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English Pages [320] Year 1984
Meroitic Settlement in the Central Sudan An Analysis of Sites in the Nile Valley and the Western Butana
Khidir Abdelkarim Ahmed
Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 8 BAR International Series 197 1984
B.A.R.
122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D .R. Walker. M .A.
B.A.R.-S197, 1984: 'Meroitic Settlement in the Central Sudan'
©
Khidir Abdelkarirn Ahmed, 1984
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542520 paperback ISBN 9781407334981 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542520 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A 1exande : 7, M .A ., P h.D ., F .S.A . D ept. A rchae clogy, D owning S treet C ambridge C B2 3 DZ, E ngland
M anuscripts s lould b e s ubmitted t o D r. A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance.
T itles a lready p ublished: 1 .
' The
N iger
D elta :
N wanna N zewunwa. 2 .
A spects B AR-S75.
o :
i ts
' Prehistoric I nvestigations
i n t he R egion o f J enne ,
R egional A rtefact
b y R obert F oley. 4 .
B ARS-897 .
' Settlement
B AR-S114 .
P atterns
i n
' The N eolithic P eriod M ohammed-Ali.
7 .
B AR-S139.
a nd
C ulture ' b y
M ali ' b y S usan K eech
P rice £ 20 .00 p ost f ree. i n E astern A frica:
i n t he A mboseli ,
A n
S outhern K enya '
P rice £ 10 .00 p ost f ree. i n
S udanese N ubia ' b y Y ousif
P rice £ 10 .00 p ost f ree. t he
I nterpretation' b y M artin H all. 6 .
D ensity
' L ater P leistocene C ultural A daptations M ükhtar e l A min.
5 .
B AR-S89.
' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation A nalysis o f
E conomy
P rice £ 10 .00 p ost f ree.
M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh. 3 .
P rehistoric
I ron A ge
o f
B AR-S119.
i n t he S udan ,
c .
Z ululand:
A n
E cological
P rice £ 10 .00 p ost f ree. 6 000 - 2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas
S .
P rice £ 12.00 p ost f ree.
' H istory a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :
A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala
r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko.
B AR-S195.
i ii
P rice £ 15.00 p ost f ree.
C ONTENTS P age P reface
v ii
L ist o f F igures
C HAPTER 1 :
i x
M EROITIC A RCFAEOLOGY I N N UBIA A ND T HE C ENTRAL S UDAb
1
E arly T ravellers a nd S cholars S alvage A rchaeology i n L ower N ubia I ndependent E xpeditions S urvey a nd E x2avations i n C entral S udan R esearch O bje2tives T he S ample T erminology ad D ating C HAPTER 2 :
G EOLOGY , G EOM)RPHOLOGY A ND P ALAEOCLIMATES
9
P leistocene a id R ecent F ormations P alaeoclimates C limatic C hanges i n H istoric T imes P resent C limate T he W estern B utana V egetation S ummary C HAPTER 3 :
T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY R iverine S ites:
E ast B ank
R iverine S ites:
W est B ank
2 1
W estern B utana S ites S ummary C HAPTER 4 :
D EMOGRAPHY A ND A RCHAEOLOGY :
M ODELS
A ND M ETHODS
7 1
T he B oserup M odel A gricultural T echniques a nd L and u se T ypes B oserup's M odel a nd A rchaeology C ommunity P attern a nd S ocial O rganization C riticism o f B oserup's M odel C arrying C apacity a nd P opulation D emography a nd t he A rchaeological E vidence AModel f or t he S tudy o f S ettlement a nd r esource D istribution C HAPTER 5 :
S ETTLEMENT , R ESOURCES A ND P OPULATION S oils a nd S ite D istribution T he S oils o f t he W estern B utana S oll S tudies i n t he S udan R esource D istribution L and-use T ypes i n t he L ate H istoric P eriod A nimal R esources W ater S ources A rable L ands i n t he W estern B utana S oil T ypes a nd S ite L ocations R iverine A griculture R alnland C ultivation
8 3
A nimal H usbandry P opulation m cvements I nter-regional P opulation M ovements I ntra-regional P opulation M ovements C onclusions C HAPTER 6 :
P OTTERY C LASSIFICATION A ND D ISTRIBUTION
1 19
M eroitic P ottery C lassification. E arly W ork R ecent W ork.
C lassification o f L ower
N ubian M eroitic W ares T he M eroe T ypplogy T he C eramics • p f M üsawwarat T he C lassification o f C eramic M aterial M ethodology a nd P rinciples o f t he C lassification A ttributes M issing 1 1 , 3ta D ata C oding a nd L evels o f M easurement S ample T ypes a nd P rovenience I ndustries, T ypes a nd V arieties T he H and made I ndustry C HAPTER 7 :
H IERARCHIES ,
I NTERSITE A ND I NTRASITE
V ARIATIONS S ite H ierarchies
1 83
AM odel f or M eroitic S ite H ierarchies I ntrasite D istributions L evels o f P roduction a nd D istribution M anufacturing M ethods
C HAPTER 8 :
C ONCLUSIONS , P ROBLEMS A ND P ROSPECTS
2 71
A PPENDIX 1 :
L ist o f T raits U sed i n P ottery A nalysis
2 8 1
A PPENDIX 2 :
T he N eolithic S ite o f Q oz B urra
2 85
B IBLIOGRAPHY
2 89
P REFACE
I am
i ndebted
t o
t he
U niversity
o f
K hartoum
f or
g ranting
m e
a
s cholarship t o u ndertake t he p resent r esearch a nd f or f unding t he f ieldwork i n t he S udan , a nd t o P rofessor C . R enfew f or a rranging f inancial h elp f rom t he D epartment o f A rchaeology , C ambridge U niversity. I w ould l ike t o t hank D rs .
L H odder ,
J . A lexander ,
P . C allow ,
a nd P .
C arter f or a dvice , h elp a nd e ncouragement d uring t he c ourse o f m y r esearch. I must
a lso
t hank
S ayed/N .M .
S herif,
D irector
G eneral
o f
t he
A ntiquities S ervice f or g ranting t he s urvey l icence. P rofessor F . H intze o f H umboldt U niversity ,
B erlin ,
k indly a llowed m e
t o e xamine t he B utana S urvey m aterial . P rofessor Xi% S hore , U niversity o f L iverpool , w as e xtremely h elpful i n a llowing m e t o i nvestigate t he m aterial a nd a rchives o f G arstang's e xcavations a t M eroe. I n
t he
S udan
f riends
a nd c olleagues h elped
i n v arious w ays .
A mong
t hem D r . Y ousif M . E l A min d eserves s pecial t hanks . L ieutenant-Colonel H ashim O sman a nd S aid A hmed K ameir m ade p arts o f t he f ield w ork p racticable . Ia m g rateful t o R ebecca B radley a nd A nwar A bd E l t he s urvey.
M agid f or t heir h elp
i n
Ia m e xtremely t hankful t o A lida M uller w ho p atiently t yped t he f inal m anuscript.
v ii
L IST O F F IGURES F igure 1 2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4 3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 3 .8 3 .9 3 .9a 3 .10 3 .11 3 .12 3 .13 3 .14 3 .15 3 .16 3 .17 3 .18 3 .19 3 ,20 3 ,21 3 .22 3 .23 3 .24 3 .25 3 .26 3 .27 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3
P age S udan m ap :
s ome l ocalities r eferred t o i n
t he t ext G eological m ap o f t he w estern B utana a nd t he S hendi R each R atio o f c attle t o c aprovine b one f ragments i n e ach s pit o f t he M eroe B one T rench ( Group I I) M ean a nnual r ainfall i n n orthern a nd c entral S udan L ocation o f K eraba a nd o ther g eographical d ivisions M ap o f H amadab ( site 4 5) s howing a reas o f s urface c ollections A wlib ( site 2 ): m ounds a nd h afir P rofi le o f n orth f ace o f 2 A T he m ounds o f A bu E rteila ( site 1 ) s howing l ocation o f t est p its P rofile o f n orth f ace o f L A P rofi le o f n orth f ace o f 1 B W ad B an N aga ( site 4 6) L ocation o f F ikheikhira ( site 8 ) a nd Q oz B urra ( site 2 2) P rofile o f n orth f ace o f 8 A G oz e l F ugara ( site 1 0) a nd G aha lab ( site 9 ) M ap o f B asa ( site 1 7) s howing a reas o f s urface c ollections a nd t est p its P rofi le o f n orth f ace o f 1 7A L ocation o f s ites i n t he s urvey a rea S ite 1 3 , i ronstone c airns C ircular s tructures a t U mm S amugh A rea o f s urface c ollection a t D uaneib T he t emple a t M atruqa ( site 2 7) M usawwarat ( site 2 9) A reas o f s urface c ollection M ap o f J ebel H ardan ( site 3 1) T he ' kiosk ' o f N asb e l S amih ( site 3 4) D ry-stone s tructure a nd t est p it ( site 3 4) a t J ebel K hereiq ( site 2 5) T he t emp le o f A lim ( site 3 ) M ap o f J ebel S urat ( site 2 5) C ircular s tructure o f h afirs o f M atrusa ( site 3 7) T he t emple o f M urabba ( site 3 8) L ocation o f A mbasa ( site 4 3) J ebel Q eili ( site 4 4) B asin a nd t raditional i rrigation a reas a t W ad H amid L ocation a nd a reas o f b asins a long t he S hendi R each D ry w eather d istribution o f a nimals i n t he S hendi R each a nd t he B utana
i x
x ii 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 1 05 1 06 1 07
5 .4
A gricultural l and o n W adi E l A wateib
1 08
5 .5 5 .6 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9
A gricultural l and o n W adi E l H awab A gricultural l and o n t he D engalia B asin S urvey a rea i n t he w estern B utana S oils a nd s ite d istributions i n t he s urvey a rea S oil a nd s ite d istributions a t t he m outh o f W adi E l H awad P resent-day s hifting c ultivation n ear J ebel G eheid
1 09 10 11 12
5 .10 5 .11
6 .24 6 .25 6 .26 6 .27
A lluvium t erraces i n t he M iddle N ile R egion s outh o f t he 5 th C ataract M ap o f Mroe s howing a reas o f r ecent e xcavations F luctuations o f b urial n umbers a t t he S outh a nd W est c emeteries , M eroe W ard's d endrogram o f t emper t ypes A verage l inkage d endrogram o f t emper t ypes P osition o f r im s lip b ands R im o rientation c harts E xterior t extures o f T ype W I ( T ot a l c ollection) E xterior t extures o f t ype W I ( Systematic s amples) I nterior s lip o f T ype W I E xterior c olours o f W Ia a nd W Ib I nterior c olours o f W Ia , W Ib a nd W Ic C lustered t emper t ypes o f W Ia F iring o f T ype W I v arieties ( Total c ollection) C lay t ypes o f W I v arieties ( Total c ollection) S lip a pplication o n v ariety W Ib ( Systematic s amples) E xterior c olours o f v ariety W Ib ( Systematic s amp les) I nterior c olours o f v ariety W Ib ( Systematic s amples) C lay t ypes o f v ariety W Ib ( Systematic s amples) C lustered t emper t ypes o f W Ib E xterior c olours o f W Ic , W Id a nd W Ie S lip a pplication o n v ariety o f W Ic ( Systematic s amples) E xterior c olours o f v ariety W Ic ( Systematic s amples) I nterior c olours o f v ariety W Ic ( Systematic c ollections) E xterior c olours o f W Ic , W D a nd W Ie E xterior t extures o f v ariety W Ic ( Systematic s amples) C lustered t emper t ypes o f W Ic I nterior c olours o f W Id a nd W Ie C lustered t emper t ypes o f W Id a nd W Ie R im t ype p rofiles
6 .28 6 .29 6 .30 6 .31 6 .32
R im t ype p rofiles R im t ype p rofiles P ainted d ecoration S tamped a nd p ainted d ecoration F abric-impressed a nd f inger-impressed s herds
5 .12 5 .13 6 .1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .4 6 .5 6 .6 6 .7 6 .8 6 .9 6 .10 6 .11 6 .12 6 .13 6 .14 6 .15 6 .16 6 .17 6 .18 6 .19 6 .20 6 .21 6 .22 6 .23
13 14 15 16 17 1 95 1 96 1 97 1 98 1 99 2 00 2 01 2 02 2 03 2 04 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 09 2 10 2 11 2 12 2 13 2 14 2 15 2 16 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 20 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25 2 26
6 .33 6 .34 6 .35
I mpressed d ecoration I ncised d ecoration I ncised d ecoration
2 27 2 28 2 29
6 .36 6 .37
2 30
6 .38
I mpressed d ecoration I ncised a nd i mpressed d ecoration . I ncised, w hitefilled d ecoration I ncised a nd t icked d ecoration . I ncised
6 .39 6 .40 7 .1 7 .2 7 .3
d ecoration I mpressed d ecoration D ecorated r ims S ites d ominated b y w heel-made p ottery S ites d ominated b y h and-made p ottery I ntrasite d istribution o f p ottery i ndustries
2 32 2 33 2 34 2 67 2 68
( a) B asa , ( b) D uanei D istribution o f r im r adii o f T ype H IM a t d ifferent l evels i n 8 A D istribution o f r im r adii o f T ype H IM a t d ifferent l evels i n 8 A R im t ypes o f H III a t d ifferent l evels o f 8 A S lip b and t ypes o f H IM a t d ifferent l evels i n 8 A L ocation o f t est p its 2 2A a nd 2 2B N eolithic p ottery o f Q oz B urra
2 69
7 .4 7 .5 7 .6 7 .7 9 .1 9 .2
2 31
2 70 2 71 2 72 2 73 2 86 2 87
500Km
0
Fig. 1:
Sudan map:
some localities referred to in the text. xii
C HAPTER 1 M EROITIC A RCHAEOLOGY I N N UB I A A ND C ENTRAL S UDAN I t
w ould p erhaps
a rchaeological E gyptology .
b e a n u nderstatement t o s ay t hat t he h istory o f
r esearch
T he
i n
e conomic
t he
S udan
n ecessities
i s a nd
c losely t he
l inked
p olitical
t o
E gypt
f ortunes
o f
a nd t he
n orthern c ountry w ere l argely r esponsible f or t he m ajority o f a rchaeological w ork c onducted i n t he S udan , w hile m ost o f t hose i nvolved i n t his w ork w ere t rained a s E gyptologists a nd p hilologists . T he N apoleonic o ccupation o f E gypt t oward t he e nd o f t he e ighteenth c entury a nd t he E gyptian c olonization o f t he S udan i n 1 821 o pened u p t he w ay f or E uropean t ravellers a nd s cholars w ho r oamed t he n orthern p art o f t he c ountry r ecording i nscriptions a nd m onuments . S hortage o f a gricultural l and i n E gypt r equired t he b uilding a nd h eightening o f d ams o n t he N ile n ear A swan t o p rovide w ater f or p erennial i rrigation . T his l ed t o t he f ormation o f a rchaeological t eams t o s alvage s ites d ue t o b e s ubmerged b y t he w aters o f t he l ake c reated b ehind t hese d ams . A rchaeological w ork t hus c oncentrated h eavily o n t he n arrow s trip o f t he N ile i n L ower N ubia w hile v ast a reas o f t he c ountry r emained u ntouched .
E arly T ravellers a nd S cholars A n umber o f
E uropean
t ravellers
e xplored
t he
S udan
i n t he
e ighteenth
c entury a nd c ompiled i nformation o n t he c ountry , i ts i nhabitants a nd a ntiquities . H owever , i t w as n ot u ntil e arly i n t he n ineteenth c entury t hat i nterest i n t he e arly h istory o f t he S udan p layed a m ajor p art i n d eciding t he i tineraries o f t hese t ravellers . T he S wiss o rientalist J .L . B urckhardt w ho t ravelled i n t he S udan i n 1 813 a nd 1 814 w rote , ' T hat c ountry , f urther u p t han D err , h as n ever b een v isited b y a ny t raveller ; y et I a m i nformed b y m any o f t he n atives , t hat t he b orders o f t he r iver a re f ull o f a ncient t emples a nd o ther a ntiquities , r esembling t hose o f L uxor a nd t he I sle o f P hilae' ( Burckhardt, 1 819 : L iii) . B urckhardt t ravelled a s f ar s outh a s S hendi a nd K assala v isiting a nd d escribing m onuments . B urckhardt 's m ore v aluable c ontribution i s r egarded t o b e i n t he f ields o f e thnography a nd t he r ecording
o f
o ral
h istory
( Adams ,
1 973c) .
O ther
t ravellers
B urckhardt a nd r ecorded u seful i nformation o n a rchaeological W addington a nd H abury ( 1822) a nd H oskins ( 183 9 .
w ho s ites
f ollowed i nclude
M ore a ccurate a ccounts o f a rchaeological s ites a re i ncluded i n t he w orks o f L inant d e B ellefonds ( 1958 ) , C ailliaud ( 1826) a nd L epsius ( 1849-59 ;1853) . I n 1 822 L inant d e B ellefonds v isited M usawwarat , N aga a nd t he p yramids o f M eroe w here h e m ade p lans o f t he t emples a nd p yramids . T hes f, p lans a re s till u npublished . C ailliaud f ollowed L inant d e B ellefonds . A fter v isiting a nd p lanning a n umber o f s ites
i n N ubia h e t ravelled s outhward t o
t he r egion o f M eroe w here h e d escribed t he p yramids a nd t he t own s ite . L ater h e v isited W ad B an N aga , M usawwarat a nd N aga a nd p lanned p arts o f t hese s ites
( Cailliaud ,
1 826) .
o bservations o n t hese s ites .
C ailliaud O n N aga ,
made
a n umber
f or e xample h e s ays :
W hat h as b ecome o f t he p eople w ho d ared t o f ound a c ity a nd t o b uild s plendid e difices, o n t his p arched l and, i n t he
1
o f
i nteresting
middle
o f
t he
d esert ,
where
a t
t he
p resent d ay t he t raveller i s u nable t o f ind t he s mallest s pring w hereat h e m ay q uench h is t hirst, a nd i n s uch a s pot t hat e ven t he w ild a nimals a void i t a s a dwelling p lace ( quoted i n B udge, 1 907 :47). B etween 1 842 a nd 1 844 R ichard L epsius l ed t he P russian E xpedition t o t he S udan . L epsius' o bjective w as ' to o btain a g eneral v iew o f t he t rue r elation b etween t he h istory o f c ivilization o f E gypt a nd E thiopia ( i .e . S udan) f ounded u pon a c omplete e xamination o f t he r emains s till e xtant' ( Lepsius, 1 853 :17) . T he w ork o f t he P russian E xpedition was t he f irst e ffort a t s ystematically r ecording a nd p lanning a rchaeological s ites i n t he S udan ( Lepsius , 1 949-59) . T he e xpedition v isited a nd s ystematically r ecorded s ites i n L ower N ubia a nd c entral S udan . L epsius w as c onvinced t hat t he s ites o f M eroe , N aga , M usawwarat a nd W ad B an N aga c annot b e d ated e arlier t han t he f irst c entury B .C .
H e w rote :
Iw as u navoidably c onvinced t hat o n t his m ost r enowned s pot o f a ncient E thiopia , I h ad n othing b efore m e b ut t he r emains . o f a v ery l ate p eriod o f a rt . - T he r epresentations
a nd
i nscriptions
l eave t he s mallest d oubt o f t his ,
d o
n ot
a nd i t
w ill i n f uture b e a f ruitless t ask t o e ndeavour t o s upport t he f avourite s upposition o f a n a ncient , b rilliant a nd r enowned M eroe , w hose i nhabitants w ere a t o ne t ime t he p redecessors a nd i nstructors o f t he E gyptians i n c ivilization ( Lepsius, 1 853 :152) . L epsius' w ork marks t he e nd o f a n e ra o f E uropean e xplo , .ation a nd r ecording o f a rchaeological s ites i n t he S udan . I t w asn 't u ntil t he t urn o f t he c entury t hat s urvey a nd e xcavations o f s ites s tarted . T he f irst t wo d ecades o f t his c entury s aw t he b eginning o f m ajor s urvey a nd e xcavation w ork b oth i n L ower N ubia a nd c entral S udan . T he f irst A rchaeological S urvey o f N ubia t ook p lace i n t he y ears 1 907 t o 1 911 a nd c overed t he a rea b etween S hellal a nd W adi E s S ebua i n E gyptian N ubia .
O ther
i ndependant e xpeditions c arried o ut w ork a t v arious s ites . T he p rincipal o f t hese a re t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania E xpedition l ed b y M acIver a nd W oolley w hich e xcavated s ites i n L ower N ubia b etween 1 907 a nd 1 910 . G riffith h eaded t he O xford E xpedition e xcavations a t F aras a nd S anam ( 19101 913) .
T he U niversity o f L iverpool E xpedition l ed b y G arstang e xcavated a t
t he t own s ite o f M eroe a nd t he a ssociated c emeteries b etween 1 910 a nd 1 914 . I n 1 906 C rowfoot m ade t he f irst e xtensive s urvey o f M eroitic s ites i n t he B utana . F urther s outh W ellcome 's E xpedition e xcavated a t t he v illages a nd c emeteries o f J ebel M oya a nd A bu C elli b etween 1 910 a nd 1 914 . T he H arvardB oston E xpedition u nder t he d irection o f G .A . R eisner c arried o ut e xcavations a t K erma ( 1913-1 0 , N apata ( 1916-19) a nd M eroe ( 1922-2 9 .
2
S alvage A rchaeology i n L ower N ubia T he h eightening o f t he f irst A swan d am i n 1 90910 n ecessitated c arrying o ut a rchaeological w ork t o s alvage s ites i n E gyptian N ubia . T he s urvey , f irst d irected b y G .A . R eisner a nd l ater b y C .M . F irth , a imed a t m apping t he r egion , t he t otal e xcavation o f s ites t hat w ere r egarded t o b e m ost i mportant a nd s ampling l ess i mportant o nes . T he w ork w as t o c onsist o f t he e xamination o f b oth a rchaeological a nd p hysical a nthropological r emains . T he m ajor r esult o f R eisner 's w ork i n N ubia a fter t he f irst s eason w as t he d rawing o f a n o utline o f N ubian h istorical s equences b ased o n t he m aterial c ulture h orizons e ncountered d uring t he e xcavations . T he s equence o f c ultures , d esignated G roups , w as i ndicated b y t he p resence o f d istinct r emains a ssociated w ith d atable E gyptian m aterial . S ince n one o f t hese c ultural h orizons c orresponded t o k nown o nes f rom E gypt , t hey w ere g iven a lphabetic l abels - A ,B ,C ,D ,W ,X , a nd Y ( Reisner , 1 909 :5-6 ;1910 :313-48 ) . O f t hese c ultures t he W -Group r efers t o G raeco-Roman a nd M eroitic r emains . T he l atter w ere f ound m ainly i n t he s outhern p art o f L ower N ubia ( Firth , 1 927 :301 ). T he m ethod e mployed b y R eisner i n t he s urvey c onsisted o f t he s ystematic m apping o f s ites a nd t he m eticulous r ecording o f f inds . T his b ecame s tandard p rocedure f or s ubsequent w ork i n t he F irst A rchaeological S urvey a nd g ained w orldwide a cceptance ( Rowe , 1 961) . T he w ork , h owever , w as h eav ily b iased t owards t he e xcavation o f c emeteries w hile o ccupation s ites r eceived l ittle t reatment . T he h istorical c onclusions w ere b ased o n t he t ombs , t heir s ituation , c haracter a nd c ontents ( Reisner , 1 910 :313 ) . I n 1 929 s urvey w ork w as e xtended s outhward i nto t he r est o f E gyptian N ubia t o s alvage s ites t hreatened b y d estruction d ue t o t he s econd h eightening o f t he A swan d am . T he S econd A rchaeological S urvey o f N ubia w as d irected b y E mery a nd K irwan ( Emery a nd K irwan , 1 935) . D uring t he S econd A rchaeological S urvey a t otal o f 7 6 s ites w ere e xcavated . H owever , t wo s easons ( 19291930 ,19301931) w ere d edicated t o w ork o n s ome 7 0 s ites , w hile t he t hree r emaining s easons ( 1931-1934 ) d ealt e xclusively w ith t he X -Group b urials a t B allana a nd Q ustul ( Emery , 1 938 ) . F or
t wo
a nd
a h alf
d ecades
f ollowing
t he
e nd
o f
t he
S econd
A rchaeological S urvey o f N ubia v ery l ittle w ork w as c arried o ut t here o r i n t he r est o f t he S udan . I nterest w as r evived b y t he p lan t o b uild t he H igh D am a t A swan . A n i nternational s alvage c ampaign w as o rganized b y U NESCO a nd t he S udanese a nd E gyptian a uthorities ( Adams, 1 968b) . I n t he S udan a b alanced a pproach w as a dopted w hich r egarded s aving t he m onuments a nd c arrying o ut a rchaeological r esearch a s c omplementary o bjectives ( SaveS oderbergh , 1 971-72 :119 ; A dams , 1 968b :113 ) . T he w ork o f t he s alvage c ampaign i ncluded t he s ystematic s urvey o f b oth b anks
o f
t he N ile a nd
t he s election o f p articular s ites f or d etailed
e xamination . I n S udanese N ubia t he A ntiquities S ervice p rogramme o f s urvey a nd e xcavations o n t he w est b ank w as d irected b y W .Y . A dams (A dams e t .al . , 1 961; A dams a nd N ordstrom , 1 963) . S ince t he w ork o f t he t wo p revious a rchaeological s urveys c oncentrated o n c emeteries , a ttention i n t he l atest c ampaign w as g iven t o e xcavating m ore v illage s ites ( Adams , 1 962b :17 ) . O n t he e ast b ank t he p rogramme w as c arried o ut b y t he S candinavian J oint E xped ition ( Save-Soderbergh , 1 962 ; 1 964 ; 1 967-8 ) . M ore t han 1 000 s ites w ere l ocated o n b oth b anks a nd e xcavations w ere c onducted i n a bout a t hird o f t hem ( Adams , 1 977 :86 ) .
