080
2,536,292
2,565,002
13.2
334,090
I9°S 1906
229,120
230,288
230,525
229,696
15-7 19.6
45,020
1907
216,007
219,132
20.7
45,36o
1908
223,540
222,290
13-4
1909
233,516
227,006
13-3
29,787 30,192
1910
221,163
221,463
i3.o
28,790
1911
219,771
218,185
12.6
27,490
1912
216,793
231,112
i6.6
38,370
Subtotal 1867-1884 1885
Subtotal 1885-1904
[ 204]
8,530
14,170
19,020
36,160
TABLE 8 (Continued)
Year
Mine Output * (Thousands of Pounds)
Smelter Output" (Thousands of Pounds)
Average Pricec (Cents per Pound)
Estimated Value d (Thousands of Dollars)
139,650 166,184 258,103 266,839 256,037 228,174
155,715 158,010 238,956 269,795 268,508 231,096
15-7 13.6 17-3 28.2 29.2 24.7
24,450 21,490 41,340 76,080 78,400 57,o8o
3,105,422
3,121,252
18.6
580,009
1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924
178,366 161,344 92,262 121,387 137,957 138,160
192S 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930
154,799 175,442 177,538 178,443 186,402 169,382 118,060 54,396 46,854 48,216 64,108 95,968 94,928 93,486
177,594 153,484 100,918 122,545 137,691 145,333 138,030
I9I3 1914 191S 1916 1917 1918 Subtotal 1905-1918
I93I 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 Subtotal 1919-1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944
174,779 195,135 179,104 185,301 142,986 105,222 63,899 72,341 51,682 73,812 91,105 84,751 75,28i
2,487,498
2,470,993
87,970 90,396 92,880 91,358 93,528 84,842
89,402 91,486 93,504 94,940 90,996 84,842 [205]
18.7 8
9-5 13.2 10.0
33,210 26,860 12,620 16,420 19,830 18,890 19,320 24,120 25,170 26,150 33,540 18,590 8,520 3,58ο 5,o6o 4,340 6,350 8,660 11,190 7,530
13.4
329,950
17-5 12.5 13-4 14.4 13.0 14.0 13.8 12.9 14.6 18.1 13-0 8.1 5-6 7.0 8.4 8.6
II.O ιΐ·3 11.8 12.5 h 13-3 13-5
9,830 10,340 11,030 11,870 12,100 n,45o
T A B L E 8 (Continued)
Year
Mine Output * (Thousands of Pounds)
1945 1946
60,802
60,802
Ι3·7
8,330
43,326
43,326
i6.I
6,875
645,102
649,298
12.6
81,825
9,609,965
9,648,056
15-6
1,506,109
Subtotal 1939-1946 Grand Total
Smelter Output" (Thousands of Pounds)
Average Price " (Cents per Pound)
Estimated Value d (Thousands of Dollars)
* Source: For the years 1845-1926, Hore, and Pardee; after 1926, The Minerals Yearbook. Source: For the years 1845-1943, The Minerals Yearbook; after 1943, " m i n e " figures have been used, since the Bureau of Mines stopped giving a smelter breakdown by states. c Source: For the years 1845-1849, price has been determined by dividing output into gross receipts, as shown by Stevens, Tht Copper Handbook, V I , 1087; for the years 1850-1859, E. D . Gardner, C . H . Johnson, and B. S. Butler, Copper Mining in North America, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 405 (Washington, 1938), p. 1 1 ; for the years 1860-1913 and 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 4 1 , various volumes of The Mineral Industry', for the years 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 , The Mines Handbook (New York, 1922), pp. 4 0 - 4 1 ; and for the years 1942-1946, American Metals Market, January 15, 1947; The Minerals Yearbook jor 1945', and Engineering and Mining Journal, July, 1945, p. 88. d Except for the years 1845-1849, estimated value has been arrived at by multiplying average price by output. e See note c. T h e quotations are Engineering and Mining Journal averages for both spot and future delivery. Since the prices are quotational averages, they may give a distorted picture in periods of rapidly changing prices. f The smelter output figure for 1898 may be an error in the source data, although it is perfectly conceivable that smelter inventories of mineral were substantially reduced at this time. ε See note c. All quotations through 1919 are for Lake copper which sold at a premium over other grades. After 1919 the premium ceased to be significant and the quotations are for electrolytic copper. h The government stabilized the market price at 11.8 cents a pound in 1941. T h e figures given for the years 1942-1946 include subsidy payments (see note c). In consequence of special subsidies, Michigan producers received substantially higher prices than those shown in the table. b
[ 206 ]
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TABLE
11
POUNDS o r COPPER PRODUCED ANNUALLY P E R MICHIOAN COPPER M I N I N G COMPANY E M P L O Y E E , 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 4 6 "
(In Thousands of Pounds) Calumet and Hecla Year 1850
All Companiesb
Houghton County °
Mill*
All'
1.8
I8S4
1.8
I860
3·2
1864
2-3
1869 1870
Underground*
5-8
1871 1872
20
92
13
18
95
12
19 20
NO 109
13 12
18
116
12
19
122
12
19 22
121
12
1876
123
13
1877
24
IS
1878
26
157 177
1879
30
17 20
1873 1874
6-3
1875
17