3
A s f ar a s t he M eroitic p eriod i s c oncerned ,
t he t hird s alvage c ampaign
c onfirmed t he r esults o f e arlier s urveys . W hile N apatan r emains w ere a lmost a bsent , o nly f ew M eroitic s ettlements w ere f ound c ompared w ith t hose f rom e arlier a nd l ater p eriods ( Mills , 1 964 :12 ;1967-8 :206 ; M ills a nd N ordstrom , 1 966 : 1 2 , T able 1 ; S ave-Soderbergh , 1 964 :37 ;1967-8 :213) . R ecently , s urvey w ork w as s tarted s outh o f t he D al C ataract ( Ceus a nd L aabre , 1 974) . T he N apatan a nd M eroitic s ites f ound w ere f ewer t han s ites b elonging t o e arlier a nd l ater p eriods
( Vi la ,
1 979 :18) .
I ndependent E xpeditions A n umber
o f
i ndependent
e xpeditions
e ntered
t he
f ield
a rchaeology d uring a nd a fter t he F irst A rchaeological S urvey . t hree o f t hese e xpeditions i s o f i mmediate i mportance
o f N ubian
T he w ork o f t o M eroitic
a rchaeology . B etween
1 907
a nd
1 910
t he
U niversity
o f P ennsylvania
e xpedition
e xcavated a n umber o f s ites o n L ower N ubia , i ncluding a s izable M eroitic t own ( Woolley a nd M civer ,1911) . D uring t he y ears 1 9 101913 G riffith d irected t he O xford U niversity e xcavations i n L ower N ubia
( 1910-1912) a nd
t he D ongola
R each ( 19121913) . T he w ork o f t he P ennsylvania a nd O xford e xpeditions i s r egarded a s i mportant i n a t l east o ne r espect i n t hat i t p aid m ore a ttention t o d omestic r emains t han d id t he F irst A rchaeological S urvey ( Adams ,1977 :75) . O ne o f N ubia .
G riffith 's m ain r esults c oncerns t he p re-Meroitic l acuna i n L ower ' After t he e nd o f t he N ew K ingdom . t here i s a c omplete
a rchaeolgical b lank i n N ubia . . t he T wenty-Fifth D ynasty , i ts a ncestors a nd i ts i mmediate s uccessors , o ffer n o r emains t o i ndicate a p rosperous a nd c ivilized p opulation , a nd a t F aras i tself w e f ound n o t race o f i t' ( Griffith ,1 922 :68). T he b asic c hronological o utline
f or t he N apatan-Meroitic p eriod w as
p rovided b y R eisner a t t he h ead o f t he H arvard-Boston E xpedition .
T he
e xcavations o f t he R oyal b urials a t N apata ( 1916-19) a nd M eroe ( 1922-25) e nabled R eisner t o w ork o ut a s cheme f or t he r oyal s uccession b ased o n i nscriptional e vidence a nd t he s eriation o f t he r oyal t ombs ( Reisner , 1 918 :1919 :1923a) . D espite m inor a lterations t o R eisner 's c hronology ( Dunham, 1 957 :2-8 ; H intze, 1 959a) h is r esults r epresented t he b asic f ramework f or m any o f t he s ubsequent s tudies o f N ubian h istory . S ince R eisner 's w ork w as c onfined l argely t o r oyal b urials, h is c hronological o utline i s e ssentially a d ynastic h istory w hich c ontributed v ery l ittle t o t he u nderstanding o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic s tructure o f M eroitic s ociety .
S urvey a nd E xcavations i n C entral S udan I n
t he c entral
S udan a rchaeological s urvey o f M eroitic s ites was
c onfined t o t he w estern B utana r egion , w hile e xcavations w ere c arried o ut a t M eroe , M usawwarat , W ad B an N aga a nd a t J ebel M oya a nd A bu G e il n ear S ennar . O ur k nowledge o f M eroitic s ettlement
i n t he w estern B utana i s d erived
b asically f rom t he t wo s urveys c onducted b y C rowfoot ( 1911) a nd t he H umboldt U niversity E xpedition ( Hintze , M usawwarat ( Hintze ,
1 962 ;
1 963 ;
1 959 ;
1 960 ) .
1 967-8 ;
A part f rom t he e xcavations a t
1 871) a ll o ther s ites i n t he a rea a re
k nown f rom t heir s urface f eatures . C rowfoot r ecognized t wo g eographical z ones w ithin t he r egion b ounded b y
4
t he N ile ,
t he B lue N ile a nd t he A tbara r ivers .
T he B utana ,
t he a rea o f t he
c lay p lain w hich i s s ituated t o t he e ast a nd s outh , a nd t he K eraba , w hich i s a s toney a nd g ravelly l and o n t he n orthern a nd w estern p art o f t he r egion ( Crowfoot ,1911 :9) . C rowfoot 's s urvey i ncluded a n a ssessment o f t he e conomic r esources o f t he K eraba a nd a f unctional c lassification o f s ites ( ibid :11,24). I n 1 957-8 t he H umboldt U niversity E xpedition s urveyed t he K eraba r egion w ith t he o bjective o f c arrying o ut a ' t horough a rchaeological i nvestigation o f t he d istrict o f t he a ncient I sland o f M eroe ( Hintze ,1959 :1971) . T he s urvey c overed 2 5 s ites a nd i ncluded m apping o f s ites , s urface c ol lections a nd e pigraphic w ork . L imited s urveys w ere c arried o ut i n K eraba a nd B utana b y A ddison ( 1926 ) , W hitehead ( 192 0 , A ddison a nd D unham ( 1922) , C rowfoot ( 1920 ) , ( 1908 ) , S mith a nd A dam ( 1950 ) a nd B alfour-Paul ( 1952) .
S cott-Moncrief
T he f irst e xcavations a t M eroe w ere c arried o ut b y W allis B udge i n 1 903 . B udge o pened u p t welve t ombs i n t he N orth C emetery a t M eroe w ith t he o bjective o f o btaining f inds f rom t he b urial c hambers ( Budge , 1 907 :341-54) . W ith s uch l imited o bjectives B udge 's w ork i s r egarded t o b e o f l ittle s cientific v alue ( Lear ns , 1 977 :295) s ince i t f ailed t o s hed l ight o n a ny m ajor a spect o f t he M eroitic p eriod . H is T he E gyptian S udan ' written j ust b efore t he i nauguration o f s ystematic a rchaeology . i s . p ut t ogether e ntirely f rom l iterary s ources ( and) a ccurately r eflects b oth t he e xtent a nd l imitations o f h istorical m aterial . . . ' (M ans , 1 977 :66) F ollowing
B udge%
w ork ,
G arstand d irected t he U niversity o f L iverpool
e xcavations a t t he t own s ite o f M eroe a nd t he n on-royal c emeteries b etween 1 909 a nd 1 914 . A t t he t own s ite t he e xcavations w ere a lmost e ntirely c onfined t o t he p art k nown a s t he S eal C ity ' . T he r esu lts o f t he w ork w ere p ublished i n p reliminary f orm o nly ( Garstand , 1 910 ; 1 912 ; 1 913 ; 1 91416 ; G arstand a nd G eorge 1 914 ) . T he m ain r esults o f t he E xcavations c onsisted o f ar ec ,—struction o f t he b uilding h istory a t t he ' R oyal C ity ' ( Garstang , 1 9141 6 :810) a nd a g eneralized p ottery t ypology ( Garstang e t .al . 1 911 :37-46) . R ecent e xcavations a t M eroe w ere s tarted i n 1 965 .
T he o bjectives o f
t he w ork w ere : 1 .
T o
e stablish
s tratigraphic
t he
c ultural
s equence
a t
t he
s ite
u sing
m odern
m ethods .
2 .
T o w ork o ut a c hronology f or t he d ifferent o ccupation p eriods .
3 .
T o e xamine t he d omestic a rchitecture a nd a spects o f d aily l ife o f
t he
i nhabitants. 4 .
T o i nvestigate M eroitic i ron t echnology.
5 .
T he e xamination o f e arly e cological c onditions.
6 .
T he a nd
7 .
i nvestigation o f B radley ,
t he b uilding h istory o f t he A mon T emple M innie
1 980 :6) .
T o r etrieve i nscriptions w hich c ould a id M eroitic l anguage ( Shinnie , 1 974 :224) .
5
i n t he u nderstanding o f
t he
T he m ajor r esults o f t he s easons w hich h ave s o f ar b een r eported ( 19651 972) i s t he e stablishment o f t he s tratigraphy o f t he n orthern m ound ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :12) a nd d ating t he e arliest o ccupation a t t he a rea t o t he 1 0th c entury B .C . ( ibid . :16) . A t ypology a nd a t entative c hronology o f t he p ottery w as p rovided ( ibid . :151-62) . I n a ddition , t he m ain a spects o f i ron t echnology h ave b een s tudied ( Tylecote , 1 970 ; 1 977 ; S hinnie a nd K ense , 1 977). E xcavations
a t
W ad
B an
N aga
w ere
d irected
b y
V ercoutter .
T he
m ain
o bjective w as t o f ind i nscriptions w hich c ould h elp i n d ating t he d ifferent p eriods o f o ccupation ( Vercoutter , 1 962 :272) . O n t he b asis o f i nscriptional e vidence a nd o bjects o f k nown d ate , t he s ite i s t hought t o h ave b een o ccupied b etween t he t hird c entury B .C . a nd t he f ourth c entury A .D . ( ibid . :295) . O nly o ne s hort r eport ( Vercoutter , 1 962) o n t he e xcavations h ave b een p ublished. I n t he S hendi R each d uring r ecent w ork a t E l K adada o n t he e ast b ank o f t he N ile , a n umber o f M eroitic t umuli h ave b een e xcavated b ut t he d efinitive r eport h as n ot y et b een p ublished . T he d ominance o f
E gyptology
i n
t he
N ubia a nd c entral S udan h as b een m arked .
e arly
y ears
o f
( Geus ,1977 ;1981) ,
r esearch
i n L ower
A lthough b oth a rchaeological a nd
d ocumentary m aterials w ere a vailable , t he c hoice o f e vidence d epended o n t he t raining o f t hose i nvolved i n r esearch . T hus R eisner w rote t hat t he h istory o f n orthern S udan i s ' most f ully r evealed b y t he E gyptian i nscriptions ( an d) i s i nseparably b ound u p w ith t hat o f E gypt a nd c an o nly b e u nderstood i n t he l ight o f t he h istory o f i ts g reat n orthern n eighbour ' ( Reisner , 1 918a :3-4) . I n c entral S udan t he s ame a ttitude w as a dopted a s i s a pparent f rom t he s tatement o f B reasted t hat : T hroughout M eroe,
t he
N aga
E gyptologist
c ourse o f h is w ork a t a nd
f eels
Musawwarat, h imself
t he
s uddenly
p rojected i nto a t otally u nknown c hapter o f h istory a nd a rt . T he s culptures r eveal a d ifferent w orld, a nd a re n ot e stimable b y a ny a nalogies k nown t o t he o bserver, while, t o i ncrease h is b ewilderment , t he i nscriptions r efuse t o y ield t heir s ecrets ( Breasted , 1 908 :18).
R esearch O bjectives I n Y et ,
r ecent
y ears
t he
i nfluence o f
E gyptology h as
r eceded
c onsiderably .
o ur k nowledge o f t he v arious a spects o f M eroitic s ociety w as l imited b y
t he f act t hat r esearch work,
p articularly i n c entral S udan ,
w as s ite-
s pecific . T he p resent s tudy f ocuses o n t he r egional p attern o f s ettlement a s a m eans o f e lucidating a spects o f t he e conomy , t echnology a nd t he s ocial o rganization o f M eroitic s ociety i n c entral S udan . m ore s ystematic a pproach t hat c ombines t he a nalysis a rtefact d istributions
I t o f
i s b elieved t hat a s ite , r esource a nd
i s e ssential f or t he u nderstanding o f
t hese a spects .
A n e valuation o f r esources s hould t ake i nto c onsideration t he p hysical f eatures o f t he s tudy r egion a nd a ttempt t o r econstruct t he p alaeoclimatic c onditipns ( Chapter 2 ) . T he u se o f d emographic m odels i n s ettlement s tudies h as g ained i ncreasing s ignificance i n r ecent y ears . I n C hapter 4 s ome o f t he a pplications o f t hese models i s e xamined . D emographic t rends a re
6
a nalysed i n t erms o f r esource d istributions , s ettlement, l and u se a nd t echnology ( Chapter 5 ) . C hapter 6 p rovides a c lassification s cheme o f t he p ottery i ndustries a nd t ypes a nd t heir d istribution . T he s ignificance o f t hese d istributions i s e xamined i n t erms o f s ite h ierarchies , i ntersite a nd i ntrasite v ariation ( Chapter 7 ) . T he
d ata
f or
t he
p resent
s tudy
i s
l argely
o btained
f rom
a n
a rchaeological s urvey i n t he S hendi R each a nd t he w estern B utana b etween J anuary a nd M ay 1 979 ( Chapter 3 ) . T his i s s upplemented b y a n e xamination o f t he p ottery m aterial f rom H umboldt U niversity B utana s urvey i n B erlin ( November-December ,1980) ,
a nd t he G arstang e xcavation r ecords a nd m aterials
i n L iverpool
1 979) .
( September ,
T he S a ele T he a pplication o f p robability s ampling d esigns i n a rchaeological s urveys h as b een r ecommended
( Mueller ,
1 975 ;
P log ,
1 976) .
T hese d esigns
h ave t he a dvantage o f e stablishing t he s tatistical r elationship b etween t he s ample a nd t he u niverse f rom w hich i t i s d rawn . H owever , n o s uch s ampling d esign w as a dopted i n t he s urvey . T he l imitations o f f acilities l argely d etermined w hich a reas w ere t o b e c overed . N onetheless , a n a ttempt w as m ade t o g ive e ven c overage o f t he d ifferent e nvironmental z ones r epresented w ithin t he a rea . W hereas t he majority o f t he p ottery s ample i s d erived f rom e xcavated p its a nd c ontrolled s urface c ollections , u nsystematic c ollections w ere m ade a t a n umber o f s ites . A b reak-up o f t he p ercentage o f d ifferent t ypes o f s amples i s g iven i n C hapter 6 .
T erminology a nd D ating T he
t erm N apatan i s u sed
b y v arious
s cholars
t o d esignate
t he p eriod
d uring w hich t he p olitical c entre o f t he K ushite K ingdom w as a t J ebel B arkal n ear t he F ourth C ataract . T he p eriod f ollowing t he s hift o f t he c entre t o t he s outh i n t he f ifth o r f ourth c entury B .C . i s t ermed M eroitic ( Reisner , 1 919 ; D unham , 1 946 ; 1 947 ; A rkell , 1 961; W ainwright , 1 952) . T his s tudy i s n ot c oncerned w ith t he q uestion o f t he s hift o f t he p olitical c entre t o M eroe .
I n t he l ight o f r ecent r esearch a t M eroe w hich d ates t he b eginning
o f o ccupation t here t o a s e arly a s t he t enth c entury B .C . ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :16) a nd t he p roximity o f t he s ites u nder s tudy t o t he l ater c entre , t he t erm M eroitic i s u sed h ere i n r eference t o t he w hole p eriod u nder s tudy . N o d ates a s e arly a s t hose f rom M eroe a re o btained f rom a ny o ther s ite i n t he a rea . T he e arliest m ajor p eriod o f s ettlement e xpansion d ates f rom t he f ifth c entury B .C . ( Hintze, 1 967-68 :293) while t he f inal d isintegration o f t he M eroitic K ingdom i s c onventionally d ated t o c a . A .D . 3 50 ( Adams , 1 977 :386-8 ) . F or t hese c onsiderations t he p eriod u nder s tudy i s b roadly d ated b etween 5 00 B .C . a nd A .D .
7
3 50 .
C HAPTER 2 G EOLOGY , G EOMORPHOLOGY
A ND
P ALAEOCLIMATES
T he s tudy a rea l ies b etween l ongitudes 3 3 °0 7 ' a nd 3 3 °5 6E a nd l atitudes 1 5 °3 0 ' a nd 1 7 °N . I ts g eology c onsists m ainly o f f our f ormations : B asement C omplex , b ) t he N ubian S eries , c ) t he a lluvium , a nd s uperficial d eposits o f w ind-blown s ands ( Fig.. 2 . 1) .
a ) d )
t he t he
T he B asement C omplex c onsists l argely o f u ndifferentiated m etamorphic a nd s edimentary r ocks a nd i s a ssumed t o b e o f P re-Cambrian a ge ( Whiteman , 1 971 :5) . T he B asement C omplex a lso i ncludes a c ategory o f i gneous r ocks t hat a re t hought t o b elong t o l ater g eological e pisodes ( Vail, 1 978 :6) . T he l argest o utcrop o f t he B asement C omplex i n t he a rea i s a t t he S ixth C ataract o n t he N ile s ome 5 0 m iles n orth o f K hartoum . A nother o utcrop i s a t J ewbel Q eili a bout 8 5 miles e ast o f K hartoum . E ast o f t he S ixth C ataract t here i s a b road r idge o f s maller o utcrops t hat e xtends t o J ebel Q eili a nd c orresponds a pproximately t o t he d rainage t rend n orth a nd s outh o f i t ( Whiteman , 1 971 :112) . T he B asement C omplex l ies e ast a nd s outh o f t he s tudy r egion a nd w ith t he e xception o f t hose o utcrops i t i s m ostly c overed w ith t hick d eposits o f B utana c lays ( ibid :140) . T hese c lays a re w ashed a nd r edistributed b y t he d rainage s ystems b ut a re n ot r egarded b y W hiteman a s p rimarily a lluvial a s s tated b y L ebon ( 1965 :48 ) . T he N ubian S eries c overs t he m ajority o f t he s tudy a rea a nd r ests o n t he r ocks o f t he B asement C omplex ( Whiteman , 1 975 :52-3) . i n t he r egion i s o ften c apped w ith i ron-rich b eds.
T he N ubian S eries
P leistocene a nd R ecent F ormations 1 ) A lluvial D eposits : C lay a nd s ilt t erraces a re w ell-developed o n t he l eft b ank o f t he N ile b etween t he S ixth C ataract a nd t he t own o f W ad B an N aga .
T hese t erraces b order o n t he N ubian S eries ,
w here r ocks o f t he B asement C omplex p redominate , d eveloped a nd i n s ome a rea a lmost n on-existent .
w hile o n t he r ight b ank , t hese t erraces a re p oorly
A gain o n b oth b anks o f t he
N ile d ownstream f rom W ad B an N aga w ide c lay t erraces o ccur a nd c ontinue f or s ome d istance b eyond t he l atitude o f B erber ( ibid :127 ) . B eyond B erber t he v alley i s d eeply i ncised t hrough t he r ocks o f t he B asement C omplex a nd s ilt t erraces a re e xtremely l imited ( ibid :127 ; B erry a nd W hiteman , 1 968 :23-7 ; a lso s ee b elow) . T he a lluvium d eposits a re n ot c onfined t o t he N ile b anks b ut e xtend a long t he s easonal w ater f low s ystems o f W adi E l H awad , W adi E l A wateib a nd W adi E l M ukabrab . 2 )
S uperficial d eposits o f w ind-blown s ands :
T he s tudy a rea b elongs t o
t he r egion o f e xtreme a ridity a nd v ast s urfaces a re c overed b y w ind-blown s ands . T hese s uperficial d eposits a re p revalent i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he c ountry . T he m ajority o f s edimentary s tudies w ere c arried o ut i n K ordofan P rovince ( Edmonds , 1 942 ; W arren , 1 970 ) w here t hese d eposits o f s and d unes a re r eferred t o a s g oz . I t w as f ound t hat t hese d eposits d o n ot o ccur where r ainfall e xceeds 5 00 mm . I n t he S udan t he s ands l ie o n
9
d ifferent
r ock
t ypes o f
s andstone o f
C retaceous a nd
P alaeozoic a ge
( Vail ,
1 978 :30) . S eries t o
H owever, i n t he s tudy r egion t hey m ainly o verlie t he N ubian t he s outh a nd e ast a nd b ordering t he r ocks o f t he B asement
C omplex .
T heir m ain c oncentrations i s a t t he h ead-waters o f W adi E l H awad
a nd W adi E l Awateib . T he s ands a re t hought t o b e t he p roduct a lternating w et a nd d ry c limatic p hases w orking o n t he u nderlying r ock .
o f
H udi C hert F ormation T hese r ocks a re n amed a fter t he t ype l ocality o f H udi S tation e ast o f A tbara a nd a re r ecognized i n a n umber o f l ocalities i n t he N orthern P rovince . I n t he s tudy a rea t hey o ccur a t e ast o f M eroe ( Vail, 1 978 :27).
i solated
p oints
t o
t he s outh
P alaeoclimates S tudies o f e arly c limates i n t he S udan a re e xtremely l imited . t he e xception o f f ew w orks ( Andrew ,1944 ;
J ackson ,1957 ;
W ith
W illiams a nd C lark ,
1 972-74) m ost p alaeolclimatic r econstructions d eal w ith t he p eriod p rior t o 3 000 B .P . I n t he S udan t he e vidence i s d erived p rimarily f rom g eomorphic a nd b iological d ata ( Wickens , 1 975) , w hile r egional s tudies i n N orth A frica ( Livingstone , 1 975 ; R ognon a nd W illiams , 1 977) p rovide v aluable i nto t he p ast c limatic e pisodes o f t he c ountry . E vidence b ased
p artly
f or o n
c limatic t he
c hange
i n
t he
S udan d uring
d istribution
o f
N eolithic
t he
i mplements
i nsights
Q uaternary a nd
i s
s ub-fossil
s hells o n d rainage s ystems s uch a s W adi H awar i n n orthern D arfur . T hese d istributions s uggest t hat r ainfall was s ufficient t o a llow p assage o f N eolithic p opulations i n a ddition t o s ettlements i n s ome f avourable s pots ( Su dan G overnment ,
1 944-5 ;
W hyte ,
1 951) .
S ub-fossil s nail s hells p rovide
e xcellent i ndicators f or t he a ridity o f p resent-day c limate c ompared w ith t he N eolithic p eriod . T he s ub-fossil L imicolaria c ailliaudi ( syn . L . f lammata) i s r ecorded a s p lentiful a t t he s ite o f S haheinab ( Arkell , 1 949 :1953 ) . L imicolaria f lammata s urvives i n a reas r eceiving r ainfall i n e xcess o f 4 00 mm a nnually ( Wickens, 1 975 :50) . O ne o f t he d ifferences b etween t he f inds f rom E arly K hartoum a nd S haheinab i s t he p resence i n t he f ormer s ite o f s wamp-inhabiting a nimals . O n t he b asis o f t his e vidence A rkell ( ibid) s ummarized t he c limatic s equence a nd c onditions a s f ollows : a )
T he
o ccurrence
o f
L imicolaria f lammata
s hells
i ntegrifolia s eeds i ndicates a n a nnual r ainfall o f a t r ainy s eason l asting l onger t han i t d oes a t p resent . b )
a nd
C eltis
l east 5 00 mm a nd a
S wampy c onditions p revailed a t e arly K hartoum o n t he e vidence o f
t he p resence o f s wamp-dwelling a nimals . c )
T he a bsence o f
w ith E arly
s wamp-inhabiting a nimals a t
S haheinab i n c ontrast
K hartoum s uggests t he d evelopment o f d rier c limates d uring t he
S haheinab N eolithic . T wo s amples f rom S haheinab g ave r adio-carbon d ates o f 5 060 + 450 B .P . a nd 5 446 + 380 B .P . ( Arkell, 1 953 : 1 07) . T he r ainfall a t S haheinab , h owever , w as s till h igher ( 400 mm) c ompared w ith t he p resent ( 200 mm) . ,T his s hows a s outhward s hift o f t he 4 00 mm i sohyet b y s ome 2 50 k m s ince N eolithic t imes . E vidence f or a s ubstantially w etter c limate d uring t he N eolithic c omes
1 0
a lso f rom E rkawit a nd S hendi .
A t K hor H arasab n ear E rkawit a 2 0-feet t hick
c lay d eposit w as f ound t c c ontain s emi-fossil s hells a ssociated w ith N eolithic p ottery a nd o bsidian f lakes . T he s ub-fossil s hells w ere s tudied b y T othill w ho i dentified a mong t hem t hree s pecies : B ullinus t runcatus , P lanorbis a nd L imnaea . T hese a re p ond s nails t hat l ive u pon a quatic p lants . T othill a lso i dentified s pecimens o f M elanoides t uberculatus t hat i nhabit p ermanent f resh w ater . A mong t he c ollection w ere a lso l and s nails o f a m editerranean g enus X erophylla i n a ddition t o t he s pecies C erastus a byssinica which i s n ow a bundant a t ah eight o f 6 000 - 7 000 f t o n t he E thiopian h ighlands .
T he
f ormer a bundance o f
t hese
s pecies
i n N eolithic
c ontexts s hows t hat t he e nvironment t hen w as w et e nough t o s upport a d ense f orest c over a nd w ater p onds i n t he k hor ( Sudan G overnment, 1 944 :7 ; K ennedy-Cooke , 1 944 :55) . S imilar e vidence i s o btained f rom a N eo lithic s ite a t t he n orthern e dge o f t he f orest f arm n ear S hendi . T he s ite c ontains s ub-fossil s hells o f t he s emi-aquatic s pecies A mpularia w ernei a nd L anistes c arinatus d eposited o n a lluvial g ravel , s and a nd s ilt . D ue t o t he p osition o f t hese d eposits a t 2 5-40 f t a bove t he p resent i rrigation c anal t hey w ere r egarded a s t he r esult o f f ormer a bundant w ater f low f rom n ear-by h ills . T his e vidence i s c onsidered i ndicative o f a m uch w etter c limate d uring t he o ccupation o f t he s ite ( ibid :7) . T he p eriod f ollowing t he l ast N eolithic W et P hase w as a lso w etter t han t he p resent-day c limate .
A s outhward s hift o f i sohyets a nd i ncreasing
d essication h ad s et i n c a . 3 500 B .P . ( Jackson , 1 957 :53-5; Williams a nd A damson , 1 974 :585) . D etails o f t he s ubsequent p hase, p articularly t he m illennium o f t he N apatan-Meroitic p eriod t erminating c a . 3 50 A .D . , a re l acking . T he r econstruction o f t he p alaeoclimate f or t his p eriod i s i mportant i n v iew o f s ome o f t he c urrent o pinions c oncerning t he e ffect o f c limatic c onditions o n M eroitic s ettlement i n L ower N ubia a nd c entral S udan . D ue t o t he a lmost t otal a bsence o f s ettlements t he
f ist
m illenium B .C .
( Firth ,
1 912 :
2 1-3 ;
i n L ower N ubia d uring
G riffith ,
1 924 :116-7) ,
A dams
a greed t hat t his c ould b e a ttributed t o a f all i n N ile f lood l evels . S ince f lood l evels d uring t he N ew K ingdom w ere l ower t han t hose o f M iddle K ingdom t imes , a c ontinuing d rop c ould b e e xtrapolated f or t he f ollowing p eriod . I t i s p ossible t hat b y t he f irst m illenium B .C . t he w ater l evel w as t oo l ow t o s ustain a griculture , which c ould h ave r esulted i n t he c omplete d epopulation
o f
L ower N ubia
( A dams ,
1 977 :242) .
e vidence d oes n ot s upport t his h ypothesis .
H owever ,
t he
g eological
F airbridge ( 1963) e xamined t he
N ile s ediments a round W adi H alfa a nd o btained a n umber o f C 14 d ates f or t he s tratified s ilt t erraces . F airbridge p ostulated t hree m ain s tages i n t he h istory o f t he N ile r egime a nd d rew a s eries o f c limatic c orrelations b ased o n t he o scillations o f t he r iver f lood . F ive c limatic p hases a re r ecognized f or t he p ast 2 0 0 00 y ears . O f t hese , w e a re c oncerned w ith t he l ast t wo s ince t he f irst p hase p ertains t o t he p eriod i mmediately p receding t he N apatan-Meroitic , a nd t he s econd c arries t he e vidence u p t o m odern t imes .
T hese t wo p hases a re :
a )
T he
M id-Holocene
T ransitional
c haracterized b y r egular s ummer r ains b )
( Ca.
P hase
( 7000
- 3 000
B .P .)
i s
2 00 mm) a nd N ile f loods .
M odern A rid P hase ( 3000 - 0 .B .P .) w hich i s m arked b y a n i ncreasing
d essication i n N ubia a nd t he s tabilization o f m ore o r l ess a rid c onditions ( Fairbridge, 1 963 :105-6) . T he o nset o f t his a rid p hase i n E gypt i s c onfirmed b y B utzer . T he e nd o f t he l ast s ignificant w et i nterval i n E gypt ( dated t o c a . s uch
a s
3 000 B .C .) c an b e d ocumented b y t he e xtinction o f l arge f auna
e lephants,
g iraffe
a nd
r hinoceros
1
a round
2 900
- 2 600
B .C .
M oreover , a dvancing s and d unes c overed m uch o f t he f ormer N ile a lluvium c a . 2 350 - 2 180 B .C . ( Butzer , 1 966 :74-5) . T he f luctuations a t
t he
s ources
o f
i n N ile f lood l evels a re d etermined b y p recipitation t he
B lue
a nd
W hite
N iles .
R ecently
i t
h as
b een
d emonstrated t hat t he l ast m ajor r ise i n t he E ast A frican l ake l evels h as t erminated a bout 4 800 B .P . ( Street a nd G rove , 1 976 :387) . T he s ame s ituation h as b een r ecorded f or t he R ift V alley l akes o f s outhern E thiopia ( Grove e t a l . 1 975 :186) . I n
t he
c entral
S udan
f aunal
a nd
f loral
e vidence
f rom
M eroe
i s
c onsidered i ndicative o f h igher r ainfall d uring M eroitic t imes . T hree g roups o f b one s amples f rom t he M eroe e xcavations w ere a nalysed b y C arter a nd F oley ( 1980) . a nd c aprovines .
T wo o f t he s pecies r epresented i n t he s ample a re b ovids T he s ample f rom t he ' Bone T rench ' ( Group 1 1) s hows a
m arked f luctuation i n t he c attle/caprovine r atio . H owever , t here i s a g reat d eal o f c onfusion s urrounding t he a nalysis o f t hese r atios . F or t his r eason t he a nalysis w ill b e q uoted a t s ome l ength . T he r elative p roportions o f c attle a nd c aprovine r emains i s o f i nterest . F ig . B 2 s hows t he f luctuations i n t he c attle/caprovine r atio a s r ecorded i n t he G roup I I s pecimens . I n s pits 1 4 t o 1 7 , t hat i s i n t he o ccupation d ebris i mmediately a bove t he p rimary b uilding l evels i n t he b one t rench , t he c aprovines a re p roprotionately m ore i mportant t han t he c attle . I n c ontrast , s pits 8 t o 1 i nclusive , i .e . i n t he o ccupation d ebris a ssociated w ith t he s econd v isible m ajor b uilding l evel i n t he b one t rench , s how a p reponderance o f c attle .
A s w ell a s a m arked
c hange f rom 6 0% c aprovines i n s pit 1 4 t o 9 0% c attle i n s pit 8 , t he o verall t rend s hows a s teady d ecline i n t he r elative i mportance o f c attle ( Carter a nd F oley , 1 980 :304 ) . I n t he a uthors ' o pinion t he c hanges i n t he p roportions o f c attle a nd c aprovine c ould b e a ttributed t o e cological c hanges i n t he e xploitation t erritories o f t hese a nimals . T hey c ontinue . t he n atural c over o f t he B utana i s l ikely t o h ave b een a lmost c ontinuous s tands o f t he h erb B lepharis s p .
B oth
s heep a nd c amels e at B lepharis b y p reference a nd o nly i n d ire n ecessity wi ll t hey e at o ther g rasses . O n t he o ther h and , c attle p refer g rasses w here a vailable a nd w ill o nly e at l eaves o f B lepharis d uring t he d ry s eason i f o ther g razing i s n ot a vailable . T he marked c hange i n t he c attle/caprovine r atio c ould b e a ccounted f or b y o verg razing o f t he B lepharis s tands i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f M eroe b y t he c aprovine p opulation , r esulting i n a d ecline i n t he n umber o f c aprovines w hich t he g razing c ould c arry , a nd t he c oncomitant i ncrease i n t he p roportion o f c attle r epresented . T he p resence o f t he t hree s ubsidiary p eaks i n t he c aprovine g raph i n F ig . B 2 s ubsequent t o t he i nitial p eak i n s pit 1 6 c ould b e i nterpreted a s a c yclic r ecovery o f g razing
t he B lepharis
( ibid :
s tands
a fter
t he
i nitial
o ver-
3 04-5) .
C ontrary t o what i s s tated a bout a n o verall t rend o f ac ontinuous d ecline
i n t he c aprovine
r atio
t here
1 2
i s
a s teady
i ncrease
i n
t hat
r atio .
M oreover a t s pit 1 4 t he r atio o f c aprovine i s 4 0% n ot 6 0% a s s tated b y C arter a nd F oley .
I n s pit 8 , 9 0% r epresents t he r atio o f c aprovines a nd n ot
t he r atio o f c attle . I n a ddition s pit 1 6 s hows a t rough i n t he c aprovine r atio a nd n ot a p eak a s s tated i n t he r eport . F ig . 2 . 2 i s r eproduced f rom C arter ( MS) a nd s hows t he c attle/caprovine p ercentages i n t he G roup I I s ample .
T he g raphs s how a s teady d ecline i n t he p ercentage o f c attle a nd a
c ontinuous
r ise
i n
t hat
o f
c aprovine ,
a nd
t hus
r uns c ontrary
t o
t he
e cological h ypothesis p resented i n t he f aunal r eport ( ibid :304) . S hinnie 's ( 1974 :251) c onclusion t hat t he l ower l evels a t M eroe c ontained f ewer c attle b ones c ompared w ith t he u pper l evels i s p robably p artly b ased o n t he a bove a nalysis. T he
a nalysis
o f
t he
c attle/caprovine
r atio
i n
t he
b one
G roup I II s hows t hat c attle p redominate b y 6 3% o n a verage
s ample
f rom
( ibid :305) .
O ne o f t he c onclusions b ased o n t he b one a nalysis i s t hat t he a rea i n M eroitic
t imes
h ad
a h igher
c arrying
c apacity
p resumably
d ue
t o
h igher
r ainfall , ( ibid:308 ) . H owever , t he e vidence f rom G roup I I d oes n ot s upport t his c onclusion . M oreover , a s t he a uthors p ointed o ut ,in a n u rban c entre l ike M eroe v ariations a re l ikely t o o ccur i n p atterns o f m eat c onsumption a nd d isposal o f b one ( ibid :308 ) . S hinnie ( 1976 :90 ) h as a rgued t hat a t own o f t he s ize o f M eroe c ould n ot h ave b een e stablished i n a r egion o f e rratic r ainfall s uch a s t hat p revailing t oday i n t he a rea . H e p ointed o ut t hat t he s eed o f C eltis i ntegrifolia w ere d iscovered i n t he 1 972 e xcavations a t M eroe . T he c ontext f rom w hich t hese s eeds w ere r ecovered i s n ot a pparent . S hinnie o nly s ays t hat t he e vidence p ertains t o ' a t l east o ne p eriod i n t he h istory o f t he t own ' ( ibid :90 ) . T he m ajority o f t he p alaeoclimatic s tudies f rom t he S udan a nd t he s urrounding r egions i ndicate t hat t he c limate d uring t he M eroitic p eriods w as a s d ry a s i t i s t oday . T he o ccupation s ite a t J ebel e t T omat i n t he s outhern G ezira i s i n l arge p art c ontemporary w ith t he M eroitic p eriod . F ossil p lant r emains f rom t he s ite a re d ated t o c a . 4 0 B .C . t o 4 30 A .D . T hese p lants i ndicate t hat a ridity s imilar t o t hat o f t oday p revailed a t t he t ime t he s ite w as o ccupied ( Williams a nd C lark , 1 972:74-52; W illiams , e t . a l" 1 975) . R ecently M unson o btained C 14 d ates f or b each l ines o f a n e arly l ake i n s outhern M auretania . T hese d ates s how t hat t he l ake f illed t o a d epth o f 1 5 c a . 3 500 B .P . B y c a . 3 200 B .P . t he d epth f ell t o 5 m . W ith t he c ontinuing d rying t rend t he l ake c eased t o e xist c a . 2 900 B .P . ( Munson , 1 981 :53- 2 . T hese r esults c onform w ith e arlier c onclusions o n e arly S udanese c limates t hat c hange h as t aken p lace i n t he l ast 3 000 y ears ( Andrew , 1 944 :145 ; J ackson , 1 957 :53-5) .
C limatic c hanges i n h istoric t imes I n t he S ahel r egion a nd a djoining p arts i n N orth A frica , h istorical a nd g eographical d uring
s ources
s uggest
t hat
t he p ast f ive c enturies
c limatic
f luctuations
( Nicholson ,
1 978 :1979 ;
h ave
t aken
1 981) .
p lace I t
i s,
h owever , s tressed t hat s uch d ata a re n ot n ecessraily a pplicable t o t he w hole r egion . O nly b y c ollating d ata f or v arious l ocalities c an i nferences b e m ade a bout o verall t rends ( Nicholson , 1 978 :4) . S uch c omparisons i ndicate t hat f rom 1 6th t hrough t o t he 1 8th c enturies t he S udano-Sahelian z one w as m uch w etter t han i t i s t oday . D uring t his p eriod i ncreasing p recipitation i n t he E thiopian h ighlands l ed t o a marked r ise i n N ile f lood l evels. S imilar o bservations a re m ade f or t he S ahel z one w here b etween 1 600 a nd 1 750 A .D . L ake C had r ose b y 4m a bove i ts p resent l evel . A rab c hroniclers i n
1 3
t he s ixteenth c entury p oint o ut t hat t he r egion w as w ell-endowed w ith r ainfall s o t hat f amine ' could n ot b reak o ut ' ( ibid:5) . I n t he S udan s uggestions c ontrary t o t he s ituation i n t he S ahel a re m ade . A rkell ( quoted i n A ndrew ,
1 944 :154) a rgues
t hat
f rom c a .
1 500 A .D .
t o c a .
1 800 A .D .
t here
w as a s othward m ovement o f r ain b elts e videnced b y t he d esertion o f n orthern D arfur t owns s uch a s K obe a nd U ri . B rowne , h owever , d escribed K obe i n t he 1 790 's a s a f lourishing t own a nd s howed t hat t he r ainy s eason i n n orthern D afur e xtended f rom t he m iddle o f J une t o t he m iddle o f S eptember , s omewhat l onger t han t oday ( Browne , 1 814 :138 ) . T he
g eneral
c limatic
s ituation
i n
N orth
A frica
d uring
t he
h istoric
p eriod i s o ne o f p rogressive d essication . T he d ifficulty i s w hether s ome o f t he r ecorded e pisodes r epresented c limatic a nomalies o r p arts o f al ong-term t rend . A nother d ifficulty i s t hat i t i s n ot y et c lear whether t his p rogressive d essication was c onfined t o t he h istoric p eriod o r w as c ontinuous f rom l ater p rehistoric t imes .
P resent c limate M ost o f t he c ountry l ies within t he z one o f t ropical c ontinental c limate w ith v ariations
i n r ainfall a nd
t emperature a s o ne
p roceeds
f rom
s outh t o n orth . T he r ainy s eason r anges b etween f ive a nd e ight m onths a nd i n t he n orth i t l asts b etween o ne t o t hree m onths, w ith t rue l ocal v ariations i n s ome p arts o f t he c ountry . T he v ariation b etween n orth a nd s outh i s t he p roduct o f t he a nnual o scillations o f p ressure a nd a ir c urrents w ithin t he t ropical z one ( 1 40 )on , 1 965 :5-7) . T he c entral S udan t o w hich t he s tudy r egion b elongs e xperiences s trong a lterations o f r ainy a nd d ry s easons . T he a rea r eceives a m ean a nnual r ainfall o f 1 00mm i n t he n orth a nd 2 00mm i n t he s outh w ith m ost o f t he r ain r eceived d uring A ugust ( Fig . 2 .3) . T emperatures a re e xceedingly h igh ; 16 °F i s f requently r egistered a t K hartoum b efore t he r ainy s eason . A t A tbara 1 09 ° i s t he h ighest m ean d aily t emperature d uring s ummer . T here i s c onsiderable f luctuation i n t he a mount o f r ainfall f rom y ear t o y ear . 1 956 .
A t K hartoum r ainfall r anged b etween 4 5 .1mm i n 1 949 t o 2 48 .7mm i n A t O mdurman i t w as 2 5 .8mm i n 1 949 t o 3 28mm i n 1 959
( Halwagy ,
1 961:90).
T he W estern B utana A s urvey o f g eographical a nd a rchaeological l iterature r eveals a d isparity
i n
t he
u se
o f
t he
t erm
B utana
b y
r esearchers
i n
t he
t wo
d isciplines. O ne o f t he e arliest s ubdivisions o f A tbara a nd t he B lue N ile
i s
g iven b y
t he a rea b ounded b y t he N ile ,
M orant
( 1905 :103) .
T he
t he
t riangle E l
D amer-Adarama-Atbara i s r eferred t o a s E l D eheira ( Arabic f or s tony g round) . T his i s ab arren , d esert-like s andstone p lateau . T he a rea i nside t he l ine j oining K hartoum , S hendi a nd A bu D eleiq i s c alled E l K eraba ( Arabic f or g ravelly u ndulating g round) . T he c ountry K hartoum , A bu D eleiq a nd A bu H araz ( on t he B lue N ile) i s k nown a s S harg E l A teiq . T he B utana ( flat p lain) i s t he r egion f rom A darama s outhward a nd e xtending w estward t o t he l ine r unning r oughly f rom A bu D eleiq t o A bu H araz .
1 4
I n a s urvey o f M eroitic s ites i n t he h interland o f M eroe C rowfoot ( 1911 :9) r eferred t o t he s ubdivision o f t he a rea i nto K eraba w hich i s a s tony a nd g ravelly c ountry o n t he n orth w est a nd B utana , t he c lay p lain t o t he s outh e ast , a nd h e n oted t hat t he m ajority o f s ites a re f ound i n t he f ormer a rea . N atural a nd m an-made b oundaries o ften p rovide a q uick g eographical r eference ; t hus W orral ( 1959 :34-5) d efines t he B utana a s t he r egion l ying b etween t he B lue N ile , t he N ile , a nd A tbara a nd t he K assala-Sennar r ailway l ine . B ut s uch a f ramework i s v ery i ll-defined a nd e ncompasses a v ast a rea w ith m arked v ariations i n c limate , t opography , r esources e tc . A s B arbour ( 1961) p oints o ut o ne w ay o f d ividing t he S udan i nto u nits i s a long t hose l ines which " reflect t he r egional c onsciousness o f t he i nhabitants" , a c onsciousness b ased o n t he r ecognition o f t hose v ariations . A lthough B arbour i ncludes t he t wo s ubdivisions i n h is d efinition o f B utana , h e r ecognizes t he m arked v ariations w ithin t he v ariations i n s ite s oil a nd r ainfall ( ibid:215).
a rea ,
c orresponding
t o
T he c onfusion a bout t he e xtent o f t he B utana i n t he g eographical l iterature e xtends t o a rchaeological s tudies . I n ap aper o n M eroitic s ettlement i n t he h interland o f M eroe A ll ( 1972 :639-46) r efers t o t he a rea a s B utana . T he B utana t oday i s o ne o f t he b est g razing a reas i n t he c ountry a nd c onfusion i n t he u se o f t he t erm h as l ed t o t he u se o f e thnographic p arallels d erived f rom t he B utana a nd a pplied t o a rchaeological s tudies i n t he K eraba r egion ( Adams , 1 973 :2) . A dams , h owever , m akes a d istinction b etween t he e astern B utana , t he a rea o f s uperior g razing r esources , a nd t he w estern B utana w hich h as a h igher a gricultural p otential . I n t his w ork t he t erm w estern B utana i s u sed f or t he s tudy a rea a nd i s d efined a s t he a rea o therwise k nown a s K eraba ( Fig. 2 .4).
V egetation T he a rea f alls w ithin t he r egion o f s emi-arid d esert a cacia s crub a nd s hort g rasslands o f n orth c entral S udan . T he v egetation c onsists o f g rasses a nd h erbs a nd t hinly d istributed s crub b ushes w ith b are a reas i n b etween ( L abo r ' , 1 965 :20:22) . T he b are a reas b ecame i ncreasingly e xtensive t o t he n orth . V arious f actors a ccount f or t he d istribution a nd g rowth o f v egetation ; t opography , t exture , d epth a nd s lainity o f s oils a nd w ater c onditions ( Worral , 1 960 ) . T his s ituation p revails o n s oils o f t he N ubian S eries .
O n t he f ringes o f t he B utana p lain t o t he s outh e ast o n t he s oils
o verlying t he B asement C omplex r epeating s tands o f g rass h ave b een o bserved . T hese c onsist o f a lternating s mall g rass p atches a nd b ands o f t all g rasses a nd t he p attern i s a ttributed t o d ifferences i n s oil s urfaces ( Worral , 1 960 :47-8).
S ummary I n t he a bove p ages i t h as b een a ttempted t o s how t he f ollowing: 1 ) a rea
A n u nderstanding o f t he s olid g eology a nd d rainage s ystem i n t he s tudy i s
C hanges
e ssential i n
t hese
i n e xplaining
d istributions
a re
t he a lso
p hases.
1 5
g eomorphological a ffected
b y
d istributions .
a lternating
c limatic
2 )
A lthough c onsiderable p rogress h as r ecently b een a chieved i n t he
r econstruction o f p alaeoclimates i n t he S udan a nd a djacent a reas , m ore d etailed s tudies a re n eeded f or t he s uccessive p eriods a fter 3 000 B .C . 3 )
T he
l ead
t o m isconceptions
r egions .
t endency
t o d efine g eographical a reas i n o ur u nderstanding o f
T he t erm B utana a pplies t o
i n v ery b road s mall
a reas
t erms
c ould
w ithin l arger
ar egion w hich c overs m ore t han t hree
d egrees o f l atitude a nd e xtends f or s ome 4 50 k m f rom n orth t o s ouht . M ore p recise d efinitions a re n eeded i n o rder t o a void t he p itfalls o f a pplying t he c haracterisics o f t he w hole r egion t o p articular a reas w ithin i t.
1 6
1 7
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i n e a c h s p i t o f t h e
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C O 4 i
M
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b o
% --
4 L 4 4
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1 1
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)
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0
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4 0
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F ig. 2 .3 :
4 00Km
M ean a nnual r ainfall i n n orthern a nd c entral S udan.
1 9
F ig. 2 .4 :
L ocation o f K eraba a nd o ther g eographical d ivisions.
2 0
C HAPTER 3 T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY
T he
a rchaeological
s urvey
c arried
o ut
i n
t he w estern
B utana a nd
t he
S hendi R each c overed 3 4 s ites , r anging f rom s ettlements , s ingle s tructures t o c emeteries . T wo o f t hese s ites h ave b oth N eolithic a nd M eroitic c omponents . I n a ddition , t wo N eolithic s ites w ere l ocated d uring t he s urvey . T he p rocedures f ollowed o n t hese s ites w ere v aried . A t s ome s ites c ontrolled s urface c ollections w ere m ade . O n o ther s ites , i n a ddition t o c ontrolled s urface c ollections , t est p its w ere e xcavated i n o rder t o e xamine t he d epth a nd s equence o f d eposits . U nsystematic s urface c ollections w ere m ade a t o ther s ites . I n t his c hapter t hese d ifferent p rocedures w ill b e d escribed f or e ach s ite .
R IVERINE S ITES E ast b ank: H amadab ( Site 4 5)
1 60 5 3I-33 0 4 1'
T he s ite i s l ocated 2 .5 k ilometres s outh o f t he t own s ite o f M eroe b etween K abushiya a nd t he m odern v illage o f B ejrawiya . c arried o ut t here.
N o p revious w ork w as
T he s ite c onsists o f a l arge m ound m easuring 2 75 x 2 05 m etres . i nitial
i nspection o f
t he
s urface
s catter
i t
w as n oticed
t hat
O n t he
t here
i s
a
m arked d ifference i n t he d istribution o f c eramic i ndustries r anging f rom a h igh c oncentration o f w heel-made p ottery o n s ome a reas t o a p reponderance o f h and-made p ottery o n o thers . T his d ifferential d istribution i s p articularly n oticeable a s o ne p roceeded a long t he n orth-south a xis . I t w as t hought t hat t his p attern c ould r eflect e ither t emporal o r f unctional d ifferences b etween t he v arious c omponents o f t he s ite . T hus i t w as d ecided t o m ake a c ontrolled s urface c ollection . T he p erimeter o f t he s ite w as m apped a nd a b ase-line w as l aid a long t he l ong a xis o f t he m ound .
T hree
1 0 x 1 0 m etre
s quares w ere p lotted a long t his b aseline ( nos . 1 , 2 a nd 3 ) . I n o rder t o g et a wider c overage o f t he s urface s catter a nother l ine w as l aid, i ntersecting t he b ase-line a t r ight a ngles a t ad istance o f 1 25 m etres f rom t he n orthern e nd o f t he m ound . T wo 1 0 x 1 0 m etre s quares w ere p lotted a t t he e ast a nd w est e nds o f t his l ine. ( Fig.3 .1.). C omplete c ollections
w ere m ade o f a ll a rtefacts
f ound w ithin e ach o f
t he f ive s quares.
A wlib ( Site 2 ) T he
1 6° 5 2'-33 ° 4 3'
s ite o f A wlib l ies a bout
3 k ilometres e ast o f K abushiya r ailway
s tation a t t he m outh o f W adi E l H awad ( Fig .3 .2) . T his p art o f t he w adi i s l ocally k nown a s K hor A wlib . T he s ite w as f irst d escribed b y C rowfoot ( 19 11) . I t c onsists o f a g roup o f 8 m ounds s ituated t o t he n orth o f t he w adi . T he l argest m ound m easures 5 0 x 3 0m . T races o f m asoury b uildings c ould b e s een f rom t he s urface . C rowfoot ( 1911 :12) w as p ossibly p ointing t o
2 1
t hese when h e r eferred t o ' a s mall p alace s imilar t o t hat a t ( Musawwarat) ' . T o t he s outh o f t he m ounds i n t he w adi b ed t here i s ah uge r eservoir ( hafir) m easuring a bout 2 50 m etres i n d iameter w ith t wo i nlets o n t he e ast s ide a nd a n o utlet o n t he w est . A s mall b uilding , p robably a t emple , i s l ocated o n t he n orthwestern b ank o f t he r eservoir ( not t he e ast s ide a s s tated b y C rowfoot ( 1911 :12) a nd H intze ( 1959 :17 0 . D ue t o d igging b y t he v illagers t he t op o f t he s outhernmost m ound r evealed a m ud-brick w all r unning e ast/west . T he w all i s 3 6 c m . t hick . O ne b rick m easured 3 6 x 1 6 x 1 0 c m . I n o rder t o e stablish t he n ature a nd s equence o f t he c ultural d eposits a 2 x 2 m . t est p it ( 2A ) w as e xcavated a t t he h ighest p oint o f t he m ound w here t he w all w as r evealed ( F ig . 3 .3) . T he t est p it w as e xcavated i n 1 0 c m l evels .