40
157 167
1881
45
162
21
1882
45
146
22
43
142
18
50
127
22
47
113
22
12
42 62
133 124
13
33
135
23 18
13
28
125
16
1890
13
32
124
18
1891
14
36
20
1892
13
31
137 NO
1893 1894
IS
35
145
20
15
32
189S 1896
17
41
147 172
17
47
209
23 26
1897
16
34
200
23
1898
14
36
165
20
1899
II
149
18
1900
10
31 28
141
16
1901
II
30
156
17
1880
9-9
1883 1884
II.O
1885 1886 1887 1888 1889
15-3
16.4
[ 2 1 2 ]
21
17 19
T A B L E 11 ( C o n t i n u e d ) Calumet and Hecla Year
All Companiesb
Houghton County °
1902
12.3
12
1903
13
Underground11
Mill'
All'
30 28
168
18
171
29 31 28
165 177
17 18
180
18
146
15 16
1904
12.7
13
1905 1906
12.3
14 12
1907
10.3
II
1908
II.I
II
25 26
1909
12.2
II
26
1910
12
24
156 142
1911
12
25
142
1912
II 8
25 22
129
I9I3 1914
10
22
12
29
87 123
12
I9IS
1916
12
28
116
16
1917
12
25
106
14
1918
14 13
27 22
91 86
1920
15
33
117
1921
13
87
121
1919
I4.6
1922
14 30 Year of Consolidations
1923 1924
37 36
i92S 1926
36
1927
33 36
1928 1929
170
97
94 124 134 156 162 176
20
16 15 16 15 II 16
Η 13 21 25 18 24 26 26 24 26
37 40
177
1930
211
27 26
1931 1932
41 61
125 102
19 21
1933
78 80
129
29
138
30
67 93
113 178
47
23.8
1934 I93S 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940
27.8
1941 1942
[213]
29
77
144
39
85
120
74 50
112
37 40
106
38
64 40
129
45
121
33
TABLE
11
(Continued)
Calumet and Hecla Year
All Companies
b
Houghton County c
Underground
d
Mill *
All'
1943
22.4
41
121
30
1944
21.6
55
104
29
45
75
22
I94S 1946
36
18.3
17
» T h e calculations are based u p o n data in T a b l e s 8 and 10; H o r e , p p . 2 0 6 - 2 1 4 ; Pardee, p p . 3 0 - 3 2 ; a n d a n n u a l reports of the C a l u m e t a n d H e c l a M i n i n g C o m p a n y . T h e table is of limited usefulness since a v e r y large n u m b e r of factors affect t h e trend line. A m o n g t h e most i m p o r t a n t are t h e price of c o p p e r ; the proportion of underground workers e m p l o y e d a t the r e l a t i v e l y u n p r o d u c t i v e task of o p e n i n g n e w ground, exploring, or s h a f t s i n k i n g ; technological c h a n g e s ; t h e richness of the general run of rock available a t a p a r t i c u l a r period; a n d variations in labor s u p p l y conditions. I n addition, no a t t e m p t has been m a d e to m a k e a l l o w a n c e f o r changes in the l e n g t h of t h e w o r k i n g d a y . b I n arriving a t these figures M i c h i g a n mine o u t p u t was divided b y total n u m b e r of mining c o m p a n y e m p l o y e e s as shown b y State and Federal census and other reports. c T h e n u m b e r of e m p l o y e e s reported b y the H o u g h t o n C o u n t y M i n e Inspector ( u s u a l l y as of S e p t e m b e r 3 0 ) has been divided into total a n n u a l o u t p u t of the mines l y i n g w i t h i n the C o u n t y . A f t e r the C a l u m e t and H e c l a consolidation of 1923 it was no longer possible to separate out H o u g h t o n C o u n t y production. d C a l u m e t a n d H e c l a e m p l o y m e n t figures are for D e c e m b e r 31 of each year. A f t e r 1 9 1 4 the c o m p a n y ' s production f r o m tailings w a s deducted f r o m total o u t p u t in arriving a t o u t p u t per underground worker. 0 The n u m b e r of mill workers w a s divided into total o u t p u t f r o m mines a n d reclamation plants. A f t e r 1 9 1 4 the " m i l l " c a t e g o r y includes reclamation workers. f Besides underground and mill workers the c o m p a n y e m p l o y e d large n u m b e r s of men in shops, transportation, construction, etc. T h e " a l l " c a t e g o r y represents total e m p l o y m e n t less smelter e m p l o y m e n t . T h i s a d j u s t m e n t w a s necessary to m a k e t h e figures a f t e r 1888 c o m p a r a b l e to those b e f o r e t h a t date. ( C a l u m e t and H e c l a b u i l t its own smelter in 1888.) O u t p u t f r o m scrap treatment is not included in the figures for 1943 through 1 9 4 6 .
[214]
TABLE
12
DIVIDEND P A Y M E N T S — A L L M I C H I G A N COPPER M I N I N G COMPANIES (A)
TOTALS FOR
1845-1946
(In Thousands of Dollars) Total Amount
Company Cliff Minesota National Pewabic Quincy Franklin Central Copper Falls Calumet and Hecla * Ridge Phoenix Atlantic Osceola ·. Tamarack Kearsarge Wolverine Champion Trimountain Baltic Mohawk Ahmeek Isle Royale Allouez Copper R a n g e " Centennial Superior White Pine
2,519 1,820 320 1,000 27,353 1,240 2,130 100 183,871 100 20 990 18,044 9,420 160 10,350 32,171 3,250 7,950 17,276 14,050 3,681 2,850 8,280 360 649 33
Grand T o t a l '
349,987 Totalc
Calumet and Hecla Copper Range T o t a l "
[215]
200,633 33,895
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