2 A L evel 1
( 010 c m)
T he l evel r evealed t hat t he m ud-brick s tructure t erminates a t a bout 5 c m . b elow s urface . Av ariety o f p ot s herds , i ncluding f ine p ainted M eroitic w are , w ere r etrieved f rom l evel 1 . I n t he s ame l evel , b ut b eneath t he e nd o f t he m ud b rick w all , as mall a mount o f c harcoal w as f ound a t t he e ast s ide o f t he t est p it . T he r est o f t he l evel c onsisted o f r ed-brick r ubble a nd l oose g rey s and.
S ome f ragmentary b ones w ere i ncluded i n t he r ubble.
L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m) T his
l evel
i s
c omposed o f y ellow c oarse s and a nd s herds.
f ragmentary b ones w ere a lso i ncluded.
A f ew
N o o ther d omestic r efuse w as f ound.
L evel 3 ( 20-30 c m) L evel 3 r evealed s ignificatnly l ess a mount o f s herds c ompared w ith t he p revious t wo l evels . P art o f a nother m ud-brick s tructure w as p rojecting i nto t he w est s ide o f t he l evel . F rom t he s outh f ace a p iece o f r ed b rick w as p artly e xposed . I t w as n ot a pparent w hether t his w as p art o f a r edb rick s tructure r unning i n a s outherly d irection . A f ew p ieces o f c harcoal w ere i ncluded i n t he l evel. L evel 4 ( 30-40 c m) T he
t op o f
t his
l evel
r evealed a c hange
i n t he t exture o f s oil t o a
f ine g rey s and . T he mud-brick w all e ncountered i n l evel t hree w as c ontinuing i nto t his l evel. V ery f ew s herds w ere r ecovered f rom l evel 4 . L evel 5 ( 40-50 c m) T he
l ayer o f
c oarse s and c ontinued .
V ery f ew
s herds
w ere
r etrieved .
I n t he s outh w est c orner t he r emains o f w hat c ould h ave b een a h earth w ith c harcoal a nd b urnt b ones w as r evealed . L evel 6 ( 50-60 c m) T he l ayer o f c oarse s and c ontinued o n t he e ast s ide o f t he p it . w est s ide t he m ud-brick w all c ontinued d ownwards . f ew i n t his l evel .
O n t he
S herds w ere d ecreasingly
T he m ud-brick w all t erminates a t a bout t he m iddle o f t he
2 2
l evel. L evel 7 ( 60-70 c m) T his l evel c onsisted o f c oarse s and a nd s ome p ebbles .
V ery f ew s herds
w ere r ecovered. L evel 8 (70-80 c m) T he m ost n oticeable f eature o f l evel 8 w as t he p resence o f t hick w heel-made s herds n ot e ncountered b efore i n t he u pper l evels . W hile t he l ayer o f s and c ontinued i nto t his l evel n o o ther e vidence o f d omestic r efuse w as f ound. L evel 9 ( 80-90 c m) S herds o f t he s ame t ype f ound i n l evel 8 w ere r ecovered. L evel 1 0 ( 90100 c m) T he u pper p ortion o f l evel 1 0 c onsisted o f as and l ayer i n w hich a f ew s herds w ere i ncluded . A t ad epth o f 4c m t his l ayer o f s and c ame t o a n e nd . B eneath t his l ayer t he g round c onsisted o f a d ark l ayer o f s oil . N o c ultural m aterial w as r ecovered f rom t his l ayer . L evel 1 1
( 100110 c m)
T he d ark l ayer o f s oil c ontinued i nto l evel 1 1.
T he n ature o f t he
l ayer a nd t he a bsence o f c ultural m aterial i ndicated t hat t he e arliest p hase o f o ccupation a t t his p art o f t he m ound s tarted a t l evel 1 0 . I n a ddition t o t he e xcavated m aterial , a n u nsystematic s urface c ollection o f p ottery w as m ade o n t he s ite . T his c ollection w as m ade w ith a v iew t o t he p ottery t ypes n ot r epresented i n t he t est p it.
A bu E rteila ( Site 1 ) 1 6° 5 1'-33 °4 1' S outh o f S ite 2 ,
o n t he o pposite b ank o f K hor A wlib t here i s a s mall
s ite which c onsists o f f our m ounds .
T he s ite w as b riefly m entioned b y
C rowfoot ( 1911 :12-3) w ho , p ossibly o n t he e vidence o f r ed-bricks c overing t he m ounds , t hought t hat i t b elonged t o a p eriod l ater t han t hat o f s ite 2 . S hinnie ( 1953 :87) w rote , ' From t he p otsherds s een o n t he s urface o f t he g round , t hese m ounds a ppear t o b elong t o t he M eroitic p eriod ' . S hinnie 's r eference t o t he s ite a s b eing 3 3° 4 6 ' E i s f ound b y H intze t o b e i ncorrect . H intze g ives t he c o-ordinates a s 1 6' °5 1'-33 °4 3'E ( 1959 :176). T he p rocedure f ollowed a t S ite
1c onsisted o f d rawing a p lan f or t he
m ounds a nd e xcavating t wo t est p its . o utlying m ound ( Fig .
T est p it
l A w as e xcavated i n a s mall
14) t o t he e ast o f m ound 1 .
T est p it 1 B w as e xcavated
i n t he n orthern m ound.
l A l Ä i s a 1 . 5 x 1 . 5 i n . t rench l aid o ut o n m ound 4 .
B efore t he e xcavation
t he m ound w as c overed w ith a s catter o f r ed b rick a nd i ronstone r ubble . N o s herds w ere f ound o n t he s urface . T he t rench w as e xcavated i n 1 0 c m l evels
2 3
( Fig .
3 .5) .
L evel 1 ( 0-10 c m) L evel s herds .
1 i s c omposed o f c oarse w ind-blown s and,
a f ew p ebbles a nd
T he l ayer o f w ind-blown s and w as o nly a bout 1 c m d eep ; u nder t hat
l ayer t here w as a nother l ayer o f f iner g rey e arth w ith a c ontinuation o f p ebbles, f ragments o f r ed b rick a nd s ome i ronstone. L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m) T he s ame l ayer o f m ixed g rey e arth , r ed-brick a nd p ebbles c ontinued i nto l evel 2 . N o s herds w ere r ecovered . A t t his s tage i t w as d ecided t o e nlarge t he t est p it i n t he h ope o f r ecovering c ultural m aterial , p articularly p ottery . T hus a n a rea 7 5 x 7 5 c m w as e xcavated a t t he s outh e ast c orner o f t he t est p it . T he t op 1 0 c m , c orresponding t o l evel 1 o f t he o riginal t rench , r evealed t he s ame s equence o f w ind-blown s and f ollowed b y a l ayer o f m ixed g rey e arth , p ebbles a nd f ragments o f r ed b rick . A t l evel 2 i n t he a dditional a rea o f t he t rench t he f ill c onsisted o f r ed b rick r ubble a nd p ebbles . A s w ith l evel t wo i n ' the o riginally e xcavated p it , n o p ottery w as r ecovered . A t a d epth o f a bout 5 c m i nto l evel 2 t he d omestic r ubble g ave w ay t o al ayer o f c oarse b rown s and a nd t iny p ebbles. L evel 3 ( 20-30 c m) T he c oarse b rown s and a nd p ebbles c ontinued i nto t he w hole o f l evel 3 . N o c ultural m aterial w as o btained . L evel 4 (30-40 c m) E xcept
f or a p lastered s andstone b lock l evel 4 c onsisted o f t he s ame
d eposits f ound i n l evel 3 .
E xcavations c ontinued t o a d epth o f
5 c m b elow
l evel 4 w here t he h ard s urface o f t he p lain w as r eached.
1 B A 1x 2 m . t rench w as l aid o ut o n t he e ast s ide o f m ound 3 c lose t o t he h ighest
p oint o f t he m ound
( Fig. 3 .6) . b ricks,
( Fig .
3 .4) .
T his w as
e xcavated
i n 2 0 c m s pits
T he s urface o f t he t rench w as c overed with a s catter o f r ed
i ronstone f ragments a nd a m atrix o f w ind-blown s and.
L evel 1 (0-20 c m) T he l evel w as c om p osed o f
a m ixture o f s and a nd r ounded p ebbles .
f ragment o f r ed b rick w as i ncluded i n t he l evel.
A
F ew s herds w ere r ecovered.
L evel 2 (20-40 c m) T he b ottom o f
t he s and a nd p ebble l ayer w as r eached i n l evel 2 a t a
d epth o f 2 8 c m b elow s urface . A t t he t op o f t he l evel , s ealed b y t he s and a nd p ebble l ayer , t here w as a s mall p ocket o f c harcoal . T wo s amples o f c harcoal w ere c ollected f or d ating p urposes . I h
t he
s ame
l evel,
a t
a d epth
o f
3 8
c m
b elow
s urface, a nother
c oncentration o f c harcoal w as f ound i n t he n orth e nd o f t he t rench . A ssociated w ith t his c harcoal p ocket w ere t wo f ragments o f g rinding s tones .
2 4
T he l evel c onsisted o f a h igh c oncentration o f t hick w heel-made s herds
i n
a ddition t o af ew f iner w ares . L evel 3 ( 40-60 c m) A t 4 3 c m b elow s urface t he m atrix c hanges i nto s oft y ellow s and m ixed w ith p ebbles . S herds w ere f ewer i n t his l evel t han t he p revious o ne . A bout 2 c m b elow t he t op o f t he y ellow s and w as a t hin m ixture o f c harcoal, c rushed b ones a nd c oarse s herds f rom a h and-made p ot . A round t his m ixture w as a s catter o f r ed b rick r ubble , b ut t here w as n o n oticeable o rder t o t hem t o s uggest t hat t he f eature w as a h earth . T he r ubble s tands o n ah ard s urface , b ut i t w as n ot c lear w hether t his w as a f loor . T he p ottery w as m ostly c oarse w heel-made , b ut o ne s herd c ame f rom a f ine p ainted v essel. L evel 4 ( 60-80 c m) T he l evel s tarts a t t he h ard s urface e ncountered a t l evel 3 .
R emoval
c f t his h ard s urface i ndicated t hat t his w as f ormed o f f ragile m ud b ricks . I t w as n ot a pparent w hether t hese w ere i n o riginal p osition o r p art o f a f allen w all . A t umble o f f ragmentary r ed b ricks w as l ocated a t t he s outh s ide o f t he l evel. L evel 5 ( 80100 c m) T he m atrix w as a c ontinuation o f t he s ame s oft y ellow s and w hile t he t umble o f m ud b ricks c ontinued d ownwards . O ne c omplete m ud b rick m easured 3 4 x 1 7 x 8 .5 c m , w hich i s t he s tandard s ize o f M eroitic m ud b ricks . L evel 5e nded a t 1 20 c m b elow s urface . T his d epth c oincided w ith t he s tart o f a h ard m ud s urface . T he s urface e xtended o ver t he e ntire t rench . N o s herds w ere f ound i n l evel 5 . L evel 6 ( 100120 c m) T he h ard s urface t erminating l evel 5 w as r emoved .
T his p roved t o b e
t he t op o f t he g round s urface . A t a d epth o f 1 0 c m h ard d ark c lay w as r evealed . E xcavations w ere t erminated s ince i t b ecame a pparent t hat n atural g round w as r eached .
F ew s herds w ere r ecovered i n l evel 6 .
T he t est p it p rovided a r elatively l arge s ample o f p ottery .
T he n ature
o f t he s tratigraphy w as t oo c omplex t o a llow f or f irm c onclusions a bout t his p art o f t he s ite . I t i s t empting t o a ttribute p ockets o f c harcoal a t l evels 2a nd 3 t o d omestic c ooking a ctivities. W ad B an N aga ( Site 4 6) 1 6° 3 1'-33 ° 0 7' T he s ite i s s ituated j ust t o t he s outh o f t he W ad B an N aga r ailway s tation a nd 8 00 m . e ast o f t he N ile . I t c onsists o f 6m ounds w ith t races o f a s urrounding w all i n a ddition t o t wo c emeteries ( Fig . 3 . 7) . P revious w ork a t t he s ite i ncluded p ublication o f i nscriptions e xcavations o f p art o f t he s ite ( Vercoutter ,1962).
( Griffith ,1911 :67-8 )
a nd
T he e xcavations ( 1958-60) w ere c arried o ut o n m ounds B , D , Fa nd E . T est p its 1 a nd 2 w ere e xcavated t ogether w ith t wo b urials , 5a nd 6 . O nly o ne p reliminary r eport o f t he e xcavations w as p ublished ( Vercoutter ,1962) . T he m ajor r esults o f t he e xcavations w ere t he u ncovering o f a l arge s quare s tructure , p ottery
a bout 6 0 m . o n a s ide ,
t ypes
a nd
e stablishing
( Fig .
3 .7 ,
m ound B ) ,
a t entative
2 5
a d escription o f t he
c hronology
f or
t he
s ite .
V ercoutter ( ibid) d escribed t he l arge r ectangular s tucture a s ap alace . p ottery
i s
d escribed
a s
b eing
o f
t wo
t ypes .
T he
m ost
f requent
T he i s
r epresented b y h and-made , b lack b urnished p ottery w ith i ncised d ecorations ( ibid:291; F ig .25) . W heel-made p ottery o ccurs i n t he f orm o f a mphorae ( ibid:291; F ig27) . F ine p ainted w are i s r epresented b y a f ew s herds . O ne t ype o f p ottery ( ibid; F ig.33) i s b elieved t o b e : i mported. T he c hronology o f t he s ite i s b ased l argely o n t he p ottery f inds . p eriods
o f u se a re
i dentified
i n T emple
E ,
t he
m ost
r ecent
i s
a bove
T wo t he
l evel o f t he o riginal c onstruction a nd i s d ated t o a bout t he e nd o f t he M eroitic p eriod ( ca .350 A .D . ) . T he o riginal c onstruction w hich m arked t he e arliest p hase o f o ccupation i s d ated t o a bout 1 50-200 A .D . ( Vercoutter , 1 962 :272) .
T wo
l evels
o f
o ccupation
a re
a lso
i dentified
a t
t he
' p alace '
( ibid :275) . O ne t he b asis o f i nscriptional e vidence t he e arliest p hase o f o ccupation a t t he s ite i s t hought t o b e i n t he t hird c entury B .C . N o p ostM eroitic r emains w ere f ound a nd o ccupation i s t hought t o h ave t erminated i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury A .D . ( ibid :295) . D ue t o t he f act t hat e xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n m ost a reas o f t he s ite i t w as d ecided t o c ollect s amples i n t hose a reas which w ere l eft i ntact .
B oth m ounds A a nd C w ere n ot e xcavated .
M ound A i s d isturbed b y
t he t rench c ut f or t he p assage o f t he r ailway t racks . T he m ound i s c overed w ith a l arge a mount o f r ed b ricks w ith a f ew s cattered m ud b ricks . T races o f a s tructure a re v isible a t t he m ound s urface .
C i s n ot a s ingle m ound ,
b ut i s c omposed o f 1 s mall r ed b rick m ounds . S urface c ollection o f p ottery w as m ade a t b oth A a nd C . H owever , t hey p roved t o b e e xtremely l acking i n s herds.
I n o rder t o o btain a l arger s ample o f s herds i t was d ecided t o
c ollect m aterial f rom a d ump o f e xcavated d ebris l ocated s outhwest o f m ound F . T he d ump i s 2 0 m . l ong a nd 1 0 m . w ide . T he e ntire s urface o f t he d ump w as c ollected . A lthough a l arge c ollection o f p ottery w as o btained f rom t he s ite t he s ample m ight n ot r epresent t he r ange o f t ypes p resent a t t he s ite .
M aterial
o n t he d ump s urface i s l ikely t o r epresent t he e arliest p eriods o f o ccupation , w hile p ottery f rom l ater p eriods , w hich i s t ipped f irst , w ould b e r epresented b y f ewer o r n o s herds .
W est B ank S urvey work o n t he w est b ank was c onfined t o a n a rea o f 3 0 s q . k m . a cross t he r iver f rom M eroe w here 4 s ites w ere l ocated . T est e xcavations w ere c arried o ut o n t wo o f t hem w hile s urface c o llections w ere m ade o n a ll 4 s ites.
F ikheikhira ( Site 8 ) 1 6° 5 3'-33 ° 3 8 ' T he s ite w as r eported b y G eus ( 1976 :201) .
I t
i s s ituated o n t he e dge
o f t he f lood p lain s outh-east o f Q oz B urra v illage ( Fig .
3 .8) .
T he s ite
c onsists o f a s ingle m ound m easuring a pproximately 1 00 m . i n d iameter .
T he
m aximum r ise a bove t he s urrounding p lain i s 2m . T he e ast s ide o f t he m ound c uts s harply d own d ue t o e rosion b y N ile f lood . T he mound s urface i s c overe c l b y a h eavy c oncentration o f t hin h and-made s herds . A t t he c entre t here i s a s catter o f b roken r ed b ricks b ut n o s tructural r emains w ere v isible . T he s urface w as m uch d isturbed b y r ecent d igging i n s everal s pots . I n o rder t o e xamine t he d epth a nd s equence o f d eposits a 1 x 1 m . t est p it
2 6
( 8A)
w as
e xcavated
o n
t he
e astern
c oncentration o f r ed b rick r ubble . ( Fig. 3 .9).
s ide
o f
t he
m ound
c lose
t o
t he
T his w as d ug i n 2 0 c m . a rbitrary l evels
8 A L evel 1 ( 0-20 c m .) T he m atrix w as a m ixture o f f ine s and a nd s mall p ebbles .
T he f ill w as
p articularly r ich i n p ottery . T he s herds w ere o f t he s ame f abric a s t hose s cattered o ver t he m ound . N o f eatures w ere i ncluded i n l evel 1 . A t ad epth o f 1 0 c m . f rom s urface p art o f ah uman s keleton w as p rotruding i nto t he p it f rom t he s outhern w all . L evel 2 (20-40 c m .) T he f ill i s t he s ame a s t hat o f l evel 1 w ith a bundant s herds. L evel 3 ( 40-60 c m .) T he s and c hanged t o a l ighter c olour . p rojecting
A nother h uman s keleton was
i nto t he p it o n t he n orthern e nd .
T here w as n o c hange
i n t he
t ype o r c oncentration o f s herds. L evel 4 ( 60-80 c m .) T here was n o c hange o f s oil i n l evel 4 ,
a lthough t he s herds w ere
c onsiderably f ewer t han i n t he p revious l evels . O n t he e astern c orner o f t he p it b eneath w hat l ooked l ike a b urnt s traw m at t here w ere t he r emains o f as lightly c harred h uman s keleton . O nly t he s kull a nd t he u pper p art o f t he s keleton w ere e xposed . A t ubular w hite b ead , p ossibly p art o f a n ecklace b elonging t o t he s keleton w as r ecovered. L evel 5 ( 80100 c m .) N o c hange o ccured i n t he s and l ayer a nd t he p ottery w as a s l imited a s t hat i n l evel 4 . w all o f t he p it . w as n ot c ertain .
B one r emains w ere s uperficially
e xposed o n t he s outhern
T hey s eemed t o b elong t o t wo h uman s keletons a lthough t his T he l ower h alf o f t he l evel c onsisted o f f iner s and w hich
w as a lmost d evoid o f s herds . L evel 6 ( 100120 c m .) T he f iner y ellow s and a t t he b ottom o f l evel 5 c ontinued t o ad epth o f 4c m . i nto l evel 6 . B elow t his d epth n o c ultural d ebris w as r ecovered . T he m atrix c hanged i nto d ark a lluvial s oil m ixed w ith k anker .
S ince t his s eemed
t o i ndicate n atural g round d igging w as s topped. T he
t est p it p rovided a l arge
s ample o f
p ottery .
H owever ,
w ith t he
l imited a mount o f e xcavations a nd t he n ature o f t he d eposits i n t he p it i t i s d ifficult t o a rrive a t c onclusions o n t he f unction o f t his s ite . T he f ill w as p articularly r ich i n s herds , a ll o f t he s ame t ype . O n t his a ccount i t c ould b e s uggested t hat t his w as a k iln s ite t hat s pecialized i n t he p roduction o f o ne t ype o f p ottery . T his s uggestion i s f urther d iscussed i n C hapter 7 . T he t ype o f p ottery f rom t his s ite w as r ecovered a t t he r ecent e xcavations a t M eroe ( Shinnie a nd B radley ,1980) .
2 7
O n n o o ther M eroitic s ite
h as
t his
p ottery
t ype b een r eported .
O n t he o ther h and ,
t he
p resence o f
s everal h uman b urials a t d ifferent l evels i n t he t est p it c omplicates t he p icture . O nly t hrough f urther e xcavations a t t his s ite c ould i ts n ature b e c larified. I n a ddition t o t he s ample c ollected f rom t he t est p it a n u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as m ade a t t he m ound.
Q oz B urra ( Site 2 2) 1 6° 5 3'-33 ° 3 7' A t ad istance o f 1 . 2 k m . w est o f s ite 8 a l arge m ound i s s ituated c lose t o
t he
s outhern
e nd
o f
Q oz
B urra
v illage
a pproximately 3 00 m . l ong a nd 2 00 i n . wide .
( Fig .
3 .8) .
T he
m ound
i s
T he i nspection o f t he m ound
s urface s howed a f airly d ense s catter o f s herds . T he m ajority o f s herds a re t ypologically s imilar t o t he K hartoum N eolithic p ottery . H owever , a f ew t ypical M eroitic w heel-made s herds w ere f ound . A t t he h ighest p oint o f t he m ound t here a re t he r emains o f t wo s quare m ud b rick s tructures . V illagers s aid t hese a re m odern . I t w as d ecided t o m ake t est e xcavations t o i nvestigate t he p resence o f s tratified M eroitic d eposits . T wo t est p its w ere e xcavated b ut t he d eposits p roved t o b e o f t he K hartoum N eolithic h orizon ( Appendix 1) . C onsequently a n i ntensive , b ut u nsystematic s urface c ollection o f M eroitic s herds w as m ade . T he s carcity o f t ypical M eroitic s herds o n t he m ound s urface m ay i ndicate t hat n o s izeable M eroitic s ettlement w as l ocated o n t he m ound .
B ut
s ince n o s ystematic i nvestigation o f t he s ite w as m ade , n o f irm c onclusion c ould b e r eached.
G oz E l F ugara ( Site 1 0) 1 6° 5 1'-33 ° 3 7' S ite 1 0 i s l ocated 3 k m s outh-west o f S ite 2 2 a nd a bout 2 00 m . n orth o f C os E l F ugara v illage ( Fig . 3 .9a) .
I t i s s ituated o n t op o f a q oz a bout 1 00
m . w est o f t he c ultivation p lain . T he c ultural r emains o n t he s urface c onsist o f a t hin s catter o f p ottery s herds c overing a n a rea o f 7 5 x 4 0 m . S everal m ud
b rick f oundations a re l ocated a ll o ver
t he m ound .
I t
i s n ot
c lear w hether t hese a re a ncient o r m odern. T he s urface s catter c onsisted o f
c oarse h and-made
s herds .
N o s herds
w hich w ith a ny c onfidence c ould b e a ttributed t o t he M eroitic p eriod w ere o bserved. A s mall u nsystematic s urface c ollection o f s herds w as m ade.
G abalab ( Site 9 ) 1 6° 5 2'-33 ° 3 6' T he s ite i s l ocated o n al arge q oz a t t he e dge o f t he c ultivation p lain n orth o f
G abalab v illage
( F :4>
3 .9a) .
T he m ound
i s
a bout
2 00 m . l ong a nd
1 00 i n . w ide . A ll o ccupation t races a re c oncentrated o n t he s outh e nd o f t he m ound . T he s catter o f s herds i s p articularly h eavy o n t he e astern s lope o f t he m ound . T he p ottery i s s imilar t o t hat f ound a t s ite 1 0 . T he m ajority o f p ottery o bserved i s c oarse h and-made w ith n umerous f abric-impressed s herds . T he f oundation r emains o f a m ud b rick s tructure a re l ocated 3 0 m . n orth wke st o f t he a rea o f h eavy s herd c oncentration . A s mall u nsystematic s urface c ollection o f s herds w as m ade .
2 8
W ESTERN B UTANA S ITES B asa ( Site 1 7) 1 6° 4 2'-33 ° 5 3' B asa l ies o n t he e ast b ank o f W adi E l H awad 3 2 k m . s outh-east o f M eroe . T he s ite
w as d escribed a nd
m apped
b y
C rowfoot
( 1911 :13-8 ;P1 .IV) a nd
l ater
s urveyed b y H intze ( 1959 :178) . T he s ite c onsists o f t he r emains o f a t emple , am ound a nd a h afir m easuring a pproximately 2 50 m . i n d iameter ( Fig . 3 . 10 ) . C rowfoot c arried o ut e xcavations a t t he t emple w hich e nabled h im t o d raw a p lan o f t he s tructure ( Crowfoot ,1911 :16-7 ;PLV) . A w alking s urvey o f t he s ite s howed t hat t here w ere t hree a reas o f s urface a rtefact c oncentrations . T he l argest ( I) l ies i mmediately t o t he n orth-east o f t he h afir e xtending e astwards f or a d istance o f a pproximately 1 80 m . T he s econd ( II) a rea o f h eavy s urface s catter s urrounds t he m ound . A round t he t emple a nd t he f lat p lain t o t he n orth o f i t ( III) p ottery s herds a re t hinly s cattered.
S urface c ollections w ere m ade i n t he t hree a reas.
A rea I Ag rid o f 5 0-metre s quares o riented n orth/south w as l aid o ver t he a rea . T he g rid d atum w as t he n orth-east c orner o f t he p edestal o f t he l ion s tatue l ocated o n t he e dge o f t he h afir . T he g rid c onsisted o f 8s quares . T otal s urface c ollection o f s herds w as m ade i n t he s quares n umbered 1 t o 6 . T he o ther t wo s quares ( not n umbered) p roduced n o a rtefacts . T he c ollection f rom e ach s quare w ere s eparately l abelled a nd b agged.
A rea I I O n t he n orth-east s ide o f t he m ound t wo 2 0 x 2 0 m .
s quares ( 7 a nd 8 )
w ere l aid o ut a t ad istance o f 2 75 m . w est o f t he d atum p oint . T he s quares d id n ot c over t he e ntire a rea o f a rtefact s catter i n a rea I I . H owever , t he d ensity o f s urface r emains w as h igher o n t he n orth-east s ide o f t he m ound . T otal s urface c ollection w as m ade o n t he t wo s quares . b agged a nd l abelled . I n
a ddition
t o
t he
c ontrolled
c ollection
T hese w ere s eparately
u nsystematic
s urface
c ollection w as made o n t he mound a nd t he s urrounding a rea . T his w as i ntended t o c ollect p ottery w ares n ot r epresented i n t he a rea o f c ontrolled c ollection .
A rea I II O nly a n u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as m ade i n a rea I II .
S herds
w ere t hinly d istributed o ver a n a rea e xtending f or a pproximately 9 0 m . n orth o f t he t emple . T he s ample c ollected w as s mall b ut i ncluded t he d ifferent t ypes o f w are o bserved. T wo t est p its, 1 7A a nd 1 7B w ere e xcavated t o e xamine t he d epth a nd s equence
o f
d eposits
i n
t he
t wo
a reas
m ade.
2 9
w here
c ontrolled
c ollections
w ere
1 7A T his i s a 1x 1 m . p it e xcavated i n 1 0 c m . s pits i n t he s outh-west c orner o f s quare 7 ( Fig. 3 .11). L evel 1 (010 c m .) T he m atrix c onsisted o f h ard-baked b rown s oil .
N o f eatures w ere
e ncountered; o nly f ew s herds w ere r ecovered. L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m .) T he s olid b rown s oil c ontinued i nto l evel 2 . o ther f eatures w ere r evealed.
N o s tructural r emains o r
P ottery w as f ewer t han i n t he u pper l evel.
L evel 3 ( 20-30 c m .) T he m atrix w as
t he s ame a s
i n t he p revious l evels.
T he p ottery
c ontinued t o d ecrease. L evel 4 ( 30-40 c m .) A t
a d epth o f 2 c m .
f rom t he t op o f l evel 4 t here w as a n i ncreasing
f irmness o f t he s oil, W hile t he n umber o f s herds c ontinued t o d ecrease. L evel 5 ( 40-50 c m .) T he m atrix w as t he s ame a s t he l ower p art o f l evel 4 .
V ery l ittle
p c ittery w as f ound. L evel 6 ( 50-60 c m) A t
t he
i nterface o f l evels
5 a nd 6 t here w as a c hange f rom t he f irm
b rown s oil t o a s olid d ark a lluvial s oil . T his s eemed t o i ndicate t hat n atural g round w as r eached . E xcavation c ontinued t o a d epth o f 6 0 cm. N o a rtefacts w ere r ecovered f rom l evel 6 .
A t t his d epth d igging w as s topped.
1 7BB A 1x 1 m . t est p it w as d ug i n t he s outh-east c orner o f s quare 5 .
T his
w as d ug i n 1 0 c m . s pits. L evel 1 ( 010 c m .) T he l evel c onsisted o f d ark b rown s oil w ith a l arge p roportion o f s mall i ronstone p ebbles.
T he l evel d id n ot p roduce a ny a rtefacts.
L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m .) T he o nly c hange t hat o ccurred i n t he l evel w as t hat t he s oil w as d arker a nd h arder p acked .
T he c oncentration o f i ronstone p ebbles w as t he s ame a s
i n t he p revious l evel.
N o a rtefacts w ere f ound.
L evel J ( 20-30 c m .) T here w as n o c hange i n t he m atrix.
3 0
T he l evel w as d evoid o f a rtefacts.
L evel 4 ( 30-40 c m .) T he s ame t ype o f s oil a nd p ebble m ixture c ontinued t hroughout l evel 4 . N o a rtefacts w ere f ound. L evel 5 ( 40-50 c m .) T he d ark s oil a nd p ebble m atrix c ontinued i nto l evel 5 f or 3 c m . u nder w hich a lluvial s oil , o f t he t ype f ound a t l evel 6 i n 1 7A , a ppeared . c ontinued i n t his l ayer t o t he b ottom o f t he s pit . f ound. E xcavation o f 1 7B w as s topped. T he
D igging
N o c ultural m aterial w as
p ottery f rom B asa i s a f airly r epresentative s ample o f t he t hree
a reas o f s urface r emains . I n a rea I p aticularly , t he s ample c onsists o f t he w hole s urface s catter . T he t wo s quares i n a rea I I d o n ot c over t he e ntire s urface w here a rtefacts a re c oncentrated . H owever , t his i s s upplemented b y a n u nsystematic c ollection o f s herds f rom t he a rea t o r epresent t he t ypes n ot o btained f rom t he c ontrolled c ollections . A lthough a c ontrolled c ollection w ould h ave b een d esirable f or a rea I II , i n t he u nsystematic s ample t he m ain c onsideration w as t he c ollection o f s herds r epresentative o f t he t ypes o bserved i n t hat a rea . T est p it 1 7B d id n ot c larify t he n ature o f t he s urface r emains i n a rea I . N either t races o f s tructures n or s tratified d eposits w ere r evealed . T est p it 1 7A p roduced f ew a rtefacts b ut i ndicated t hat t he o ccupation l ayer w as s hallow .
G erein B asa ( Site 1 5) 1 6° 4 2'-35 ° 5 6' T he s ite w as l ocated d uring r econnaissance o f t he a rea a round B asa .
I t
i s s ituated 6 km . e ast o f B asa ( Site 1 7) o n a g ravel r idge c ut b y s mall w adis ( Fig . 3 . 12) . T he t op o f t he r idge i s c overed b y i ronstone f ormations . N o s tructures o r o ther f eatures w ere n oticed . Av ery t hin s catter o f s herds o ver a n a rea e xtending a pproximately 1 50 m . e ast/west w as o bserved. A s mall
u nsystematic
s urface
c ollection
w as
t aken .
T he
c ollection
r epresented t he r ange o f t ypes o bserved w hile w alking a long t he e ast/west a xis o f t he s ite.
B asa S outh ( Site 1 6) 1 60 4 1'-33 ° 5 3' T he s ite ( Fig. 3 .12) was r eported b y S mith a nd A dam ( 1950) .
' It i s
r oughly 2 m iles d ue s outh o f t he b ig ( Basa) h afir . . . o n ab earing o f 7 5° f rom J ebel L aota a nd c onsists o f o ne l arge r oughly e liptical m ound a nd o ne s mall o ne i n l ine n orth a nd s outh ; b etween t hem o n t he e astern s ide i s a c ircle a bout 8 f eet i n d iameter , m ade o f f lat b lack s tones a nd f ragments o f l arge r ed b ricks, s o i t a ppears t o b e o f M eroitic d ate.' ( ibid:306) T he s tructure d escribed a s a c ircle o n t he e astern s ide o f
t he
s ite
l ooked m ore l ike a s quare , b ut i t w as t oo d ilapidated t o b e c ertain a bout i ts f orm . O n s urveying t he t hree s tructures i t w as f ound t hat o nly t he o ne b uilt o f s tones a nd r ed b ricks h ad a ny s urface s herds . A ll t he s herds f ound w ithin t his l atter s tructure a nd t he a rea i mmediately s urrounding i t w ere c ollected.
3 1
Q oz K efeita ( Site 1 9) 1 6° 4 3'-33 ° 5 3' T he s ite w as l ocated d uring t he r econnaissance o f t he a rea a round B asa . I t i s l ocated e ast o f W adi E l H awad o n a r idge o f g ravel a nd s and a bout 3 k m . N NW o f B asa ( Fig . 3 . 12) . T he s ite c onsists o f a t l east 2 5 i ronstone c airns v arying f rom 7 0 c m . i n h eight a nd 1 m . i n d iameter t o 2 .5 m . i n h eight a nd 7 m . i n d iameter . T he c airns l ine t he w estern e dge o f t he r idge a nd d ownslope o n t he w estern p lain . T he m ajority o f t he s urface s herds a re d ecorated w ith p atterns s imilar t o t hose f rom t he K hartoum N eolithic h orizon . H owever s ome f ew s herds w ere t hought t o b e o f M eroitic a ge . A n u nsystematic c ollection w as m ade o f t hose s herds w hich w ere c onsidered t o b e M eroitic . s herds.
I n a ddition a s mall
s ample
W est o f U mm U sheira ( Site 1 3) 1 6° 4 2'-33'
w as
°
c ollected
f rom
t he
N eolithic
5 3'
S ite 1 3 i s l ocated 3 km . W SW o f B asa ( Site 1 7) c lose t o t he t rack r unning w est o f W adi E l H awad
( F ig . 3 . 12 ) .
T he s ite c onsists o f 9i ronstone
c airns r anging b etween 8 a nd 1 7 m . i n d iameter ( F i g . 3 .13) . V ery f ew s herds w ere c ollected o n a nd a round t he c airns . A ll t he s herds f ound o n t he s ite s urface w ere c ollected. E ast o f U mm U sheira ( Site 1 4) 1 6° 4 2'-33' ° 5 4' T wo
i solated m ounds w ere f ound e ast o f
U mm U sheira w ell
( Fig .
3 . 12) .
T hese a re i ronstone c airns e ach m easuring a bout 4 m . i n d iameter . V ery f ew s herds w ere f ound a round t he m ounds. A ll s herds o bserved w ere c ollected.
E l H assani ( Site 2 0) 1 6° 4 1'-33' °5 3'
( Fig .
T he s ite i s l ocated o n t he w est o f W adi E l H awad n ear E l H assani w ell 3 . 12) . I t c onsists o f 7 l ow m ounds , p ossibly c ircular s tructures , o f
i ronstone c hunks . T he s tructures w ere d isturbed b y t he d igging o f m atamir ( grain s torage p its) . T wo s mall c airns , e ach a bout 5 m . i n d iameter a re e nclosed w ithin t he l argest m ound i n t he g roup . V ery f ew s herds, s ome p ossibly m odern ,
w ere f ound a nd c ollected .
U mm S amugh ( Site 2 1) 2 1 °3 8 '-33 ° 5 6' T he
s ite w as
f irst r eported b y H intze a s ' a l arge b urial g round o n a
s tone r idge w ith g raves o f t wo t ypes: c ircular g raves f illed w ith g ravel 8 1 0 m eters i n d iameter . a nd s mall p ointed t umuli m ade f rom h eaped b roken s tones . T he s ituation o f t hese t umuli w ithin t he b urial g round s hows t hem t o b e o f a l ater d ate t han t he o ther g raves ' ( Hintze ,1959 :178 ) . N o s herds w ere f ound a mong t he p ointed t umuli .
V ery f ew s herds w ere
f ound o n t he s urface a mong t he c ircular s tructures ( Fig .
1 14) .
A ll s herds
f ound w ere c ollected.
D uaneib ( Site 2 8) 1 6° 3 1'-33 ° 2 2' T he
s ite o f
D uaneib w as
f irst
r eported t he r emains o f a t emple .
d escribed a nd
m apped b y C ailliaud w ho
H intze r eported
3 2
t hat
t he
s ite
i s m uch
l arger t han h as b een r eported b y C ailliaud a nd c onsists o f a nother t emple a nd t hree l arge o ccupation m ounds ( Hintze ,1959 :179). A 1 00 x 1 00 m . s quare w as l aid o ut o n t he e astern s ide o f t he m ound l ying a bout 7 0 m . w est o f t he t emple . T his w as d ivided i n 2 5 s quares , 9o f w hich w ere c hosen a t r andom f or c omplete s urface c ollection ( Fig . 3 . 15) . I n a ddition t o t he c ontrolled s urface c ollection a 1 x 1 m . t est p it ( 26 0 i) w as e xcavated i n t he s outh-west c orner o f s quare 8 ( Fig . 3 . 15 ) . T his w as d ug i n 1 0 c m . s pits .
2 8A L evel 1 ( 010 c m .) T he t op o f l evel 1 c onsisted o f s terile w ind-blown s and .
A t ad epth o f
6 C m. t he m atrix c hanged i nto a h arder l ayer o f c oarse s and w hich p roduced f ew s herds. L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m .) T he h ard l ayer o f c oarse s and c ontinued t hroughout l evel 2 b ut t he l evel c ontained n o a rtefacts. L evel 3 ( 20-30 c m .) C oarse s and c ontinued t o a d epth o f
8 c m .
F ew s herds ,
p ossibly
b elonging t o o ne v essel , w ere r ecovered . B eneath t he s and l ayer a h arder l ayer c omposed o f s mall p ebbles w as r evealed. T his c ontained n o a rtefacts. L ayer 4 ( 30-40 c m .) T he p ebble l ayer c ontinued t hroughout l evel 4 .
N o a rtefacts w ere
r ecovered. L evel 5 ( 40-50 c m .) T here w as n o c hange i n t he p ebble l ayer a nd t he l evel w as a lso s terile . I t a ppeared t hat t he p ebble l ayer b elonged t o n atural g round . D igging w as s topped a t l evel 5 . T he t est p it , w hich w as e xcavated i n t he m ound , s howed t hat t he d epth o f o ccupation i n t his p art o f t he s ite i s n ot g reat . A n u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as t aken f rom t he m ound s ituated s outh-west o f t he t emple T his c ollection w as i ntended t o i nclude t ypes n ot r epresented i n t he c ontrolled c ollection a nd t he t est p it.
M atruqa ( Site 2 7) 1 6° 2 0'-33 ° 1 8 ' T his s ite w as f irst r eported b y A ddison ( 1925 :197-200 ) . I t c onsists o f t he r uins o f a s mall t emple w ith a n e nclosing w all n ear t he f oot o f J ebel M atruqa , a bout 8 k m . n orth w est o f N aga . T he t emple d imensions a re 8 , 25 x 5 .25 m t . a nd t he e nclosure m easures 2 0 .9 x 1 4 .4 m . ( Fig. 3 .16). O n t he c rest o f t he g ravel m ounds a t t he f oot o f J ebel M atraqa t here
3 3
a re 1 0 s mall o val c airns o riented r oughly N E . t here
i s
a s mall h afir p artially
w hich h as
f ormed
o f
A t t he b ase o f t he j ebel
a n atural
s emicircular
b een a rtificially c ompleted o n t he s outhern s ide .
s aid t he h afir i s a ncient
b ut h as
r idge
A n i nformant
r ecently b een r epaired .
T he h afir
m easures a bout 6 0 m . i n d iameter . N o s herds w ere o bserved a t t he s ite e xcept a t t he t emple . T hese a re v ery t hinly s cattered w ithin t he s tructure a nd i mmediately a round i t . A t otal c ollection was m ade o f a ll s urface s herds w ithin t he e nclosing w all.
M usawwarat ( Site 2 9) 1 6° 2 5'-33 ° 2 2' D ue
t o
i ts e laborate s ize ,
m onumental a rchitecture a nd
i nscriptions ,
M usawwurat i s o ne o f t he b etter-known M eroitic s ites i n t he w estern B utana . H intze ( 1959 :179) c onsidered i t t o b e ' the m ost i mportant s ite i n t he r egion' n ext t o *roe a nd N aga . E arly ( 1826 ,
i nvestigations
T ext ,iii :
1 40-58 4 ,
a t
t he
s ite c onsisted o f
P L .xxii :I) w ho
t he w ork o f
p lanned p art
o f
t he
C ailliaud
s ite .
L ater
L epsius p roduced a ccurate p lans o f a l arger p art o f t he s ite a nd c opied n umerous i nscriptions . ( Lepsius ,1849-59 , T ext ,V :344 ; P lan 1 ,140) . R ecent s urvey a nd e xcavations a t t he s ite w ere c arried o ut b y H intze ( see C hapter 1 ) . T he s ite i s s ituated o n W adi E l S ufra , 2 8 k m . s outh-east o f W ad B an N aga . H intze d ivided t he s ite i nto 4 a reas , 3a re e nclosed within t he s andstone h ills t o t he e ast a nd w est w hile t he f ourth i s l ocated o n t he s outhern f ringe o f
t he s outhwestern h ill ( Fig .
3 . 17) .
A p ottery t ypology f rom t he s ite i s b ased o n a s tudy o f a l arge s tratified s ample , m ainly f rom t he G reat E nclosure a nd t he S mall E nclosure ( 0tto ,1967) . T his p rovided t he b asis f or t he p ottery a nalysis i n t he p resent s tudy ( Chapter 6 ) . H owever , s ince O tto% s tudy i s c onfined m ostly t o m aterial f rom o ne a rea o f t he s ite, t wo s mall u nsystematic s urface c ollections w ere m ade a t t emple I IIA ( Fig . 3 . 17) .
t he a reas n orth o f t he l arge h afir a nd n orth o f
N aga ( Site 3 0) 1 6° 1 6'-33 ° 1 8 ' T his i s
t he
l argest k nown M eroitic s ite i n t he w estern B utana .
s urface r emains e xtended o ver a n a rea m easuring a pproximately ( Fig. 3 .18). L ittle e xcavations w ere c arried o ut a t N aga . t he d rawing o f g round T ext,iii :
1 24-38 ;
W hitehead ,
1 926 :62-4) .
p lans
a nd c opying o f
P lates ,i ,
E arly w ork t here i ncluded
i nscriptions
L epsius ,
T he
1 . 5 x 1 k m .
( Cailliaud ,
1 849-59 ,
P lates
1 826 , 1 ,143 ;
H intze ( 1959 :183-7) d escribed t he s ite a s c onsisting
o f a t own a nd t wo c emeteries . O ne g rave a t t he s outh c emetery w as e xcavated b ut y ielded l ittle e vidence f or a f irm d ating o f t he b urial ( ibid :186-7) . T he c ollection o f w hat c ould b e r egarded a s a r epresentative s ample o f s urface s herds p roved t o b e ad ifficult t ask o wing t o t he l arge s ize o f t he s urface
r emains .
C onsequently,
i t
was
d ecided
t o
make
c ontrolled
c ollections o n a l imited n umber o f l ocalities o n t he s ite . S urveying o f t he s ite s urface g ave n o i ndications o f v ariation i n p ottery t ype d istribution . I t w as decided t o m ake c ontrolled s urface c ollections i n t hree w idely s eparated a reas i n t he s ite.
T hree s uch c ollections w ere m ade:
3 4
S urface C ollection I A 6 0 x 6 0 m . s quare w as l aid o ut a t t he s outh-east c orner o f T emple E . T his w as d ivided i nto n ine 2 0 x2 0 m . s quares . F ive o f t hese s quares ( 1 , 2 , 4 , 7a nd 8 ) w ere c hosen a t r andom f or s urface c ollection ( Fig . 3 . 18 ) . T otal s urface c ollections w ere m ade a t e ach o ne o f t he 5 s quares . S urface C ollection I I T his c ollection w as m ade a t a2 0 x2 0 m . s quare l aid o ut a mong a g roup o f s tructures i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s ite ( F i g . 3 . 18 , s quare 1 0 ) . T he n orthwestern c orner o f t he s quare w as f ixed a t t he i ntersection o f t wo l ines: o ne e xtending t o t he n orth a long t he f ace o f t he p ylon o f t he L ion T emple ; t he o ther e xtending t o t he n orth-west i n l ine w ith t he p ylon o f T emple F . T otal s urface c ollection w as m ade a t s quare 1 0 . S urface C ollection I II O n t he s outhwestern p lain l ying o utside t he m ain a reas o f s tructural r emains a d ense c oncentration o f s herds w as n oticed . T his c overs a n a rea m easuring 1 00 x 6 0 m . T he s urface s catter i s n ot a ssociated w ith a ny v isible t races o f s tructures . A 1 0 x 1 0 m . s quare w as l aid o ut o n t he p lain . T he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he s quare i s f ixed a t t he i ntersection o f t wo l ines : o ne r unning s outh-west f rom t he e ntrance o f t he A mun T emple a nd t he o ther r unning s outhwards f rom t he s outh-western c orner o f t he ' k iosk ' . T he l ines i ntersect a t 5 5 d egrees ( Fig . 3 . 18 , q uare 1 1) . T otal s urface c ollection w as m ade a t t he s quare. A s mall u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as w ade i n t he a rea a round s quare 1 . T his i ncluded t ypes n ot f ound w ithin t he a rea o f c ontrolled c ollection .
J ebel h ardan ( site 3 1) 1 6 °
1 5'-33 ° 1 9'
T he s ite i s s ituated 3 k m . s outh o f N aga a t t he w estern f oot o f J ebel H ardan . T he s ite h as b een d escribed a nd p lanned b y A ddison ( 1926 :56-8 ) . I t c omprises a r ectangular s tructure m easuring 3 8 x3 3 .4 m . a nd a s mall p ond t o t he s outh o f t he s tructure . A s mall b uilding i s e nclosed w ithin t he s tructure w hile a l arger r ectangular b uilding i s s ituated a t t he s outhern e nd o f e nclosing w all ( Fig . 3 . 19) . A ddison ( ibid:57) b elieved t hat t he s tructure i s o f t he s ame p eriod a s t hat o f t he s ite o f N aga a nd d ated i t b etween 1 5 B .C. a nd A .D . 1 5 . A l arge u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as m ade a t t he s tructure a nd t he p lain e xtending f or a bout 3 00 m . n orth o f i t.
N asb E l S amih ( Site 3 4) 1 6° 1 5'-33 ° 1 4' T he s ite i s l ocated 5 k m . w est o f N aga o n al ow s and a nd g ravel m ound . S tructural r emains w ere r eported b y A ddison ( 1926 :58 ) a nd a l arger g roup o f b uildings b y H intze ( 1959 :188 ) . An umber o f i ronstone m ounds a re l ocated o n t he s outhern f ace o f J ebel N asb E l S amih . D uring t he p resent s urvey t he t wo l arge b uildings e xposed b y H intze ( ibid :188 ) c ould n ot b e l ocated . M ost p robably t hey w ere c overed u p b y t he w ind-blown s and w hich a ccumulated s ince t he t ime o f H intze 's s urvey . O nly t he b uilding d escribed a s ak iosk ( ibid)
3 5
w as l ocated.
Am ap o f t his s tructure w as d rawn ( Fig. 3 .20).
T he i ronstone m ounds , t wo
t ypes .
T he
f irst
i s
a bout 3 0 ,
o n t he s outh s ide o f t he
c onstructed o f a r ing o f
j ebel a re o f
s tones,
7 -8 m .
i n
d iameter . T he s econd t ype i s a s imple m ound o r o void t umulus o f i ronstone m easuring a bout 2 m . i n d iameter . S urface s herds w ere v ery s canty o n t he m ound w here t he k iosk i s l ocated . A ll s herds f ound d uring t he s urvey o f t he m ound w ere c ollected . N o s herds w ere o bserved i n t he a rea o f t he i ronstone m ounds.
J ebel K hereiq ( Site 2 5) 1 60 2 7'-33 ° 1 5' T he s ite i s s ituated a bout 7 5 m . n orth-west o f J ebel K herieq n orth o f t he t rack l eading f rom W ad B an N aga t o M usawwarat . T he s ite c onsists o f t he f oundations o f ad ry-stone s tructure m easuring a pproximately 2 0 x2 0 m . T he b uilding c onsists o f 9r ooms l ined a long t he n orthern a nd e astern s ide . T he r est i s o ccupied b y al arge r oom p artly s eparated b y aw all ( Fig . 3 .21) . T he e ntire b uilding i s c overed w ith r ubble - m ainly i ronstone m ixed w ith f ew f ragments o f r ed b ricks a nd s andstone. V ery f ew s herds w ere f ound a mong t he r ooms . w as
m ade
w ithin
t he
At otal s urface c ollection
a rea b ounded b y t he e xterior w alls .
I n a ddition ,
a
1x 1m . t est p it ( 25A) w as e xcavated c lose t o t he n orth-western c orner o f r oom 3 ( Fig . 3 . 21) . T his w as d ug i n 1 0 c m . s pits . 2 5A L evel 1 ( 010 c m .) T he l evel c onsisted o f c oarse w ind-blown s and m ixed w ith r ubble . d epth o f 5 c m .
t he m atrix c hanged
i nto h ard
r ed e arth m ixed
A t a
w ith r ubble .
T he n orthern w all s eparating r ooms 2 a nd 3 c ontinued d ownwards .
N o s herds
w ere r ecovered. L evel 2 ( 10-20 c m .) T here w as n o c hange i n t he h ard r ed l ayer .
T he w all c ontinued d own .
T he l evel p roduced n o s herds. L evel 3 ( 20-30 c m .) T his
i s a c ontinuation o f l evel 2 i n e very r espect with t he wall
c ontinuing d ownwards.
N o s herds w ere i ncluded.
L evel 4 ( 30-40 c m .) T here w as a m arked d ecrease o f r ubble i n t his l evel .
N o s herds w ere
r ecovered. L evel 5 ( 40-50 c m .) T here w as n o c hange i n t he l ayer .
T he l evel w as d evoid o f s herds .
ad epth o f 4 8 c m . b elow s urface t he e nd o f t he w all w as r eached .
3 6
A t
L evel 6 ( 50-60 c m .) T here w as n o c hange i n s oil i n t he u pper p art o f t he l evel . o f 5 6
C m.
t he s oil c hanged i nto h arder c lay m ixed w ith p ebbles .
a pparently p art o f t he n atural g round . s urface. T he l evel p roduced n o s herds.
A t ad epth T his w as
D igging w as s topped a t 6 0 c m . b elow
A bout 1 20 m . n orth-east o f t he d ry-stone b uilding t here i s as mall i ronstone h eap l ocated o n s cattered c ollected.
o n
t he
a l ow
k noll .
A ll
s herds
s urface .
A f ew
M eroitic
s herds
w ere
o bserved o n t he s urface w ere
A lthough i t i s d ifficult t o a rrive a t c onclusions o n t he b asis o f t he e vidence f rom 2 5A , i t i s p ossible t hat t he e xcavated l evels w ere a ssociated w ith b uilding r ather t han o ccupation a ctivities . D ry-stone b uilding i s u ncommon i n M eroitic s ites , b ut t he p resence o f d istinctly M eroitic s herds a nd r ed-brick r ubble s hows t hat t he s ite b elongs t o t he M eroitic p eriod .
J ebel K hereiq I I ( Site 2 6) 1 6° 2 7'-33 ° 1 5' T he s ite i s l ocated i n t he m iddle o f W adi E l S ufra a t a d istance o f 1 k m . s outh-west o f s ite 2 5 . I ts m ain f eature i s a d ouble-walled h afir . T he h afir i s a bout 4 0-50 m . i n d iameter - t he w alls w ere t oo p oorly p reserved t o a llow e xact m easurement . I n t he c entre t here w ere f ragments o f a s andstone s culpture . T he i nterior o f t he h afir h ad a f airly d ense s catter o f s herds . As ample r epresentative o f t he t ypes o bserved w as c ollected.
A lim ( Site 3 ) 1 6° 5 9'-33 ° 5 4' A lim
i s
t he n orthernmost s ite c overed
i n t he s urvey
( Fig .
3 . 12) .
I t
l ies 2 0 k m . n orth e ast o f M eroe . I t h ad f irst b een d escribed a nd m apped b y A ddison a nd D unham ( 1922) . T he s ite c onsists o f a t emple , t he f oundations o f a l arge i ron-stone b uilding , a s mall m asonry b uilding a nd a h afir . A ddison a nd D unham e xcavated t wo b urials a t t he c emetery , o ne o f w hich h ad b oth w heel-made a nd h and-made p ottery . T hey f ound i t d ifficult t o e xplain t he n ature o f t he s ite f rom i ts l ocation o n a b arren i ronstone p lateau b ut s uggested t hat a s urvey o f t he s urrounding a reas might y ield a b etter a ssessment o f t he r esources o f t he a rea ( ibid :45) . D uring t he p resent s urvey n o s ystematic s urface c ollection w as
m ade .
O nly a w alking s urvey o ver t he d ifferent p arts o f t he s ite w as c onducted a nd a ll s herds o bserved w ere c ollected . T he s urface s catter w as e xtremely t hin . O nly a t t he t emple ( Fig . 3 . 22) w as a h eavier c oncentration o f s herds f ound .
J ebel M aliha ( Site 2 3) 1 6° 5 0'-33 ° 4 6' J ebel
M aliha
i s s ituated o n t he west b ank o f W adi E l
S habak ,
a
t ributary o f W adi E l H awad , 8k m . s outh-west o f K abushiya r ailway s tation ( Fig . 3 . 12) . I t f orms t he n orthern e nd o f a s eries o f s andstone h ills . T he M eroe-Basa t rack p asses o n t he e astern s ide o f t he h ill . O n t he n orthern a nd e astern s ide o f t he h ill m ore t han 8 0 i ronstone c airns a re l ocated . N o s urface ' s herds w ere o bserved a round t he c airns . O n t he f lat t op o f t he h ill t here i s a h uge p ile o f s herds ,
c overing a n a rea a pproximately 3 0 x 4 0 m .
T he p ile i s n ot a ssociated w ith a ny o ther a pparent r emains .
3 7
I t s eems t hat
t he p ottery w as t ransported t o t he t op o f t he h ill . A ll o f t he s herds o bserved w ere w heel-made . T he p ile w as s earched a nd a r epresentative s ample o f t he d ifferent w ares w as c ollected.
T aragma ( Site 2 4) 1 60 4 5'-33 ° 3 5' T wo
k ilometers
s outh-west
o f
T aragma
r ailway
s tation
3 l arge e arth
m ounds a re l ocated . T he m ounds a re c ircular , 8 10 m . i n d iameter a nd 1 . 5 m . h igh . V ery f ew s herds , a ll c oarse h and-made , w ere f ound o n t he s urface . A ll s herds f ound w ere c ollected.
J ebel S urat ( Site 3 ) 1 6° 0 7'-33 ° 2 5' S mith a nd A dam ( 1950 :303-4) g ive a s hort d escription o f t his s ite w hich i s s ituated o n t he w est o f J ebel S urat , 2 1 km . s outh-east o f N aga ( Fig . 3 .12) . T he s ite c onsists o f t hree g roups o f s andstone mounds o n t he s outhern s ide o f a s mall k hor . A m edium-sized h afir i s s ituated a t a d istance o f 1 50 m . n orthwards f rom t he mounds ( Fig . 3 .23) . H intze ( 1959 :189) m entions ,
' c lear t races o f w alls ' i n g roup B , a lthough d uring t he
p resent s urvey n o s uch t races w ere o bserved. N o s urface s herds w ere f ound o n t he t hree g roups o f mounds a nd t he a rea b etween t hem. A bout 3 0 m . n orth o f g roup C t here was a r elatively d ense s catter o f s urface s herds n ot a ssociated w ith a ny v isible s tructural t races .
Al arge u nsystematic s ample w as c ollected f rom t his a rea .
J ebel G eheid ( Site 3 6) 1 5° 4 3'-33 ° 3 0' J ebel G eheid l ies
4 5 km . S SW o f J ebel S urat ( fig .
3 .12) .
I t i s a n
I ronstone h ill a bout 2 .5 k m . l ong a nd 1 . 25 k m . w ide . I ts m aximum h eight i s 5 06 f t . a .s .l . T he h ill i s s urrounded o n a ll s ides b y a n e xtensive g rass p lain . T he h illtop i s c overed w ith a bout 6 0 i ronstone c airns v arying i n s ize f rom 1 -2 m . i n h eight a nd 4 -6 m . i n d iameter . O n t he w estern s ide o f t he h ill t here i s a s mall h afir w ith a s emicircular w all a ttached t o t he s ide o f t he h ill . E xcept o n t he s urface o f o ne i ronstone c airn o n t he w estern e dge o f t he h ill , n o s herds w ere f ound a mong t he c airns .
A ll s herds f ound o n t his c airn
w ere c ollected. A t t he f oot o f t he h ill o n t he western s ide a nd 1 km . s outh o f t he h afir , t here i s a 2x 2 m . c oncentration o f i ronstone . T hese a re p ossibly t he r emains o f as mall s quare s tructure . T he f ew s herds w hich w ere l ocated a mong t he r ubble w ere c ollected.
M atrusa ( Site 3 7) 1 5° 4 3'-33 ° 3 4' T he s ite
i s s ituated 6 .5 km . e ast o f J ebel G eheid ( Fig . 3 .12) .
c omprises t hree g roups o f c ircular s tone s tructures h afirs
( fig .
3 .24) .
T he
s urrounding
I t
t wo s mall
t wo n orthern g roups ( A a nd B ) o f s tone s tructures
c onsist o f t hree l arge c ircles 5 t o 1 0 m . i n d iameter a nd a n umber o f s maller c ircles . N o s urface s herds w ere f ound a mong t he s tructures o f t hese t wo g roups . G roup C , l ying a bout 2 5 m . s outh o f t he s outhern h afir c onsists
3 8
o f 4s tone c ircles e ach a bout 3 m .
i n d iameter .
T he o nly s urface s herds i n
t his a rea w ere l ocated i n t he a rea b etween t he c ircles . A ll t he s herds w ere o f ac oarse h and-made b rown w are . A s mall s ample o f t hese s herds w ere c ollected.
M urabba ( Site 3 8) 1 5° 4 7 '-33 ° 3 2' M urabba i s a n i solated s ingle c hamber t emple l ocated 7 .5 k m . n orth-east o f J ebel G eheid . T he o nly p ublished r ecord o f t he s ite i s t hat o f C rowfoot ( 1911 :27-8 ) . I t i s a s andstone s tructure w ith o nly o ne c oarse v isible o n t he s urface . T he e ntrance , w hich i s 1m . w ide , f aces E SE . T he t otal l ength i s 1 3 .15 m . a nd t he w idth o f t he o utside f ront wall i s 9 .70 m . w all i s 1 . 15 m . t hick ( Fig . 3 . 25) . A bout
T he s ide
1 50 m . s outh-east o f t he t emple t here i s as mall h afir m easuring
a bout 1 20 m . i n d iameter . N o o ther r emains w ere f ound i n t he v icinity o f t he t emple a nd t he h afir . A t t he t emple a nd t he a rea i mmediately s urrounding i t n o s urface s herds w ere f ound . A w alking s urvey o f t he a rea e xtending a bout 1 00 m . i n f our d irections f rom t he t emple d id n ot r eveal a ny s urface s herds . W ork a t t he s ite w as l imited t o c hecking C rowfoot 's g roundp lan .
A bu D eleiq ( Site 4 0) 1 5° 5 5'-35 ° 5 0 ' T hree k m . w est o f t he t own o f A bu D eleiq a nd s outh o f W adi E sh S helkha , t here i s ag roup o f 6r ing m ounds s ituated o n h igh g round a t t he e dge o f t he w adi ( Fig . 3 . 12) . T he m ounds a re f ormed o f s tone c ircles f illed w ith e arth a nd g ravel . T he c ircles a re u niform i n s ize, m easuring a bout 6 m . i n d iameter . O n t he s urface o f t wo o f t hem f ew s herds o f c oarse b rown h andm ade p ottery w ere f ound a nd c ollected.
K adabona ( Site 4 2) 1 5° 5 9 '-33 ° 5 1' A n e xtensive g roup o f l arge m ounds h as b een r eported
1 0 k m .
n orth o f
A bu D eleiq ( Smith a nd A dam ,1950 :304-5 ; H intze , 1 959 :18 9 . T he m ounds a re l arger i n s ize t han a ny o ther s imilar s tructures f ound i n t he w estern B utana . A bout 4 0 m ounds h ave b een r eported . T he m ounds h ave d iameters o f 1 215 m . a nd a bout 1 m . h igh . T hey a re c ircular h eaps o f d ark s andstone o n e arth a nd g ravel p latforms. A bout
1k m .
K adabona ( Fig .
N o s herds w ere f ound o n o r a round t he m ounds.
t o t he e ast o f t he m ounds l ies a h afir l ocally k nown a s
1 12) .
T he h afir i s s aid b y a l ocal
i nformant t o b e a ncient
b ut i s s till i n u se . T he w alls a re b uilt o f a h igh e arth embankment r einforced b y l arge s andstone c hunks . I t i s s lightly o void i n s hape a nd m easure a t i ts ' widest a bout 1 80 m . O nly o ne s herd w as f ound i n t he h afir a rea .
A mbasa ( Site 4 3) 1 6° 3 7'-33 ° 5 3' I n
t he
r eference
t o
i ndex o f
s ites a t t he N ational M useum
M eroitic t umuli a nd
s ettlement n ear
i n K hartoum t here i s a B ir A mbasa .
D uring t he
s urvey o f t he a rea a round t he m odern w ell a s ite w as l ocated 2 k m . N E o f t he
3 9
w ell .
T he
a rea
i s
c overed
b y
s everal
l ow
g ravel
mounds
b arely
d istinguishable f rom t he s urrounding p lain . T wo s mall h afirs a re s ituated i n t he middle o f a k hor r unning N S . T he h afirs a re v ery s mall i n c omparison w ith t hose c ommonly f ound i n t he w estern B utana . o ne i s a bout 4 0 m . i n d iameter .
T he n orthern
T he s econd l ying 8 0 m . t o t he s outh i s
a bout 5 0 m . i n d iameter . O n al ow m ound a bout 2 00 m . w est o f t he t wo h afirs t here i s a d ense s catter o f s herds c overing a n a rea e xtending a pproximately 2 50 m . f rom e ast t o w est ( Fig . 3 .26) . T here w ere n o v isible t races o f s tructures a ssociated w ith t he s urface s herds. N o s ystematic s ampling o f t he a rea w as a ttempted .
A l arge s ample w as
c ollected w ith a v iew t o t he t ypes o f p ottery o bserved o n t he s urface. J ebel Q eili ( Site 4 4) 1 50 3 0'-33 ° 4 7' T his
i s t he o nly s ite c overed i n t he s urvey w hich l ies i n t he B utana
p roper ( F ig . 3 . 12) . T he s ite i s k nown m otly f or t he M eroitic r ock p icture c arved o n t he f ace o f a h uge g ranite b oulder ( Crowfoot , 1 911:24-5 ; W hitehead , 1 926 :51-2 ; H intze , 1 959 :189-90 ) . A nother M eroitic r ock p icture i s p ainted o n t he r oof o f a c ave o pposite t he g ranite b oulder ( Addison , 1 926 ,P1.XI). T races o f s ettlements a re f ound i n s everal s pots a round t he h ill a nd o n i ts t op : A t t he t op o f t he h ill o n t he w estern s ide t here i s af lat a rea w ith a s catter o f s herds
( F ig .
1 27 ,2) .
T h m ajority o f s herds w ere o f a N eolithic
t ype a lthough a f ew m ight b e M eroitic . t his a rea . F our f lat
mounds
N o s urface c ollection w as m ade a t
a re l ocated o n t he p lain e ast o f t he h ill ( Fig .
3 .27 ,1) . T he a rea o f t he m ounds w as s earched f or s herds b ut n one w ere f ound . A bout 2 50 m . n orth o f t he h ill t here a re t hree l arge m ounds c overed w ith s andstones a nd f ragmentary b ricks ( Fig . 3 .27 ,3) . H intze ( 1959 :191) r eported t he p resence o f s ome s herds o n t hese m ounds b ut n one w ere f ound d uring t he p resent s urvey. A t
a d istance o f
5 00 m .
s outh o f
t he K hartoum-Ka :sala t rack a l ight
s urface s catter o f s herds w as f ound o n t he f lat p lain . N o s tructural r emains w ere a ssociated w ith t his s catter . T he a rea c overed w ith s herds m easures a pproximately
3 0 x 2 0 m
T he
m ajority o f
s herds
a re h and-made .
A ll s herds l ocated o n t his a rea w ere c ollected.
N eolithic s ites T wo
N eolithic
s ites
w ere
r ecorded
i n
t he
w estern
B utana
d uring t he
c ourse o f s urvey . B oth s ites a re l ocated s outh o f U mm U sheira w ell ( 16 ° 4 2'-33 ° 5 3 ') . A bout 2 km . s outh o f t he w ell a nd w est o f t he M eroe-Basa t rack 4 l ow m ounds w ere o bserved .
V ery f ew s herds w ith W avy L ine p atterns
w ere n oticed . F ive km , s outh o f t his s ite t here a re a bout 2 0 m ounds c overing a n a rea o f 1 50 x 1 00 m . A l ight s catter o f s herds w ith p atterns s imilar t o t hose f rom t he p revious s ite w ere n oticed.
4 0
S ummary D ue t o t he l arge s ize o f t his a rea ( 12 0 00 s q . k m . ) i t w as n ot p ossible t o c onduct a n i ntensive s urvey o f t he r egion . I n p articular t he v ast a rea b etween W adi E l H awad a nd W adi E l Awateib r emains l argely u nexplored . H owever t he s urvey c overed a ll t he b road e nvironmental z ones r epresented i n t he s tudy a rea. F ifteen s ites, n ot r eported p reviously w ere l ocated. O ne o f t he m ajor d ifficulties m et w ith c oncerns t he d ating o f s ites . S ites
c ould
b e a ttributed
t o
t he
M eroitic
p eriod o n t he b asis
o f e ither
d istinctly M eroitic p ottery o r M eroitic s tructures s uch a s t emples . I n a n umber o f s ites n one o f t hese w as p resent . O n s ome s ites o nly c oarse b rown h and-made p ottery w as
f ound .
A lthough t his t ype o f p ottery i s k nown f rom
M eroitic s ites , i t i s s till b eing m anufactured i n v arious p arts o f t he S udan . S ome mound s ites d id n ot h ave a ny s urface s herds . T hese a re s ometimes r egarded a s b eing M eroitic b urials ( Ali ,1971 :348 ) . S atisfactory a nswers t o t hese p roblems c an o nly b e o btained b y e xcavating a s ample o f t hese s ites.
4 1
0
F ig. 3 .1:
,
5 0m
M ap o f H amadab ( site 4 5) s howing a reas o f s urface c ollections.
4 2
Mounds
(- 3
•
•
Wad i
E l
H owad
"
0 I
2 50 m
F ig. 3 .2:
A wlib ( site 2 ): m ounds a nd h afir .
4 3
9 . 1 !
17 . Z >
c I I I J I Jci jrT J CD
6 . 20 ) .
T exture : M atte e xterior a nd i nterior s urfaces a re o bserved f or t he m ajority o f s herds i n W Ic ( Tables 6 .30 a nd 6 .31 ; F ig . 6 .5) . W hile o nly 2 % o f t he s herds h ave e xterior b urnished s urfaces , t he s ame s urface t reatment i s n ot e ncountered o n t he i nteriors . I n t he s ystematic c ollections , e xterior b urnishing o ccurs o n as mall p ercentage o f t he s herds w hile n o e xterior b urnishing i s f ound o n t he s amples f rom B asa a nd D uaneib ( Fig . 6 .23) . T hus , t he t rend d escribed f or t he t wo p revious v arieties o f a c ontinuous d ecline o f b urnished s urfaces a nd a n a ccompanying i ncrease o f m atte s urfaces c ontinuous i nto W Ic i n b oth t he t otal c ollection ( Fig . 6 .5) a nd t he s ystematic s amples
( Fig .
6 .6) .
F abric: T he f abric o f W Ic i s e ssentially t he s ame a s t hat o f W Ia a nd W Ib .
I n
c lay t here i s a s light r ise i n t he p ercentage o f c ream c lay a nd a d ecrease i n y ellow c lay ( Table 6 .32) . T he p aste i s g enerally moderately d ense w hile t here i s a s light r ise i n t he p ercentage o f p orous s herds c ompared w ith W Ia a nd W Ib ( Table 6 .33) . W ith t he t hicker s herds o f W Ic e venly f ired s herds o ccur i n a s maller p ercentage w hile s herds w ith a m arked b lack c ore c onstitute a bout 6 5% o f W Ic T emper :
( Table 6 .34 ;
F ig .
6 . 11) .
T he d istribution o f c lustered t emper t ypes i n W Ic i s g enerally
s imilar t o t he p attern o bserved i n W Ia a nd W Ib ( Fig .
1 56
6 .24) .
W hite s pecks ,
T able 6 .33
C lay d ensity o f I A T Ic ( To tal c o llection)
P ermeability
N o . o f S herds
Moderate ly d ense
1 576
9 0 .1
1 73
9 .9
1 749
1 00 .0
P orous T o tal
T ab le 6 .34
F iring o f 1 4 J 1c ( To tal c ollecticn)
F iring
N o . o f s herds
E ven b rown B lack c ore, b rown s urface E ven b lack B rown e xterior , b lack i nterior
3 53
2 0 .2
1 152
6 5 .9
1 4
0 .8
2 29
1 3 .1
1
1 749
Total
1 57
0 .1
1 00 .0
T able 6 .35
P ro s / .
T he d istr ibution o f W ld ( To tal c o llection)
N o . o f s herds
R el.
f req .
C um .
f req .
P ray.
N o . o f s herds
R el.
f req .
C um .fre q
A LIM
1
0 .3
0 .3
H AW
5 9
1 4 .9
3 8 .1
A MBS
1
0 .3
0 .5
H AMS
3 3
8 .3
4 6 .5
3 .0
3 .5
H AM4
6
1 .5
4 8 .0
A WL
1 2
P ASO
1
0 .3
3 .8
H AMS
6
1 .5
4 9 .5
B AS6
2
0 .5
4 .3
J K l i
1
0 .3
4 9 .7
B AS7
2
0 .5
4 .8
J MAL
6 .3
5 6 .1
B ASS
4
1 .0
5 .8
N AGS
1 .1
5 7_1
D UAS
1
0 .3
6 .1
N AG1
2 6 .0
8 3 .1
8 .6
1 4 .6
N AG2
2
0 .5
8 3.6
1 .5
1 6 .2
N AG4
4
1 .0
8 4 .6
2 .8
1 8 .9
N AG7
2
0 .5
8 5.1
D UA2 D UA4 D UA8
3 4 6 1
2 5 4 1 03
D UAll
1
0 .3
1 9 .2
N AGS
7
1 .8
8 6 .9
D UA14
1
0 .3
1 9 .4
N AG10
6
1 .5
8 8 .3
D UA19
4
1 .0
2 0.5
N ASB
1
0 .3
8 8 .6
E RT
8
2 .0
2 2 .5
WAN
4 5
1.4
1 00 .0
H A I&
3
0 .8
2 3 .2
T o tal
3 96
1 00 .0
1 58
w hich a re n ot f ound i n t hese t wo v arieties o ccur i n av ery s mall p ercentage i n W ic . V ariety W Id W Id i s r epresented b y a bout 7 % o f t he t otal c ollection o f W I . s herds v ary i n t hickness b etween 1 5 a nd 2 0mm . d istribution o f W Id a mong t he s ites a nd p roveniences .
S lip : m ajority o f
T able
6 .35
g ives
T he t he
U nslipped s herds c onstitute a lmost 8 0% i n W M, w hile t he t he r est , a bout 1 8% , a re e xterior-slipped o nly . I nterior a nd
o verall s lipping o ccurs i n a bout 1 % o f t he s herds i n t he t otal c ollection o f t his v ariety ( Table 6 . 36) .
S urface c olours : C ream a nd r ed a re t he m ost c ommon e xterior c olours ( Table 6 . 37 ; F ig . 6 . 18b ) . I n c ommon w ith t he p reviously d escribed v arieties i nterior c olours s how a m arked d ecline i n r ed a nd a r ise i n c ream w hile s mudging i s m ore m arked o n t he i nteriors t han e xteriors 6 .25a) T exture : A s w ith W ic a t iny e xtelior b urnished w hile t his t ype o f o n t he i nteriors . M atte s urfaces i s c rude e xterior t exture ( Tables 6 . 39
( Table 6 . 38 ;
F ig .
p ercentage o f s herds ( about 0 .5%) i s s urface t reatment i s c ompletely a bsent t he n orm i n W Id w hile f ew s herds h ave a nd 6 . 40 ; F igs . 6 . 5 , 6 . 6 . a nd 6 . 22b) .
F abric T he d istribution o f c lay t ypes , p ermeability a nd f iring o f W Id i s v ery s imilar t o t he d istribution o f t hese a ttributes a mong W ic ( Tables 6 . 41 , 6 . 42 a nd 6 .43 ) . M inor d ifferences b etwee i . t wo o ccur i n t h e : p resence o f s ome t empering m aterial . W hite s pecks a nd L ones , w hich a re f ound i n v ery s mall p ercentages i n W ic , a re n ot o bserved i n t he p resent v ariety ( Fig . 6 . 26a) .
V ariety W Ie T he l ast v ariety o f W I i s r epresented b y s herds o f o ver 2 0mm i n t hickness w hich , i n a f ew c ases r each u p t o 3 0mm . I n t he t otal c ollection W Ie c onsists o f j ust o ver 1 % , b ut i ts d istribution i s n ot s ignificantly r estricted c ompared w ith t he o ther f our v arieties . O ver o ne t hird o f W ie c omes f rom N aga Ma r ble 6 .44 ) . S lip : U nslipped s herds r epresent a bout 7 7% . O verall o r i nterior s lipping a re a bsent w hile i n t he c ases o f s lipped s herds ( 22%) o nly t he e xteriors a re c oated . S urface c olours :
C ream a nd r ed a re t he m ost c ommon e xterior c olours
w hile o n t he i nteriors c ream a nd b rown a re d ominant F igs . 6 .18c , 6 .25b) .
( Tables
6 . 45 a nd 6 . 46 ;
T exture : T he e xteriors a nd i nteriors o f W Ie a re d istinguished f rom t he o ther v arieties o f W I b y t he a bsence o f b urnished s urfaces a nd t he p resence o f ar elatively h igh p ercentage o f c rude i rregular s urfaces . I n c ommon w ith m ost o f t he o ther v arieties m atte s urfaces a re c haracteristic o f W Ie ( Tables
1 59
T able 6 .36
S lip a pplication a n W ld ( To tal c o llection)
S lip
N o . o f s herds
A bsent E xter ior
%
3 15
7 9 .5
7 3
1 8.4
I nterior
3
0 .8
O vera ll
1
0 .3
?
4
1 .0
T o tal
T able 6 .37
3 96
1 00 .0
E xter ior c o lours o f W ld ( To tal c o llec tion)
N o . o f S herds
C o lour
B rown R ed e lite C ream
5 7
1 4 .4
15
2 9 .1
1 -
2 14
0 .3 5 4 .0
S mudged
4
1 .0
Y ellow
3
0 .8
?
2
0 .5
T o tal
3 96
1 60
1 00 .0
T ab le 6 .38
I nter ior c o lours o f I f ld ( To tal c o llection)
C o lour
N o . o f s herds
B rown
4 5
1.4
R ed
2 1
5 .3
e lite C ream S mudged Y ellow
1
0 .3
2 58
6 5 .2
4 8
1 2 .1
3
0 .8
2 0 T ota l
T able 6 .39
5 .1
3 9 6
1 00 . 0
E xter ior t extures o f W r ld ( To tal c o llection)
T exture
C rude M atte S mooth
N o . o f S herds
1 .3
5 3 29
8 3 .1
5 7
1 4 .4
P olished
2
0 .5
B urnished
2
0 .5
1
0 .3
T o tal
3 96
1 00 .0
1 61
T able 6 .40
I nterior t extures o f W ld ( To tal
N o . o f s herds
T exture
M itte
3 91
9 8.7
9 f looth
2
0 .5
Po lished
3
0 .8
To tal
T able 6 .41
c o llection)
3 96
1 00 .0
C lay t ypes o f W Id ( Total c o llection)
C lay
N o . o f s herds
B rown
5 6
1 4.1
R ed
2 6
6 .6
3
Y ellow C ream
2 9 1
7 3 .5
2 0
5 .1
3 96
1 00.0
? To tal
T able 6 .42
0 .8
c lay d ensity o fWld ( Total c ollectic r i)
P ermeability
Moderately d ense
N o . o f s herds
3 36
8 4.9
6 0
1 5 .2
3 96
1 00 .0
P orous T otal
1 62
T able 6 .43
F iring o f I t i r ld ( To tal
c ollection)
F iring
N o . o f s herds
E ven b rown B lack c ore, b rown s urfaces
6 8
1 7.2
2 84
7 1.7
8 4
1.1
3 96
1 00 .0
B rown e xterior, b lack i nterior T otal
T able 6 .44
P rov .
T he d istrfbuticn o f W ie ( To tal c o llecticn)
N o . o f s herds
R el. f req.
C um .
f req .
P ray .
N o . o f S herds
R el f req.
C um . f req.
AM .
1
1 .8
1 .8
H AM3
2
3 .5
4 7.4
B ASA
7
1 2 .3
1 4.0
H AMS
1
1 .8
4 9 .1
B AS1
1
1 .8
1 5.8
J KH
2
3 .5
5 2.6
B AS7
2
3 .5
2 2.8
N AG1
3 3 .3
9 3 .0
D UA2
4
7 .0
2 9 .8
N AG2
1
1 .8
9 4.7
D UA8
1
1 .8
3 1.6
N AG4
1
1 .8
9 6 .5
D UA14
1
1 .8
3 3.3
N AG10
1
1 .8
9 8 .2
E RT
2
3 .5
3 6.8
WAN
1
1 .8
1 00 .0
H AW
4
7 .0
4 3.9
T o tal
1 63
1 9
5 7
1 00 .0
T able 6 .45
E xterior c olours o f W ie ( To tal c ollection)
Col o ur
B rown
N o . o f s herds
2
3 .5
R ed
2 2
3 8 .6
C ream
3 2
5 6 .1
Y ellow T otal
T able 6 .46
1 . 8
1
1 00 . 0
5 7
I n terior c o lours o f W ie ( To tal c ollection)
C o lo ur
B rown R ed C ream
N o . o f s herds
1 2
2 1.1
1
1 .8
3 8
6 6 .7
S mudged
5
8 .8
Y e llow
1
1 .8
T otal
5 7
1 00 .0
1 64
T able 6 .47
E xter ior t extures o f W ie ( To tal c o llection)
T exture
N o . o f s herds
C rude
5
M atte
8 .8
3 9
6 8 .4
S moo th
6
1 0 .5
P o lished
7
1 2.3
T o tal
T able 6 .48
5 7
1 00 .0
I nterior t extures o f W ie ( To tal c ollection)
T exture
N o . o f S herds
C rude
4
M itte
4 6
S moo th
8 0 .7
7
T o tal
T able 6 .49
7 .0
1 2 .3
5 7
1 00 .0
C lay t ypes o f W ie ( To tal c o llection)
C lay
B rown
N o . o f s herds
1
1 9 .3
R ed
2
3 .5
Y ellaw
1
1 .8
C ream
4 3
7 5 .4
T o tal
5 7
1 00 .0
1 65
T able 6 .50
R im t ypes o f W I
( For r im t ype n umbers s ee F igs . 6 .27, 6 .28
R im t ype
W lb
\ Cc
5
5
1
9
1
7 1 4
W la
a nd 6 .29).
1 2
2 1
1
2 5 2 7
2
2 9
4
3 0
1
3 2
1
2
4 1
1
1
1
4 5
1
4 7
2
4 8
4
1
3
1
5 0 5 2 5 6
1 1 2
6 1 T o tal
1 3
2 2
6
1 66
6 .47 a nd 6 .48 ;
F ig . 6 .22) .
F abric: T he t ypes a nd p ercentages o f c lay u sed i n W Ie a re s imilar t o t hose o f W ic a nd W lb ( Fig . 6 . 12e ; T able 6 . 49) . A s e xpected w ith t he t hick w alls o f W ie , t he m ajority o f s herds h ave a m arked c arbon s treak a t t he s ection ( Fig . 6 . 11) . T emper c onsists o f d ifferent c ombinations o f s traw , s and , c lay l umps a nd s tones ( Fig . 6 . 11) . A bout 8 0% o f t he s herds a re m oderately d ense , t he r est a re p orous .
F orms: I n
t he a bsence o f
c omplete
o r
r econstructable v essels
f orms a re
d escribed i n t erms o f w all t hicknesses , r im t ypes , r im d iameters a nd r im o rientations . A s s tated e arlier n o a ttempt i s m ade a t e xplaining v ariability i n r im f orms i n t erms o f e ither f unction o r s tyle . I n T ype W I r ims r epresent l ess t han 1 % o f t he t otal c ollection o f s herds . N o r ims a re f ound a mong v arieties W id a nd W ie . T able 6 . 50 g ives t he d istribution o f v arious r im t ypes i n W la , W ib a nd Wk . .
D ecoration : T ype W I i s e xtremely l acking i n d ecoration , t he v ery f ew s herds w ith a ny d ecrrative m otifs r epresent l ess t han 1 % ( 27 s herds) i n t he t otal c ol lection o f t his t ype . T his c onfirms e arlier s tatements a bout t he r arity o f d ecoration o f s outhern M eroitic w are ( Robertson , 1 975 :39 ; A dams , 1 976a :142) . T he f requency o f d ecorated w heel-made p ottery f rom t he r ecent e xcavation a t i s n ot k nown ; i n T ype B o nly t wo v arieties , B c a nd B e , h ave d ecorative m otifs. B c i s r ed-slipped w ith w hite a nd/or p urple p ainted l eaf d esigns .
B e i s
s lipped w hite w ith r ed a nd/or p urple d esigns o f b ands o f v ine l eaf o r g eometric p atterns ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :153 ) , F ig . 4 4) . A part f rom p ainted d esigns t he o ther m ain t ype o f d ecoration c onsists o f o ne o r m ore g rooves a round t he r im ( Robertson , 1 975 :57 ; S hinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :153 ) . T he m ajority o f w heel-made p ottery f rom M usawwarat i s p lain , t he f ew e xceptions i n t he m edium a nd t hick-walled p ottery i nclude X b3 ( Otto , 1 967 :24 , F ig . 1 7) . I n T ype W I , d ecoration i s f ound o nly i n v arieties W ia , W Ib a nd W ic . I n t he m ajority o f c ases t his c onsists o f s ingle , d ouble o r m ultiple g rooves a round t he r im . O nly 4 s herds h ave p ainted d esigns o n w hite-slipped s urfaces . T he m otif i nclude g eometric p atterns ( Fig . 6 .30e a nd 0, t he h uman e ye ( Fig . 6 .30b) a nd a p ainted f rieze a round t he r im ( Fig . 6 .30g) . N o e xamples o f S hinnie a nd B radley 's v ariety B c a re f ound i n t he p resent c ollection , a nd n one w ere r eported f rom t he e arlier e xcavations a t M eroe ( Garstang , S ayce a nd G riffiths , 1 911) o r t he p ottery a t M usawwarat ( O tto , 1 967).
T ype W II T his ( Garstang ,
t ype
r epresents
t he
S ayce a nd G riffith ,
w ell-known
1 9 11 :43 ) .
1 67
I t
M eroitic c orresponds
' egg-shell '
w are
t o O tto%
( 1967)
T ab le 6 .51
T he d istribution o f T ype W I!
P ray .
N o . o f s herds
R el. f req.
C um .
f req .
A NUS
1 9
5 .0
5 .0
A le
3 1
8 .1
1 3 .1
R ASA
2
0 .5
1 3 .6
D UA2
5
1 .3
1 4 .9
H AW
1 2
3 .1
1 8 .0
H AW
2 37
6 1.9
7 9 .9
H AW
3 8
9 .9
8 9 .8
0 .5
9 0 .3
H AW
2
H ANS ,
1 0
2 .6
9 3 .0
N AG1
1
2 .9
( . 3 '
0 .3
9 6 .1
1 5
3 .9
1 00 .0
3 83
1 00 .0
N AG4 WAN T o tal
1
1 68
8
T ab le 6 .52
P ray .
A WL
F ine I N hite c lay i n T ype W II
N o . o f s h erds 3 1
R e l. f req .
C um . f req .
1 0 .1
1 0 .1
W e ight i n g rams 1 80 4
R e l. f req .
C unh f req .
1 6 .9
1 6 .9
0 .4
1 7 .3
B ASA
2
0 .7
1 0 .8
D UA2
6
1 .6
1 2 .4
2 3
2 .2
1 9 .5
H AW
1 2
3 .9
1 6 .3
3 6
3 .4
2 2 .8
H AM2
1 94
6 3 .4
7 9 .6
5 43
5 1.0
7 3 .8
H AM3
2 8
9 .2
8 8 .9
14
1 0 .7
8 4 .5
0 .2
8 4 .7
H AW
2
0 .7
8 9 .6
H AMS
7
2 .3
9 1.9
4 2
3 .9
8 8 .6
3 .3
9 5 .2
3 1
2 .9
9 1.5
0 .3
9 5 .4
0 .3
9 1.8
1 4
4 .6
1 00 .0
8 7
8 .2
1 00 .0
3 06
1 00 .0
1 065
1 00 .0
N AG1
1 0
N AG4 % I RAN T o tal
1
T able 6 .53
P row .
2
3
F ine s mudged c lay i n W 11
N o . o f s herds
R el.freq .
C um f req .
W eight i n g m .
R e l. f req .
C unh f req.
A MBS
1 9
2 4 .7
2 4 .7
1 30
2 3 .9
2 3 .9
H AM2
4 3
5 5 .8
8 0 .5
3 21
5 9 .1
8 3 .0
H AW
1 0
1 3 .0
9 3 .5
6 8
1 2 .5
9 5 .6
1 7
3 .1
9 8 .7
H AMS
3
3 .9
9 7.4
N AG1
1
1 .3
9 8 .7
1
0 .2
9 8 .9
% CAN
1
1 .3
1 00 .0
6
1 .1
1 00 .0
T o tal
7 7
5 43
1 00 .0
1 69
1 00.0
T able 6 .54
T he d istribution o f W Ila
P ray.
W eight i n g m
A WL
R el.
1 66
H AW
5
f req .
C um .
f req .
5 1.6
5 1.6
1 .6
5 3.2
H AN2
3 0
9 .3
6 2.5
N AG1
3 1
9 .6
7 2.1
0 .9
7 3.0
8 7
2 7.0
1 00.0
3 22
1 00 .0
N AG4
3
W BAN T o tal
T able 6 .55
E xter ior t extures o f Vi la
T exture
N htte S mooth Polished
W eight i n g m
4 2 82
8 7 .6
3 1
9 .6
5 Total
T able 6 .56
1 .2
3 22
1 . 6 1 00 .0
I nterior t extures o f W r Ila
T exture
W eight i n g m
1
3 .4
S mooth
1 34
4 1.6
Polished
1 77
5 5 .0
T o tal
3 22
1 00 .0
M itte
t ype 1 , S hinnie a nd B radley 's T ype F a nd A dams ' ( 1967-68 ) F amily M . t otal c ollection T ype W II r epresents a bout 2 % , i n T able 6 . 51 .
I n t he
a nd i ts d istribution i s g iven
T he b asic c haracteristics o f T ype W II a re t he f ine d ense p aste a nd t he a bsence o f s traw t emper . F rom M eroe t he c lay i s d escribed a s s and t empered ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :154 ) , w hile s and i s r are i n t he L ower N ubian w are ( Adar ns , 1 864a :129) . I n t he p resent s ample s and i s n ot c onspicuous a nd o ther t empering m aterials a re n ot r eadily v isible . T he c lay i s c ommonly d escribed a s l ight i n c olour v arying f rom w hite t o t an . T his l ed s ome t o s uggest t hat t he s ource o f t he c lay c ould h ave b een k aolin l ayers e mbedded i n t he N ubian S andstone ( Sayce , 1 923 ; R oberston , 1 975 :41) . H owever , i n t he p resent m aterial t wo m ore o r l ess d istinctive c lay t ypes a re o bserved : o ne i s w hite o r l ight c oloured c lay , t he o ther , n ot p reviously r eported , i s af ine s mudged c lay . W hether t he c olour o f t he l atter i s d ue t o f iring o / a n a ltogether d ifferent s ource o f c lay i s n ot a pparent . T he d istributon o f t hese t wo t ypes o f c lay a re g iven i n T ables 6 .52 a nd 6 .53 . F or c omparison , f requencies a re c alculated o n b oth s herd c ounts a nd s herd w eight .
T ype v arieties I n T ype W II t hree v arieites a re d istinguished o n t he b asis o f c lay t ype a nd t he c entral t endencies o f s lip a pplication a nd s urface c olours . I n c onsidering T ype F , w hich c orresponds t o T ype W I , S hinnie a nd B radley ( 1980 :154-5) d istinguished t wo v arieties , F a a nd F b , o n t he b asis o f d ecorative m otifs . D ue t o t he p ossibility t hat b oth d ecorated a nd p lain s herds m ay h ave b elonged t o t he s ame v essel d ecoration i s n ot c onsidered i n d istinguishing t he t hree v arieties o f T ype W IL F abric T he o nly d istinction i n f abric b etween t he t hree v arieties i s i n t he u se o f t he t wo c lay t ypes . O therwise , t he f abric o f t he t hree v arieties i s c haracterized b y t he d ensity o f p aste , e ven f iring a nd t he a bsence o f v isible t emper p articles . T he m ajority o f s herds, a bout 8 0% , a re u nder 5 mm i n t hickness; r est , a lthough t hicker , r arely r each l cm . T he w are r ibbing i s l ess p rominent i n T ype W II t han i n T ye W I .
i s
t he
w heel-thrown b ut
W Ila T his v ariety c orresponds t o v ariety F a a nd F b f rom
M eroe ( Shinnie a nd
B ardley , 1 980 :154-5) . T he m ajority o f s herds a re u nslipped , a lthough l ess t han 2 % o f t he s herds a re r ed s lipped o n t he i nterior . T able 6 . 54 g ives t he d istribution o f W IIa .
T exture :
E xterior t extures a re g enerally s mooth ,
w hile p olishing i s
c haracteristic m ore o f i nteriors t han e xteriors . M atte s urfaces a re f ound o nly o n a s mall p ercentage o f s herds , w hile b urnishing i s a bsent . E xterior a nd i nterior t extures a re s hown i n T ables 6 . 55 a nd 6 . 56 .
1 71
T able 6 .57
D istribu t ion o f W llb
P ray .
W eight i n g m
A WL
R el. f req .
1
C um . f req .
1 .7
1 .7
B ASA
4
0 .6
2 .3
D UA2
2
0 .3
2 .6
H ANU
3 1
4 .8
7 .4
I AN I2
4 41
6 8 .2
7 5 .6
F I AM 3
14
1 7.6
9 3 .2
0 .3
9 3 .5
4 2
6 .5
1 00 .0
6 47
1 00 .0
H AM 4
2
H AM5 T otal
T able 6 .58
E x terior t ex tures o f W Ilb
T exture
W eight i n g m
N htte S moo th
7 4
1.4
3 94
6 0 .9
P o lished
5
0 .8
B urnished
1 74
2 6 .9
T o tal
6 47
1 00 .0
1 72
T able 6 .59
I n ter ior t ex tures o f W 1lb
T ex ture
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
l v i at t e
11
1 7.2
S foo th
2 60
4 0 .2
P olished
2 06
3 1.8
5 7
8 .8
1 3
2 .0
6 47
1 00 .0
B urnished ? T o tal
T able 6 .60
R im t ypes o f W 1lb
T ype N o .
2
W eight o f s herds ( g m m )
8
5 .3
5
1 5
9 .9
8
3 1
2 0 .4
1 4 1 6
2 3 5
1 .3 2 3 .0
2 0
3
2 .0
2 2
4
2 .6
2 3 2 5
1 2 2
7 .9 1 .3
2 6
1 0
6 .6
2 7
1 8
1.8
3 2
6
3 .9
4 0
5
3 .3
4 1
1
0 .7
T o tal
1 52
1 00 .0
T able 6 .61
R im o r ientations o f W 11b
O r ientation
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
C onstr iction 3
8 1
5 3 .3
S traight
6 7
4 4.1
O pen 1
4
T o tal
T able 6 .62
2 .6
1 52
1 00 .0
D istr ibution o f W Ilc
P ray.
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
R el. f req.
C um . f req .
A MBS
1 30
2 3 .9
2 3 .9
H AM2
3 21
5 9 .1
8 3 .1
H AM5
6 8
1 2 .5
9 5 .6
H AM5
1 7
3 .1
9 8 .7
N AG1
1
0 .2
9 8 .9
W BAN
6
1 .1
1 00 .0
T otal
T able 6 .63
5 43
1 00 .0
E x terior c o lours o f W Ilc
C o lour
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
B rown
4 6
8 .5
R ed
3 8
7 .0
l eite S mudged ? T o tal
1 4 52 6 5 43
0 .2 8 3 .2 1 .1 1 00.0
T ab le 6 .64
I nterior c o lours o f W ilc
C o lour
W eight o f S herds ( gm )
B rown
1 5
2 .8
R ed
1 2
2 .2
' W hite
4 5
8 .3
4 65
8 5 .7
S mudged ? T o tal
T able 6 .65
6 5 43
1 .1 1 00 .0
E x terior t extures o f W Ilc
T exture
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
M itte
9 1
1 6 .8
S moo th
8 0
1 4 .7
P o lished
2 32
4 2 .7
B urnished
1 40
2 5.8
T o tal
5 43
1 00 .0
1 75
T ab le 6 .66
I nter ior t extures o f W Ilc
T exture
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
M atte
7 2
1 3 .3
S moo th
4 3
7 .9
3 30
6 0 .8
B urnished
7 8
1 4 .4
2
2 0
3 .7
T o t , 31
5 43
1 00 .0
P o lished
T able 6 .67
F iring o f Wi le
F iring
W eight o f s herds ( g in )
%
B lack c ore , b rown s urfaces
1 52
2 8 .0
E ven b lack
2 34
4 3 .1
B rown i nter ior , b lack e xter ior
T otal
1 76
8
1 .5
1 49
2 7.4
5 43
1 00 .0
T able 6 .68
R im t ypes o f W Ilc
T ype N o .
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
5
2 8
8 1 4
1 5 .0
4
2 .1
6
3 .2
2 3
2 0
1 0 .7
2 4
3 9
2 0 .9
2 5
1 0
5 .3
2 7
4 9
? 6 .2
2 8
1 3
7 .0
3 2
1 8
9 .6
5 43
1 00 .0
T o tal
T ab le 6 .69
R im o rientations o f W Ilc
O rientations
W eight o f s herds ( gm )
Constr ic ted 3
1 36
7 2 .7
S traight
3 8
2 0 .3
O pen 1
1 3
7 .0
5 43
1 00 .0
T o tal
1 77
F orms : R ims r epresent a bout 1 8% o f s herds i n Wl la . 6 . 27) i s t he o nly t ype r epresented i n t his v ariety . D ecoration : T he d esigns 6 .30a ,
A bout
c onsist o f
4 0%
o f
m otifs
t he
s herds
e xcuted
c a nd d ) o r a c ombination o f
i n
t his
R im t ype 1 4 ( Fig .
v ariety
a re
i n d ark b rown o r b lack
d ecorated .
p aint
( Fig .
s tamped d esigns a nd p ainted r im b ands
( Fig . 6 .31a) . S tamped d esigns a re o ften e nclosed w ithin u pper a nd l ower p ainted f riezes ( Fig . 6 .31b) . N o e xamples o f i nterior p ainting s uch a s i s f ound o n v ariety F b f rom M eroe ( Shinnie a nd B radley, 1 980 :155) a re e ncountered i n t he p resent c ollection .
W IIb T his v ariety i s d istinguished f rom W IIa b y t he a pplication o f b right r ed s lip t o t he e xterior o f b oth s urfaces o f s herds . I ts e quivalent f rom M eroe I s v ariety F c . U nslipped i nteriors a re o ccasionally d ecorated w ith p ainted b ands a s W IIa . A s w ith W IIa t he d istribution o f W IIb i s e xtremely l imited ( Table 6 .57) . C olours :
S urface
c olours
a re
l argely d etermined b y
s lip a pplication .
U nless s lip i s a pplied t o b oth s urfaces , t he n atural w hite c olour o f t he c lay i s p redominant a lthough s ome s mudging o ccurs o n t he i nteriors o f a f ew s herds. T extures :
e xterior
t extures
a re
m ostly
s herds a re d escribed a s h aving m atte s urfaces ,
s mooth o r b urnished . b ut t his
i s
S ome
p robably d ue t o
t he f laking o ff o f s lip . T he p ercentage o f b urnishing o n t he i nteriors i s s ignificantly l ess t han o n e xteriors . W hite i nteriors a re e ncountered m ost o ften o n u nslipped s urfaces ( Tables 6 .58 a nd 6 .59) . F orms :
U nlike W IIa t here i s ac onsiderable v ariability i n t he f orms o f
W IIb r epresented b y r im p rofiles a nd o rientations .
2 3% o f t h2 s herds o f W II
a re r im s herds r epresenting 1 4 t ypes o f r ims ( Table 6 .60 , F igs . 6 .27 a nd 6 .28 ) . I n o rientation m ore t han h alf t he r ims a re s lightly c onstricted w hile s traight r ims c omprise o ver 4 0% . A s mall p ercentage o f r ims a re s lightly
o pen
( Table
6 .61) .
W IIc T his v ariety h as n ot b een p reviously r eported f rom M eroitic s ites e ither i n L ower N ubia o r c entral S udan . I t s hares w ith W IL a a nd W IIb m any o f t he c haracteristic t raits o f s urface c olours a nd t extures . T he m ajor d ifference b etween W IIc a nd t he o ther t wo v arieties i s i n i ts f ine s mudged p aste . M oreover , t he s herds o f WIIc a re t hicker t han t hose o f WIIa a nd WIIb , a lthough t hey r arely r each 1 c m i n t hickness . R ibbing o ccurs o n m ost o f t he i nteriors o f t he s herds . I n t he t otal c ollection v ariety W IIc r epresents l ess t han 1 % a nd i ts d istribution i s l imited t o f our s ites o nly ( Table 6 .62). S lip :
6 7% o f
a bout 1 0% w hile C olours :
t he s herds
a re u nslipped .
E xterior s lip i s a pplied
t o
1 . 3% a re o verall-slipped . T he s urface c olours e ncounterd i n W IL a a nd W IIb a re f ound o n
W IIc . W hereas i n W IIa w hite i s t he n atural c olour o f t he p aste , i n W IIc a t hick w hite s lip i s a pplied s ometimes t o b oth s urfaces b ut m ost o ften o n t he i nteriors o f s herds
( Table
6 .63 a nd
6 .64) .
1 78
T ab le 6 .70
D istribu tion o f T ype H I ( Total c o llec tion)
P ray.
N o . o f s herds
A bs. f req .
C um . f req .
A BDQ
2
0 .1
0 .1
A L M
3
0 .1
0 .2
A NBS
7 6
2 .5
2 .7
A WL
2 2
0 .7
3 .4
R A9D
2
0 .1
3 .5
B ASS
1
0 .0
3 .5
0 .5
4 .0
B AS2
1 6
B AS3
9 5
3 .2
7 .2
B AS4
5 1
1 .7
8 .9
B AS5
2 4
0 .8
9 .7
0 .3
1 0 .0
5 .2
1 5 .2
B AS6 B AS7
9 1 57
B ASS
7
0 .2
1 5 .4
D UAS
1
0 .0
1 5 .5
0 .4
1 5 .9
D UA2
1 2
D UA8
1
0 .0
1 5 .9
D UA11
3
0 .1
1 6 .0
D UA18
1
0 .0
1 6 .0
E RT
4
0 .1
1 6 .2
F IKS
4 5
1 .5
1 7.7
F UG
7 2
2 .4
2 0 .0
F UGS
3 3
1 .1
2 1.1
1 04
3 .5
2 4 .6
1 7
0 .6
2 5 .1
0 .1
2 5 .2
1 4
0 .5
2 5 .7
H AW
4 80
1 5 .9
4 1.6
H AN2
1 43
4 .7
4 6 .4
G AB G ABS G BAS G EH
2
T able 6 .70
( Cont.)
P rov.
N o . o f s herds
A bs .
f req.
C um .
f req .
H AN L3
2 77
9 .2
5 5 .5
H AW
5 53
1 8 .3
7 3 .9
H AM5
1 23
4 .1
7 8 .0
H AR
1
0 .0
7 8 .0
H ASS
4
0 .1
7 8.1
J KH
5
0 .2
7 8.3
J KHB
3
0 .1
7 8 .4
0 .7
7 9.1
0 .1
7 9 .2
J Q K EY ! '
2 1 2
M TRQ
1 2
0 .4
7 9.6
M FRS
4 5
1 .5
8 1.1
0 .2
8 1.3
M USS
6
N AGS
1 2
0 .4
8 1.7
N AG1
1 84
6 .1
8 7.8
0 .1
8 7.8
N AG2
2
N AG4
1 5
0 .5
8 8.3
N AG7
1 2
0 .4
8 8.7
N AG8
3
0 .1
8 8 .8
N AG10
1
0 .0
8 8.9
Q BWS
2 12
7 .0
9 5.9
S AW
1 2
0 .4
9 6.3
S URA
3 1
1 .0
9 7.3
T ARA
5 1
1 .7
9 9 .0
WAN
2 9
1 .0
1 00.0
0 .0
1 00.0
WU To tal
1 3 014
1 00.0
1 80
T extures : P olishing a nd b urnishing a re t he t wo m ost s alient t ypes o f s urface t reatment o n t he e xteriors a nd i nteriors o f W IIC . A c onsiderable n umber o f s herds h ave m atte s urfaces , w hile s mooth t extures o ccur m ore o ften o n t he e xteriors ( Tables 6 . 65 a nd 6 . 66) . F iring : U nlike W IL a a nd W IIb w here t he s herds h ave e ven c olours a t s ection , t here i s ac onsiderable v ariety i n f iring q uality o f W IIc . I t h as a lready b een m entioned t hat t he s herds o f t he p resent v ariety a re g enerally t hicker ; w hether v ariability o f f iring i s d ue t o t his o r s ome o ther f actor i s n ot a pparent . A c onsiderably h igh p ercentage o f s herds a re f ired e ven b lack , b ut t he q uality o f s herds w ith a c arbon s treak i s r elatively h igh ( Table 6 .67) . D ecoration : T he d ecorated s herds i n W II a mount t o a bout 5 % o nly a nd m ost o f t hese c onsist o f d ouble g rooves o n e ither t he e xterior o r i nterior o f r ims . A s ingle e xample o f p ainted f riezes o n t he e xterior r im i s e ncountered.
T he H and-made I ndustry W ithin t he h and-made
i ndustries t hree t ypes a re d istinugished .
T hey
a re d esignated H I , H II a nd H III , a nd t he c orresponding t ypes f rom M eroe a re H , Ka nd J r espectively . T ype H I W hile i t s hares w ith T ype H IT a nd H III t he s ame m anufacturing m ethod T ype H I i s d istinguished i n g eneral b y i ts c oarse f inish , b umpy i rregular s urfaces a nd v ariations o f w all t hicknesses w ithin t he s ame s herd . I n t he t otal c ollection i t r epresents a bout 1 4% w hile i t c omprises s ome 3 8% i n t he h and-made i ndustry . I t a lso d iffers f rom t he o ther t wo t ypes b y i ts m uch w ider d istribution o ver t he s urveyed a rea ( Table 6 . 70 ) .
F abric A dams ( 1967-8 :32) n oted t hat t he f abric o f t he h and-made w ares o f F amily D i s n ot g reatly d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he w heel-made p ottery o f F amily N . A s imilar s ituation o btains w hen t he f abric o f T ype H I i s c ompared w ith t hat o f T ype W I . I n t he a nalysis o f t he c lustered t emper t ypes f or H I t he m ajority o f s herds a re f ound t o h ave a c ombination o f s and a nd c hopped s traw ( Table 6 .71) . H owever , i ndividual t emper t ypes w hich a re n ot e ncountered i n T ype W I , s uch a s m ica , w hite s pecks a nd c rushed s hells a re f ound i n v arying q uantities i n af ew s herds i n T ype HL D ensity , c lay a nd f iring : O ver 7 5% o f t he s herds a re p orous , t he r est a re m oderately d ense . T he d ifference i n c lay t ype b etween W I a nd H I i s t he p reponderance i n t he l atter o f b rown c lay a nd t he v ery l ow f requency o f c ream c lay c ommonly u sed i n W I ( Table 6 . 72) . D espite d ifferences i n t he f iring c onditions b etween t he w heel-made a nd h and-made w ares ( Adams , 1 967-8 :32) n o s ignificant v ariations i n f iring a re o bserved b etween T ype W I a nd T ype H I . A s w ith t he w heel-made p ottery a h igh p ercentage o f H I h ave e ither m arked c arbonized b lack c ores o r s mudged i nteriors ( Table 6 . 73 ) .
1 8 1
T able 6 .71
d istribution o f c lustered t emper t ypes i n H I
N o . o f s herds
T emper
L ittle t emper
2 55
S and
8 .5
2
S traw
0 .1
9 8
W hite s pecks
3 .3
2
S and a nd s tones S and a nd s traw
0 .1
1 2
0 .4
2 600
8 6 .3
S and a nd w hite - s pecks
9
0 .3
S tones a nd s traw
1 8
0 .6
S traw a nd w hite s pecks
1 8
0 .6
3 014
1 00 .0
T o tal
T able 6 .72
C lay t ypes o f H I
C lay
B rown
N o . o f s herds
2 818
9 3 .5
1 0
0 .3
R ed
0 .3
Y ellow S mudged
8
1 41
4 .7
2 6
0 .9
1 1
0 .4
3 014
1 00.0
C ream
T otal
1 82
T able 6 .73
F iring o f T ype H I
N o . o f s herds
F ir ing
E ven b rown
1 21
4 .0
1 849
6 1.3
E ven b lack
1 35
4 .5
B rown e xterior, b lack i nterior
8 38
2 7.8
B rown i nterior, b lack e xterior
2 4
0 .8
4 7
1 .6
3 014
1 00 .0
B lack c ore, b rown s ur face
? T otal
1 83
T able 6 .74
P rov.
d is tr ibution o f H la
N o . o f s herds
R el. f req .
C um .
f req.
P ray.
N o . o f s herds
R el.
f req .
C um .freq
A BDQ
2
0 .1
0 .1
H AW
1 43
4 .9
4 6 .8
A L M
3
0 .1
0 .1
H AM3
2 60
8 .8
5 5 .6
A MBS
5 8
2 .0
2 .2
H AM4
5 42
1 8 .4
7 4.0
A l i ii
2 2
0 .7
2 .9
H AN5
1 03
3 .5
7 7.5
R A M
2
0 .1
3 .0
H AR
1
0 .0
7 7.6
B ASS
1
0 .0
3 .0
H ASS
4
0 .1
7 7.7
R AS2
1 6
0 .5
3 .5
J KH
5
0 .2
7 7.9
B AS3
9 5
3 .2
6 .8
J KHB
3
0 .1
7 8.0
B AS4
5 1
1 .7
8 .5
1 Q
0 .7
7 8.7
B ASS
2 4
0 .8
9 .3
K EFT
0 .1
7 8.7
0 .3
9 .6
M TRQ
1 2
0 .4
7 9 .2
5 .3
1 4.9
MRS
4 5
1 .5
8 0 .7
0 .2
8 0.9
0 .4
8 1.3
6
8 7.5
B AS6 B AS7
9 1 57
2 1 2
B ASS
7
0 .2
1 5.2
M USS
D UAS
1
0 .0
1 5.2
N AGS
1 2
D UA2
1 2
1 84
0 .4
1 5 .6
N AG1
D UA8
1
0 .0
1 5.7
N AG2
D UAll
3
0 .1
1 5 .8
N AG4
D UA18
1
0 .0
1 5 .8
N AG7
E RT
4
0 .1
1 5 .9
N AG8
6
9
0 .1
8 7.6
1 5
0 .5
8 8.1
1 2
0 .4
8 8.5
3
0 .1
8 8.6
1
0 .0
8 8 .7
2
F 1KS
4 5
1 .5
1 7.5
N AG10
F UG
7 1
2 .4
1 9 .9
Q p i EWS
2 12
7 .2
9 5 .0
F OGS
3 3
1 .1
2 1.0
S ANU
1 2
0 .4
9 6 .2
1 04
3 .5
2 4 .5
S URA
2 9
1 .0
9 7.2
1 7
0 .6
2 5 .1
T ARA
5 1
1 .7
9 9 .0
0 .1
2 5.2
I N BAN
2 9
1 .0
1 00 .0
1 4
0 .5
2 5 .6
1 A UU
0 .0
1 00.0
4 80
1 6 .3
4 1.9
T o tal
G AB G ABS G RAS G EH H ANU
2
18 4
1 2 945
1 00 .0
T ab le 6 .75
R im t ypes o f v ar ie ty H la ( For t ype n umbers s ee F igs . 6 .27, 6 .28 a nd 6 .29 )
T ype N o .
N o . o f r im s
R e l. f req .
1
4
1 .4
3 6
2
2
0 .7
3 7
1 3 .5
3 8
5
3 8
T ype N o .
N o . o f r im s 2 2 5 5
0 .7 8 .9 1 .8
6
1
0 .4
3 9
7
4
1 .4
4 0
3 .9
4 1
1 4
5 .0
1 .8
4 2
1 4
5 .0
4 .6
4 3
1 0 1 1 1 4
1
5 1 3
1 4
R e l. f req .
6
1
2 .1
0 .4
1 5
4
1 .4
4 4
1 7
7
2 .5
4 5
8
2 .8
2 4
1
0 .4
4 7
6
2 .1
2 9
1
0 .4
4 8
1
0 .4
3 0
1
0 .4
5 2
2
0 .7
3 2
1 9
6 .7
5 4
1
0 .4
3 3 3 5
1 1 8
1 9
5 .0
6 .7
0 .4
?
3 4
1 2 .1
6 .4
T o ta l
2 82
1 00 .0
1 85
T able 6 .76
R ad ii
R im r adii i n v ar ie ty H la
( cm .)
N o . o f r im s
R el.freq.
7
2 .5
1 2
4
R adii
( cm .)
N o . o f r im s 1 2
R e l.freq .
4 .3
5
1 5
5 .3
1 3
2
0 .7
6
2 9
1 0 .3
1 4
2
0 .7
7
2 3
8 .6
1 5
4
1 .4
8
3 7
1 3 .1
1 6
1
0 .4
9
4 2
1 4 .9
1 7
4
1 .4
1 0
3 0
i 0 .6
1 8
2
0 .7
1
2 0
7 .1
? T o tal
T able 6 .77
R im o rientations o f v ariety H la
O rientation
N o . o f r im s
2
C onstr icted 2 C onstricted 3
0 .7
3 9
1 3 .8
19
4 2 .2
C pen 1
8 2
2 9 .1
C pen 2
1 3
4 .6
O pen 3
1 4
4 .9
1 3
4 .6
2 82
1 00 .0
S traight
T o tal
W e-
1 86
5 2
1 8 .4
2 82
1 00.0
T able 6 .78
D ecoration o f H la
D ecoraticn
R el. f req . %
I ncised
8 3
2 8.9
I mpressed
7 8
2 7.2
S ingle g roove
1
0 .3
D ouble g roove
2
0 .7
F inger i mpressed
1 3
4 .5
F abric i mpressed
10
3 8.3
T o tal
2 87
1 00.0
T able 6 .79
>
N o . o f s herds
D istribution o f v ariety H lb
P rov.
N o . o f s herds
A MBS
1 8
F UG
R el. f req.
1
C um . f req .
2 6 .1
2 6 .1
1 .4
2 7.5
H AM3
1 7
2 4.6
5 2.1
H AW
1 1
1 6 .0
6 8 .1
H AMS
2 0
2 9 .0
9 7.1
2 .9
1 00 .0
S URA T o tal
2 6 9
1 00.0
1 87
T ype v arieties I n T ype H f rom M eroe S hinnie a nd B radley ( 1980 :156 ) d istinguished t hree v arieties : H a , p lain u nslipped ; H b , u nslipped w ith f inger i mpressions n ear t he b ase , a nd H c , c overed w ith a t hin w ash a nd o ccasionally b urnished . I n t he p resent s ample b oth u nslipped a nd s lipped b urnished v arieties a re p resent . H owever a s h as b een p ointed o ut e arlier , t he d ifficulties o f d esignating v arieties o n t he b asis o f d ecoration w hen t he s ample i s c omposed e ntirely o f s herds a re o bvious . M oreover , t he a mount o f d iversity w ithin t his t ype i s i mmense ( ibid:155) . A dams ( 1967-8 :33) h as n oted t he s ame c haracteristic i n F amily D w hich d istinguishes t he F amily a s a w hole y et r enders i t h ard t o d ivide i nto s ubgroups . H e c onsidered t his t o b e ' d ue p artly t o t he e xoteric c haracter o f t he h and-made i ndustry w hich m akes f or a g reat d eal o f r andom d iversity ' ( ibid:33) . T hus o nly t wo v arieties a re d istinguished w ithin T ype H I . T hese a re H Ia , r ecognized m ainly o n t he b asis o f r ough u nslipped s urfaces a nd , H Ib w hich o ccurs i n b oth s lipped a nd u nslipped s tates b ut i s d istinguished b y i ts l ightly b urnished s urfaces .
V ariety H Ia
H Ia .
T he v ast m ajority o f t he s herds i n T ype H I ( about 9 7% ) r epresent v ariety A part f rom t he g eneral c haracteristics o f T ype H I t his v ariety i s
c haracterized b y t he a bsence o f s lip . S ince t his v ariety r epresents t he b ulk o f t he p ottery i n T ype H I i ts d istribution i s n ot s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he t ype a s aw hole ( Table 6 . 74 ) .
F orms W hile t he f orms o f t he h and-made w are o f F amily D f rom L ower N ubia a re f ound t o b e e xtremely l imited ( M I MS , 1 967-8 :32) , o ne o f t he l ' aracteristics o f T ype H f rom M eroe ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :155) i s t he g redt v ariability i n f orm . A g reat d iversity o f f orms i s e xhibited i n v ariety H Ia . T his d iversity i s r evealed b y t he n umber o f r im t ypes , t heir r adii a nd o rientations ( Tables 6 . 75 , 6 . 76 a nd 6 . 77) .
D ecoration C ompared w ith t he w heel-made
i ndustry ,
t he h and-made p ottery i s m uch
r icher i n d ecorative m otifs . T his i s c learly e vident f or T ype H I a s aw hole a nd i n H Ia i n p articular . A lthough t he r ange o f m ethods e mployed i n e xcuting t he m otifs i s l imited t he p atterns p roduced a s w ell a s t he w orkmanship a re q uite v aried . T hese m ethods a re g enerally c onfined i n i ncisions , i mpressions , a nd f abric i mpressions ( Table 6 . 78 ) . F abric i mpression i s t he m ost c ommon p attern f ound o n s herds o f v ariety H Ia . W hether t he f abric i mpressions a re a f unction o f t he m ethod e mployed i n b uilding u p v essels i n a b asket o r ab ag o f m atting a s s ugegsted b y R eisner ( 1923 ,323) o r i ntended p rimarily a s d ecoration i s n ot c lear . T wo f abric i mpressed p atterns a re p roduced d epending o n t he w eave o f t he m at o r b asket u pon w hich v essels w ere b uilt ( Figs . 6 . 32 a a nd b ) . I ncised d ecoration i nclude a m ultitude o f m otifs v arying f rom w ell e xcuted d esigns
( Figs .
6 .34a ,
6 .35b a nd 6 .38c ,
1 88
d a nd f ) ,
t o c arelessly
T able 6 .80
D istr ibution o f T ype H II
P rov .
N o . o f s herds
R el. f req.
CU M . f req.
AMBS
1
6 .0
6 .0
AWL
9
4 .9
1 0 .9
E RT
3
1 .6
1 2 .6
G AB
1
0 .5
1 3 .1
H AM 1
3 9
2 1 . .3
3 4 .4
H AM2
3 7
2 0 .2
5 4 .6
H AM3
2 5
1 3 .7
6 8 .3
3 .8
7 2 .1
8 .2
8 0 .3
0 .5
8 0 .9
1 2.0
9 2 .9
0 .5
9 3 .4
1 2
6 .6
1 00 .0
1 83
1 00 .0
H AM4 H AM5 J Q N AG 1 S URA l eAN T o tal
7 1 5 1 2 2 1
1 89
T able 6 .81
C lustered t emper t ypes i n H II
N o . o f s herds
T emper
L ittle t efper
3 4
S and S traw
2 2
S and a nd s traw
17
T able 6 .82
3 .3 1 2 .0
4
T otal
f req .
1 8 .6
6
S traw a nd w h ite s pecks
R el.
1 83
6 3.9 2 .2 1 00 .0
D istribution o f v ariety H lla
N o . o f S herds
R el. f req .
ar i l . f req .
A WL
2
6 .3
6 .3
E RT
3
9 .4
1 5 .7
G AG
1
3 .1
1 8 .8
H AM 1
5
1 5 .6
3 4.4
H AW
5
1 5 .6
5 0.0
3 4 .4
8 4.4
56
3 .1
8 7.5
4
1 2 .5
1 00.0
P rov .
H AM3 H A ! M AGI T o tal
1 1
3 2
1 00 .0
1 90
T able 6 .83
P ray.
A MBS
D istribution o f v ar ie ty H llb
N o . o f S herds 7
R e l.freq .
C um . f req .
6 .6
6 .6
H AW
2 2
2 0 .8
2 7.4
H AW
3 1
2 9 .2
5 6 .6
H ANG
9
8 .5
6 5 .1
H AW
5
4 .7
6 9 .8
H AM5
7
6 .7
7 6 .5
I Q
1
0 .9
7 7.4
1 6 .0
9 3 .4
N AG1
1 7
S URA
1
0 .9
9 4.3
W EAN
6
5 .7
1 00 .0
T o tal
T able 6 .84
1 06
1 00 .0
D istr ibution o f v ariety H lIc
R el. f req .
Gm . f req .
P ray .
N o . o f s herds
A MBS
4
8 .9
8 .9
A WL
7
1 5 .6
2 4 .5
2 6 .7
5 1.2
H AW
1 2
H AW
1
2 .2
5 3 .4
H AMß
5
1.1
6 4 .5
H AW
2
4 .4
6 8 .9
1 5 .6
8 4 .5
2 .2
8 6 .7
H AMS N AG1 W BAN T o tal
1 6 4 5
1 3 .3 1 00 .0
1 00 .0
T able 6 .85
R if i S o f T ype H II
T ype N o .
N o . o f
R el.
f req.
T ype N o .
N o . o f
R el. f req.
3 .1
2 7
1
3 .1
3 7.5
3 2
3
9 .4
r i ms
1
5
1 1 2
1 0
1
3 .1
3 7
2
6 .3
1 4
3
9 .4
3 9
1
3 .1
1 7
3
9 .4
4 1
2
6 .3
1 9
1
3 .1
4 4
2
6 .3 _
T o tal
3 2
1 00 .0
c ross-hatched b ody i ncisions ( Fig . 6 .35c) , n eck f riezes ( Fig . 6 .35a) a nd c hevron d esigns ( Figs . 6 . 34b a nd c ) . T he d ecorative e lements p roduced b y t he i mpression m ethod a re a s v aried a s i ncised p atterns . T he m ost c ommon m otifs i nclude d ifferent t ypes o f f riezes o n t he u pper p ortions o f v essels ( Figs . 6 . 33d , e a nd 0 , o r d otted p atterns a ll o ver t he b ody ( Fig . 6 . 36c) . F inger-impressed d esigns a re l ess c ommon a nd m ost o f t he s herds i n t his c ategory h ave s uch m otifs c overing t he e ntire s urface a rea
( Fig .
6 . 32c) .
A f ew o f t he d ecorated s herds , a bout 1 % , h ave r im g rooves s imilar t o t he o nes e ncountered i n T ype WL
V ariety H Ib T his
i s
t he e quivalent o f v ariety H e f rom M eroe ( Shinnie a nd B radley ,
1 980 :156) . I t i s d ifferentiated f rom H Ia b y i ts s lipped b urnished s urfaces . B urnishing o ccurs m ore o ften o n t he e xteriors , a lthough i n av ery f ew n umber o f s herds t his t ype o f t reatment i s a pplied t o b oth s urfaces o r t o t he i nteriors o nly . I n t he t otal s ample o f T ype H I , H lb c omprised a bout 2 2 . S herds i n t his v ariety w ere r ecovered f rom f our s ites o nly Cable 6 . 79) . D ecoration : A s w ith H Ia , d ecoration i n t he p resent v ariety c onsists o f i mpressed d esigns ( Fig . 6 . 36a , b a nd d ) ; i ncised p atterns o ccur m ostly o n l ips ( Fig . 6 .40a , c a nd 0 ; a c ombination o f i ncisions a nd i mpressions o n b ody ( Fig . 6 . 37c) o r i nside l ip ( Fig . 6 . 40d) . W hite-filled i ncisions a re l ess c ommon ( Fig . 6 .40d) a s a re f abric i mpressions ( 74 . 6 . 37d) . T ype H II T his t ype c orresponds t o A dams' ( 1967-8 :34) w an _ 7 11 ,
S hinnie a nd
B radley 's ( 1980-157) T ype K a nd O tto 's t ype I Ic ( Otto , 1 967 :10) . I t i s a h ard b lack o r b rown w are w ith w alls o f m edium t hickness ( 5 t o 1 0 c m) a nd r epresents a bout 2 % o f t he t otal c ollection o f s herds f rom t he s urveyed a rea . C ompared t o t he o ther h and-made w are o f T ype H I t he d istribution o f t he p resent t ype i s m uch l ess w ider ( Table 6 .80 ) . T he p aste i s m oderately d ense a nd a lmost a ll o f t he s herds a re w ellf ired , e xhibiting a n e ven b lack c olour a t f ractures . T he t emper o f H I s hows l ittle v ariation f rom t he g enerality o f t his t rait i n t he o ther M eroitic h and-made p ottery w here a h igh p ercentage o f s herds h ave a c ombined t emper o f s and a nd c hopped s traw
( Table 6 .8 1) .
T ype v arieties T hree v arieties i n T ype H II a re s eparated o n t he b asis o f s urface t reatmeent . T hese a re H IIa , H IIb a nd H IIc w ith s mooth , p olished a nd b urnished s urfaces r espectively . T ables 6 .82 , 6 .83 a nd 6 .84 s how t he d istribution o f t hese t hree v arieties . D ecoration :
T he u sual m ethods u sed i n d ecorating t he t hree v arieties
o f T ype H II a re i mpressions a nd i ncisions . T he m otifs p roduced a re s imilar t o t hose f ound o n s herds o f T ype H I . I ncisions a nd i mpressions a re s ometimes c ombined i n t he d esigns ( Fig . 3 7a a nd b ) . F riezes o f c rossh atched i ncisions a re f ound o n s ome f ew s herds ( Fig . 6 .38b) , w hile i n r are
1 93
c ases i ncised l ines a nd t icking a re c ombined i n t he s ame d esign ( Fig . 6 . 38a) . Z oomorphic d esigns w hich a re o ften f ound o n v ariety H Iic ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 ; F ig . 5 8c) a re n ot e ncountered i n t he p resent s ample . D uring t he e xamination o f t he p ottery m aterial f rom G arstang e xcavations a t s ome s herds f rom t he ' R oyal C ity ' b earing s uch m otifs w ere f ound a nd b ) . F orms:
I n T ype H II a s a whole 3 2 r ims w ere r ecovered.
m ajority o f t hese a re s traight i n o rientation . o pen o r s lighty c onstricted . w heel-made a nd h and-made ,
r ims
A s o f
w ith T ype
M eroe ,
( Fig . 6 .39a
T he g reat
A f ew r ims a re o nly s lightly
t he b ulk o f M eroitic 5 f igure
m ost
p ottery ,
p rominently
b oth ( Table
6 .85).
T ype H ill T his t ype h as n ot b een r eported f rom M eroitic s ites p revious t o t he r ecent e xcavations a t M eroe ( Shinnie a nd B radley , 1 980 :156 ; 1 61) . T he t otal c ollection i n t he p resent s ample ( 4621 s herds) h as b een r ecovered e ntirely f rom F ikheikhira . D ue t o t he s pecial n ature o f t his t ype a f uller t reatment o f i t i s g iven i n C hapter 7 i n c onnection w ith f orming t echniques a nd s pecialization i n p ottery p roduction .
1 94
t i c (
I ---•
r
r L (
00
r
r ;
00 e •4
o o
• • •• • ••
r I 1
F i r
1 95
CD
e. — •
1
• • •
I _ 1
1I
t
F L 4
1
1 96
• ö f . )
P o s i t o n o f r i m s l i p b a n d s .
•
C • 1
< 7 1 1
1 97
d i n t e r i o r
S l i p i n t e r i o r , b a n d e x t e r i o r
7 7 :
C T )
c o
• C 7 ;
C ; )
• • 1
( l a
0
1 0 ( _ r )
c d
c o
$ 1
c r )
—
1 . 4 0
. 0z 0
1 98
W 1a 0/ 0
W 1b
8 0 —
W1 c d
7 0-
6 0-
5 0-
40 -
‘ ' \
1
F ig. 6 .5
2
3
4
5
E xterior t extures o f T ype W I ( Total c ollection).
1 99
0/ .90
W 1 a W 1 b W 1 W i d 8 0
7 0
6 0
^
5 0
4 0^
3 0 A
,
2 0
1 0
0 1 F ig. 6 .6 :
2
3
4
5
E xterior t extures o f t ype W I ( Systematic s amples).
2 00
' I . 7 0
60
5 0
40
3
2 0
1 0
0 1
2
3
4
2
1
2
3
4
a
F ig. 6 .7 :
I nterior s lip o f T ype W I.
2 01
1
2
3
4
1 .7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3
2
I I
1 0
1
2
3
6
7
F ig. 6 .8 :
8
9
1
2
3
?
E xterior c olours o f W la a nd W Ib.
I ( )
F ig. 6 .9 :
I nterior c olours o f W Ia , W Ib a nd W Ic.
2 03
160
5 0
40
3 0
20
10
2
F ig. 6 .10 :
1 7
7
2 7
C lustered t emper t ypes o f W Ia.
2 04
3 7
7 8
' 3/ .80
7 0-
II 1
/
1/ 40 -
/ /
1 0-
0 1
2
3
4
5
F ig. 6 .11: F iring o f T ype W I v arieties ( Total c ollection).
2 05
a
" / . 60
4 0
2 0
o G d
0
. 1 )
0 1 o
3 o L
c o
v a ,
c r
3 o _ a ; >-
E i n
E c I '
L . )
( 3
a
a C
r D
C `
=
c J I
> -
( )
• -
' 1 . 8 0
6 0
40
2 0
0 c 3 o
, C O
v
a
c r
3 0 a d
> -
F ig. 6 .12 :
E C l
c . )
0
0 0
C -
C l G d
C D
> -
C -
c 3 o % _ . -I n
i z 3 a c r
C lay t ypes o f W I v arieties ( Total c ollection).
2 06
3 o _ . . _ a , › -
a 6 0
40
20
0 — t , i n A i 4
. x L L I
a ,
> 0
c -
— c i t , c o J D 4
7 . :
L I
a -
. . C . , 4 . ;
e > 0
i n
4
0
c ,•
/ 3
Z
U _ I
60
40
20
0 c 4 . t n _ o 4
t 1 i c I d
F ig. 6 .13 :
_ . c _
4 > >
0
. . , c 4 ) i n . 1 9